3 6-3TT i & /. LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE no. 76-7JL- D*rz£:i&ei&^ souRCE_Jrlai:cix_.f_uj[La Pet- IMJZ CHAPEL s^*~ /3/^^ez, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. VOLUME THE TWELFTH. (SECOND 9ERIE9.) JULY TO DECEMBER, MDCCCXLV. LONDON : OFFICE, 2 4, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND. MAY BE HAD BY ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS. LONDON : j Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand. THE EMBELLISHMENTS. Portrait of Mr. Blacker, of Armagh , Page, to face 1 Plan of Farm Buildings . 6 Guernsey Ox . 95 Merry Monarch 95 Cheese Presses, &c. . 133, 134 Hereford Ox . . . . . 191 Three plates illustrative of an Essay on Fences 1 91, 193, 197 Bencraft's Patent Hames . 270 Weller's patent Tile Machine 271 Portrait of John Price, Esq. 287 Norfolk Cob . 301 Three new Leicester wethers 383 Paring Spade .... 529 Dean's Steam Engine . 391 Plan of Boiler House, &c. 407 Portrait of Hugh Watson, Esq. ". *79 Refraction ■ 484 Crosskill's Liquid Manure Cart 556 Labourer's Cottage . . . • 559 . THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. JULY, 1845. No. 1.— Vol. XII.] [Second Series. PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF MR. BLACKER, OF ARMAGH. PLATE II. PLAN OF FARM BUILDINGS. (For description see page 6.) BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF MR. BLACKER, OF ARMAGH. Mr. Blacker, of Armagh, the subject of the pre- sent memoir, is descended, as appears from " Burke's History of distinguished Commoners,'' from an ancient and highly respectable family, settled for many centuries in the county of Ar- magh, in the north of Ireland. We are not acquainted with his early pursuits, but his writings inform us he has been for several years past occupied in the management of the extensive estates of the Earl of Gosford and Col. Close, in which capacity he has become known from his exertions for the agricultural improvement of the small farms committed to his care, and the judicious plans for the accomplishment of that object to which he has been the means of calling public attention, and at the present moment there are, perhaps, few private individuals with whose name and character the public are better acquainted throughout the United Kingdom, as well as a con- siderable portion of both Europe and America, through which his writings have circulated. His first publication, entitled, " An Essay on the Management of Landed Property in Ireland" (ge- nerally known under the name of the " Prize Essay," from its having gained the prize offered by the Royal Dublin Society, for the best essay on that subject) published in the year 1834, took the OLD SERIES.'] public by surprise, and turned the attention of landlords to matters of the highest importance to their welfare and happiness, which it was only as- tonishing they had so long remained inattentive to. In this publication, the folly of landed proprie- tors handing over the entire management of their affairs to persons who often had no better recom- mendation than being a younger branch of the family, or some distant connection, was forcibly exposed, and had the effect of inducing many to consider the necessity of selecting persons with qualifications better suited to the efficient discharge of so important a trust than the class of individuals alluded to were generally found to be possessed of, and we believe, at the time, no more essential ser- vice could have been rendered to the aristocracy of Ireland. The duties of a land-agent in Ireland to a nobleman or gentleman of large landed property, are, like many other things in that country, little understood on this side the channel. The land- agent is there, in some degree, the representative of the landlord, is generally a magistrate, serves on the grand jury of the county, and is admitted into the first society on terms of perfect equality ; a thing quite unknown, generally speaking, in Eng- land, though some few instances of it may, per- haps, be pointed out. But the good effects of this small treatise was not confined to drawing the attention of landlords to the qualifications of those they employed; it » [No. l.—VOL. XXIII. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Irew the attention of the public to the important subject of the reclamation of waste lands as a moans towards tranquillizing the country, by giving employment to the population, and raising as preservers of the peace a class of persons that had something to lose, to be a connecting link in society between the higher and lower classes, and pointed out a practical mode of proceeding, which, with such modifications as local circumstances rendered necessary, has been extensively acted on. In this publication, his address to the small farmers on the estates of Lord Gosford and Col. Close, on the improvement which might be made in the cultivation of their holdings (which had previously obtained but a local circulation amongst those to whom it was addressed), was first alluded to, and immediately attracted the attention of the public, as an important part of a specified plan for the general introduction of agricultural improvement throughout Ireland, in which the in- formation therein conveyed, the oral and practical instruction afforded by the agriculturist*, the influ- ence of the agent, and the assistance of the land- lord, were all made to co-operate in stimulating the occupiers of the soil to greater exertions, and to point out the way to make those exertions most available for the amelioration of their own circum- stances, and the comfort and beneficial employ- ment of their families. In consequence of the notoriety thus given to it, this short address has gone through several edi- tions of many thousand copies each, and its circula- tion is now no longer confined to the locality for which it was intended, nor yet to the limits of the kingdom at large; many English landed propri- etors having distributed copies to their tenantry, and some few are beginning to adopt the plan of engaging agriculturists so as to carry out the sys- tem in all its parts, in districts where improved cultivation has hitherto made the least progress, and with the most encouraging prospect of suc- cess.f The arguments urged in the little treatise * This is a name given to the agricultural in- structors recommended by Mr. B., to be employed for the instruction of the tenants on different pro- perties, whose duty it was to go day after day round the farms, and point out what was necessary to be done and what should be avoided, and where assistance appeared to be necessary, to point it out to the agent or landlord, in order to secure com- pliance on the part of the tenant with his directions. t Lady Basset, of Tehidy Park, in Cornwall, we believe has the merit of setting the example in this respect, which we understand has been attended with the greatest advantage not only in the better cultivation of the small holdings of the miners on her ladyship's estates, but also in the general improvement of the agriculture of the neighbourhood. here alluded to are so well adapted to make an im- pression on the class of persons to whom they are addressed, that we think it will be conferring a benefit on the public to introduce here the extract therefrom, copied into the Journal of Agriculture of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, which is as follows : — "The only way, in my mind, to accomplish this, is, by introducing such a system of agricidture as would bring the entire of the small farmers' hold- ings into a productive state, in place of allowing nearly half their fanns to remain nominally in graz- ing, but in reality producing nothing ; and as this cannot be done without manure, and manure can- not be had without stock, the consideration natur- ally arises, how can the greatest quantity of stock be most economically maintained, and under what management can the largest quantity of manure be derived therefrom ? " Now, by referring to the experience of all good farmers, in all countries, and under all circum- stances, it is ascertained beyond dispute that by the practice of sowing green crops, such as clover and rye-grass, winter and spring vetches, turnips, man- gel-wurzel, &c, the same ground which in poor pasture would scarcely feed one cow in summer, would, under the crops mentioned, feed three, or perhaps four, the whole year round, by keeping the cattle in the house, and bringing the food there to them ; and the manure produced by one of these cows so fed and well bedded, -with the straw saved by the supply of better food, would be more than equal to that produced by three cows pastured in summer and fed in winter upon dry straw or hay, and badly littered. Here then are two assertions well worthy your serious attention — first, that three cows may be provided with food in the house all the year from the same quantity of ground which will scarcely feed one under pasture for the sum- mer ; and secondly, that one cow so fed in the house will give as much manure as three fed in the field. I call these important assertions ; for if they are really founded in fact, then any of you who may now be only able to keep one cow would, by chang- ing his plan, be able to keep three, and each one of these producing as much manure as three fed in the way you have hitherto been accustomed to adopt, the result woidd be that you would have nine times as much manure by the new method as you have hitherto had by the old. Now, as I do not think there can be a single individual among you so blind as not to see at once the great advan- tage it would be to have such an immense addition to his manure-heap, it appears to me that the best thing I can do is, in the first instance, to en- deavour to impress firmly upon your minds the conviction that this fact, so much entitled to your attention, and yet so little attended to, is in reality a truth that may be relied on, and may be practi- cally adopted without any fear of disappointment ; it is upon this foundation that the practicability of almost ever}r improvement I mean to suggest in the cropping of your land must ultimately depend, and it is therefore indispensable to the success of any arguments I may offer, to place it before you in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. clearest point of view, and to remove from your minds every doubt whatever upon the subject. To draw the necessary proof, therefore, from what comes under your own observation, I may say, every day of your Jives, and which must therefore have more weight with you than anything else I could say, I refer you with confidence to the exhausted misera- ble pasture upon which your cattle are now almost universally fed, 2 to 3 acres of which are often barely sufficient to keep one cow alive for the sum- mer months, but by no means to afford her a suffi- ciency of food. Now, 1 acre of good clover and rye-grass, 1 rood of vetches, and 3 roods of turnips, making up in all 2 acres, which are now allotted for grazing one cow in summer, taking a stolen crop of rape after the vetches, will afford ample provision for three cows the year round — for you all know that an acre of good clover will house-feed three cows from the middle of May to the middle of October ; and with the help of a rood of vetches you will be able to save half the first cutting for hay to use during the winter ; then when the first frosts, about the middle of October, may have stripped the clover of its leaves, the early-sown rape, which ought to be put in, ridge by ridge, as the vetches are cut, and the land well manured (if the seed has been sown by the middle of July), will be ready to cut and feed the cattle until the turnips are ripe. Here then you have plainly provision secured until the middle of November ; and we have to calculate what remains to feed the cattle until the middle of the May following — for this purpose there is a rood of turnips for each cow. Now, an acre of the white globe and yellow Aber- deen turnip ought to produce from 35 to 40 tons per acre ; but supposing one-half to be of the Swedish kind, let us calculate only on 28 tons to the acre, which is not more than an average pro- duce, even if they were all Swedish, and see what that calculation will yield per day for 190 days, which is rather more than six months. If an acre yields 28 tons, a rood will yield 7 tons, which be- ing brought into pounds, will amount to 1 5,680lbs. ; and this divided by 190 days will leave 83lbs. of turnips for each cow every day, which, with a small portion of the hay and straw you are possessed of, is a very sufficient allowance for a common-sized milch cow ; and, over and above all this, you have the second growth of the rood of rape coming forward in March and April, which would feed all the three cows much longer than woidd be neces- sary to meet the coming clover crop, even in the latest season. "Here then the facts of the case are brought be- fore you for your own decision ; and I fearlessly appeal to yourselves. Is it true that 2 to 3 acres (I make my calculation on 2 only) are frequently allotted to graze one cow during summer ? and again, is it true that an acre of clover and grass- seed, a rood of vetches, and 3 roods of turnips, with the stolen crop of rape after the vetches, will supply food for three cows the year round ? I defy any one of you to reply to either of these questions in the negative. The straw of the farm in any case belongs to the cattle ; but in the latter case, where turnips are provided for food, it is chiefly used for bedding; and the additional quantity of grain which will be raised by means of the increased quantity of manured land will always keep pace with the increase of the stock, and pro- vide the increased quantity of bedding required. I think, therefore, I am warranted in considering my first assertion proved, namely, that the ground generally allotted to feed one cow will in reality supply food for three ; and have now only to offer some calculations as to the accumulations of manure, which I hope will be considered equally conclusive. " During the summer months your cow, which is only in the house at milking-time, and perhaps not even then (for the practice is sometimes to milk her in the fields), can afford little or no addition to the manure heap, being upon the grass both day and night ; and even in winter and spring, whilst there is any open weather, they are always to be seen ranging over the fields in search of food ; so that I think you cannot but admit, upon a calcu- lation for the entire year round, the animal is not in the house more than eight hours out of the twenty-four, and it is only the manure made during this period which can be reckoned upon ; there- fore, upon this supposition (which I think is suffi- ciently correct to show the strength of my argu- ment, if there is any truth in arithmetic), one cow fed, as I calculated on, in the house for the entire twenty-four hours will yield as much manure as three cows that are only kept in the house for eight hours (the quality of the food being supposed the same in both cases, and this would manifestly prove my assertion) ; namely, that one cow fed within woidd give as much manure as three fed without ; and, therefore, when three can be kept in the one way, as I have already shown, for one kept in the other, it is as clear as three times three make nine that the result of the calculation will be just as I have stated, namely, that the farmer will obtain by the change of system nine times as much manure in the one case as he would have had in the other. Now, if after all that has been said, which seems to me at least quite convincing, any of you should be so astonished by the quantity of the manure thus proved to be gained, as still to have some misgivings on the subject, and be inclined to think that matters would not turn out so favour- able in practice as I have shown in theory, I would wish any such person to consider one very material point, which I have not yet touched upon, for in the foregoing the argument is founded entirely on the time the animals are kept within, viz., it is stated that one cow kept within for twenty-four hours will give as much manure as three cows which are only kept in for eight hours (the food being assumed to be the same in both cases) ; but it is quite evident that if the cow kept within should be fed with turnips, and bedded with the straw which the others are fed upon, leaving them little or no bedding whatever, that the calculation must turn decidedly in favour of the animal which is well fed and bedded, both as regards the quan- tity and quality of the manure ; so that it appears the estimate I have made is decidedly under the mark." The services rendered to the agricultural classes B 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of Great Britain and Ireland by Mr. Blacker, have not, however, been confined merely to the points just alluded to. During the agricultural distress in the spring of 1836, he published " The Claims of the Landed Interests to Legislative Protection," and in his evidence before the agricultural committee of that year, strongly supported the justice and sound policy of a fixed duty of not less than 20s. per quarter on foreign wheat ; to which although both then and since public opinion has been most strongly opposed, yet experience, which tests the truth of all opinions both public and private, has proved Mr. Blacker to be right. He then stated, and in sundry letters since published, that in all seasons of scarcity the price at Mark Lane, minus this duty, would be the best market to which the surplus of the continental grain-producing countries of the continent could be sent to, and that under such circumstances the duty would fall on the foreign producer and not on the British consumer. This theory has now been brought to the proof by the present tariff; for when the appearance of the market affords no prospect of bringing the article into consumption at a lower duty, then the existing rate becomes practically a fixed duty, because it cannot be avoided. Let the merchants at Mark Lane be then called upon to say who paid the duty of 20s. per quarter in the latter part of the year 1842, or who pays the duty of 20s. per quarter now. It will perhaps be asserted that if this duty was not chargeable, tbe public would be supplied so much cheaper; but let the columns of the Mark liune Express be referred to, and add the quotations of the price of the best wheat free on board in July. 1842, when the duty in Great Britain was only 8s. to 9s. per quarter, and add that duty to the first cost, and the article will be found to stand in London 1 3s. per quarter higher than the duty of 20s. added to the first cost in the close of the same year. per qr. For example, July 25th, 1842, the quotation from Uantzig, in Mark-Lane Express, was 59s. Add duty 8s. Price it stands 67s. But take the quotation in Mark-Lane Express of December 26, 1842, and the quotation from Dantzig will be found to be only , 343. To which add the duty then payable . 20s. 54s. The freight and other charges, being pretty much the same, need not be included. Difference 13s. Thus proving the very reverse of what the public suppose to be the case, and which is thus explained by Mr. Blacker, in his evidence : namely, that where there is an open communication between any two markets, the only difference of price which can exist between them, in regard to wheat or any other article, can only amount to the cost of trans- port from one to the other, and the> merchant's fair profit. If, therefore, the article can be sold so low in Dantzig as to afford the payment of a 20s. -duty in London, this 20s. so paid is only increasing so much the cost of transport from the Dantzig mar- ket to the London market; and the price in Dantzig will only be kept 20s. lower than it would be if that duty was not chargeable : and the prices in the Dantzig market in the middle and close of the same year, 1842, and in all other years where imports have taken place under the sliding scale, will bring practical proof of this assertion. From this it will appear, that if Mr. Blacker's evidence in 1836 had been acted on ever since, the treasury would have received as many millions sterling as there have been quarters of wheat imported, and the public would have had the markets kept down by the foreign importations coming regularly into consumption as they arrived, instead of having prices advanced by their being kept back, in the expectation of a low duty. It is impossible to deny the truth of this, because facts prove it, and will prove it again and again, that whenever the duty rises, wheat will in consequence fall at the conti- nental shipping port in the same or perhaps greater proportion. The committee not being able to see the truth of this doctrine, and not agreeing upon any report, the chairman (the present speaker) addressed a letter to his constituents, recommend- ing an 8s. duty on wheat, the same as proposed by the late government. This letter was immediately reviewed by Mr. Blacker in a pamphlet, which is generally considered to have satisfactorily shown the impolicy and insufficiency of such a duty; which would in all bad seasons be more than countervailed by the superior quality of the Dantzig wheat, compared with our averages.* Since this period, Mr. Blacker has pursued his useful career, by advocating the appointment of agriculturists in all the poor-law unions of Ireland; by which means agricultural instruction would be brought within the reach of the most remote inhabitants of the kingdom ; and by the reports of the annual agricultural meetings at Market Hill, has continued to keep alive the subject of agricultural improve- * These pamphlets are to be had at Mr. Groom- bridge's, Paternoster Row, and will be read with interest whilst the corn laws continue a subject of discussion. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ment, and to excite the landlords of Ireland to perseverance in their endeavours for the improve- ment of those under them. Without neglecting, however, this his main pur- suit, Mr. Blacker has of late years taken part in the discussions on the currency question, in regard to which he has followed the plan of grounding his arguments upon the foundation of fixed principles which cannot be disputed. In the second edition of his pamphlet on this subject, which has lately issued from the press,* he lays down the principle — which we believe will be universally assented to — that " the circulating me- dium ought to vary according to the capital and commercial transactions of the country, or, in other words, according to the wants of trade ;" from which he deduces the important conclusion, that no article possessing in itself any intrinsic value can ever be made the basis of a perfect currency, because being, in that case, an article of commerce, it must vary according to its own supply and de- mand, and therefore never can conform to the principle laid down. This principle completely excludes the employment of the precious metals ; which, as being articles of commerce, and subject to the same laws as other articles of commerce, must fluctuate according to their own supply and demand, and never can be made to conform in their fluctuations to the wants of trade. This seems undeniable; and yet public opinion is de- cidedly at present in favour of the metallic basis ; but it remains to be seen how far future experience will confirm its correctness ; for whilst the ex- changes continue favourable, this principle cannot be tested. Mr. Blacker argues that an inconvertible paper currency, under the regulations he lays down, can- not be over-issued, and must prove a self-regulating currency, conforming in all respects to the wants of trade; and quotes in the appendix the bullion report of 1*810, in proof of the correctness of his doctrines, which with his observations on the Bank Charter Bill, and his plan of weekly return to be made by the commissioners of issue, will be found well worthy of perusal. We shall only further ob- serve on this subject what we should think " every one" mil be ready to admit, that if Mr. Blacker's opinions should hereafter turn out to be correct in a matter which has exercised the talents and occu- pied the attention of the public for so many years — and this cannot be ascertained whilst the exchanges continue favourable — we may fairly claim for him to rank among the most distinguished men of his day : and the mode he has adopted in the discussion of * Published by Mr. Pelham Richardson, 23, Cornhill. the subject, by dividing it into separate questions, each capable of receiving a determinate answer, and involving the most important conclusions, seems to us by much the most favourable to the establishment of sound principles. For example : " Ought a perfect circulating medium to fluctuate in amount according to the wants of trade?" — " Can any article whatever, which is an article of commerce, serve as the basis of a perfect currency ?" And again, which seems the most important of all in a practical point of view — " Can any circulating medium, convertible or inconvertible, be over-issued subject to the rules laid down for its regulation?" Any one at all acquainted with the subject will see the important bearings of such questions as these, and we therefore earnestly recommend them to the consideration of the public, it being a very general opinion, that monetary convulsions must again take place whenever any long-continued, un- favourable state of the exchanges, or any other cause, may produce a drain on the Bank of Eng- land for specie, which must inevitably be attended with a denial of discount, and of course with mercantile embarrassment, and all its usual train of consequences. We have already extended this article much beyond our usual limits ; but we must, nevertheless, further allude to the evidence given before the Irish Land Commission, in which Mr. Blacker again insists upon the principles of currency and taxation he had formerly advocated, and shows most forcibly how injuriously those now acted on bore upon our national welfare and prosperity, and points out a plan to provide food and employment for our increasing population by the co-operation of the legislature, in facilitating the raising of money to be exclusively employed in thorough draining the lands of the United Kingdom, which would at once set to work every able-bodied labourer, and at the same time increase the produce of the soil, so as to make us indepen- dent of foreign importation, and prevent the expor- tation of gold to purchase this supply, which would thus be secured from our own soil and our own labour. The details for carrying out this measure, cannot be fully stated in a publication of this kind. We must, therefore, content ourselves with referring to the plan as given in Ap- pendix No. 9, of the first volume of the Land Commission Evidence, merely adding, that in order to avoid the charge of calling upon Govern- ment to raise money for the improvement of pri- vate properties, which some were inclined to make, though without just cause, he has since sug- gested what we consider to be a great improvement; namely, to place the management of all the pecuniary concerns in the hands of the Bank of England ; so that the proposition now stands thus : — That when r, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the landlord and tenants on any estate requiring drainage agree to assess themselves in the annual payment of five per cent, on the amount necessaiy to thorough drain the property, the legislature should make this voluntary assessment binding on the parties, and to be paid by the tenant as long as Ms rent ivas not advanced, and by the landlord when that took place ; the landlord to pay this to the collector of the district, like the land-tax or quit-rent, and the collector to remit it to the Bank of England, to be placed to the credit of a drainage account ; and Government should be no otherwise concerned than to guarantee the pay- ment (by the Bank of England out of this fund) of three per cent, interest on debentures, to be issued by the Government Commissioner, after the work had been duly executed and inspected, which debentures woidd be given in payment to those who had made the drains. In this guarantee no risk could be incurred, as the five per cent, assess- ment would be a first charge upon the property to be improved, leaving therefore a surplus of two per cent, to liquidate the loan as a sinking-fund. Persons who feel interested in the subject, will do well to consult the original document referred to : for our own parts, we shall only say that we can see no good reason why the legislature should not act on the plan proposed, as it must inevitably benefit all parties concerned, and cannot, in our opinion, injure any ; and, therefore, most cordially recommend it to the favourable consideration of the government, the legislature, and the public. Mr. Blacker is still, we believe, resident in his native county of Armagh, in the north of Ireland, and continues his praiseworthy exertions for the improvement of those committed to his care — by which he has so highly raised himself in public estimation — with unabated ardour and energy ; and for his entire and complete success in this useful and honourable employment of his time and talents, we think we may safely promise him the best wishes of all who have the true interests of Ireland or the United Kingdom at heart. EPIDEMIC AMONG CATTLE— We regret to un- derstand that the murrain, which we lately stated had been prevalent in the western district of this county, has been spreading, and that it has appeared in several neighbouring parishes. One farmer near Aberdalgie has lost seven out of nine cattle affected, of which some died in about twelve hours after being seized, and others lingered six or seven days. The symptoms are precisely the same as those which characterised the disease in England, and following generally upon the cattle being put to pasture during the cold and parching droughts of May, is supposed to be induced by the comparatively dry and sapless herbage. In this event, the rapid im- provement in the quality of the pasture consequent upon the change of the weather, will, it is expected, check the progress of the disease. — Perth Courier. PLAN OF FARM BUILDINGS. BY CHARLES MILES. The proposed plan attached to this magazine, for a farm of 600 acres, with residence, is from one of the drawings which was accompanied by a paper entitled " A Review of Buildings and Mechanical Appliances for Agricultural Purposes," submitted to the Royal Agricultural Society, read at the meeting of the council on Wednesday, June 11th. It will meet with a ready acknowledgement that agricultural buildings have not advanced with the improvements in land cultivation, and that the erections and mechanical appointments of a farm ought to be adapted to the culture which, under particular circumstances, it may be found desirable to follow. It is to be understood therefore that this plan is not proposed as a model, or stereotyped form for exact imitation ; but to illustrate certain principles, which principles have formed the basis of the annexed arrangement. It is not intended to enter at all minutely into the detail, but simply to call attention to certain proposed points of improvement upon the generality of our farm steadings. I. The first principle being to keep the stable and cart-shed as distinct and separate from the cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be compatible with a convenient and compact arrangement ; whilst the departments for storing, for the supply of straw, and for the operations belonging to the preparation of food, should be easy of access to both, yet dis- tinct from either. II. The adoption of that form for arranging the buildings which, while it affords a shelter from the north and east, will be open to the warm influence of the south and west. The formation of this arrangement of buildings in a double line, is rendered practicable by a new method of treating the grain with the straw. The advantage gained is a great saving of constructive material. The outer line being devoted to storing and to the mechanical operations, is made to form towards the cold quarters, a shield or protection to the inner, which is occupied by horses and fattening cattle. III. The proposal of a new mode of storing and separating grain, by which the ear will be separated from the straw, the former only being conveyed into the granary, which may occupy the first floor of the northern front, and where the ear which is the smaller and more valuable part will have all the protection that a fire proof structure can afford, and the advantages of air and warmth to dry and harden the grain when required. The ear, in the proposed state will be in a more fit condition for avoiding the waste which belongs to the present system of thrashing, and the straw being deprived of the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. valuable grain not being so attractive to the incen- diary, might be formed in stacks on the fields, or wherever may be more convenient. It is intended, also, to prevent the waste of grain, arising from the making up into shocks or sheaves on the fiields, from its conveyance to the stack, and its casualties there ; and lastly, from its final removal to the barn. The ancient and general custom of a laden waggon or cart discharging its load in the barn, and passing through the cattle yard to the disturbance of the reposing or feeding stock, would be completely avoided by such arrangements. IV. To secure proper ventilation and warmth in all situations where required, these conditions being regarded as lessening the cost of stall feeding, and in sustaining health. There can be no question of the importance of giving ventilation to buildings in which animals are confined ; and there can be no doubt that in our climate it is impossible to give this condition with- out artificial warmth. In the appointments of the civil engineer, and in the warmth and ventilation, the proposed plan is pro- vided for in accordance with the suggestions of Mr. Sylvester, Great Russell-street. V. A line of rails laid down along the feeding passages &c, properly placed with regard to the stores and straw, might by the assistance of a waggon of suitable construction, enable a man to supply the cattle, cows, and horses, with food and straw in a very expeditious and simple manner. VI. Providing by a very inexpensive asphalte composition a lasting and watertight floor through- out the buildings, &c. The advantage derived would be immense, from its warmth, comfort, and cleanli- ness, by its non-absorption, thereby not allowing the valuable manure to waste, saturate the ground, and create a noxious atmosphere to the injury of the stock. By the formation on the site of a cheap and du- rable concrete, moulded to form the walls of the buildings, so constructed as to give the advantage of insulating the interior from the exterior surface, not giving less but greater strength than a solid wall of the same weight. This material, which is not open to the same objections as clay lumps, and. mud walls, may be recommended where good brick and stone cannot be supplied on very reasonable terms. By a new construction of weather and fire-proof roof, which may be nearly flat, and by that means effect a very considerable saving in the quantity of material and of walling, at the same time that this roof will protect the interior of the buildings and sheds from excessive heat and cold — will project boldly at the eaves for the sake of shelter to the face of the wall beneath and for effect ; it will not be more expensive than a common roof. VII. The provision for the cows and additional cattle, of sheds, which are capable of division, and are not less in width than 18 feet, and for horses, of about 15 feet wide, all provided with yards of suitable dimensions. The provision of a roadway to surround the buildings will be an indispensable convenience, shown to be so by regarding the nature of the plan. Of suitable space for the power, whether water, horse, or engine, the power to be applied to as many purposes as the circumstances will admit of. Of deep and efficient drainage throughout the whole of the steading, desirable for health, comfort, and warmth. Of covered manure tanks, so constructed as to admit of the entrance of a cart. Of a rain-water tank, to collect the roof drainage, and retain it be- low the surface of the ground, as a supply of wa- ter the most desirable for all purposes. Of two rooms for a bailiff or trustworthy farm- servant, placed in the opposite angle to that which is distinguished by a line showing the direction of the farm-house, which house is intended to command the view of two sides of the farm-steading, while the bailiff's room will command the remaining outer fines of the buildings. The bailiff's entrance door, which is of a novel construction, will allow of in- gress and egress, with ventilation, but without draught, and affords a shelter to those outside whilst waiting for admittance. VIII. In the farmer's residence the object has been to provide for all the rooms a proper aspect for their several appointments ; the dwelling-rooms are of ample dimensions, and every accommodation is fully provided for the domestic management of the farm ; the situation being studied with regard to the cows, pigs, and poultry, and not inconvenient for the riding-horse stables, &c. A construction of the chimnies, for the whole of the buildings, is proposed to be carried out, by which the present mode of sweeping them will be avoided, and one substituted, allowing this duty to be performed by the farm-servant, and saving the soot, &c, to be applied to the land. The possibility of the annoy- ance occasioned by smoky chimnies, in any situa- tion, will be fully guarded against; while the proper ventilation of the rooms will be perfectly attained. In concluding these very brief remarks, it only remains to be said, that Mr. Hastings and Mr. Cambridge, experienced Norfolk farmers, have kindly given and enabled the writer to obtain that information of the present system of operation in their part of the country, which can only be de- rived from the practical farmer. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON RENT. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. {Continued from page 494.) The payment of a fixed rent in money, is evi- dently attended with the great disadvantage, that the price of agricultural produce is subject to great fluctuations, while its cost of production does not so materially vary. The fixed rent of land, payable in money, for a considerable term, cannot therefore but at certain periods bear but little proportion to the value of the harvest. If the cost of production and the fertility of the soil remained always the I same, and moreover, if the price of corn rarely altered, then a fixed money rent would be simple i and unexceptionable in its principle. But how far this is from being found to be the case in prac- tice, the well known steadily increasing produce of the land is a sufficient answer; while the strangely varying average value of corn may be readily seen from the following Statement of the Decennial Fluctuations in the Price of Wheat, from 164G to 1815, from 1816 to 1828, and from 1S29 to 1842 ; exhibiting the Highest and Lowest Annual Average in each Decennial Period, and the Per- centage Amount of Difference. — (Parliament Paper 1843.) Annual Av erage Price. Periods. Per-centage Difference. Highest. Lowest. s. d. s. d. flG46 to 1655 77 10 23 9 227. 1656 — 1665 67 9 37 1 82. 1666 — 1675 62 10 33 0 90. 1676 — 1685 55 0 34 9 58. 1686 — 1695 61 11 23 0 169. 1696 — . 1705 65 5 26 11 141. 1706 — 1715 71 11 23 9 202. 1716 — 1725 44 0 31 9 40. 1st Period . . . .< 1726 — 1735 49 11 24 4 105. 1736 — 1745 46 5 22 9 104. 1746 — 1755 40 10 29 8 37. 1756 — 1765 55 0 27 7 99. 1766 — 1775 59 1 41 10 41. 1776 — 1785 54 3 34 8 56. # 1786 — 1795 7'o 2 40 0 87. 1796 — 1S05 119 6 51 10 130. 1S06 — 1815 126 6 65 7 92. 2nd Period . . . . ~1S16 — 1828 96 11 44 7 117. 3rd Period . . . . 1829 — 1842 66 11 51 7 29. And these are not the only fluctuating expenses to which the cultivator is liable. The cost of la- bour bestowed upon a given extent of land not only varies according to times and seasons, but it seems, from the following statement of the average amount of labour per acre on a farm in west Nor- folk, in periods of five years from 17S5, that the value of the labour bestowed upon the soil has long been progressively on the increase (Bacon's "Norfolk," p. 145):— s. d. 13 years ending in 1785 - 6 9 5 SJ) 1790 7 2 5 S9 1795 - - 8 2 5 » 1800 11 0 5 „ 1805 - - 15 6 5 >> 1810 19 6 5 „ >> 1815 - - 22 4 5 „ IS 20 23 9 5 1) 1S25 - - 21 0 5 ,, 1S30 24 0 5 35 1835 - - 23 2 5 „ 1S40 26 7 It was to meet the difficulty of adapting a fixed rent in money to the strange variations of the grain markets, that corn-rents were invented. By this contrivance the rent is payable in so many bushels of grain (or their value) per acre ; and thus the farmer pays less money, but the same quantity of corn, when the markets are low, but increases his money payments when the markets are raised. This plan has been adopted in many countries, and in different ages, but rarely with complete suc- cess ; for, notwithstanding its apparent fairness of operation, it is based upon an erroneous supposi- tion— that, notwithstanding prices fluctuate, yet still the amount of produce does not vary. This is, however, a very false presumption : since the experi- ence of all periods has pretty well proved that prices are regulated by the supply. And thus the operation of a corn-rent upon the farmer is some- times oppressive ; since, in bad seasons and years of scarcity, when, oudng to the scantiness of his crop, he is least able to bear increased outgoings, then it is, that, under the corn-rent system, his rent is increased. To guard in some degree against this evil, it is usual, in such agreements, for the se- curity of both landlords and tenant, says the editor of the "British Husbandry," to fix a maximum or limit beyond which the rent shall not be suffered to rise, and a minimum beyond which it shall not be allowed to fall. This restriction, it is tine, guards against the extremes; but the medium, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 0 which such plans are introduced to attain, will per- haps be as well attained by a fixed sum. The attendant difficulties upon the corn-rent system are pretty clearly expressed by a writer in the late Mr. Bacon's " Report upon the Agricul- ture of Norfolk," p. 69, where he says (and he also adds a plan of his own which is an evident improvement upon the old corn-rent system) : — " In the greater than usual uncertainty from ap- prehended legislative measures, I cannot see how arrangements can be made for letting and hiring farms, except upon such a system as may in some measure meet the circumstances under which we may possibly be placed. This must be something of a corn rent — something that wdl reduce the rent, with the decrease of the occupier's ability to pay and increase it with his more ample means. There must be a give and take plan, otherwise agreements will never bind but one party, and the party not securely bound will be the more reckless in taking land without any or with but little consideration or calculation as to rental value. The plan of a corn rent is not so simple as may be imagined, if it is to be such as mil suit all circumstances. So much corn, such as a coomb of barley per acre, or three bushels of wheat per acre, appears a reason- able plan ; but it by no means settles the question on an equitable basis, because in the case of a coomb of barley per acre as the rent, in one year it might take one-sixth of my barley crop, and in another one-ninth : or in one year I should pay 18s. with a short crop, and seed and horse corn higher for that reason ; and in another 14s. with the total produce sold realizing more money, and the lowest rent to pay ; that is, taking the price to be ruled by the general productiveness of the crops. Notwithstanding this, we must in a great measure found the system of shifting rents in the price of corn, as we know by experience that when corn has been low, there has been a great pressure for abate- ments, and that they have been conceded ; and with high prices, from whatever cause, no reduction has been required, and certainly no advance given. If we could take all farm produce into account, and render for rent a certain portion of that produce (one-fourth or one-fifth, or one-sixth, as the case might be), it might come near the required mark ; but as this would make it necessary to keep and render an account of every thing in every year to allot the landlord's share, it will never be adopted, and can never be proposed. " In considering the matter for the purpose of striking out some plan likely to be satisfactory to both parties interested, I have found it necessary to adopt the price of corn to govern my scale, and at the same time holding to a fixed rent, as far as there is a fair chance of standing by it. The plan which follows will more clearly explain my mean- ing. The i-ent to be governed by the price of a coomb of wheat and coomb of barley together, thus — one coomb of barley 15s., one coomb of wheat 27s.— 42s. The two being 42s., the rental value of a farm is estimated at £500. It shall re- main at that rent, except the average of the year ending 1st October shall be less than 39s. or more than 45s. for a coomb of each, as shown in the scale below. The average for the year ending 1st October to govern the rent due the 1 1th of the same month of October, and to be taken at the ' local market; here it woidd be at Lynn." W hen above 51s. £650. When above 48s . and not above 51s. £600. When above 45s. and not above 48s. £550. When above 39s. and not above 45s. rent to remain as first fixed — say £500. When below 39s. and not less than 3Gs. £450. When less than 36s. and not less than 33s. £400. When less than 33s. £350. By the general custom of England, rent is com- monly payable at two periods — Michaelmas and Lady Day; the first payment commencing six months after the fanner enters upon the land. In Scotland, however, they are Martinmas and Whit- suntide, or Whitsuntide and Martinmas ; the tenant being allowed twelve months' credit for the first half of the rent in the one case, and in the other eighteen. It was formerly the custom to pay what was called forehand rents : that is, paying the half, and, in some cases, the whole, years' rent as soon as the farmer entered upon the farm. This prac- tice, entirely disused in England, is nearlyexploded in Scotland and Ireland. 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. By the custom of different counties, the farmer is liable to various restrictions and impositions. Thus in Norfolk the farmers hold chiefly by leases of 7 or 14 years, some for 21 ; and they enter at Michaelmas. They generally covenant to farm on the four-course system, and are often restrained from sowing above a certain number of stones of oats ; this crop being considered to be much more impoverishing to the land than barley. They are not allowed to sell either hay or straw. The outgoing tenant either threshes his harvest himself, or he agrees with his successor, who carries out the corn and keeps the straw and chaff. The incomer pays for the growing crops on the ground, but not for the labour : thus if the turnip crop fails, he receives nothing for the labour betowed in sowing, harrow- ing, &c. The incomer sows the wheat crop ; but he cannot enter the farm before Michaelmas. To do this, without leave, he has to pay for the hay on the farm ; but he takes the dung free. In other districts the custom varies. These and other matters of a similar kind, however, more properly belong to the question of leases, which will form the subject of a future paper. HINTS ON THE EDUCATION OF YOUNG FARMERS. AN ADDRESS DELIVERED TO THE FRAMLINGHAM FARMER'S CLUB, ON TUESDAY, THE 27TH OF MAY, 1845. BY WILLIAM EDWARDS, ESQ. The importance of the subject proposed for this evening's discussion is so great, that it would have been gratifying to myself, and more advantageous to the party met together, for its consideration, if some one more capable than myself had been called upon to introduce it : but, as you have thought fit to request me to undertake the task, I have applied myself to it with some deliberation ; and I have to crave your indulgence whilst I, at some length, lay before you my views upon the " kind of education best suited for young farmers." In considering this subject, it appears to me necessaiy to compare the former with the present condition of the cultivators of the soil. Anciently they were mere serfs, or as they were called, "villians," attached to the land, and pass- ing with it upon every transfer of ownership by the same means, and with the same facility as the other live stock upon the farm. The modes of cultiva- tion were simple, and confined to few objects ; little was raised upon the land beyond what would supply the necessities of those engaged in produc- ing it, and pay a rent in kind to the lord of the soil : and this produce was so uncertain, that years of comparative plenty were followed by seasons of extreme scarcity, amounting often to absolute famine, attended by all the horrors of pestilence, and death by starvation, to thousands. The intercourse between the distant parts of the empire was so restricted and difficult, that whilst some counties had plenty, others were without ade- quate supplies ; and prices in some parts of the kingdom were three and four times what could be obtained in others; and this state of things con- tinued till the middle or latter end of the sixteenth century. During these times, ignorance prevailed ; the arts of civilized life were rarely cultivated. Learn- ing, even in any moderate degree, was attained by very few; whilst the general population of the country was overwhelmed by ignorance and super- stition. Mental darkness, of which in the present day we can hardly have a conception, then over- shadowed the land : few could even read and write. And whilst this was the case even in the higher' classes, it should excite no surprise to find that the lower — for there was hardly, as now, a middle class — shoidd have been in the most de- based and degraded state, both socially and morally ; then, indeed, the want of education was not felt, and, if felt, it could not be supplied. Gradually, however, a happier day dawned ; and with the firmer settlement of political and social relations, education advanced, sciences were intro- duced, and their benign influence extended, and by degrees spread through the several classes of society, of which, then that which is called " the middle class," sprang up, and proved to be, as it still continues, the pride and protection, the support and safety of the state. The cultivators of the soil partook of these ad- vantages, and improved in moral and social con- dition, till they attained that position in society which we see them now hold — a position amongst the most valuable and important to the well-being of the country — a position in which their influence can but be great for good or for evil — for the ad- vancement or retarding the general character and condition of mankind throughout the empire and the world. But now that education is becoming so generally diffused in all classes, from the highest to the lowest, and in none with greater zeal, and I hope I may add with more decided prospect of advantage, than in the lowest : it is absolutely necessary, that to enable the farmers to maintain their position in society, and still more to advance it, they should avail themselves of all the means which are offered for obtaining that information which is requisite, not only for the advantageous prosecution of their business, but for their mental improvement, and consequent happiness and usefulness ; and this, not only with reference to their present condition and mode of life, but as a preparation for those changes, whether of prosperity or adversity, which may await them. It cannot, I think, be denied, that a good educa- tion not only renders more valuable the blessings of prosperity, bvit renders the evils of adversity more tolerable in themselves, and frequently affords the means of avoiding, and where they cannot be wholly avoided, of alleviating them. The condition of man, especially in early life, is rarely stationary ; and no man desires that it should be so. " Forward" is always his motto, his hope, and his endeavour. No man with a small farm rests satisfied with the prospect of always being a small farmer ; he hopes for a larger occu- pation, and he strives for it, If all were disposed THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 to abandon such views, men would, in body and mind, become careless and indifferent, dull and stagnant, like a muddy pool, receiving no benefit, and bestowing none ; but, with the natural desire of advance, man more resembles the lively, run- ning stream, which in its current receives contri- butions from the neighbouring waters, carries fertility through its course, both ornamenting and enriching the country through which it flows, and, if I may so say, increasing the bulk of the ocean of national prosperity. Such a strong desire for advance is not only natural to man, and whilst kept within due bounds, and prosecuted by due and proper means, is not only allowable, but has the unfailing promise of His blessing, who has said, " That the hand of the diligent maketh rich." If a young farmer contemplated taking only a few acres of land, and living upon them as his remote ancestors did, in vain should he urge upon him the advantages of education : but seeing that he naturally and laudably looks forward to extend- ing his business, becoming the adviser, the agent, or the steward of others, and possibly anticipates the necessity of seeking a livelihood in other climes as an emigrant from his native fields and much- loved home, then are we fully justified in urging upon him the necessity of forwarding these hopes, and meeting this necessity, by endeavouring, in his early days, to obtain such an education as may afford the most suitable means to such desirable or inevitable ends. This brings me to the consideration of that kind, and those branches of education which appear to me to be necessary and best suited for young farmers. Convinced as I am of the necessity for, and the benefits and happy consequences of a good educa- tion, I may be tempted to open a wider field than may have engaged the contemplation of many to whom I now address myself: but I trust that the reasons which I shall endeavour to lay before you for what I may recommend, will justify my urging it upon your most patient and attentive consideration. It will not be made a question that reading, writing, and arithmetic, are essential ; but these are not education — they are but the tools with which the work must be taken in hand. Passing reading and writing, with the simple recommendation that they should be studied with such diligence as may insure, if not perfection, great readiness, fluency, and correctness, I proceed to arithmetic. Arithmetic is the only introductory kind of knowledge, or education, which teaches a man to think. Mere imitations here will avail him nothing. He must work for himself; he must think ; and the more the power of thought is exer- cised, the more it can be concentrated, the greater will be the effect with which all the powers of the mind and of the body will be brought to co-ope- rate, and the greater will be the advantage of him who thinks for himself, over him who, with blind and dull submission to the pride and assumption of others, proves, by his own inferiority, and by abandoning the great and important prerogative which distinguishes man, the noblest of God's works, from the beasts that perish. The practical advantage, as well as the intellec- tual pleasure, of arithmetical knowledge is obvious. The necessity of keeping correct and clearly- arranged accounts, even of the transactions of a small farm, cannot be disputed. How great then is the necessity for them in larger concerns, and more especially when a man is entrusted with those of others. On these grounds do I most strongly urge the study of arithmetic, even to the highest attainable branches of the science, for strengthening and improving the powers of the mind, and for the attainment of that practical accuracy in accounts, without which no man can safely be entrusted in the affairs of others, nor have a well-grounded con- fidence in the stability of his own. The study of Language if not equally neces- sary, is to a high degree desirable : without it we cannot accurately communicate our thoughts to, nor avail ourselves of the learning or advice of others. That a man may avoid running into many errors himself, or being led into them by others, it is ab- solutely necessary that he should have a good knowledge of his mother tongue — a knowledge which shall have been obtained through diligent study, careful observation, and judicious, well- selected reading. Nothing so quickly or so decidedly marks the difference between a man of education, and one whose education has been neglected, as the differ- ence between their modes of expression. First impressions are strong ; and it is every thinking- man's desire that the first impression which he makes upon another should be favour- able ; and correct speech is, in this respect, like a cheerful and pleasing countenance. Every one is disposed to judge favourably of a man's intellect, when he is heard to express himself correctly, whether it is in the ordinary intercourse of life, in the social meeting, at the parish vestry, at the board of guardians, or at the farmer's club. To ensure this advantage the young farmer must learn Grammar. I have often heard the question asked — What has a fanner to do with Grammar ? what good will it do him ? My reply is — All, and more than all that I have said upon this point of my subject ; and if my assertion as the general result of some experience were insufficient, I could readily adduce many instances of persons of what is generally called " a good education," who have been suddenly and irretrievably put at a disadvan- tage in the estimation of others, by their defects in grammar, or the improper use of even concise words. If you will admit the propriety of any observa- tions in this respect, you will ask me how this grammar is to be most easily attained. To this I would reply — let the young farmer learn Latin. Latin for a young farmer ! ! To this oft-repeated exclamation I venture to affirm, that the most ready way of learning English is to learn Latin ; and I believe that all who have a knowledge of both languages will admit the truth of the assertion, so generally is it now acknowleged, that English grammars are out of fashion, and Latin is regularly 12 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. taught in all good schools, for girls as well as boys. For myself, I never learned a lesson in English grammar, nor do my children. They learn Latin for the sake of learning English, and it is done in much less time, with much less labour, and at no greater expense than must be incurred if the object is to learn the English language, by means of Eng- lish grammars only. Besides which, there are so many words in the English language derived from the Latin, that it is quite impossible to have a cor- rect knowledge of the English language as now established, but through some knowledge of the Latin. The same observations would apply, though not in the same degree, to the study of the Greek; but fast as it is proceeding, " the march of intel- lect" is not yet sufficiently advanced, to justify my detaining you with any further remarks upon the Greek ; were I to do so I should probably, and not unreasonably, be told, that indeed " the school- master was abroad." But I cannot abstain from recommending the study of the French language ; it is ex- tremely easy, and soon acquired so far as reading it is concerned ; and this, if the study were carried no further, would open many and valuable sources of instruction. Should the young farmer at any time emigrate to Lower Canada, he would find a knowledge of the French language absolutely necessary ; and should he be induced to cross over to France or Belgium, to purchase seeds, or oil cake, or to study the cul- ture and manufacture of flax, he would find that his time had not been ill-spent in learning French. This I would, therefore, recommend, though not with the same earnestness with which I venture to urge the study of Latin. If the place and home of the young farmer were to a certainty unchangeable, my next observations might if not altogether spared, be of much less importance ; but he may find it desirable, or he may be compelled to resort for his livelihood to far distant climes ; should this happen he will rejoice that he has studied Natural History, in- cluding Geography, and the varieties of Animal and Vegetable Life. He would then much sooner become as it were acclimated, and would much sooner derive advantage from his new position, in rendering serviceable to him the soil, the cattle, and indeed all the natural produc- tions, as Avell as the means of cultivation, inter- course, and communication to be found in his new home. Amongst the acquirements which afford the greatest pleasure to an intelligent and cultivated mind, though possibly not the greatest profit to the man of Business, is Drawing. I do not think it necessary to detain you with any observations as to the pleasures derivable from this art, great as they are, making every walk in the fields productive of interest, and proving the differ- ence between "eyes, and no eyes;" but I must remark that a practised eye, an eye accustomed to the investigation and contemplation of the various objects of nature, in their most perfect forms, will more readily than another, perceive and appreciate the peculiar defects or excellencies of grazing on other cattle ; indeed some of my friends who are considerable graziers, and allowed to be remarkably good judges of stock, have shewn and cultivated a taste for drawing, and have found it beneficial in this branch of their business. If a young farmer should be called upon to repair, alter, or re-arrange buildings, to lay out gardens or more extensive tracts of land, or merely to super- intend such alterations, whether for himself or others, he will find that the practice of drawing, leading him to the study of form, proportion, and harmony of composition, and arrangement, will enable him to perform his duties with greater facility, as well as with greater advantage, not only as regards appearance, but positive utility and economy. Mechanics cannot be considered useless to the young farmer; on the contrary, the construction of his implements and the setting up and repair of buildings will be rendered more easy and effectual, for the objects to be attained, by a knowledge of the mechanical powers, by which a waste of time, of material, of labour, and expense may often be avoided. All the implements in use by the farmer are, or rather ought to be, constructed on scientific princi- ples, and those who have long passed out of the class of young farmers, will readily call to mind how clumsy and inartificial were, when first intro- duced, some of the most important and valuable instruments now in common use. If in any thing, most certainly as regards me- chanics, must be admitted the absolute truth of the maxim, that "knowledge is power!" The necessity of a good knowledge of Mensu- ration, including that of land, timber, hay, ma- nure, thatching, ditching, &c. must be impressed on the young fanner. Whether he buys or sells, employs or is employed, without such knowledge he can have no certainty that he does justice to others, or is himself safe from imposition or fraud. Why should not the young farmer measure off half an acre of turnips, calculate the quantity in his heap of manure, and the quantity of land it will cover ? Why should he not ascertain the quantity of clay, sand, or gravel, dug from a pit, or be able to judge of the proper cost of repairs by measurements, in- stead of depending upon the help of others ? That help cannot always be readily obtained, and if ob- tained can be had, generally, only at an expense which would if it occurred but a few times, much more than cover the cost of securing the ability to work out such things for himself. He would be- sides, in possessing this ability, get rid of the humiliating sense of inferiority and dependance. It may he objected that more time and greater expense must be employed in acquiring the various branches of education, which I have ventured to indicate as desirable for the young farmer, than the " old gentleman" can afford ; but I am bold enougn to assert that the time usually employed on a boy's education, from the age of ten to sixteen, is abun- dantly sufficient for all, and much more than all I have noticed, and that all this is to be obtained, if not at the same schools, yet at the same expense at which (from a mistaken but I hope a fast vanishing and soon to be exploded belief, that farmers do not THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 want to be high learnt) a very superficial and inferior [ education is obtained. But if it should be true, which I doubt, that for such an education as I have suggested more expense would be incurred, I have a firm conviction that it would be abundantly repaid"; not only by the greater happiness it would produce in the individual pos- sessing it, but be more than compensated in a pecuniary point of view, by the after saving of charges for the help of others, and more especially by the constant occupation of mind it would afford; for a man at all impressed with the value of know- ledge, is never satisfied with his own acquirements, but is continually striving to increase his store ; he is like "the leech which cries 'give, give,' " and whilst he is striving to obtain knowledge, he will be to a great degree preserved from those dangerous associations and vicious indulgences which are the refuge of ignorance, and which, whilst they debase more and more an uncultivated mind, ruin the health, drain the pockets, and destroy all hope of respectability, independence, and comfort, in what- ever grade of society they are indulged. The adage that — " When house and land are gone and spent, Then learning is most excellent," may be true, and to a great extent it is so ; but why should we wait till house and land are gone, to enable us to put its due value upon learning. Learning well obtained and well applied, tends often to the procuring, and when not to procuring, to the preserving both house and land, as well as to advance the moral character and personal self respect and general estimation of its possessor. There are other points of a good education beyond those of the general boys' school, the importance of which I cannot pass over, and which a youth not only at little expense but with positive economy, (from the causes I have before alluded to) will be able to attain after he has left school, without in any degree interfering with his active duties on the farm, when he has rejoined his father's fire-side and began to be, and to be called "The young farmer," and for those winter evenings, "Evenings at Home" afford the most favourable opportunities. Let him then study the General History of Nations, and more especially that of his own. Let him in that history learn the constitution of his own country; then will he learn to value, and having learnt to value, will strive to maintain its institutions, and will rejoice that his lot has been cast in that part of the world in which is enjoyed the greatest degree of personal and political free- dom— in which honest industry rarely fails of its due reward — in which though widely differing grades and ranks of society do and must exist, the highest stations and offices are open to all whose talents and industry, combined with a really good education and correct moral conduct qualify for such positions. Let him, in this manner, study so much of the Laws of his Country as will enable him to understand, and perforin with ease and credit, the duties of those offices to which the young farmer must look to be called — as churchwarden, Overseer of the poor, surveyor of the highways, assessor of taxes, poor-law guardian, and juryman : the duties of these offices, though apparently hum- ble, are important, and their due performance tends greatly to the peace and comfort of the society by which the young farmer will be surrounded. If those duties are well performed, then may the young farmer feel fully confident that he will be able to perform those of higher offices and more important stations, if he should be called to occupy them. To the young farmer, Chemistry cannot be considered a useless or unnecessary study. So much has public attention been of late drawn to this subject, that the connection of chemistry with the arts and sciences, and particularly with agricul- ture, and its importance to the latter, are fully acknowledged, even when not well understood. The nature of soils, and the applicability to them of the various kinds of manure, can only be ascer- tained or perfectly known by a good practical chemist; but such a general knowledge as may enable tbe young farmer to ascertain whether he is proceeding upon sound principles, or is a blind follower of the blind, is within his reach, and this he should endeavour to obtain or he will soon find himself far behind his fellow labourers in the field of competition, and will regret that he has neg- lected to avail himself of valuable information by the study of the general outlines at least of a most interesting, instructive, and valuable science. This knowledge is to be obtained from books of easy access, written in a popular style, and adapted to the wants of the practical man of business. The general Manners, Habits, and Wants of his neighbours, and more particularly of his labourers and other dependants, should be well observed and well understood by the young far- mer : he may often be called upon to advise and assist them — to praise or to reprove ; and here it is that the character, both moral and social, of the young farmer will be most beneficially or most unfavourably displayed. Every man has more or less influence, and every man is bound to use his influence for the good of his neighbours, and more especially of his depen- dants. And who, allow me to ask, in proportion to the extent of his business, has so many persons dependant on him or exposed to his influence as the farmer ? It is as a master that he will be a blessing or a curse to those around him ; it is as a master that practical wisdom and a benevolent disposition can be most advantageously employed in the exercise of small but oft-repeated kindness — not calling for much expense or time, but by which the social con- dition of inferiors may be greatly improved, and a greater blessing imparted even to him who gives than to him who receives. There is one other subject to which it is neces- sary I should refer — little competent I must necessarily be to give any practical advice upon it. My observations must therefore be considered rather as theoretical than experimental, except so far as they are applicable to every other business or profession equally with that of the farmer. In whatever profession or business a young man is to be placed, he must begin to work at it as soon as possible after he has acquired such general 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. education as is considered proper to qualify him for the occupation. If he is the son of a farmer, his observations will from a very early age, have been directed to farming operations, and he will by im- perceptible degrees, and without having made them the objects of particular study, have laid a good foundation in the store of facts acquired. But when the young man, with such a course of previous training as I have detailed and recom- mended to your consideration, begins to learn his business, then let him begin at the beginning: he must not only understand theoretically, but be able to perform all the practical operations of the farm. Without this he will have the knowledge but not the power of the farmer. This is more obviously necessary if he is to be a small farmer, or a working farmer ; but it is equally essential if a larger occupation is to engage his capital and his talent, and probably even more so. The larger his occupation the more individuals he must, to a great — not to a certain, but to a most uncertain — extent, be dependant on, and that daily and hourly in operations most important to his success in life, and which when done cannot be undone. The master who does not understand his business from first to last, both theoretically and practically, is at the mercy of his servants ; and the more he has (and the less he understands his business the more he will have) the greater will be his discom- fort and his loss ; for it is undoubtedly true that nothing tends so much to make idle, careless, and dishonest servants as ignorant masters. The young farmer should not only be able to order his servants, but to show them how to do their work ; without this, he will not be able to get it done well, and if done well, not with the reason- able expenditure of time and money. An ignorant or unskilful master will be despised by his more skilful servant, and then he stands, indeed, one of the most unhappy and desolate of men— without authority, and without confidence or self respect, he will show but a fearful account when he comes to examine the state of his farm and of his books, and will then be compelled to bear witness against himself that he has had, pos- sibly a large store of head knowledge without the absolutely necessary accompaniment of manual dexterity and operative skill. " Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well," and therefore, should the young farmer not only have a good head knowledge of the best mode of managing his farm, but he should be the best ploughman, the best drillman, the best pitcher and loader, and, in short, the best workman on his farm. With this combination of theory and practice, with a strict attention to the due performance of all his social and relative duties, may he confidently look forward for prosperity in his business ; to the esteem of his friends and neighbours ; to a life of activity, peace, and comfort: and to declining years of cheerful retrospection upon time well spent ; and the satisfaction of having enjoyed and turned to good account "The kind of Education best suited for young Farmers." The way and means by which such a preliminary education as I have advised can best be obtained, it is not so easy to point out as it is to insist upon the necessity for it. The existing schools are generally and notoriously inadequate. In most branches of business, regular training is deemed essential to success, but it is too true that any man of desperate fortune and superficial acquirements may set up for a schoolmaster, and by means of a well-written, and probably well-paid-for prospectus, obtain that con- fidence which too commonly those who bestow it are incompetent to judge, even by the event, whe- ther it has been well or ill placed. Whilst proprietary schools and colleges are estab- lished for the education of the clergy, surgeons, lawyers, engineers, designers, and various other classes, I see no reason why the intelligent and active farmers of England should not have their agricultural colleges for the education of their own sons. Such colleges should be conducted by masters well selected and properly paid for instructing in the purely literary branches of a liberal education. The establishment should have appended to it a farm of sufficient extent to show all the necessary opera- tions in the various modes of cultivation, in which the pupils should take a part, and so from their entrance combine practice with theory, and be in the daily habit of applying in the field what they learn in the house. The farm attached to the school if managed judi- ciously, under the direction of a well skilled and in- telligent farmer, would, it is to be hoped, yield a profit, and if the establishment were large, the in- dividual expense ought not to be greater than that of schools wholly insufficient for young farmers, and to which they are too frequently sent to learn a little of many things, not much of any, and none well, I am not aware of the details of any such college, though I bejieve that some such are in course of establishment, and therefore I thus shortly allude to them, rather with a view to draw your attention to the subject, than as prepared to give any distinct or confident opinion upon them. I believe the establishment of Mons. Fellerbery, in Germany, embraces not only the various opera- tions of the farmer, but those of almost all kinds of trade, greatly to the advantage of the pupils, who are thus more quickly and more decidedly qualified for the kind of life for which they are intended, but obtain, at the same time, such a general education as may enable them to adopt, after leaving school, any business or profession for which they may be thought suitable, although its more peculiar studies may not have been prosecuted with the same care as if their future professions had been already fixed. It is undeniable that the public schools and the Universities of England need allow the palm of su- periority to none in Europe, but, at the same time, it cannot be disputed that the general schools of England are inferior in the variety and extent of information afforded to the pupils to those of most parts of continental Europe. Why should this be ? Shall it be said that England, wealthy beyond all the nations of Europe, cannot afford for her rising ge- neration the expense of a good education ? Shall it be said that England is so proud of her standing among the nations of tl»e world, that she does not desire to advance her character for learning and ge- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 15 neral education? Or, as respects English farmers, shall it be said that they are so well satisfied with their condition in the world and with their standing in society, that they are content to remain as they are, with education insufficient for their peculiar station and business ? No ! This cannot — must not be said. But that hitherto the English farmers have not duly considered the importance of their occupation, and of their position as a class of so- ciety, but that they are now resolved to obtain for those who must follow them such intellectual ac- quirements and such professional knowledge as is necessary to render their occupation as agricultu- rists agreeable to an educated mind, profitable to themselves, and advantageous to society and the nation in general. EVERGREEN SHRUBS. The progress of the last winter — its peculiar effects upon some of the most beautiful subjects of the plantation and shrubbery — claim an inquiry into the habits of the shrubs which offer peculiar ad- vantages, or are liable to sustain injury from the inclemency of winter to which these climates are occasionally exposed, We find, and the complaint is pretty universal, that the common laurel (Prunus lauro-cerasus), native of the Levant, the laurestine (Viburnum tinus), the sweet bay (Laums nobilis), the arbutus (A.unedo), have been severely assailed. Some, par- ticularly the two last-named, are either destroyed or killed to the ground. The common laurel is a great favourite with many ; but on three occasions since 1837 its younger branches have suffered mutilation, and thus the trees have been disfigured. It forms a good hedge speedily ; but, as it casts its leaves abundantly and during a long period of spring, it causes much litter ; and, at the best, the leaves when collected do not yield good mould for the gardener. The Laurestine is a beautiful shrub ; its cymes of lovely clear white, dotted with pink, are among the choicest ornaments of winter, but it is still more tender than the laurel. The Bay is a fine evergreen of dark hue, the leaves imbued with an odour of peculiar fragrance; it is, however, so susceptible of injury, that, once attacked by frost, if it indeed survive, the figure can rarely be restored. The last winter — and those of 1837, 1838, and 1 840 — taught us that we are not to depend upon shrubs natives of Italy or the south of Europe, or, indeed, as it appears, upon the Arbutus, though a native of Ireland ; therefore, if we wish to secure intact the evergreen character of the shrubbery and winter garden, recourse must be had to other species whose constitutional hardihood is such as to guarantee the fulfilment of the planter's expecta- tion. First and foremost among beauties of modern in- troduction I reckon Berberis aquifolium (holly- leaved ash-barberry), a native of north-west America, as high as Nootka Sound. Its foliage is of a rich, deep, shining green, becoming purplish-red in winter ; its flowers yellow, in pendulous racemes, succeeded by fine clusters of dark blueish-black berries ; by which, and also by layers of the young low-placed wood made in autumn or early spring, the plants can be propagated. The evergreen oak (Quereus ilex), native of the south of France, and the live oak of America (Quereus virens), are superior evergreens; and these, so far as I have observed, are not injured by the great severity of February, when, after a fall of snow, then a full power of scalding sun, a frost of 26° or more succeeded. These alternations warn the gardener to take the advice so strongly urged by the late Gilbert White, of Selborne — to the effect that after every fall of snow the evergreens should be shaken or cautiously moved about by poles, to disturb the snow before it be melted off by scalding sun, and then frozen upon the spray. The scarlet oak, imported from America in 1691, though not evergreen, is a charm- ing tree for large expansive lawns : its leaves are of a full size, change to a beautiful scarlet in autumn, and remain firm till near Christmas, unless the frost be very severe. The true or common holly (Ilex aquifolium), native of Britain, with all its varieties — plain and variegated leaved, yellow or red berried, silver- edged and gold-edged : these varieties are per- fectly hardy and extremely ornamental, either as single shrubs or in hedges. Portugal laurel(PrM««s lusitanica),\vhich though, as its name imports, from a warm country, is still found to resist the severest winter much better than the common laurel ; it is also a free blower, and re- tains its leaves well. Phillyria : most of the varieties are rich ever- greens ; to which, also, I may add Aucuba japonic a, a plant cultivated for a time in stoves and plant- houses, but found hardy enough to sustain twenty degrees of frost. Evergreens are the chief ornaments of our winter gardens ; and it is with much pain and regret that we observe the destruction — or, at least, total dis- figurement— of fine shrubs that have been trained with the utmost care. Fortunately, we have choice ; and to our cata- logue it would show ungrateful negligence not to add most of the hardy rhododendrons. These plants do well in loam as well as heath-mould, and support winter without injury to either foliage or bloom. J. T. IMPROVED METHOD OF MAKING BRICKS.— N. J. Wyeth, Cambridge, Massachusetts. — The object of this com- position is, to produce bricks which will admit of driving nails into them, to avoid the necessity of introducing in walls what are known amongst mechanics as " wooden bricks." This com- position consists of clay, mixed with either sawdust, charcoal, peat, or tan-bark, after it has been used by the tanner. The proportions may be varied, but the patentee recommends three parts of clay to five parts of either of the combustibles above- mention. — Clam : — " I do not claim mixing combustible ma- terials with clay for making bricks, but I claim mixing them in such proportions as will produce bricks possessing the above- named properties." 16 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OX THE CULTIVATION OF THE TURNIP. BY THOMAS SULLIVAN. [Concluded.) When the land has been sufficiently pulverized and cleaned, and the proper seed-time arrived, the drills* or ridgelets aie formed for the reception of the manure and seed. After the ground has un- dergone all the necessary preparatory tillage, it will be in a loose friable state to a considerable depth, and the drills are then formed with comparative facility ; but should the under soil be in any degree compact, or the surface very cloddy, the most ex- perienced ploughmen find it difficult to form neat, well-finished drills. The process of drilling may be performed either with the single or double mould- board plough, the latter being commonly used on light and well-reduced soils ; while on stiff clay, which is seldom very finely pulverized even after the most laborious tillage has been bestowed upon it, the former is most generally preferred and em- ployed, as the drills are formed by it with greater facility and in a neater and more perfect manner than could be accomplished with the other. On the lighter class of soils, the double mould-board plough is, no doubt, well adapted for this operation, inasmuch as it forms a drill at a single turn ; but this can also be effected with equal facility and despatch by the common plough in the hands of an expert workman, as shall hereafter be shewn. It is not an uncommon practice in some localities to form the whole or greater portion of the field into drills before depositing any of the manure; but the propriety of this mode of proceeding is at all times very questionable, and itis obviously most injudicious in dry weather. When this method is pursued, light soils and also clay soils not finely pulverized, are liable to be deprived of a large proportion of the necessary moisture they contain, by the evaporation which always proceeds in the droughty weather usually experienced at turnip seed-time, and in consecjuence of which the ground is rendered very unfit for promoting that rapid germination of the seed, and vigorous growth of the young plants, so essential in securing the crop from the ravages of insects. Hence the formation of the drills should not long precede the deposition of the manure and the sow- ing of the seed ; in fact, these operations should always be performed in close succession, especially in droughty weather, when the loss of a whole crop may be the consequence of neglecting this precau- tion. It is necessary, however, to form twelve or fourteen preparatory drills before commencing to distribute and cover in the manure, in order to prevent any subsequent interruption of the work. Raised drills are formed with the common plough in the following manner : — Three or more poles are set up in a right line, at a distance equal to the breadth of six or seven drills from that side of the field, parallel to which the drills are to run. Alight furrow-slice is then drawn along the line of the * It may, perhaps, be necessary to mention, that in the following remarks, the term "drill" is applied to the ridge-drill in which the seed is sown, not to the machine by which it is deposited. poles, and on reaching the end of the field, the ploughman returns by the same track, turning over another light slice in the opposite direction. On arriving at the headland at which he first entered, he turns to the left, and passing up at the distance previously determined upon for the breadth of the drills (say twenty-seven inches) from the centre of the hollow just formed, turns over a furrow towards the undrilled portion of the field. On reaching the headridge, the ploughman again turns to the left, laying over a similar furrow-sliee, and so proceeds, always turning his horses to the left at the head- lands, and working round the first-formed drills, until the space included between the feerinff and the adjoining ditch or fence has been formed into drills. Twelve or fourteen preparatory drills are thus opened before any are reversed or split, which will be sufficient to allow the work to proceed without interruption. The covering in of the manure and the formation of the drills for its recep- tion are afterwards carried on simultaneously : a drill is opened by the plough in passing up conti- guous to that last formed, with the mould-board inclining towards the level land, and on reaching the headridge, the ploughman turns his horses to the left, passes down the preparatory drill adjoining the fence, turning over about two-thirds of the raised soil, to cover the manure previously deposited in the hollow, and thus forms a new drill, in which the seed is sown. In this manner the work is proceeded with until the whole, or the re- quired portion of the field is completed. When the soil is naturally of a light friable description, or has been finely pulverized by the preparatory tillage, the formation of drills in this way is attended with little difficulty; but when the ground is very cloddy tipon the surface, or not sufficiently loosened beneath, it requires all the skill and dex- terity of the best ploughmen to make them in a satisfactory manner. As nothing appears so un- sightly as crooked, ill-formed drills, it should be the ambition and constant endeavour of the indus- trious ploughman to excel in this department of his art. More than ordinary care is required in the formation of drills for the turnip crop, as they should be exactly at equal distances apart, to suit the sowing-machine. Some turnip-drills, it is true, are so contrived as to accommodate them- selves to the sinuosities and varying breadth of the ridgelets, always depositing the seed near the centre of each ; but in the majority of the machines in general use, the seed-coulters are fixed to a certain limited breadth. At all events, the plants come up in very irregular rows when the drills are imperfectly formed; and when the intervals are unequal in breadth, the operation of horse-hoeing, which is so essential in cleaning the land, and pro- moting the vigorous growth of the crop, cannot be properly performed without constantly altering the implement. Sometimes drills are formed with a bout, or two turns of the common plough ; and in this way they are certainly made with somewhat greater neatness and precision than could be accomplished with only a single turn ; but it must be remem- bered that the former method requires double the time and labour of the latter, which, it will be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 17 admitted, is no trifling consideration ; besides, the drills formed by an experienced ploughman in the manner just described, though not perhaps so perfectly finished, are by no means inferior to the others, either in point of appearance or utility, after the sowing-machine has passed over them to deposit the seed. The ultimate form of the drills is pre- cisely the same in both cases ; but in drilling with a double turn of the plough, the mould-board is inclined towards the drills; while in the single method, it is always inclined towards the level portion of the field in opening the drills. Whatever mode may be adopted, the utmost care must be taken by the ploughman to cover in every particle of the manure, and to place the finest of the mould upon the top of the drills. These objects may be effected by taking a good depth of furrow, and holding the plough in a particular position, by which means the coarse dry earth and small stones on the surface of the ground are rolled over by the mould- board into the interior of the drills, and the fine most soil raised to the top ; thus affording a most favourable bed for the germination of the seed. The depth of furrow by which the drills are formed depends in some degree on the kind of manure to be applied to the crop. In the case of farm-yard dung, and especially in droughty weather, the drills must be opened to a considerable depth, in order to have the manure properly covered in ; but the same depth is not essential when bone-dust, or other extraneous substances, used in small quan- tities, are applied. Some diversity of opinion exists in regard to the kind of manure best calculated for the produc- tion of turnips. Numberless specifics have been of late brought under the notice of agriculturists, all of which are of course expressly adapted for this, as well as other crops, according to the adver- tisements of the manure-venders. By chemical analysis we ascertain the nature and proportions of the different inorganic constituents of which turnip bulbs are composed ; and as these are ab- stracted from the soil and manure, it is obvious that both in conjunction must contain a due sup- ply of those particular ingredients which are essential for the perfect development of the plants. Hence the propriety of applying such manures as furnish to the crop the greatest quantity of the inorganic constituents of which it is composed. But in determining, in a purely practical way, the kinds of manure best adapted for the turnip crop, we have to consider what substance, or combina- tion of substances, is best calculated — first, to furnish immediate nourishment in order to push forward, the young plants into rough leaf, so as to evade the attacks of the fly ; secondly, to sustain and prolong the growth of the bulbs to the latest period of the season ; and thirdly, to contribute towards the permanent fertility of the soil, so as to leave it in the best condition for the production of succeeding crops. Whatever substance, or com- bination of substances, natural or artificial, answers these conditions to the greatest extent, is unques- tionably the best adapted for application to the turnip crop. Until within a comparatively recent period, farm-yard dung and bones were the only manures employed in raising turnips; but the substances now presented to the notice of the farmer under the special name of "fertilizers" are exceedingly numerous — so numerous, indeed, that he must be somewhat puzzled which he had better select, the pretensions of all being so high. Many of these portable manures, it is admitted, have been found to succeed wonderfully in raising turnips at com- paratively little expense; and they are, no doubt, very valuable auxiliaries, when the supply of the farm-yard is inadequate; but when a sufficiency of good "muck" can be produced on the farm, the fertilizers of commerce should be but sparingly used. The manure of the farm-yard is confessedly a very bulky article, requiring much labour in its preparation for, and application to, the land; and it must, therefore, undoubtedly be regarded as a great boon to the farmer to be furnished, at reasonable expense, with a substance containing in small compass all the valuable ingredients usually contained in well-prepared dung. Now this desi- deratum (if it can properly be called one) is pre- cisely what each of the manure venders pretends to have succeeded in supplying; but, with the excep- tion of genuine guano, the efficacy of which as a manure is now beyond a doubt, comparatively few of these so-called "fertilizers" are found to stand the searching analysis of the chemist or the more decisive test of experience. But eve'n admitting that those substances possess all the fertilizing properties ascribed to them by their respective manufacturers, still the propriety of using them to any great extent is very questionable. The necessity of resorting largely to extraneous manures on a farm, under a mixed system of hus- bandry, speaks rather unfavourably, I should think, for the propriety of the mode of management pur- sued ; for I do not hesitate to say, that, in ordinary seasons, every farm might be enabled to produce almost the whole of the requisite quantity of manure, by the consumption of its produce by the domestic animals. And if this can be done, as assuredly it may to a very great extant, by judiciously econo- mising and appropriating the large quantities of valuable substances now suffered to run to waste from the farm yard, or to lie in a state worse than useless, it is pretty obvious that the large sums of money annually paid for extraneous manures are needlessly expended. But owing to the very negligent and extravagant mode of managing the fertilizers of the homestead, which so generally pre- vails throughout the kingdom, and which is perhaps in some degree perpetuated by a dependence on extraneous matters, comparatively few farms are enabled to supply themselves ; and when this is the case, some of the portable manures, the efficacy of which is most satisfactorily ascertained and es- tablished, must be resorted to in order to supply the deficiency. It is not advisable, however, in my opinion, to use any of these substances for the turnip crop, without at the same time applying at least one- half of the usual allowance of well-fermented farm-yard dung. The propriety of this is obvious. One reason in support of the practice is, that although an extraneous manure may contain many substances necessary for the growth and perfect C 18 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. development of the turnip, yet some of the essential inorganic constituents maybe a wanting or deficient, and which the dung would probably supply ; and another is, that, though guano, and some other substances of an equally evanescent nature, furnish almost immediate nourishment to the young plants (which is an important matter, inasmuch as it forces them forward beyond the most critical period of their existeuce), it is found that the growth of the bulbs becomes less vigorous towards the end of the 6eason, while those manured with farm-yard dung are still increasing in size. Hence the importance of having a supply of the latter substance in the soil, whatever else maybe superadded, to prolong the growth of the turnips, and leave something behind for the benefit of the succeeding crops of the rotation. Farm-yard manure should be well fermented when applied to the turnip crop. It is supposed by many farmers that long, rank dung is favourable to, or harbours, the beetle or turnip-fly; at all events, it is necessary, with the view of preventing or mitigating the ravages of this destructive insect, that the plants should be forced as quickly as possible beyond that stage of their growth in which they are most liable to be attacked ; and this can only be effected by minutely pulverizing the soil, sowing abundance of seed, and having the manure properly fermented previous to its deposition in the drills. In order to secure the latter desirable ob- ject, as well as to economise time when the period of active labour arrives in spring, the dung should be removed from the yards, as suitable opportuni- ties for doing so occur, during the winter and early spring months, and stored up in one or more oblong heaps, in some convenient situation in the fields to which it is to be applied. About a month before being required for application to the land, the dung-heap is to be turned over, to accelerate the fermentative process. In performing this ope- ration, the manure should be carefully broken and divided, and all parts of a different quality or degree of fermentation carefully intermixed. While the dunghill is in course of being turned, the sides and top ought to be covered with a fight coating of earth taken from the adjoining ground, in order to protect the manure from the influence of the sun and winds, and also to absorb and retain the gaseous exhalations emitted from the heap during the process of fermentation. A second turning is sometimes, but not always, required, to bring the dung to the proper state of decomposition; and when this is necessary, the heap is again turned, a week orten days previous to its application to the soil. When the proper season for sowing the crop has arrived, and as many preparatory drills formed as will allow the work to proceed without interruption, the manure is conveyed from the heap to the drills in one-horse carts, and hauled out in every third interval by a man furnished with a dung-drag. It is proper, of course, in order to insure the equal distribution of the manure, that the loads should be of uniform size. Each cart load is divided into ten or more equal portions, the distance between which must be regulated according to the entire quantity of dung allowed per acre. The quantity of farm-yard manure necessary to apply to the turnip crop is dependent, in a great degree, upon the condition of the soil, the variety to be grown, and the quality of the manure itself; for one load of well-decomposed dung, produced on a farm where the cattle are plentifully supplied with turnips, oilcake, or other nutritious food, is more valuable and enriching, and will manure a greater extent of land, than probably twice the same bulk of an inferior article. All dung should be well fermented for turnips ; in fact, the better decom- posed it is before application to the land, the more immediate and beneficial are its effects upon the crop. From thirteen to fourteen tons of manure of this description are considered amply sufficient for an imperial acre of Swedes, twelve tons of the same or of equal quality for yellow turnips, and from ten to eleven tons for white globes. A good crop of turnips would no doubt be raised with a smaller application of manure ; but the preceding quantities are not deemed too much to supply nourishment to the different crops grown during a rotation. Even the produce of the turnip crop itself very materially depends on the quantity and quality of the manure applied with it. The farmer ought, therefore, to supply it as liberally as his resources will permit; too much can hardly be given ; and increasing the produce of this crop is the most certain way of augmenting the home supply of manure. After the dung is deposited in the drills, it must be carefully parted and distributed equally in the intervals. This is a part of the process on which too much attention cannot be bestowed by the farmer; for unless the dung be properly broken and evenly spread in the hollows of the drills, the plants will neither vegetate nor grow with uniform vigour, and the crop will be unequal throughout the field. One great advantage arising from having the dung well decomposed is, that it can be equally distributed, after which it readily incorporates with the soil. The quantity of manure to be applied should, therefore, be accurately ap- portioned by the man that hauls it out of the carts, and then evenly distributed by a band of workers, usually consisting of three or four women and boys, sometimes assisted and superintended by a careful man. It is a point of the utmost import- ance, considering the droughty weather usually experienced at the period of turnip-sowing, to have the several operations of forming the drills, spread- ing the dung, splitting the drills to cover it in, and of sowing the seed, all performed in close succession, in order to retain as much as possible of the mois- ture of the soil and manure. Should the prepara- tory drills have been formed any length of time previous to the deposition and covering in of the manure, the ground will necessarily have lost, by evaporation, much of the moisture so essential for the germination of the seed ; but it is of greater importance still that the dung should be covered immediately after being distributed in the drills, in order to prevent the dissipation of its most valuable constituents. A great difference has often been observed between the crops on drills sown imme- diately after covering in the manure, and such as had been left unsown in the same field until the following day. It is, therefore, advisable always to sow before night the portion drilled and dunged during the preceding part of the day. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 19 Of the numerous extraneous manures now em- ployed in raising turnips, bones and guano are justly entitled to the pre-eminence ; the utility of the former being well-known and acknowledged, and that of the latter satisfactorily attested by re- peated trials. I shall here offer a few remarks upon the application of these substances to the turnip- crop : commencing with Bone-dust. — Until the introduction of guano, this substance was the principal adjunct to the manures of the farm-yard ; and although the quantity of it used has considerably decreased within the last few years, it is still extensively applied in all parts of the kingdom as a manure for turnips, and almost invariably with the most beneficial effects. Many farmers who rather hastily abandoned bone-dust in favour of guano and other substances, are now returning to its use ; indeed, it cannot be expected that bones in some form will ever be superseded by any extraneous matters of a different nature. This manure has hitherto proved an invaluable aid to the farmer as a supplement to dung, es- pecially on light soils, and on all dry lands recently reclaimed ; and he should not allow it to be hastily cast into the shade by new " fertilizers" of higher pretensions, but of less intrinsic value. It would be foreign to my purpose in this paper to enter into the general properties of bone-dust ; my observa- tions shall therefore be restricted to the modes of applying it to the turnip crop, to which it appears to be peculiarly adapted, containing, as it does, much of the food required by the plants, and being best suited for the lighter class of soils on which this root is most generally grown. Its portability and cheapness render it one of the most accessible of extraneous manures ; and its use greatly expe- dites the labour of putting in the crop, especially in uneven situations. One of the most remarkable circumstances con- nected with the action of bones as a manure, is that the maximum advantage is produced by a definite and very limited quantity. It is well known to practical farmers that when bone-dust is applied beyond a certain allowance to the acre, no corres- ponding benefit is derived therefrom, at least by the immediate crop. It is ascertained from expe- rience that from sixteen to twenty bushels form as efficient a manuring for turnips as thirty bushels per acre : in fact, any addition to the former quantity produces scarcely any perceptive, at least no corresponding, improvement of the crop to which it is immediately applied. The finer the bones are ground, the more speedily and efficiently do they operate as a manure for turnips, as they become thus more intimately incorporated with the soil; and the food being presented in a minute state of division, acts more immediately and power- fully in promoting rapid vegetation. It is found, however, that the more finely reduced the bone- dust is, the more transient are its effects, the suc- ceeding crops of the rotation not being so much benefited as when bones of a larger size are applied. But this disadvantage is more than balanced by the utility of the well-pulverized bones in starting the turnip plants ; and it will be admitted that a vigorous healthy baird is one of the best securities for an abundant crop. The quantity usually applied to the acre is from sixteen to twenty bushels ; and, as already ob served, it is a fact somewhat singular, that an increased al- lowance produces no apparent effect. Bone-dust is frequently used in combination with other sub- stances, in which case a much smaller quantity than the above will suffice. When farm-yard manure has not been sufficiently fermented before being re- quired for application to the land, or when the supply happens to be inadequate, bones are often added with advantage. Even when a sufficiency of dung is available on the farm, they may be profitably used occasionally in this way, on account of their phosphates and other valuable constituents. Five or six bushels of bone-dust, mixed with twice as much coal or wood ashes, and applied along with half of the usual allowance of farm-yard dung, are found to be a most efficient manuring for turnips. A common and a much approved prac- tice in some parts of the country is to half dung the land intended for turnips, when giving it the first ploughing before winter, and to apply six or seven bushels of bones at seed-time. But a mix- ture of bone-dust and sifted coal-ashes or rich mould is frequently used uncombined with farm- yard manure, and generally with advantage. From eight to ten bushels of the dust, combined with twice that quantity of fine ashes or good vegetable mould, and allowed to ferment for some time before being applied to the land, are found to be equally efficacious as sixteen bushels of unmixed bones, besides being much more economical. The application of bone-dust is effected either by the hand or by machinery contrived for the pur- pose. In many parts of the south of Scotland, this manure is scattered by the hand along the hollows of the drills, and covered in the same manner as farm-yard dung, the only difference being that the drills are not formed quite so deep for the former as for the latter substance. In other localities it is often scattered upon the level surface, and covered by the plough in drilling : in both of these methods the seed is subsequently sown by the turnip-drill. But machines are now employed in many parts of the kingdom, which deposit the seed and the bone-manure at the same time ; and this is undoubtedly the most economical and judi- cious mode of application. The dust and seed are deposited with much regularity either in one con- tinuous stream, or at proper intervals along the top of the raised-drills. It is well known that the nearer the bones are to the surface of the ground, the more immediate and beneficial is their action ; and also, that the closer the seeds are to this manure, the more quickly do they germinate. The seed is often sown amongst the bones, not only with safety, but evident advantage. Bone-dust prepared by maceration in sulphuric acid has of late been much used in various ways as a manure for turnips, and in the majority of the recorded instances with the most satisfactory, if not astonishing, results. The bones thus dissolved are brought into that minute state of division in which their most valuable constituents are directly available as nourishment for the plants. Economy is, the great recommendation of this preparation, only a few bushels of bones being used with about one-third c 2 20 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. of their weight of acid, and various proportions of water. The time and expense incurred in pre- paring and applying it, which are hy no means inconsiderable, must likewise of course be taken into consideration in compaiing this with other manures. But, notwithstanding the success which has hitherto apparently followed the application of macerated bones, farmers should be cautious in adopting this "important discovery," as it has been designated, except on a small scale by way of experiment, until its character is satisfactorily established, and placed beyond reasonable doubt, by numerous well-conducted experiments. The sulphuric acid itself is a useful ingredient in this bone-compost, it being found in the composition of turnip-bulbs ; and partly to this circumstance, but chiefly to the minute state of division in which the food is furnished to the roots and fibres of the plants, may probably be ascribed the wonderfully beneficial effects of dissolved or macerated bones. Their influence does not, however, extend beyond the first year, the succeeding crops deriving scarcely any advantage from the application ; on which account this preparation should be cautiously re- sorted to. Guano is now, and has been for some time past, very extensively used in raising turnips ; and the results of the various trials that have been made with it are conclusive as to its efficacy as a manure. It should not, however, in my opinion, be used by itself with the turnip crop. It is found to act more beneficially along with farm-yard dung, or in combination with gypsum finely sifted ashes, rich dry earth, or other matters of a similar kind, with some of which it should be carefully mixed previous to its application to the soil. In using guano it must be remembered that the seed should not be allowed to come into contact with it before vegetation has commenced, as the vitality of the seed is apt to be injuriously affected, if not totally destroyed by the peculiar pungent property of the ammoniacal salts of this manure. Many failures are known to have oc- curred from neglecting this precaution. The quan- tity usually applied per acre is from 2\ cwt. to 4 cwt. when used alone, but a much smaller allowance will suffice when combined with ashes or other ma- terials. A mixture of guano, bones, and farm- yard dung has frequently been used with the best effect for turnips ; in fact, guano can be advan- tageously combined with most substances except lime. It has already been observed, that guano should not be applied in immediate contact with the seed : whatever mode of application therefore may be adopted, a portion of the soil must be in- terposed between the seed and manure. The guano may be scattered by the hand in the hollows of the drills, and covered in with a plough, as in the case of farm-yard manure, the seed being sown in the usual way. But some sowing machines are adapted for depositing the seed and guano at the same time, which is decidedly the most preferable practice, when the machinery is contrived to deposit the manure so much deeper than the seed as to allow a portion of the soil to be interposed between them. Besides the substances now briefly adverted to, numerous other fertilizers and artificial compounds of various descriptions are constantly urged upon the attention of the farmer by manure-venders, but the number of these is now so great, and the results of their application to the turnip crop so con- tradictory and indecisive, that it would serve no use- ful purpose to notice any of them in this place. When the farmer is necessitated to have recourse to extra- neous manures, guano, bones, or rape-dust, which is also frequently used with advantage, will cer- tainly supply any deficiency. Other substances may, however, be occasionally used on a small scale, as experiments, which it is the duty and interest of every intelligent agriculturist to institute to some extent for the satisfaction and information of himself and others. The agricultural periodicals abound with reports of such experiments. Lime is occasionally applied to turnips, but not so much with the view of increasing the produce of the crop, though it has undoubtedly some influence in this respect also, as to improve the texture and condition of the soil for the production of future crops. The lime is applied in various ways ; some- times it is spread upon the stubble, and ploughed under, when giving the first furrow before winter ; but this mode of application is by no means the most judicious that might be adopted, as it is evi- dently improper to bury this substance to the depth to which it is advisable to plough stubble land in autumn. It must also be remembered that lime possesses a well-known tendency of descending gradually into the soil, often forming a stratum at a considerable distance below the surface. The most approved practice is to spread the lime upon the prepared land, and give it a slight harrowing imme- diately before forming the drills. It may also be applied at a subsequent period, after the plants have been singled out and have attained some size, when the frequent operation of the horse-hoe suffi- ciently covers and incorporates it with the soil. The seeds are most generally deposited by a tur- nip-drill, or sowing machine, which sows two drills at a time, and is drawn by one horse, walking in the intervals of the drills. It is necessary that the soil should be dry on the top of the drills be- fore sowing the seed, otherwise the damp mould is liable to adhere to the rollers of the machine, and thereby cause imperfect work and irregular sowing; but care must be taken not to allow the soil to be- come over dry. In addition to the fixed roller in front of the coulters, there is commonly another light roller attached to, and following the machine, which compresses the drills after the seed has been sown. Turnip seed is likewise occasionally depo- sited by dibbling, especially when bones or other portable manures are employed, and this practice is said to be an almost certain method of securing a good braird. The drills are formed in the same manner as if the manure and seed were to be de- posited together by machinery ; holes are then made at the proper intervals along the top of the drills for the reception of the manure and seed. An active, experienced man, furnished with an im- proved band-dibble, will, it is said, go over an im- perial acre in a day. A woman or boy follows the dibbler, putting into each hole the proper quantity of bones or other manure, when a third party intro- duces a few seeds, and covers in the whole with a little mould. Although this mode of sowing tur- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 21 nips may answer admirably on a small scale, and it doubtless effects a very considerable saving of seed and manure, yet it is evidently too operose and ex- pensive for general adoption. The quantity of seed sown should be liberal, but not excessive. .V primary object with the farmer in cultivating this crop is to insure the rapid vege- tation of the young plants, so as to evade the attack of insects. 1 have already endeavoured to point out the importance of finely pulverizing the soil, and applying well decomposed and enriching ma- nures towards the attainment of this desirable object; and I may now observe, that thick sowing is another mean of securing a healthy and vigorous braird. It is an error, however, to sow too much seed, as, when the plants are forced into premature vegetation, they grow up very tender, are apt to remain in a languid state for some time after being singled out, and when the plants are un- necessarily thick, the process of thinning is more difficult to perform. In determining the quantity of seed to be sown, the nature of the soil and the variety of the turnip must be taken into considera- tion. It is obvious that light friable soils, which are naturally so well adapted to this crop, do not require so much as clay land, where many of the seeds do not germinate at all. The quantity should not be under two and a half, and need not exceed three pounds to the acre. The seed of the Swedish turnip being somewhat larger in size than that of the common sorts, it is neces- sary to sow a little more of the former than of the latter. Some persons recommend sowing from four to five, and even six pounds of turnip seed to the acre, but so large a quantity appears to ine to be not only unnecessary, but injurious : it is not so much on account of wasting the seed, for this is not an expensive article; but the plants never grow so vigorously after being thinned, when too rapidly forced into vegetation, as they would otherwise do. It may perhaps be considered unnecessary to ob- serve here that the headlands should be cidtivated, drilled, manured, and sown as soon as possible after the remainder of the field has been completed. The propriety and advantage of this will scarcely be questioned by any ; and yet how frequently do we witness several yards of valuable land at the ends of turnip-fields, yielding nothing but detestable weeds! The soil must produce some sort of vegetation, and if useful plants are not raised upon it by the fanner, weeds will necessarily spring up and luxuriate. But this is not all : the ground thus left uncropped is not only unproductive for a year, but it is positively prejudicial as a nursery for weeds of every description, the seeds of which, on becoming ripe, are wafted away by the winds to con- taminate the adjoining fields. The headlands, when properly managed, will undoubtedly produce as good turnips as any other portion of the field. It is ad- mitted that in the after culture of the crop, a few of the plants contiguous to the extremities of the lon- gitudinal drills are liable to be injured by the horse-hoe, and the animals' feet in turning at the ends ; but when proper care is taken, comparatively little loss is sustained in this way, at all events, it is very trifling compared with what accrues from having the entire headlands uncropped. They ought in all cases to receive the same tillage as the other portion of the field, and immediately after the longi- tudinal drills have been formed and sown, the head- ridges should be again ploughed, well harrowed, and rolled, and, after being duly pulverized, formed into drills, manured, and sown in a similar manner. The turnip crop seldom requires any attention from the fanner until the plants have attained a sufficient size to allow of the hoeing and thinning processes being commenced, but heavy rains sometimes occur shortly after the seed has been deposited, which, though generally grateful to the husbandman at this period, have frequently the effect of rendering the top of the drills so hard that the young plants are unable to protmde themselves through the in- crusted surface. The writer has often observed this, especially on clay land, and has found that a single turn of the light harrows usually employed for cover- ing grass seeds proves an effectual remedy by break- ing the incrusted earth on the top and sides of the drills, and thus enabling the small cotyledon leaves of the plants to push through the surface, besides allowing the admission of air into the soil. This light harrowing cannot be injurious when performed shortly after sowing the seeds, but it would ob- viously be dangerous after the young plants have reached the surface. A light roller is frequently used for this purpose instead of the harrow, and it may be safely used even after the plants are brairded. In ordinary cases, the turnip plants make their appearance above ground about eight or ten days after being sown; but much will depend on the quality and condition of the land, the state of the weather, and other circumstances. I have occa- sionally known Swedish turnips make their appear- ance in the course of four or five days, the soil being moist at the time of sowing, and the weather favourable for vegetation. Sometimes, however, a fortnight, and even a month, will elapse before they reach the surface. When the second, or what are termed the rough leaves are from two to three inches in height, the hoeing and thinning processes are commenced. The first cultivation which the soil receives, and a necessary operation preparatory to singling out the plants, is passing a horse-hoe or drill-grubber along the interval of each drill. The object of this operation is partly to destroy any weeds that may have sprung up between the rows of plants, but chiefly to pare away a portion of the earth from the sides of the drills, in order to facili- tate the process of singling. The horse-hoes used for this purpose are of various kinds, the most simple consisting of a flat triangular or double- feathered share, with two lateral arms, adapted for contraction or expansion, and fixed to a beam and handles by three upright coulters of iron. Wilkie's horse-hoe and drill-grubber justly ranks amongst the most improved of this class of implements ; it is made wholly of iron, and the coulters, which are peculiarly adapted for undercutting all weeds, are so inserted in the frame as to be capable of expan- sion and contraction, so as to suit the drills. The fore part of the beam is supported on a low wheel, which regulates the depth to which the coulters may descend into the soil. The first horse-hoeing is usually performed while the young plants are assuming their rough leaves, and it is then that the 22 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, superiority of the raised drills over those formed on the flat surface is most apparent. When the latter mode of culture is adopted, it is obvious that the horse-hoe cannot be used without running the risk of burying the young plants with the earth from the intervals; whereas, when the seed is depo- sited in raised drills, or ridgelets. no danger of this kind need be apprehended. After the first horse-hoeing has been completed, the turnip plants will be ready for being thinned out to determinate distances in the drills. This operation is usually performed by women and boys, it being rarely that men are employed at this busi- ness when any more laborious work remains to be done on the farm. Sometimes, however, it becomes expedient to set all hands to the singling, in order to have this important operation concluded in due season. The hand hoes commonly used consist of an iron plate, usually seven inches long by four in breadth, and attached to a shaft varying from three to four feet in length. It is not an uncommon practice in some parts of the country to set a num- ber of children to single out the turnip plants to the proper distances with their hands, the older and more experienced persons following with hoes, to draw and push away the earth from about the plants, and to cut up any weeds that may have escaped the action of the horse-hoe. This mode of proceeding is adopted with the view of in- suring that the turnips are left standing exactly at the determined distance apart, and it is cer- tainly well calculated to effect this object ; but, in my opinion, it needlessly increases the expense of the operation; as persons paying ordinary attention should become so expert in the use of the hoe after a few days' practice as to be able to single out the plants, draw away the earth, and cut up all weeds simultaneously, and without any danger of leaving the plants standing at irregu- lar distances. There is an erroneous custom which prevails in many parts of the country, of placing persons of all ages and sizes indiscriminately at this work. It is true, no doubt, that bodily strength is not so essential for thinning and hand-hoeing turnips as care and dexterity, and that in the latter qualification young persons are often little inferior to adults ; indeed, I have frequently found boys and girls, especially the latter, who, at the age of thirteen, could single out and hand-hoe turnips with equal accuracy and despatch as persons of any other age, however greatly their seniors. But never- theless, it seldom happens that very young boys and girls possess that degree of care and attention which is so essential in thinning turnips in the best manner : at all events, there can be no doubt as to the impropriety of having experienced adult workers and mere children in the same band or company as is usually the case. It cannot be expected that the latter should be capable, for some time, of working with equal despatch as the others ; they may, no doubt, attempt to do so, but in endeavouring to keep pace with the more ex- perienced workers, the youngsters are too much hurried, and are, in consequence, apt to put out plants where they ought not, thus causing blank spaces, which of course materially affects the pro- duce of the crop. It appears, therefore, both necessary and judicious, that for thinning and hoeing turnips, the field-workers, including per- sons of all ages from ten to fifty years, should be divided into at least two separate bands, the youngest and those who commence the process for the first season being placed in a company by themselves, in a different part of the same or in another field, where they can learn, while proceed- ing at more leisure, under the superintendence of an experienced person. There are several modes of arranging the hand- hoers so that they may have sufficient room to work without impeding one another, or trampling the plants in the drills last done. The com- mon practice is for each worker to take a row and proceed with the thinning one after the other on adjoining drills ; but it is a much better arrange- ment to place the workers at intervals of two or three rows, which affords sufficient room for each to work with freedom ; and some time is evidently saved in this way, as the workers are but seldom obliged to shift at the landends, their next drills being near at hand. Another useful method is to arrange the band in a semicircular order, those in the middle taking the the lead, and all following each other at a short distance apart, so that none inter- rupts the work of the other, or injures the plants in newly-thinned drills. With regard to the distance at which the plants should be left standing in the rows, something will obviously depend on the quality of the soil and the variety of the turnip. It would of course be injudicious to single out the plants to as wide distances on inferior land as on land in a high state of cultivation, from which a much heavier crop may be expected ; and it is equally evident that some varieties of turnips require wider spaces between them than others. It is often supposed that the wider the plants are apart in the rows, the larger size do the bulbs attain, and consequently the weightier the crop will ultimately become ; but this holds true only on land in the best condition as regards fertility, for turnips never attain any considerable size on poor, worn-out, or very wet land, however wide they may be apart in the drills. Nevertheless it is evidently of the utmost importance, to afford ample room and every possible opportunity for the bulbs to increase in size, for even a half an inch added to the diameter of each very materially enhances the aggregate produce; hence there cannot be a greater error than to have the plants too close to each other on fertile and well-cultivated soils. This is especially the case in regard to the Swedish turnip, which, it is well known, increases in amount of nutritive matter in proportion to the size of the roots ; whereas, the white globe and other soft kinds, when allowed very wide spaces between the plants, are apt to become so large in good land, that the nutritive juices are very deficient in proportion to the bulk of the crop. According to the analysis of Sinclair, 1728 grains of large-sized Swedish turnips afforded 110 grains of nutritive matter; whereas, roots of a small size only produced 99 grains from the same bulk. On the other hand, a bulb of the white sort, measuring seven inches in diameter, yielded only 72* grains, while an equal quantity of roots four THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 23 inches in diameter contained 80 grains of nutritive matter. Hence the propriety of the general rule, that Swedes should be allowed sufficient room in the drills to grow to the largest size attainable; and that the distance between the plants of the common turnip should be such as to allow the bulbs to grow to a medium size — the yellow and more hardy kinds being farther asunder than the white and its allies. It should always be remem- bered that very large-sized white turnips are incom- patible with solidity of texture and good feeding properties. On land in a high state of cultivation, from eleven to thirteen inches is not too wide a space between Swedes, nine or ten may be allowed for yellow turnips, and eight or nine for white globes. It is evident however that no precise or fixed dimensions can be laid down, as so much depends on the condition of the soil and other circumstances. It is perhaps unnecessary to observe in this place that the hoeing and thinning of turnips should be carried on only in dry weather, and when the ground and plants are dry. When the soil is saturated with moisture, it adheres to the hoes, and also to the worker's feet; by which it is injuriously consolidated and the plants themselves do not sepa- rate from each other so readily as when free from moisture. Thinning in very droughty weather is equally improper; as the plants are apt to remain in a languid state for a considerable time a medium state of the weather is consequently to be preferred. It is a great error in the culture of this crop to allow the plants to become too high and strong before singling them out. The work is not only more diffi- cult and expensive to accomplish, but the crop may be seriously injured by neglecting the plants at this 6tage of their growth, for when the stems get over long and the leaves large, the plants become entangled in each other, and are singled out with considerable difficulty ; besides, they never thrive so well after- wards as turnips thinned at the proper time. Five expert hoers are allowed to be able to go over a Scotch acre in a day of ten hours, the soil not being very hard, nor foul with weeds. This is for the first thinning and hoeing ; the second course being much more speedily accomplished. In moist weather weeds will soon spring up both amongst the plants and in the intervals of the rows, which render it necessary to pass the horse-hoe or drill-grubber again between the drills, in the course of ten or more days, according to circumstances, after the first hoeing and singling, in order to destroy any weeds that may have made their ap- pearance. As soon as the workers have once gone over the whole crop, and sometimes even before, the portion first thinned will again require to be hand-hoed ; but at this stage it is only necessary to hoe the sides of the drills, to cut up any weeds that may have escaped, or had been out of the reach of the horse-hoe previously passed along the intervals. Any weeds that may have sprung up in the rows, as well as all superfluous plants, are pulled out by the hand wherever the hoe cannot be used with safety. When the land has been properly cleaned before putting in the crop, it will not be a difficult task to keep it free of weeds during the summer months. Indeed, when the leaves attain such a size as nearly to cover the intervals, the weeds will be smothered, and perhaps converted into nourishment for the crop, or at least prevented from growing, by the luxuriant foliage of the turnips. But whether the land be clean or foul, there can be no doubt of the great importance of frequently horse-hoeing the inter- vals of the rows during the early growth of the crop : not only is the land thereby freed from weeds — the farmers greatest enemies — but the vigorous growth of the bulbs is in a great degree promoted. In fact, the soil cannot be too finely pulverized both before putting in the crop and during the period of its growth. It is of the first importance that the ground should be quite loose and friable, so as to allow the minute fibres of the roots to traverse the soil in every direction in quest of the peculiar aliment necessary for promoting and sustaining the healthy growth of the turnip crop. This, in fact, constitutes the great advantage which the drill possesses over the broad-cast mode of cul- ture : the soil in the former case receives along-con- tinued course of tillage, from an early period of the season until the wide-spreading leaves of the turnip overshadow the ground, and put a stop to further cultivation ; whereas, the horse-hoe is necessarily excluded altogether when the broad-cast system is adopted. Should time permit, or weeds still make their appearance among the plants, a third hand-hoeing is bestowed, which generally concludes the after- culture of the crop. Sometimes, however, after the weeds have been thoroughly destroyed, the plants finally singled out to the proper distances in the drills, and the leaves nearly met in the intervals, the earth is laid up about the plants by a small plough, with two mould-boards. On undrained retentive land, this last operation is resorted to by the best agriculturists, in order to afford channels for the escape of surface water, and thereby keep the soil and turnips comparatively diy during the continuance of wet weather. Earthing-up the plants, as this operation is called, is also frequently performed even on dry land, in order to admit a free circulation of air between the rows ; but where no danger need be apprehended of water stagnating upon the surface, it is certainly unne- cessary as a means of facilitating the escape of moisture, as the rain will be absorbed by the porous soil as soon as it falls. It is not only super- fluous, but highly objectionable, on light and well- drained lands, particularly when the crop is to be consumed upon the ground by sheep. There can be no doubt but that a slight earthing-up with a small double mould-board plough is beneficial on wet retentive soils, inasmuch as it facilitates the discharge of surface water ; but its worse than inutility on naturally dry or well-drained lands is equally unquestionable. The intervals between the rows should always be sufficiently wide to admit of a free circulation of air without resorting to this practice. It is not considered necessary to enter here into details regarding the consumption of turnips by cattle and sheep, for which they will be ready by the middle of October, or the beginning of No- vember, when the pastures usually become bare and 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the weather rather cold for the stock to remain in the fields. White turnips are generally eaten on the ground by sheep, the yellow are used for feed- ing cattle in the houses, and the Swedish are usually reserved for spring feeding to succeed the softer kinds, when the latter are consumed or unfit for use. Swedish turnips are also occasionally given, either raw or cooked, to farm-horses, by which they are much relished as a wholesome and nutritious food. The process of taking up and storing a portion of the crop in the beginning of winter, with the mode of raising turnip seed, shall form subjects for a future paper, and need not, therefore, be further referred to in this place. The turnip is subject to the ravages of various insects, the most formidable and destructive of which is that commonly known by the name of the turnip fly, or beetle. This creature makes its ap- pearance, and commences its attack, just as the tender cotyledon leaves of the plants are reaching the surface, which varies from four to ten days after sowing. It frequently attacks the young seedling plants in great numbers, and with such voracity as in an incredibly short space of time to devour them altogether. The insect is unable, however, to injure the turnip after the second or rough leaves are developed ; but during the brief period which elapses from the first appearance of the seed-leaves until the plants assume their rough leaves, the ravages committed by the fly are often so sweeping and complete as to render it neces- sary to sow the field anew. " The eggs of the common striped turnip fly," observes Mr. Curtis, " are laid on the under side of the rough leaf of the turnip, from April to September; they hatch in two days. The mag- gots live between the two skins, or cuticles of the rough leaf, and arrive at maturity in sixteen days. The chrysalis is buried just beneath the surface of the earth, where it remains about a fortnight. The beetles live through the winter in a torpid state, and revive in the spring, when they destroy the two first leaves, called the cotyledon, or seed leaves, of the young turnip. There are five or six broods in a season. Their scent is very perfect : the beetles fly against the wind, and are attracted from a distance. Heavy rains, cold springs, and long droughts destroy them." Various expedients have been resorted to, from time to time, for the purpose of preventing or miti- gating the ravages of the turnip -fly ; but the effi- cacy and results of the remedial measures hitherto tried and published are so contradictory, that we cannot consider that any really effectual method has yet been discovered for effecting the destruc- tion of this pest, without at the same time injuring the plants intended to be rescued from its attack. The remedies resorted to are very various, and some of them have undoubtedly proved effectual in particular instances. Among the substances used for this purpose, quick-lime, soot, and sul- phur have been strongly recommended, and are frequently applied with advantage. When lime is employed for this purpose, it should be in a state of dry, caustic powder, and must be dusted over the plants just as the seed-leeves are beginning to appear; but, unless the farmer be on the alert, and ready at the proper time, the watchful and assidious enemy will have secured the prey before he can apply any remedy, as it is just as the delicate, cotyledon leaves of the plants are protru- ding through the ground that they are most liable to be attacked and devoured by the fly. The quan- tity of lime usually applied is six or seven bushels to the acre, when the turnips are cultivated in drills ; but a larger quantity may be used without injuring the plants. The lime should be made ready some time previously, and preserved in a dry state until required; and it is desirable that the weather and soil should be dry at the time of application, as the effects of the lime are consi- derably neutralized by moisture ; a small quantity of flour of sulphur is often used for the same pur- pose ; and this simple expedient has undoubtedly, on many occasions, proved an effectual remedy, numerous instances being known of the attacks of insects being thereby entirely prevented. The sulphur may be mixed with the seed in the autumn, after separating it from the flower-stems ; or it may be sown along with the seed, which is perhaps the most advantageous practice. This substance is not found to be in any degree injurious either to the seed or the turnip plants ; and it is probable that its efficacy as a remedy in this case is attributable to its highly disagreeable odour, and also to the circumstance of the juices of the leaves being rendered distasteful to the insects by the ab- sorbtion of a portion of the sulphur. Some- times radishes, white turnips, or some other seed of rapid vegetation, is sown along with that of Swedes, with the view of attracting the beetle to the former, and thus saving the crop ; but this is by no means a judicious expedient, and cannot be recom- mended. Burning the surface of the land previous to sowing the seed is a sure, but laborious and expensive remedy ; and, though recommended on the high authority of Sir John Sinclair, it is but seldom resorted to by farmers. The object sought to be attained by this means is the destruc- tion of the chrysalis, containing the fly, or beetle, in its embryo state. Sir J. Sinclair recommends the burning of green weeds, damp straw, cuttings of hedges, cleanings of ditches, &c, on the ground, a short time before putting in the crop. These combustibles may also be subsequently burned in small heaps in the intervals of the drills, the smoke arising from which fumigates the atmosphere, and is supposed to be deleterious to the insects. The addition of a small quantity of sulphur to the burning materials may render the fumigation more certain in its effects. Various other expedients have been adopted by different parties — such as steeping the turnip seed for some time in water, or in linseed-oil, and afterwards drying it with powdered sulphur ; others employ a net, by which it is said they succeed in capturing and destroying great numbers of the insects; some again draw a newly-painted board, or a stout canvas cloth, besmeared on one side with tar, over the affected plants, to which many of the insects adhere, and are thus removed and destroyed. Watering the young plants is also recommended as a remedy. All that can be said, however, in reference to these last-mentioned expedients is, that however effica- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 25 cious they may have proved in a few isolated instances, they are too tedious, clumsy, and ex- pensive to admit of general application ; and be- sides, the certainty of their securing the object in view is very questionable. The foregoing are some of the remedial measures commonly resorted to for the protection of the ! turnip crop from the ravages of the fly. Many of them have uncpiestionably proved more or less efficacious in particular cases, and almost the whole of them merit a fair and impartial trial ; but the farmer should resort to preventive rather than remedial measures ; and fortunately he has it in his power, by the adoption of a judicious system of cultivation, to destroy these insects in their embryo state, or to evade their attacks should they make their appearance. It seldom happens that farmers on light, dry land have to complain of the ravages of insects; it being generally on the stifter class of soils that they are most destructive, although, in some seasons, there is no kind or quality of land but what is more or less troubled by that unwelcome visitant — the turnip- fly. Deep and frequent cultivation, both previous to the sowing of the seed and during the growth of the crop, is an important mean of getting rid of this troublesome pest. The land should like- wise be kept as clean as possible, 1)}' assiduously and timely attending to the destruction of all sorts of weeds, especially wild mustard, charlock, and other Cruciferee, whose strong scent is sup- posed to attract the beetle, which derives its fa- vourite food from that natural family of plants. It is evident, then, that, by sedulously attending to the destruction of the greatest robbers of the soil, we in a great degree facilitate*that of the insects which prey upon this crop. The drill mode of cultivating turnips is incomparably superior to the broadcast system in preventing the depredation of the fly ; and the reason of this is obviously that the former method affords so much better facilities for the continual cleansing and tillage of the soil during the growth of the crop. The rapid germination of the turnip-seed after being deposited in the ground, and the vigorous growth of the young plants from the time when the cotyledon leaves make their ap- pearance until the second or rough leaves are deve- loped, constitute the surest guarantee for the safety of the turnip crop from the attacks of its most formidable enemy. There are other insects which infest this crop, such as the turnip saw-fly and the wire-worm, both of which are sometimes very destructive. In reference to the former, a scientific writer observes, that " the flies which appear in the early part of summer, and deposit their eggs on the young tur- nip plants, have probably survived the winter under ground in the pupal state, enveloped in their cocoon. Emerging from them, as soon as the weather is confirmed, in their winged state, the females immediately lay their eggs, after which they very soon die. In favourable weather they are hatched in a short time, and the young larvae immediately commence their attack on the plant. At first these lame are of a deep black colour, and, of course, small size ; but they grow rapidly, and in the course of a few weeks attain their full dimen- sions. The loss they occasion to the farmer is very considerable, but data cannot be easily ob- tained to form an estimate of its amount. In some instances the crop is wholly destroyed, and where the caterpillars are most numerous, the injury they occasion to the plant appear in the diminished size of the bulb, its vegetative functions being impeded by the partial consumption of the leaves." Brushing the caterpillars off the plants at certain periods is re- commended as a remedy. This may be done by drawing a board over the turnips ; and although they would not thereby be destroyed, they would be much annoyed, and rendered incapable of com- mitting much injury. A copious fall of rain is a cheaper and more effectual means of destroyingthem. The wire-worm frequently destroys the young plants after they have been singled out, by dividing the root from the stem. Heavy rolling before sowing the seed is recommended as a preventive, and for this purpose Crosskill's clod-crusher appears to be pre-eminently adapted. The application of saline substances is likewise occasionally resorted to, and, in some instances, with advantage. There are some other insects which prey upon the turnip crop ; and it is also subject to a disease sometimes called " fingers and toes," which affects the plants soon after the first singling ; but to enter further into details would extend this already lengthy article beyond due limits. Various remedial measures may be adopted by the fanner to arrest the ravages of insects, and to prevent the appearance of disease in bis turnip crop ; but judicious cultivation, and the application of a liberal allowance of enriching manures, constitute the only radical and effectual preventive. With regard to what may be considered an average crop per acre, considerable diversity of opinion exists among practical farmers. Instances are recorded of from fifty to sixty tons and up- wards having been raised on an imperial acre ; but such extraordinary crops must have been produced by means of much larger applications of manure than are commonly given, or else the soil must have been naturally very rich, and in a high slate of cultiva- tion. There is no room for doubt, however, but that the produce of the turnip crop would be very materially increased beyond what is now regarded as an average throughout the country, by thoroughly draining the land, applying a liberal allowance of enriching manures, and adopting a more judicious system of cultivation. The writer is aware of several instances of from thirty-five to forty tons of Swedish turnips being raised on an acre ; whilst, at other times, not much more than half this quantity would be produced. Very much will of course depend on the nature and quality of the soil, the quantity and kind of manure applied, and other obvious circumstances ; but in general from twenty-five to thirty tons of Swedes may be considered a good crop per acre, from twenty-five to forty of yellow turnips, and from thirty to forty of white globes. I could not, I conceive, better conclude this article than by recapitulating briefly what I deem the most essential points of turnip culture. First, then, complete drainage is of paramount importance, a9 being the basis of all good husbandry 3 and abun- 26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. dant crops of roots need not be expected while the soil remains under the influence of superabundant moisture. Subsoil ploughing may be regarded as an indispensable accompaniment to thorough draining, without which, indeed, its efficacy is com- paratively limited on stiff retentive land. This operation may be performed with advantage imme- diately after the removal of the corn crop from the ground. The stubble land intended for turnips should always be ploughed as deep and as early before winter as possible, as nothing tends more powerfully to ameliorate the soil, and facilitate its subsequent preparation for the crop, than a lengthened exposure to the influence of the atmos- pheric changes which occur during the winter and early spring months. Before putting in the crop, the minute pulverization of the soil, and the thorough eradication of weeds, must be assiduously persevered in until the ground is rendered per- fectly clean, and reduced to a fine tilth. Experience, as well as a knowledge of the nature of the turnip, have convinced us of the impropriety of sowing the minute seeds of this plant on imperfectly reduced land — a fine mould is the great desideratum ; and unless this can be secured, a vigorous and healthy braird is but rarely obtained. The turnip should in- variably be cultivated in raised drills, about twenty- seven inches apart. This mode of culture is im- measureably superior to the broadcast system, which it is now high time to see abandoned in all parts of the United Kingdom, as it has been for a length of time wherever agriculture has made any progress in the path of improvement. A liberal allowance of seed should be sown, sufficient to induce quickvegetation, and push forward the young plants beyond the most critical stage of their growth; but care must be taken not to sow overthick. The seed should be all of the same age, and either raised by the farmer himself, or obtained from a respect- able seedsman; it might beuseful to submit all seeds to a trial before sowing them for a general crop. The seed-time must be regulated according to the climate and elevation of the locality ; too early as well as too late sowing should be guarded against. When farm-yard manure is employed for the turnip crop, it should be well decomposed, and as liberally applied as the entire quantity at the farmer's com- mand will permit. It is advisable to use guano in con- junction with dung, ashes, or some other substance, rather than apply it alone ; and care must be taken not to allow the seed to come into contact with un- mixed guano. As it is of the utmost importance to retain as much as possible of the moisture of the soil, as well as to prevent the dissipation of the most valuable constituents of the manure, the for- mation of the drills, the application of the dung, and the deposition of the seed should be carried on in close succession. This precaution ought to be most scrupulously attended to in droughty weather, as many failures are known to have oc- curred in consequence of neglecting it. The plants should be singled out to the proper distances as 6oon as possible after the rough leaves have attained the height of two inches ; and the tinning process should not be carried on either in very droughty weather, or when the soil is satu- rated with moisture. The horse-hoe is to be kept in frequent operation during the growth of the crop, to loosen and pulverize the soil between the drills ; and the destruction of all sorts of weeds should be sedulously carried on until the leaves of the turnips overshadow the ground and prevent their further growth. DRAINING OF LANDS. DURHAM FARMERS' CLUB — MONTHLY MEETING. The monthly meeting of this club was held at Mr. Petch's, Half Moon Inn, New Elvet, on Saturday, June 8, when the subject of draining, which had been commenced at the previous meeting, was re- sumed. The chair was occupied by the Rev. J. Tyson, and the vice-chair by Mr. Gilbert Wood ; and, in consequence of the rumoured intention of Professor Johnston to be present and deliver his opinions on the subject, the attendance was more numerous than usual. Among those present we observed F. D. Johnson, Esq., Aykley Head9 ; A. Smith, Esq., Langley Grove; J. Hutchinson, Esq., A. W. Hutchinson, Esq., and Messrs. T. and J. Crofton, W. Wetherell, W. Gren, H. Bell, — Shep- herd, R. Stafford, J. Booth, C. Hunter, H. Newby, &c. After partaking of an excellent dinner, the Chair- man proposed in succession "The Queen," "Prince Albert," "The Queen Dowager, and the rest of the Royal Family," and " continued success to the Durham Farmers' Club." Tht Chairman next said the time had arrived when they should proceed with the subject of that day's discussion — draining. Previous to doing so, however, he begged to propose the health of Pro- fessor Johnston. The toast was received with the honours. Professor Johnston, on rising, was received with applause. He spoke as follows : — Mr. Chair- man and Gentlemen, I am exceedingly obliged to you for the honour you have done me in drinking my health. As I happen to be in Durham now officially, I thought I should not do, what I almost consider to be, my duty, at all events a gratification to myself, were I not to embrace the opportunity of your meeting to-day before leaving Durham, to spend one afternoon with you. And also, gentle- men, as from the situation which I hold in a neighbouring country (Scotland) it is my duty to go over a very large portion, especially of the northern end, of the island, I have had occasion to observe much that is interesting in connexion with agricul- ture, and I was desirous of offering a few observa- tions to you which 1 thought might possibly lead to your advantage (applause). I am very happy to find that the subject which you had proposed for discus- sion to-day, that of draining, will lead me very natu- rally to make these observations. I think, Mr. Chair- man and gentlemen, that the prospects of agriculture, the prospects of the agricultural community at large, is a subject which must very naturally engage your attention ; it is one which, I know, does engage the attention of many of you ; but I am satisfied from what I have seen in various parts of the island, that far too gloomy prospects are contemplated — too gloomy ideas are entertained by many farmers of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 the prospects of agriculture and of their own indivi- ' dual prospects as practical men (hear, hear). Now I was anxious to appear among you for the purpose, | if possible, of saying something encouraging to you : and if you will permit me, I will offer a few remarks, which will, I hope, have something of that tendency (cheers). Gentlemen, there are two ways of looking at the prospects of agriculture. There is the way which many speculative men from the natural or acquired habits of their minds have adopted — the way of looking at the question in what may be called a theoretical point of view. The way they take is this. But here permit me to remark that the observations I am about to offer are not intended at all to be of a political character, and that the views that I am about to explain are not meant to be of a political tendency ; though I shall take the opportunity of alluding to two extreme bodies of politicians — or what are considered politi- cians. Those who argue for the protection of the state to agriculture argue in this manner, and they take what I would call the theoretical view. They say our present price of corn is so and so per quar- ter— say 45s. per quarter for wheat. With that average, foreign corn can be imported, can pay a duty of 20s., and yet be sold to compete with us in our own markets. Now.it is said if foreign corn can pay a 20s. duty, and can yet come to market when the average price of home grown wheat is 45s., what would be the price if there was no duty at all on the foreign corn ? Would it not fall to 25s. or 30s. ; and how could we then live ? I think, Mr. Chair- man and gentlemen, that this is a very fair and legitimate mode of reasoning ; but, then, it is what I call reasoning theoretically only. Observe it may be very well asked in reply by the other extreme party — and quite as legitimately asked — if it be so profitable to the foreign growers of corn to import it at this high duty, then, how does it happen that more is not imported ? Or they may ask again, if so great a reduction is necessarily to follow the removal of the duty, how does it come that in the Channel Islands, where there is no duty whatever, the average prices are higher than they are here (hear, hear). Here, then, the practical farmer is mystified — plunged into o kind of metaphysical argument through which he cannot see his way. He hears what may be the truth from one party and from the other ; yet he finds himself landed in a difficulty from which he cannot escape. This is the residt then of the theoretical method of reasoning upon the farmers' prospects. It has tended rather to mystify the farmer than to clear up the case to the satisfaction of his understanding ; inasmuch as he is met by the opposing arguments of the other party, and thus left unable to decide between them ; and I am not astonished that the farmers of England who listened to this kind of reasoning should have had their fears awakened, and shovdd have become so depressed as many of them really are (hear). But I do not think myself, after having seen what is going on in different parts of the island — I do not think that is the sort of reasoning upon which prac- tical men ought to rely. I do not think it leads to the truth. If the facts of one of the party are true, the speculations of the other party must lead to a wrong conclusion. But trusting to their specu- lations, because they come from parties to whom he naturally looks up, andwhomhehas been accustomed to consider his best friends — how can a plain man help being depressed in mind and paralysed in his exertions. But there is another way of looking at the question, leaving the mode of new sowing already described altogether out of view — one which will lead us to better, because more satisfactory and encouraging results, and this is what I wculd call the practical method of viewing the prospects of the far- mer. Now, observe first of all I put this question, not to you, but to myself. " You have gone over a great deal of the country, you have been in almost every county of the north, where the best farming is carried on, now tell me which class of men among the farmers in all these districts is making most money r" and I answer that question of my own without reserve, by saying that those fanners who are improving their land the most, are complaining the least, and are the fullest of hope (hear and ap- plause). Now, what am I entitled to infer from that ? Clearly that to improve the land generally will benefit the farming interest generally ; and that is the leading result aimed at by the Association with which I have the honour to be connected — the Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland. Their great object is the improvement of the whole agriculture of the kingdom, not only in order to raise more, and consequently cheaper food for the people, but also to lay a broader and more lasting basis for the national prosperity. If these farmers are making most money, then I think there are better prospects for those who will look to practice, and ask of her what increased quantity of corn the land can be made to produce, than there are for those who merely speculate or theorize ; they will come to a more satisfactory and consolatory con- clusion than the theoretical mode of reasoning will bring them to. Now that, I think, is the easiest way of disposing of the theoretical mode of reason* ing which so naturally depresses the farmer's mind, depresses his exertions, and prevents the introduction of those systems of improvement which would so materially benefit, not only himselt, but the whole of the district in which he resides. If, by an improved mode of culture, he can at as little cost raise nearly twice as much corn, will he not be, in a degree proportioned to that increase, able to bear a diminution in the price — be indepen- dent of parliament, and their changeable fiscal regu- lations. I laugh at the discouraging predictions of those who would throw our poor lands out of cul- tivation, as if these fiscal regulations were the main element on which the progress of agriculture de- pended. I am satisfied on the contrary that, come what may of the Corn-laws, we shall live to see the rent of many of our poor lands rise. The next question, then, is. what are those improvements which are thus to better the fanners' prospects ? The first improvement — that which leads the way to all others, is the one which you have this day met to discuss — draining — draining wherever drain- age is necessary. And you ask, first of all, how it ought to be done in order to make it pay? That is the first question which a practical man will put. A farmer who has rent to pay must do everything with a view to remuneration, It is unfair to expect 28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the tenant farmer to do anything to the land which is not likely to yield him a profit. The nation has no right to expect that an individual should injure himself for the benefit of the community. If it were necessary for me to give an answer to the question how the farmer was to drain in order per- manently to benefit himself, I could not give you one which would stand scrutiny better than the an- swer which your Chairman has given to it by anti- cipation. [In the course of his opening remarks, the Chairman had stated that he had, some time before, drained a small close, previously unpro- ductive, and that the close had subsequently yielded good crops. That the drains had since gone wrong, and the close had returned to its original state — a complete bog, on which nothing would grow ; but that, by draining deeper, and getting to the springs, the land had been again reclaimed, and this year gave promise of an excellent green crop.] He has not given it to you in so many words, but his state- ment imports this — that in order to make draining pay the farmer, it must be done well — it must be done skilfully — it must be done properly {hear, hear). Now what are the methods which the most approved drainers are now adopting. First, as to depth. I have been in the habit of saying on all occasions, that no drains should be less than 30 inches deep when laid with tiles, and I say still, that none should be less ; but the tide now seems to be running in the minds of the most intelligent, skilful, and practical men in different parts of the country, in favour of drains three feet deep. You cannot be too deep, then, if you go only 30 inches. It is now maintained by the best practical men, that three feet is the depth to which, in preference, the money-making man ought to sink his drains. Their opinion is deserving of your serious conside- ration. In regard to the distance, again, there are some men who argue for the three feet drain who say they can put them at a greater distance than under the 30 inches system. The old distance was 15 or IS feet for a 30 inch drain. Now, they say with a three feet drain, they can put the drains 20 to 23 feet apart. I shall presently read to you a letter which I lately received from a practical man, upon this subject, whose opinion is worth much more than mine. I shall also state to you what has been done in other parts of the country in regard to that particular point. Then in regard to the mode of making the drain the question lies between stones and tiles. Now, where tiles can be got I believe they make the safer drains, not that stones are not quite as good, but because it requires that they should be carefully broken, and covered with more attention, in order that no water may get in from the top, to carry down mud and choke them up. It is an old prejudice that if you put drains into the furrows, you ought to make them very porous at the top, in order that the water may thus find its way to the drains. The best practical men now say " no" to this practice. The greatest improvement from draining will only be derived when the rain as it falls from heaven is enabled to sink right down through the whole of the soil and find its way laterally into the drains. When filled with stones, therefore, Mr. Smith and others say, they should be well puddled with clay. This is more necessary in the case of stones, as you will readily understand, than when merely tiles are put in. Then in regard to stones there is a danger that they may not be sufficiently broken. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, of whom you have all heard as a practical drainer, says, the stones ought to be broken to the size of road metal. As to the tiles again, the form is of some consequence. A question much agitated at present is between the common tile, with its sole, and the pipe tile. Economy is greatly in favour of the latter, but some doubt if they will be equally efficient. Then we have now not only the common round pipes, but pipes flattened on the one side, like this one on the table, to make them fit closer at the ends, and rest more firmly on the ground. We have not only 1, \h, and 2-inch pipes, but we have them dovetailed into each other at the ends. That is the description of tiles for which Mr. Smith, of Deanston, has obtained a patent. The dovetail- ing keeps the ends together, and prevents them shifting. But that which staggers practical men is how a pipe of an inch in diameter should be suffi- cient to carry off the water from ordinarily wet land. Now, I must say that this was a point which, at first, staggered me a good deal, as it still does many practical men. There seems, however, little to be feared on this head, provided the lead- ing cross-drains are not at too great a distance. Other objections are that it is difficult to have the pipes made so perfectly straight that they will lie quite flat ; and to make the workmen lay the pipes so correctly that the water course may be uniform and continuous. However, my objections on these points have been very much done away with by the evidence of practical men. If proper care be taken to cut the drains little more than the width of the tile, there is no difficulty in making the tiles fit op- posite to each other; and in order to secure that point more effectually Mr. Smith has contrived the kind of tile I have mentioned to you ; I don't know that you have any of this kind of tile here. The only pipe tiles which I have seen hi this part of the country are those made at Mr. Salvin's tilery, at Tudhoe, and those which 1 saw were, many of them, by no means so straight as they ought to be. Those tiles of Mr. Smith's require no confi- dential person to set them. But the great point which it is important to consider is the economy of these pipe tiles. It is said by Mr. Parker, who has inquired into the price for which they can be made in various parts of the south of England, that the person who makes them on his own estate can make them for 6s. a thousand. These, of course, are made either by Etheridge's, or Clayton's, or some other machine, which forces the clay through a mould and forms the tile. That charge does not include any profit to the maker or vendor. I was lately through Forfarshire, and near Arbroath I saw some of these tiles ; but there a most extra- ordinary idea prevailed amongst the makers. They talked of charging from 20s. to 30s. a thousand — a price which put the adoption of them by the fanners, who are far from being generally per- suaded of their superiority, out of the question, and which, even if they could be used in some cases with economy, would prevent their being employed to the extent to which it is to be hoped they will THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 29 hereafter be used. You see, then, there is this very great difference in point of economy between 10s. and 20s., the price of pipes and common tiles respectively, and besides the pipes include both sole and tile. There is not only this great differ- ence, which amounts to nearly £2 an acre, but then the carts can carry so many more at a time ; and thus the expense is altogether so very much less, all which tends to reduce the cost of drainage a very great deal. I have very great confidence in those who state that the pipe tiles will act effi- ciently. Mr. Pusey has ordered 200,000 pipe tiles for the ensuing season ; and that shows you what his confidence is in regard to them. I also know that people are putting them in to a very great ex- tent in many other parts of the country. Mr. Johnson : What size is most generally used? Professor Johnston : I don't know precisely what size is most generally used ; I should think an inch-and-half bore would be safe. I say this is a very great encouragement to entertain a favour- able idea of those tiles : that they are so very cheap, and that they would therefore so much diminish the cost of draining. You ought, therefore, to con- sider maturely whether they are likely to be effi- cient ; and, if so, how much more work could be done by them for the same money than by the common tile. This is all I need to say with re- spect to the mode in which draining ought to be done, to the fillings and material of which they ought to be made. I think there need be no hesi- tation as to the depth. You may safely go down three feet, if you can do it without much increase of cost. I do think, however, that with these pipe tiles thirty inches may be sufficient. The principle on which I satisfy myself in regard to the depth is this: I cannot determine the depth by theory; I know only that I need not go to seven feet if I can get the water drawn off at three feet ; but I say, the deeper I can make my soil, the more valuable I make my land. It is just like deepening one end of my purse, and filling it up at the same time — the dee]) end and the shallow end — with money. You all know that you can go oftener to the deep end for money than to the shallow end without ex- hausting it (laughter). I therefore ask myself, " How deep can I at present go with our existing implements, so as to open up my land without in- curring too great an expense? How deep can I go so as to make it pay ?" The instruments we now use are the plough, the subsoil-plough, the trench-plough, and the fork, which last has lately been extensively introduced into the south of Eng- land and into Scotland. At present the subsoil- plough is made to go 22 inches in depth, in dis- tricts where they have begun to see that it is to their advantage to make the soil deep. I was the other day in Forfarshire, and went over the farm of one of the tenants of Sir John Ogilvie, who had told me that this tenant had begun to plough deeper. I went to him and said, " You are going rather dee])." He said, " Yes, sir; this farm wod hae clean dune me if 1 had nae gane deep." An- other farmer in the same district told me, in regard to subsoiling his potato land, and he had upwards of 60 acres of potatoes, " I am so satisfied with the importance and advantage of subsoiling for my po- tatoes, that I mean to subsoil it every time the po- tato crop comes off." These are the best proofs of the importance of deepening the soil. Now the subsoil-plough, as I have said, can go down 22 inches. If you put a drain down to the depth of 24 inches, and put in a tile as small as this, which will occupy three inches, its top will be within 21 inches of the surface ; but if the tile and sole, as they usually do, occupy six inches, and you take that off the 24 inches, you bring the top of the tile to within 18 inches of the surface of the soil. Again, the subsoiling, to be effectual, should be done across the ridges ; but it cannot be done across them to the depth of 22 inches without tear- ing up all the tiles. If, then, it be true that the deeper the land is, the better and richer it is, it is clear that, if land so drained is ever to be made as rich as it can be made, those tiles must be taken up and relaid. Now, if you subsoil your land to the depth of 22 inches, leave two inches clear of the tile, and to that add the height of the tile and sole, six inches ; that brings you down to 30 inches as the depth to which you must dig your drains. This was the reasoning which brought me originally to see that drains ought to be 30 inches deep at least, in order that the tiles might not be disturbed by the subsoil ploughing. I mentioned the fork to you as an- other instrument now used for the stirring up of the land. The fork thus used is merely a three- pronged fork, made exceedingly strong This fork is employed to raise up the subsoil, instead of the plough. It is thus used : Three men go abreast across the field, taking about a yard together, and throwing forward the surface-soil to a depth of 10 or 12 inches. They then take the fork, and go down into the subsoil 12 or 16 inches more. The fork is thus used not to turn the subsoil over, but merely to loosen it. If it bring anything up, any stones, they are taken out, while lumps of clay are broken. This is done with great effect. Now, if at each digging the men turn up 12 inches in depth, that will make 24 inches, and if you allow six inches for the tile, it brings you to 30 inches, without any space to prevent the fork from going into the tile. A friend of mine in Ayrshire, who lately tried the use of the fork, found that his workmen went into the tiles the first drain they came to. Such occurrences as this have sa- tisfied me that those men who see that drains are to be put three feet deep, have a great deal of reason on their side. I don't say that all of you should do it; but, I say that those who do it are laying up for themselves a store in the bank from which they will in time receive a full interest (hear). Now, how should the draining be done to make it pay ? How does it come to pay ? In regard to the way in which it ought to be done, I think I need add little to what I have already said. Besides being properly executed as regards the individual drains, it is true that they must be properly laid out, in such a way as to produce the greatest effect. The old plan was to can-y the drain across the hill. The new method — that which is now pursued is, to carry them straight down the hill, the shortest way to the bot- tom. In many cases which had been drained un- der the old system the land has been obliged to be drained at right angles to the old draining, and it 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. does not now seem wonderful that the plan formerly employed should not have been effectual in carrying off the water. But it is very difficult to remove old principles. I was, some time ago, going over part of a large estate, which the proprietor was about to drain. On one of those farms were some of these old fashioned winding ridges, which meandered beautifully down the slope of the hill ; very pretty to the lover of the picturesque, but not so captiva- ting to the eyes of the enlightened practical agricul- turists. Though the fields, as I have said, was on the side or slope of a hill, we could not persuade the holder of that farm, though he was one of the proprietor's baliff's, and one of the men who was to advise the tenantry how the draining was to be carried on, that it would be better to carry the drains straight down the hill than in the winding furrows which I have described to you (hear, and a laugh). We cannot expect men to give up prejudices all at once, and the only way to satisfy a man that a thing is wrong, is either to show him by experiment that what you say is correct, or to get him to try the thing on a small scale first, and observe the result. But then how is it that draining comes to pay r In the first place, all drained land, unless in very sin- gular circumstances indeed, grows larger and better crops than before. Thus it comes to pay ; in the first place, because the crops are better ; in the second place, because the land is more easy to work. Every man who has drained strong clay land knows how much less it costs him to work it than it used to do before it was drained. Then it can grow better crops ; it can grow turnips and potatoes, and other crops which it could not grow before. And you are aware of all the consequences that follow ; that all over the island have followed the introduc- tion of turnip husbandry during the last hundred years. Besides, you are not under the necessity of having naked fallows, as, in this neighbourhood especially, is too common under the three-years course of husbandry which prevails. This lying in naked fallow every third year is, in effect, the same as if one-third of the district were every year out of cul- tivation, and growing nothing at all (hear, hear). Therefore, the additional value of the draining is that you get three crops where you only got two ; and it is wonderful after knowing this that a man should find it profitable to have his land drained ? Again, every man knows that on wet land manure does not produce half its effect. Not only is lime half thrown away, but farm-yard and other manures are also in a great degree lessened in their efficacy. A load of manure in some places will go three times as far on dry land as it would on the same land while it was in a wet state, All these are advantages to be had from draining. And here I may state to you that I wrote the other day to a gentleman of whom I daresay most of you have heard — Mr. Dudgeon, of Spylaw, near Kelso. I wrote to Mr. Dudgeon, asking him for some explanations respecting drain- ing, and yesterday I received an answer, and with your permission I will read it to you ; when you will see it is well worthy of your attention, but at the same time you will see there are some things in it which seemed startling to me. — Mr. Johnston then read the following letter : — Spylaw, 5th June, 1845. My landlords, the Governors of George Watson's Hospital and the Merchant Maiden Hospital, of Edinburgh, defray the expense of cutting, amount- ing to from 36s. to 42s. per acre, while the re- mainder only of the charge — the drainage being performed altogether with tiles upon soles — falls to my share, amounting, with filling in by the plough, to from 45s. to 50s. per acre. My proportion, however, I may state, is thus stated low, as the tiles are estimated at prime cost — being manufactured by myself — and no charge made in this price for the expense of the erection of the tile works. It will be noticed, also, that this work being on the farm, the expense of carriage of tiles is, to a great extent, saved. This explanation — when I have stated that the depth of the drains has been in every instance, when practicable, 3 feet from the bottom of the furrow — answers, I think, your second query.; and I shall go on, therefore, to reply to the others in their order. 1st. I have now finished upwards of 550 acres in the manner above described, the total length of drains being 267,000 yards. 3rd. As explained, my drainage costs less than in ordinary cases can be calculated upon ; and I conceive I can, with all safety, trust to being remu- nerated for my share of the outlay by the two crops first following the operation, viz., turnips and bar- ley, or wheat, no doubt in many instances I derive more. But this depends so much upon the nature of the soil that a definite answer is not easily given. Upon obstinate clays, and lands rendered sterile by noxious elements generated by an impervious sub- soil, the advantage of thorough draining is, I con- ceive, to more than double the value. Thus, such land in many instances rented at 10s. per acre would be better worth cultivating, subsequent to such an operation effectually made, at 20s., or even 25s. per acre. 4 th. The nature of the soil on this farm varies very much, but in general it is what is popularly described as a free loam upon an indurated sub- soil, in many parts altogether clay, but generally exhibiting, at frequent intervals, a free mixture of sand, which, being porous, renders the drainage less difficult ; so that, in almost every instance, I have found the comparatively wide distance apart of 28 feet effect a most perfect purpose. This, how- ever, is no doubt in part owing to the great depth. The average rent is 24s. per acre; average distance from market, if by this is meant expense of carriage of produce, I cannot call more than six miles. But as much of our barley especially, ultimately finds its way to Edinburgh, where, and in the Lothians generally, the prices upon an average are from 3s. to 4s. per qr. higher for the same quality (and the same may be said of wheat and oats in proportion), the difference of value of produce in the two dis- tricts cannot be estimated at less, in ordinary seasons, than 16s. to 18s. per acre, of the land under crop in each year. 5th. — As to my confidence in being able to meet a free trade in corn, it is not easy to say what would be the full effect upon prices of a total abo- lition of the corn-laws, and there are other conside- rations, besides mere price, which ought to have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 31 influence with the farmer, cheapness incident upon a full foreign supply of grain, being a different thing from cheapness as derived from the employ- ment of additional labour and exertion at home. I, therefore, do not feel quite prepared to answer this question in all its bearings, but were the mat- ter of additional supply, the only element to affect price, I must say, individually — having nearly com- pleted my improvements, I would prefer an open trade with the continent; and the concomitant, as I should expect, of an arrest of ameliorations at home, to a full and perfect cultivation of the extensive breadths of neglected land in England ; as the fo- reign supply I conceive would prove more scanty ultimately, and less elastic to our growing necessi- ties than what we should derive from a free appli- cation of science and the modern principles of prac- tical agriculture to our own soils. I am, with great respect, dear sir, yours faithfully, John Dudgeon. Now, I think that letter is a very curious and a very important one. In the first place it shows this — that where men are intelligent they do not hesitate to lay out large sums of money, at the rate of £3 an acre, which is a large sum for a practical farmer. It shews too, that intelligent men do not despair — do not allow their fears of foreign compe- tition to tie up their hands. Mr. Dudgeon seems to fear no competition, so much as that to which he should be exposed were the whole land in the country brought into its highest state of cultivation, we should then, with our present population, have more corn than we could consume, and should have it to export. So I think ; and I am very much sup- ported by such considerations in the opinions which I entertain with regard to the prospects of agricul- ture— in thinking that the farmers have not that reason to despond which many persons would lead them to suppose. I don't think that men ought to be deterred from exercising that skill and inge- nuity on the land which is likely to bring it into full cultivation, though the speeches of those who reason on theoretical principles I fear often deter the farmers from so doing. The man who culti- vates his land now, and raises 15 to 20 bushels an acre, perhaps pays £1 rent per acre. He improves his land so that he raises from 35 to 40 bushels, and pays still £1 a year rent : whatever he cultivates is at a less cost ; his manure goes further ; he can raise crops which he could not do before ; his harvest is more secure ; his seed time more certain ; he re- ceives more than double returns, and yet he pays only the same rent (hear). "Whether is this man, or the other who from fear carries forward no im- provements, most likely to feel the ill effects of any alterations in our fiscal regulations in regard to the admission of corn ? In which of the two lights, that of speculation, or of actual experiment ought the practical man to look at the prospects of agri- culture in deciding which is the best course for himself to pursue ? Looking at what other men are doing, looking also to the fact that those men who are la)'ing out most money on their land are making the most money, I would say here is a rea- son why you should not take that pecvdiar heart- crushing view of the subject that some of you are inclined to take. Money is to be made by improv- ing now ; improve this now ; drain, subsoil, ma- nure highly, make money now ; and if the evil day come you will be the readier to meet it. When a pesti- lence comes over the land, and the air is filled with noxious exhalations, the weak, the idle, the impru- dent, and the dissolute are seized first ; their bo- dily weakness and mental depression have prepared them to sink under it ; while the active, prudent, industrious, and healthy escape. So it will be with you should any political epidemic make its way into the agricultural atmosphere. I have taken the liberty of adverting to these things, not in a politi- cal sense, but still in relation to the views taken by politicians, which I do not pretend to be. I be- lieve men of all political opinions do desire to pro- mote the one subject we have in view — the improve- ment of agriculture — and I am most happy to unite my exertions with those of any of them. What- ever may be the political opinions of any, in so far as regards the improvement of agriculture I sympa- thize with them all. You will, I think, grant gentle- men, that looking upon so much varied agricultural practice as I do, and being as it were an indifferent observer, having no pecuniary stake in the matter, I may be able to form a tolerably impartial opinion as to what will pay and what will not ; and my firm conviction is that the more you improve, the more money will you make now ; and, therefore, the better will you be able to resist any fiscal regula- tion or change aftecting your interests, which poli- ticians may introduce. You ought to consider whether anything can be done by yourselves, and in your own neighbourhood, and I put this ques- tion to you as gentlemen of the Durham Farmers' Club ; because when in my official capacity I travel over other parts of the country, and see improve- ments carried on everywhere else, a soreness of the eyes does come over me every time I return to Dur- ham, and see so much land upon which the foot of improvement has never yet left a trace (hear). I cannot go out of the town in any direction without witnessing the necessity for improvements. After some further observations on this subject, Mr. Johnston said, if you could tell me how I could reach the ears of the landlords of this district ; how I could satisfy them it was for their benefit as well as for that of their tenantry, to drain the wet lands around us, or to remove those obstacles which prevent others from doing it. I hope either that the present holders of land will see the pro- priety of draining the land themselves or of offer- ing their tenantry such encouragement as shall justify them in draining at their private cost. Mr. Crofton said, he was sure they must all be obliged to Professor Johnston for his observations on the agriculture of this wide district. He was not at all surprised to hear of the wonderful im- provements made in Scotland, for he had himself been an eye-witness of those improvements ; nei- ther was he much surprised that improvements should not be made in this neighbourhood — at least in the same proportion ; because in Scotland the farmers had leases for twenty-one years, whilst here they were principally tenants from year to year — not one landlord in 20 granting a lease at all (hear). At the same time he knew that a tenant of Lord 32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Durham had drained to a considerable extent, at a cost to him of 10/. or 11/. an acre; and he would ask this question — Whether, with a less price for their produce, the poorer class of farmers, aye, or the better class of farmers, could go to any such extent ? For himself, he should be willing to pay five per cent, on money expended in drain- ing the land he occupied, or bear half the expense, though he was only a tenant from year to year. He had, in fact, himself laid out £7 an acre in drain- ing, and that, he thought, was more than any tenant should do {hear, hear). There was a circumstance which had greatly tended to prevent money expen- diture on their lands by the fanners : it was that uncertainty of which Mr. Johnson had spoken as attending the future price of corn. The tampering with the corn-laws which they had witnessed, and of which they did not yet know the end, naturally prevented the fanner from entering on any such speculations, for they did not know, if they increased their crops, whether they should get a remunerating price for that increase. The difference between 7s. and 5s. a bushel would pay nearly the price at which a farmer could afford to drain his land. It was his humble opinion that the cost of draining land fell within 2s. a bushel, {hear, hear), and the extension of drainage depends very much indeed on whether the present low price of grain was to be still further reduced or not {hear). Mr. Johnson said, as Professor Johnston had mentioned his name, he would venture to offer a few observations to them with regard to the point to which that gentleman had alluded. He had cer- tainly a very strong impression that the produce of this country might be immensely improved by the application of chemical science, improved implements, and money, to the cultivation of the soil. He believed by draining, deep ploughing, and the application of chemical manures, the produce of the country might be enormously increased, provided, of course, there were capital enough to be employed in thus tilling the land. But in order to induce parties who had capital to do so, they must first give them confidence in the future ; because it was quite clear that those expenses were not re- turned at once {hear). They were only calculated to repay the enterprise of the individual in the course of time ; and, therefore unless they could have con- fidence in the future, no practical man would lay out his money in improvements (hear, hear). He was in clined to have very considerable confidence in the maintenance of agricultural prosperity last year when he saw the steps taken by the agriculturists. He was then glad to see the farmers not neglecting, but taking part in, the politics of the country. He had then found them following the example of the manu- facturing classes in attending to the political regu- lations relating to their own trade ; and, therefore, lie did hope by that sort of exertion they might pro- tect their trade in the same way that the manu- facturing classes were protecting trade (hear, hear). He might say, therefore, that he materially differed from his friend, Professor Johnston, in cautioning the farmer to abstain from all political matters, and that he would recommend them to follow the ex- ample of the manufacturing classes in that res- pect ; because they always found the manufac- turing and commercial classes attending very care- fully to every political circumstance which coidd affect, however minutely, their trade {hear). No tax could be suggested, affecting the most insigni- ficant trade, which was not met by meetings to con- sider their probable effect, even to their most remote results; and according as it might seem beneficial or injurious to those meetings, the opinion was immedi- ately acted upon, either to promote that alteration or to repress it ; and, therefore, he could not agree with his friend Professor Johnston that the farmers would be better by abstaining from questions of fiscal regulations. He would repeat, it was his opinion that they should in this respect follow the example of the manufacturing classes ; and he cer- tainly had always felt that the agricultural classes were very much neglected and despised by political leaders, because they did not attend to these points ; and, therefore, he for one had been ever willing to stand forward and promote those views, and had joined in those efforts to promote their in- terests {cheers). In his opinion, he would be an imprudent man were he, under present circum- stances, to lay out large sums of money in im- proving land, a return for which he could not ex- pect to get for a long time. He concurred with Mr. Crofton, and thought that the speeches in the House of Commons during the present session had done more to stop improvements in agriculture than anything which had occurred during the last fifty years. He believed in this county there was a great disinclination to leases on both sides, in many instances ; and that evil also arose from the want of confidence in public matters. What te- nant woidd bind himself to pay a fair rent for land for 21 years, with a protecting duty of 20s., if he were inclined to suppose that within five or six years the duty might be abobshed altogether? What man could venture to say that, with such a change, prices would not be immensely reduced ? No prudent man, therefore, could take a lease for 2 1 years ; and no landlord with any spark of feel- ing would think of exacting the terms of his lease, with such low prices, from any tenant who might be imprudent enough to take one {hear, and ap- plause). Mr. John Hutchinson drew attention to the presence of " buttercups" in fields. Many people thought these flowers an ornament to their fields, and thought it was a proof of the goodness of their land. He took a different view of it. All the ra- nunculus tribe of flowers required considerable moisture ; and he looked upon a flourishing crop of buttercups as a sure indication of the land being too wet, as if it had been covered with rushes {ap- plause). The club was afterwards addressed by the Chair- man, Mr. Martindale, the Vice-chairman, Mr. Crofton, Mr. Hunter. Mr. W. Wetherell, Mr. Smith, and Professor Johnston, the last-mentioned gentleman stating, in opposition to the opinions of some of the others, that he had seen some cold, thin clay yield good turnip crops by draining. The party then separated. The subject for the next month's discussion is the best method of cutting and winning the hay-crops, and cutting wheat . THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 33 ON THE ADVANTAGES OF LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION TO AGRICULTURE. BY GEORGE THOMPSON. Legislative protection must ever be resorted to by old and wealthy communities, for the encourage- ment of certain native interests, where such com- munities wish to preserve their independence ; and a sufficient argument in favour of it may be found in its absolute necessity, arising from circum- stances over which neither nations nor individuals have the slightest control, namely, from the present constitution, condition, and situation of mankind. Whilst nations are subject to be in a hostile state, one with respect to another— whilst there is a per- ceptible difference in the habits and civibzation of any two nations respectively— and whilst there ex- ists variations in climate, fertility, and wants— there must be legislative protection for the preservation of certain interests. It is easy to assert that the abstract rides of right are opposed to any protec- tion of particular classes ; but this is no reason for the politician : he must prepare laws for the promo- tion of the happiness of mankind as they are, and not speculate impracticable theories for their guid- ance as they are not. In all old-established communities, the circulating medium is depreciated in value comparatively with purchaseable articles ; the habits of the people also become more expensive ; moreover, as in Great Britain, heavy taxes become payable by the popula- tion at large for the preservation of national inde- pendence : all which circumstances are proportion- ately less oppressive on nations not so independent, or advanced in the possession of wealth and civili- zation. Not only is this the case in reference to the people generally, but with agriculturists particu- larly ; there exist other causes, demanding the especial protection of the government of any old community. Even supposing the average natural fertility of the soil to be equal in such nations to that of younger communities, still population is more dense, and poorer soils, on the average, are brought into cultivation to afford the means of sub- sistence. It would be therefore unjust in the ex- treme, that the member of an old-established com- munity like Great Britain should be compelled to enter into open competition with those of younger nations, free from these disadvantages. Indeed, the member of such a community is entitled, as his undoubted right, to that degree of protection which will place him on a par with one of the same calling in a younger or less wealthy community. This is not, as some modern politicians have declared, rob- bery ; but it is extending that protection to a mem- ber of society which is his just and inalienable right. Any individual remains a member of society, subjects himself to its claims, and holds himself amenable to its laws, so long as he receives the ad- vantages thereof ; but neither law nor reason calls upon him to remain a member of society longer than he receives equivalent advantages for such subjection. Legislative protection, therefore, is, under cer- tain circumstances, the just right of particular in- terests ; but not only is it so, it is also productive of great advantages indirectly to all. The indivi- dual of any one class or interest is too prone to conclude that legislative protection extended to an- other class or interest, in the same nation, is so much against his trade or profession ; whereas it is an axiom well worthy the attentive consideration of all members of society, that no productive interest can long flourish by any means whatever without affording material advantages. The prosperity of any trade creates industry and circulates wealth ; and this is the case under all circumstances. That nation which has the greatest number of indus- trious, wealth-producing inhabitants, must inevita- bly be the most flourishing. Now, if any trade or branch of manufactures must, without legislative protection, fail, or be depressed in the slightest de- gree, the removal of that protection will be injurious to the nation at large. That this must be the case is clear, since depression in any one interest creates a glut in the labour market ; or, what is a worse evil, an extended proportion of pauperism, which burden must be borne by the active and more flourishing interests. In opposition to this theorem, it is contended that the cheapest market, whether home or foreign, is the best. A more ruinous, unsound, or indeed impracticable theory could not be broached ; and yet, strange to say, it has numerous advocates amongst those very classes which would be the most seriously injured by its application — to wit, the manufacturing : affording a practical proof that it is too much the custom to make shallow obser- vations, and act upon specious theories. The cheapest market to a nation and the cheapest mar- ket to individuals are often two totally different tilings. The really cheapest market is undoubtedly the best ; but our modern political economists mean by it that market which will afford the article re- quired at the cheapest rate nominally and immedi- ately. In fact, the full practice of their theory would consist in purchasing serf and slave-grown articles of consumption, in preference to those pro- duced by more civilized communities ; and its com- plete fulfilment by the British people woidd necessa- rily involve the existence of an anomalous state of things, namely, the extensive consumption of manu- factured articles by those who would receive little for their natural productions. But the cheapest and best market, in reality, is the home market — cheapest to the consumer, and cheapest to the pro- ducer. Why is this ? Because the majority of consumers, being also producers, will again receive their quota of that which they expend ; because the producer is enabled to obtain a greater propor- tionate consumption, and better remuneration, at home than abroad ; and because the nation at large has the full profit of both transactions, instead of sharing it with another nation. Every producer in this kingdom, be he labourer or employer, is bene- fited by the full occupation of all other producers, because that raises the value of his productions, at the same time that it diminishes his national and parochial liabilities. Every consumer is benefited by the prosperity of his country, because that will diminish his burden of taxation, and, where he is a producer likewise, will raise the value of that he 34 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. has to sell, which prosperity can only he ensured hy the full employment of all the productive classes. Of course individual consumers will naturally seek the cheapest market, and, if that be abroad, they will go there ; but, by so doing, they remove so much wealth from the community ; whereas if, by legislative protection, the foreign market is ren- dered dearest, they will supply their wants at home, and thus the wealth remains to the benefit of the nation. Nine-tenths of the people must ever de- pend on regidar employment for the means of satisfying their wants ; and it is upon the full oc- cupation of this immense proportion, therefore, that the prosperity of every community must de- pend : that prosperity can only be permanently secured by the nation either supplying its own wants immediately, or, through interchange, indi- directly ; since, if any of those wants are supplied directly by other nations, a corresponding propor- tion of the community must be without profitable employment, and thereby the nation's prosperity marred. Hence, legislative protection, extended to all interests which need it, is not only advantageous to particular classes, but to the nation at large. In describing the advantages of legislative pro- tection as enjoyed by tenant farmers and labourers in particular, we shall strictly avoid falling into that prevalent error of some political essayists of the present day — the abuse of classes. Great pains have been taken, and much expense incurred, in disseminating throughout the whole of this king- dom falsehoods, inconsistencies, and misapplica- tions of truth, calculated to create disaffection between three classes, whose true interests are in- separable and reciprocal — we mean the landlords, tenants, and labourers. Truth needs no assistance, and all angry allusions, even if well founded, only injure its cause. We shall, therefore, make no charge of selfishness or robbery against any body of individuals whatever. We do not intend to offer any apology for landlords, or administer a rebuke to manufacturers : for all are selfish, and self-interest rules all individually, more or less ; but that one class necessarily has more of that innate principle than another, or that the ma- jority of British legislators have at any time been ruled in their public conduct by self-interest alone, to the injury of any portion of their fellow country- men, is too ridiculous, too ungenerous a conclusion to be entertained for one moment. It will also be our object to place the landlord's interest as much as possible out of the question, and to represent the true situation of tenants and labourers, if the land were rent-free — in fact, to shew the advantages of legislative protection, so far as it affects them exclusively. The advantages of legislative protection to tenant farmers and labourers are of two kinds — the in- dispensable and the absolute. The indisjtensable ad- vantages are those which are necessary to their ex- istence in this country, in their present state and proportions. For example : protection, on account of undue or extreme taxation, is an indispensable advantage. The absolute advantages are those which cannot be considered indispensable. For example : if we show protection to diminish fluctuation in price, that is an absolute advantage. Still all must be regarded as so many actual ad- vantages conferred upon tenant farmers and labourers by legislative protection. We shall estimate the indispensable advantages negatively, by enumerating the chief disadvantages under which they labour in comparison with foreign cultivators of the soil. It will be seen that these disadvantages amount to more than the existing protection : this furnishes a powerful reason for not estimating the advantages affirmatively, since, by this course, we shall not only show what indispen- sable advantages agriculturists already receive from protection, but also what more they ought to re- ceive. In order to accomplish this, it will be re- quisite to reduce the estimated difficulties to that tangible form in which they can be made to serve the direct purpose we wish ; it is necessary they should be reduced to the form of a per centage, whereby it may be seen at one view what the pre- cise weight of those disadvantages is. It would be easy to recapitulate, one by one, the difficulties which beset the British agriculturist ; but, by such means, the exact burden of one is forgotten as the next comes under consideration ; we shall therefore bring them together in the shape of figures, thus enabling all to perceive readily the gross amount of protection to which the classes referred to are justly entitled, and which they must possess before they can be on equal terms with their foreign com- petitors. There are numerous circumstances peculiar to all old-established communities ; others, peculiar to this kingdom in particular, which render it in- dispensable to the great body of the tenant-fanners and labourers, that they should receive some pro- tection against the unrestricted importation of foreign agricultural produce; indispensable to both, because the soil would be, in most cases, abandoned, if that protection did not exist. The first circumstance is, that Great Britain has taken the lead in civilization, whereby the habits of her people are more refined, and their wants more exten- sive, than those of other nations. This has been generally beneficial to all other native interests, for it has created a demand for manufactured and commercial articles that has employed a vast pro- portion of the people.* By this advancement of civilization, many luxuries have become necessa- ries ; and it is from this that British agriculturists have become the British manufacturer's best and largest customers. t Without this, the British agriculturist woidd not consume more per annum of manufactured articles than him who cultivates the soils of Poland or Russia, instead of consum- * The total value of manufactures an- nually reared in Great Britain, is estimated at £180,000,000 The value of those exported in the average of five years, ending 1841, was 49,680,869 Leaving a home consumption of . . £130,319,131 t The agricultural population being esti- mated at one-half, their exclusive consumption is £65,159,565. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 35 ing, as he now does, probably fifty times the pro- portion. It is easy to particularize a few of the expenses referred to. For instance, the people of those nations which, but for legislative protection, would supply us with food, are clothed in the coarsest native fabrics which can be produced : the British cultivator wears his linen, his flannel, and his broad cloth. The former inhabits a hut with an earthen floor, and feeds on rye bread and water : the latter has a comfortable house, wheaten bread, and frequently malt drinks. The foreign producer has little or no furniture, and no luxury of any kind : the home producer has his house comfortably furnished, and enjoys many com- parative luxuries;* and society at large receives the benefit of this refinement. The British agri- culturist, therefore, must necessarily receive pro- tection if he is to remain the prosperous member of a community so far advanced in civilization as ours is. Having become habituated to more refined and expensive habits than his foreign competitors ; having to five in society which demands of him a greater expenditure of money, he should obviously receive some protection in return. And as those habits and wants operate beneficially upon all around, creating employment and circulating wealth, who shall presume to refuse him that just right ? Common sense answers, None but the igno- rant or the factious. It is not an unjust claim that the agriculturists urge, in demanding protection on the ground of more refined and luxurious habits : it is a claim which any class of producers whatever may fairly make, when other advantages do not supply an equivalent. Experience, moreover, con- firms the principle. Hence we conclude, that even supposing all other circumstances affecting the producers of similar articles in different nations to be equal, still, if one nation compels its producers to more expensive habits than others, they may justly claim, and it is necessary they should receive, protection on that account. Still this is not easily reduced to figures ; it is difficult to estimate the precise cost of living, on the part of similar classes, in different countries : nevertheless, as we have endeavoured to shew, it is perfectly just that such an argument should be brought forward, inasmuch as it is a disadvantage to agriculturists, but an advantage to manu- facturers. Advancing civilization, increasing re- finement, creates a demand for manufactures, but increases the cost of agricultural productions ; and, therefore, agriculturists are as much entitled to protection on this account as on any other. We have no reports of the condition of the tenantry of the continent of Europe, but we have of the labourers ; and it appears that their wages average from 5d. to 6d. per day :f it furthermore appears that the average price of wheat in all parts of Odessa and Dantzic, in 1840, was 32s. per quarter;! whilst Mr. Alison informs us that wheat can be grown in Poland at 16s. per quarter ;§ taking the * Alison's Principles of Population. t Farmers' Almanac for 1842, and Alison's Free Trade and Protection. X Alison's Free Trade and Protection, § Ibid. mean as the price at which the continental labourer can purchase it, we have 24s. per quarter. Now, wages average, in England, nearly 2s. per day, and the average price of wheat in this kingdom, for one year preceding July 1843, was 49s. 8d. per quarter.* From these facts a calculation may be made, shewing that, after purchasing the same quantity of wheat as the whole wages of the foreigner will procure him, the British labourer has Is. per day to spend in other articles, affording proof that the habits of the latter are more expen- sive, in proportion, than those of the former ; and, as the British labourer finds his wages no more than sufficient, we are justified in estimating this as a virtual disadvantage of 50 per cent. Dr. Bowring, a free trade advocate, has confirmed these conclusions by giving returns of the proportionate consumption of luxuries by the British and foreigners respectively .f It must be perfectly just, and in strict conformity with the true science of political economy, then, to make some estimate of this disadvantage to the British agriculturist ; and the foregoing statements warrant us in placing this at 25 per cent., which is merely supposing the British to spend one-fourth more of their income in comforts and luxuries than foreign agricul- turists ; a very low estimate, since we have pre- viously proved it, from authentic returns, to amount in some cases to 50 per cent. The next disadvantage we shall enter upon is that of the average inferiority of the soils, ivhen compared with those of less thickly populated, nations. This it is which originates a demand for foreign agricultural produce, and it must exist before that can be brought in at a cheaper rate than the home produce can be sold at, other circum- stances being equal. Even supposing that this kingdom had not naturally a greater proportion of inferior soils than many other nations have, yet the density of the population is such as to call into cultivation large tracts of that inferior land which need not be cultivated in other countries less densely populated. The population of Poland for instance, the greatest corn-producing country in Europe, is but one-fourth that of Great Britain, per square mile. Supposing then the lands of these two countries averaged each the same degree of fertility, still the produce of the latter nation could not be fairly thrown into open competition with that of the former, because the population being four times as great in proportion to surface, four times the proportion of land must be brought * Farmers' Almanac for 1844. State of Prusso- Great Germanic Britain. League. France, t Sugar consumed, per head . . 17.1 lbs. 3.9 lbs. 4.3 lbs. Tea .... 1. „ I oz. Salt .... 22. „ l6Jlbs. 13^ lbs. Cotton goods . 9.2 „ 4.35 „ Wool .... 4. „ 1.67,, Woollen cloth . 5 f ells. 2.17 ells. Coal ... * 10|tons. If tons. — Bowring's Report on Prusso-Germanic League, D 2 36 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. into cultivation, three-fourths of which must necessarily consist of comparatively inferior soils. But Poland is the most thickly populated nation that would supply us with food under a free trade, it is therefore necessary we should include some others. The population of the United States of America is about 6 per square mile; Russia, 1.3; Denmark, 7; Poland, 52;* and Great Britain, 22 l.f The average of the four first named, in pro- portion to their several extents, is about 10 per square mile, or twenty-two times less dense than the population of Great Britain. It necessarily follows that twenty-one parts of twenty-two of the cultivated soils of this country are inferior to the cultivated soils of those nations ; but, as the fact of their supplying us with food would necessarily involve the cultivation of a greater extent of soils, we will take the proportion at one-half. Still, this is painting a picture against the British agriculturist ; the soils of Great Britain are not of the same average natural fertility with those of other nations. The pastures and grain -producing soils of Northern Italy, Tuscany, Southern Russia, Poland, Prussia, Denmark, and North America, are far more fertile than the average rate of British soils. X It may be objected that the consumer ought not to be called upon to pay for the cultiva- tion of inferior soils; and it may possibly be urged that this is a landlord's question. But we would ask manufacturers and other producers, not agri- culturists, are they prepared to sacrifice the custom of the cultivators of all the inferior soils in this kingdom ? It is estimated that one-half the British population is engaged in agriculture. § Now, we have already shewn that more than one-half the soils of this country are naturally incapable of competing with the soils of other nations, and we find that this would be the case, after adding the cost of importation to the price of foreign produce, and deducting rent from the price of home :|| thus, * Facts, by Sir R. Phillips. f Extent of Great Britain 1 20,928 square miles ; and population in 1841, 26,831,687- J Alison's Principles of Population, and Lou- don's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture. § Reasons for the Formation of the Agricultural Protection Society, by E. S. Cayley, Esq., M. P. || It is now generally admitted, by the best authorities(a), that less than 56s. per quarter for wheat, or a proportionate price for other agricul- tural produce, would be non-remunerative for the average of British soils. Now, as the one-half above alluded to would necessarily be far below the average, they would obviously be thrown out of cultivation with less than the above rate of prices. It appeal's from Parliamentary returns, that 17s. lid. is the average rent of land per acre in England and Wales(i) ; and, as the annual pro- duction is estimated at the equivalent of two quar- ters of wheat per acre(c), 8s. lUd. may be (a) Sir Robert Peel's Speech on the Corn Laws, February 9, 1842. Alison's Free Trade and Pro- tection. Cooke, on Valuation of Land. (b) Companion to the British Almanac, for 1843. (e) Alison's Principles of Population. one-fourth the grass population of this country, or more than six millions, of people would no longer be purchasers of manufactures to any useful ex- tent ; many would remain, it is true, and drag out a weary existence in the land of their fathers, but even those would be unable to purchase common necessaries. Then, tenants and labourers, are six millions of you prepared to submit to this degrada- tion and ruin ? And, manufacturers, are you prepared to sacrifice the custom of six millions of your fellow-countrymen, realizing to you thirty-two millions sterling per annum ?* If not, there must be legislative protection for British agriculturists, on account of inferior soils; and, as that disadvantage affects one-half the cul- tivated land, we may fairly estimate it at 15 per cent. The third disadvantage tinder which British tenant farmers and labourers would compete with foreign, would arise from higher prices generally. There is an inevitable depreciation of money in all old established and wealthy communities compared with purchaseable articles : this is owing chiefly to its plenty. In all young, unsettled, or poor communities, money is scarce, and as a necessary consequence, prices are low; but in every old, wealthy, and prosperous community, money is plentiful, and prices are high. This is no evil ; on the contrary, it is impossible that any nation can remain prosperous and wealthy, without an abun- dance of the circulating medium; and all expe- rience goes to prove that every attempt to contract the circulation of legitimate money, has been at- tended by universal failures and insolvencies. Of course we are not now advocating or proving the necessity of an unlimited credit circula- tion, we confine ourselves entirely to legitimate money, or that which represents so much real value : nor do we state what that real value, or foundation of the currency, ought to be. An ex- tensive circulation of money in old established and wealthy communities, we repeat, is indispensable ; but it must be attended with legislative protection, particularly to the agricultural interest. The great necessary of life — food — is of course affected in the chief degree," because the value of other articles is regulated by that. But the cheapest-market plea may be again brought forward ; in reply to which we would observe, that he who receives a low price, deducted per quarter for rent. From the authority of an importer, quoted in the Mark Lane Express of January 15, we find European corn can be im- ported, all expenses included, at 3s. 3d. per quarter. The above item of rent will reduce the farmer's remunerative price to 47s. per quarter; whilst the foreigner is anxious to sell at an average price of 28s. per quarter, as appears from the authority above quoted : hence, foreign wheat can be sold at an average price of 31s. 3d., or 15s. 9d. per quarter less than the British tenant farmer can grow it, rent free. * The home consumption of manu- factures is (a) £130,319,131 One-fourth of which is . . . £32,579,783 (a) Alison's Free Trade and Protection, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 must of necessity pay a low one — the nation which sells its produce for little must spend little; and this could benefit none, but would seriously injure the produce of a highly-taxed nation like ours ; because, taxes being fixed and unvarying, the higher prices are, the less oppressive are those taxes. Indeed, prices will rise in old and busy communities, nothing short of absolute despotism in currency regulations can possibly keep them down ; and it is obvious to common sense that the greatest necessaries will be chiefly affected by this law. Hence, the legislature must either ruin the nation, by depressing prices ; protect agriculturists ; or dispense with their services, by supplying more than one-half the consumption of food from foreign nations. The first alternative is its own opposition ; the last is impossible ; hence the second must be adopted. Again, it is now too sure that, however much agricultural produce other nations are willing to sell us, they will not take manufactures in re- turn ; thus they will receive less than the home producer for their articles, and also expend a less proportion of that little in the purchase of British manufactures.* It is, therefore, to the interest of our manufacturers that the present proportion of consumption by the home agriculturists should be preserved, which cannot be without legislative pro- tection. We estimate the disadvantage of higher prices at 10 per cent., as being below all suspicion of extravagance. Taxation affords the most important argument in favour of the necessity for legislative protection, extended to tenant farmers and labourers, which we have to bring forward. It not only affords invinci- ble reasons why these classes should receive pro- tection against foreign agriculturists, but why they should receive even a greater protection than any other class of producers in the country. Mr. Cayley estimates the agricultural population at one- half the community ;f the number of families in which would be about 2,683,000. The annual amount of taxation payable by every family in the kingdom, including local and general, is on the * Mr. Mc. Gregor stated that the Prussians would not have our manufactures. Mr. J. D. Hume observed that the foreign manufacturers had shewn that they could make our goods. Mr. Joseph Walker said, " I think the manufacturers of the Continent generally are competing with us." — Report of the Import Duties Committee, extracted from Mr. G. R. Robinson's pamphlet " Facts versus Theory." £ s. d. The Russians expend 0 0 8| each per annum .. Swedes .. 0 0 9 in British manu- .. Danes .. o 0 10 factures. . , Prussians . . o 0 3| . . . , .. French ., 0 0 11 . . Portuguese . . 0 0 8 , , . . Spanish , . 0 0 8 . . , . .. Americans ., 0 17 0 ., .. .. British .. 5 0 0 —Alison's " Principles of Population." t " Reasons for the Formation of the Agricultural Protection Society." average, £13-* But the tenant farmers and labour- ers pay nearly six millions and a half more than other classes proportionately; consecpiently their amount is increased to £14. 4s. on each family, whilst that of other classes is reduced to £11. I6s.f We find, therefore, that the British tenant farmers and labourers bear a taxation six times as heavy as those of Austria, Spain, or the United States; nine times those of Russia; four times those of Prussia; and twice those of France : J * The national income in 1841 was £52,621, 545(a) The local taxation is estimated at 18,000,000(6) £70,621,545 The estimated total number of families, allowing five persons to each family, is £5,403,911 (a) "Companion to British Almanack for 1843. (b) " Facts," by Sir R. Phillips. t The value of landed property assessed to the Poor Rates, in 1841, in England and Wales, was £32,655,137 ; that of dwelling houses,£23,3S6,401, one half of which being inhabited by agriculturists, would make a total of £44,348,337. The rate in the pound, on the annual value of property assessed in the agricultural counties, was 2s. 3d. The amount therefore paid by agriculturists was £4,989,188. The gross amount collected in 1841 being £6,351,828, it necessarily follows that agriculturists paid £3,626,548 more towards the support of the poor than the other half of the community; in other words, they paid four-fifths of the whole. — See " Abstracts of Parliamentary Documents, in Com- panion to the British Almanac for 1843. The local taxes of the United Kingdom, includ- ing roads, poor, tithes, and local justice, are £18,000,000.— "Facts," by Sir R. Phillips. Estimating tithes at one-half, which we deduct, being paid by landlords, we have £9,000,000 left, four-fifths of which are paid by the agricultural population. Hence, the proportion of taxes payable by agri- culturists above all other classes are, £7,200,000. The Anti-Corn-Law League estimate the follow- ing as the taxes from which agriculturists are free (see " Dialogue on the Corn Laws between a Gen- tleman and a Farmer ") :— - Horse tax £500,000 Window tax 50,000 Servants 50,000 Duty on insurances 80,000 Auction duty, &c, not estimated by the League, but which we will place at 100,000 £780,000 Leaving £6,420,000 as the amount to which agri- culturists are taxed, over and above all other classes. % Each family in Russia pays £ 1 9 0(a) £ Austria . , 2 3 0(a) g g .. France .. 6 1 0(b) «-S o Prussia . . 3 6 0(a) a 5* £ Spain .. 1 18 0(a) ^ d United States 2 3 0 ^ (a) Including roads and poor rates. (b) Including roads, poor rates, and tithes.-— " Facts," by Sir R. Phillips. 38 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. whilst they also bear one-fifth more than any other class of producers in Great Britain ! If protection is of no benefit to operative agri- culturists in any other respect, surely it is so in this. And if they can claim it on no other ground, surely the plea of undue taxation must have some weight in the minds of those who love justice. From the above-quoted facts it is manifest, that tenant farmers and labourers are not only entitled to protection, as members of a highly-taxed com- munity, but that they are entitled to a greater pro- tection than any other class, as the most highly taxed in the community. Still, it may be contended that high rents are the cause of the tenants' in- ability to withstand this pressure of taxation, and that the landlords have, as legislators, imposed these burdens upon their tenants and labourers, and afterwards passed protective laws to shelter them from the consequent injury. In reply to which, it would be sufficient for general pm~poses that we should observe, if landlords have had such disposition and such power, they might, at once, have imposed the heaviest taxation on other classes, and not on those whose ability to pay is alone con- sistent with their own prosperity. For it is evident that landlords must have acted in direct opposition to their own interests, if they imposed additional taxation on those dependant upon them, in order to screen themselves, and then gave protection by way of a set off. But it is indispensable that we should prove our arguments, and not take anything for granted. It is already well known, that if land- lords have had the disposition, so far from having succeeded in legislating to their own advantage, their property pays the least of any kind whatever. Even their tenants have a far better return than they ; for, whilst the tenant expects to, and gene- rally does, receive his 10 per cent.,* the landlord never realizes more than 3 per cent.f Hence it seems ridiculous to talk of landlords having bene- fited themselves and injured their tenants, by legis- lative protection; nevertheless we prefer placing the tenant farmers and labourers in juxta-position with their competitors, rent free. The estimated number of cultivated acres in this kingdom are 46,522,970,J one-fourth of which may be fairly estimated as woods, &c, not culti- vated by tenant farmers; this reduces the quantity to about 35,000,000 acres. The estimated rent of land in the kingdom, on the average, is nearly 18s. per acre§ per annum, which would give a sum total of £'31,500,000. But there are tithes, and other liabilities, to be paid out of rent, amounting to more than one-sixth, which reduces the landlords' receipts for rented lands to £26,250,000. Now we have previously shewn that the agricultural popu- lation comprises about 2,6S3,O0O families, each of which pays, on the average, £14 4s. per annum in taxes. The average paid by the families of other nations appears to be, on the average, about £2 per annum; which leaves £12 per annum, as paid by * " Cooke on the Value of Land." t " Reasons for the formation of the Agricultural Protection Society," by E. S. Cayley, Esq., M.P. X Porter's " Progress of the Nation." § " Companion to British Almanack," for 1843. each British agricultural family, over and above those of other nations ; consequently British agri- culturists pay an annual taxation of £32,196,000 more than foreigners. Thus, if rent-free, the British agriculturists would have to pay an annual taxation of £'5,946,000 more than those of other nations, that is, supposing taxes to be deducted to the amount of rent. Tenant farmers and labourers must, therefore, have protection, even if they were rent-free, on the ground of oppressive taxation. Then how absurd to declare the landlord alone interested in legislative protection ! It is easy to reduce the burden of taxation to a tangible shape. Land valuers have generally agreed that the tenants' and labourers' portion of the gross produce should be twice the amount of rent ; and as we have calculated this to be £31,500,000, their gross income may be put at £63,000,000. The amount of taxation payable by these classes over those of other nations, we have shewn to be £32,196,000. Hence, the disadvantage of taxation amounts to 51 per cent. The last argument we shall cite, as shoiving the necessity of legislative protection, is, that without it the agriculturist must sacrifice the capital he has invested, on his faith in its continuation. It is use- less arguing in opposition, that the protection might be gradually removed, so as to enable him to recover his capital ; for there are millions of acres in this country that the capital sunk in could never be recovered from. Such are all those which must go out of cultivation without protection. That there are vast tracts of land so circumstanced has been already proved in a previous part of this essay ; and it is still more clear such must be the case, from the fact that the foreign cultivator can undersell the home cultivator in his own market, if the latter is rent-free. Surely, then, the millions sterling that have been invested in the recovery of waste lands, and in the cultivation of otherwise barren spots,* should be taken into consideration, when dealing with that important question — legis- lative protection. The individual who has invested his capital in the cultivation of soils, solely upon his faith in the continuation of legislative protec- tion, is as justly entitled to a return for that invested capital, as the fundholder or any other speculator. If the agriculturist is deprived of this protection, it is but fair that all others should; and such a system, generally carried out, must inevitably lead to the downfal of the British Empire. The last disadvantage cannot be reduced to a per centage ; and the four first are recapitulated below, showing what degree of protection is neces- sary to the tenant farmers and labourers, exclu- sively. Per cent. More expensive habits 25 Poorer soils 15 General higher prices 10 Heavy taxation 51 101 * " I say that the capital invested in the soil by farmers exclusively amounts to the enormous sum of £654,833,930 sterling."— Speech of the Rev. H. F. Yeatman, at Sherborne, February 8th, 1844. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 39 In the foregoing recapitulation of actual disad- vantages, no notice is taken of many others always attendant on more wealthy communities ; nor are those enumerated taken at an extreme rate ; on the contrary, they will be found to be far below the real evils themselves. Now, in return for their submission to this 101 per cent., agriculturists can justly claim protection to a like extent; precisely as in return for submitting to the law of the nation, they can justly claim the protection of that law. This, and this alone, is justice. We have written of their inability to compete with the foreigner rent- free ; and here is proof of it. The rent should be, and generally is, one-half the labourers' and tenants' share ; this would be 50 per cent, of their income. But the landlord has various claims upon him, which, if the land was rent-free, must fall upon the cultivators; these amount to one-sixth, which reduces rent to 42 per cent., and proves that if rent-free, the cultivators would still be at a dis- advantage of 59 per cent. But it is absurd and unjust to look at the cultivators' condition if rent- free. The landlord is as much entitled to his rent as any other individual of the community to the interest arising from his wealth; and that rent ought to leave a net profit equal to the average return from funded property ; but we have shewn it does not, and therefore landlords do not receive even so much as they ought. The highest amount of protection to the tenant farmers and labourers, on any article whatever, is not more than 28 per cent., and on live stock it is not more than six per cent.;* thus these classes are even now struggling at a disadvantage of more than 70 per cent, in the cultivation of grain, and more than 90 per cent, in the production of live stock. It is necessary here to remind the reader, that the above 100 per cent, is the disadvantage at which the British agriculturist competes with the foreigner, and has nothing to do with the relative prices of home and foreign produce, inasmuch as the home producer must be protected to that degree before he can be considered on equal terms with the foreigner.t Even if the three first disadvantages * The following statement shows the price which it is necessary the British fanner should receive for good samples of the chief kinds of agricultural produce, together with the amount of protection upon each article : Average Amount Protection remunerative of per price. protection. cent. Wheat . 56s. per qr. 16s. perqr. 28 Barley . 32s. .. 6s. . . 18 Oats . . 24s. .. 4s. .. 16 Rye . . 34s. . . 8s. 6d. per qr. 25 Beans . 38s. .. 4s. 6d. . . 11 Peas . . 38s. . . 4s. 6d. . . 11 Hay . . £4. per ton 17s. 9d. per ton 22 Fat beasts £18. each. 15s. each 4 Fat sheep 50s. . . 3s. « . 6 t As a proof how moderate our calculation of disadvantages is, we annex a comparative statement of home and foreign prices, whereby it will be seen be disputed, the last (taxation) affords incontro- vertible proof that the British agriculturist needs a protection of at least 50 per cent.; whilst on wheat alone does the protection exceed half that propor- tion. We have shown, then, from facts and figures, in the preceding portion of this essay, that protection is necessary to tenant farmers and labourers exclu- sively. And, by way of parenthesis, to those who doubt whether this is legitimately the subject for an essay on the advantages of legislative protection, we would observe that it would be but a poor pro- duction if it did not first show the necessity of that protection; indeed, the indispensable advantages are so intimately connected with their necessity, that we have found it impossible to treat the question in any other way, We have proved, then, protection to be necessary to the classes referred to, exclusively, even if they were rent free. We have proved that landlords do not receive generally too high a rent. We have shown, moreover, that there is protection given to agriculturists, varying from 4 to 28 per cent., and consequently we conclude that tenant farmers and labourers receive indispensable advantages to that extent. Independent of the necessity of legislative pro- tection, it is productive of great advantages to far- mers and labourers ; advantages which cannot be considered indispensable, and which we therefore term absolute. To the tenant farmer it is of great advantage, by preventing those extreme fluctuations in prices ivhich must occur under a free trade, in any nation where population encroaches upon the means of subsis- tence ; and which are so exceedingly prejudicial, by encouraging speculations of a gambling nature, and by rendering it impossible that the producer can calculate, with any degree of certainty, his pro- bable income. The fluctuation in the price of grain, from 1815 until 1838, was greater, by the following propor- tions, in the different places named, than in this country: Hamburg, 181 per cent.; Prussia, 72; Saxony, 129; and Dantzic, 95.* Again, it was greater by more than 100 per cent, in this kingdom, previous to the passing of the restriction law of 1815 that our estimate (100 per cent.) is far below the actual average difference. V o •c ft .<2 a America ed from Lane Ex- for May Oth. rtion per ti foreign- favour. • = *; t- oi 2 =° •E o^fc ffl fc g Wheat 56s. per qr. 31s. per qr. 80 Oats . 24s. .. 7s. 8d. . . 220 Hay . 80s. per ton 20s. per ton 300 Oxen . £14. each £6. each 133 Sheep . 50s. . . 6s. .. 733 Pigs . 8s. per score 2s. 6d. per score 220 * Speech by Mr. G. G. Day, at Huntingdon, June 17, 1843. 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. than it has been since.* Indeed, it is only reason- able such should be the case, since, under free trade, importations would take place at certain times to a greater extent than at others, depending upon the supply abroad, and not, as under the present law, upon the necessity at home. The beneficial effects of protection to the tenant are no less forcibly demonstrated by its prevention of that ruinous diminution in prices, which would inevitably ensue from a supply more than equal to the demand. It is found that an inadequate supply raises prices considerably more than proportion- ately ;f and it is equally clear that a superabundant supply depresses prices more than proportionately. It would be only rational to suppose that abundance causes cheapness ; but it has been also observed that continued and extreme abundance causes un- due cheapness. Under present regulations the supply rarely exceeds the demand, or, if it does, one week's consumption serves to reverse it ; but, under free trade, owing to the want of foreign mar- kets on the part of other nations, we should have an uninterrupted abundance for two or three years, which would so diminish prices that they would descend far below even the present continental averages, and thus the home producers would be ruined. Then we should be dependant on those who would exercise a tyrannous monopoly, by rais- ing prices to what they pleased, without expending anything like the proportion our present producers do, in the purchase of British manufactures. Thus, the farmers and labourers would be ruined, and the nation in no wise compensated for their loss. Under free trade, we have proved, and it is notori- ous, that provisions of all kinds are alternately higher and lower in prices than in this nation under legislative protection. The greatest variation in that fluctuating article, wheat, for instance, was but 79 per cent., from 1828 to 1841 ;J a degree of stability in the price of that article, unparalleled under any other circumstances. To prove that prices are more than proportionately diminished or increased by any diminution or increase in the sup- ply, we need only instance the highest and lowest prices of wheat, during the operation of the last corn law. In December, 1835, the price was re- duced to 36s. 8d., but in January, 1839, it was as high as 79s. 9d. ; this shows a variation of 117 per cent., but it would be a perfect fallacy to suppose that there was anything approaching a like varia- tion in the supply ; in other words, that the crop of 1838 was less than one-half that of 1835 ; for, if it had been so, there must have been a grievous famine, with an importation of foreign corn, amount- ing to less than two millions of quarters in the for- mer year. Under a free trade, therefore, the far- mer must anticipate a lower price than that of '35, continued for some time, or, as we have already shown, 15s. 9d. less than he can grow it at, rent free, and other things in proportion ; for if the * Essay published by Anti-Corn-Law League, written by Mr. Greg. t Porter's Progress of the Nation. X Spackman's Statistical Tables. N.B.— This is the fluctuation in annual wages. raw materials can be imported at this low rate, the manufactured article (meat) will soon be brought in also, and the same laws regulate the prices of every article. Protection from this is, therefore, the se- cond advantage fanners receive. As tenant farmers are benefited or injured by that which benefits or injures the nation at large, they are benefited by legislative protection in its pre- vention of a perpetual drain of the precious metals, which must ensue from a free trade in the neces- saries of life. It is now an exploded fiction that other nations will take our manufactures in return for provisions to a like extent. Free traders them- selves have given in evidence to that effect,* and statistical returns prove the truth of it.f This it was which caused the drain of bullion in 1 838 and '39, when the Bank of England was driven to the necessity of borrowing three millions sterling from the Bank of France. A scarcity was thereby pro- duced, which occasioned that stagnation in the country from which it has not yet fully recovered. We know that other causes have assisted in pro- ducing this state of things, but still it is clear that foreign provisions must be paid for, and if, as is clearly the case, other nations are discouraging the use of our manufactured exports, then they must be paid for in the precious metals ; and we have seen enough already of the injurious effects of "a drain on the currency, to be enabled to judge of its ruin- ous consequences to all classes. Protection is productive of no mean advantage to tenants, again, in enabling them to bring into cul- tivation poor or waste lands, whereby local burdens are diminished. If there are 2000 acres cultivated in any one parish under protection, which would be diminished to 1000 under free trade, it is evi- dent the tenants of the latter portion must be be- nefited by protection, since they have but about one- half the parochial rates to pay. Double the num- ber of acres in cultivation must of necessity di- Wheat, foreign and colonial, an- nually imported. * See Evidence of Messrs. McGregor, Hume, Walker, Johnston, Moore, Smith, Porter, and Dr. Bowring, before Import Duties Committee. t Official value of British and Irish produce and manufac- tures exported. £ 1830 .... 61,140,864 . . . 1,663,283 1831 .... 60,683,933 . . . 2,309,970 1832 . . . . 65,026,702 . . . 469,902 1833 .... 69,989,339 . . . 227,565 1834 .... 73,831,550 . . . 176,321 1835 .... 78,376,731 . . . 66,905 1836 .... 85,229,837 . . • 241,743 1837 .... 72,548,047 . . . 559,943 1838 .... 92,459,251 . . . 1,371,957 1839 .... 97,402,726 . . . 2,875,427 1840 .... 102,714,060 . . . 2,483,267 1841 .... 102,180,517 . . . 1,948,121 1842 .... 100,200,101 . . . 1,241,761 Porter's Progress of the Nation, and Parliamentary Tables. In the above statement we find an extensive im- portation of foreign grain to have been attended or followed by a diminished exportation of manufac- tures. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 minish the proportion of rates upon each acre to nearly one-half. That there are millions of acres which could not he cultivated under a free trade, we have already shown. Now, the non- cultivation of a portion of the present productive soils of this country would throw a proportionate number of individuals out of employment, who must after- wards be supported by those in employment. Hence, a smaller area would have to bear a greater aggregate burden of local taxation. By the same rule also, the productive classes being reduced in number, would increase the weight of general taxa- tion upon the remaining portion. If, by a free trade in provisions, the present productive popula- tion should be reduced one-sixth, nearly twelve millions of annual taxation would be added to the remaining portion, who would be then so burdened that to exist would be a miracle. The last advantage of legislative protection to the tenant, which our limited space will permit us to notice, is, that it prevents foreigners from obtain- ing that wealth so speedily as they otherwise tvould, which will enable them to compete ivith British manu- facturers, in their own market, and thereby deprive agriculturists of a portion of their present custo- mers. To assert that any one class in a nation is independent of others, is to declare that which is alike opposed to reason and experience. In order that any nation should nourish, all interests must be supported ; the manufacturer is as necessary to the agriculturist as the agriculturist to the manu- facturer, neither is independent of the other. If foreigners obtained that wealth, by selling us pro- visions, which would enable them to raise manu- factures and compete with the British, the home agriculturist would be deprived of a portion of his customers. If the number at present engaged in manufactures was reduced one-fourth, so would their consumption be reduced one-fourth, and this must tend to injure tenant farmers. That our con- tinental neighbours only recpiire wealth to compete with the British in manufacturing, is now generally known and acknowledged; and as that wealth would be supplied by purchasing their provisions, it is evident that protection against the importation of such provisions, farther than is indispensable, is a great advantage to tenant farmers. It is clear, therefore, that legislative protection is productive of important absolute advantages to tenant farmers exclusively. It prevents extreme fluctuations in prices ; it prevents the supply from greatly exceeding the demand, and thereby a mul- tiplied ruinous depression in prices ; it prevents an incessant drain of bullion, and thereby tends to maintain higher prices generally; it diminishes local and general taxation ; and it preserves plenty of consumers for that the farmer has to sell. With these, and those previously enumerated, it is clear legislative protection is advantageous to tenant farmers ; it is, moreover, obvious that ruin, imme- diate and complete ruin, must overtake the majority of them, if deprived of legislative protection. And if the agricultural occupiers are ruined, who will answer for the welfare of the community at large ? We have but little space left us to show the ad- vantages of legislative protection to farm labourers exclusively ; we must, therefore, be as brief as pos- sible upon this subject. We have already shown its necessity to the comfort, prosperity, and even existence of this class ; but there are many advan- tages, absolute advantages, conferred upon them by it, which we will briefly advert to. It is of the highest importance to the agricultural labourer, that there should be as title fluctuation in price as possible; for it is too true that a consider- able fall in the price of food is attended with an immediate fall in wages ; but a rise in the former is ever followed by a tardy increase of the latter. This is only a state of things which it might be imagined would occur, and one for which none can be blamed, but still one which should be pre- vented as much as possible ; and experience proves that legislative protection has the desired effect. Unquestionably, the great necessaries of life will always be liable to considerable fluctuation in prices; but this is less under protection, than under free-trade. In addition to the evil referred to, when the price of provisions is such that the labourer has a greater command over them, he becomes careless and extravagant ; he does not see the necessity of saving the surplus against dearer times, but expends it all ; and consequently, when prices rise again, he finds his wants greater than his means, and thus he becomes miserable. The more steady prices are, therefore, the better is it for the labourer ; and this is effected by legislative protection.* Although wages must, in a series of years, be regulated by the price of food, yet they are influ- enced, in a considerable degree, by supply and demand. If labourers are more than are wanted, the competition for work compels them to receive lower wages than otherwise ; whereas, a demand for labourers must place them in a position to claim a higher rate of remuneration. It has been already made manifest, that soils are brought into cultivation under protection, which must be aban- doned under free-trade. There are 14,000,000 acres of land in Great Britain, yet uncultivated, but capable of cultivation.f If legislative protec- tion is continued, this land may be cultivated; which will give employment to more than 3,000,000 of people. X The consequence of which would be, * Comparative fluctuations in the price of wheat, in different nations, from 1815 to 1838. per cent. Great Britain 140 Hamburg 321 Prussia 212 Saxony 269 Westphalia 334 The Rhenish Provinces .... 312 Bordeaux 260 Lisbon 213 Rotterdam 295 Dantzic 235 — Speech of Mr. G. G. Day, at Huntingdon, June 17 th, 1843. f Porter, in his " Progress of the Nation," gives 15,000,000. X One-half the population being employed at present in the cultivation of 46,000,000 acres. 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, that the demand for labourers would be far greater than the supply, and higher wages would ensue. Wages are high in America, where labourers are scarce ;* but low on the continent of Europe, where they are plentiful.^ Raising the demand for labour is the second advantage conferred upon the farm labourer by legislative protection. By calling into cultivation a greater extent of land, and by the increased employment consequent thereon, the burdens of taxation would be less ; and this would be another advantage to the labouring population. By retaining in cultivation the poorer tracts of land, the burdens of taxation are main- tained at a lower rate than they otherwise would be. Our population is increasing at the rate of 300,000 per annum, and this proportion cannot be half employed in manufactures ;X consequently, a considerable number must either be employed in the cultivation of land, or become a burden upon the rest. We have shewn that nothing but legis- lative protection to the agricultural interest can maintain those lands in cultivation, which will afford employment to the surplus population for years to come. Legislative protection is thus productive of nu- merous advantages to the agricultural labourer. It operates in various ways, ah tending to improve his position in life. It brings into, and maintains in cultivation, lands which would otherwise lie barren ; and thus it creates a demand for labour. By preventing extreme fluctuations in prices, it makes wages higher on the average than they would otherwise be. It moreover diminishes the amount of taxation payable by each individual, by employing greater numbers, by making fewer those dependent on their fellows, and by increasing the number of those who pay. And it confers a secon- dary advantage upon this numerous class, by its many advantages to the tenants. If the employer is in a better position, so much the more is he enabled to make his labourers so. It is impossible that the tenant farmer can be long depressed, with- out that depression extending to those beneath him. Even if he is more than ordinarily desirous of maintaining his labourers in comfort, yet he will soon find it impossible to do so, under the weight of heavy depression. Indeed, it is clear to the commonest understanding, that the interests of tenant farmers and labourers are so intimately mixed up — so interwoven with each other, that they must of necessity stand or fall together. Whatever tends to the benefit of the one, must in the end prove advantageous to the other. But the agricultural labourer has a greater inte- rest in the success of agriculture than any other class in the community. His stake in its prosperity * The usual price of a day's labour in America is now a dollar (4s. 2d.) Essay, by Arthur Morse, published by Anti-corn -law League. t Mr. Alison proved from authentic data, that the average of wages on the continent, 3s. ll*d. per week of 79 hours. — Alison's " Principles of Population." X This is clear, since our foreign trade is not increasing, and there are already too many engaged in supplying the home market. is even greater than the tenant farmer's. The latter is generally a man of some little available capital, and possessing a certain stock of education and general information, with which he may, if ruin overtakes his present occupation, enter into some new employment at home, or embark for another shore. But the labourer is chained to the soil on which he works. Starvation or the workhouse awaits him and his family, if he cannot gain his subsistence upon the soil on which he was born. We may talk of emigration, but there are no means of emigration for him ; he would perish with want before he reached a seaport town. Or if he embarked for another country, and reached there, he would be destitute of the means or know- ledge requisite to obtain his desired end. Again, without education, his mind is unequal to the hard task of tearing himself from his present habitation. He would starve on the spot ere he acquired energy enough to encounter the uncertain difficulties of a country unknown to him. As to seeking his living in other pursuits, it is out of the question. He is, of every class, the least fitted to overcome the difficulties of a change in occupation. Under all these circumstances, it is indispensable to him that agriculture should still flourish ; with it he must fall or rise accordingly. And when it is remembred, that, of the 13,000,000* persons engaged in agriculture, in this kingdom, more than 10,000,000 must be labourers, it becomes the subject of serious con- sideration, whether they should be protected or ruined. That agriculture would be depressed, and that most severely, without protection, we have shewn ; that the labourers must depend on agriculture is clear ; and considering the necessity of legislative protection, it therefore becomes a question, whether the nation is prepared to submit to the depression of ten millions of its people. Agricultural labourers receive many advantages from legislative protection, and those advantages are returned to the community at large ; but without protection they would be useless to others and wretched themselves. Deprive them of that, and they must submit to inhabit the same wretched hovels, be clothed with the same coarse materials, and fed on the same rye-bread and water, with their competi- tors of other nations. In fact, the advantages of legislative protection are great to labourers them- selves, and through them to all other classes. We have now accomplished the object we had in view. We have shewn that the tenant farmers and labourers, as a body, are entitled to a protection of 100 per cent.; in other words, that foreigners can sell, on the average, at one-half the price which the British can. AVe have shewn that they now receive a protection, varying from 28 per cent, to 4 per cent. ; and therefore, this is, to that extent, advan- tageous. We have not attempted to shew how it is that they have been enabled to struggle on, at a direct disadvantage already of 70 per cent. The immense losses which landlords are compelled to bear annually from ruined tenants ; the diminished and rapidly diminishing capitals of those tenants ; * In round numbers, estimating them at one- half the population, they would be 13,415,843. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 the landlords receiving 2 and 2\ per cent, for wealth in the shape of land, which, in other forms, they might receive 4 or 5 per cent, for ; the inventions (and necessity is the mother of invention), and shifts to which agriculturists have been compelled to resort : all these things must furnish answers to that question. And it should be remembered that there is no argument against legislative protection to be drawn from the fact of depression in agricul- ture existing with it. Our object has been to shew that tenants and labourers receive advantages from legislative protection, small as that protection may be ; and at the same time to shew that that pro- tection ought to be greater. We have moreover shewn that legislative pro- tection is productive of many advantages to labour- ers and tenants respectively ; advantages, which, although not indispensable, have had great influence in enabling agriculturists to withstand the ruinous effects of a reduction in that protection, and in promoting the comfort of those classes generally. In estimating these advantages and disadvantages, we have considered them independent of any other class whatever. They are just those under which they exist, when compared with their competitors of other nations. We think, therefore, that our purpose is accomplished. Before we conclude, we will advert to the oft quoted plea, that those thrown out of employment by the removal of protection, might find it in other occupations. This is untenable and absurd. Manu- facturers cannot employ even the present surplus population ; how then could they employ millions more, with a diminished home trade, and no ex- tension of the foreign ? Six millions of agricultur- ists would be thrown out of employment by a free-trade in food; this would reduce the home trade in manufactures one-fourth, or thirty-two millions per annum. Now, a foreign trade to the same amount must be added to the present, before one of the six millions could be employed, and where is there a promise of this ? To employ those six millions would require a further foreign trade of one hundred millions sterling. Where could it be obtained ? Our present foreign trade is not more than fifty millions sterling annually ; and every attempt to increase it, by offering terms of reciprocity, and making advances towards the free introduction of foreign staple produce, has been followed by immediate restrictions on our manu- factures ; whereby the foreign trade has actually decreased, in proportion to our increase of popu- lation. Where then, can we hope to obtain a foreign trade of two hundred millions annually, which alone can compensate us for the removal of agricultural protection? It is weakness — it is palpable delusion, to suppose it even possible. Legislative protection is necessary to the existence of the present proportion of tenant farmers and labourers, and their existence is necessary to that of the manufacturers, whilst these are both essen- tial to the prosperity of the whole community — to the welfare and even existence of this independent nation. Thus the nation is dependant for its pros- perity, in the chief degree, on legislative protection to agriculturists. Without it, all will be depressed; with it, all may nourish. And well would it be for society at large, if that protection was greater than it is, for, at the present rate, foreign competition will soon ruin many, and seriously injure all. A national debt is artificial ; civilization itself is artificial ; and these two artificial circumstances require artificial regulations. When wars and ru- mours of wars are no more heard of, when civiliza- tion becomes generally equal, when justice rules man instead of self-interest, and when the present national' distinctions no longer exist, then may we think of free trade between nation and nation. But until this occurs, nations must be content to preserve their prosperity and independence by legislative protection. IMPORTANT DECISION UNDER THE TITHE COMMUTATION ACT. TOMLINSON, CLERK V. SIR F. BOUGHEY, BART., AND ANOTHER. This was a rule, lately heard in the Common Pleas, calling upon the defendants to shew cause why they should not accept an issue under the Tithe Commuta- tion Act, 6 and 7 William IV., chap. 71, sec. 76, by way of appeal from the decision of the Assistant Tithe Com- missioner. The point raised was new. The plaintiff is the rector of the parish of Stoke-upon-Trent, and the defendants are the devisees in trust of certain lands within that parish, in respect of which they had set up no less than 14 different modusses. Of these 14 mo- dusses, 10 were decided in favour of the defendants, and 4 in favour of the rector. No question arose about the latter moduses, but it appeared that the aggregate value of the payment for lands, covered by the moduses, which the Assistant Tithe Commissioner had found for the defendants, was considerably above 20/., although the individual value of the payment, in respect of each farm, was below that amount. The rector, being dis- satisfied with the decision of the Commissioner, ob- tained the present rule in the course of Easter term. Cause was now shown against the rule. It was that the object of the act of Parliament would be entirely defeated if the Court should entertain the present ap- plication. The intention of the act was to make the decision of the commissioner final in every case upon which he was called on to adjudicate where the value of the payment to be made or withholden according to such decision did not exceed 20/. In the present case, the Commissioner had been obliged to give a separate decision upon the merits of each one of the farm mo- duses which had been set up by the defendants, and as the yearly value in each case was below the amount of 20/., the rector had no right to appeal from the decision of the Commissioner. Mr. Serjeant Channel, on the other side, contended that the meaning of the act was, that any person who had an interest in the matter decided, exceeding the yearly value of 20/., and who was dissatisfied with the decision of the Commissioner, might resort to an issue at law by way of appeal from his decision. The aggre- gate value of the tithes of the farms which the Com- missioner had decided were covered by the various moduses set up, was considerably above that amount, and therefore he submitted that the parties ought to have the question settled by the trial of an issue. The Court, however, after referring to the language in the 44th, 45th, and the 4Gth sections of the act, said that it appeared to them that the construction put upon the statute by the counsel for the defendants was the correct one, and discharged the ride. u THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE TURNIP CROP. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' GAZETTE. Sir, — In the whole range of practical agriculture nothing is so important as the proper management of the turnip crop : the rotation of crops depends upon it ; and if mismanagement in this prepara- tory step be made, a yearly loss is inevitable during the round of rotation. As the season of turnip sowing will shortly be round, I have attempted to lay before you the mode of operation which for many years I adopted with success, from the first to the last stage of this, the most important of all crops, in its management. Preparing the Soil. — The first process is to cross-plough the land, either by cutting the old furrows at right angles or obliquely, as convenience may suggest, then harrow the surface to fineness. If clods make their appearance, the hand wooden mallet, roller, and clod-crusher must be vigorously applied, and all weeds lifted and removed off the surface. After the first ploughing and harrowing, if the soil appears so far pulverized that it can admit the grubber, apply it ; but if in passing through the soil it causes large lumps to rise which do not crumble in pieces, its application at this stage is improper; recourse must again be had to the plough, and the rule is, to plough narrow and deep, so that the mould-board mills the clods to fineness. This is rather a severe operation for the horses, but it is the most speedy and effectual way of thoroughly reducing the soil. Harrowing, grubbing and harrowing, and the removing of weeds, alternately follow, until the soil is considered fit for drilling ; and let it never be forgot, that the finer the soil is pulverized, it attracts more moisture from the air during extreme heat and drought, never binds, and gives free access to its every particle, so that the atmospheric air acts uninterruptedly, which is the life and spirit of vege- tation. I have, however, to mention, that in giving the first ploughing as directed, it is not applicable in every case ; for instance, if the soil be of a strong, clayey nature, and not brought into a loamy state by good culture, and if by chance or bad manage- ment the stubble-furrow had been laid over when too wet, such lands in the spring of the year will become bound and hard ; and the evil to be appre- hended in ploughing across is, that the old furrow slices would be cut into square lumps, which would create an immensity of additional labour to break them down. Therefore, instead of ploughing across, plough in the same direction in which it was previously done : this process will split the old furrows, and the pressure of the mould-board will break the split furrows into smaller pieces ; by this precaution two-thirds of labour will, in many in- stances, be saved. Drilling. — This operation is performed in three different ways : when the land is properly wrought, the double mould-board plough is used in the well-known way. The next method is ad- visable when the land is not in the best condition : this is done by the common plough first opening the drill, and returning in the same track, cutting three inches or more off the new-made drill ; this allowance for cutting off must be taken in by the ploughman when opening the new drill. If this care be not taken, the drills will be formed of a bad shape, like the letter a> inverted, whereas they should be like the letter U, inverted. The next and last method is what is called cutting out : this operation is also performed with the common plough, but the land must be in the finest condi- tion before this plan is admissible. The process is this : the field is feered off into parallel sections, forty yards less or more apart : each ploughman commences at one of these feerings, and cuts out the drill off the furrow wake of the last drill, throwing out the earth always to the unbroken ground. The necessity of this speedy operation is to get the land fowarded in drilling, when the soil is in condition, and the weather favourable, so as the whole strength of the farm can be brought to bear on the operations following. This speedy method of drilling is well suited to this busy season, but it is not advisable to have the drilling too far in advance of the dunging, and other operations, as the drills are liable to become scorched in very dry weather; and the fresher the drills, the more likely the crop is to succeed. The usual width of a turnip drill is twenty-seven inches, but there will be instances when twenty- five inches will be enough; and in others when thirty inches will be required. Manuring. — When laying the manure in the drills commences, the disposable force of the farm should be so arranged, that the greatest expedition can be given to the operations. The best mode in leading out the manure is, to employ as many carts and hands as will keep one or more ploughs covering, according to the size of the farm: the force should be so balanced, that the fillers should be able to have a loaded cart at the hand of the puller out, before he has got the preceding cart emptied ; and that an empty cart be always at hand before the preceding one is filled. Not more than three persons should ever be allowed for the filling of a cart at the dung heap ; one dis- tributor, and three spreaders ; that is, one to each drill — follow the puller out, who carefully breaks and spreads the manure in the bottom of the drills. In this way the plough is pushing on the spreaders, the spreaders are pushing on the fillers, and the work is thus carried on with ease, spirit, and expe- dition. The quantity of manure for a statute acre should never be under twenty-five tons of farm- yard dung ; and there is little danger of any farmer giving his land a surcharge of this valuable article. The Deposit of Artificial Manures. — Much difficulty, and often loss, have happened in applying artificial manures to the soil. There is a safe way, if adopted, not only for the safety of the manure, but as a safeguard against the evils which have so often occurred, by the seeds being placed in too close contact with these artificial stimulants. To prevent these evils, the drills are made with the common plough, in the way before described "cutting out;" but in this operation the plough THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45 must not go so deep. The guano, bone-dust, &c, are sown on the side of the drill, or rather in the plane of the drill, which has not been covered, from the intended shallowness of the cutting-out furrow; the manures are then covered by the plough, in giving the drill what is called the sweep — this is done by the plough going in a contrary direction ; and the sweeping, earths up the lower side of the drill to the same height of the other side, and thus the manures are safely covered. It will be necessary to have at least eight or ten drills betwixt the last cut drill and the last sweeped, this will give room for the sowing of the manures ; and then the ploughman goes round and round, cutting out the one way, and sweeping up the other. Seeds. — With the different kinds of turnips, farmers are generally well acquainted ; but there is one kind to which I beg to draw your attention; it is called " Skirving's purple Top" (not a Swede); it is a hybrid betwixt the finest species of the Swede kind and that of the yellow species. This superior kind of turnip was first propagated by Mr. Skirving, farmer, Quarryholes, near Edinburgh, who is still cultivating it, and preserving its seed in the great- est purity. For these last six years I was a constant visitor of the farm of this eminent agriculturist ; and it was there I saw this turnip in its superior excellence. For the information of those who have not seen this bulb, it is in shape beautifully round- ed ; when denuded of tail and top, and a quantity of them heaped together, they have a similar ap- pearance to a pile of large cannon shot. This bulb is firm and solid, sweet to the taste, and excellent for both milk and fattening. I therefore recommend this kind as the most profitable, on good and well- prepared soils. The next variety, in point of utility, is the Aber- deen purple top yellow, which is universally culti- vated in the district from which it takes its name, to the exclusion of almost all other sorts. In the pure Swede variety, I recommend that of Mr. Skirving's, Liverpool. Sowing. — The quantity of seed necessary for an acre is of little consequence to be nicely considered, provided enough be sown; for whether thick or thin, in the first instance, the thinning afterwards will give the proper allowance of plants for the ground. From three to four pounds of turnip seed of any kind I consider quite enough per Irish acre. The best time for sowing turnip seed is in the afternoon, and as quickly after the manure has been covered in as it can be possibly done ; for it is a well-known fact, that turnip seed sown in the same field on the same day, during extreme heat, and the soil parched, will not equally braird ; that part of the field which was sown in the evening will take the lead of that part which was sown in the fore- noon during the extreme heat of the day ; and in many instances, the seed of the forenoon sowing will remain for weeks in the soil without springing, whereas seeds of the same kind sown on the same kind of ground in the evening, vegetate forthwith. The depth to which turnip seed should be depo- sited will depend much on the trim of the ground : when in a proper state, the covering that will fall over the seed will be about an inch ; when sowing over artificial manures, care must be taken that this depth is not exceeded; when sowing over farm- yard manure, deeper sowing may be tolerated ; but under no circumstance should the depth ever exceed an inch and a-half. Machines for sowing should be so constructed that the covering roller may be taken off as occa- sion may require ; for I consider covering up the seed with a roller to be, in most cases, altogether unnecessary, even when the ground is very dry, When proper care has been taken in the prepara- tion, there is no danger of turnips succeeding when the rollering has been dispensed with ; but when rolled, it has often proved otherwise. This I have proved from twenty years' experience and observa- tion ; and it can only be accounted for by observing, that in a well-pulverized soil a sufficiency of mould will of itself fall over the seed, the sides of the rut being thus left up, they serve as a protection to the infant plants in the tender stages of their growth ; also, any moisture that falls during night is thus longer preserved on their tender leaf; they are therefore not so liable to be attacked by their enemy, the " fly." If, however, the ground has not been well prepared, rolling then will be neces- sary, but the roller for this purpose should be concave, so as to roll the sides as well as the top of drill. Singling out and Finishing. — The time for singling out is known by the fordwardness of the plant : when the rough leaf is properly formed, and about an inch in length, singling may com- mence. For the distance between the plants, soil, climate, locality, and kind of seed, will direct. I may, however, state, that less than eight inches apart should not be, and more than twelve inches should never be. Care must be taken that the plants be all cleared of earth, so that the main root only has a hold of the ground. This precaution is a preventive against the evil called " fingers and toes." The first operation is, to pare the earth off each side of the plants, leaving a very narrow stripe on which the plants are growing. This paring makes the work of singling out more easily done. The different kinds of implements for paring are numerous ; when the land is well-prepared, free and mellow, any of them may do the work well ; but if the soil has become firm, or thick-set with deep-rooted weeds, the whole tribe of double paring- ploughs, grubbers, scufflers, &c, are comparatively useless. The light single paring-plough must then be applied ; and those farmers who have not one, the common swing-plough, with one horse, can be use- fully applied as a substitute. After the furrows have been taken from the plants, the horse-hoe and scufflers can then be usefully applied, in shak- ing up the weeds and breaking down the clods. Thus preparation being made, singling out should commence. The proper way for doing this operation is, to place the hoers, be they few or many, each a drill apart from his neighbour; this gives them room to work in fine, and allows each of them to get in 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. advance when the work is easy, or fall back when the work is difficult. This convenience cannot be obtained when the drills are taken abreast, each to each. The hoe for singling out should be made of steel plate, six inches in breadth and three in depth, and placed on the shaft at right angles, so as to answer the opposite actions, pulling and drawing. The hoe for the operation of cleaning is of similar metal and make, but it has a set at the neck to make it suit the hand for striking inwardly, in breaking up the earth and cutting weeds. The hand of the worker should be seldom used when singling ; he must learn to be expert in the handling of the hoe, as every particle of surface left by the paring plough about the plants must be driven down either by pushing or drawing. "When the roots of the young plants may happen to be entangled with each other or with weeds, it will then be sometimes necessary to use the hand ; but I have always observed, that those workers who use the hand often in singling, leave much of their drills unpushed and undrawn. The consequence of which is, every drill neglected in this way shows itself throughout the field, from its being more weedy and more difficult to get over in the hoeing process. When a field of turnips has been singled out and horse-hoed, the heavy part of the work is finished ; the hoeing and cleaning after this, if what is already done be well executed, will be speedily got over ; and when every weed appears to be destroyed, and the leaves of the turnips making fast way to meet each other from drill to drill, then, in dry weather, earth them gently up, not throwing the earth near the bulbs ; where the soil is dampish, make the setting-up furrow a little deeper, finish the head- lands, clear all surface-water courses, shut the gates, and nature will do the rest. — Yours, &c. James Hunter, Agriculturist. April 30, 1845. WORTLEY FARMERS' CLUB. We have been favoured with a report of the pro- ceedings of this valuable society during the last month. An introductory paper was read by Mr. G. Chambers, of High-green House. This paper was highly interest- ing, and displayed great knowledge and correct ap- preciation of all the modern improvements in agriculture. After a very able paper " On growing potatoes" had been read by Mr. R. Surtees, of Bromley, Mr. Wright read the following essay : — ON GROWING SWEDE TURNIPS. The recent improvements in the growth and manage- ment of the Swede turnip, have made it of all other crops, the most important to agriculture on those 6oils where its cultivation can be carried on ; for upon the success of this, the whole of the following crops have, in a great measure, to depend ; as well as the value of the root in feeding and maintaining the different kinds of live stock. Formerly, it was considered necessary to give the land a rest, or naked fallow, every fourth year, and even now in many districts where turnips may be grown with proper draining, this old and expensive system is still carried on. The introduction of the drill and horse hoe now enables us to keep the land ecpially as clean with a crop of Swede turnips as when fallowed, and the resting of the land (or an equivalent) is obtained by the alter- nate sowing of green and white crops, and thus render- ing the naked fallow both unnecessary and ruinous. The varieties of the Swede turnip are so very nume- rous, that it is impossible to give a list of the whole, I will therefore only name Skirving's, Mattson's, and Laing's improved, as being the most extensively cultiva- ted. Too great attention cannot be given to the selec- tion of the seed ; and I should recommend every turnip grower to raise his own, always planting the roundest, and not the largest bulbs, with fine necks ; carefully avoiding all those with a coarse and forked root, at the same time observing that too great a deficiency of the fibrous part of the root indicates a delicacy of growth, which must always be avoided. Light soils are the most adapted to the growth of the Swede turnip, but owing to the introduction of draining, they may be grown on almost every soil except stiff clays. Tull says — " All sorts of land made fine by tillage, or by tillage and manure, will serve to produce turnips, but not equally." Although turnips can be grown to advantage on lands that varyin their texture and cmality, it is always necessary to have those soils reduced to as fine a state as possible, not only for the growth of the turnip, but also in pro- moting the growth of the seeds of weeds, which are in this state more easily eradicated. The usual practice in obtain- ing this mouldy, or fine surface, is gained by giving four or five ploughings, with cross dragging, rolling, harrow- ing, &c, the first ploughing being given in the autumn, and leaving the ground as rough as possible, so as to have a greater surface exposed to the action of the winter's frost. Any further remarks on the usual routine of working or pulverizing the soil will be unnecessary, as it is so generally known ; but in clearing the land of twitch or wirks, which are so prevalent in this neigh- bourhood, I shall strongly recommend the broad share plough, or scarifier, to be used about four inches deep, as soon as the wheat crop is taken off, and the land harrowed and dressed before autumnal ploughing. By this means, the broad share of the plough, being kept under, but still as near to the roots of the wirks as can be, the whole of them are kept on the surface, and one half the expense of cleaning is consecmently saved, and one dressing will clear out the whole when well managed ; whereas, by the general and present method of plough- ing first, the whole get buried, and several dressings are required before they can be picked out. On some of the stronger soils, where turnips are grown, I often notice water standing in large pools through the winter ; this ought to be carefully looked after and avoided, as it is certain to destroy or prevent the winter's rate, and increase the expense of working the land, as well as checking the growth of the turnip in its youngest and most precarious stage. After pulverising and working the soil, the next con- sideration is the application of manure, to supply which the greatest economy of the fold-yard manure is neces- sary, for it has always been found that the swede turnip grows better with this than any other manure. In order to save, and increase this as much as possible, I have always found it the best plan to prepare a bottom, or foundation of soil, about 12 or 14 inches thick (in or as near to the turnip field as may be) on which to make the manure heap, carefully avoiding any carting on this bottom before a covering of manure is first thrown on, as the wheels of the carts will compress the soil too much to allow it to absorb the liquid that drains from the manure. When the manure is not wanted to be used soon, as much of it should be carted on the heap as pos- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 sible after securing the soil at the bottom from the pres- sure of the cart wheels, as this prevents the heap from heating and wasting ; the whole should then have a covering of soil about three inches thick. About three weeks before wanted, the manure and soil should be turned over and mixed, when the soil will be found to have absorbed the whole of the drainage and evaporation of the heap, and equal in quality to the rest of the ma- nure, as well as having increased the quantity one-third. Unfortunately, it generally happens, even after the strictest economy, that most turnip growers find a scar- city of fold-yard manure, and are compelled to resort to bones, rape-dust, guano, butchers' manure, and ashes, &c. The latter compost (costing about 12s. per acre besides labour of turning, riddling, &c, and about twelve loads of fold-yard manure) I have seen drilled on one farm for 16 years successively, and producing an average crop of about twenty-eight tons of swedes per acre. Another compost easily made by every turnip grower, and now strongly recommended, is a mixture of the refuse of whale oil and ashes, or common soil, applying at the rate of fourteen gallons per acre, and costing 10s. 6d. besides carriage. This mixture, used with fold-yard manure, I have no doubt will answer for the swede turnip, and I intend giving it a trial this sea- son. This manure I remember having seen applied to some cold grass land in Leicestershire, when, from all appearance, the crop of hay was doubled, or nearly so. And in referring to the Farmer's Magazine for Feb- ruary, 1843, I find that at the annual exhibition of the Sussex Express Root Show, two samples of swede tur- nips among the extra productions were the subject of considerable inquiry : one was grown by R. Gray, Esq., at Barcombe, with bran as a manure ; the other by T. Richardson, Esq., in the same parish, with oil as a ma- nure, &c. After going on at some length, the same re- port states, that " It should be borne in mind that fish oil, until it has undergone a chemical change, is injurious to both seed and plant ; it is consequently applied after having been incorporated with wood ashes, in which there is a quantity of potash ; this immediately changes the oil into soap, and the manure, therefore, actually is soap, and not oil, when thrown upon the land. When wood ashes are not readily to be obtained, the oil mixed with soda, dissolved in water, will produce the change necessary for its becoming a useful and active manure, and may then be incorporated with road-scrapings, or other materials to fit it for drilling." Bones for many years have been employed as the principal bought manure for swede turnips, and such has been their success on every soil on which they have been tried, that the preference is generally given them before every other bought tillage, and particularly so, as the following crops are invariably found to receive the greatest benefit from them ; this is more distinctly visible after a failing crop of turnips. Nevertheless, the great outlay of capital at the moment being to the large turnip growers a serious consideration, many have been induced to use the cheaper and more perishable manures, in lieu of bones, and probably calculating that a good crop of swedes will be the means of producing good succeeding crops ; but as all are subject to a failure in this crop, even with the best management, it necessarily follows that good husbandry demands a selection of those manures that will benefit the following crops. The boiled bones have been strongly recommended as prefer- able to the raw ones ; this at first I did think un- reasonable, as the fatty substance must be lost by boil- ing ; but on considering this more closely, I am obliged to alter my opinion, because in every instance I have heard of their having been tried, I find the boiled are more easily decomposed and made available as food for plants, and the purchaser gets a greater bulk of the bone if the fatty substance is extracted in boiling. Professor Springel in naming the phosphate of lime in hones as a manure, states that it is this substance, to which bones chiefly owe their manuring quality, is proved satisfac- torily by the circumstances that even burnt bones, in which, therefore, the whole of the cartilage containing nitrogen is destroyed, still yield a superior manure. Of this I have become convinced by comparative experi- ments, which I repeated more than once. The application of sulphuric acid and bones has lately been tried in Scotland, and the results communicated to the Royal Agricultural Society by the Duke of Rich- mond, from whence it appears that this mixture not only increased the weight of the crops of the Swede very materially, at a cost of one-third less than manures tried at the same time, but also forced the young turnip into rough leaf, and ready for hoeing from four to ten days before the others. For the particulars see Farmer's Magazine, August, 1843. Rape-dust by many has been reported to have an- swered uncommonly well for swede turnips. The quantity generally used is from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per acre. There has been a great difference in opinion as to the most proper method of applying this manure — some advocating the cakes only to be broken into small lumps, whilst others very justly contend that if ground into dust it is preferable, as it will go farther. The best plan is to sow it broad-cast before splitting the drills, as by this means it becomes more evenly mixed with the soil, which ought always to be the case with all the most powerful manures, as many of them, when drilled and placed in immediate contact with the seed, I have no doubt destroy vegetation instead of promoting it. Guano, another powerful manure, has recently been introduced, and is perhaps used to a greater extent than any other manure for this crop. The many reports of the im- mense weight of swedes, after an application of from 2 to 3 cwts. per acre, are a convincing proof of its im- portance. Still in a great many instances I have heard bitter complaints of its failure, and this I attribute chiefly to the method of applying it. Last year in one field, with twelve loads of fold-yard manure, I had swedes drilled with 2 cwts. of guano per acre — the guano mixed with a fair cart-load of ashes to the 2 cwts. The land was apparently in a beautiful state, with every prospect of a good crop. Yet, throughout the whole field scarcely any of the turnips got into rough leaf. The same occurrence I noticed in 1842, which, I have no doubt, was owing to the guano being in too great a body, and in contact with the seed ; for in passing through Wentworth last September, I noticed a large field sown with swedes, and varying very much in ap- pearance— a small portion with as good a crop as I almost ever saw — the remainder very thin. On inquiring the treatment, I found the guano was sown broad-cast before the drills were split on the better part, and drilled with the seed on the larger and worst part, thus show- ing very plainly that the most advisable and best plan is to distribute this manure evenly in the soil, and not confine it in the drills too close to the seed. The quantity of seed necessary to be sown may vary on different soils, but the best plan is to sow plenty as the cost is very trifling. Two pounds are, in every instance, considered plenty. I would never sow less. The time of sowing the swede turnip depends upon the soil as well as the climate. In this neighbourhood I shouid recommend sowing as near to the 20th May as possible ; as here I have always found the earliest sown the best, whilst in Nottinghamshire, on the south of the Trent, I have invariably found all swedes sown before June were taken by the mildew when about half grown. The depth of drilling the seed requires more attention than is generally paid to it. In a dry season, if put in 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. too shallow, there is always a deficiency of moisture to force the plant into rough leaf; and if drilled too deep, there is a risk of the seed growing or not coming up evenly. I think the most advisable depth is about an inch, not less ; but this opinion I must particularly ask you to discuss, because it is a point on which I have some doubt. The best system of sowing is with the drill, as upon this plan the turnips, being in rows, are left more evenly on the land with the hand hoe ; and the horse hoe (with very little expense) keeps the intermediate space between the rows perfectly clean. The usual distance between the rows is about twenty-seven inches, as this allows the cart wheels to get between the ridges with the manure without carting on to the fine mould. Another advantage by working on this plan is, the manure being placed at the bottom of the drill is completely buried, which is never the case on the old broad cast system. The hoeing of the swede turnips requires great care, always giving them plenty of room, and leaving the strongest and healthiest plants ; the best distance to leave them will vary from ten to fourteen inches apart in the rows, where they are drilled twenty-seven or twenty-eight inches ; but instead of leaving the plants even in distance, for mere form, I would have the strongest, or master plants, always left, if nearer, but so that the general average be not less than ten or four- teen inches. The proper time for first hand hoeing or thinning, is as soon as the turnips get into rough leaf. Many farmers advocate leaving much thicker the first time over, as the plant is so very precarious in its first growth, and this is a point that requires a deal of judg- ment, according to the season, &c, because in a dry season there is great risk, whilst in a moist one little or none. The horse hoe should always precede the first hoeing or thinning, as it saves much hand labour and the work gets better done. The after hoeing every farmer ought to regulate according to the season and state of his land, for if he will make a point of keeping his tur- nips free from weeds, and by frequent horse and hand hoeings, keep the surface of the land in a pulverised state, instead of allowing it to get set hard , he can never get far wrong. Having thus stated my opinion of the growth and ma- nagement of the swede turnip, and quoted what I consi- der the most desirable selection of opinions worthy of notice, I shall be happy to be corrected where wrong, or should any further explanation be required from you, to carry out any point I have now brought forward, I shall have great pleasure in giving it. Mr. R. Fisher proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Wright for his paper, which was seconded by Mr. Cham- bers, and carried unanimously. — Doncaster Gazette. CATTLE EPIDEMIC IN IRELAND.— AN EX- AMPLE TO LANDLORDS. — On its being made known to Capt. Stackpoole, R.N., who resides at Mil- ford, in Ireland, that the entire of the Cattle of Michael Finucane (one of his tenants), of Caherconlish, had died of the prevailing epidemic, with the benevolent spirit of a true British tar he at once ordered his agent to allow half the value to the poor man in his rent. In the answer given to the Landlord and Tenant Commission in Ireland by the Rev. Dean Coll, of Newcastle (county of Limerick), we find that the epidemic there will call loudly on the landlords to follow the above worthy example : he is asked — " Are the small tenantry getting richer ? " " No, I do not believe any of the farmers are getting richer. I believe for some years every farmer has been declining. The disease among cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs, and the severe seasons and low markets, have brought the whole farming popu- lation to a state of decline ." LANDLORD AND TENANT. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Much is constantly said about the majority of farmers carying on the old jog-trot system ; and there is no doubt that the majority are not keeping pace with the improvements in other branches of society. But it is in a great measure to be attributed to the old customs in the letting of farms, which the tenantry have to abide by to the present day, which are of so prejudicial a nature, as to quite preclude them from making improvements, and farming on the most improved system. The farms are let under a yearly tenure, and when a tenant quits, he is not allowed for manures made on the land ; which, on a farm of two hundred acres, well culti- vated, would amount to six or eight hundred pounds. No allowance for new buildings, or any other improve- ments of that description. And no allowance for drain- ing after the expiration of ten years. With regard to manures ; the landlords argue if the tenant paid for none when he entered, he has no claim for any when quitting. But the quantity and quality made at the present day are fourfold, compared with a few years ago. And in the onset, how is the quantity and quality obtained ? The farmer does not find so many manure heaps raised up, as if a descent had taken place from the clouds, or an eruption from the bowels of the earth. No, they are raised by the farmer spending his capital in the purchase of bones, guano, and other fertili- zers, of a very costly nature. And the quality is obtained by giving the cattle plenty of linseed cake, corn, &c. ; although they are quite aware they can never half pay for such food. But it is the manure that is so desirable. Presume the same customs prevail in the letting of shops ; and a grocer takes to a shop doing little business, but by perseverance he increases his connexion fourfold : he must therefore increase his stock in the same ratio. The land- lord gives him notice to quit, or he wishes to quit on his owd account ; he is allowed to remove his tea and coffee, but must leave the sugar for the landlord (what a sweetener it would be) ! The farmer is precisely so situa- ted. If manure is not live stock, it is dead stock, purchased by the tenant ; and the landlord has no more claim to it, than he has to the live stock, carriages, or implements : he has a right to be paid for it, or be allowed to remove it, as the occupier of a mill can re- move the machinery, or a shopkeeper his stock and fix- tures. This is one of the great barriers to improvement, for what sensible man will expend his capital in bones and guano, when the next year he may have a six months' notice to quit, without a shilling compensation ? The custom is becoming more common. I could enume- rate several instances where the tillages have been taken from tenants within the last few years. As regards compensation for new buildings, aud other improvements of that description, where such improve- ments can be shown to be indispensable to a farm, as conveniences, the tenant has a right to be paid. The landlord is, in a many instances, never seen by the tenantry ; and the steward is only visible on audit day, when he has neither money, time, nor commands to make improvements. And are we not told by the agricultu- ral professors that it is almost as necessary to erect liquid manure tanks, as it is for a man to have a house to live in ? And are we not told at every farmers' club in the country, that the soiling of cattle not only economizes the quantity of food, but prevents them imbibing an ex- cess of oxygen, which retards their fattening ? If a tenants wishes to adopt the economical system, and has 40 head of cattle, but only convenience for the soiling of 20, what is he to do ? He must either build conveniences, or pursue the old plan. And what security has he for building under a yearly tenure ? Why, none ; but a pretty THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. 49 good surety that his landlof d will either send his agent or valuer, who will not take these matters into con- sideration, but raises the rent. As regards the subject of draining, the time formerly allowed was twenty-one years. It was reduced to fourteen, and is now reduced to ten. This operation is no doubt the foundation of good farming, but a most costly one. It is the opinion of the most eminent man in the country, on the subject of draining, Mr. Smith, of Deanston, that if properly executed, it will stand one hundred years. It is also his opinion that there is little or no benefit derived the first two or three years, particularly if the seasons are wet, for the clay must become thoroughly contracted before the drains can act. Then why should the tenant farmer who does the rough and dirty work, lose both principal and interest at the expiration of ten years ? in fact, you may say at the expiration of seven or eight, the first few years not acting. What encouragement for a man under a yearly tenure to expend his capital ! We are told by the landlords, the reason why the farmers do not progress in improvements is because they are too poor. Are not such customs in the letting of farms the very way to keep them poor ? It must either jeopar- dize his capital, or prevent him improving and bettering his condition. In fact, the customs are what Mr. Mechi has most truly denominated them, " a facile appro- priation of the tenant's capital to the landlord's own use." To show the unfair advantage of the system, I will enumerate one instance for example, where a family have been on a farm perhaps fifty years, which on their en- tering, was overrun with indigenous plants, and perhaps not twenty pounds worth of manure on the place ; it is now in a high state of cultivation, thoroughly drained, and a heavy sum expended on the buildings. In times of high prices of corn, the rent has been regularly raised (but not lowered when the depression came), till the te- nant now finds that he is unable to meet the present low prices ; he communicates with his landlord, explaining the cause, and wishes to know if he will compel to emit on the same terms he entered ; he answers him " deci- dedly so ;" but mark the anomaly between entering and quitting: he must leave a thousand pounds in manure, several hundreds spent on the buildings, and a many hundreds in thorough-draining. Therefore, can it for a moment be astonishing why farming should have made so little progress, when such customs are in usage in three fourths of England ? As long as landlords have such advantages over their tenantry, so long will agriculture be kept in the back ground ; so long must the labourer endure a scarcity of labour ; and so long will the system be a public evil. With yearly tenures, the landlord would always have a great advantage over his tenantry, if the tenants were paid for improvements. It is neither difficult nor ex- pensive for a landlord to write a tenant his mittimus; and if he lets his land at a times rent, there is invariably a te- nant to be found. The tenant not only suffers great in- convenience, but often great loss, obliged to sell his stock and implements at a sacrifice, besides the trouble and expense of removing. How are the grievances to be remedied ? They never will between landlord and te- nant. It must become the law of the land to pay for manures and improvements. What system could be more just and equitable than one valuer appointed by the landlord, a second by the tenant, and an umpire chosen before the day of valuation, whose decision, if necessary to be had, should be final ? The tenant to be paid for all manures and fertilizers, and for the erection of new buildings, for a term of 21 years, and for all draining done in an effectual manner for the term of 21 years, for claying and marling as the custom may be. Lord Portmau is about to introduce a bill for protect- ing the tenant farmer ; so that now is the time for the tenant farmers to evince their feelings on the subject, and petition the legislature from every county and pa- rish in the country for their rights. And I trust the ex- ample will be set by the members of the Norton Far- mers' Club, who are at all times ready to establish justice and equity, wmich ought to be the motto between land- lord and tenant. I am sir, yours respectfully, An Agriculturist. THEORY OF BONE MANURE. By Mr. J. Towers, Mem. Roy. Agric. Soc. of England. It is astonishing in how short a time an entire change of opinion may be brought about by cir- cumstances which were not at all foreseen, nor even suspected. Refeiring to an encyclopaedia, in a volume printed in 1836, under the head Bones we meet with the following remarks and conjectures : — " Bones have been of late years very extensively used as manure, especially on poor lands and gravels." " By their means large tracts of barren heaths have been converted into fertile fields. Most of the bones procured from London and the manufacturing towns have undergone the process of boding, by which the oil and a great part of the gelatine (or animal jelly) which they contain have been extracted." " All those who have used bones extensively, report that little difference can be observed. Some give the preference to those from which the oil and glue have been extracted ; but oil and glue form excellent manure. How is this to be explained?" "The fat and gelatine being in- timately blended with the bony matter, and con- tained in cavities or cells, may remain a long time in the earth without decomposition. As a proof of this, it has been found that bones which had lain in the earth for many centuries, on spots where ancient battles were fought, afforded, on analysis, nearly as much gelatinous matter as fresh bones would have done." This remark my own experience has partially confirmed ; for, upon opening a vine-bed, wherein a quantity of cracked ox and sheep bones had been placed in 1836, I found that eight years had pro- duced no apparent change, other than that of dis- colouration, owing to the deposition of some oxide of iron, which conferred a brown and yellow tint. I had heard and read much about the ramification of myriads of fine fibrous vine-roots among the tissue and in all the apertures, but am constrained to confess that, while I traced this ramification from some other vegetable roots, I discovered very few from those of the vine. It is stated that the great effect of bones most likely depends on the phosphate of lime : — " But a closer examination of the fields manured with bones has led us to surmise that much of their importance depends on the mechanical texture of the bone, and on its power of absorbing and re- taining moisture ; for if a plant which vegetates oQ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. with peculiar vigour in a field manured with bones be pulled up, it will almost invariably be found that small pieces of bone are attached to the roots; and when these are minutely examined, the smaller fibres of the roots will be found to have grasped them, and to pervade their cavities, which will always be found more or less moist." " The moisture, then, and a small portion of the remaining gelatine dissolved in it, form the food on which the plant has thriven. The more the bones have undergone fermentation, the more soluble the gelatine will be. This accounts for the seeming anomaly of boiled bones — they have undergone a fermentation. The residue, although not deprived of all its animal matter, is much more porous, and will imbibe and retain moisture in its pores. The food of the plants is here ready prepared and dis- solved, and kept in store, without being in danger of being washed through a porous soil, or evapo- rated by the heat. The solid substance, which is chiefly phosphate af lime, has a stimulating effect," (bow stimulating, and what does the expression imply ?) — " and assists that of the more soluble parts. But phosphate of lime is not soluble in water, and does not decompose readily in the earth; its effect, therefore, is not so great as to account for the general result. In stiff clays the pieces of bone are bedded in a tough substance, which pre- vents their decomposition ; and in very wet soils the advantage of these small but numerous reser- voirs of moisture is lost. Hence it is easily seen why bones are of less use in such soils." The above extract, which appears to comprise all that was known, or rather conjectured, of the availability of bones as a manure chiefly for turnips, clovers, and pasture grass ; and I give it, not with any view to enlighten the agriculturist, but to de- monstrate the contracted limits of our information at a very recent period. Four years only from that time had elapsed, when Liebig's Organic Chemistry announced and proved the very great, nay para- mount, utility of " trustworthy investigations of the fishes of plants" — the products of combustion, scientifically conducted, with a view to detect the true inorganic constituents of each individual. In attempting to present a tolerably clear and accurate view of the chemical agency of bones, I may claim some authority, as perhaps I am now the only chemist alive in whose laboratory the phosphate of soda was manufactured, in the large way, for the medical practitioners, soon after its discovery and announcement by the late Dr. Pearson. Before I iefer more particularly to a process which will elucidate the entire theory of bone-manuring, it will be right to adduce some facts which have been recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. There I find, in the following short letter from the Duke of Richmond, and in a note appended by Mr. Pusey : — " On the solution of bones in sulphuric acid for the purposes of manure. — My Dear Pusey, — 1 1 have not yet received the details of the experiments i tried by the Morayshire Farmers' Club with sul- j phuric acid and bones, but I know that the result has been most satisfactory. On my own farm, which is a light sandy soil, I tried one acre with it, ' another with guano, and a third with stable-yard dung. Early in November I had a quarter of an acre of each drawn and weighed. The heaviest crop was from the land manured with the sulphuric acid, though it did not cost me above lis. or 1 Is. 6d. an acre. I understand also that the turnips came into rough leaf sooner on that acre than on any of the others. — Believe me yours, sincerely, " Richmond." " London, December 9, 1843. Xote. — The experiments contained in this letter bear out those of the Morayshire Farmers' Club, the details of which appeared in the last Journal, and affords good hope that this, the most important saving which was ever held in the use of manure, will be found generally useful. For those details I must refer to that paper, merely mentioning now that in one trial a bushel of bones, to which sul- phuric acid had been applied, exceeded in its effects six bushels used in the common way. Mr. Pusey then alludes to the chemical composi- tion of bones, and takes a view of them correspond- ing in many particulars with that I have already given in the extract from the cncyclopcedia. Space will not admit of farther quotations, therefore I will at once come to the practical evidence afforded by the processes of the laboratory. Premising, then, that ox and sheep bones consist (on the authority of Fourcroy and Vauquelin) of— Parts. Solid Cartilages, Gelatine, and Oil . 51. Phosphate of Lime 37.7 Carbonate of Lime 10. Phosphate of Magnesia . " . . . 1.3 100. We have 51 parts which can he partly extracted in the forms of oil and size by simple digestion and boiling in water, and wholly decomposed by the agency of combustion. The elements of these 51 parts yielded by combustion, prove them to be oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and some azote or nitrogen. Now, in our process to obtain Dr. Pearson's tasteless purging salt, chemically termed (then natron phosphoratum, but now) " phosphate of soda," the bones were placed in iron cylindrical retorts, terminating at the farther extremity in a nozzle, to which were adapted pipes to receive and convey the gaseous and fluid products. The ma- chinery and furnaces, in a word, closely resembled those now employed in the coal-gas works, and the bones were ignited to redness much in the same way as the coals. The liquids obtained were im- pure ammonia (hartshorn) contaminated by abund- ance of foetid animal oil. Here we perceive the union of the elements of water and of ammonia ; the former being hydrogen and oxygen, the latter hydrogen and azote. A volume of carbon vapour must also have been extricated, and recombined with hydrogen and oxygen in the animal oil. When these fluids had passed oft", the bones or animal charcoal, then heated to redness, retained their figure, and, if suffered to cool in the retort, would have remained quite black, in the condition of ivory black. But the doors of the retort were immediately unluted, and the contents withdrawn THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 51 as quickly as possible, when, by the attraction of oxygen from the open air, they burst into flame, and the carbon remaining in them was consumed, passing off in the state of carbonic acid gas. Thus, then, the 51 parts per cent, were disposed of, leaving the 49 parts to be accounted for ; but these represented the inorganic constituents of the bone. It is now plain that by boiling and burning we get rid of the elements of humus and of ammonia; and, in so doing, relieve the bone from those sub- stances which coat and entangle it, while they also prevent the operation of the soil and plant-roots upon those other elements which are required for specific purposes. The theory of humus has, from the first, been problematical ; and while it was received as the sole interpreter of vegetable nutrition, philosophers and practical men floundered about amidst difficulties and contradictory perplexities. Carbonic acid was referred to as the sine qua non, and so long as any substance could be deposited in the land which might be made to yield that gas it was believed that enough was done. The more recent discoveries have, however, proved that, while farm-yard manure contains an ample store of that decomposing animal and vege- table matter which is finally resolvable into black humus or vegetable mould, applicable to every soil and plant, there are other constituents of each indivi- dual plant which require specific manures for their especial nutriment. And now, to come to the point at once, if it can be clearly shewn by analysis that a sound well-grown turnip does contain bone-ash — that trefoil exhibits vestiges of gypsum — and that lucerne yields a very considerable portion of phosphates — then we can distinctly assert that, be the quantity of humus in the soil what it may, it is utterly incapable of furnishing one particle of those inorganic salts which, nevertheless, must be derived from the soil, and not from the atmosphere. Bones deprived of their decomposible organic elements contain 49 parts per cent, of salts of lime. Now, in order to produce phosphoric acid from th£se salts, the bones, rendered white by their final combustion, were placed in deep leaden vessels; and so much water was added as completely to cover them with an inch stratum in excess. Con- centrated sulphuric acid was then poured with great caution over this water in a small stream, till, in the end, whatever was the weight of the bones, just one-half of that quantity of acid was superadded, while a man with a wooden oar stirred the contents of the vessel. The first operation of the acid was to seize the lime existing in the form of a carbonate — thus liberating, with strong effervescence, a volume of carbonic aerial acid. In this process, 10 parts of the 49 were, by com- bining with their equivalent of sulphuric acid, con- verted into about 1 1 of sulphate of lime, in round numbers ; that is, supposing in every 100 parts of carbonate of lime there are 44 or 45 parts of car- bonic acid. Artificial gypsum, therefore, was the first product of treating calcined bones with sul- phuric acid. The effervescence having ceased, the remainder of the sulphuric acid was employed in liberating the super-phosphate of lime, by combining with the basal lime of the bone-phosphate, and thus producing a proportionate additional quantity of artificial gypsum or sulphate of lime. Let any one burn a few bones in a common furnace till they become white, and to one pound placed in a stoneware jar add one ouai't of rain water, and then about half-a-pound of the strongest sulphuric acid. By slow degrees, and in a few days, if the mixture be occasionally stirred with a stick, the decomposition will be completed, and a thick mass, called, by some writers, "gruel of bones," will be the result. If this mass be put into a jelly bag of coarse linen, a clear pale-yellow fluid will draw off, after which, water should be poured upon the Alter till the fluid no longer has an acid taste. The filtrated liquid is the phosphoric acid of the bone, holding in solution a considerable portion of phosphate of lime, while the residuum in the bag is gypsum. The agriculturist may thus learn what he effects by treating bones with sulphuric acid ; for he will discover that he not only obtains a super-phosphate of great importance to any crop which contains, and therefore requires, this chemical agent as its peculiar element, but that, in addition, he has acquired a great bulk of that valuable salt called gypsum, (sulphate of lime). That the clear liquid is not pure phosphoric acid is readily shewn by heating it in an earthen vessel, and adding, till the hissing ceases, a quantity of carbonate of soda. A copious white sediment will be separated, and the clear liquid will be a weak solution of phosphate of soda, that the salt originally announced as a purgative by Dr. Pearson. This liquid evaporated by simmering, will form rhom- boidal crystals of phosphate of soda. I have thus endeavoured to shew in plain terms, without entering into any atomic minutice, the pre- cise composition of bones. As to the fact alluded to in the first quotation, that " the food of plants is ready prepared in bones that have been boiled, and that the roots will be found to have grasped the bones, and to pervade their cavities," it just amounts to, and proves nothing more than, the adhesive pertinacity with which the roots of any plant cleave to the bottom and sides of a porous garden pot. Here they find no prepared gelatine, nothing, in a word, but diffused water — moisture so distributed as neither to glut nor swamp the most delicate fibre ; and, indeed, so long as the porous medium of baked clay can thus be retained in that state of saturation, most plants will thrive with superior luxuriance. As to manures soluble in soils, we know nothing of them ; every direct experiment evinces that the rootlets, while uninjured, cannot inhale the smallest particle of even colouring matter, although it is equally proved that, by am- putation, a woody twig will imbibe ink and red solutions, and convey them even to the leaves and blossoms ; water, therefore, alone, or holding salts in solution, (as soda, potassa, and the phosphates with a saline base, or gases developed by vital agency), appears, upon the above cited evidence, to be the only terrene aliment of vegetable bodies, since, moreover, it is certain that humus accumulates in all cultivated soils. ij Q 5-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. But recurring to undecomposed bones, whether crushed, ground to small pieces, or to the finest dust, they are so guarded by the animal matters as to resist the energy of either soil or plant, and, for a considerable period, that even of strong sulphuric acid. Yet they can be acted upon by that acid ; for I have obtained phosphate of soda from crude bones. The speedy and determinate effect produced upon a crop of turnips, recorded by the Dnke of Richmond and Mr. Pusey, depends upon the free condition of the super-phosphate. Admitting that it is not traceable in the turnip, while in that con- dition, it is not the less certain that, if chalk exists in the soil, the salt, which will be formed by its combination with the acid, will still be phosphate of lime, which, being a fresh product, and in an extremely divided state, can be attracted and taken up by the roots of the vegetables at the precise moment when it is immediately required. Our colleges and seminaries, forming now or contemplated, for the instruction of rising agricul- turists, ought to enter deeply into such researches, and make apparent those facts which, at present, are receive as speculative theories. — Quarterly Jour- nal of Agriculture. A FEW REMARKS ON THE LARGE HEDGES AND SMALL ENCLOSURES OF DEVONSHIRE AND THE ADJOIN- ING COUNTIES. By John Grant, Surveyor axd Land Agent. From the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society- Every practical farmer coming into Devonshire for the first time is struck with the fertility of the soil and the genial climate with which the county is fa- voured. He maynot be equally struck with the quality of the fanning, though this has of late made an immense stride; but he is certainly astonished at the small quantity of the produce of the soil returned per acre, a much greater being produced in districts im- measurably behind Devon in natural advantages. A superficial observer places this to the credit, or rather discredit of the farmer : the practical man is not long in discerning that not the least of the causes is the baneful effect of the high hedgerows and small enclosures, which add so much beauty to the scene at so great a cost to the landlord and tenant. Struck with these reflections, I resolved to make some actual measurements, in order that the landed gentry and agriculturists of the county might see the full extent of the evil. At the present time there is a strong tendency towards improvement in fanning ; the general opinion being that none of the sciences is in so backward a state. But no very great advance can be made in this, and a great part of the adjoining counties, so long as the enclosures are so small, and the hedges so many and so large, that upwards of 7 per cent, of the land is occupied, besides that which is otherwise injured by them. " What/' it ' has been asked me by more than one intelligent and extensive farmer, " is the use of our being told that we should study practical chemistry, and copy the example of farmers in better cultivated districts, if we are not allowed to enlarge our fields by taking down those immense banks, or even to cut down the wood growing on them but once in seven years, and then only that which has not been previously marked for rearing ? Look at what I lose from the shade of those hedges and trees, besides what they actually occupy. For nearly a ridge wide on each side the corn is hardly worth reaping." And who can deny that this is discouraging ? Is it not to be seen everywhere in the county, and every year the same? The necessity of making extensive alteration in this respect will, I tmst be evident by consulting the following table, which gives the total number of acres in each of ten parishes, all within a circuit of 15 miles of Exeter, and extending over a dis- trict of twenty miles ; varying from 700 to 9,000 acres, and amounting to nearly 37,000 aci-es. It also gives the number of miles of hedge, the num- ber of acres and per centage occupied by them ; the number of cultivated enclosures of different sizes above half an acre, all under that size being left out as gardens, &c. No enclosures are taken into account but such as are cultivated by the fanner ; that is such as are arable, pasture, or orchard. Coppices, woods, plantations. &c, are not included, as these are in the most cases in the hands of the landlords. The tithe apportionments have been my authority for the number of fields of different sizes. Fractions have been as much as possible avoided, as being unnecessary, and to prevent confusion. In some of the parishes there are parks, commons, and large woods, which, if deducted, woidd make the per centage much greater on the portions which are divided. In the table it is shown that in the parish of Hux- ham, containing 7(32 acres, there are 34 miles of hedge, which occupy 54 acres, being 7 per cent., or 1 acre in 14. There are 55 in every 100 fields under 4 acres; 9 of 10 acres and upwards, being 142 acres in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 1(3 fields, or in 100 acres. There is a portion of the parish, containing 84i acres, in which there are 5 miles of hedge, containing about 8 acres ; being 9i per cent., or 1 in 10J. Lately there have been more than 3 miles of hedge taken down, thus saving between 5 and 6 acres. In the parish of St. George's Clyst, containing about 1,040 acres, there are 52 miles of hedge, occupying 83 acres, being 8 per cent., or 1 in 12 L There are 126, or about half the number of fields, under 3 acres ; 1 6 3, or 61 of every 100 fields, under 4 acres ; 9 of 10 acres and upwards : being 264 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 30 fields, or in 115 acres. In the upper half of this parish the hedges occupy 10 per cent., but the large marshes in the lower half reduce it to 8 per cent. If we take 73 i acres in one part of the parish, we find 6 miles of hedge, occupying between 9 and 10 acres; being 12 per cent., or 1 in 8^. In the parish of Rewe, containing 1341 acres, there are 65 miles of hedge, occupying 104 acres; being 7f per cent., or 1 in 12-fg- There are 56 between 3 and 4 acres; being 207, or 64 in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 53 every 100 fields under 4 acres; 8 of 10 acres and! upwards ; being 324 in all : and 1 field larger than \ 10 acres in every 40 fields, or 170 acres. If we take a separate portion of the parish, containing 81 ] acres, we find 5£ miles of hedge, occupying 9 acres, being one-ninth. This part of the parish is rented at 40s. per acre, and the outgoings are from ; 12s. to 13s. more; so that there is an annual loss of at least 23/. on these 81 acres. In the parish of Poltimore, containing 1710 ' acres, there are 59 miles of hedge, occupying 94 j acres; being 5. V per cent., or 1 acre in 18. There j are 168, or 56 in every 100 fields, under 4 acres; 259 under 10 acres ; 38 of 10 acres and upwards : being 297 in all; and one field larger than 10 acres in every 8 fields, or 45 acres. The park and roads in this parish amount to 140 acres. In apart of the parish, containing 115 acres, the hedges occupy j 10} per cent. : in another part, containing 2S0 acres, j they amount to G per cent. ; but in another, con- ' taining 32" acres, they are only 2 J per cent. Before i the apportionment of this parish was made, five J years ago, Lord Poltimore's steward took down, on a farm of less than 200 acres, 8 miles of hedge, and thereby added 15 acres to the productive portion of the estate. Since that time there have been removed in the parish 6i miles of hedge, saving about 10 acres ; so that there have been taken down in the last five years, besides what were taken down before, on Lord Poltimore's property in the parishes of Huxham and Poltimore, 10 miles of hedge, and from 15 to 16 acres gained: as much as would be an allotment of a third of an acre to each of about 50 labourers. On account of these alterations, the number of enclosures of 3, 4, and 5 acres would be much fewer, and those of a larger size greater, than is given in the table. Whilst in the parish of Rewe, containing 1341 acres, there are C5 miles of hedge : in Poltimore, which is nearly a half larger, there are only 59; and if we deduct the 6} since taken down, only 52^ miles. It will also be per- ceived that this, containing 1,710 acres, contrasts favourably with the other parishes, having about as many enclosures above 10 acres as are in the five parishes of St. George's Clyst, Rewe, Clisthydon, Feniton, and Talaton, containing 8,293 acres : also with the parishes of Silverton and Broadclyst, having two-thirds as many enclosures above 10 acres as the latter parish, which is 9,188 acres. In the parish of Clisthydon, containing 1,725 acres, there are 86 miles of hedge, occupying 138 acres, being 8 per cent., or 1 in 12£. There are 228, being 56 in every 100 fields, under 4 acres ; 403 under 10 acres; 4 fields of 10 acres and upwards, being 407 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 102 fields, or in 431 acres. In the parish of Feniton, containing 1822 acres, there are 95 miles of hedge, occupying 152 acres; being 8} per cent., or 1 acre in 12. There are 261, or 60 in every 100 fields, under 4 acres ; 443 under 10 acres ; 6 of 10 acres and upwards, being 449 in all ; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 75 fields, or 304 acres. In the parish of Talaton, containing 2365 acres, there are 114 miles of hedge, occupying 182 acres; being 7| per cent., or 1 in 12&. There are 341, or 62 in every 100 fields, under 4 acres ; 535 under 10 acres; 13 of 10 acres and upwards, being 548 in all ; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 42 fields, or in 182 acres. The divided part of this parish would appear much worse if the common, park, and roads were deducted, as they amount to 180 acres, or more than one-twelfth of the whole. In the parish of Silverton, containing 4714 acres, there are 222 miles of hedge, occupying 350 acres; being 7h per cent., or 1 in 13}. There are 587, or 55 in every 100 fields, under 4 acres ; 1031 under 10 acres ; 35 of 10 acres and upwards; being 1066 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 30 fields, or in 134 acres. That 356 acres, or an average of 7 h per cent, should be occupied by hedges in this one parish seems bad enough ; but there are parts of it much worse in proportion. In 147 acres at the south-east end, which I surveyed, I found more than 9 miles of hedge, occupying 141 acres, or fully 10 percent. When to this is added the further injury otherwise caused by these hedges, as mentioned elsewhere, it will be self-evident how utterly impossible it must be for the farmer of such densely-wooded districts to compete with those who are living on more open, and therefore more productive, farms. In the parish of Broadclyst, containing 9188 acres, there are 383 miles of hedge, occupying 613 acres, being 6jj per cent., or 1 in 15 acres. There are 1176, or 60 in every LOO fields, under 4 acres; 1913 under 10 acres; 57 of 10 acres and upwards ; being 1970 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 34 i fields, or 101 acres. The per-centage occupied by hedges in this parish is 6f, or 1 in 15 ; but if we were to deduct 977 acres for large woods, the park, roads, &c, it is evident that the per-centage to be allowed for hedges on what, woidd remain would be very much increased. I surveyed a part of the parish containing 133 acres, which is divided into 44 enclosures, averaging 3 acres, on which there are 8 J- miles of hedge, occu- pying 13£ acres, or fully 10 per cent. The hedges of this parish would make a bank of earth between the capitals of England and Scotland. In the parish of Crediton, containing 12,309 acres, there are 541 miles of hedge, occupying 866 acres; being 7 per cent., or 1 acre in 14}. There are 1455, or 58 in every 100 fields under 4 acres; 148 of 10 acres and upwards, being 2530 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 17 fields, or 83 acres. The hedges of this parish would more than extend from the Land's End, through the centre of England, to Edinburgh in Scotland. The result of this examination of 10 parishes, containing 36,976 acres, being an average size of about 3700 acres, is, that there are 1651 miles of hedge ; about half as long again as the famous wall of China; or sufficient to hedge round the whole of England with an immense bank of earth, and occupying 2642 acres ; being 7? per cent., or 1 acre in 14 ; that 805, or 10 in every 100 inclo- sures, are between \ an acre and 1 acre : — that 1347 are between 1 and 2 acres, being 2152, or 27 in every 100 enclosures; more than a fourth being under 2 acres : — 1293 between 2 and 3 acres, being 3445, or 43 in every 100 enclosures under 3 acres : 1220 between 3 and 4 acres, being 4665, or 54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 58 in every 100 fields under 4 acres : 1015 between 4 and 5 acres, being 5680, or 71 in every 100 being under 5 acres : 743 between 5 and 6 acres, being 6423, or 80 in every 100 under 6 acres: 511 be- tween 6 and 7 acres, being 6934, or 87 in every 100 under 7 acres : 357 between 7 and 8 acres, being 7291, or 91 in every 100 under 8 acres : 231 between 8 and 9 acres, being 7522, or 94 in every 100 under 9 acres: 148 between 9 and 10 acres, being 7670, or 96 in every 100 are under 10 acres: 327 are upwards of 10 acres, being about 2| in every 100 fields ; or 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 113 acres; and making in all 7097 enclo- sures. Thus it will be seen that whilst 87 in every 100 enclosures are under 7 acres, only 13 in every 100 are larger than 7 acres. With such a dispro- portionate number of small fields the immense loss sustained may be still further shown by the following calculations, which 1 made from a great number of measurements, the average being taken. By the kind of hedges generally used, on fields of the first size given, averaging f of an acre, the loss by hedges is 17 per cent. ; on fields of the second, between 1 and 2 acres, the loss is 12 per cent.; by those of the third size, between 2 and 3 acres, the loss is 10 per cent. ; on fields between 3 and 4 acres, 7 5 per cent. ; on fields of 10 acres it is about 4 per cent. The per-centage of course varies very much with the shape of the field and the thickness of the fence : but by this it will be seen that when the fields average 10 acres, the hedges being of the same kind, the loss is only half of what it is when they are 3 acres and up- wards. The evils of the present system of dividing farms, general over this and great part of the neighbouring counties, may be thus summed up. The hedges occupy in some cases fully 10 per cent.; but on an average of these ten parishes, 7j per cent., or 1 acre in 14. They shade and injure at least half as much ; most persons, landlords as well as tenants, whose opinions I have asked, say quite as much more. They harbour birds and vermin which injure the crops ; and that this is no small evil any one may satisfy himself, by going into a field just before harvest. They are nurseries for weeds ; they prevent that free circulation of air so necessary to the healthy growth of plants as well as animals : they are obstacles to the drainage of the soil, the roots found in them frequently choking up the drains. They are expensive to erect, as well as to keep in repair ; the expense of new hedges in labour and planting being about 3s. 6d. per perch, and that of keeping them in order about 5 per cent, of the rental. The soil on each side of them is generally thinner, from the materials for making the banks being taken from it. So many small enclosures require a much greater number of gates, which have to be kept up and renewed : and they cause a much greater number of small lanes and cart-tracks leading from one place to another. The damage from shade is also very much greater from those hedges which run east and west. To do the least damage, and to be of the greatest sendee as shelter, our most prevalent and severe winds being from the west and south-west, hedges should be made, and the long way of the fields be from north to south : for the same reason that Loudon lays it down as a rule in building a house, to make a diagonal line in that direction ; namely, because the sun thus shines on every side of it every day. The fences being in most cases crooked, and the fields of every shape but right-angled, the labour of every operation of the farm, particularly ploughing-, is most materially increased. The parishes of Hux- ham and Poltimore will contrast favourably with the others in this respect. This evil is anything but a trifling one, especially when to it is added the labour caused by the roots of trees which shoot out into the fields. In any parish this is felt; but in such a parish as Rewe, where there is much timber, one may see, when the ground is laid open by the plough, that the roots of the trees cross each other from opposite sides of the field. These roots must abstract much of the nutritive qualities of the ground. As an instanse of how fast the root of a tree grows, the following fact was mentioned to me by a gentlemam of Crediton : — " A drain which had been made only the year before, was found to be stopped up ; and on examination the cause was discovered to be the root of an elm, which had grown into the drain more than thirty feet." Having pointed out the evils of the existing system, I may be asked how it can be remedied, especially without marring the beauty* of this country, to which these luxuriantly-wooded hedges add so much. To this I would say that such a landscape gardener as Mr. Loudon, if asked to dispose of this timber in the most effective manner, would not have been likely to lay it out in long straggling hedge-rows, but in clumps, belts, and woods, which would serve for shelter and give the best effect. Fences could then be of a much simpler and inexpensive kind. "Where stall- feeding is practised, there need not be anything lost by hedges ; as I have seen farms without any fences but that which surrounded and divided them from the adjoining farms, a furrow being all that sepa- rated one crop from another. But even where this system is not adopted, there are several methods whereby farms may be sufficiently divided, and the whole or greater pail of the ground saved, which is at present lost. Besides railings of wood, wire, or iron rod, there is the sunk fence ; none of these taking up any land. In wet, marshy, or boggy ground, ditches would serve for fences and drains * Even the beauty of Devonshire and Somerset- shire may be greatly improved by the removal of a large part of the fences. A few of the most beautiful trees, especially oaks, which from the depth of their roots are less injurious than ash or elm, may be spared, and will have more picturesque effect than long lines of un distinguishable foliage. The undulating fines of the surface thus unmasked, afford often a graceful landscape, with swelling knolls hidden before, and on these knolls the farmer will not grudge a little ground for single trees or clumps planted in commanding situations. In many places a confused farm might thus receive at once the character of an arable park, — Ph. PVSEY. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 55 t it 9 ID 5-' c 3 • 30 3 B < -t- f 3 -3 3 3 f 0 o 3* 3 -1 • C a? Q •< 3 2 > o CO co CJ «b ■">! O to w o to o CO 00 rfk o co Oi OX » to bO to Ox o CO 4- *- O CD to Total Acres in the Parishes. Ox to bO o —4 — o 4k OX X OX 3V to r. JX Ox to Miles of Hedge in the Parishes. tO >t» 9 CO 3) — ' w w JX 31 so to Jx to 30 o - 00 CO Ox •f- Acres occupied by Hedges in the Parishes. -< to Ox Ox to o» Ox CO Enclosures under 3 acres. lO s w rfk w co o rfk co 00 o 00 00 co Ox C5 CO to C5 Enclosures between 3 acres and 4 acres. o 4k OX Ox 1—1 35 Ox 00 co rfk to to to CO CI 00 c i— " o CO o Enclosures under 4 acres. © ox to to to to rfk CO 00 C5 Ox -o to Ox co w to to CJ Enclosures between 4 acres and 5 acres. ox 00 o Ox 4k 4k Mr ox Ox rfk co to 00 to 00 l-J to CO S o to to Ox Enclosures under 5 acres. w to to to o t—i i— ' © rfk to rfk Ox CO to to o ti o 00 4- Enclosures between 5 acres and G acres. C> If*, to w to o 3> o 00 a 4k Oi o co co co to to CO to - tc to © o to Enclosures under 6 acres. Ox O O OX o co CO itk. 00 i; to CO to Enclosures between 6 acres and 7 acres. to CO to t— . CO O CO to CO Ox rfk «o © CO C75 to CO to 00 i 3 to CO co 00 oo Enclosures under 7 acres. w ox V to rfk Ox 00 to ^T Ox £ 4- 00 00 Enclosures between 7 acres and 8 acres. to ^1 00 to Ox to to CO OX 00 to co 00 to to to to •0. l-l to o Enclosures under 8 acres. to CO CO o Ox Ox to O Ox *. to o 00 4^ Enclosures between 8 acres and 9 acres. Ox to to to CO to 00 00 o © to o Ox to 00 CO co to C5 to Ox D to to co © Enclosures under 9 acres. 00 Ox Ox CO CO ~ «kj ■ K* co 00 X to to Enclosures of 10 acres and upwards. US to *5 to Ox CO o to VJ o © OJ o Ox OS O to to CO to to o 4k to Total number of cultivated Enclosures in Parishes, 56 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. at the raine time; and in such a place as Broad- clyst Moor, this method of dividing and at the same time of draining the land, would very much increase its value. But in cases where it might not be thought advisable, either owing to the first expense of iron rod, or wire railings, or to other circumstances, to adopt any of these methods of dividing land, the white-thorn would make a cheap and good fence, taking up very little room, being impervious to cattle, and costing little either at first or in keeping up afterwards. A thousand plants will plant thirty perches of one row, or fifteen perches of two rows, the plants being six inches apart : they cost from 10s. to 20s. per thou- sand, according to their age, and the planting of them costs very little. Sir John Kennaway, by taking down 100 perches of bank and planting 50 perches of thorn hedge, thus making three fields into two, saved nearly an acre of ground. There is not any reason that I can see why a farm even so small as a hundred acres should lose more than 1 per cent, by its hedges. In a survey of a parish road which I lately made, with a view to its being widened, I found that, for the greater part of its length, its width might have been trebled by merely adding to it the space taken up by its present wide fences. John Matthews, Esq., of Clisthydon, has within the last few years taken down half of the fences on his estate, and is proceeding to take down nearly all that remain. Timber need not be encouraged in hedgerows on account of its value, as, from the admission of foreign timber, this has been mate- rially reduced. I should not think that the timber thus grown pays nearly so much annually as ] per cent, of the rental, while it destroys about 10 per cent, of the ground ; allowing 3 per cent, more than what is actually occupied for injuries sustained by the causes mentioned. ^Yhat necessity is there for a farm, even so small as a hundred acres, being divided into smaller enclosures than eight ten-acre fields, and the remaining twenty into four or five, as might be most convenient ? It would be a great improvement on the present state of things, if, in- stead of six fields of every ten being under four acres, there were the same proportion over ten acres. If to the loss shown to be sustained from these small enclosures and great hedges were added that from waste ground and the want of drainage, how very far short of its capabilities would appear that which is at present derived from our soil ! An eminent writer of the present day says, " The introduction of thorough-draining will probably increase the prodiictive power of the soil in Great Britain a third; scientific discovery may perhaps add another third : but at least ten years must elapse, in the most favourable view before these effects take place, — ere the judicious and well- directed labours of our husbandmen have formed rivulets for the superfluous wet of our fields, or overspread the soil with the now wasted animal manures of our cities." Although I have shown the loss to be so great from the present system of dividing farms, I am not so sanguine as to expect to see anything like the saving made which might be, there being in some cases many difficulties to contend with ; as where property is very much intermixed, and where it is leasehold. But with willing minds, and an enlightened co-operation of landlord and tenant, this county may soon become as famous for its superior fanning as it is now for its mild climate and beautiful scenery. I have given several in- stances where much has been done in this neigh- bourhood ; these, and the example of other districts at present in advance of this county, form examples worthy of imitation. If every agriculturist recorded the results of his experience, much knowledge of the most practical and useful kind, at present con- fined to himself and frequently dying with him, would be added to the general stock, and advance the science proportionably. The discoveries of Professors Liebig and Playfair, the improvements made by our Royal, Highland, and Provincial Agricultural Societies, and put into practice by Earls Dueie and Spencer, Mr. Pusey, and a long list of the great and intelligent throughout our our island, have given an immense impetus to agri- cultural improvement, which I trust will not cease till our land has attained that full amount of pro- ductiveness which the Almighty intended, and which his kind providence has placed within the reach of every practically scientific agriculturist. 243, High-street, Exeter. OX MANURES. From Law's Translation of Bouss in [/milt's Work on " Rural Economy," published by H. Baillii-re, 219, Regent-street, London. GREEN MANURES. Under this title, I include the green parts of ve- getables which form part of our crops, such as the haulm of potatoes, the outer leaves of carrots, cab- bages, beet, turnips, &c. These articles are at once forage and manure, and it is for the husbandman to decide in conformity with his position and par- ticular resources, whether he ought to bury them at once, or to use them first as food for cattle. From my own experience, I should say that the leaves of beet and of turnips, and patatoe haulm, were articles which ought only to be given to cattle in cases of necessity. It is generally much better to bury them in the ground immediately after the crop is gathered ; if they be very indifferent food, they are, on the contrary, excellent manure ; supe- rior in quality even to the best farm dung. From the experiments I have made on this subject, I find that the potatoe tops from an acre of ground, may be equal to six or seven hundred weight of that manure presumed to be dry ; and the leaves of the beet from the same extent of surface, are equal to more than twenty-one hundred weight of the same manure, also in a state of dryness. It is among green manures, that we are to class the sea-weed or marine plants, which, in many places, are em- ployed for improving the soil. These cryptogamic plants, which abound in azote, have a fertilizing power superior to that of common dung, a fact which explains the great store which is set in Brit- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 57 tany by the sea-weed that is collected on its coasts. Sea-weed is either employed fresh and as it conies from the sea, or half-dried, or macerated, or roasted, and even partially burned. It appears to act at ; once in virtue of the azotised organic matters which it contains, of the hygrometric properties which it possesses, and of the saline substances which enter its composition. The agriculturists of Brittany have employed sea-weed as manure from time im- memorial ; and so have the people of Scotland and Ireland. In Brittany, the sea-weed is gathered at periods fixed by law. The first gathering, as well as that which has been cast up by the waves, is given up to the poor. The gatherings then take place at regular intervals, by means of a kind of cutting-rake. The sea-weed cut from the rocks, is piled upon rafts, or thrown into barges and carried to the shore ; and there is a trade carried on in the article all along the shores of the channel, between Genest and Cape la Hogue, from the Chansey Isles, and from the coast of Calrados. When sea-weed is employed in the fresh state, it is ploughed in as speedily as possible. For those kinds of crops which require made manures, the sea-weed is stratified with dung and so left to fer- ment. In some places the sea-weed is roasted, or imperfectly burned, by which a large proportion of the vegetable tissue is destroyed — an azotised product is still left behind. Before burning the sea-weed, it is exposed for a time to the air and the rain, and it is then dried, being frequently turned. In this state it is often used as fuel where wood is scarce. One great advantage in sea-weed, which has been particularly indicated, is its total freedom from the seeds of noxious weeds. Aquatic plants which grow in fresh water, may also be employed as manure. The common reed, cut and buried green, decomposes rapidly. And here I may mention, that to destroy reeds which are often a cause of great annoyance in ponds, Sehwertz recommends lowering the water to six- teen inches, cutting the plant, and then raising the water to its old level, the water enters the interior of the stems, and they all die in a very short space of time. Crops which are buried green, for the improve- ment of the soil, are also ranked in the list of the manures which now engage us. The plan of bury- ing green crops, dates from the most remote an- tiquity; it was greatly recommended by the Ro- mans, and is followed in Italy at the present day. The plants usually grown for the purpose of being- burned green, are colza, or colewort, rape, buck- wheat, tares, trefoil, &c. The preference, however, is given to one or other of the leguminous plants, such as tares, lupins, &c, plants which appear to have the highest power of extracting azotised prin- ciples from the atmosphere ; and, indeed, the value of the whole process is founded upon this fact ; for otherwise, it would be impossible to give any reason for this long accredited mode of improving the soil. This, too, is one of the ways in which fallow- ing becomes useful ; it is not merely the rest which the land thus obtains, it is also benefited by the vegetables which grow upon it spontaneously, which come to maturity and die, leaving in this way in the ground, all they had attracted from the atmosphere, or fixed from the water with which they had been supplied. SEEDS, OILCAKE. It is in the seed that by far the largest proportion of the azotised matter assimilated by vegetables during their growth is finally concentrated at the period of their maturity. Seeds are consequently very powerful manures, and great advantage is taken of them. In Tuscany, lupin seed is sold as manure ; it contains 3i per cent of azote, it is employed after its germinating power has been destroyed by boiling or roasting. The cultivation of the lupin is carried on in dis- tricts, the situation of which is such that difficulty would be experienced in exporting more bulky crops. Grains from the brewery would also make excellent manure, were it not generally found more advantageous to use them as food for cattle. In some places, however, where there is no adequate demand for them in this direction, they are dried upon a kiln, and are then equal to twice-and-a-half their weight of farm dung ; in some places, they are actually sold at a proportionate price. The state of division of grains admits of their being regularly spread. In some parts of England, grains are used in the proportion of from 40 to 50 bushels per acre for wheat or barley.* The refuse of the grape in wine countries con- tains a large quantity of azotised matter. The decomposition of the grape-stones being slow, this refuse answers admirably as a manure for vines. Oleaginous seeds, after the extraction of the oil, leave a residue, which is an article of commerce, and is familiarly known under the name of cake. Oil contains no appreciable quantity of azote ; this principle is contained entirely in the cake, which becomes through this alone, most excellent manure. The proportion of azote which cake contains varies from 3^ to 9 per cent. Oil-cake, from its mode of preparation, contains but very little mois- ture, and consequently offers great facilities in the way of carriage ; it may be taken without difficulty to situations whither a load of dung could scarcely be carried. Cake is applied in two modes. First, in powder, and by sowing upon the field, sometimes mixed with the seed. Second, mixed in water, or in the drainings of the dung-hill, in which case, the liquid containing the products of the decomposition of the cake is distributed over the land. By putre- faction under water, cake yields a matter of extreme fetor, comparable both in point of smell and of effects on vegetation, to human excrements obtained from privies. Although cake, from the large proportion of albumen and legumen which it contains, be an excellent food for cattle, it is still found more advantageous in many districts to use it as manure than for feeding. England imports oil-cake from all parts of the continent. France alone, from 1836 to 1840, exported more than 117,860 tons of the article. Oil-cake has been particularly recom- mended as manure for light sandy soils. When the soil is clayey and cold, Sehwertz recommends * Sinclair, Agriculture, vol. 1. 58 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a mixture of one part of lime, and six parts of [ and the production at times far exceeds the powers powdered cake. To me, however, the addition of of consumption, so that it has to be made into lime has always appeared a questionable auxiliary j manure, for which it answers excellently. The in such manures as give rise readily to ammoniaca'l i skimmings and dregs which are collected in products, as is the case with oil-cake, For clayey j the process of sugar making, are also available as lands, it would perhaps be advisable to employ oil- manure. They contain about the same amount of cake in a state of decomposition, and diffused in > azote or azotised matter as farm dung, and are water, its effects, I imagine, would not be doubtful, Oil-cake as a manure, is employed at very different seasons, according to the nature of the husbandry. It is always well to employ it in rainy weather. Its effect is always certain, if it comes therefore of similar value. The animal charcoal of the sugar refinery, after it has served its office there, is an admirable manure. It is, in fact, bone or ivory black, mixed with coagulated blood which has been employed to clarify the syrup by entang- on to rain two or three weeks after it has been put ling impurities, and a very 'small quantity of sugar into the ground. Drought suspends its action ; it This mixture, so rich in azotised principles, used frequently happens, indeed, that the first crop actually to be turned into the sewers until the year shows none of its good effects; but these never | 1824, when M. Payen showed its value as manure, fail to appear in subsequent crops. Schwertz since which time ' nearly 10,000 tons have been remarks very properly, that this circumstance has j annually employed in ameliorating the soil to the led many farmers to overlook the real advantage that belong to this manure. Cake, in fact, ac- cording to the dryness or moistness of the season, may act as a manure either of difficult or of easy decomposition, and so produce more immediate, or more remote effects. In England, about 8 cwt. of oil-cake per acre, are commonly applied. Mr. Coke, of Holkham, ploughed in the pow- dered cake about six weeks before sowing turnips, but it is held more economical and more advan- tageous to strew it in fine powder along the furrow with the seed. The latter view, however, must not be too confidently acted on by farmers ; the general recommendation to sow the fields with powdered cake, either some weeks before or some weeks after putting in the seed, and when the plants have already sprung appears to be the right one. We have various observations made by one of our most experienced practical fanners, which prove, that oil-cake used dry and without mixture, often pro- duces the most injurious effects upon germination. In September, 1824, M. Pilmorin, desiring to make a comparative trial of different pulverulent manures, strewed a quantity of powdered colewort cake upon a piece of red clover. Upon all the parts of the field which had received other manures, applied in the same way the clover sprung perfectly ; but that which had received the oil-cake continued absolutely naked ; the cake had been employed in the proportion of about 8 cwt. per acre. The same result was also obtained in a trial made with vetches and grey winter peas.* Duhamel, referring to similar facts, recommends the cake to be applied ten or twelve days before sowing. In Flanders, from 6 to 7 cwt. per acre is the quantity generally employed for wheat crops, and it is scattered over the surface before winter sets in, when the grain is already above the ground. The pulp of the Beet-Root which has been employed in the sugar manufactories of France and Flanders, is an article which as food for cattle, is known not to be inferior to the root before it has undergone expression, and it contains nearly the j to run waste, same proportions of sugar, albumen, &c. It is, The great advantage of practical agriculture. The importance of the trade in this residue of the sugar- house, and complaints of the occasional indifferent quality of the article, attracted the attention of the department of the Inferior Loire in 1838, and led to the appointment of an inspector of the manure shipped from the port of Xantz. I may here observe, that in testing a manure, it is by no means enough to limit attention to the quantity of organic matter which it contains. The only sure means is to determine the amount of azote ; it is not organic matter, but the amount of azotised organic matter, upon which almost alone depends the value of the manure. The residue of the sugar refinery is another of those articles which presents an occasional anomaly in its application, and which must not be left un- noticed. Its effect upon the ground has not only been extremely variable, but it has sometimes happened that this manure, laid on very soon after coming from the manufactory, has been found decidedly injurious to vegetation. Kept for some time, for a month or two, in a heap before being applied, its effect has not only been found more certain, but also uniformly favourable. It is not difficult to explain these clivers and opposite influences : the sugar contained in the refuse undergoing fermentation yields first alcohol, and then acetic and lactic acids. Employed in this state, the substance must necessarily prove injurious to vegetation. It is only after it has lain for a sufficient length of time exposed to the air, to have had the animal matter it contains changed into ammonia, and the organic acids engendered, saturated with this base, that it becomes truly useful to vegetation. The heap indeed then shows alka- line, not acid re-action.* The residue of the starch manufac- turer.— The fetid water which is obtained in such quantity in the process of making starch from grain is a powerful manure, and ought not to be suffered therefore, always used as food to as great an extent as possible. But the article is kept with difficulty, * Pilmorin, in " Maison Rustique, " vol. 1., p. 204. PULP OR RESIDUE OF THE POTATO, which is now produced in considerable quantity in the potato starch manufactories, is known to be * Payen and Boussingault, " Ann, de Chimie," v. iii, p. 95, 3e serie. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 59 an excellent article of food for hogs and cattle. Towards the end of the season, however, it is apt j to be of a very indifferent quality, and green food having by this time come in abundantly, it often i goes to the dung-hill. In the dry state, it is worth its own weight of farm dung; wet, 100 of the pulp , may be equal to about 131 of farm-yard dung. The ! water which has served for washing out the starch from the pulp, as in the case of wheat, and other grain, contains an organic substance which when dried constitutes pulverulent manure, that is equal to about half its weight of the dry manure prepared from night soil, which the French call poudrette. M. Dailly made a comparative trial of these two kinds of manure, and from actual experiment found that 200 parts of the deposit from the starch manu- factory might be used for 100 of poudrette. Even the water that is used in the manufacture, and from which the substance in question is deposited, is an excellent manure, when thrown upon the ground ; a circumstance which is by so much the more fortunate that this water, by standing, putre- fies and throws off most offensive exhalations. By using the liquor to his fields at once, M. Dailly prevents every kind of annoyance to himself and his neighbours ; and moreover from his great starch manufactory he realizes in this way an additional profit, which he estimates at upwards of £60 per annum. Analysis has shewn that 100 of this water from the potato starch manufactory repre- sents seventeen of moist farm-yard dung. In cider countries the pulp of the apples that have been pressed is always thrown upon the land as manure. At Bechelbronn we reserve it for our Jerusalem artichokes ; in Normandy it is thought excellent for meadows and young orchards. Analy- sis of the pulp of apples grown in Alsace, shows that when dry it contains a quantity of azote, which places it on the same footing as farm-yard dung. Sinclair informs us that in Herefordshire the pulp of the cider press is made into good manure by being mixed with quick-lime, and turned two or three times in the course of the following summer. Doubtless the addition of lime will hasten the de- composition of the woody matter of the pulp ; but it strikes me that this will take place rapidly enough of itself in the ground, without contriving any means of accelerating the process. Animal Remains. — The remains of dead ani- mals, and the animal matters obtained from the slaughter house, are powerful manures which are much sought after in places where their value is properly appreciated. Scraps and the refuse of skin, hair, horns, tendons, bones, feathers, &c, all form invaluable manure. The flesh of animals which die, and so much of that of horses that are slaughtered which cannot be used as food for ani- mals, may be dried, after having been previously boiled, and then reduced to powder and applied as manure. The blood of slaughtered animals is less proper as food for hogs, although it is oftener used in this way, than muscular flesh ; it even occasion- ally gives rise to serious diseases among these animals. It is most easily prepared as manure however, for which it answers admirably ; it is enough to coagulate it by exposure to heat, and then, having broken it down, to dry it in the air, or in the stove. Liquid blood has been employed as manure, but decomposition then takes place so rapidly, that the products are exhaled without producing much effect. This objection may be remedied by two means ; either by diluting the blood in a large quantity of water, with which the land is then irrigated; or by mixing it with a consi- derable mass of vegetable earth, which is then applied like ordinary manure. There is even a pulverulent manure, of which blood forms the basis, prepared in special establishments in the vicinity of various large towns. The large quantity of azote contained in these manures shows how their value may be such as to permit of their being advantageously exported to great distances beyond sea. Boxes are employed in agriculture, after having had the fat which they contained extracted from them by boding. They are crushed by being passed between the teeth or grooves of a couple of cast-iron rollers. They must be regarded as a manure the action of which is of long duration, because the animal matter contained in them de- composes slowly, protected as it is by the earthy casing which surrounds it. In England from fifty to sixty bushels of bruised bones per acre are usually' put upon land prepared for turnips. The employment of bones as manure has given rise to the most various and contradictory obser- vations. In certain circumstances their effect upon vegetation has been almost null ; in others, their action has been decisive and most favourable. M. Payen has given a solution of these anomalies, which 'is perfectly satisfactory. According to my learned colleague, bones in their interstices contain a quantity of fat, of various consistency, which may be removed by long boiling in water; the average quantity of grease obtained from fresh bones is about ten per cent. It has been observed that this fatty matter diminishes gradually in bones that dry by long exposure ; it even disappears almost entirely when they are dried at a high tem- perature. This happens from the water which is disengaged from the bony tissue, by the effect of evaporation, being replaced by fat melted by the heat. The consequence of this is, that the organic tissue ot bone, which was already sufficiently rebel- lious to decomposition, becomes still less alterable when it is impregnated with grease. The grease, in fact, by reacting upon the carbonate of lime of the bone, has formed an earthy soap, which long resists atmospherical influences and change under- ground. It will readily be understood that bones in this condition can have little or no action upon vegeta- tion, imless indeed they be reduced to very fine powder. This alone will explain how it may hap- pens that some bones, after having remained four years in the ground, have been found to have lost no more than eight per cent, of their weight; whilst those, the grease of which has been removed by boiling water, have lost in the same space of time from twenty-five to thirty per cent, of their weight.* These observations of M. Payen show how com- pletely Schwertz was mistaken when he ascribed * Payen, Maison Rustique, v. i. p. 194. 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the indifferent quality of the manure prepared from old bones, or from bones that had been boiled, to the absence of fat, which he regards — I know not on what authority — as a substance extremely favour- able to vegetation. It is not very obvious how fatty substances should act as manures. I myself ascertained from experiments made some years ago, with a view to test the conclusions of an agri- culturist, who ascribed the good effect of cake to the fatty matters which it contained, that rape oil had no kind of favourable influence upon the growth of wheat. I have said nothing here upon the importance of the earthy matter of bones, par- ticularly of the calcareous phosphate which they contain, but which is nevertheless acknowledged to be of great importance. The Refuse from the Glue Makers, washed and pressed, contains all the animal matters which have resisted the action of boiling water, such as portions of tendonous and skinny substance, hair, pieces of bone, of horn, and of flesh, a calcareous soap, and earthy matters. This mixture putrefies rapidly; but dried, it may be preserved for a great length of time. Analysed dry, it yields about four per cent, of azote. From four to five cwt. per acre are employed, but it is necessary to manure every year. The Refuse of the Tallow Melter — Graves, as it is called — a residue consisting in great part of the membranes which have enveloped the fat of our domestic animals, mixed with a little blood, some flesh and bony matter, and grease — lias hitherto been employed almost exclusively as food for dogs. Of late, however, graves have been used as manure ; and analysis shows that this sub- stance must be estimated as equal to about 3^, farm dung being fixed at one. Used in this proportion, graves produce a marked effect. The action of graves — which ma)' be thrown on in fragments and dry, or after having been steeped in hot water, and reduced to the state of a pulp — will continue for three or four years. Shreds of "Woollen Rags form a good ma- nure, for vines and olive trees especially, though they are also available in husbandry of every des- cription. The large proportion of azote, and the small quantity of water contained in woollen rags, constitute them not only one of the richest manures, but also one of those that are most easily trans- ported ; 25 cwt. per acre of woollen rags, the cost of which in France may be about £3, have been found sufficient as manure for three years. The slowness with which wool decomposes, indeed, causes its action to be continued during six or eight years. Twenty-five cwt. of woollen rags may be held equivalent to upwards of 40 tons of farm dung ; which, at the price of 5s. lOd. per ton, would cost £12. lGs. At the end of three years, M. De- lonchamps, an excellent practical farmer, gives his land a dressing of farm dung for three years more, when he returns to the wool. Before spreading rags they must be cut into pieces, which is effected either by a machine, or by a piece of scythe blade fixed in a block of wood. In England, the quan- tity of woollen rags allowed to the acre is generally about 13 cwt. Sinclair says that they are best suited for dry and sandy or chalky soils, and this because they attract moisture. I have not found the fact to be so. In the very dry soil of a vine- yard manured with this article, I have found the pieces to decompose with extreme slowness, and up to this time the effect upon the vines has been scarcely perceptible. The Raspings and Shavings of Horn form a manure of great power that seems applicable to every variety of soil. In England about forty bushels per acre are usually allowed. Tendons, Trimmings of Hides, Hair, Fea- thers, &c, are manures very analogous to the last, and of which the value may be estimated from the quantity of azote which they severally contain. This value once determined, every farmer knows the quantity which he must lay upon his land ; and he thus proceeds upon a much more rational foun- dation, than when he takes for his guide one or other of those vague and arbitrary indications that have been given. Sinclair, for example, would have us lay on nine bushels of feather-rubbish to the acre, and Schwertz recommends from four to five times as much more. Nothing, in fact, is more arbitrary and uncertain than to estimate such ma- terials by the bulk : it must be obvious that the weight of a bushel of hide-trimmings, of horn- shavings, and of feather-rubbish, must differ very widely, not only with reference to one another, but also according to the state of division in which each is measured. As a general rule, it is by weight, and weight alone, that the quantity of manure must be estimated. Shells and Mud from the sea shore and the bottoms of rivers are matters that are often not very highly azotised ; nevertheless, they may con- tain an equivalent of all the important element, azote, which may bring them near to wet farm-yard dung in point of value. The abundance of such matter in certain situations makes them extremely useful. The alkaline and earthy salts, which they generally contain in considerable quantity, also add to their fertilizing properties. The sea-sand which is employed in Brittany under the name of marl (merl), consists in great part of the remains of corallines, madrepores, and shells, mixed with a few hundredths of highly azotized organic matter. This marine marl is found in great abundance at the mouths of the river Morlaix, where there is con- siderable traffic carried on in the article. It is said to be reproduced, new banks of it being met with from time to time. It is obtained by dredging from barges, and the process is only allowed to go on from the 15th of May to the 15th of October when the quays of the town of Morlaix are seen covered with the produce. It is carted to a dis- tance of five leagues inland. A barge load, weighing seven tons, sells at from 6s. Gd. to 8s. This same species of marl is now obtained upon the coast of Plancoutrez and in the roads of Brest. It has also been discovered near the mouth of the river Quimpert. It appears finally that the shelf sand so much employed by the farmers of Devonshire and Cornwall is of the most essential nature. In the neighbourhood of Morlaix, from five to six tons per acre of this calcareous sand are em- ployed upon light, dry soils; from eleven to twelve tons arc given to clayey lands. This quantity THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 would probably be too great for porous and damp soils, inasmuch as sea marl belongs to the class of warm manures, that is to say, it undergoes speedy decomposition. There can be no doubt that sea marl acts further in virtue of the calcareous matter which it contains, and also of its merely mechanical properties, upon the strong argillaceous lands of Brittany, for which sand alone is an excellent im- prover. It is also to the carbonate of lime which it contains that its good effects upon lands that show an inrloresence of iron pyrites must be ascribed. It is well to lay this shell marl upon the land shortly after it is taken from the sea ; by long exposure to the air it suffers disaggregation, and loses a portion of its good qualities. There is another kind of sea sand, sailed Trez, which forms banks in the neighbourhood of Mor- laix, and which is known under the name of Tanque on the northern shores of France, which is favour- able to vegetation, particularly after it has been washed and freed from the greater part of the salt which it contains. It is thrown upon the land in larger quantity than the marl. The small quantity of animal matter which it contains putrefies, and is lost when it remains exposed to the air for any length of time, so that a distinction has been made between fresh or Jive Trez, and old or dead Trez, the one being the article as it comes from the sea, the other after it has been exposed some time on the shore ; the article which has been exposed undoubtedly contains a smaller quantity of organic matter than that which is quite fresh. This variety of sea sand is particularly available upon close and clayey lands, which sometimes receive as many as sixteen tons per acre with advantage ; lighter lands, of course, require much less. Shells, sand, slime, and sea weed are not the only useful materials supplied to agriculture by the sea ; fish, or their offal is frequently employed as manure. The practice of manuring with fish is very old, and is universal wherever it can be had recourse to. I have already had occasion to say that at the period of the conquest of America, the Spaniards found it established among the Indians on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The lands are occasionally manured with fish along the sea board of Great Britain and Ireland, and the low lands of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk also receive occasional supplies of the same powerful manure. The offal of the herring fishery, of cod, of skate, and of the pilchard in Cornwall, the dog- fish entire, and other kinds that are less esteemed, or that are caught in quantities greater than can be consumed as food, are all admirable manures. We have been recommended to mix the fish or fish offal with quick lime, but, unless in certain cir- cumstances, the practice is very questionable; the addition is probably only proper where the mate- rials are exceedingly oily, as is the case with pilchards, herrings, &c. ; an earthy soap is then formed which prevents the injurious effects on vegetation which wholly oleaginous matters scarcely fail to produce. One analysis of codfish which I made along with M. Payen, gave us a proportion of azote of nearly seven per cent. This of itself is enough to explain why the flesh, the cartilages, and the bones of fishes should be found such energetic manures. The Slime deposited by rivers also yields manure which may be employed to much advan- tage. The Nile, which periodically inundates the plains of Lower Egypt, owes its fertilizing action to the slime which it contains, and which it deposits before it again recedes into its bed. On the banks of the Durance, the mud and slime deposited by the river is carefully collected for distribution over the fields in its vicinity. The waters of this river are frequently turbid, and improper for irrigation until they have deposited the slime which they hold in suspension ; the waters are therefore turned into canals for the purpose of deposition before they are let upon the land; and such is the quantity of slime that is precipitated, that two or three gather- ings of it are made in the course of the year. It is dug out and thrown upon the banks to dry; reduced to powtler, it is fit to be laid upon the land, and such is its fertilizing power that a field which yielded but four for one has been brought to yield twelve for one by its means.* Wood and Coal Soot, and Picakdy Ashes. — Soot has been known for a long period as a useful manure. M. Braconnot, in the soot of a chimney where wood had been the fuel, found the following ingredients : — Ulmic Acid 30.0 Azotic matter, soluble in water. . . . 20.0 Insoluble cai'bonated matter 3.9 Silica 1.0 Carbonate of lime 14.7 Carbonate of magnesia (traces of) Sulphate of lime 0.5 Ferruginous phosphate of lime 1.5 Chloride of potassium 0.4 Acetate of potash 4.1 Acetate of lime 5.7 Acetate of magnesia 0.5 Acetate of iron (traces of) Acetate of amonia 0.2 An acrid, and bitter elements 0.5 Water 12.5 100.0 The analysis which M. Payen and I made of wood and coal soot confirms the presence of the azotised principle detected by M. Braconnot. A consider- able trade is carried on in soot for agricultural purposes in large towns ; it is thrown upon clovers and young wheats, in the proportion of about twenty bushels to the acre. Some have recom- mended that it should be mixed with lime, but, as soot always contains salts having a base of ammo- nia, the practice is evidently objectionable, unless, indeed the object be to get rid of that which is most useful in the article, which will be effectually * Belleval in Annals of French Agriculture, 2nd series, vol. xiv., p. 261. The beds of many of the oozy-bottomed rivers in England, near the sea, are inexhaustible sources of the most valuable manure. The bed of the Thames, between London Bridge and Putney Bridge, at low water, is a true gold mine if it were but rightly used. — Eng. Ed. 62 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. accomplished by adding lime to it. The proper proceedurc is to employ the soot without admixture during calm or wet weather. In Flanders, the colewort beds, destined for transplanting, are very generally manured with soot, which is believed to have the property of preserving the young plants from the attacks of insects. In the neighbourhood of Lisle they give from fifty-five to sixty bushels of soot per acre. Schwertz appeals to many facts which go far to satisfy us that the effects of soot upon clovers are particularly advantageous; he says, moreover, that coal soot is preferable to wood soot. The superior properties of coal soot are evidently due to two causes : first, it is more dense than wood soot, and in a given bulk actually contains a larger quantity of matter ; secondly, I have found that, for equal weights, coal soot contains the larger quantity of azote. Picardy Ashes are prepared by the slow and imperfect combustion of the pyritic turf which is dug up in the department of the Aisne, for the manufacture of sulphate of iron and of alum. This turf piled up, heats, and finally takes fire: the combustion continues for about a month, abun- dance of sulphureous vapours being disengaged. The residue is a grey ash, still containing a quantity of carbonaceous matter which is found very advan- tageous in the way of top-dressing for meadows. It might be maintained that the utility of such ashes depend solely on the sulphate of lime which they contain; but it is ascertained that they are much more active as manure than this substance employed by itself; analysis, in fact, explains in some degree the fertilizing powers of these ashes by showing that they contain more than one-half per cent of azote, to say nothing of the saline matters, of which vegetables are so greedy. It is extremely probable that during the slow incinera- tion of the turf, there is a quantity of sulphate of ammonia produced. The ashes which remain after the lixiviation of the pyrite and aluminous lignites which are mixed for the purpose of making green vitriol, are analo- gous to Picardy ashes, and are employed with equal success in agriculture. At Forges-les-Eaux, the pyritic earths, after lixiviation are mixed with a quarter of their weight of turf ashes, and form an active manure which is employed very extensively in the country around the town of Bray in France. It is equally adapted to meadows and to land under roots — such as potatoes or turnips, green crops, or corn. Analysis shows these ashes to have the following composition : — Soluble organic matter 2.7 Insoluble humus 49.8 Sulphate of protoxide and of per- oxide of iron 1 .S Fine sand 29.0 Sulphuret of iron } c ,_ Peroxide of iron S 100.0 The vitriolic ashes of Forges-les-Eaux, are more highly azotised than those of Picardy ; they contain 2.72 per cent, of azote. The effect of the imperfect combustion of these pyritic turfs — the product which results from it, explains to a certain extent the beneficial effects of the practice of paring and burning, an impor- tant and widely spread practice, the utility of which it would be difficult to understand were it not con- nected in some way with the production of ammo- niacal ashes. The useful effects of paring and burning, are, in all probability, connected with the destruction of organic matter, very poor in azotised principles ; in the transformation of the surface of the soil into a porous, carbonaceous earth, made apt to condense, and retain the ammoniacal vapours disengaged dining the combustion ; lastly, by the production of alkaline and earthy salts, which are familiarly known to exert a most beneficial influence upon vegetation. These conditions seem so entirely those, the object of which it is to realise by paring and burning, that, in order to make the operation favourable to the soil which undergoes it, the vege- table matter which it has produced must of neces- sity be transformed into black ashes ; when it goes beyond this, as Mr. Hoblyn has well observed, when the incineration is complete, and the residue presents itself as a red ash, the soil may be struck with perfect barrenness for the future. The burn- ing, therefore, that was not properly managed, that led to the incomplete incineration of all the organic matter, would, for the same reason, have a very bad effect in the preparation of the Picardy ashes, which might indeed act in the same way as turf ashes from the hearth or oven, but which, deprived of all azotised principles, would not ameliorate the ground in the manner of organic manures. I have frequently seen the process of burning performed in the Steppes of Southern America. Fire is set to the pastures after the grass which covers them has become dry and woody, the flame spreads Math inconceivable rapidity, and to immense distances. The earth becomes charred and black ; the combustion of those parts that are nearest the surface, however, is never complete; and a few days after the passage of the flame, a fresh and vigorous vegetation is seen sprouting through the blackened soil, so that in a few weeks the scene of the desolation by fire becomes changed into a rich and verdant meadow. ELECTRICITY AND AGRICULTURE. AVe are not surprised at the numerous letters which we have received on this very important and interesting subject. Many of our letters notice a typical error, which we had discovered in the external dimensions of the area of one acre described in our last article. They should have been 80 by 601 yards. The ex- periment referred to in our last paper was made by Dr. Forster, of Findrassie, near Elgin, who produced from a single acre one hundred and eight bushels of chevalier barley. In reply to several inquiries we may say that the cost of a square 55 by 22 yards, being an area of half an acre, would be — for 6 lbs. of iron wire at Id. per 11). (for burying) 2s. ; 4 lbs. of ditto at 3d. per lb. (for suspension) Is. ; two poles of dry wood Is.; labour, &c. Is.; total 5s. As the area increases the cost diminishes. Convenient and desirable areas are, for two acres, 120 by 80 2-3rds yards ; one acre, 80 by CO^, three quarters of an acre, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 63 82^ by 44 ; half an acre, ?3 l-3rd by 33 ; quarter of an acre, 55 by 22; one eighth of an acre, 40 by 15 J. The mode in which the plot is laid out is as follows. With a mariner's com- pass and measured lengths of common string, lay out the places for the wooden pins, to which the buried wire is attached (by passing through a small staple). Care must be taken to lay the length of the buried wire due north and south by compass, and the breadth due east and west. This wire must be placed fron two to three inches deep in the soil. The lines of the buried wire are then completed. The suspended wire must be attached and in contact with the buried wires at both of its ends. A wooden pin with a staple must therefore be driven in, and the two poles (oue 14 feet and the other 15 feet) being placed by the compass due north and south, the wire is placed over them, and fastened to the wooden stake, but touching likewise at tins point the buried wire. The suspended wire must not be drawn too tight, otherwise the wind will break it. The above calculations will perhaps enable our readers (some of whom make the inquiry) to decide the quality or size of the wire used. Some other questions of greater minutiae we will reply to nest week, and we hope then also to be able to furnish the result of some further interesting and important experiments on this subject. When our attention was first called to this question, we were forcibly struck with a practical difficulty, if it should be carried very generally into practice, viz., that the free electricity in the atmosphere would be insufficient to influence an extensive sur- face, to which this means of attracting it might be applied. But we were indebted to the suggestions of the accomplished geo- logist and agricultural chemist, the Rev. William Thorp, of Womersley, for the easy and simple mode mentioned in our last, by which electric fluid could be generated. The principle being once known the means of applying it are thus furnished without any limit. — The Economist. BREEDING OF HORSES. TO THE EDITOR OF BELL'* LIFE IN LONDON. Sir, — The English race horse is an animal of which all classesof our countrymen are justly proud ; but at the same time it may be doubted whether the great and numerous prizes now offered to speed, without much regard to stoutness, do not pro- duce results injurious to the country ; and 1 wish to call the attention of your readers (who comprise most of the sporting public,) to the present state of our horses. The Arabian blood, by its mixture with ours, has long since attained to a wonder- fid degree of perfection ; and racing having been at an early period enrolled among our national amusements, the attention of the most wealthy among us has been directed to racehorses, and to the breeding of them with the utmost possible speed. Formerly horses had to run four miles at high weights, now it is a course of a mile and a half, with light weights, to try to approximate to the speed of steam. One attempt has been made to stem the torrent by the race instituted some years ago by the Duke of Portland, but it was against the fashion, and it was given up ; and if any one objects that such a race is more cruel and more distressing to horses than a short one, I say he can know but little of racing, for horses differ much more in stoutness than in speed ; and as you lengthen the course yon do away with the keenness of the contest, which is what causes the distress, and this in feet is the very reason why the B.C. is unpopular. A leggy animal with a long stride is worth more now than he was in the days of our fathers ; this, I say, is entirely wrong and mischievous. Then, as to another point — no regard is paid to sound and lasting legs and feet for mares or stallions; these points woidd be carefully looked to for a riding horse, but when it comes to breeding a more valuable animal, the breeder says, " Oh, the colt will come out well at two years old, and win me a few good stakes, and that will do, never mind his legs. Then, again, what carelessness there is as to size and power, especially as to the dam ; on these points stoutness, soundness, and power, I say, most wonderful indif- ference is daily shown, as any man will see who looks through thorough bred studs in nine cases out of ten. Let him go to TattersaTTs and almost all the thorough breds he sees sold will be long thin legged colts (most of them chesnuts), with slight and upright pasterns and small round fetlocks. What on earth are they good for? a Welsh pony would kill three or four of them in a costermonger's cart. Then we expect to sell our thorough breds to foreigners, but they will not buy small lame cats — they buy nothing but the very best sort we have. In short, whether for use at home, or as merchandise to go abroad, we ought to be more particular in the shape, size, aud sound- ness of sires and dams of horses, than the short horn breeders are as to their cattle ; whereas most of us, on the contrary, tnist to blood, and think of little else. I have addressed you long ago on this subject, but I do so again because I think it one of great and national importance, aud because I see the evil growing daily. There would be much less expense, and much less disappointment, if one colt was bred from a sire and dam of true form and soundness, than if six were bred at ran- dom with the hope of one turning up a tramp. Again, it is not near so easy now as it used to be to buy a good, strong, young hunter: and steam is in some measure the cause of this, for an old fashioned, compact, active, coaching marc, when her work was over, bred a good hunter by a lengthy thorough bred horse ; now, the demand for the machiner is nearly gone, and the animal is very scarce. In the want, then, of this middle class, from which to recruit the patrician blood of our Sultans, &C, we have an additional motive to be careful about strength and size in the latter. I have heen bitten by thorough breds when younger, but I think of them now, that though a large and powerful thorough bred is the finest form of a horse, bring me them at random, and I will engage three out of four will be irredeemable rips. I am, &c. Q. in the Corner (but not in the Magazine). THE COMPARATIVE APPLICABILITY OF THE ABERDEENSHIRE SCYTHE AND THE COMMON SICKLE IN CUTTING LAID CROPS. In these days of scientific reseach and mechanical invention, many benefits have been conferred on agriculture, by the removal of a large amount of prejudice against things new or strange, by which a fair trial generally is obtained for all suggestions bearing the semblance of improvement. The con- tinuance of this favourable state of feeling may be endangered by the exaggerated statements with which new methods or inventions are propounded. A manure, for instance, found to be highly bene- ficial in one locality, is held up as being universally so ; and an implement useful and valuable in some situations, is declared to be generally so. The merits or demerits of each proposed improvement not being clearly or sufficiently defined, its subse- (51 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. quent failure in any case tends to damp the zeal ! with which even really useful matters are received, J and to strengthen prejudice against it. Having at intervals, seen, in the pages of this Journal, and in those of the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, startling state- ' merits as to the great superiority of the Aberdeen- shire scythe over the sickle and scythe-hook for reaping grain crops of all weights, both as regards economy and despatch, and having frequently used the long-handled scythe in cutting grain as well as hay, but never with satisfaction as to the complete- ness of the whole work, where the crops were | lodged, I had recourse to the short-handled scythe of Aberdeenshire, putting it into the hands of our own workmen, and found, after a trial of several seasons (except in the lightest crops), neither the amount of work, style of execution, or saving of expense, such as to induce its continuance. Think- ing that our own scythesmen might not have been sufficiently trained to the right use of the implement, or expert enough in its application, whilst those who formed the sheaves might not have acquired the requisite dexterity possessed by those who had been long employed at it, I asked a friend to engage for me for the harvest of 1S43 two mowers and two gatherers from Aberdeenshire, so that I might practically test the applicability of the implement to the cutting of our crops of wheat, barley, and oats, and introduce amongst our own work-people the superior acquirements evinced in that county. The harvest had commenced before their arrival. Their first start was in a field of barley, an average crop, mostly standing, some of it laid, but not twisted. The surface of the ground was flat, with merely marks for furrows, and, saving that the crop was rather ripe, abetter than average situation. There being little wind, many stalks were left and intermixed. It was very low cut, except where lodged, and where much of the stubble was passed over to drag in sight, with the rake, many ears which found their way into the stubble end of the sheaf. On the whole, the first day's work did not come up to my expectations or conception of how the work should be executed. Next day a slight breeze favoured their operations ; the sheaves were clearer of stray stalks, and the raker had less to collect ; but the extent of ground gone over was only three-fourths of a Scots acre to each scythe. They continued cutting barley for several days. So soon as a light field of oats was ripe, they entered on it, and here they seemed more at home. The straw was short, and it was very low cut ; no i more ears left in the stubble ends of the sheaves j than when cut with the hook, and very few rakings. The appearance of the whole was satisfactory ; yet | there was not more than one Scots acre cut by each scythesman per day, working ten hours. From the last field they removed to a bulky field of oats, | laid, twisted, and tangled many ways ; the ground was good, being smooth, free from stones, and no deep furrows. The standing portion was managed in a tolerable manner, but little progress and im- perfect work was made with what was laid. "When the weather was quiet, it was painful to see the destruction of grain caused by many stalks falling back after being cut, mixing amongst the swathe and shedding their grains, a disadvantage detract- ing very much from the profit arising from the additional length of straw obtained; for in this field there was no other saving, the time taken being about the same as an equal number of Irish- men took to cut it with the hook. No extent of wheat was cut with the scythe. The two men were stout, active, and ready fel- lows, by no means lazy, and anxious to acquit themselves well. The gatherers had been trained to it from the time they coidd work. On the con- clusion of the mowing, I had them employed for two weeks at the usual harvest labour, and found them all no ways inferior to our own hands. Each scythesman had 2s. 6d. per day, the gatherers Is. 8d., with lodging, and their passage paid from and to Aberdeen, but they provided their own living. In order to form a comparison of the expense of reaping with the scythe and hook in this situation, I ma)r state that the average rate of wages paid our shearers for the last four years has been Is. 4d. per day. with victuals, or 2s. id. without; and finding that, in the cutting of 160 Scots acres of wheat, barley, and oats each season, that it required A\ people to shear and bind one acre ; and taking three- fourths of an acre as the average work performed by each scythesman in similar descriptions of crop, we have 1 acre Scots, cut with the scythe, costing £0 9 3£ 1 acre Scots, cut with the scythe-hook, 0 9 4A Of course, had there only been oats to cut, or light oats and barley, the expense of mowing woidd have been much less than shearing ; a fact which, on reflection, is quite easily accounted for ; because the scythesmen, meeting with no interruptions in such crops, can expend all their force with most effect, and the additional power conferred by the larger implement can be fully applied. "When the crops are laid and twisted, the case is materially different ; the powerful leverage of the scythe is lessened, the mower must be constantly making fresh openings, cutting much of it twice over, and seldom has a full, free, unhampered sweep. The shearer, with his scythe-hook, shifts his position easily, and loses no power in applying it. Such being my experience of the Aberdeenshire scythe when managed with men trained to it, I can there- fore understand the reason for its being so little used for cutting the strong, tangled, twisted crops of the Lothians or Carse of Gowrie ; and in such situations the scythe-hook is, everything considered, certainly to be preferred. Although I have never seen the extent of work, either on my own farm or elsewhere, performed by the scythe as represented, I am convinced that it is a cheaper and more economical mode for cutting light crops than the hook. This season (1844) I had another opportunity of comparing the differ- ence of the two- modes, in a field of 50 acres of light oats, with a good sole, there being a smooth surface to cut upon, and a small quantity of grass where the crop was thinnest, enabling the scythes- man to gather even the lightest corn well in, and there a band of fourteen Aberdeenshire people cut 38 acres Scots in eight working days, in a very satisfactory manner ; no more ears being seen on THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 6s the outside of the stacks after being put up than the shorn ones, and the stubble was more equal and lower down than the other twelve acres that had been cut with the hook. The number of shearers required to cut and bind these twelve acres was under four per acre ; and taking three as the number required to mow an acre, we have 1 acre mown, 3 people at 2s. id. per clay £o 6 3 1 acre shorn, 4 people . . . . 0 8 4 In reality, the sum paid the tacksman for mowing was 10s. per acre, but as he brought the people from the distance, running risks of bad weather, and as all the crop he cut did not prove so favour- able as this field, he would not profit greatly ; and in this locality a good scythesman would cost 3s. per day, reducing the difference in favour of mow- ing to Is. 2d, per acre, which, with the greater weight of straw obtained, is a sufficient inducement to recommend its adoption in like circumstances. My experience this year is also equally conclusive against the scythe, in economy or despatch, in cut- ting laid crops, such as a great portion of the Lothians presented, and which opinion was co- incided in by the Aberdeenshire mowers I had the opportunity of meeting. J. M. Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House, in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 4th of June, present : The Right Hon. Earl Spencer in the chair, Marquis of Downshire, Earl Beauchamp, Viscount Torrington, Lord Portman, Lord Bridport, Lord Hath- erton, Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P., Hon. Capt. Spencer, R. Archbold, Esq., M.P., D. Barclay, Esq., M.P., Sir D. Baird, Bart., T. R. Barker, Esq., S. Bennett, Esq., W. Blacker, Esq., G. J. Bosanquet, Esq., W. R. Browne, Esq., Col. Challoner, P. C. Cherry, Esq., W. A. Cherry, Esq., H. B. Clayton, Esq., E. D. Davenport, Esq., T. Dunne, Esq., R. Edwards, Esq., C. Eyre, Esq., J.H.H. Foley, Esq., A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P., R. W. Gaussen, Esq., H. Gibbs, Esq., B. T. B. Gibbs, Esq., C. Hillyard, Esq., W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., J. Hudson, Esq., S. Jonas, Esq., G. Kimberley, Esq., J. Kinder, Esq., Sir F. Lawley, Bart., J. Laycock, Esq., Col. M'Douall, M. Marisco, A. Ogilvie, Esq., E. Parkins, Esq., Sir R. Price, Bart., P. Pusey, Esq., M.P., F. Pym, Esq., J. A. Ransome, Esq., J. W. Scott, Esq., Professor Sewell, W. Shaw, Esq., J. V. Shelley, Esq., R. A. Slaney, Esq., Professor Solly, T. H. S. E. Sothe- ron, Esq., M.P., C. W. Spooner, Esq., W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., E. Thomas, Esq., T. Turner, Esq., F. R. West, Esq., J. T. Wharton, Esq., and G. Wilbraham, Esq., M.P. Mr. Hudson on being informed of the resolution of the Council not to increase the salary of the Secretary, with- drew his resignation. Finances.— Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, reported to the Council the state of the Society's accounts on the last day of the month just ended, from which it appeared that the amount of in- vested capital was 8,200/. Stock, and the current cash- balance in the hands of the Society's bankers, 3,049/. (including a special balance of 816/. on the Shrewsbury account). The Council unanimously confirmed the recommenda- tion of the Committee, that Messrs. Burton, Lloyd, and Co., of Shrewsbury, should be appointed the bankers of the Society for the period of the ensuing Shrewsbury Meeting. Journal. — Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the Journal Committee, reported that the June Number of the Journal would appear in about a fortnight; but that many good papers were necessarily postponed until the Christmas Number, which would come out before the General Meeting in December. Shrewsbury Meeting. — The noble chairman reported from the committees for the selection and recommenda- tion of judges for the Shrewsbury meeting, that among the nominations delivered in by members at the recent General Meeting, none occurred for judges of mountain sheep, and only an imperfect list for judges of imple- ments ; but that the committee of judges for stock had decided on the names of the gentlemen to act as judges in the other classes, which the committee abstained, from obvious reasons, from reporting to the Council till nearer to the time of the show. The Council unanimously referred to the Committees the completion of the list of judges to be recommended by them for appointment by the Council. Mr. Manning, the Contractor of Works for the Shrewsbury Meeting, presented a favourable report of the progress of the works. He also transmitted to the Council a statement connected with the subject of con- veyance to Shrewsbury by canal, which was referred to the General Shrewsbury Committee. Country Meetings. — Mr. Gibbs having laid before the Council his suggested points of enquiry, previously to deciding in future on the place of any Country Meet- ing, the details were referred to the consideration of the Yard Committee. Mr. Fisher Hobbs gave notice that he should move at the next Monthly Council the adoption of a renewal of the existing rotation of districts for the Country Meetings, for the period of nine years following the year 1847, when the present schedule of rotation ended. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday next. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 11th of June, present: T. R. Barker, Esq., in the chair; Earl of Lovelace ; Sir Francis Lawley, Bart. ; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; J. Baines, Esq. ; D. Barclay, Esq., M.P. ; G. R. Barker, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq. ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; R. C. Clayton, Esq.; G. Cottam, Esq.; C. Cure, Esq. ; T. Dean, Esq. ; T. Dunne, jun., Esq. ; R. Edwards, Esq.; C. Eyre, Esq. ; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; B. Gibbs, Esq. ; J. B. Glegg, Esq. ; J. C. Hayward, Esq.; E. Holland, Esq.; W. H. Hyett, Esq. ; J. Kirksopp, Esq. ; R. Knight, Esq. ; Dr. Knox. ; Capt. Langley ; J. H. Langton, Esq., M.P. ; Dr. Macdonald ; Col. Mac Douall ; A. Ogilvie, Esq. ; E. Parkins, Esq. ; H. Price, Esq.; Prof. Sewell; W. Shaw, Esq. ; R. A. Slaney, Esq. ; S. Solly, Esq. ; S. Staffurth, Esq.; W. B. Stopford, Esq.; C. Tawney, Esq. ; E. Thomas, Esq. ; J. H. Tremayne, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; T. Tweed, Esq. ; J. Walker, Esq. ; W. W. Whitmore, Esq. ; and G. Wilbraham, Esq., M.P. Deep -Draining. — Mr. Parkes, consulting-engineer to the Society, transmitted to the Council a letter ad- dressed to him by Mr. Spencer, of Park Farm, near Wrotham, Kent, containing the results of that gentle- man's experience on the point of deep-drainage. Mr. Parkes regretted that his professional attendance on a Parliamentary Committee prevented his being present at the meeting of the Council for the purpose of answer- F 66 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ing any inquiries that Mr. Spencer's letter might sug- gest. He, however, begged it to be stated from bis own knowledge of Mr. Spencer (who was considered to be the " father" of deep-drainage in Kent), and many of his neighbours who had adopted his system of deep- drainiug, that perfect reliance might be placed on the accuracy of every statement he made. " Park Farm, Wrotham, Kent, June 10, 1845. " I see by the newspapers that you are advocating the system of deep-draining. Now, as there is a great deal of draining about to be done throughout the country, I think the landowners and farmers should jDause a little before they go into this work to any great extent, and should endeavour to ascertain the best and most effectual mode of doing it. Practice and expe- rience have taught me to have the drains from 42 to 52 inches deep, and from 24 to 34 feet apart in the strong- est clays; and from 48 to 60 inches deep, and from 50 to 60 feet apart in soil of a more porous character. Such draining will lay the land perfectly dryland no one can conceive the benefit arising from deep drains as compared with shallow ones, unless they have expe- rienced it both in crops and tillage. I will endeavour to explain to you how I have been draining for these last 30 years, and what the results have been. My idea at first was that I could not go too shallow ; and accord- ingly I put my drains from 20 to 24 inches deep ; but finding very little benefit from so doing, I was induced in the year 1830 to drain a field 3 feet deep, that had previously been already drained only 2 feet. To my surprise, I found that the shallow drains became useless. I then tried a drain of 4 feet in the same field, and found that this deepest drain, after rain, always ran the first and the longest, carrying off more than double the quan- tity of water. This convincing fact made so strong an impression upon me, that for the last 15 years I have been draining my land, that was formerly drained 2 feet deep, over again 4 feet, and with the same satisfactory result as in the instance just cited. I put my drains perpendicular, that is to say, up and down the field, to bring both sides into action ; and although I was at first much censured by many for pursuing this plan, the same parties are adopting it, being convinced by the stubborn facts they have witnessed as my results. Before my land was deep -drained, it had always furrows to take the top water away ; now, however, I have none, for by taking the bottom water away, the top will follow. I could give you volumes of proof on tins sub- ject, having done a great deal for landowners at several places. I will mention a gentleman in Hertfordshire, who came to inspect my drains last year, and saw their good effects. He wished me to drain one of his farms : I did so, taking a man with me who understood the work. I met some farmers there, who said I must be insane to think that the water would get through so strong a soil into a drain so deep ; and yet I have now the tenant's letter in my possession, informing me that the plan had perfectly succeeded ; that the deep drains ran like a pump, and that one of his neighbours had sent to borrow bis draining-tools for the purpose of making similar drains. I should be happy to receive a visit from yourself, or any other gentleman, and show the benefit of deep-draining compared with that of shallow. About three years ago, the subject of drainage was brought forward at the Maidstone Farmers' Club, when I stood almost alone in advocating deep-draining ; it was again introduced a short time since, when many had become converts, and stated that they would not lay their drain-tiles shallow, even if their landlords would give them leave to do so. — Thomas Spencer." Agricultural Buildings. — Mr. Charles Miles, of 15, St. James's-square, communicated to the Council a paper containing a review of building and mechanical appliances for agricultural purposes, and various plans and drawings illustrative of his proposed arrangements ; his suggestions having reference to the following topics : — 1. The internal and external drainage of the land on which the farm -buildings, &c, are erected. 2. The collection of rain-water in a tank. 3. The conveyance of liquid manure into tanks by means of water-tight drains. 4. The adoption of hollow concrete walls where good orick and stone cannot be obtained on reasonable terms. 5. New asphalte floors throughout, cheap, durable, and water-tight C. New and improved construction of weather and fire-proof roofs, without incurring an additional outlay. 7. Application of heat to water in the preparation of food, and warmth and ventilation to the air in all situations where required. 8. The employment of horse or engine-power for ge- neral purposes. 9. Improved modes of separating and storing grain. 10. General arrangements of the farmstead, and of the fanners' and labourers' houses ; plan for carrying off smoke and removing soot to be applied to the land; new mode of hanging doors, so as to allow ingress and egress with ventilation, but without draught. In reference to an inquiry made by Mr. Ricardo, of Gatcombe, near Minchinhampton, as to the best mode of laying down an asphaltic or bituminous flooring in his pigsties, Mr. Parkins informed the Council that he had found the following composition very useful for that purpose, namely, lime or pounded chalk mixed with so much coal-tar from gas-works as will leave the mixture in a state not too soft for ramming, adding a sufficient quantity of sand or fine gravel to bind the whole. Mr. Parkins stated that these materials not only formed a hard basis for pigsties, farmyards, &c, but made good walks on which weeds would not grow, and answered the purposes generally for which asphalte was commonly employed. Lord St. John informed the Council that the plans of his farm premises, at Melchbourne, presented by him to the Society at a former meeting, referred to an occupa- tion of 500 acres of land, about half of which was under the plough. Col. Elwood, of Clayton Priory, near Brighton, favoured the Council with some suggestions in reference to Captain Scobell's plan of cottages at High Littleton, in Somersetshire, presented to the Society at the general meeting. Chinese Cabbage. — Mr. Langdale, of Gower-street, Bedford-square, presented to the Council some of the seeds of Endive-Cabbage, from Chusan, as the only supply which, up to the present time, had been received in this country. From the report of Mr. Boyd it ap- pears that this vegetable is very prolific, grows lofty, and requires a warm aspect ; being serviceable both for the cottager and farmer. The Council referred the trial of these seeds to the Horticultural Society and Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co., with a request that they would respectively report to the Council the result of their cultivation. Russian Turnip.— bit. Wells, of Botley, Hampshire, presented specimens of plants grown from Russian (Swedish) Turnip-seed imported last year, and sown on the 22nd June. The Turnips were hoed on the 25th July, formed miniature bulbs early, and soon completed their growth. Mr. Wells considered that on these ac- counts, this new variety of Swedish Turnip would be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 67 found well adapted for late sowing. The seed-plants presented by Mr. Wells stood about five feet high. Gurneyism. — The Rev. Daniel Gwilt, of Icklingham Rectory, near Mildenhall, Suffolk, reported to the Council the success with which he had adopted the plan of cultivation recommended by Mr. Gurney ; and he ventured from practical experience to recommend the system most strongly, his success under it having greatly exceeded his expectations. He thought it might be carried out with great advantage to a certain extent upon most farms in any district ; but more especially in the sandy districts of Norfolk and Suffolk, where heather, broom, larch-trimmings, &c, may be had in such abundance, and at a small expense. St. John's Day Rye. — Mr. Gwilt also informed the Council that for the last three years he had been culti- vating a variety of rye very similar to that named the St. John's day rye. It was known to him as the giant rye, and seemed, from the experience he had had of its qualities, entirely to answer the description given of its merits in Mr. Pusey's communication to the Council. Flax-seed. — Mr. Taylor, of 314, Regent-street, com- municated to the Council analyses made by Dr. Ryan, of the Royal Polytechnic Institution, of common linseed and the seeds of the " gold of pleasure" flax. It ap- peals from these results that linseed gave 82£ per cent, of a peculiar gum, and Gold of Pleasure 83f per cent, of a mucilage, which on further analysis yielded 61f parts of a soluble, and 22 parts of an insoluble gum. The elementary analysis showed the Gold of Pleasure mucilage to contain 7 per cent, more nitrogen than the Linseed-gum, and 6 per cenr. less oxygen. Dr. Ryan considered the amount of nutriment in the seeds of the Gold of Pleasure, the excellent quality of the oil, and the small quantity of inorganic matter they contained, as points greatly in their favour for the production of oilcake of a nutritious character. Analysis of Manure. — Mr. Shaw laid before the Coun- cil the analysis made by Messrs. Balmain and Parnell, of the manure manufactured by Messrs. Daniel, Hut- chinson, and Co., of Camborne, Cornwall; from which it appeared that the manure in question consisted chiefly of 45 per cent, of silicate of lime, 19 per cent, of car- bonate of lime, 28 per cent, of caustic lime, with 3f per cent, of magnesia and alkaline salts. Messrs. Balmain and Parnell remark : " The efficiency of the manure is, no doubt, owing principally to the silicate of lime and the alkaline salts. The lime is useful alone, but the silicate of lime (and more especially that variety of it present in this manure) is valuable as a constant source of lime and soluble silica, the lime being progressively supplied from a latent source. The silicate of lime gradually yields both its silica and its lime to the action of water ; but until the lime is separated from the silica it is not active or caustic, and not all at once presented in a caustic state. The alkaline salts, though so small in quantity, are still important ; possibly, in many cases, all the more useful because they are so small in quantity, as an ex- cess of them is more to be dreaded than a dearth." Agricultural Education. — Mr. Warry, of Shapwick, near Glastonbury, Somersetshire, expressed his willing- ness to place at the entire disposal of the Society (on terms of nominal acknowledgment only of his proprietor- ship) a school and master's house, with a farm of a great variety of soils attached to them, for any experiment the Council might wish to make in reference to the education of those who depend upon the soil for their support. Mr. Turnor, of Abbot's Bromley, near Rugeley, Staf- fordshire, transmitted copies of the Society's Tract (from the Journal) on Cottage Economy and Cookery, and Mr. Blacker's essay on the cultivation of small farms, both translated into the Welsh language, and printed in a cheap form for extensive distribution among the farmers of North Wales. The following directions for butter- making had also been translated into Welsh and exten- sively circulated throughout that part of the principality. Preparing Butter for the London Market. — " The following is the most approved method of making and preparing butter for the Loudon market, and is submitted for the advantage of farmers and dairymen throughout Ireland. Butter made on this system, with care and quick dispatch, will insure high prices and quick returns. Theagent'scomment en each dairy's butter, and improve- ment, are still going on. The best land is old pasture, as free from weeds as possible, with abundance of good water. The cows should not be heated or tormented in any way ; housed at night, and fed on green food, and the pasture changed when practicable. In milking, take saltpetre in the pail, one-eighth of an ounce to 8 quarts of milk. The dairy should be perfectly clean, airy, of equal tempera- ture (say 50°), very little light, and completely shaded from sun, by trees or otherwise ; and in winter a stove may be required. Strain the milk into coolers, sweet and dry (never mix warm and cold milk), keep it from two to four days, then put the whole of the milk and cream into a clean churn, which is not to be used for any pur- pose except during the time it is in operation. Boiling water to be added to raise the temperature to about 689 or 60°, if horse or water-power be used. The time oc- cupied is from one to two hours, depending on the size of the churn ; but churning should not be continued beyond the proper time. After churning put the but- ter into two bowls or pans of pickle, made from pure water and fine-stoved salt (as common gives the butter a bad flavour). It should be well washed, and the pickle changed frequently, until all milk is extracted, working with the hand the twro pieces alternately, until the grain becomes quite close and firm ; when it is to be cured with the finest dry-stoved salt and sugar. The propor- tion to be one ounce of refined sugar to one pound of salt, to be well worked into the butter with the hand ; but the quantity of curing materials wTill depend on the time and labour given by the dairy- woman, in working and beating the butter (after the salt and sugar are applied), which should continue until all pickle is driven out. The butter should be finished the day it is churned, and then be pressed as closely as possible into the cask. The cask should be well seasoned for some days previous, with strong pickle, frequently changed, or hot pickle ; and must be strong and air-tight ; the size is of no con- sequence, if filled and sent off in one week. If not filled at one churning, the butter is to be covered with pickle until the next ; but no cask to contain more than one week's butter. If butter should, at any time, appear pale in colour, after churning has commenced, a little grated carrot-juice may be put into the milk, and will not injure either milk or butter. All butter should be at the place of shipping one day prior to the steamer leaving, so as to run no risk of going forward to the agents." Garden Allotments. — Mr. Dean laid before the Council copies of the third half-yearly Report of the Garden Allotment Committee established in the parish of Tottenham ; and such, he stated, had been the bene- ficial result of the system, that although the past winter was an unusually severe and long one, no application had been made by the labouring class for a supply of coals or other assistance, heretofore usually granted in the winter season ; a fact attributed mainly by the committee to the aid which the poor had derived from the advantages of their garden allotments. Ploughing. — Mr. Kirsopp, of the Spital, Northum- berland, called the attention of the Council to the meritorious conduct of Mr. Richardson, farm-steward to St. Mary's College, near Birmingham, in having in- troduced into that neighbourhood the plan of ploughing F 2 G8 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. with two horses and one man, instead of with four, five, or six horses, and two men, as had been the custom in that part of the kingdom from time immemorial. The Duke of St. Alban's presented to the Society a bridle of his own invention, intended, by the application of the principle of leverage, to force open at will, on drawing a particular rein, the mouth of a vicious run- away horse, and thus stop his career. Mr. G. Turner, of Bayswater," presented an iron model of a draining machine invented by himself. Mr. Curtis transmitted, on the part of M. Guerin-Meneville, of Paris, copies of his own work, and that of M. Robert, on the subject of Insects Injurious to Agricultural Crops. Mr. Sandars, of Lockers, Hemel-Hempstead, communicated the results of his inquiries on the subject of Agricultural Statistical Returns. Mr. Dickson, of Broad- street-buildings, transmitted papers on Flax Cultivation. The Council having ordered thanks to be returned to the authors and donors of the various communications then made to the Society, adjourned to Wednesday next, the 18th of June. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 18th of June. Present: His Grace the Duke of Richmond, K.G., President, in the chair; Viscount Torrington ; Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; R. Archbold, Esq., M.P. ; J. Baines, Esq. ; T. R. Barker, Esq.; J. B. Browne, Esq. ; F. Burke, Esq.; H. Burr, Esq.; W. W. Burrell, Esq. ; Col. Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; W. A. Cherry, Esq , E. D. Davenport, Esq. ; J. E. Denison, Esq, M.P. ; T. Dunne, jun., Esq.; F. W. Etheredge, Esq. ; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; B. T. B. Gibbs, Esq. ; J. B. Glegg, Esq. ; S. Grantham, Esq. ; G. Heneage, Esq. ; C. Hillyard, Esq. ; J. Kinder, Esq. ; J. J. Mechi, Esq. ; A. Ogil- vie, Esq. ; J. Parkes, Esq., C.E.; Rev. T. Pennant; R. W. Purchas, Esq. ; W. Pyne, Esq. ; J. G. Rebow, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; W. Shaw, Esq. ; W. Simpson, Esq. ; T. Spencer, Esq. ; T. Manners Sutton, Esq. ; E. Thomas, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; and T. Tweed, Esq. Deep Draining. — Mr. Parkes exhibited a diagram, explanatory of the action of the 4 feet deep drains, de- scribed at a previous meeting in a letter from the Right Honourable C. Arbuthnot. Since that period, and during the recent heavy rains, a hole had been dug 5 feet deep, near the crown of one of the ridges of land, about 'it feet wide between the drains. The object of this experiment was to test the depth at which the water might stand after rain had ceased, and had passed off through the drains, and it appeared that free water pretty uuiformly existed in the hole at the depth of 4 feet 2 inches from the surface. The rise of the ridge, at the crown, was 15 inches above the level of the surface of the furrows : so that the level of the water, at the half way between the drains, was 13 inches higher than the bottom of the drains. Mr. Parkes called the atten- tion of the council to the important phenomena elicited by this experiment, and as bearing particularly on the drainage of ridged land. Mr. Arbuthnot had described the field to have been drained 2 feet G inches deep previously, but that it remained constantly wet, whereas it was now thoroughly dry ; and the singular fact appeared that drains laid in the furrows 4 feet deep removed the stagnating water to a depth of 4 feet 2 inches below the crown of the ridge. He hoped to be able at a future period to lay before the Council the result of similar tests applied to the ridges 45 feet in breadth. Mr- Arbuthnot had furnished him with particulars of the cost of this drainage, which amounted to 18/. 15s. for the seven acres, or 21. 13s. 7d. per acre, which would be considered very moderate, when it was known that the small pipes had cost 30s., and the 3-inch mains 40s. per 1,000. Mr. Parkes would caution those who might practise deep draining not to expect in all cases such immediate beneficial results as had occurred in this, and in many other instances where land had been long drained previously, though at shallow depths. It was well known in the Weald of Kent clays that drains laid 3 and 4 feet deep in undrained lands rarely produced their full effect, till after two or three seasons ; yet in most cases with which he was acquainted, where deep drains had been placed in the same soil, previously shallower drained, they acted at once and efficiently. He would again bring to the recollection of the num- bers the facts stated by Mr. Pusey, viz., that drains laid in some clay land of his had scarcely acted, or very imperfectly, till after the long drought of last year, when recently made drains also produced an immediate effect. Mr. Spencer, whose letter to Mr. Parkes was read at the previous meeting of the Council, favoured the members on the present occasion with a detailed state- ment of his plan of deep draining, the circumstances of soil under which it had been executed, and the bene- ficial results with which it had been attended. He sub- mitted to the inspection of the Council various plans, calculations, tiles, and specimens of the soil in which his operations had been conducted. He also furnished a copy of the following letter, addressed to him out of Hertfordshire, by the tenant referred to in his former communication : — " Hadham, June 7, 1845. " I am happy to inform you that the drains act in every way as you told us. Since I wrote to you, the shallow drains in the next field have not run for three weeks together, but the four feet ones have never stopped running since they were done. Mr. Randolph came up last week, after the rain, and was very much pleased to see them run so freely, and no water standing on the land. Most of my neighbours approve of the plan, but do not like the expense, as corn is at a low price. I do not find any difference in those that had bushes in them. My man says the land ploughs better now, and I think more good will be done in a year or two. My neighbours say I am ploughing too deep, but I do not mind what they say, as I have been told so before, but afterwards found the benefit of it. — Johx Smith." Mr. Denison, M.P., called the attention of the Coun- cil to various important points of consideration, in re- ference to the conditions under which the system of drainage found successful in his own case by Mr. Spencer, and advocated on theoretical grounds by Mr. Parkes, could be adopted generally, and without a more specific inquiry into the principles on which Mr. Spen- cer's land had been drained, and a careful consideration of the question, how far those principles would render the system effective under other circumstances, in which the nature of the soil, the depth of the strata, and the position of the water itself in the laud, would materially influence the results. Veterinary Practice.— Mr. Turner, President of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, transmitted a re- port of the proceedings of the Council of that body dur- ing the past year. Mr. Faulkes suggested that the Society should pub- lish " a work comprising the best method of prevention and cure of the common diseases of horses, neat cattle, and sheep ; clearly pointing out such cases of a more dangerous class, where veterinary surgeons ought to be called in." Prizes for Cattle. — Mr. Hillyard stated, that as he considered the great object in offering prizes for different breeds of cattle was to ascertain which breed produced the best beef, with the least amount of expense in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Q9 feeding, he should on a future occasion propose that the J Society take into consideration the propriety of offering two prizes of 10/. each for oxen of any breed under five years old, in one case and under four in the other ; the restrictions as to feeding being the same as in Class 2 of i the Smithfield Club. Draught on Uneven Ground. — Mr. Beaumont in- formed the Council that, having completed the model of his contrivance for the draught of carriages, or the working of ploughs, on uneven ground, it might be seen by the members at Mr. Frasi's, engineer and millwright, 158, Goswell-street. The Council directed information to be conveyed to Mr. Beaumont that, when his machine was completed, he would be at liberty to exhibit it at any of the country meetings of the Society. Draught by Wind-Power. — Mr. Fuller, M.P., laid before the Council various interesting statements con- nected with the experiments of his tenant, Mr. Stace, residing at Berwick, near Lewes, in Sussex, in the application of the power of windmills to the general purposes of agricultural draught, especially in the ope- ration of ploughing. Mr. Stace remarks, "We believe we are prepared to show, by our rude and imperfect apparatus, that we have invented means of applying wind-power to the purpose of working agricultural im- plements effectively, cheaply, and therefore profitably. We have considered it useless to attempt more than to bring our apparatus to that state in which we can show the efficiency and applicability of the power, and thus defend the invention from piracy ; leaving it for com- pletion to the application of the skill of the practical machinist. The facts that we have ploughed, and ploughed well, several acres of land whilst making our experiments, that we have mole-ploughed several acres, and that we have drawn Pearson's draining-plough, are sufficient to convince us of the utility of the inven- tion ; and, even though it were not susceptible of greater improvements than we can apply, we should use it ; for the advantages of being able to plough land at some seasons, without treading it with horses, are so great, that it would be worth doing at even a greater expense ; but we can, I believe, plough by wind at less than half the expense of horses. It has been considered desirable to substitute mechanical for manual power in the planta- tions of the West Indies ; and it appears to me that in hot countries, where the wind is tolerably certain, our power might be very advantageously applied, as the labour attending the ploughs is very trifling, and the mills might be taken to pieces in a few minutes in the case of a storm." Mr. Stace furnished a sketch of the arrangements by which his trial ground was ploughed, from which it appeared that, supposing the field to be a square, the two windmills were so relatively situated to each other, that the one would occupy one corner of the square, and the other windwill the other, where the same diagonal would terminate in opposite directions, the furrows being parallel to two of the sides of such square, and made by ploughs attached to an endless rope passing round the wheels of the mills for its prime movement, and over upright rollers placed along the other two sides of the field for the regulation of the lines of draught, and moved onward over the unploughed portion as each fur- row was successively completed. A man was required to each plough. In a moderate wind three ploughs, and in a strong wind five might be used at the same time. Mr. Denison doubted whether wind-power would be found equally advantageous with that of steam ; and he had understood that in the marshes the wind-mills had been given up for steam-engines. Morocco Wheat. — Sir Arthur de Capell Broke, Bart., of Oakley Hall, near Kettering, presented to the Society a supply of Barbary Wheat, grown fourteen years ago in Morocco, and brought by himself from that part of Africa. The cultivation of it, on his return to Eng- land, had been tried by his tenants in Northamptonshire ; but whether owing to the unsuitableness of the soil, or an unfavourable season, it came to nothing. Thinking that some portion of the Wheat might still be found good, and that on further trial its cultivation might be attended with better success, he took that opportunity of laying it before the Council accordingly. Sir Arthur stated, that the attention of travellers had often been attracted to the " Metamores," or granaries of Morocco, on account of their simplicity and efficacy, being merely pits dug in the ground, and lined with straw at the sides and bottom ; and that in these receptacles, owing to the nature of the soil and the dryness of the climate, grain was preserved uninjured for many years. Bridles. — The Duke of St. Alban's having presented to the Council, at the previous meeting, a bridle for the effectual control of a strong and vicious horse, in which the principle of leverage was conjoined with punishment effected by a sharp rectangular curb-chain, Mr. Shaw thought it might not be unacceptable for the Council to re- ceive also a bridle intended for a horse of similar propen- sities, but less vicious and powerful, invented by Messrs. Martin & Son,* Birmingham, and of which the principle introduced was that of impeding the horse's respiration. This was effected by a leather strap, each end of which is attached to the ring of the upper end of the bit-iron, and being crossed, forms a loop which passes over the horse's nose. On drawing the curb-rein, the upper ends of the bit iron are projected forward, and carrying with them the two ends of the nose-band, the loop is drawn tightly over the nose, the muscles which regulate the expansion of the nostrils rendered ineffective, and the horse conse- quently unable to draw his breath with that freedom which is essential to the increased respiration his going off or continuing at speed would occasion. Col. Chal- loner remarked that he had observed, when in Italy, that the Neapolitan cab-horses were driven without bridles, by a similar contrivance, of the nature of a cavesson, commonly used in England for breaking horses, being a leather band passing over the nose, lined inside with sharp studs, and furnished outside with two short protecting ring-stems, to which the reins were attached, and the horse driven without the slightest inconvenience. Mr. Cadogan Williams presented specimens of pre- served vegetables, and concrete formed of Glamorgan- shire lias lime and gravel ; and Mr. Turner communi- cated the results of his experience in barking trees. The council ordered thanks to be returned for the various communications presented them, and adjourned to Wednesday next, the 25th of June. NEW MEMBERS. The Marquis of Downshire, of Hanover- square, Lon- don, and Hillsborough Castle, Ireland ; The Earl of Euston, of Clarges-street, Piccadilly ; Henry Hippisley, Esq., of Lambourn-place, Hungerford, Berkshire ; and Edward Rose Tunno, Esq., of Warnford Park, Bishop's * It was not invented by Messrs. Martin, but is manufactured and sold wholesale by Messrs. Bright, Martin, and Birtles, Birmingham, and 30, Bow-street, Covent-garden, and may be obtained retail of any respectable saddler. As regards its effi- ciency, Mr. Martin says, " I venture to assert, from my own experience, as well as that of many persons who have tried it, that it is the most simple and effectual thing of the kind ever brought before the public : it can be used with any description of curb bit either in riding or driving." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Walthani, Hampshire, were elected Governors, and the following gentlemen Members of the Society : — Abbott, Stephen, Jun., Castleaere, Swaffham, Norfolk Anslow, "William, Eyton, Wellington, Salop Anstruther, Sir Ralph Abercromby, Bart., Balcaskie, Lcven, Fifesbire Arebbokl, James, Newcastle-on Tyne Arden, Hon. Richard Pepper, Pepper-ball, Catterick, Yorks. Baddeley, William, Brutton, Wellington, Salop Baker, Thomas, Jun., Chilton, Rushyford, Durham Bateinan, Henry, Asthally, Witney, Oxon Beckwith, Rev. Henry, Eaton-Constantine, Shrewsbury Bent, William, Chilton, Shrewsbury Bennion, Edward David, Summer Hill, Oswestry, Salop Boulton, Rev. William, Wem, Salop Bomne, Wilham Kemp, Pisherwick, Liclifield, Staffordshire Brand, Henry, Glynde, Lewes, Susses Buhner, Charles, Hereford Clark, Thomas, jun., Derndale, Hereford Clark, Nathaniel, Jun, Urpeth, Chester-le-street, Divrham Clay, J. Sutton, Shrewsbury Clement, W. J. Shrewsbury Colley, John, Osbaston, Wellington, Salop Cowdell, Rev. Henry, Shelderton, Ludlow, Salop Daniell, Frank, Camborne, Cornwall Davies, John, Fronhanlog, Corwen, Shrewsbury De Tabley, Lord, Tabley-house, Northwich, Cheshire Dickin, John, Shrewsbury Dickinson, Henry, Severn-bouse, Coalbrookdale. Shiffnal, Salop Dickinson, Joseph, Westbury, Salop Digby, Rev. Kenelm, Tettenhall Rectory, Litcham, Norfolk Dinning, John, Elford, Belford, Northumberland Downes, Thomas, Brynich, Brecon Drinkwater, Richard, Sen., Shrewsbury Elliott, William, Brick House, Burghill, Hereford Fa-rer, Edmund, Sporle, Swaffham, Norfolk Femie, George, Fron, Oswestry, Salop Gardner, Robert, Leighton-ball, Shrewsbury Greene, John, Greenville, Kilkenny Griffiths, Thomas J., Bishop's-castle, Salop Harris, Henry, High Ercal, Wellington, Salop Henderson, Matthew, Haydonbridge, Northumberland Hoff, William, Halston, Spilsby, Lincolnshire Hoskins, J., Crewkeme, Somerset Ireland, Philip, Muckleton, Shrewsbwy Jebb, John, Stanwardiue, Baschurcb, Salop Jones, J. Robinson, Brithdir Hall, Welshpool, Montgomery Jones, Joseph Owen, Park, Llwydiarth, Can Office, Montgo- meryshire Kirman, Thompson, Walesby, Market Rasen Lanwarne, Nicholas, St. Jobn's-street, Hereford Jjawson, W., Longhurst-hall, Morpeth, Northumberland Macdonald, Rev. Douglas, West Alvington, Kingsbridge, Devon Mansfield, Earl of, Scone-palace, Perth Midgley, Thomas, Buersill, Rochdale, Lancashire Minnett, William, Crumpwell, Oswestry, Salop Mousley, Isaac, Sandwell, Birmingham Morris, Philip, The Hurst, Ludlow, Salop Mytton, Rev. D. F. Glynn, Llandyssill, Montgomery Napier, Edward Berkeley, Pennard-house, Shepton-Mallet, So- merset Nash, Joseph, Walesby, Market Rasen, Lincolnshire Osborn, George, Glanbrogan, Llanfechan, Oswestry Overman, Henry Robert, Weaseidiam, Rougham, Norfolk Pardoe, Rev. George, Hopton Castle, Ludlow, Salop Pearson, Rev. John, Rector of Suckley, Worcester Pitcher, Robert, Mayor of Lynn, Norfolk Powell, Thomas, Muckleton, Shrewsbury Racster, William, Thingehill, Hereford Roberts, John, New-ball, Rhuabon, Denbighshire Smith, T. W., Greenfield-lodge, Oswestry Smith, Augustus, Ashlyn's-hall, Berkhampstead, Herts Smith, Henry, Wilford, Nottingham Smith, Charles P., Southrop-house, Fairford, Gloucestershire Smith, Sir Edward, Bart., Acton-Burnell, Shrewsbury Stable, Robert Scot, Cranbrook, Kent Stallard, William, Blankets, Worcester Stephenson, William. Throckley, Newcastle-on-Tyne Taylor, William, Showle-court, Stoke-Edith, Hereford Timms, William, J. P., Cadley Hill, Burton-on-Trent Trotter, Robert, Twyford, East Grinstead, Sussex Twort, Tvler, Horsemonden, Kent Vaughan," Sir Robert Williames, Bt., Hengwrt, Dolgelle, Meri- onethshire Wall, James, Sheffield, Yorkshire Watson, Jacob, Allendale-town, Northumberland Wellings, Thomas, Muckleton, Shrewsbury Williams, Cyril, Falcymerau, Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire Williamson, Isaac, East Orielton, Pembroke Walmsley, John, Creamore, Wem, Salop Williams, Martin, Bryngwyn, Oswestry Wingfield, Richard Baker, 2, Lowndes-square, Middlesex Witney, William, Hillingdon, Uxbridge, Middlesex Woolrich, Abraham, Little Ness, Shrewsbury Young, Allen, Orhngbury, AVellingborough, Northamptonshire. REPORT TO THE HONOURABLE ROBERT HENRY CLIVE OF HIS POLES FARM IMPROVEMENTS, EFFECTED BY THOROUGH DRAINING. (Continued from the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, vol. iv., p. 177.) Sir, — Since my report to you in March, 1843, I now beg leave to state what further improvements have taken place, and I think I cannot do better than continue the plan upon which I commenced, viz., by bringing forward the abstract quantity of thorough draining and subsoil ploughing to that period, and adding thereto in detail what has been effected subsequently, together with an account of the success obtained, and other matters connected with the improvements ; and in doing so I will en- deavour to make the statement and report clear, beginning with the quantities done since my report in March, 1843, which I will add to the former quantities and expense, showing the full amount of expenditure ; but I beg leave here to state the quantity of acres the farm contains in arable, mea- dow, and pasture, viz. — A. R. p. Arable 125 3 16 Meadow 45 0 29 Old pasture 50 0 29 One and two year old leys for permanent pasture 21 3 24 Farm-house, fold, stackyard, cottages, &c. 2 3 17 Total . 245 3 35 No. 13.— 14a. 2r. Op.— 9038 yards. This field was an old coarse sward, with a very uneven surface. The surface and subsoil vary much ; part of it is a tolerable loam, part a stiff clay substratum, with very large pebbles imbedded, which the subsoil- plough turned out to some extent, and a small part shelly sandstone. The drains are 18 feet and 24 feet apart ; drained in 1842 ; a great part of the stone got in the field and wheeled to the drains. Getting the stone, wheeling to drains, cutting drains open, breaking the stone, putting it in, and filling up THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 71 drains, 11291 roods (of 8 yards per rood) at lOd. per rood . . . £47 1 5 Getting 160 yards of stone, at 5d. per yard 3 6 8 Four horses 4 5 days carrying the above stone to drains, at 12s. . . 2 14 0 Subsoil ploughing 14^ acres, at 21s. . 15 4 6 £68 6 7 Cost per acre . . . £4 14 3 No. 14.— 3a. 2r. 8p.— 1764 yards. This field is an orchard in grass, which has been planted a good many years ; some of the trees are dead, I think a good deal owing to the cold substratum, which is a stiff clay. The drains are put in the centre between each row of trees, which are 30 feet apart ; most of the drains were opened to the depth of 15 inches with drain-plough, afterwards cutting a further depth of 15 inches, the other drains 30 inches and 36 inches, at 6d., 8d., and lOd. Breaking the stone, putting in drains, and fining in £6 13 0 Getting 100 yards of stone, at 5d. .218 Four horses carting stone to drains 2\ days, at 12s 1 10 0 Six ditto opening drains with plough half a day, at 18s 0 9 0 £10 13 8 Cost per acre . . . £3 0 10 No. 15.— 11 a. 2r. 12p.— 9696 yards. This field is an old coarse pasture, varying much in surface, and substratum very cold. The drains are 16 feet apart; the greatest part of the stone got in the field, and wheeled to the drains. Getting stone, cutting drains, breaking stone, wheeling to drains, laying and filling in 1212 roods, at lid. (of 8 yards) £55 11 0 Gathering and carrying 22 loads of stone from adjoining field, at Is. . .12 0 £56 13 0 Cost per acre . . .£4 18 6 No. 16.— 6a. Ob. 4p.— 3536 yards. This field is an old coarse turf, varying in quality ; but, being near the homestead, it is intended to improve the surface by top-dressing, and it continues in perma- nent pasture. The drains are 21 feet and 24 feet apart : 442 roods (or 3536 yards). Cutting open, breaking stone, laying drains, and filling in, at 7d. per rood £12 17 10 Seven roods of open ditch-laying, at Is. 0 7 0 Getting 200 yards of stone, at 5d. . 4 3 4 Four horses carrying stone to drains 3 days, at 12s. . . . . .116 0 Filling 200 yards of stone into carts, at id. 0 16 8 £20 0 10 Cost per acre . . .£369 No. 17. — 4a. 3r. 25p. — 2956 yards. This is a rough piece of ground, with a very uneven surface, substratum chiefly clay loam ; it is a question at present whether it will be continued in permanent grass or undergo a course or two of tillage to im- prove the surface. The drains are 24 feet apart : 369a roods (or 2965 yards) of drains. Cutting open, breaking stone, laying drains, and filling in, at 7d. per rood £10 15 G Getting 155 yards of stone, at 5c?. . 3 4 7 Carting and wheeling stone to drains, 4 horses 3 J days, at 125. . . 2 4 9 Filling stone into carts . . . 0 10 0 £16 14 10 Cost per acre . . £3 10 0 No. 18. — 6a. 2r. Op.— 3024 yards. This is a rough, coarse herbage, and should undergo a course of tillage to improve and make the surface more even. It is chiefly a clay loam, and the drains vary from 24 feet and upwards apart. Cutting open, breaking stones, laying drains, and filling in 378 roods (of 8 yards per rood), at Id. . . £ll 0 G Getting and wheeling stone to 300 roods, at 3d 3 15 0 Thirty yards of stone, at 3d. . . 0 7 G Laying water-course and levelling 18J roods, at 2s 1 17 0 Two horses one day carting 30 yards of stone to drains . . . 0 G 0 £17 G 0 Cost per acre . . £2 13 0 No. 19.— 5a. 1r. 10p.— 2221 yards. This is old meadow land ; has a good surface ; previous to draining was very wet, and of little value : the substratum varies, some part clay loam, and other parts clay mixed with stone. The drains are 30 feet apart. Cutting open, breaking stones, laying drains, filling 2221 yards, at \d. . £9 5 1 Getting 138 yards of stone, at 5ur national resources. It would be an advantage if such were the case, an advantage commercially, socially, and morally, were agriculture in such an improved state that we could safely rely on our own internal resources for a great part of our supply. But to hope to make ourselves independent of foreign com is quite out of the question. Sir, I have tried to show during the three or four years during which the government has been in office that they have uttered commercial laws consistently with sound principles, not excepting the laws placing restrictions on the impart of foreign corn ; I have tried to show that in no instance and in no respect haV3 they increased protection. You say that they have not carried their principles far enough. But every act which they have carried has been an act tending to establish principles which I believe to be sound only, namely, those embodying the gradual abatement of purely protective duties. I must also claim for them, the liberty of continuing the applica- tion of these principles. I believe them to be sound. I thought so in 1842, and the experience of the inter- vening period has but served to confirm my impres- sion:' J l It would be a difficult matter for any man to state more definitely than Sir Robert Peel has, that the maintenance of the^corn-laws is not to be thought of; his plan evidently is to make periodical changes all in favour of the manufacturers and prejudicial to the farmers, and it is now abundantly evident that the occupiers of the soil have nothing to expect from the present ministry. We gladly turn from this distressing subject to one of a more gratifying nature. At the period we last wrote, the weather was, and had for some time previously been, of a character to give rise to serious uneasiness respecting its effects on the growing crop of wheat ; but the month of June came in favourably, and a wonderfid and most gratifying improvement was speedily wrought in the appear- ance of the country. Up to the close of May vegetation was greatly retarded in consequence of the want of genial warmth, and the wheat plant was at least ten days more backward than at the same period of last year; the combination of heat and moisture experienced since then has, however, done much to compensate for the lateness of the spring, and though a very early harvest cannot be expected, a hot dry July would probably bring the crops to maturity at a much earlier period than was at one period deemed possible. The mischief done by the wire-worm, of which so much was said a month or two back, seems to have been a good deal exaggerated ; and it is now generally admitted that the prospects as to yield are sufficiently encouraging to lead us to calculate on a fair average. So much, however, still depends on the weather, that it would be worse than useless to enter into any predictions ; and all we wish to be understood to express by the foregoing remarks is, that there is quite sufficient plant on the ground, notwithstand- ing the trying character of the winter and spring, to make an average crop, if the weather should prove propitious for bringing it to maturity, and a favour- able time be experienced for the ingathering. The sowing of Lent corn having this spring been accomplished under the most auspicious circum- stances, and the abundance of rain which subse- quently fell having afforded the requisite moisture to insure speedy germination, barley and oats as well as beans and peas came up very evenly. The extreme heat of this month might have proved somewhat prejudicial to these crops had we not been favoured with occasional showers; but having from time to time been plentifully supplied with moisture, their growth has been exceedingly rapid. Barley is in every point of view a very promising crop, and where oats are grown they are also well-spoken of; whilst beans and peas wear as healthy and vigorous an appearance in all parts of the Kingdom as could possibly be desired. In addition to the generally auspicious promise of the grain crops, farmers have also reason to be well- satisfied with their produce of hay. In the Southern counties a large proportion of the latter has already been carried in excellent order, and we hear the most satisfactory accounts both as to quantity and quality. The improvement which has taken place in the appearance of the wheat plant since the close of May has had some influence on the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 89 trade in that aiticle ; but the fall in prices has not been so great as might have been expected. Various causes have been in operation to coun- teract the influence of the generally favourable weather, and not the least of these has been the belief that the stocks have been reduced into so small a compass as to render it doubtful whether much old wheat will remain in the hands of the growers at the time of harvest. In how far this opinion is well founded it is difficult to determine ; but there can be no doubt that merchants, millers, and dealers are almost bare of stocks, and that the farmers must, therefore, for some time have the entire command of the markets. This knowledge has rendered them less eager to part with their property, hence the somewhat firm tone which has characterized the trade throughout the month. The abatement from the highest point attained in May has not exceeded 2s. per quarter, and even that decline has been very unwillingly submitted to : what effect a continuance of such auspicious wea- ther as tnat lately experienced might have on the minds of the holders of wheat is still to be seen ; but should anything occur to give rise to the slightest apprehension as to the probable result of the harvest, the value of wheat would in all pro- bability be materially enhanced. It is, therefore, by no means surprising that farmers should reflect before they make up their minds to submit to lower terms ; and, on the whole, we are inclined to think that no further fall of importance from present rates can well occur. English barley appears to be well-nigh ex- hausted, and for weeks past the supplies brought forward have been scanty in the extreme : owing, however, to the limited consumption of this grain during the summer months (when the maltsters rarely buy, and comparatively little is required for feeding purposes), the deliveries from the growers, trifling as they have been, have nearly kept pace with the demand, and though prices have on the whole rather tended upwards, no quotable altera- tion has occurred either in the agricultural dis- tricts, or at the chief consuming towns. Had it not been for the enormous importation of barley from the North of Europe in the autumn of last year, there can be no doubt that our own pro- ducers, would have realized much more remune- rating rates ; and even now the stocks left in granary at several of the principal maritime ports, though greatly reduced, are sufficiently large to prevent any rally taking place in the value of the article. Supplies from abroad still continue to arrive; but since the duty rose to Ss. per quarter on the 29th of May, most of the cargoes have been warehoused in bond, by which the pressure has been somewhat lessened, and we are disposed to believe that prices have at length touched the lowest point. The scarcity of oats in all parts of England has caused a gradual and progressive advance in their value, and this article is now actually dearer in many of the counties from whence supplies are usually sent to London, than at Mark Lane. Under these circumstances, it may easily be con- ceived that but few oats of home growth have been brought forward ; indeed, buyers from the agricul- tural districts have appeared at many of those markets which in ordinary years they assist to supply, to secure the requisite quantity for the feed of their stock ; and unless Ireland sends us a much larger quantity than the reports from thence would lead us to expect, or the foreign arrivals in- crease materially, the upward movement is likely to continue. By the latest official account, it ap- pears that on the 5th June there were only 73,660 quai ters of oats in bond in the kingdom ; and i t is an undoubted fact that the stocks of British-grown corn in the hands of dealers are trifling in the ex- treme. Latterly the averages have begun to show the effect of the rise which prices have undergone, the last general weekly return for the Kingdom being 27s. 7d. per qr. To reduce the duty below 6s. (the present point), it requires an aggregate average of upwards of 23s. per. qr. ; and though importers have hitherto entered the cargoes received from abroad at the existing rate, it is not improbable that they may ere long speculate on the possibility of a fall, and land in bond, with a view of further- ing that object. Beans have now become exceedingly scarce, and notwithstanding the universally-admitted fact that the growing crop leaves nothing to be wished for, and the smallness of the consumption at this sea- son of the year, prices have steadily advanced since our last all over the kingdom. The general average price has, since the beginning of May, risen 2s. 6d. per qr., and we have now an aggregate average for the kingdom of over 37s. per qr. The duty has consequently receded to 5s. 6d., with a prospect of its being still further reduced. That our conti- nental neighbours have no beans to spare, is tole- rably evident, as the high value of the article in this country, and the low duty, must have proved strong inducements to consign ; notwithstanding which, scarcely any supplies have reached us from the Baltic, the foreign receipts having consisted of a few cargoes from Alexandria into London and Liverpool. These must, we think, realize the im- porters a good profit. If so, they are the only article by which any good has been done. The stocks of peas appear to have become equally reduced as those of beans ; and with only a retail demand, principally for feeding, enhanced terms have been realized. Of maple or dun peas, a sample now rarely makes its appearance at any of the country markets, and the few which have been brought forward from time to time have sold at 37s. to 38s. per qr. The quantity of foreign held at the leading maritime ports is trifling, and on the 5th instant there were only 9,616 qrs. in bond in the entire kingdom. The duty has recently been reduced to 5s. 6d. per qr,, below which point it is not likely to fall at present. Though there has been no very marked differ- ence in the position of the trade at Mark Lane this month, nearly all the principal markets having been influenced alike by the weather, and the other causes referred to in the forgoing part of this article, still we shall not depart from our usual plan of giving a separate notice of the proceedings in the metropolitan market. The arrivals of wheat coastwise into London have, with the exception of one week, been moderate. The threatening ap- 90 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, pearance of the weather towards the latter part of May, and the unfavourable rumour s which were then in circulation respecting the aspect of the plant, induced several of our principal millers to buy rather largely free on board at some of the ports from whence the produce of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire is shipped. The greater part of what was then purchased reached its destination between the 2nd and 9th of June, upwards of 15,000 qrs. of wheat having arrived in the port of London during that period. Previous to the latter date, a very great improvement had occurred in the weather, which, with the receipt of so large a supply, caused prices at Mark Lane to recede Is. to 2s. per qr. Subsequently confidence was in a great measure restored; and from that time up to Monday, the 23rd instant, the value of wheat remained perfectly stationary; then, however, a further abatement of Is. per qr. occurred. The quantity of wheat exhibited at Mark Lane, by land carriage samples from the home counties, has throughout the month been small ; and the farmers in Essex, Kent, and Suffolk either have but little remaining on hand, or feel satisfied that a better time may arrive between now and harvest for realizing : had it not been for the liberal nature of the arrivals from more remote counties, prices woidd unquestionably have been supported. Our millers are, notwithstanding the receipts alluded to, almost bare of stock, and the consumption of flour being still great, a continual good demand may be calcu- lated on. The transactions in free foreign wheat have been on a comparatively restricted scale ; this has been partly caused by the scarcity of really good qualities on the market, and the high terms at which these have been held. For seiwiceable high mixed Dantzic as much as 5Ss. per quarter has been asked, and the finer kinds of red wheat have been held at corresponding rates. The actual wants of the millers have, however, compelled them, from time to time, to take off small quantities ; and though English wheat has, as already remarked, fallen about 2s. per quarter from the extreme point attained in May, holders of foreign refuse to lower their pretensions. The arrivals from abroad have hitherto been unimportant, and it will be observed, from our notice of the foreign markets at foot, that there is no probability of large supplies for some time to come, quotations being, according to the latest advices, still relatively higher at the Baltic ports than in this country. We, never- theless, remain of opinion that, sooner or later, rather important shipments will be made from that quarter to Great Britain, more particularly as the demand from Belgium and Holland, which had previously assisted to keep up prices all over the north of Europe, has lately in a great measure subsided. In the London market, the inquiry for bonded wheat for shipment to the countries named, which, towards the close of May, and in the early part of the present month, was sufficiently active to occa- sion a rise to take place of about 5s. per quarter, has entirely ceased, and the inclination to make speculative investments having also terminated, scarcely anything has for some weeks been done in parcels under lock. When the excitement was at its height, as much as 42s. per quarter was paid for good high mixed Dantzic ; since then, so very little has been done, that quotations have become per- fectly nominal; but there can be no doubt that holders would gladly have sold at considerably reduced terms if buyers had manifested the least inclination to purchase. The stocks of wheat in bond are not large, there being, on the 5th June, 320,281 quarters in the United Kingdom ; against which we had last year at the same period 411,399 quarters. Before closing our remarks on the wheat trade, we must direct attention to the increased supplies which have recently reached this country from Australia ; not that arrivals from that distant quarter are a novelty, for small parcels have reached this country at various times for years past ; but latterly the receipts have been in much larger quantities, and it would appear that we must calculate on a progressive increase in the supplies from the colony. The quality of this wheat is very superior, and some of the parcels lately received weigh as much as 65 lbs. per bushel. The prices realized have varied from 55s. up to G3s., and we believe that for one very fine lot a still higher rate was obtained. The town millers have experienced considerable difficulty in effecting sales of flour at remunerating rates, the price of the raw material having, during the greater part of the month, been higher than that of the manufactured article. The top quotation has been nominally 45s. per sack; but it has been impossible to induce the bakers to pay that rate, or even 42s. per sack. Ship qualities have met a steady sale at 32s. to 33s. One cargo of flour has already arrived from Montreal, and further receipts from the same cpiarter may be shortly expected. The arrivals of English barley into London have been scanty in the extreme ; small, however, as has been the supply, it has proved adecpiate to the de- mand, the quantity of duty-paid foreign remaining on the market having prevented anything like scarcity being felt. In point of price we have little or no alteration to notice, but within the last week or two holders have displayed somewhat more firmness. The transactions in malt have been on a strictly retail scale ; sellers have, however, insisted on quite previous terms, and choice qualities have, if any- thing, rather risen in value. The receipts of oats from our own coast and Scotland have been very small, and until about the 20th of the month comparatively few cargoes came to hand from Ireland. Since then we have had a fair quantity from the latter country, which, with a good foreign supply, has enabled dealers to re- plenish the almost exhausted stocks. Up to the 23rd inst. prices gradually crept up ; but on that day a slight reaction took place, secondary and in- ferior qualities being then obtainable about 6d. per qr. below the highest point. Nearly the whole of the foreign oats hitherto received have been from the near ports ; next month, however, some of the Riga and Archangel shipments will probably reach this country, and should increased receipts from Ireland come forward about the same period (which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 91 is not improbable), a temporary depression might perhaps take place. Beans have, throughout the month, commanded high rates at Mark Lane ; good ticks have sold readily at 34s. to 36s., and Harrow-ticks at 37s. to 39s. per qr. The few cargoes of Egyptian received ave been held at 27s. to 28s. per qr. in bond. The quantity under lock on the 5th June consisted of 67,100 qrs. in the kingdom. Peas have come very sparingly forward. Maple and grey have been a good deal inquired for ; the few parcels which have appeared have brought 38s. to 39s., and in some instances even 40s. per qr. White Peas have been comparatively neglected, but fine boilers have brought 42s. In foreign, whether free or in bond, there has been scarcely anything doing. A similar favourable change of weather to that experienced in this country at the close of May appears to have taken place about the same time all over the north and east of Europe ; still, up to the present period, the reports from the countries bor- dering the Baltic do not speak well of the appear- ance of the wheat crop. The dull advices from Great Britain, and the effect which is invariably produced by fine weather on the minds of holders, have, however, caused our continental neighbours to become somewhat more reasonable in their pre- tensions, and at several of the lower Baltic ports the value of wheat has fallen 3s. to 4s. per qr. from the extreme rates of May. The most recent accounts from Rostock state that sellers had consented to accept 29s. per qr. freeon board; notwithstanding which, comparatively few buyers had come forward. At Stettin, the trade had also become exceedingly languid, and prime qualities of Uckermark, weighing 62lbs., which had at one time commanded 32s. to 33s. per qr., had receded to 30s. per qr. At Danzig, business appears to have been very little influenced by the reports from other places, and with decidedly discouraging advices from Great Britain, Holland, and Belgium, and a great im- provement in the weather, sellers of wheat had not alone refused to accept less money, but had actually insisted on enhanced terms. A temporary fall of Is. to 2s. per qr. took place there early in the month, but on the 17th inst. this was again reco- vered, fine high-mixed qualities being then held at 40s. per qr. free on board. The total shipment of wheat from Danzig, during May, amounted to 2,790 lasts, of which 471 lasts were for London. 430 for Liverpool, 676 for other British ports, 279 for the Channel Islands, and the remainder to Holland, Belgium, &c. Freight was then 4s. to London, and 4s. 6d. to Glasgow. Letters from Hamburg state that very few bar- gains for wheat had been closed, though sellers had manifested a disposition to facilitate business; good to fine qualities of red had been freely offering at from 30s. to 33s. per qr. free on board, without exciting much attention. Barley appears to have become scarce there, particularly Saale; but the inquiry had been very slow, and no advance had occurred in prices. Oats had been inquired for fcr export to England, and several contracts to ship from Danish and Swedish ports had been closed at 13s. to 14s. per qr. free on board. From the Mediterranean the accounts are not of the slightest interest; the letters from thence scarcely make any mention of the appearance of the crops, from which we infer that there is not much to complain of. The intelligence received by the last steamer from the other side of the Atlantic is of much the same character as the previous advices from thence. In the markets of the United States Flour had rather risen than fallen in value, and at New York the article was still quoted 4| d., equal to 19s. per brl. In Canada the tendency had been down- wards, good brands having been sold at Montreal at 22s. to 23s. per brl. The shipments to England would, it was stated, be less than last season ; but on these reports we are not disposed to place much reliance. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Juke 28. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 50 53 White 53 50 Old, red 50 64 Do 50 — Rye, old 32 34 Xew.... hfi — Bahlet, Grinding, 22 28 Malting 30 32 Chevalier 33 — Irish 24 20 Bere... 25 — Malt, Suffolk and Xorfolk 58 G3 Brown.. 50 60 Kingston and Ware 00 — Chevalier 65 — Oats, Yorksh.fc Lincolnshire, feed 23 24 Potato.. 24 20 Youghall and Cork, black.. 22 — Cork,white23 — Dublin 22 23 Westport 23 24 Waterford, white 22 23 Black . . 23 — Xewry 24 25 Galway 20 21 Scotch, feed 24 26 Potato.. 25 28 Clonmel 23 24 Limerick 23 25 Londonderry 23 24 Sligo 99 m BEAN3, Tick, new 3rt 40 Old, small 40 42 Peas, Grey 38 40 Maple.. 38 40 White 38 40 Boilers.. 38 40 Flol-b, Town-made 42 Suffolk 34 35 per sk. of 280 lbs. Stockton and Xorfolk 34 35 Irish 80 87 Seed, Rape 27L 28/. Irish .. 22(. 2Gf. per last. Linseed, Baltic. 38 44 Odessa 45 47 Mustard, while 12 15 brown 10 li per bush. FOREIGX GRAIX AXD FLOUR IX BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 40 — fine 42 Hamburg 82 84 Rostock 33 30 Barley 19 23 Oats, Brew 17 18 Feed ... 14 17 Beans — 21 20 Peas 28 32 Flouii, American, per brl 19 — Baltic.. 18 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending Wheat. Bailey. Oats. Rye. Beans.1 Peas. May 10th 45 10 17th 45 9 24th 45 9 81st.. 46 3 June 7th 47 7 14th 48 2 Afrfrrc|rate average ofl the six weeks which] rfjplates the doty. 4b 7 Duties pavuhle in j London till Wed- in-sdav next inclu- sive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of that, , day from Loud ,11 . .1 21 Du. on grain froi British poflstesion- out of Europe ....I 4 0 0 6 22 8 31 4 22 1 31 1 6 0 10 6 2 0 1 6 37 6 5 6 92 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, June 20th, 1815. s. d. Whbat 48 2 Barley 30 8 Oats 12 8 Rye 31 4 Beans 38 1 Pbas 37 0 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in the lasl year, Fridav, June 21st, 1844. 6. ll. Wheat S3 9 Barley 31 lo Oats 22 6 Rye 32 4 Beans 36 11 Peas 34 1 PRICES OF SEEDS. June 23. Nothing of the slightest interest transpired in the Seed trade, and we have no alteration to notice in quo- tations. English Cloverseed, red, 45s. to 50s., extra, 52s. to 55s. ; white, 60s. to 62s., extra, up to 68s.; Foreign, red, 40s. to 48s., extra, 50s.; white, 50s. to 62s., extra, 75s. per cwt. Cloverseed nominal at present. Linseed, English, sowing 52 58 Baltic — — crushing 40 45 per qr. Linseed Cakes, English.. 11 /. 0s. lo 11/. 5s. per moo Do. Foreign.. 71. 7. lo li 10s. per ton. Mcditer. & Odessa 40 44 Carraway 44 46 new .. 48 50perc\ri. Coriander 12 18 per cwt. Mustard, brown, new.... 8 12 white.. 12 14 p. bush. Rapeseed, English, new . . '261. 27/. per last. Hompseed 35 38 per qr. Trefoil 17 24 old.. — new — Tares, Spring 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. Tares, old .... — — new — — per qr. Canary, 47 48 per qr. fine 51s. Rye Grass, English — — Scotch — — nominal. POTATO MARKET. SOUTH WARK, Waterside, June 23. The supply to this market for the season is unu sually large, and the weather of late has been very fine and productive. The town markets are now abundantly supplied with Peas and vegetables, and the new Pota- toes are earlier and better than could have been ex- pected some time back. The trade at the waterside is excessively dull, most of the samples being affected by the dry rot ; in consequence of which many lots are un- saleable. The demand is limited, even for the best sam- ples, and the trade is excessively heavy at the following prices : — Kent & Essex Kidneys 50 to — Wisbeuch Kidneys .. 40 to 50 Guernsey Blues 40 to 50 Prince Regents 25 to 4li York Reds 50 to 80 Perth do 40 to 50 Late Devon do 70 to — Jersey Blues 40 to 50 PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Monday, June 23. Betting on the Hop duty is very slack here, and in- stead of giving the lead to the provinces, the backers seem more inclined this year to take it from them ; so that their estimate of the probable amount is about the current one here. The accounts from the Plantations are exceedingly favourable on the average, and this checks business. WORCESTER, June 21.— We have had a steady demand for Hops to-day and during the week, but prices have advanced but slightly, although the reports of blight are fully confirmed, the attack having extended nearly throughout the whole plantation, and in many gardens the bine is already literally covered with vermin. The plant however is growing, and with favourable wea- ther may yet recover from the attack. Our prices are now at 71. to 71. 7s. per cwt. EAST RETFORD, Juxe 18.— Not having hitherto noticed the state of the hop plantations in the North Clay district during the present year, we may premise that during the early portion of the late backward spring the bine made but little progress, and great complaints existed amongst the planters of the unevenness which existed, and of the probability that the crop (if one should be gathered) would turn out the same. In seve- ral of the plantations which lay in low and exposed situa- tions, it was found that considerable quantities of dead stock existed, which of itself would be detrimental to a full crop being ultimately realized. This latter state of things yet exists, but the former complaints appear to be entirely done away with. Within the last fortnight or three weeks this fickle plant has abundantly partici- pated in the glorious weather with which a kind Provi- dence hath blessed us ; and although there has been a fair sprinkling of fly, yet the bine has scrambled up the poles in utter defiance of this their deadliest enemy, and at the present moment we never saw a fairer prospect of a crop than now presents itself through the length and breadth of the district. The bine itself is luxuriant and of a capital colour, whilst the foliage is more gross and fully developed than we ever before recollect to have seen it. During the last ten days, with the thunder showers and most extraordinary warm weather we have experienced both by night and day, the growth of the bine has been so rapid as to outstrip belief, and even to astonish the planters themselves. We have no desire to lead our readers astray by over-drawing the picture, knowing, as we well do, that, like Jonah's gourd, it is liable to " come up in a night and to perish in a night." We only speak of time present, being well aware that it would be futile to do otherwise ; yet.present appearances are greatly in favour of a crop, and we do not wish to disguise it. At the same time speculation is afloat, and the duty of the kingdom is fully backed at 165,000/. In this district very few old hops remain on hand ; only a stray bag is here and there to be met with, and where they are found to be rather colouring command 8/. to 9/. per cwt. Fewer old hops were never known in this district since hop planting commenced.— Doncaster Gazette. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. LEEDS, June 20. — We have not any alteration to report in this branch of trade during the present week. The demand is steady, and prices are stationary. WAKEFIELD, June 20. — There is no variation in the value of wool or in the state of the market this week. The small stock in the market of some sorts of light wool has caused consumers to begin the new market to the growers at a higher range of prices than have recently ruled here. YORK, June 19. — We have again to report a good show of wool at this day's market, for which there has been a very fair demand ; nearly all was sold at prices bearing much on those of last week's. — Super hog, 15s. ; hog and ewe, 13s. 6d. to 14s. 6d. ; locks and cots, 8s. Gd. to 10s 6d. per stone. PONTEFRACT, June 14.— There was part wool at our market to-day, with a thin attendance of buyers from the clothing districts ; prices may be quoted 6d. per stone cheaper, except for the finest samples. HULL WOOL MARKET.— On Tuesday last the supply was larger than on either of the preceding mar- ket days ; there were plenty of buyers, and all sold at fully last week's prices, excepting one small parcel, the holder of which stood off, as he has done for several years, for a higher price than was offered. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 03 9 0 to 9 a 12 6 13 0 10 (i 12 0 12 0 13 6 11 0 12 9 13 !» 17 g •J I 0 26 0 LIVERPOOL, June 21. Scotch. — There continues the same retail demand for Laid Highland Wool that we have had to report for some weeks past. The stocks are, however, light, and prices, consequently, well supported. White Highland is still neglected. There have been a few inquiries for good crossed and Cheviot Wool, and a few transactions to clear oft' stocks before the new year's clip comes in. s. a. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 241bs White Highland do Laid Crossed do., unwashed Do. do.. washed .. Do. Cheviot do. unwashed Do. do.. washed IS White Do. do Foreign. — We have two arrivals from the colonies this week, and we anxiously look for two more, when our public sales will be announced. The demand for all kinds of fine Wool continues good ; and, if anything, we have had more doing in laid, and at fully late rates. FOREIGN. The accounts from the manufacturing districts are sa- tisfactory ; and from the continent we hear of the Wool fairs going off briskly. Accounts of June 11 from Stralsund (Germany) state that the Wool market had gone oft" well. A large pro- portion had previously been purchased by parties who visited the agricultural districts for the special purpose. The quantity of wool brought to market was 3,200 cwt. Prices ranged at about 14 rix dollars per stone, some sales being made under and others rather over that mark. Generally the quotations were 2 to 3 dollars per stone higher than last year. The washing was very good in most instances, and, so far, much superior to that of last year. From Stettin, under date of June 13th, we learn that business opened well, and before the fair commenced nearly all the Wool was sold ; although not allowed to be weighed off until the lGth, prices were fully up to the previous currency, mid. being the principal description at market, which realized last year 55 to GO rix dollars, was sold at 65 to 75 rix dollars per cwt. at the fair now under review, and the average advance was 12 to 15 dollars per cwt. ; and even, in a few instances, rather more ; while fine qualities only got up 8 to 10 per cent. Intelligence of June 10th, from Landsberg (au der W.), apprises us of the Wool fair having proved exceedingly favourable. The supply was about 20,000 cwt., and had a very quick sale, so that at the date above very little re- mained unsold. Good mid. Wool was in especial demand, and of this the supply chiefly consisted. Fine was 85 to 90 rix dollars, fine mid. 72£ to 77i, and ord. 50 to 57| rix dollars. Lower prices were paid in very few in- stances, and only for small parcels, and the rise, com- pared with last year's corresponding fair, was 12 to 15 rix dollars. The wools received were principally from Marh, Pommerania, a portion of the Grand Duchy of Posen, and the province of West Prussia, and were all well got up. From Posen we learn under date of the 10th inst. that the quantity of wool offered was 8,087 cwt. Fine sold at 60 rix dollars and upwards, mid. at 30 to 60 rix dollars, and ord. up to 30 rix dollars. The pur- chases were by French, Belgian, Rhenish, and Berlin houses. The Englishmen present bought very little. Accounts of July 12 from Dresden state that 20,274 stone were at market. Very superior sold at 28 rix dol- lars, the average was 24 to 27 rix dollars, and mid. 16 to 1 9 rix dollars, being higher than last year. LEEDS, June 20. — We have only to confirm our last report. A steady business has been done in foreign wools, considering the indifferent choice that is yet in the market, and prices are very firm. AUSTRALIAN WOOL MARKET.— The " Gene- ral Hewett" bringing the conclusion of the October sales, and the state of the market up to the end of the month, has caused a declension in price on all low de- scriptions to the extent of *i\ per cent, while the better sorts remain at from Is. 3d. to Is. 4d., but do not find a very ready market. Shipping being scarce has been the means of preventing purchasers from being over anxious to accumulate a stock. There has been an immense quantity of wet wool received during the week, and it is necessary that the bales should be well examined before shipping, which can only be done by opening them, as the carriers invariably dry them outside before they reach Sydney. The accidents that have occurred should be sufficient warning to the captains and owners to be careful in cases where sent direct from the in- terior. The market having fallen in London, and more goods arriving here, have affected the exchange, and 5 per cent, discount is readily given for advances against wools, being an improvement of 2^ per cent, during the last six weeks. — Sydney Herald, Feb. 14. TIMBER. Baltic Timber, per load of 50 cubic feet . Yw. Deals, per standard hundred . Deck Deals, per 40 feet 3 in Crown ditto £ 9. 9 15 10 10 1 1 d. £ 0 to 4 0 .. 19 Pipe Staves, per niille Lathwood, per fm. of 4 feet , Petersburgh, Riga, and Archangel .... Yw. Deals, per stand, hundred . . White , Yw. Battens Riga Logs, for IS feet cube , Stettin Staves, per mille of pipe Gothenb. Yw. Deals, per 10C l*f. 3in.9in... White ditto Yw. Battens, per hd. 12 ft. 2jin. 7 in ChristianiaYw. Deals, perhd. 12ft. Sin. 9in. White.... Yw. Battens, per hd. 12 ft. 2J in. 7in. 0 0 95 0 7 10 17 0 15 0 18 0 5 0 100 0 24 10 23 10 15 0 29 10 27 10 0 0 . 1 . 0 .110 . 19 10 0 . 15 10 0 . 19 10 0 . 5 12 6 ,112 10 0 . 27 0 0 . 25 10 0 . 17 10 0 ,30 0 0 . 23 0 0 ,000 PRICES OF MANURES. Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of Manure : — Hunt's Bone-dust, — s. per qr. Hunt's Half-inch Bone, — s. per qr. J. T. Hunt's Artificial Guano, 9/. per ton Hunt's Stuff Graves, 3s.6d. cwt. Rape Dust, 6/. 6s. per ton Rape Cake, 61. per ton Rags, 41. to 41. 10s. per ton Graves, 61. 10s. per ton Gypsum, at the waterside, 85s. per ton Agricultural Salt, 32s. per ton Carbon, 12s. per qr. Humus, 14s. per qr. Soap Ashes, 10s. per ton Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr. Highly Concentrated Manure, 30s. per qr. Nitrate of Soda, 16s. per cwt. Nitrate Potash (saltpetre), 25s. to 26s. per cwt. Petre Salt, 41. 10s. per ton Willey Dust, 41. 4s. per ton The Urate of the London Ma- nure Company, 4J.4s. per ton New Bristol Manure, 8s. per qr. Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr. Preparation for Turnip Fly, 10s. 6d. per pakt., sufficient for three acres Clue fou, 21s. per cwt. WolverharaptonCompost(Alex and.er'8), 12s. perqr., subject to carriage to London, or forwarded from Wolver- hampton Guano, Peruvian, ]0l. 10s.; Bolivian, 91. ; African, 6/.6s. to 71. 10s. per ton, according to analysis Potter's Guano, \0l. per ton. Muriate of Ammonia, 20s. to 21s. per cwt. Muriate of Lime, 6s. per cwt. Clarke's Compost, 3/. 12s. 6d. per hhd., sufficient for three acres Alkalies, 28s. and 42s. per cwt. Soda Ash, 14s. to 16s. per cwt. Chloride Lime, 28s. per cwt. Sulphuric Acid, l£d. per lb. Sulphur for Destroying Worm on Turnips, 12s. per cwt. Sulphate Soda, 6s. per cwt. The Liverpool Abattoir Com- pany's Annualized Manuring Powder, 21. 10s. per ton Manure Powder, 16s. per qr. Boast and Co.'s (Bow) Inor- ganic Manures, from 6s. to lis. per cwt., according to crop Boast's Guano, 91. 9s. per ton Fothergill's Gypsum, 35s. pel ton. Fothergill's Phosphate of Lime, 14s. per cwt. Superphosphate of Lime, 8e. do. 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. Div. last Jhalfyear 24,000; 9,500 10,000 9,500 15,000 6,610 86,000 50,000 42,000 50,000 35,000 |10,000 :19,000 15,000 144,000 144,000 144,000 4,000 10,800 10,918 10,918 10,918 20,000 10,000 25,000 25,000 87,500 20,000 10,500 12,000 8,000 8,000 5,000 1 8,000 16,000 8,000 5,100 7,968 11,475 4125000/ 41,250 54,450 48,000 36,000 4,500 83,000 38,000 43,077 11,136 46,200 100,000 10,000 10,000 8,000 13,000 13,000 13,000 22,750 30,000 30,000 4155000/ g078500i 20,000 20,000 24,000 86,000 2/ Ospsli 10s lZ8spsh 12s p sh RAILWAYS Aberdeen 2 J/ pd Armagh, Coleraine,Portrush25Zshlg/pd Birmingham and GloucesterlOOZ sh pd Do. New, iss. 7$ dis. .. 25/ sh 17£Z pd Ditto Half Shares 50/sh3/pd Brighton, Lewes, &Hastings,50?sh20Zpd Bristol and Exeter .... 100/ sh 70/ pd Ditto New 2/ pd Bristol and Gloucester ..50/ sh 30/ pd Caledonian 50/ sh 5/ pd Cambridge and Lincoln.... 25/ 1^/pd Chester and Holyhead... 50/ sh 10/ pd Chichester and Brighton 10/ pd Churnet Valley 20/ sh 2/ pd Covntry,Bed wrth, Nuneaton 25/shlJ/pd Coventry and Leicester ljZ pd Cornwall 3/ pd Direct Northern 50/ sh 2$Z pd Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd Diss, Beccles, & Yarmouth. 25/sh l$Zpd Dublin & Belfast Junction. 50/sh 2$Zpd Ditto and Galway 50/sh 2$Z pd Ditto and M ullingar. ... 50/ sh 2j/ pd Eastern Counties .. 25/sh 14/ 16s pd Do Perpetual . . 6/ 18s 4d sh 4/ 13s 4d pd Ditto ditto, No. 2 ..6/ 13s 4d 13s 4d Eastern Union 50/sh 10/ pd Ditto Extension 25/sh 1$/ pd Ely and Bedford 25/ sh 1 1/ pd Grand Junction 100/ sh pd Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd Ditto Quarter Shares 25/sh pd Gt.Southrn&Westn.(Irelnd)50/shl0/pd Ditto Extension 50/sh 2$Z pd 13 Ditto Additional 50/sh 2$/ pd Great North of England .... 100/ sh pd Ditto New 40/ sh 5/ pd Ditto New 30/ sh 2/ pd Great Western 100/ sh 80/ pd Ditto Half Shares 50/sh pd Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 20/ pd Guildfd,Farnhm,Portsmth,50Zsh2$Zpd Harwich 20/ sh 1/ pd Hull and Gainsborough.. 25/sh l§/pd Hull and Selby 50/sh pd Do. Quarter Shares 12$/ sh pd Do. Half Shares 25/ sh 2/ pd Kendal Windermere . . . 25/ sh 1 J/ pd Kentish Coast 25/ sh 1JZ pd Lancaster and Carlisle... 50/ sh 20/ pd Leeds and Bradford ... 50/ sh 5/ parts — cream, curd, and whey — into which, by repose, it spontaneously separates ; but the process of separating the whey from the other bodies may, as in cheese-making, be accelerated by infusing a small quantity of a simple acid extracted from cured and dried maw-skins,]: which have been pre- viously dissolved in warm water. This infusion is * " The fame of the cheeses of Cheshire is of very ancient date; at least as old as the reign of Henry I. (a.d. 1100). The Countess Constance of Ches- ter, though the wife of Hugh Lupus, the king's first cousin, kept a herd of kine, and made good cheeses, three of which she presented to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Giraldus Cambrensis bears honourable testimony to the excellence of the Cheshire cheeses of the day." (Bell's Weekly Messenger, Feb. 22, 1841.) " Poor men eat cheese for hunger, rich for digestion. It seems that the ancient British had no skill in the making thereof, till taught by the Romans, and now the Romans may even learn of us more exactness therein. The county of Chester doth afford the best for quantity and quality ; and yet their cows are not (as in other shires) housed in the winter ; so that it may seem strange, that the hardiest kine should yield the tenderest cheese. Some essayed in vain to make the like in other places, though hence they fetched both their kine and dairy-maids. It seems they should have fetched their ground too (wherein surely some occult excellency in this kind), or else so good cheese will not be made. I hear not the like com- mendation of the butter in this county ; and per- chance these two commodities are like stars of a different horizon, so that the elevation of one to eminencyis the depression of the other." (Fuller's Worthies.) t 1 Sam. xvh. 18 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29; Job x. 10. + The stomachs of sucking calves. See the method of curing these, in the Appendix. commonly called "steep," but more properly rennet. The art of cheese-making consists in the com- plete extraction of the whey, and in the proper com- pacting and curing of the curd. The richness of the cheese depends upon the quality of the milk, or, in other words, on the proportion of cream which the milk contains. The cheese of Cheshire is pro- fessedly made from new milk, or milk from which no cream has been taken. It is, however, well known, that in many dairies, in the morning before cheese-making, a smallquantity of creamis skimmed off the previous evening's milk ; this cream is either churned by itself, or mixed with whey-cream, by which there is obtained a better quality and greater quantity of (so called) whey butter. It may appear singular to some, that any portion of cream should be found in whey ; but such is the fact, and the means used in Cheshire for extracting it are very simple. (See Appendix.) Before entering into a detailed description of the mode employed in Cheshire in the making of cheese, I would remark that this essay is founded upon my own observations, made during a fifteen years' residence in, and intimate connection with, that county ; which latter is still existing. I have long felt an interest in the subject of cheese-making, with a desire to see it conducted upon more scien- tific principles, from a conviction that, were such the case, both the pocket of the producer and the stomach of the consumer would often be more agreeably filled; but I do not wish it to be supposed from this remark that I profess myself conversant with these principles, my information being more of a practical nature, and as such I offer it to the society. Number of Cows kept, and Produce. — The num- ber of cows kept for the purposes of a cheese dairy is seldom less than 8 or 10, or more than 70 or 80, and is of course regulated by the size of the farms — these average about 90 or 100 statute acres, upon each of which about 15 or 18 cows are kept. From 18 cows, a cheese of from 36 lbs. to 54 lbs. weight is made daily during four or five months of the summer.* The annual produce of cheese per cow depends both upon the quality of the animal (with the mode of keeping her) and of the land, or rather the herbage. I have known many farmers sustain great loss by not feeding their cattle sufficiently well in winter. AVith judicious management, about 3 cwt. of cheese (of 112lbs.) may be considered as the average amount made per annum upon land let for 30s. per statute acre : but in a few instances 5 cwt. per cow, and even more, is sometimes made. This can only be from a small and choice stock. The Season. — It is the practice amongst farmers * The Marquess of Cholmondeley and Mr.Tolle- mache, M.P., with a laudable desire to encourage the suspension of Sunday labour, have, for several years, offered through the South Cheshire Agricul- tural Society a prize of £20 to such farmer as shall have made the best cheese without infringing on the Sabbath rest. Although this prize has, I be- lieve, been regularly claimed, yet, from a variety of causes, the practice of making cheese on the Sab- bath, as on other days, is still very general. 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in this county to arrange so as to have most of their ' curtain or shutters.* The floor is either of plaster cows ealvmginthe months of March and April; and so soon as the calves are fed or disposed of, the cheese- making commences, and continues incepting in small dairies) to nearly the end of the year. In January and February the quantity of milk obtained is often so small that the farmer prefers selling it in the neighbouring towns, or making it into butter. There are, however, instances in large dairies (of 70 or 80 cows), of cheese being made throughout the year. Milking. — The operation commences about five o'clock in the morning, and five or six in the even- ing. In this county it is the practice for most of the servants, both men and maids, to assist, and for the cows to be milked in the cow-houses (called here '* shippons") all the year round. When, as is usual, there is one milker for every six or seven cows, the milking seldom exceeds an hour and a quarter. The milk of new-calved cows is not mixed with the other until about four or five days after calving. Offices and Utensils. — As the evening's milk is seldom made into cheese until the following morn- ing, and sometimes in small dairies (where four " meals" are used) not until the second morning, a cool " milk-house" is necessary ; on which account it usually occupies that side of the farm-house least exposed to the sun. The utensils in which the milk is kept are usually portable, shallow, earthenware vessels called "pan-mugs," and in some dairies leaden or zinc coolers. Most of the milk- rooms have lattice or wire windows for the circula- tion of air, and the floors are laid in a sloping form for the free escape of the cold water with which they are daily swilled throughout the summer months. If precautions of this "nature be not at- (gypsum) or boards, but more commonly the latter ; some of the larger cheese-rooms are warmed by stoves, or hot air, and occasionally, though rarely, by fire places in the room itself. The small cheese- rooms are seldom supplied with artificial heat, ex- cept what is gained from the rooms below. Some cheese-rooms are occasionally found to be in the summer-time too warm, in which case the cheese has to be removed for a time to a cooler part of the house. This is more generally necessary where the building is slated, and exposed to the noon-day sun, but is seldom or never experienced where the roof is of thatch. The size of these offices is of course regulated by the extent of the farm ; where 30 cows are kept I find them nearly as follows : — Yds. Square yds. Milk-house - - - - 6 by 3 or about 18 Dairy 6 by 5 Salting and drying house 4 by 5 Cheese-room over dairy and drying-house - 10 by 5 (or 8 by 6) 50 The utensils, excepting those I have described, will be noticed hereafter. Process of Cheese-mnking . — As the first process- namely, that of extracting the whey and salting — occupies, according to circumstances, from five to seven hours, it is found most convenient to com- mence it in the morning. This being the case, the evening's milk has to be kept all night in the milk- house. In the morning, the cream having been skimmed off, a portion of this milk is warmed. This is done in a circular flat-bottomed brass or tin pan (see a, fig. 4), floated in the boiler, the water of which has been previously heated for that pur- pose : the size of this pan is about 20 inches in di- ameter and 8 inches deep. The quantity to be warmed depends upon the state of the weather ; 30 20 tended to, there is a risk of the evening's milk be- ' for the first two or three months of the season (say coming sour ; in which case, whatever quantity of new milk be added to it in the morning, the cheese will be sour also. I am led to believe that a tem- perature of as near 50 deg. Fahrenheit as could be maintained, would be best for a milkhouse through- out the year. The dairy is generally situate near the milkhouse, and fitted up with two set-pans or boilers — a large one for scalding the whey, and a smaller one for heating water. The " cheese-presses" and "screw" are kept within this room, and the operation of cheese-making is here carried on. Some farm-houses are not provided with a dairy, and the cheese is then made in the kitchen— this is commonly the case on small farms. The " salting and drying house" (often one and the same room), if conveniently situated, adjoins the dairy. The cheese is placed here on stone or wooden benches, salted externally, and is afterwards left so as to dry gradually before being removed to the cheese- room. By some dairy-maids, this external salting is dispensed with, and the room is then of course only used for drying. These offices are all on the ground-floor. In some cases the cheese-room is over the dairy, in others over the kitchen, or some other room wherein a fire is usually kept, and some- times, though rarely, over the coivhouses or stables. Light and air are invariably excluded, either by a March, April, and May) it is not unusual to heat as much as half the evening's milk to a temperature of 100 deg. Fahrenheit, and this heat is rarely ex- ceeded, excepting by those dairymaids who wish to save themselves trouble in the after process. The " cheese-tub," which is similar to a brewing- tub, having been placed in readiness in the dairy, the cold milk is now put in, and the warm added. Supposing the temperature of the cold milk to be about 50 deg., and the warm 100 deg., and they were in equal proportions, the heat after mixing would be 75 deg., or something less ; but in warm weather it will be sufficient if it reaches 70 deg. I have known instances of good cheese being made in summer without warming any portion of the evening's milk ; indeed, such is now becoming the general practice. In very warm weather some dairymaids think it necessary to reduce even the temperature of the morning's milk. The cream, which is diluted either in about double its quan- tity of warm or new milk, or by being exposed to the heat of the boiler in the same way as the milk, is next put in. I have before stated that it is cus- * One reason, amongst others, assigned for this (universal practice), is its tendency to prevent the mischievous effects of the fly. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 tomary to retain a small part of the cream for butter : when this is the case, it is considered best to skim off the whole surface of the cream before diluting, as by that means the froth and bubbles, which are sup- posed to be prejudicial to the cheese, will, for the most part, be taken off. This leads me to the con- clusion that fixed air, if it gets mixed in the curd, has been found to be detrimental. Since warming of fluids has a tendency to dispel this fixed air, it is perhaps worthy of consideration whether it would not be better to warm the whole of the evening's milk to the required temperature, rather than heat- ing a part of it so high as 100 deg. The process adopted with the evening's milk, as above de- scribed, is generally finished previous to the time of milking in the morning; but if not, the dairy- maid stops and completes it before the new milk is brought in from the cows. This new or morning's milk is then added by passing it through a sieve placed upon the " cheese-ladder" over the cheese- tub. "When the whole is thus collected, some few bubbles are invariably found floating on the surface ; these are skimmed off and passed through the sieve to break them. One of the most important points now to be at- tended to is the heat of the milk preparatory to coagulation, as the milk, if at a proper tempera- ture, should now be ready to " set together," that 16, to receive the rennet. This heat is rarely tested by any other thermometer than that of the dairymaid's hand; some may, and I have no doubt do, determine it pretty correctly, but cannot always. In consequence of the changes in the weather, it is difficult even for an experienced dairymaid to know at all times what proportion of the evening's milk should be warmed, she is therefore cautious not to warm too much, until the morning's milk is added and the consequent heat ascertained. If it be deemed too cool, a little of the evening's milk which has been reserved is then warmed so as to produce the heat required ; but when none has been reserved, the necessary quantity taken from the tub after admixture of the two milkings is warmed for that purpose. Little is known amongst the farmers or dairymaids as to the precise heat which is best. I have seldom heard the subject named, except by a vague comparison that such and such dairies were made colder or warmer than others. I am acquainted with some farmers whose wives are said to have a peculiar method of their own, and who, I believe, obtain a high price for their cheese in the Manchester market, chiefly from the ten- dency of the cheese to green mould. I know lit- tle of the system which these parties adopt, but I understand they make their cheese " cold" — that is, set the milk together at a low temperature ; and I am also inclined to think they use less salt than others. I have not solicited the privilege of pry- ing into the mysteries pursued in these dairies, nor could I expect to have been so indidged if I had, especially if they had supposed it was for publication. It is said these parties get a greater price for their cheese than many of their neighbours, which I have no reason to doubt ; and I think, from what I have 6een, they make quite as great a quantity per cow. But the real price obtained, and the precise quan- tity made in any particular dairy, is seldom known beyond the farmer's own family and the factor. I ought, perhaps, to state that I have tasted some of these cheeses, and find them generally very good, fair toasters, and without colouring ; but in some I have detected a slight sourness : from this cause, or, what is more probable, from too little salt being used, the cheese will not keep long before decomposition takes place. To the farmer this would only be of consequence in the event of his not being able to sell the article at the time he wished. In the dairies where I have been permitted to take observations, the lowest heat of setting the milk together was 77 degs. I am disposed to think those who make a so-called cold cheese do not adopt much lower temperatures, even in summer, than 74 deg. or 75 deg. ; since a much longer time would be occupied in gathering and compacting the curd, and considerable risk incurred of having what is termed a sour cheese. The evening's milk in the tub being at or about 75 deg., as before stated, and the milk which is brought from the cows 90 deg. or 95 deg., the temperature of the whole is then found to be some- where between 80 deg. and 85 deg.; and I am of opinion that the heat at which milk ought to be and is commonly coagidated ranges between those two temperatures.* When colouring is used, which is not so exten^ sively the case as formerly, it is put into the milk immediately before the rennet. The nature of the article used for this purpose I propose to investi- gate under a distinct head in the Appendix. The quantity of colouring is in some degree regidated by the quality of the milk : if a considerable portion of the cream of the evening's milk has been taken out for making butter, a greater quantity of this colouring matter will be required to give the cheese that appearance which is found necessary to please the eye of the consumer, and particularly of those re- siding in London or at a distance. Annatto (or rather a colouring matter which goes by that name) is the article used; 1 lb. of it for each ton of cheese is a moderate calculation ; this would be after the rate of half an ounce to 75 lbs. The present retail price of the "best real Spanish annatto" is 4s. per lb. The colouring is prepared arid applied in different ways, but the most common is to take a piece of the requisite size, to fold it in a small bit of linen, and put it in half or a quarter of a pint of warm water the previous night. By this means it gets sufficiently dissolved. When the infusion is poured into the milk, the linen bag containing it is dipped in, and rubbed betwixt the fingers until the * Since writing the above, I have met with a farmer in Eddisbury Hundred, who says he used the thermometer during the year 1841 for the first time, and that the heat he uniformely adopted was 84 deg. I also found a thermometer at another dairy near to this, but it was not in use. I was allowed to test the heat of the milk with it, and found it 78 deg.: this was in June. The precise heat at which milk ought to be coagulated is a matter of vital importance in cheese making, and can only be ascertained by a series of careful and judicious ex- periments made by scientific and practical parties, 126 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. colouring is all discharged. The dregs, if any, re- main in the bag. The rennet — or steep, as it is commonly called — is next added. I have already stated in the intro- duction that this is an infusion made from the pre- served stomach or maw of sucking calves, thence called maw-skins or bag-skins. A recipe for pre- serving the skins -will be found in the Appendix. To define the quantity of rennet sufficient for coagulating a given quantity of milk is a very diffi- cult matter, as the maw-skins vary so much in quality. When the farmer is laying in a stock for the year, he generally calculates upon a dozen of skins to a ton of cheese, but the skins vary in size. The price, when cured, is from 6s. to 9s. per dozen. In using them, it is the practice often to cut two skins at once. Three square inches taken from the bottom ( or strongest part) of one, and one or two inches from the top (or weakest part) of the other, are generally found sufficient for sixty gallons of milk. These two pieces of skin are put into a cup containing about half a pint of lukewarm water, with the addition of a tea-spoonful of salt, some part of the day previous to being used. The water thus impregnated with the maw-skin is passed through the sieve into the milk, but the skin itself is generally, though not always, kept out. The rennet cup is well scalded before being used again. I have been told that some farmers make a suffi- ciently large quantity of rennet to last for several weeks, and find it to answer better than making a small quantity daily. The question is, will it keep sweet ? The colouring and rennet having been put in, the milk is well stirred and left to coagulate. It is usual to invert the skimming-dish on the surface of the milk — a practice of doubtful propriety, for this reason, that the curd immediately under it does not attain the same adhesiveness as the other, and is one of the causes of what is commonly called slip curd. The tub is now covered up, either with a wooden lid or with cloths supported by the " cheese-ladder :" these assist in preserving the heat of the milk, and protect it from dust and dirt. The coagulation (or " coming") is generally effected in an hour or an hour and a half. As far as my own observations extend, I am led to think that an average of these two is sufficiently long, if the proper means are used in effecting the forma- tion of the curd ; for it is well known that, certeris paribus, the warmer the milk is at the time of setting together, or the stronger the rennet, the sooner will the coagulation take place, but the curd will, in consequence, be tougher and less in quan- tity ; on the contrary, the cooler the milk, or the weaker the rennet, the longer will the curd be in forming, and the more tender its quality, but its quantity will be greater. By attention to these re- sults the cheesemaker may soon decide when too much or too little rennet has been put in the milk, and correct the quantity the next time. It may be proper here to state that too much rennet has a tendency to impart an unpleasant flavour, or bit- terness, to the cheese. It may generally be expected that the heat of the curd when formed will be four or five degrees less than the milk was when set together ; and it is de- sirable, particularly in cool weather, that this differ- ence should not be greater, otherwise the subse- quent labour will be more difficult. To determine exactly when the curd is in a fit state for what is called " breaking," requires some practical know- ledge : with attention, this is soon acquired. The point is generally determined by gently pressing the surface of the milk with the back of the hand, or by lifting up the skimming-dish, beneath which the curd and whey will distinctly appear if the coagulation is complete. Another criterion is the colour of the whey, which should be of a pale green. The " breaking'" and " gathering" of the curd is the next process. This used formerly to be done by means of the hands and skimming-dish (a prac- tice still continued in some dairies) ; but the curd- breaker is now generally marie use of for this pur- pose (see Fig. 1). It is made of wire-work, in oval form, and has a tin rim round it about ar inch and a half broad. This wire-work cuts the curd, by being passed through it perpendicularly very, very gently at first, and in different direc- tions, so that the whole mass is separated into very small portions. The length of time required for the operation depends upon the quantity of curd : for a 6olb. cheese the operation often takes 20 or 25 minutes. After this the curd is left for a quarter of an hour to separate from the whey, and, if the weather be cool, the tub is covered to retain the heat. The curd having separated, which it does by sinking, a portion of the whey at the top is then taken out by the portable brass or tin pan be- fore alluded to, being pressed into it, and emptied into the set-pan. The curd is then gently broken by the dairy-maid and her assistant passing their hands down to the bottom of the tub, and buoying up a portion of the curd at each time to the sur- face, or by again using the curd-breaker. The curd, having been brought to the top, is easily seized and separated into smaller portions, and the whey thereby released. This operation takes about half an hour. After the expiration of another half hour (or so soon as the curd is considered suffi- ciently settled, for there is no saying to five or ten minutes how long each particular interval of rest should be), more whey is taken out, and the curd af- terwards drawn as much into one-half of the bottom of the tub as its loose texture will admit of.* Upon the curd is then placed a semicircular board adapted to the size of the tub, with a weight of about 30 lb. placed upon it. This board is perforated with holes, about half an inch in diameter, to allow the whey * At this stage, it is the practice with some dairy-maids, when they suppose the curd is colder or more tender than it ought to be, to return a few gallons of whey, after it has been heated over the boiler in the brass pan, into the tub again, to assist the discharge of the remaining whey, if, on the contrary, the curd is found warmer than is in- tended or desirable, which is sometimes the case in hot weather or during thunder, a few gallons of cold water are applied to prevent the curd becoming tough. These inconveniences would, in my opinion, seldom if ever happen if a thermometer was used at first, and the proper heat at that time adhered to. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 12? to escape through. The tub is now set three or four inches atilt, to drain the whey more readily from the curd, and to admit of its being collected and carried off. The skimming-dish is again re- quired, to lade out the whey. The whey, on its way to the set-pan, is passed through a sieve, to collect any curd which may happen to be floating in it. This curd is what is called slip curd, which by some is not returned to the tub, for the reason I have before stated. The weight and board are shortly taken off, and such part of the curd as has been squeezed from under them is again collected on one side, and a heavier weight (say 50 lb. or Co 11>.) applied as before. As the whey escapes from the curd it is laded out. In the course of a quarter of an hour the board is again removed, the curd cut in intersections of six or eight inches apart, to assist the discharge of the whey ; and the board, with additional weights (about double the last), again applied. Some dairy-maids now add the slip curd. The weights are again increased if it be thought necessary ; observing always to let the pressure which is applied be gradual, and regulated by the degree of compactness of the curd ; for if this is not attended to now, as well as afterwards, a con- siderable portion of butyraceous matter will be forced out, and the cheese of course deteriorated. The curd is again cut into square pieces, taken out of the cheese-tub, and broken a little by the hands as it is passed into the " thrusting-tub'' {a, Figs. 2 and 3). (In some dairies a large-sized cheese-vat, in others a willow-basket is substituted for the thrusting-tub). In this the extraction of the whey is afterwards continued by the application of " the screw," of which there are two or three kinds, but all on the same principle (see Figs. 2 and 3). The old plan of thrusting — and from which the term is no doubt derived — was by means of a pole four or five yards long, fixed at one end into an up- right post, whilst at the other was seated a lusty lad or a man, who kept regularly pressing down the pole upon the curd, the pole acting as a lever. Both poles and men are now almost entirely ex- pelled from the Cheshire dairies; and the screw is also likely to be superseded by the " lever press" (Fig. 5). The advantages of this over the screw are, that it sinks by its own action icith the curd: any degree of pressure required can be applied and gradually increased, and less attention is necessary ; whereas the pressure from the screw is sudden and uncertain, and, having no self-action, requires the dairy-maid's assistance every five or ten minutes to render it effectual. The " thrusting-tub," in which the curd has now to be pressed, is round, and is perforated with holes at the sides and bottom for the whey to escape through (see a, Figs. 2 and 3). Before the curd is put in, a " cheese-cloth" of the coarsest kind, about one and a half yard long and a yard wide (or of dimensions sufficient to contain the curd), is placed in it.* In this the curd, after being broken, as before stated, is enveloped, and a " sinker," or strong circular board, which fits the inside of the * Cheese-cloths are linen, of a rather closer tex- ture than canvas, and made for the purpose. The coarse kind are sometimes termed screw- cloths. tub, placed on it (b, Figs. 2 and 3). Upon this the screw (or lever press, if used) is let down, and the power gradually applied. To assist still further the discharge of the whey, long iron skewers are introduced through the per- forations in the tub, with their points directed up- wards, so that when the skewers are withdrawn there is a drain made for the whey to follow. These skewers do not remain in more than five or ten mi- nutes; the pressure is continued a little longer. The curd is now cut through, in intersections of two or three inches apart, with a large dull knife, so as not to injure the cheese-cloth, and the edge or corner of the curd is cut off all round, and placed in the centre. After this the pressure is again ap- plied, and gradually increased, and the skewers in- troduced and withdrawn as before, after the lapse of about fifteen or twenty minutes. The curd is then taken completely out of the tub, cut into four or five pieces, and each piece broken separately with the hands to about the size of two or three inches square. A clean dry cloth is made use of, the curd folded in it, and again pressed and skewered. These operations are repeated until the whey is sufficiently extracted to admit of the curd being salted, which is the next part of the process. If the milk is set together at six o'clock, and the coagulation takes place in an hour and a quar- ter, the breaking, gathering, and preparation for salting is generally accomplished by eleven or twelve o'clock. This is merely mentioned as some guide to the new beginner, who may not be able to judge from the state of the curd when it is fit for salting, I may here observe that it is the practice in some dairies to salt the curd, whilst, in my opinion, there is too much whey in it. The quantity of salt used is regulated by some old custom, or by the fancy or taste of the dairy- maid, and with about as good a chance of correct- ness as that with which she regulates the tempe- rature of the milk by the touch. That clever and experienced persons may determine the proper quan- tity of salt in this way tolerably well, I admit ; but there are many others who fall into error, and all for want of some fixed rule. If there be a certain proportion of salt which would answer the purpose best, which there doubtless is, why not ascertain and adopt it ? " In all dairies," (says Mr. Wedge, the author of the original ' Report of the Agriculture of Che- shire,' written many years ago, but still equally true) " the same points are admitted to be essen- tial ; but although the means of obtaining those are, upon farms similarly circumstanced, so far alike as to differ materially in the minutiae only, yet upon these minutiae much of the art of cheese- making depends. " That an exact uniformity does not prevail in every part of the process is no wonder ; for there is not any of the business which is conducted in a dairy which tends to chemical exactness. Where there is no precision, there can be no just com- parison; and where no comparison can be made, there exists no foundation for an attempt at uni- formity. The degree of heat at setting the milk together is never measured; the quantity of steep is K 1*6 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. guessed at, and its quality not exactly known ; the quantity of salt necessary is undefined; and the sweating or fermenting of the cheese, when made, is accidental." As an antiseptic, a certain quantity of salt is necessary: it is the same in this respect with cheese as it is with hutter or bacon. There may be, and no doubt are, differences of opinion, both amongst makers and consumers of cheese, as to the degree of saltness which is best ; and it may be necessary, in order to suit the palates of the many, that there should be a variety, I am willing to admit the force of the argument, so far, that there might be these shades of difference in different dairies, but think that they ought not to exist in one and the same dairy. Each maker strives at uniformity, as regards the thickness and colour of his cheese, and would like also to attain uniformity in flavour if he could. Why not, therefore, mea- sure or weigh the salt before using ; regulating the same by the quantity of milk or the weight or quantity of curd ?* The former would easily be ascertained by means of a gauge, or graduated rod, which any farmer might make for himself, to suit his own cheese-tub. The way to make it would be to pour into the tub a gallon of water, or any liquid, and then to note its height, and mark it on the rod. This being done, put in another gallon and again mark the height, and so on until the tub is full ; taking care afterwards to introduce the rod into the same part of the tub, as the bottoms are not often level. It has generally been considered that a gallon of milk (supposing little or no cream has been taken from it) will produce upon an average of the season lib. of saleable cheese ; that is, when the cheese is four or five months old. In autumn there is always more curd from the same quantity of milk than at any other part of the season. During wet weather there will sometimes be more milk than usual, though not a proportionately greater quantity of curd. An experienced dairy- maid soon detects these different results, and makes allowances accordingly. I have met with no dairy-made who regularly weighs the salt ; but a highly-respectable farmer, whose wife makes a first-rate cheese, has given me the weight used in his dairy, as near as the same can be computed. It is as follows : — lbs. lbs. oz. In March and April their cheeses average about 30 and about 0 10 of salt is used. In May, June, and July 70 „ 2 0 „ In August 60 „ 1 12 „ In September 50 „ 14 „ In Octoberand November 30 ,, 0 10 „ In the above instance it will be seen that more in proportion was used in summer than at other * Since writing the above, I have learnt that a farmer in South Cheshire, well known for his in- troduction of improvements in agriculture, has commenced the system of weighing his curd pre- vious to salting it, and he says he uses salt in the proportion of lib. to 42lbs. of curd. He also in- forms me he sets his milk together by a thermo- meter, and at a temperature of 76c to 77'. — May, 1845. times, and that the average is lib. of salt for 40lbs. of dried cheese (or say forty gallons of milk). I was favoured with an account from another dairy in which, to oblige me, the salt for once was weighed. For a cheese which weighed 461bs. a few days after making (say 42lbs. at four months old) lib. loz. was used. This is also after the rate of lib. of salt for 40lbs. of dried cheese, and was said to be the quantity uniformly used throughout the year in this dairy, which consisted of about forty cows. A third account is from a dairy of sixteen cows j the quantity of salt used was generally about lib. for 45lbs. of cheese ; bufr the dairy-maid made a trial last year with one cheese, using only three quarters of a pound. The cheese was made at the beginning of June, and when weighed in the middle of September was 42lbs. This cheese was admitted to be better than the others in the same dairy.* The salt termed the "middle grained" is the kind generally used ; but some use " fine." Be- fore applying it the curd is cut into three or four equal sized pieces, and each of these is broken into smaller pieces by hand, or is passed once through the curd-millf (Fig. 4). The salt is then scattered over it, and the " breaking" continued either by the hands, the curd-mill, or both, until the salt is well intermixed and the curd perfectly crumbled. Each portion as it is broken is put into the cheese- vat, in which has first been placed a clean and rather finer cloth than was used for the previous process, and the curd is compacted as much with the hands as possible. To admit of the curd being properly pressed, it is necessary to put it into such a vat as it will overfill by at least two inches. It is also rounded up a little in the middle. The cloth is then brought over it, and tucked in at the edges of the vat with a small wooden knife or other dull-edged instrument. In order to support the outside of that part of the curd which is above the vat, and to keep it in proper form when the press is applied, a tin or zinc hoop or " fillet," the edges of which are rounded off so as not to cut the cloth, and the ends lapping over and unattached, so that the same fillet will do for different sizes of cheese, is introduced round the inside of the top of the vat. The "fillet" thus placed sinks with the curd, and having small perforations in it, the emission of the whey is effected through it as through the perforations of the vat. Since it has become the fashion to make Cheshire cheeses thicker than they used to be, it is no unusual thing to see fillets six or eight inches broad. The vat is now again placed under the screw or * It may not be out of place here to state that at Northwich, which is about the centre of the county, and where the principal salt-works are found, salt is at present bought for 8d. per bushel of 561bs. In large quantities the price is consider- ably lower. t The curd-mill is of recent introduction, and it is only in a few dairies that it is met with ; some dairy-maids highly approving, others objecting to it. I think it will soon be more generally adopted, as it effects a saving in time, and breaks the curd more regularly than it can be done by hand, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 120 lever press, and the skewering is also continued. The pressure is increased at intervals, and the skewers inserted in fresh places to accelerate as much as possible the discharge of the remaining whey or " thr listings," as it is now termed. In the course of an hour from the time of salting, the curd is taken from under the screw or lever press and out of the vat, for the purpose of being turned upside down, which is done on a table. In the first place, the angles of that side which was toprnost in the vat are cut off; a circular piece, two or three inches deep, is often also scooped out of the centre, and both are broken small with the hands and rounded up in the middle. The cloth being drawn over the curd, the vat is then turned down upon it, and re-turning the vat with the curd in it, the other angles and centre part of the curd are broken in a similar manner : after which the tin fillet is put on, and the screw- ing and pressing are continued as before for about half-an-hour or an hour. It will, probably, be two or three o'clock in the afternoon before the curd (or cheese, as it may now be termed) is got under the press, that is, when it is removed from the screw to the stone press ; but where the lever press is used instead of the screw, which, I think, might always be advantageously done, all the change that will now be required is a little more weight at the end of the lever. Before turning the cheese for the purpose of placing it under the press, it is visual to prick it perpendicularly down with a skewer in several places, for the purpose of making drains for the whey, after having been so turned. A clean cloth is applied, and where the lever press is not used the cheese is put under one of the lightest of the other kind. A pressure of six, eight, or ten cwt., according to the size of the cheese, will be suffi- cient. This is generally accomplished by about two or three o'clock in the afternoon. Smaller skewers are now used, and remain (by removing them occasionally into fresh places) until about four o'clock : they are then withdrawn, but the cheese remains half-an-hour longer undisturbed, to allow the whey to drain from it. It is then, or some time in the evening, turned, a clean cloth is put over it, and the pressing continued. If the lever press be vised, the weight may be a little increased. On the second day the cheese is generally turned twice or three times ; it is also skewered, and clean cloths are used each time of turning. I would ob- serve here, that if any of the cloths are used again before they have been washed and dried in the open air, great care should be taken that they be well scalded. The presses used for at least the two first days, and, if possible, during the whole pro- cess, should be situate in the daily, kitchen, or some other moderately warm place, otherwise the whey will be longer in discharging, and more liable on that account, from the acidity which it soon acquires, to injure the flavour of the cheese. Another advantage of the lever press is that in cold weather it may be easily moved to a sufficiently warm place, which cannot be the case with the common presses. These common presses are chiefly made of one square block of stone fixed in a wooden frame, but are also made of wooden boxes rilled with slag or other heavy material. They are generally fixed by the walls of the dairy, for the purpose of being stayed to them, and being there most out of the way ; when there is not room in the dairy or kitchen, they are placed in the salting room or pantry, which latter places are often much too cold for the purpose, as the whey seldom gets thoroughly extracted when the presses are in cold situations. On the third day, the cheese is again turned once or twice, but ought not to require any skewer- ing. The heaviest press is now had recourse to, and for a cheese of 60lbs. or 70lbs. weight about 30 cwt. will be pressure sufficient ; but some dairy maids apply as much as two tons, their heaviest press being that weight. A cheese-press of this weight, made of a block of red freestone, would be 3ft. 2in. long, 2ft. Sin. wide, and 3ft. 2in. high. On the fourth day, it is usual in most dairies to discontinue the pressing, but in others it is continued for a day or two longer. The cheese is then removed to what is called The Salting and Drying Room. — Sometimes these are distinct apartments, but more generally one room suffices for both purposes. The salt can now, of course, be only applied externally : and the good, if any, effected is to harden the coat of the cheese. The cheese I have before alluded to, as having been made with three-quarters of a pound of salt, and which was much above an average in quality, was removed, as an experiment, direct from the press to the cheese-room. I am inclined to think this is the better system, or at least that a great deal of the present labour of the salting-house might be dispensed with. It is, however, only right to state that in most of the dairies of this county the practice of external salting still obtains. I will therefore describe the process usually adopted. The cheese is taken out of the vat, and a strong bandage called a " fillet," abovit two inches broad, and long enough to go three times round the cheese, is used. As this bandage is put on, salt is applied underneath it, to the coat of the cheese, live band- age is fastened with strong pins, the cheese placed on stone or wooden shelves or benches, and salt spread on the top to within an inch or two of the edges. The cheese is turned daily, and fresh salt and a clean bandage applied. In some fewdairiesit is the practice, before the salting above described, to half immerse the cheese for two or three days in strong brine kept in a shallow tub for that purpose. The salting process above described is continued for various periods : by some for five or six days, by others as long as three weeks. I will give the rule followed by the farmer who furnished me with the particulars of his salting of the curd (p. 113). It is as follows : — From the beginning of the season (about March) to the time of the cows being turned out to grass (12th May), the cheese remains in salt four days ; from thence to the end of July, ten days ; in Au- gust, eight days; September, six days; and the rest of the season, four days. It is obvious, from the practice in this dairy, that it is considered necessary for the cheese to re- K 2 130 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. main in salt longer in the middle of summer than at other seasons. After this salting, the cheese is well wiped or washed, has a clean bandage put round it, and con- tinues in the same room, or an adjoining one, on wooden shelves, for the purpose of being dried. It is turned once a day, and remains until it is con- sidered sufficiently dry for being removed to the cheese-room. The length of time for keeping cheese in the " drying-house" varies from seven to twenty days, and is regulated by the temperature of the weather, or the cheese-room to which it has to be next removed. In hot weather, and especially if the cheese-room is exposed to the heat of the noon- day sun, the change from a too cold drying house (as many often are, except, perhaps, in the middle of summer) to a too hot cheese-room, is calculated to cause cracks in the cheese, which said cracks have from time to time to be filled up by the ap- plication of bacon fat, or whey butter, otherwise mites would soon be generated, and the appear- ance of the cheese detracted from. To prevent this cracking as much as possible, the salting and drying houses have rarely if ever the windows opened, and drafts or currents of air are thereby pre- vented. This precaution is also adopted in the cheese-room; and, in addition, the light is excluded either by a shutter or blind, as I have before stated. The cheese I have before alluded to as having been made without any external salting, as an ex- periment, and which was taken direct from the cheese-press to the cheese-room, was made in the be- ginning of June, and at the end of September was ready for the market. The quality of the cheese was better than that made in the ordinary way, and all the labour of the salting and drying house was saved. My own impression is, as I have already hinted, that the drying-rooms are often too cold ; and that if it is found to be desirable, as perhaps it may be in some dairies, to continue the use of such drying-rooms, the heat should be kept as near as possible at from 50 deg. to 55 deg. In conclud- ing my remarks on this room, I must not omit to observe that it is necessary the cheeses should re- main bandaged, in order to prevent their bidging, and also that they should be turned over once a day. If one cheese be made daily, one will conse- quently— in the course of a certain time after the season of cheese-making commences — have to be removed every day to the cheese-room. When taken to this room, the situation of which I have before described, it is usual to scrape and clean the coat of the cheese, and to place it, in the first instance, in the coolest part of the room, often for a few weeks upon shelves or benches, which are cooler than the floor, subsequently upon the coolest part of the floor, and ultimately upon the warmest part. It is usual to continue the bandage or "fillet" for several weeks after the cheese gets into this room, and indeed in some dairies until it is sold. It is also usual to turn the cheeses, and wipe them with a cloth daily, for at least three or four months, and every alternate day afterwards ; and when there are any symptoms of cracking, bacon- fat, hogs'- lard, or some other fatty substance, is ap- plied. The floor of the cheese-room is gene- rally covered with dried rushes, or a coarse grass resembling rushes, called " sniddle," or wheat-straw. The floor should be level, otherwise the cheeses will not be kept easily in shape ; and should be well washed with hot water and soft soap about twice a-year. The temperature of the cheese-room should, when attainable, range between 60° and 65°. "When this is the case, the "first make" will generally be ready for the factor by September or October, and the " latter make" by December or January ; but in consequence of many rooms being badly situated and imperfectly heated, the farmer very often does not get his cheese into the market until two or three months after these respective periods. The object gained in having the cheese-room about the temperature I have named, is threefold : the perfect fermentation and ripening of the cheese ; the reduction of la- bour ; and the quicker return of profit. It is usual in this county to sell the cheese by what is sometimes called the long hundred (120 lbs. to the cwt.); but the factors often require 12 libs. The price varies with the quality of the article, the state of the market, and the size of the cheese ; for large cheeses always sell for more per lb. than smaller ones. There is, perhaps, nothing more difficult to ascertain than the average price of cheese, inasmuch as both farmer and factor make the price a secret. The highest I heard of last season (1843) was 72s. per cwt. of 120 lbs., or a little more than 7d. per lb. ; the lowest would pro- bably be about 40s. or 45s.* Conclusion. — I am aware that a great deal might still be said bearing on this subject : the various defects of cheese, the great difference of the flavour, the effects of different pasturage and food, and various other matters, might be discussed ; but it is considered this essay is already too long and tedious. I shall, therefore, content myself by giving the following tabular statement, and the information promised in the Appendix. I cannot, however, close my remarks without expressing my admiration of the industry, cleanliness, and fru- gality of the Cheshire dairymaids. Their labours are great indeed ; their cleanliness not to be sur- passed ; and to their good management it is that the landlord may often consider himself indebted for the whole of his rent. ♦There is a general wish on the part of the farmers to adopt the standard weight of 112 lbs. : but the factors have hitherto, in a great measure, succeeded in purchasing according to the old custom of 120 lbs. The law for regulating weights and mea- sures has little or no effect in this county, as the numerous customs at variance with that at law, and still in operation, bear testimony. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 131 A ^ X > c crq t ° «g a 2 c ^ orcj Day of Observation. Number of Cows. 3-3 "H yi &.' to o fc *■ Q Quantity of Milk at Two Milkings (except No 2). Heat of Milk when the Rennet was put in. Quantity of Rennet. o s* Time occupied in Coagulation. Heat of Curd and Whey after Coagulation. 3& 2.P oo Heat of Dairy or Room in which the Cheese was made. S v Time occupied in gathering the Curd, and completing the Forma- tion of the Cheese. Quantity of Salt used internally. ss.h n 2 era S jy 03 <■+ r-, . iZ. Weight of Cheese a Day or two after Making. cc^.^, 0=J O ^ -T Weight at some subsequent Period. 0 Quantity of Cream taken from Night's Milk. Quantity of Whey. 0 Quantity of whey cream. 0 Quantity of "Fleetings." ijP oo u< oo 5- et £• 1*. • 3- 5 g* C5 O} crq s-a • a. a. 31 i' Size of Cheese. 132 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. APPENDIX. The Scalding of the Whey, and the Making of Whey-Butter. This process is carried on simultaneously with the making of the cheese. The whey which comes from the curd, previous to its heing salted, is called the green whey, and that which is extracted after- terwards, the thrustiags, or white whey. The latter are more or less impregnated with salt. As soon as the principal part of the green whey is collected in the set-pan, a fire is lighted under it of cannel coal, crop-wood, and other quick-burning fuel. The remainder of the green whey is added after the fire is lighted. It is usual to skim off any small particles of curd which float on the whey, and give them to the poultry. Whilst the whey is heat- ing, it is necessary that it should be frequently stirred, or it will be liable to burn to the bottom of the pan. AVhen it has attained a heat of about 160° or 170°, if any whey is wanted for the family, it is then taken out. When the whey has reached the heat of 180°, it is in a fit state for breaking. This may be effected by any simple acid ; but it is customary here to use sour butter- milk, and with it the thru stings of the previous day. The quantity of buttermilk necessary may be easily ascertained. I have only noted what was used in one instance, which was 1 pint of buttermilk and 2 quarts of thrustings (which had been mixed the day previous to being used, and kept in a tolerably warm place to increase the acidity i to 22 gallons of whey. The breaking by this method, which is almost instantaneous, has the effect of causing all the creamy matter to rise to the surface, from which it is regularly skimmed oil', and put into a cream-jug. The last skimmings are termed feel- ings, and are generally reserved for the use of the sen-ants. It is necessary, after the breakings are put in, to check or withdraw the fire, to prevent the whey from boiling. The refuse whey, after the cream is skimmed off, is laded out of the pan for the use of the pigs : and it is generally conveyed by a spout fixed above the pan, which leads to a cistern or tub in which the pig-meat is kept. The making of butter from whey-creamvaries very little from the process of making butter from the cream of milk. The cream is kept for three or four days, or until it has become clotted (provin- cially termed calved). Those who make the best whey-butter have a spigot and faucet to each of their cream-mugs, to let off the whey, which, in the course of a few hours, settles at the bottom, and which, if allowed to remain, imparts a rank flavour to the cream, and consequently to the butter. The temperature of the cream, when put into the churn, is generally ascertained by the hand ; but, if a ther- mometer be used, the heat which 1 would recom- mend is 60°, having found that the best. If it be much higher than this, the butter may be expected not only to be soft, but inferior both in quantity and quality ; and if much lower, the operation of churning will be prolonged, and indeed tedious. At this heat, the time in churning will probably be about an hour and a half. It will perhaps be ne- iiy in cold weather to put hot water into the churn, and in warm weather to put in cold water, in order to attain this desirable object as to heat. From 100 gallons of milk there will not be less than 90 gallons of whey, which should yield from 10 to 12 gallons of cream, or 3^ to 4 lbs. of butter. The quantity of whey-butter per cow is about half a pound per week, taking the season through; but with that small portion of cream of the even- ing's cream (to which I have alluded at p. 106) added, the farmer often churns as much as three- quarters of a pound of butter per cow per week, or from 20 to 25lbs. per annum : 1 lb. of salt is sufficient for curing 37 lbs. of butter, if for present use. Cheese-Colouring. This ingredient is, or should be, annutto (or an- notto), the produce of the Bixa orellana of Linnaeus. It is, I believe, chiefly imported from the West India Islands, and used for dyeing. The colouring chiefly used in cheese-making is prepared by manu- facturers in this country for the purpose. It gives the cheese that amber or cream-like appearance which is unfortunately required in order to please or deceive the eye of the London consumer. For the Manchester and Liverpool markets, and for home consumption, the Cheshire fanner rarely uses it in his cheese-making, as it is well-known it does not improve ; but if an inferior article is bought, and especially if much be used, it may deteriorate the flavour very much. Those who wish to be enlightened on this subject would do well to read the "Essay on Cheese-Colouring," written by Mr. Whitly of Stretton, published by Ridgway, in which it is clearly proved that the greatest bulk of the cheese-colouring used in this country, is only an imitation of annatto. but sold by that name, and consisting of such ingredients as turmeric powder, potash, and soft-soap or train-oil, well mixed, to form a mass along with a little " real Spanish annate'' I cannot, for two reasons, here resist inserting a verbatim copy of a paper which was printed and published several years ago by a cheese-factor in Cheshire ; first, because it is an acknowledgment, on his part, that much bad colouring did then exist; and, secondly, because it contains " A Word of Advice to the Dairy-maid," which shows what were considered some of the defects of the dairy system at that time, and what, in his opinion, the remedies. Many dairy-maids, even now, would do well to attend to this latter advice. '• LOOK YOU HERE, AND BUY 'S COLOURING." "To all that may be concerned in making co- loured dairies of cheese, begs to inform the users of annatto for the purposes of colouring, that he has, for the last ten years, felt sorry to his heart, for great numbers of dairy-owners, to see such bad-coloured dairies as he in general has done ; and the very great loss the owners thereof have annually met with on this account. " having therefore been determined, for the fanners' interest, to use every influence possible with the manufacturers of this article to nave I lie same genuine, which till lately has been to little pur- pose, as one-half they have in general sent out has THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 133 proved to be far short of the colour which the market requires, he has at last gained considerable infor- mation from sundry manufacturers ; and as he has now engaged a person that has been in the habit of making and seeing this article made for the period of twenty years and upwards, and as is now in the habit of seeing and hearing what other manu- facturers have been and are doing, convinces him that farmers will still find themselves but little better off by following their old mode, he has determined to make the article of annatto in its genuine and original purity, and is now giving the public a favourable opportunity of having some of this very superior colouring, which, from its bril- liant colour, will recommend to the farmer a great variety of customers for their choicest dairies." "a word of advice to the dairy maid. " Let your rennet or steep be put into your milk of a temperate heat or warmness. After the curd is formed, do not let any part of it be starved, or get any colder than your own hand. " All dairy maids that would have real fine-fla- voured cheese would do well to thrust it with their hands, that there are no cold draughts from doors upon their curd, but keep it gradually warm, but not to scald it, neither with water, whey, nor burn- ing vats. Have your first press not too heavy, and in as moderate a warm place as you can possibly place it ; study a warm salting room ; use neither flags nor slates for your cheese to lie on, but good planks ; your drying room to be moderately warm, and also your cheese-room; cold damp rooms, flags, or slates, will spoil the handiwork of the best dairymaids; you should never suffer your cheese to be starved, or get into a cold damp state, as it very materially hurts the flavour. " Good calf skins, or calves' bags, as are invari- ably made use of, are of serious consequence to the flavour and the coming of the cheese." A Recipe for Curing the Maiv Skins. Procure the skins fresh from the butcher the year previous to their being wanted ; clean out the chyly matter, and every other apparent impurity ; the inside is then turned outward on a table, and salted; the skins are then laid one upon another, with a layer of salt between each, in a deep earthen- ware vessel similar to a cream mug ; they are then covered over with salt, and have a lid of slate or flag placed on the top. They are taken out as wanted, about a month previous to being used, and the brine drained from them. They are then spread on a table, and fine salt is powdered on each side. In this state they are l'olled with a paste roller, distended with a splint of wood, and hung up to dry. Fig-. 1. Fia-. 2. ?k. 3. 134 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. n rrrrTiiiiiiiiiiirrr tlllllllll iu u Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 0 12 3 1,1 1 I I Scale, 2 feet to an Inch. ON RENT. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esq., F.R.S. THE TENANTS' IMPROVEMENTS. It is fortunate for the prosperity of England's agriculture, that the property of the outgoing tenant in the unexhausted improvements, he has effected on his farm, is a right rapidly becoming better understood. In this very desirable progress of sound knowledge, the interest of both the landlord, and the tenant are equally served ; for when once it becomes generally settled and acknowledged that the departing tenant is entitled to all the unex- hausted improvements he has made on his farm, so soon shall we see the tenant farmers of England, to a still greater degree than ever, encouraged to increase the fertility of their land by every means in the power of skill, prudence, and capital to accomplish. The right of the outgoing tenant to be paid either by his successor or by his landlord, for the improvements, such as those, to which I have alluded, rests upon either the custom of the country, or is derived from ;i written agreement. In most instances, perhaps (while the improved good custom is not yet generally and perfectly un- derstood), it may be the most prudent for both the incoming tenant and his landlord to have a written agreement, describing as minutely as pos- sible the unexhausted improvements which are intended to be regarded at the expiration of the tenancy : this will prevent mistakes and erroneous conclusions. When the best customs are generally and fully admitted, of course the necessity for the written memorandum ceases. The custom of the country, the farmer is generally aware, in the absence of a written agreement, is the rule by which such claims are determined; but in those disputes where there is a written agreement the courts of law will not inquire into the custom of the country (see Li- benroodv. Viner, 1 Mer. 16), and if an express sti- pulation is made, of course the custom of the coun- try is altogether excluded (see Roberts v. Parker, 1 C. 8fM. SOS). The courts of law have in too many instances been employed in settling these conflicting claims between farmers and their landlords — decisions which it would be well for every incoming tenant to remember. I will here insert, to aid him to a bet- ter understanding of his own position, a few of the leading cases on this head, and these I will take from p. 355 of the valuable work of Mr. M. Mathews, entitled " A Manual of the Law of Land- lord and Tenant." He there very correctly ob- serves, when treating of " the partial occupation of land," that it is very generally the case that out- going farming tenants leave, and the incoming tenants enter upon the premises, at different periods of the year, as the house and buildings at one time ; the arable land at another, and the pasture and meadow at a third. Sometimes, however, the ge- neral quitting of the farm takes place at one time, and there exists the privilege for the outgoing te- nant to retain possession of the land upon which his away-going crops are growing, and the use of barns and stables for the purpose of thrashing and conveying it to market (Bevan v. De la Hon, 1 il. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 133 Bl. 5). This privilege is occasionally given on con- 1 dition of his paying the rent and taxes applicable to the land which he retains, but perhaps more com- j monly without any such stipulation. The incoming tenant has also the privilege of entering before the expiration of the existing tenancy, for the purpose of ploughing and preparing for his crops, particu- larly when there is a Lady Day holding. These privileges of partial occupation are sometimes ex- pressly given by the terms of the contract of de- mise ; and when this is not the case, frequently may be supported by the custom or usage of the country (Har. Woodf. Lun. $,- Ten. 474). The ef- fect of thus allowing the outgoing tenant to take an away-going crop is to give him a prolongation of the term as to the land on which it grows, and he continues in possession until the crop is taken (Borasdon v. Green, 16 East, 71). RIGHT OF THE FARMER TO OUTGOING CROPS. The right which an outgoing tenant has to take an away-going crop, which may be explained to be the crop sown during the last year of his tenancy, but not ripe until after the expiration of it, is some- times given to him by the express terms of the contract; and where that is not the case, he is generally entitled to do so by the custom of the country ; and such a custom, observes Lord Mans- field, is good and just for the benefit and encou- ragement of agriculture ; for it is but reasonable that he who sows should reap the piofit (Wig- glesworth v. Dallison, 1 Doug. 201). And it should be again remarked that a common usage of the neighbourhood is quite sufficient to confer the right, in the absence of any specific agreement between the parties {Senior v. Army tage (Bart.) Holt., 197). This custom, however, cannot be pleaded where the offgoing tenant holds under a lease expressly making a different provision in respect of the away- going crop {Webb v. Plummer, 2 Barn. 8f Aid. 746), or where he continues to hold over after the expiration of such a lease without entering into a new agreement with his landlord, by which he may be considered as holding under the same terms (Boraston v. Green. 16 East, 71); but where the lease contains no stipulations as to the mode of quitting, the off-going tenant is entitled to his away-going crop, according to the custom, even though the terms of holding may be inconsistent with such a custom (Holding v. Piggott, 7 Bing. 465 ; S. C. 5 Moore and Payne, 427 ; and see Webb v. Plummer, 2 Barn 8f Aid. 746). Where the defendant, a tenant from year to year, had received notice to quit, and a motion was made for an injunction to restrain him from taking away the crops, manure, &c, contrary to the usual course of husbandry, the Lord Chancellor said, the case applies equally to the case of a tenancy from year to year as to a lease for a longer term, with respect to the right to take an away-going crop (Oxlow v. , 16 Ves. Jr. 173). An agreement between the outgoing and incom- ing tenants with respect to crops, does not, how- ever, at all affect any existing rights the landlord may have ; thus, when a tenant of a farm, entitled to the away-going crop of the harvest, 1801, after his term expired, and paying rent up to Lady Day preceding, agreed previous to that day, viz., in June, 1800, to let in the new tenant, and sold the standing crops, and took a receipt for the value thereof, and also for 207. " for the right of cropping the lands from June 18th," it was held that by this sale of the right of cropping, the tenancy was not to be considered as changed ; and, therefore, that the outgoing tenant must pay for the time from Lady Day, 1800, to Lady Day, 1S01, he having paid tithes and poor rate for that time (Petrie v. Daniel, 1 Smith, 199). A parol contract for the sale of grow- ing crops between an outgoing and incoming te- nant is not within the Statute of Frauds, and there- fore good, because the sale of the interest in land proceeds from the landlord (Per Littledale in May- field v. Wadsley, 5 Doicl. at straw 196 Wheat bran 105 1'eas haulm . 153 Rye bran . 109 Vetch haulm . 159 Wheat, peas, and oat Bean haulm . 140 chaff 167 Buckwheat straw . 195 Rye and barley chaff 179 DEVONSHIRE FARMING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE. Sir, — In perusing your last journal for July I was astonished at seeing a description of Devon- shire farming by " James Barnes, Becton Gardens, Sidmoutb, Devon," and is denounced by all I have heard speak of it as a despicable, infamous, and undeserved slander ; and such a complete bbel, mixed with such barefaced falsehoods and misstate- ments, on the Devonshire farmers, I never heard or read of before, and which is not worthy of inser- tion in your valuable magazine. Though I have been north, south, east, and west of the county, and living nearly in the centre, I never witnessed such as be describes. Last summer I took a tour in the north of the county, of between two and three hundred miles ; I was pleased to see thorough draining, liquid- manure tanks, and general improvement of the land, together with implements of husbandry by modern makers ; no cudgelling of horses and worthless teams, as he says, but such as all good farmers delight to look upon. Preposterous absur- dity, that all the forty horses he employs woidd not average thirty shillings each, and this a speci- men in his neighbourhood ! Again he says, " Ploughing, it is true, is done by a pair of horses ; but I can tell him that farmers of this county often put in three horses worth more than all he employed (at his valuation), and plough the land to such a depth that is required." Ag lin, he says " a man is required to hold the plough, a boy holding and beating the horses with a cudgel, &c." That a man is required to bold the plough I admit is generally done, and have never had the pleasure of seeing one working by itself without the guid- ance of a man. I should have imagined that he was situated worse than the hack settlements of America, or at least to have represented mole hills as mountains. Among all the farmers of this improving county turnip husbandry is universally adopted. I have taken up turnips myself weighing between 20 and 30 lbs. each, without top or root. Such an effusion of inconsistencies I never read of, and more especially in his description of the poor farmer of his neighbourhood and locality ; he says " he neglects that he ought to do, is always behind, sows his crops late, nothing kept in its place and in repair, does nothing in stormy weather, loses his hogsheads of beer and cider, waggons and carts out of repair, and so forth, all through his indolence and carelessness ; slack in all his payments, and buys altogether on credit;" and I ask him how long have they been farming on this system ? It is a rude mixture of trash not worthy or belonging to the industrious, respectable body of farmers of Devon. Tell me where do all the fat and superior breed of cattle come from that are seen in the fairs and markets, paiticularly in his neighbourhood. Tell me if Devon does not carry away her share of prizes offered by the Royal Ag- ricultural Society of England ; and tell me if this characterises and resembles the indolent, lazy, im- provident, and ignorant fanner of Devonshire. I am, sir, yours truly, July 25, 1845. Agricola. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. MEETING AT SHREWSBURY. The Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Shrewsbury is the event which has most occu- pied attention in the agricultural world during the past month. As we had anticipated, the attendance of visitors was very considerably less than at the previous country meetings of the society ; the de- ficiency, however, appears to have arisen from the lack of visitors from a distance, as the number of persons who eagerly sought tickets for the council and pavilion dinners testified. It is said that the object of the society is to exhibit animals of the best form and quality, and implements of the best construction and of the greatest utility in those agricultural districts in which improvement in either department may be needed, without reference to the returns likely to be produced from visitors to the show-yard. This, in the abstract, may be true ; but it must be borne in mind that the society cannot carry on its operations without the " sinews of war," and also that, prima facie, where there are the greatest number of visitors there will the greatest diffusion of information take place. Had the meet- ing been held at Chester, the funds of the society would have been increased many hundred pounds ; and although we are not acquainted with the farm- ing in the county of Cheshire beyond the account given in Mr. Palin's excellent report published in the Society's journal, if we can judge from what we saw in the neighbourhood of Shrewsbury, we entertain strong doubts whether the object of the society would not have been more effectually pro- moted by having gone to Chester. The town of Shrewsbury is beautifully situated, the land around it of prime quality, the crops good, and the cha- racter of the farming much above the average of the kingdom. Adjoining a county celebrated for its breed of cattle, we were however much surprised to see such numbers of mongrel-bred cattle on those estates where there could be no excuse for not having better, and where we should have ex- pected that a better example would be set. In numbers the stock exhibited was less ; but we have the authority of Earl Spencer for stating that the quality was good. We shall not attempt to join issue with his lordship upon this point, on which he is so pre-excellent an authority ; but we must hazard the opinion, that, although the show may be said to have been held in the Hereford district, we think we know where to find animals of that breed, of better quality than any exhibited at Shrewsbury. Viscount Hill, and J. Banks Stanhope, Esq., were conspi- cuous as winners amongst the exhibiters of short- horns. In the one case, Mr. Parkinson, of Ley- fields, holds his usual place as a breeder; in the other, Mr. Jaques, of Easby Abbey, stands con- spicuous. In the Herefords, it will be remarked that the exhibiters were in every case the breeders — a circumstance reflecting the greater credit on them. In Devons, Messrs. Quartly and Turner maintain their accustomed position, the former winning two prizes, the latter three. In cattle of any breed, the once celebrated longhorns still show their superiority over the ordinary breeds of mis- cellaneous character, the Honourable M. W. B. Nugent having carried oft" four prizes out of six. In cart-horses the first prize was awarded to a Suf- folk stallion, exhibited by Mr. Crosse, of Beyton Hall, Suffolk. We are informed that there were 103 foals produced by mares covered by this horse in the last season. His stock is much esteemed in the county of Suffolk. This horse was sold at the sale, and purchased by Mr. W. Fisher Hobbs, of Mark's Hall, Essex. In Leicester sheep the names of some well-known breeders will be recognised. But it is in the class of Southdowns that the com- petition was most severe, Mr. Jonas Webb win- ning the first prize for the shearling ram, Mr. Grantham one prize, and his Grace the Duke of Richmond carrying off three prizes from such champions as Webb and Grantham. Mr. David Barclay seems determined not to be driven from his position, having again, as last year, won the prize for shearling ewes. In the class of long- woolled sheep, not Leicesters, the main competition, as last year, was between the improved Cotswold and the new Oxfordshire. Messrs. Ilandly, Lange, and Smith last year carried off all the prizes in this class except one, and this year they have monopo- lized the whole. In mountain sheep, a class adapted for the encouragement of any breed which might be especially adapted to the district, all the prizes were awarded to the Cheviots, thus giving them a decided superiority over the district breeds. The prizes for pigs are divided into two classes, namely, the large breed and the small breed. Mr. Fisher Hobbs was as usual successful, having won two prizes in the small class ; and what is still more remarkable, the sire and dam of Mr. Randall's boar, which obtained the prize for the large breed were both bred by Mr. Hobbs. Upon the whole the exhibition of stock must be considered as highly satisfactory, and fully answer- ing the purposes intended by the society. The exhibition of implements was far short of what was seen at the previous meetings of the so- ciety. The want of that varied and excellent dis- play which the Messrs. Ransome have heretofore made must necessarily create a blank which could not be filled up. It is here, however, that the stimulus given to improvement by the society, and for which we are bound to say the society is greatly indebted to the Messrs. Ransome, may be plainly perceived. Had those gentlemen not rendered their powerful aid at the early exhibitions of the society, not only would the shows have been mea- gre, but the character and make of the implements now exhibited would not have been such as they now are. Other implement makers have availed themselves of the opportunity afforded of learning to improve their own manufacture. It cannot fail to be observed that there is a continuous improve- ment in the manufacture of agricultural imple- ments, and which must be attended with improved construction. Annexed will be found a list of those agri- cultural implements which obtained prizes. It would be impossible to give an account of all those which were exhibited, as we could not find space j 144 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. but we beg to call attention to some which were especially the objects of general admiration. The Earl of Ducie's Uley cultivator, which has again received the 10/. prize, attracted the notice of the leading farmers of Shropshire, and was universally approved of. This instrument obtained a 15/. prize in Liverpool in 1841, and 10/. and the silver medal last year at Southampton. He also received 2/. for his corn-crusher; this implement also was awarded a medal at Derby in 1843. For his Rich- mond cart for general purposes the 5/. prize ; this also received the medal at the meeting in South- ampton last year. And for his thrashing and dressing machine a prize of 10/. This machine has had great improvements since last year, one of which is a shaker which completely separates the corn from the straw, consequently it has this year secured the prize. Mr. Cornes, of Barbridge, Cheshire, exhibited his chaff-cutter (prize 10/.) ; it has three knives, and for its power of work and simplicity is remarkable. Saunders, Williams, and Taylor, of Bedford, deservedly received the prize (5/.) for the best set of harrows. Mr. Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham, received prizes for his two- row-drill presser (10/.) and his double oilcake breaker (3/.) The former obtained the silver medal and 10/. at Southampton, and at this meeting his drilling machines for turnips and general purposes were selected by the judges for further trial. Mr. James Richmond, of Salford, obtained prizes : for a churn invented and manufactured by himself 5/.; for his portable steaming apparatus for roots, 5/. ; and the silver medal for his machine for washing vegetables : — the implements exhibited by this manufacturer were particularly attractive. Mr. G. James, of Fish-street Hill, London, obtained a prize of 10/. for a weighing machine manufactured by himself. Mr. Crosskill, of Beverley, Yorkshire, 10/., for his well-known valuable clod-crusher. We have so often adverted to this instrument, that repetition of the praise it merits would not enhance its acknowledged utility. He also was awarded a prize of 2/. for his improved one-horse cart. Mr. James W. Newberry, of Hook Norton, Oxon, for his five-rowed horse dibbling machine, the prize of 15/. The general arrangement of this machine is as ingenious as it is practically useful. By a series of wheels, each dibbling a separate row, and spokes divided into two halves, the whole acting in conjunction, the seed from the spokes is placed in the hole just formed, by its raising an inch and opening; and a feeding arrange- ment is attached for placing two or three seeds in each spoke before it acts as a dibble. Alexander Dean, of Birmingham, was awarded two prizes of 10/. each, one for his portable steam engine, the other for his machine for crushing linseed, rape, &c, &c. There were also portable corn mills, patent fire-engines, and some very capital chaff- cutters exhibited at this stand, which attracted great attention. Edward Hill, of Brierly Hill, Dudley, received, with the prize of 10/. for a wrought iron sheep fold, the silver medal for his general exhibition of gates, hurdles, &c, and 2/. for an iron granary, &c. His wrought iron, two- wheel, pulverizing plough, with skim coulter, which received the extra prize at the Bristol meeting in 1842, was also exhibited at this stand; the judges then gave their opinion that " the soil operated upon was as well pulverized by this single process, and to as great a depth, as if first ploughed and then harrowed." Mr. George Frere, of Edinburgh, exhibited two Norwegian narrows : for the one with a roller attached he was awarded 10/. It is mounted on a system of wheels similar to Mr. Finlayson's grubber, by which the depth of work- ing the soil may be regulated, and its removal from field to field easily effected. Mr. Wm. E. Vingo, of Penzance, was awarded 10/. for his patent seed dropping or planting machine. It deposits the seed at any required depth at any distances, in any number of grains, and also covers the seed at the same time. Mrs. Mary Cartmell 2/. for her weigh- ing machine ; she also, amongst other valuable implements, exhibited her grain bruiser, which ob- tained the 3/. prize at the Liverpool meeting in 1841. Messrs. Wedlake and Thompson, of Horn- church, near Romford, 3/. for their hay-making or tedding machine. This machine received a prize at Derby. They likewise exhibited several much admired chaff-cutters, rollers, scarifiers, &c, &c. Mr. E. H. Bentall, of Heybridge, near Maldon, was awarded the silver medal, for his hand seed-de- positor, which deservedly attracted great attention ; it weighs only li lbs., and will save at least a bushel of corn on every acre dibbled with it, and will tend to give increased employment to labour- ers and children ; the price of this patent instru- ment is only 7s. 6d., which must tend greatly to render its universal adoption in those counties where manual labour is employed in this depart- ment of agriculture. Lieut. Yipart, of Chilleswood House, near Taunton, 5/. for his compound lever power. This implement, though not in the ex- hibition-yard at Southampton last year, attracted our attention outside, and we noticed it then ; we are glad to perceive that we were right in our view of its use, which is proved this year by its obtain- ing a prize. John Read, of Regent's Circus, Lon- don, obtained a prize of 10/. for his subsoil pul- verizer, and 51. for a double action fire engine. The former is of remarkably neat appearance, though of great stiffness and strength ; it is quite as light as wood, and better adapted for exposure to the weather. The stand occupied with the various implements manufactured by Messrs. Gar- rett and Son, of Leiston Works, Saxmundham, Suffolk, was very attractive. The thrashing ma- chine, which has within the last two years been brought into such general use near London, for thrashing any grain without the least bending or injuring the straw (rendering it more valuable than when thrashed with the flail), appeared to excite the admiration of the neighbouring farmers, who seemed anxious to adopt the use of this implement. Messrs. Garrett and Sons' drilling machines were, as usual, various, and adapted to all the purposes of the farm ; the chief improvement since last year is a novel arrangement of the manure machinery, by means of which well-rotted farm-yard manure, whether wet or dry, mixed or unmixed with mould, may be drilled and well covered with the soil be- fore the seed is deposited upon it, in quantities as much as 16 to 20 carts per acre. This was declared THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 145 to be of much value to the farmers, it being stated that half the quantity thus drilled in rows directly below the seed would have as much effect on the growing crop as the whole quantity would spread and ploughed in the ordinary way ; two of these drills were selected by the judges, in accordance with the new regulation of the society, for subse- quent trial, and should the prize be awarded to R. G. and Son, it will be the sixth confirmation of their value by this society. Messrs. Garrett and Sons' patent horse hoe, suited to all the prevailing methods of drill husbandry, and adapted for hoeing corn or roots of all sorts, still maintains its pre- eminence, and, we understand, is making its way into general use. The patent wrought-iron corn rick stand, by the same makers, must be enume- rated among the articles of great utility, and may be recommended to agriculturists, being a sure and never-failing protection against the ravages of rats and mice. Our limited space will not admit of further description ; suffice it, therefore, to enume- rate the different implements upon which we have notalready commented. Chaff cuttingmachines, win- nowing machines, rape and linseed-cake crushers, clod-crushers, iron field rollers, subsoil and pul- verizer ploughs, scarifiers, &c. We must not, how- ever, close our remarks without referring to the drain tile and pipe machine, manufactured by them, for the patentee, Mr. Richard Weller, of Capel, near Dorking, Surrey ; it is made entirely of iron, oc- cupies, when at work, a space of only 8 feet by 2 feet, is very simple, and easily drawn on its wheels between the hakes ; it is worked by a man and boy, with a lever purchase, and will make an im- mense quantity of every description of pipes and tiles for draining or building purposes. The Council exhibited in a booth of their own various specimens of farming implements presented to the So- ciety, which were much admired : among these we noticed some hames (received too late to compete for a prize this year) invented by Mr. Bencraft, of Barn- staple ; the principle of them transfers the draft from the point of the shoulder to the withers, or front of the spine ; thereby imparting an additional power to the horse, giving him the free use of his fore legs, and protecting him effectually from the suffering hitherto so common from galled shoulders. In stand No. 13 was exhibited the patent asphalted felt for roofing, manufactured by F. Mc Neill and Co., of Lamb's-buildings, Bunhill-row, London. Judging from the numbers that continually surrounded the staud, the article must have attracted a very large share of attention, and very numerous were the visits of gen- tlemen, who have been extensive consumers of the felt for some years past, to bear testimony to its merits as a very durable, effective, and cheap article for all descrip- tions of farm buildings. A book giving a great deal of information as to its uses, with samples, were given gratis. The model of a farm for 500 acres was also exhibited, whose miniature roofs well illustrated, when covered with felt, the great saving of timber in every form of construction, whether for large barns, shedding, hay, or corn-ricks, &c. Among the most attractive exhibitions at this show was that of the seedsmen of the society (Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co., of the corner of Half-moon-street, Piccadilly), and it certainly surpassed any we have ever witnessed, not only in extent, but also in the scientific and appropriate manner in which the different specimens of seeds were arranged. The stand was of considerable length, and on it were displayed samples of several huu- dred varieties of seeds, chiefly agricultural, comprising grasses for laying down land, turnips, carrots, mangold wurtzels, &c. ; also a splendid collection of wheats. Much trouble and care must have been taken in growing and preserving the different specimens ; the collection of wheats alone extended upwards of 50 feet in length, each specimen being a separate variety, and bearing its name. The dried specimens of grasses were still more numerous, and reflect great credit upon this firm, whose attention to the grasses has for so many years been well known. The general appearance of the stand was pleasing even to the casual observer, and highly interest- ing and useful to those engaged in agricultural pursuits. From the number of persons we observed thoughtout the day examining this collection, we feel sure its in- terest was fully appreciated. The Agricultural Society of England was founded in 1838, after many attempts had been made, and many suggestions thrown out, by some of the lead- ing farmers of England, as to the probable value of such a society to the advancement of practical agri- culture. The first person, however, who syste- matically addressed himself to the question was William Shaw, Esq., now editor of the Mark Lane Express. From the year 1834 to the period of the first public meeting of the society, Mr. Shaw, on every proper occasion, not only suggested the pub- lic advantage likely to be derived from such a so- ciety; but he excited Lord Spencer, the Duke of Richmond, Mr. Handley, and other great leading agriculturists, to propose its immediate formation. The first public expression by these great friends to agriculture of their willingness to co-operate in the promotion of a National Agricultural Society, similar in its objects to the great and prosperous Highland Society of Scotland, was made at the dinner of the members of the Smithfield Club, on the 11th of December, 1837, when Earl Spencer was the first to allude to the subject in a speech, in which he dwelt not only upon the advantages which would arise to agriculture from the exertions of a national society, but alluded to the great prin- ciples to which such an institution must adhere, such as the careful avoidance of political discus- sions, and of all interference with themes which might be likely to become the subject of legislative enactments — principles which have been since en- grafted into the charter, rules, and bye-laws of the society. The feeling thus publicly expressed was immediately and warmly responded to by the Duke of Richmond, Mr. Handley, Mr. E. W. Wilmot, and others ; and so clearly expressed was the feel- ing of all the members of the Smithfield Club then assembled in favour of the proposition, when Lord Spencer thus first briefly alluded to the subject, that immediate steps were taken to effect the forma- tion of such a society. In the month of March, 1838, therefore, an advertisement appeared in the public papers, an address which will ever be pecu- liarly interesting, as furnishing in its list of sub- scribers the names of those who must, in conjunc- tion with Mr. Shaw, be regarded as the founders of this great society. The following are the names alluded to ; — 146 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Duke of Richmond Duke of Wellington Earl Fitzwilliam Earl Spencer Earl of Chichester Earl of Ripon Earl Stradbroke Lord Portman Hon. Robert Clive, M.P. Hon. B. Baring, M.P. Sir James Graham, Bart., M.P. Sir Francis Lawley, Bart., M.P. John Bowes, Esq., M.P. Edward Buller, Esq., M.P. R. A. Christopher, Esq., M.P. H. Blanchard, Esq. W.T. Copeland,Esq.,M.P. J. W. Childers, Esq., M.P. Ralph Etwall, Esq., M.P. H. Handley, Esq., M.P. C. S. Lefevre, Esq., M.P. Walter Long, Esq., M.P. Wm. Miles, Esq., M.P. Jos. Neeld, Esq., M.P. E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq., M.P. Philip Pusey, Eso., M.P. E. A. Sanford, Esq., M.P. R. A. Slaney, Esq., M.P. J. A. Smith, Esq., M.P. R. G. Townley, Esq., M.P. W. Whi thread, Esq. Henry Wilson, Esq. In consequence of this invitation, on the ap- pointed day, a very numerous and influential meet- ing took place, at which the establishment of the society was determined upon, when Earl Spencer presided, and Sir Robert Peel, the Duke of' Rich- mond, Mr. Handley, Mr. C. Shaw Lefevre, Sir James Graham, Alderman Copeland, Earl Fitz- william, Mr. Pusey, and others, assisted. Earl Spencer was soon after elected the society's first president, and Mr. Shaw its secretary, an office which he resigned in 1839, when the present aide secretary, James Hudson, Esq., was elected. One of the chief features of the society being an annual country meeting in the month of July, six of these have already been held, each exceeding the preceding one in importance, and in its imposing effect. The first at Oxford, 1839; the second, at Cambridge, 1S40; the third, at Liverpool, 1841; the fourth, at Bristol, 1842; the fifth, at Derby, 1843; the sixth, at Southampton, 1844; and the seventh, in Salop, 1845. At the conclusion of the annual country meeting the president's year of office terminates. After the Oxford meeting (July, 1839) Earl Spencer was succeeded by the Duke of Richmond, whose period of office was concluded after the meeting at Cam- bridge, in July, 1840. It was during his presi- dency that the society, by a charter from her pre- sent Most Gracious Majesty, became "The Royal Agricultural Society of England." The third pre- sident of the society was Philip Pusey, Esq., who concluded his presidency at the Liverpool meeting, held on July 22nd, 1841, and was then succeeded by the Earl of Hardwicke, who, after the Derby meeting, was succeeded by president Earl Spencer. It was most gratifying to notice the rapid and continued prosperity of this powerful society. At the termination of its first year, in 1S38, the mem- bers of the society were 690 in number, its income 1,128/. At the expiration, however, of its second year (1S39) the committee reported (December 12th) that its members had increased to 2,007, its income to 2,666/. On December 11, 1841, it was found to number on its list 5,382 members of all kinds ; its income had increased to 4,794/. At the close of the year (1842) the committee reported that its members were about 6,500, and that its in- come for the past half year (January to June of 1842) had amounted to 4,540/. Its present list of members is nearly 9,000, and its funded property above 9,000/, In whichever way, therefore, the society's pro- gress is examined, the results are most cheering, and we cannot but feel much satisfaction that it has arrived at its present state of prosperity. COUNCIL DINNER.— Wednesday, July 16. The chief feature of this day was the council dinner, at which the award of prizes for stock was read. The judges had been occupied during the day in inspecting the cattle, and their decision was made known in time for the dinner in the evening. Upwards of 300 gentlemen sat down to dinner, which was provided in the concert-room by Messrs. Bathe and Breach, of the London Tavern. All the arrangements for the dinner, as well as the dinner itself, and Ihe wines, were excellent. The extensive gallery in the concert room was filled with ladies. The chair was taken by the Duke of Richmond. On his left was the Marquis del Arco, attache of the Spanish embassy. The vice-chair was filled by Earl Spencer. Among the principal guests were — the Duke of Cleve- land, Lord Talbot, Lord Morley, Lord Berwick, Earl Powys, Lord Aylesford, Lord Kenyon, Lord Hill, Lord Hatherton, Lord Ingestre, Lord Clive, Lord Wynford, Mr. O. Gore, M.P., Mr. Dugdale, M.P., Mr. Slaney, the Hon Mr. Kenyon, the Hon. W. Bagot, Mr. Digby, Mr. Cotes, the Mayor of Shrewsbury, and the late Mavor, the High Sheriff of Shropshire, Captain S. Carr, Sir A. Corbet, Sir J. Edwards, Colonel Powell, M.P., Colonel Wingfield, Mr. A. V. Corbet, Mr. E. Buller, M.P., Mr. Barclay, M.P., James Hudson, Sec. to the Royal Agricxiltural Society of England, Wm. Fisher Hobbs, Geo. Turner, Jonas Webb, S. Grantham, W. Shaw, John Hudson, J. A. Ransome, Chas. May, &c. The cloth having been withdrawn, The President proposed " the health of Her Majesty," which was drunk with enthusiasm. The President then gave "the Royal Family of England." The toast having been duly honoured, The President rose to read the award of prizes to the exhibitors of stock. Before he read the list, he said he would wish to impress upon the attention of the company that the principle of the society was so to select the gentlemen who were to decide on the merits of the stocks, as to prevent the possibility of any undue per- sonal influence being used. Exhibitors were excluded from the committee of selection. The object of the so- ciety was so to conduct their arrangements, that not only should the society do justice, but also see that justice was done. The noble duke then read the list of the prizes for cattle. The President then said he had the pleasure of proposing to them the health of the successful com- petitors for the cattle prizes. The name of the hon. Mr. Nugent appeared conspicuous in the list of those who had gained prizes, and he would therefore, with their permission, couple his name with the toast. He was in the hope that he would have had to couple the name of Lord Hill with the toast, but as the noble lord disliked speaking (a laugh) he would, no doubt, be glad to find that the task was in other hands. The noble duke then proposed the toast, which was received with applause. The Hon. Mr. Nugent rose to return thanks. Often as he had attended these meetings, he had never had the presumption to suppose that he would be called on to return thanks. In obedience, however, to the commands of the chairman, he rose to express his thank9 ; but at the same time he could not refrain from expressing his regret also that he stood in the way THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 147 of Lord Hill, a nobleman 90 celebrated as a breeder of cattle, but still more dear to the inhabitants of Shrews- bury from their respect for the memory of his late father. For himself, he could not but feel proud that through any means of his the breed of long-horns should have been able to attract the attention of the society, after having for so long a time been compara- tively neglected. The hon. gentleman concluded by expressing his warm anxiety for the continued success of the society. The President then read the award of prizes to exhibiters in sheep. The Duke of Richmond rose, and was about to propose as usual " The health of the successful com- petitors," when Earl Spencer, the vice-president, interrupted him, and obtained permission to address the company. The noble earl said he was quite sure they would feel that he would not have discharged his duty as their vice-president, if he allowed the Duke of Richmond to propose the health of the successful competitors for the prizes for sheep, because he could not very well propose his own health, and he believed that they would see by the list the noble duke had read that his name certainly ought to be coupled with the toast of "the successful competitors." As having been steward of the yard, he could himself declare, that to have won the prize on this occasion for the Southdowns, was no mean honour. The exhibition of the present year was equal to any they had ever had, and indeed he might say the same thing of the whole show (hear, hear). The exhibition was not so numerous certainly as it had been on former occasions, but it had been most excel- lent, in no respect less worthy of the attention of the agriculturists of England than any which had gone before. The noble earl concluded by proposing "The health of the Duke of Richmond and the successful candidates." The toast having been received with very enthusiastic cheering, The President said he was most gratified at his noble friend having proposed his health on this occa- sion. He had himself been about to propose the health of Mr. Hanby, who had gained more prizes than he (the duke) had ; but as the meeting had re- sponded to the toast in so gratifying a manner, he felt that they would permit him to say how proud he was on every occasion to send stock to the shows of the Royal Agricultural Society. He believed that, by bringing specimens of stock from distant parts of the country to any particular locality, they afforded those means of comparison by which persons were led at last to see that their own breeds were not so perfect as they supposed them to be. It was only on that morn- ing that he had gone over an estate of Earl Powis, one of whose tenants had offered to exhibit his wethers against his (the duke's). His answer was to recommend him to wait till he had seen the show, before he made any engagement on the subject. The fact was, that, a9 long as men saw their stock in their own farm-yard, they believed it the best in the world. It was only by com- parison that they were led to see its defects; and to promote this habit of comparison was one of the chief objects of this society, and one in which they produced the most advantageous effects (cheers). The noble duke concluded by thanking the meeting for their re- ception of him (cheers.) The President next read the list of prizes for pigs, and said that the class which he had just read to them showed a " dead beat ;" and therefore he pro- posed "The health of Lord Hill'' first, and "The health of Mr. Hobbs" afterwards. The toast having been drunk, Lord Hill rose and said, he felt extremely obliged to his Grace the President for having a second time coupled his name with a toast. He was highly grati- fied at having obtained so many prizes from the asso- ciation, to the influence of which he ascribed the im- proved state of his stock ; for if the society had been in Shrewsbury seven or eight years ago, that stock would have been found wanting in every respect (cheers). The President then introduced Mr. F. Hobbs to the company, stating that he would say no more of him in his presence than that he was a good, honest, straightforward tenant farmer, and that he was sure no one then present would decline to drink the toast after hearing that he was so. The toast having been drunk, Mr. F. Hobbs returned thanks,and said that lie was proud to run a " dead heat" with Lord Hill, that the breed of pigs was a most valuable one, and that he was glad to see their usefulness appreciated in the country. As long as he had animals worthy of the society's ex- hibition he would continue to send them, and to com- pete for the prizes. The President then read the list of prizes for extra stock. The Duke having then called upon Mr. Ormsby Gore to propose the health of those who had gained prizes for implements generally, Mr. O. Gore pleaded his inability to do justice to the toast, from his want of mechanical knowledge, but admitted that in giving it he had some relative advan- tages. He was perfectly aware that an impression ex- isted that agricultural mechanical inventions inter- fered with the demand for labour. But he had no hesitation in saying that the greater the number of im- provements made, the greater in proportion was the hold which the labourer had upon the soil. It was not, however, simply the fact that they might look for increased demand for labour. Those implements which had passed through the ordeal of the society's approba- tion were sent in great numbers to the various conti- nental countries and to the colonies, and in consequence hundreds of thousands of acres were brought into cul- tivation which would otherwise have lain fallow. All around him had heard of the jealousy which was felt on the continent with respect to the superiority of this country in manufacturing inventions. Now there wa9 no reason why improvements should not take place to the same extent in agricultural as in manufacturing im- plements, and in this respecthe had reason to congratu- late the society on the exhibition in their implement- yard. By the concurrent testimony of all competent judges it was acknowledged that though the imple- ments at the other shows were more numerous, those of the present exhibition, in point of quality, of value, and of staple and ascertained superiority, proved be- yond a doubt the great yearly improvement which had taken place in that department (cheers). The hon. gentleman concluded by proposing the healths of those who had gained prizes for agricultural imple- ments generally. The name of Mr. Hornsby having been mentioned as the person whose success in the implement department entitled him to return thanks, Mr. Ransome, in his absence, spoke to the toast. In doing so he mentioned that at a large meeting of the exhibitors of implements on the present occasion they expressed their unanimous desire to acknowledge their sense of the increased facilities afforded to them by the society, and of the courteous manner in which their various wants had been met by the stewards of the yard, whose healths he concluded by proposing. 148 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Shelley, On lehulf of the stewards, returned tween them. There should be a fair understanding in thanks. j the way of agreement, which would enable landlord The President then stated, that Lord Kenyon, and tenant to be united in carrying out these advan- with great liberality, had offered a prize of 201. for the tages (applause). Let them endeavour to follow the best essay on the application of gorse to the feeding of ; example which the noble lord had set before their eyes, cattle, sheep, and horses, derived from practical expe- | by extending their sphere of usefulness through the riment. He had now to announce that the prize had j district in which they might reside, by creating a spirit been awarded to that written by Mr. O. O. Roberts, of of emulation from one end of it to the other. He Bangor. He (the Duke of Richmond) was sure that begged to propose the "health of Earl Spencer" (great those around him would agree in the opinion that it was a noble and worthy sight to see Lord Kenyon thus coming forward, and from his own private resources encouraging the spread of agricultural knowledge. Gorse was an article of food particularly applicable to stock in hilly districts, such as that of North Wales ; and lie himself remembered that in the Peninsular war they were often obliged, in the absence of corn, to give their horses what they could alone procure for them, viz., bruised gorse. He had not read the essay, but he believed that on perusal it would be found worthy of attention, and he understood that it was to be pub- lished in the journal of the society. As a proper tribute to the liberality of the noble lord who had given this prize, he would conclude by proposing the health of Lord Kenyon. Lord Kenyon returned thanks. He felt that praise coming from their noble chairman was more valuable than praise coming from any other quarter, for he knew well, though none could know fully, how much agriculture was indebted to his grace (loud applause). The motive that induced him to give the prize was, that it was important to the interests of the small farmers of Wales, being adapted to the soil and re- quiring nothing but labour. Though neglected in this country, it was not so abroad, for in the Peninsula, which the noble chairman had alluded to as having there fought side by side with the great man who had pre- served the liberties of Europe — (loud applause) — in that country they had a saying, that an acre of gorse was better than an acre of oats (Hear, hear). The Hon. Mr. Clive said he had a pleasant task as- signed him to perform, and he was sure that when he named the subject of his toast, all present would join with him in his opinion. The toast which he had to propose was " the health of Earl Spencer" (loud ap- plause). Whether as vice-president or as president, or as steward of the yard, or, in short, in any situation in which this society was concerned, there they would find the noble lord identified with its welfare. It was un- necessary, after the manner in which they had already received this toast, to offer a single remark upon it ; but he trusted they would allow him to make one or two remarks upon the objects of this society. If he under- stood it right, the improvement of agriculture was one of their first objects — to raise more corn, and to pro- duce food more abundantly. He apprehended also that the better application of science to agriculture was another of their objects. They had seen, in reference to manufactures, how much talent and how much inge- nuity was displayed, and the success which had attended the manufactures of this countiy over the whole world. They, the agriculturists of the country, had formed this society, that they might obtain the same advantages in their circumstances, and enable them in some degree to benefit by the application of machinery to agricultural purposes. He would remind them, however, that the tenant farmer would not be expected to undertake ex- periments unless there was a prospect of his being re- munerated (applause) . It could not be supposed that the farmer would expend his own means for the country without any regard to his own interests (applause). Let the landlord, then, endeavour to promote their welfare and comfort by an improved understanding be- applause). Earl Spencer said he felt much gratified by this mark of their approbation. If credit was to be given to him for endeavouring to promote the success of this society, he could only say that he would continue to deserve that credit by every means in his power. He felt how important it was to the agriculture of the country, that there should be a reunion of the intellect of the country for the improvement of agriculture, for the cultivation of the soil, and so for better- ing the condition of the people (applause). He felt especially gratified with the present condition of the country. It was now most flourishing. Mr. Clive alluded to the mechanical skill of the country which had been brought to bear upon agriculture. He might say that almost every means might be brought to bear upon agriculture ; but he agreed with him in thinking, that of all the means, mechanical science would accom- plish the greatest good. There was one point which he wished to impress upon the society, and that was, that in giving prizes to implements, the price of the machine ought to be considered ; because, if their ob- ject was to improve the condition of the country, they must not encourage a set of implements which the farmers could not afford to buy — implements which were not within their reach, and which they could not test with any prospect of a remuneration (applause). He begged again to return thanks, and to assure them that he should ever be ready to assist the county to the utmost of his power (loud applause). The Chairman then rose to propose "The health of the Judges" (applause), whom he highly compli- mented. John Grey, Esq., of Dilston, Northumberland, agent for the Greenwich Hospital estates, rose, in obedience to a loud call from all parts of the room, to return thanks. He said it might be known to most of them that the office of a judge was attended with circumstances of difficulty, and often with dis- satisfaction. The noble duke in the chair had shown how natural it was for farmers to approve of those animals which they looked upon daily in their own farm-yards ; but when they came to compete with others, then it was often found that they became shorn of those extraordinary qualities which they were be- fore supposed to possess. This, of course, created a feeling of dissatisfaction ; and when that arose, it was not unlikely to be directed against the judges who had been the source of it. But he was certain that the judges on this occasion, as on every other, had gone through their duty conscientiously and honestly, and as far as their judgment went they had endeavoured to discharge it impartially. The difference was great be- tween a premium and no premium, while in many cases the difference was small between the two animals (applause). In such a case, the judges had done what they could by signifying their approbation of the merits of the second animal; but they could not but feel that that would go but a little way towards liqui- dating the expense of bringing the animal to the exhibition. He threw out this hint to the council, and he hoped they would excuse him for doing so, because really the judges felt that in many cases it would be better to divide the prizes than to let them remain THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 140 single (Hear, hear.) After saying a few words in praise of the society, he begged again to thank them, in the name of the judges, for the kindness shown them. Lord Kenyon then, in a few words, proposed " The health of the Duke of Richmond, president of the society" (great applause). The Duke of Richmond then rose and said, that he could not plead that he was unaccustomed to rise and thank a body of the agricultural interests in this country for the manner in which they had received him (cheers). Yet he was sure they would agree with him in this, that having already returned thanks as one of those who had gained prizes as competitors, it was difficult for him to hear without exultation the expressions of approbation and praise which had just been paid to him. He had always felt proud to be accounted one of their former presidents, but he felt it to be a great additional honour that he had been reelected to that elevated office, for he felt that the members of the society had shewn thereby not that he was more worthy than any other individual, but that they considered he had steadily and conscientiously discharged his duty. He believed that he and his noble friend Earl Spencer were the first to suggest the formation of the Royal Agricultural Society. It now numbered among its members 7,000 owners and occupiers of land in this country. It was, however, his opinion then, and it continues so still, that the society would not flourish until it received the support of the practical farmer (cheers). If he and his noble friend received the slightest acknowledgment of merit in suggesting the formation of such a body, he said that there was a similar acknowledgment of merit due to the tenant-farmers in giving it their support. Such was his declaration to his noble friend Lord Powis that very day when conducted by him over his estate — an estate in the survey of which he felt that there was good farming in Shropshire, though not better than in his own locality. In all that he saw, his only objection was not with respect to the tenantry, but with regard to his noble friend. In his survey he observed good fields, good culti- vation, and good stock, according to what the farmers believed good stock to be (laughter) . He was bound, however, to say that he hoped if the society ever came again to Shropshire they would either see more pure South Downs, or not hear them called South Downs (cheers and laughter). He must also add, that he found too many ash trees in the fields (laughter). He would recommend his noble friend and the landowners who now heard him, if they would have trees in their hedge-rows, to consider them merely as hedge-rows, and as promoting the in- terest neither of the landowner nor his tenant (cheers). They would find that these annual meet- ings of the society would remove much prejudice, and that they would diffuse much useful agricultural knowledge, even although in an assembly composed like this of such large numbers, or like the larger one over which he hoped to preside to-morrow, it could not be expected that they could go into any minute, scientific, or practical inquiries. If, however, they would permit him to offer the owners and occupiers of land then present a few words of advice, he would say to them, "Support your farmers' clubs." In various parts of the country men of energy and talent, who were strangers to each other, had been brought to- gether by these clubs, and it had been found that much benefit would arise from them to the whole agri- cultural interests of the empire. Little had been said on the present occasion as to the advantage of bringing chemistry to the aid of agriculture. He was proud, however, to see on the estate which he had visited to- day an experiment tried which he believed had now been made in many parts of the country, and that suc- cessfully too. He alluded to the combined use of sul- phuric-acid with bone-dust, which he believed pre- sented one of the greatest advantages which had yet been derived from the operation of chemical influences upon the soil. He believed, however, that this was only the forerunner of future experiments, which he hoped would prove successful. He must be permitted, however, to say that he did not allow the propriety of the tenants experimenting on any large scale in this respect, for the landowner was the proper person to do so, requiring only of the farmer in return to look over his neighbour's hedge (cheers). He concluded by thanking the company for the honour which they had done him, and by assuring them that, however ineffi- cient he might be as the president of the society, they would find him always most anxious and desirous to promote, by every means in his power, the improve- ment of the agricultural system of his native land (cheers). The last toast of the evening was " the Ladies." They appeared in considerable numbers on the occa- sion, and witnessed from the gallery the proceedings of the evening. The company separated before nine o'clock. THE PAVILION DINNER.— Thursday, July 17. The following is a correct list of the stewards of the several tables : — High Table.— The Duke of Richmond, President. Vice President's Table.— Lord Portman, President Elect. A. Edward Buller, M.P. Stephen Grantham. William Fisher Hobbs. John Kinder. Philip Pusey, M.P. B. Thomas Wm. Bramston, M.P. W. R. Browne. Sir Hungerford Hoskyns, Bart. Francis Pym. C. Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P. Sir Francis Lawley, Bart. James Allen Ransome. Henry Stephen Thompson. D. Colonel Austen, M.P. Colonel Challenor. John Hud on. Samuel Jonas. Thomas Raymond Barker. William Henry Hyett. Charlts Stokes. Henry Wilson. F. C. Hillyard. E. W. W. Pendarvo, M.P. William Shaw. George Wilbraham, M.P. G. Samuel Bennett. Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P. Sir Robert Price, Bart. Robert Aglionb.y Slaney. In the evening the great dinner of the society took place in the pavilion erected at the head of the show- ground, a large and commodious building, fitted up to seat twelve hundred persons. There was little or no at- tempt at ornament in its construction, the comfort and convenience of the guests being the only points aimed at, and these were fully attained. Soon after four o'clock, the Duke of Richmond, pre- sident of the society, took the chair, supported on his right by R. Burton, Esq., mayor of Shrewsbury ; Lord Hill, St. John Charlton, Esq., high-sheriff of the county ; Lord Clive, Hon. Thomas Kenyon, Earl of Chicester, Earl of Sheffield, Lord Berwick, Lord Mostyn, Edward Haycock, Esq., Ormsby Gore, M.P., Sir A. Corbet, Lord Ingestre, Lord Vivian, the Earl of Mansfield, Mr. Christopher, MP., Sir John Tyrell, M.P., and Sir John Walsh, M.P. On his left his Grace was sup- ported by the Duke of Cleveland, Earl of Powis, J.T. P. Edwards, late mayor of the town ; Lord Kenyon, Lord Hatherton, Earl of Aylesford, Lord Southampton, Lord Forester, Viscount Newport, the Marquis^del^Ango, 150 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Major Gravenitz, Herr Pogge, Captain Carr, and the deputation from Mecklenburgh, Count Potocki, &c. The Vice-president's chair was occupied by Lord Port- man, president elect, who was supported on the right by Mr. Tyron, Mr. Hore, Col. Egerton, Professor Selby, Colonel M'Donell and N. M. Lochart, Esq. ; the two latter a deputation from the directors of the Highland Society ; on the left by Mr. Dugdale, M.P., Mr. Archbold, M.P., Mr. Tomline, M.P., C. H. Tur- ner, Esq., &.C., &c. Among the company we observed Earl Spencer, Earl Talbot, Mr. D. Barclay, M.P., Mr. Bellew, M.P., Mr. E. Buller, M.P., James Hudson, Sec. to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Win. Fisher Hobbs, George Turner, Jonas Webb, S. Grantham, W. Shaw, John Hudson, James Allen Ransome, Charles May, &c. After the cloth had been removed, The Chairman said the first toast he had to propose was one which ever had been, and he trusted would ever continue to be, received at the meetings of the farmers of England with that enthusiasm which it so well de- served— the health of her Majesty {great cheering). Since her accession to the throne up to the present moment she had evinced the greatest desire to ameliorate the condition of all classes of her peo- ple ; she had shown herself worthy indeed to reign over a great, a free, an cnlighted, a moral, and a religious people (great applause), while, if they looked to her Majesty's conduct in the domestic circle, all those who knew the great advantage which was derived from a good example being set by those in a high and exalted station must duly appreciate it (applause). With three times three he gave " The health of the Queen, and may it please Almighty Providence long to protect and guard the days of one who was so dear to them all." The toast was then drunk with great enthusiasm. The Chairman then proposed " The health of the Queen Dowager, Prince Albeit, the Prince of Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family," adding a short eulogistic comment to the name of each. This toast was also received with great enthusiasm. Earl Powis then rose and said, if the toast which had been allotted to him to submit to their considera- tion had required much eloquence to recommend it to their notice he would have wished the duty entrusted to other hands. But the toast with which he was charged was one which required no recommendation to introduce to the notice of a meeting of British farmers. It was " Success to the Royal Agricultural Socii ly of England" (great applause). It was to promote its objects and celebrate its success that this goodly company were here assembled, and it was therefore unnecessary for him to state what was known to all who had given their thoughts and attention to the subject — that at all times, from the earliest period of the history of the world down to the present day, happiness, amusement, and intelligence were equaliy connected with the prosecution of the pursuits of agri- culture (great applause). The earliest and some of the best poetry on record have relation to it ; some of our best treatises in prose equally descant on its merits— on the happiness of the people employed by it, and on the strength and power it gave to the nations who patronized it (cheers). It was therefore not to be ex- pected that practical and scientific England would omit to give a due attention to that which our ancestors had given so much of their attention to. The necessity of doing so must be obvious to every one who looked for a moment at our great and fast increasing population. What would it have availed this country to have had the great men who appeared during the last century — what would have signified the scientific abilities of Watt or of Bol ten— what would have signified the scientific ability of another gentleman whose descend- ant he was happy to see in the room, who was a prac- tical farmer, in a neighbouring country, and who was disposed to give all that education could confer upon agricultural labourers on his estate, and who reared as good Hereford stock as was to be found in the county — he could not name him without thinking of his at- tached friend of forty years, the descendant of the illustrious Arkwrigbt (applause) — what would have signified the labour and the skill of these men if the agriculturists had not been at hand to feed the vast population to which their ingenuity gave employment (cheers)'! But they were not to limit themselves to the home and domestic maintenance of the people: they must extend their means further, and recall to their minds the times when the produce of British agricul- ture was essential, not only to the support of the population at home, but to the maintenance of the power and glory of our arms abroad. He was happy to avail himself of the evidence on this subject of his noble friend at the head of the table (the Duke of Richmond), who had told him that when the British army was in the Peninsula, it must have been with- drawn at one time from the advanced position it occupied if it had not been for the ability of this country to supply them ou the mountains of the Pyre- nees with British Beef and British bread (Htar). Nor must they limit their views to the military service alone; it was his good fortune within the last few days to see the fleet which had been collected at Spithead — not numerous, indeed, but such as no sovereign but the Queen of England could hold at her disposal. (Ap- plause.) In contemplating these triumphs of British skill lying quiet, as it were, asleep on the waters which they were made to command, he could not help think- ing that the time may come — God send it might be far distant — when that force would be called into active ser- vice. And how was that to be done if British produce could not be found to maintain the gallant men who would then be required to maintain the honour and glory of the country ? These, then, were the duties in which British agriculturists were called upon to engage. Allow him to add, that it was impossible they could be so employed without their becoming by means of that labour better men and better members of society, (Ap- p/ause.) He ought here, perhaps, to conclude ; but with their permission he would take the liberty of pay- ing a debt to his noble friend in the chair, for he was sure all the Shropshire men were desirous of paying their debts. At the council dinner last night the noble duke had alluded to a farm of his which he had done him the honour to inspect, and while giving credit to the cultivation of the farm generally, he said there were too many ash trees in the hedges. (General cries of " hear.") But his grace added to that at the time, which he was sure he forgot to state to the meeting last night, that they were upon the whole better than the broad and incon- venient hedges in Sussex. (Laughter.) Now, let it be recollected that his grace had made that admission, and then they would stand upon equal terms. He begged pardon for detaining them so long upon this mat- ter, and he would now conclude with giving the toast, which he was sure they would all drink with great en- thusiasm, recollecting that agriculture was the science which gave consistency to power, energy to the decisions of councils, and splendour to their prowess both by sea and land — which added to the morality of the people and the happiness of the whole population. (Loud cheer- ing.) The Duke of Cleveland, in giving the healths of the deputation from Mecklenburgh who were present, said that all previous meetings of the society had had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 131 the good fortune to be attended by foreigners of the first rank and distinction. In illustration of that assertion he might mention the names of Mr. Everett, the American Ambassador, and Chevalier Bunsen. With the former of these he had had the good fortune to have been for a long time intimately acquainted, and he knew there was no man who took a deeper or more lively interest in the institutions of the country than he did. As to the Chevalier Bunsen, he believed that the last meeting at Southampton was the first meeting he had attended, and yet he addressed the meeting in English with an elegance and a fluency which he believed perfectly as- tounded the whole of the audience. He regretted to say that neither of these distinguished individuals were pre- sent on this occasion ; but there was another party of strangers — a deputation from the neighbouring state of Mecklenburgh — who had attended their meeting to learn if there was anything which would be of use in their own country. If they had no other claim upon their hos- pitality, it was enough to state that they had shown the greatest kindness and attention to Mr. Handley, one of the oldest members of the council, when he went over there. But, at the same time, he felt that Englishmen did not need a motive like that to induce them to show their hospitality : they were always willing to take the initiative in such duties (applause). He would not de- tain them further, but propose as a toast, " The deputa- tion from Mecklenburgh" (loud applause). Captain Carr, in a few sentences which were sadly marred by the bells, which at that instant began to sound a merry peal in honour of the occasion, returned thanks on behalf of the deputation (great applause) . Earl Spexcer was called on for the next toast ; and, as he sat in the body of the room, at the request of the Chairman he mounted the table, that he might be better heard. The noble Earl good-humouredly complied with the request, and was greeted, in consequence, with a hearty burst of cheering from all parts of the hall. He said — The committee have selected me to give the toast, "Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce" — Here the bells burst out again, totally drowning the noble Lord's voice, and it was some time before a mes- sage could be sent to stop them ; while his lordship, with the utmost good humour, kept his place upon the table, appearing heartily to enjoy the ludicrous nature of his position, while shouts of laughter and bursts of applause alternately occupied the time. The " dreadful bell" having been at length silenced, His lordship resumed : The reception you have given me, gentlemen, is undoubtedly far more agreeable to me than the reception I have received from the bells (laughter). I have been selected to propose the next toast, which is one that I propose with the greatest cor- diality. I feel that " Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce," it must be the fullest wish of every one of you to receive with the greatest satisfaction. My only difficulty is, in proposing such a toast where I know 1 have the cordial concurrence of all those whom I have the honour to address — the greatest difficulty with me is to select the topics on which I shall address you, or in which you will not be beforehand with me in feeling everything that I may say. This country depends — the greatness of the country, the prosperity of the country, the happiness of every class in the country depends — upon the prosperity of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce ; and if I could conceive that there was any Englishman who was an enemy to either of these classes, I should say that he was an enemy to his country (cheers). I shall take them in a different order from that in which I myself feel their importance, or in which I feel attached to them. I shall begin with manufactures. The manufactures of the country are the sources of em- ployment to great masses of our fellow-countrymen. On their prosperity depends the actual existence, in any- thing like comfort, of the greatest masses of the labour- ing classes (" No, no," from Lord Kenyon, accom- panied by cheers). What, does any gentleman say to you that, looking to the population of the manufacturing districts — looking to the num- ber of such enormous masses of the popu- lation— does any one say that it is not for their ad* vantage that manufactures should prosper ? (loud ap- plause). I really, when I began, could not believe it possible that any person, whatever his means might be, would say " no" to such a proposition as that (applause) . If we look to the millions of our fellow countrymen — of our poorer fellow countrymen — of our honest, indus- trious labourers, whose existence, whether in comfort or starvation, depends upon the prosperity of manufac- tures— I must profess that at a meeting of farmers a doubt should arise, a question should be started, whether it was for the advantage of the country that prosperity in manufactures should exist, is to me one of the most astonishing things I ever heard. Who are your con- sumers— who buys your produce — who is it that encou- rages the improvement of the agriculture of this country ? (hear). We all know when there is a prosperity in the manufacturing interest ; we all feel when there is a failure in that prosperity ; we feel it in our prices ; we feel it, above'all, in the encouragement which is given to agriculture. What country, I should like to know, ever existed where it was possible to bring agriculture to its highest and most complete state of perfection, if it de- pended on agriculture alone ? This is a great country, rich in every line, great in every line, skilful and indus- trious in every line to which it applies its energies ; and this energy of the country has been given to us to im- prove— to improve, I say — for I do not say that wc have yet arrived at anything like perfection — but to im- prove agriculture, in which I have no doubt we at pre- sent occupy a position superior to that of any other na- tion in the world. So that while, in addressing English- men of every description, if I were to speak to them of the prosperity of manufactures, I should expect they would be ready to applaud ; but, in addressing an assem- bly of farmers, I feel still more confident that they will applaud me (loud cheers). The commerce of the coun- try is another point to which I wish to call your atten- tion. The commerce of the country is one of the great elements of our prosperity. Commerce has given us our naval superiority ; it is on the commerce of the country that the maintenance of our naval superior- ity must depend ; and in asking you to drink pros- perity to the commerce of the country, I ask a toast which I am sure you will all concur in. I now come to agriculture, and I address you with perfect confi- dence on that subject. Without agriculture our manu- factures could not go on (great applause). Without agriculture our commerce would languish — without agriculture our people would be miserable (cheers). I have alway been — I am ready to assert distinctly that I have always been desirous to the utmost degree to promote the improvement of the agriculture of the country. I concurred with my noble friend in the chair and with Mr. Handley in establishing this so- ciety. I think the society has done a great deal of good, and I think it will yet do a great deal more good than it has ever yet done in promoting the improve- ment of agriculture. The agriculture of the country is of the greatest possible importance. I have already stated what I feel with regard to manufactures. I have stated what I feel with regard to commerce, but then I feel that these apply only to parts of the coun- try. Agriculture applies to the whole (great applause), and therefore it is of the highest importance to every interest in the country — it is of the highest importance 152 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to every person who is engaged in trade or occupation in the country that the agriculture of the country should prosper. Our prosperity, gentlemen, depends upon our own exertions. We must exert ourselves to im- prove it in every way we can, with a view to render the greatest amount of produce out of the smallest amount of outlay (cheers). It is impossible to de- scribe the effect of agriculture upon the happiness of the country. I feel, as you all know, I feel that it is a most agreeable occupation. I feel that I can pursue its various interests through all parts of the year. There is no part of the seasons in which an agricultu- rist may not find full and entire occupation. I won't say that it is, at least quite lately, a profitable occupa- tion {laughter, and "Hear"). I am too much of a prac- tical farmer to tell you that ; but though it has not been so profitable as I would wish latterly, yet -I don't think, so far as I am concerned, that it lias diminished in its interest at all (cheers). It is a most agreeable occupa- tion, and suits every man, whatever his disposition may be. If a man likes to look at the dark side of things, then there is scarcely any kind of weather which is not bad for some part of his crop. I cannot say that I am fond of looking at the dark side of things. But, on the other hand, if a man likes to take acomfortable and agreeable view of matters, then the same weather which is injurious to some part of his farm will be good for another (great applause), and therefore I say, that farming suits every body's taste. Those who like grumbling can find in it plenty of opportunities for grumbling ; and those who like to be pleased, can always find something in it to please them. I will not now detain you further, but I beg to propose the toast, " Success to the Agriculture, Manufactures, and Com- merce of the Country" (loud applause). The Chairman, in calling upon the Earl of Chi- chester for the next toast, alluded to the interruption caused by the bells, and said that never having had any opinion of Falstajf's courage, he never could un- derstand how he fought an hour by the clock ; but he had at lust found it out, for it appeared that theclocks in Shrewsbury tolled every five minutes (great laugh- ter). The Earl of Chichester then, after some compli- mentary allusions to the antiquities of the town, and to the high character which the inhabitants had ever shown for lo\alty and piety, proposed " The Mayor and Corporation of Shrewsbury, with thanks for the hospitality the Society had experienced" (applause). Mr. Burton, Mayor of Shrewsbury, returned thanks. Earl Talbot proposed the health of the Noble Presi- dent— (loud cheers) — after a few complimentary allu- sions to the interest the noble duke had ever shown in the promotion of agriculture. The toast was drunk with the utmost enthusiasm. The Chairman said— Gentlemen, I never in my life asked a man to do that which I would not do my- self, and therefore I shall myself get upon the table, as I asked my noble friend Earl Spencer to do it. (Having suited the action to the word, amidst the cheers of the audience, the noble duke proceeded) — I can truly say that I deeply value this expression of the compliment which you have paid me this day as the president of the Royal Agiicultural Society of England. When I look round, and see such a large, numerous, and re- spectable meeting of the tenant farmers of the country, I ft el that it is not necessary for me to ask whether you approve of the objects of this society. Your pre- sence here this day proves to me that you do feel that we are pursuing the right course. Much has already been dene; and I agree with my noble friend (Lord Spencer) that much remains still to be done. Drain- ing has been greatly advanced throughout the country, and it should be extended still further, as it is the foundation of all agricultural improvement (loud cheers). My noble friend (Earl Powis) told you that I made some observations yesterday with regard to his estate, which he took me over to see, and he stated to you that I was a witness last night who, though I spoke the truth, yet did not speak the whole truth. With that challenge I now stand before you, and I must tell you what I told him when he sat down, that he was a little injudicious in saying so, for I should have the last word (loud applause and laughter). To remove all cause of complaint from the mind of my noble friend, I will now state what my views are, but I do not ask you to agree with them ; but of this I am sure, that if I were to ask the tenant farmers of Shrop- shire whether, if their landlords were to say to them to-morrow, You are at liberty to grub up every ash tree in your hedge-rows — (enthusiastic cheering) — I do not believe that if such a permission were given, that a single tree would be left in the county, except, perhaps, in some lady's garden (continued cheering). My noble friend stated that I admitted the wide and inconve- nient hedges of Sussex. Gentlemen, I do admit that, and I regret it; and I believe that the landlords of this country cannot get rents in two ways — they can- not have the advantages of timber and of rent from the tenant at the same time (loud cheers). I object not to trees standing in our lawns, or standing in our parks, but I must say that, if landlords will in- sist on doing mischief to their tenants by keeping these trees, it ought to be considered in the rent ; and more particularly if they are ash trees, which are more injurious than any other (laughter and cheers). I feel, also, that there is another point which is of great importance. Since I came into this town my attention has been called to a pamphlet, written on a subject <'f great importance to us all. I think we might with great advantage take a leaf from the Chinese. I think we do allow to run to waste a great quantity of manure in this country. I believe that instead of allowing the water to flow into our yards, by which we spoil a great quantity of our manure, we ought to have tanks for the reception of this liquid manure, and I would recommend to the land- lords to build these tanks. (Loud cheers.) I feel, however, that I ought not to trespass longer on your attention. I feel what my noble friend says, that agriculture is a very amusing pastime. He states that you may either grumble or look on the bright side of the question, as it suits you ; and he says that for him- self he likes to take the bright side of the picture. I have no doubt that I might take the bright side, too, in looking at my farming operations, when I have had I the advantage of gaining great premiums, and being in possession of a fashionable flock, which bring great prices ; but I call upon you to say, does the tenant farmer, struggling with difficulties, and having a large family, does he stand in the same position that we do? (Loud cheers.) In the worst of seasons we can always get some rent, if we do not get the whole of what we got heretofore ; so that we stand in the situa- tion where bad prices are not so mischievous to us in the first instance as they are to the tenant farmer. (Cheers.) I can only conclude by adding that the expression of kindness and friendship which I have ever experienced at tho hands of the farmers of the empire is a proof to me that you do believe that I am justly proud of the confidence you repose in me. (Great cheering) I am deeply grateful to you for the favours I have received at your hands, when it ha9 been my good fortune to meet you. Entreating you to continue to take a deep interest in the cause of agricultural improvement — desirous to extend it far THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 and wide over the face of the country — entertaining strong feelings of regard and esteem for the fanners and tenantry of England — (Applause) — anxious to elevate the condition of the true-hearted generous British labourer, you will ever find me ready to use my best efforts — humble and inefficient as I feel them to be — for the promotion of the well-being of the agriculturists of the country, for the increase of the comforts of the cultivators of the soil. (Cheers.) I know that you entertain like feelings with regard to the manufacturing and commercial interests of the country. We have no jealous feelings with regard to them. All we wish is to live and to let live. (Loud applause.) All we feel called upon to do is, to perform our duties in those stations in which it has pleased Providence to place us ; and I believe my duty is, to promote the improvement of agriculture and the wel- fare of the agriculturist ; because I believe that by doing so 1 shall best promote the interests of all classes of my fellow-subjects. (Great applause.) Gen- tlemen, from my heart I thank you for the manner in which you have received me. I hope and trust you will never find me ungrateful ; and now I wish you and yours health, wealth, and every happiness which this world can bestow. (The noble Duke resumed his seat amidst loud and general cheers.) Lord Hatherton rose to propose " The health of the labouring classes" (applause) ; not merely the health of the labouring classes connected with agricul- ture, but the labouring classes in every department of industry in the United Empire (cheers). Whether it was the labourer in the mill or in the mine, whether ploughmen or handicraftsmen, there was no class of men in the kingdom in whose welfare and happiness they ought to take a deeper interest ; and the first duty of every one of them, within their several spheres, was to spread among them the means of education, to prove to them that they felt united with them iu all their interests, and that they desired no kind of sepa- ration (loud cheers). As regarded the agricultural labourers, he was sure they all felt how deeply impor- tant it was to maintain their sound physical condition as a class. Their moral condition was indeed all- important ; but then all present must know that their moral condition depended in a very great degree upon their physical condition. He called upon them, there- fore, to omit no opportunity of promoting the comfort of the labouring classes, and in this respect to imitate the conduct of the noble duke in the chair, who not only interested himself in the condition of the labour- ers on his own estates, but who was always found, from the commencement to the end of every session of Parliament, the vigilant sentinel of the interests of the labourer. The duties which he so well performed were duties which they all owed to their God and to their fel- low men, and he trusted that his noble friend's example would be imitated by all the country gentlemen of England (applause). The Chairman, in proposing the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and the Royal Agri- cultural Improvement Society of Ireland, regretted the absence of the Duke of Sutherland, who was to have given this toast, but who had sent him a letter, stating that nothing but the advice of his medical man pre- vented him from beins present. The Highland Society of Scotland had been long established, and the Royal Agricultural Society of England must consider itself as the offspring of that society. After they had been incorporated, the gentlemen of Ireland met, and established their society. He thought they were bound to pay a compliment to those whose example they followed, and also they were bound to pay a compli- ment to those who followed their example. He begged, therefore, to propose the toast, and to couple with it the Earl of Mansfield, one of the presidents of the Highland Society (cheers). The Earl of Mansfield returned thanks. It was true the Highland Society was first in the field — it was true that the English Society ought to regard it as its parent ; but it was no less true that the parent now felt her offspring had outgrown her. (Great laughter and cheers). They had had long experience of the benefits of such a society ; they found thousands and tens of thousands of acres had been re- claimed from a state of desolation, and were now teeming with most beautiful crops. Our lands, said the noble lord, are perhaps more sterile than yours, our climate inferior ; so that we felt there was necessity for great exertion, and our ener- gies have rendered us successful (applause). It was with no little interest that we in Scotland regarded the first attempts of this Society, and now our care must be that you do not exceed us. But a few days more, and our annual meeting will take place in Scot'and. Allow me to offer you there the hospitality which you have afforded us. May I ask you to reciprocate the visit which we have paid you, and to instruct us in some facts where we maybe deficient, and perhaps there may be — I do not say there are — some points in which we may in- struct you. I do not feel competent to do justice to that part of the toast which relates to Ireland ; but if any Irishman is present, I hope he will convey across the channel the expression of regard which tbis society enter- tains for them. I hope he will tell them that English- men drank prosperity to Ireland ; and in the same breath, let him tell them that a Scotchman responded to the toast (loud applause) . From the end of England to the end of Scotland let him assure them that all feel the greatest interest in Ireland — that we feel we are all one people, and that we hope they will soon become our rivals in all that can advance the physical or moral interests of mankind (applause). Lord Clive then proposed " The health of Lord Port- man," the president elect ; and trusted that his lordship would have the satisfaction of presiding over a meeting at Newcastle next year as large or larger than the present one. The noble Lord then good humouredly defended the ash trees of the county against the censure of the noble President, and said that the Salopians were proud of their county, and would not exchange it for Sussex, notwithstanding the seductive eloquence of the Chairman, and the advantage of his having the last word (great laughter). Lord Portman returned thanks. He agreed with all who had preceded him, that agriculture was of the greatest importance to the welfare of the world. He be- lieved that without attending to the cultivation of the soil neither manufactures nor commerce could — he would not say flourish— but they could not exist (applause) . With regard to the show of next year, he hoped as many of them as were able would make a point to come to Newcastle. He was sure his noble friend in the chair would do so ; for he knew he never would have assisted in putting him (Lord Portman) into the chair, if he did not mean to support him in it ; but he felt, at the same time, that un- less there was a good attendance of the tenant farmers, the show would be worthless. He then adverted to a new species of rye, which had been introduced for feed- ing stock at the early periods of the year — a matter of great importance to the farmers ; and, therefore, he hoped the farmers would try the experiment this coming spring, and report the result at Newcastle. At the same j time, he felt the force of what the noble president had said, that the improvement of the soil did not rest so much upon the tenant farmers as upon ;the | owners of land ; and he was sure that that class 154 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. could not better serve the interests of the farmer than by becoming practical farmers themselves ; and then they would know how to allow for ash-trees and game — {loud applause) — and so effectually carry out the maxim of " live and let live." He wished them all to bear in mind that the first thing a farmer had to do was to root the weeds out of his field, and the prejudices out of his heart (hear, hear). They should try experiments cautiously; but they should not lightly abandon them because they might fail in one instance. He knew a farmer who had been advised to subsoil his field ; which he did — but he made the experiment in a sandy soil, where it was worse than useless, instead of trying it in a field where there was a pan which required break- ing up in order to let the roots of the vegetables down to a better soil. He would say, therefore, when they re- ceived advice, to ask where it was applicable — whether for the whole farm or only for a part of it. He had now come to a painful part of his duty : it was for him to speak the last word (a laugh). Wishing them long life and happiness, at least till they met again next year, he very reluctantly bade them farewell. The company then gave three cheers for " Lord Port- man and a good show at Newcastle next year," after which the Duke of Richmond left the chair, and the company retired a few minutes before eight o'clock. AWARD OF PREMIUMS. CATTLE I. Short-horns. Names of the Judges. — John Grey, Dilston, Northumberland ; John Wood, Kimblesworth, Durham ; John Booth, Killerby, Yorkshire. To James Banks Stanhope, of Revesbey Abbey, near Boston, Lincolnshire, the prize of 30 sovs., for his two years and eight months old short-homed Bull, bred by Mr. Parkinson, of Ley- fields. To John Forrest, of Stretton, Warrington, the prize of 1 5 sovs., for Lis six years and four months old short -horned Bull, bred by Mr. Thomas Forrest, of Stretton. To Capel Hanbury Leigh, of Pontypool Park, Monmouth- shire, the prize of 20 sovs., for Lis two years five mouths and sixteen days old short-homed Bull, bred by himself. To James Banks Stanhope, of Revesbey Abbey, of the prize 1 5 sovs., for his four years and three months old short-horned Cow, bred by Mr. John Booth, of Killerby. To Viscount Hill, of Hawkstone, Salop, the prize of 15 sovs., for his two years nine months and twenty-seven days old short- homed Heifer, bred by Mr. Jaques, of Easeby. To Edward Lakin, of Beauchamp Court, near Worcester, the prize of 10 sovs., for his one year and eleven months old short- homed Heifer, bred by himself. To Viscount Hill, of Hawkstone, the prize of 10 sovs., for his nine months and twelve days old short-homed Bull-calf, bred by Mr. Richard Almond, of Orrell, near Wigan. CATTLE II. Herefords. Judges. — Richard Hewitt, Dodford, Northamptonshire ; Wal- ter Anderson, Oakley, Bedfordshire ; William Pratt, Newtield, Warwickshire. To Thomas Sheriff, of Coxall, Herefordshire, the prize of 30 sovs., for his live years six months and twenty-one days old Hereford Bull, bred by himself. To Edward Gough, of Gravel Hill, Salop, the prize of 1 5 sovs., for his two year and seven months old Hereford Bull, bred by the late Mr. Edward Gongh. To Edward Urwick, of Felton, Salop, the prize of 20 sovs., for his one year and seven months old Hereford Bull, bred by himself. To J. N. Carpenter, of Eardisland, Herefordshire, the prize of 15 sovs., for his three years, eight mouths, and ten days old Hereford Cow, bred by himself. To J. N. Carpenter, of Eardisland, tlie prize of 15 sovs. for his two years, seven months, and twenty-four days old Hereford In-calf Heifer, bred by himself. To Thomas Lockley Meire, of Cound Arbor, Salop, the prize of 10 sovs., for his one year and six months old Hereford Heifer, bred by himself. To John Thomas, of Cholstrey, Herefordshire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Hereford Bull Calf, bred by himself. CATTLE III. Devons. Judges. — Edward L. Franklin, Ascott, Oxon; Henry Trethewy, Grampound, Cornwall; Thomas Umbers, Wappenbury, Warwickshire. To Thomas White Fouracre, of Durston, Somerset, the prize of 30 sovs., for his four years and seven months old Devon Bull, bred by Mr. W. Stone, Dulverton, Somersetshire. To James Quartly, of Molland, near South-Molton, the prize of 20 sovs., for his two years and Jive months old Devon Bull, bred by himself. To James Quartly, of Molland, the prize of 15 sovs., for liis six years and three months old Devon Cow, bred by himself. To George Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, the prize of 15 sovs., for lus two years and six months old pure North-Devon In-calf Heifer, bred by himself. To George Turner, of Barton, the prize of 10 sovs., for his one year and six months old pure North-Devon Yearling-Heifer, bred by himself. To George Turner, of Barton, the prize of 10 sovs., for his seven months and two weeks old pure North-Devon Bull Calf, bred by himself. CATTLE IV. Any other Breed. Judges. — Edward Clarke, Cauwick, Lincolnshire; Samuel Um- bers, Cubbington Heath, Warwickshire; Charles Stokes, Kingston, Nottinghamshire. To the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, near Hinckley, Leicestershire, the prize of 20 sovs. for his four years and four months old pure Leicester or long-horned Bull, bred by Mr. Slingsby, of Foleshill, near Coventry. To John I^ees Brown, of Farewell, near Lichfield, the prize of 10 sovs., for his three years and six months old pure long- homed Bull, bred by himself. To the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, the prize of 15 sovs. for his aged pure Leicester or long-homed Cow, bred by Mr. Gibbs, of Heuley-in-Arden. To the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, the prize of 10 sovs., for his two years ten months and eighteen weeks old pure Leicester or long-homed Heifer, bred by himself. To the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, the prize of 10 sovs., for his one year and nine mouths old pure Leicester or long-horned Yearling Heifer, bred by himself. HORSES. Judges. — W. F. Karkeek, Truro, Cornwall; John Claydon, Littlebury, Essex ; William Day, Ensham, Oxon. To Henry Crosse, of Boyton Hall, Suffolk, the prize of 30 sovs., for his nine years old Cart Stallion, bred by the late Mr. W. Crosse, of Little Finborough Hill, Suffolk. To Hillyer Reeve, of Wroughton, Wiltshire, the prize of 15 sovs., for his six years old Cart Stallion, bred by Mr. Henshaw, of Aston, Derbyshire. To Frederic Thomas Bryan, of Knossiugton, Rutlandshire, the prize of 15 sovs., for his two years old Cart Stallion, bred by Mr. Richard Brown, of Elsworth, Cambridgeshire. To Viscount Hill, of Hawkestone, the prize of 20 sovs. for his Cart Mare and Foal, the sire of the foal being the property of his lordship, and the mare bred by the late Viscount Hill, of Hardwick Grange, Salop. To George Townshend, of Sapcote-Fields, Hinckley, Leices- tershire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Cart Mare and Foal, the sire of the foal having been the property of Mr. Hipwell, of Swinford, Leicestershire. To Lord St. John, of Melchboume, near Kimbolton, the prize of 10 sovs., for his two years old Filly, bred by himself. To J. B. Minor, of Astley, Salop, the prize of 30 sovs., for his nine years old thorough-bred Stallion ; got by Sultan, dam Clara, by Filho-da-Puta, bred by the Hon. Sydney Herbert, of Wilton House, Wiltshire. SHEEP I. Leicesters. Judges. — Thomas Chapman, Stoneleigh, Warwickshire; Robert Smith, Burley, Rutlandshire ; John Purser. To Thomas Edward Pawlett, of Beeston, Bedfordshire, the prize of 30 sovs., for his sixteen months old Leicester Ram, bred bv himself. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 155 To Samuel Bennett, of Bickerings Park, Bedfordshire, the prize of 15 sovs., for his sixteen months old pure Leicester Ram, bred by himself. To Robert Burgess, of Cotgrave Place, Nottinghamshire, the prize of 30 sovs., for his sixty-five months old pure Leicester Ram, bred by himself. To Robert Burgess, of Cotgrave Place, the prize of 15 sovs., for his forty-one months old pure Leicester Ram, bred by him- self. To William Gregory Watkins, of Woodfield, Worcestershire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his sixteen months old pure Leicester Shearling Ewes, bred by himself. To George Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, the prize of 5 sovs., for his sixteen months old Leicester Shearling Ewes. SHEEP II. South-downs. Judges. — William Stace, Berwick, Sussex; John Teversou, Great Wilbraham Farm, Cambridgeshire; James Brine, Tol- puddle, Dorset. To Jonas Webb, of Babraham, Cambridge, the prize of 30 sovs., for his sixteen months old Southdown Ram, bred by himself. To His Grace the Duke of Richmond, of Goodwood, Sussex, the prize of 15 sovs., for his sixteen months old Southdown Ram, bred by himself. To His Grace the Duke of Richmond, the prize of 30 sovs., for his twenty-eight months old Southdown Ram, bred by him- self. To Stephen Grantham, of Stoneham, Sussex, the prize of 15 sovs., for his forty months old Southdown Ram, bred by him- self. To His Grace the Duke of Richmond, the prize of 10 sovs., for his sixteen months old Southdown Shearling Ewes, bred by himself. To David Barclay, M.P., of Eastwick Park, Surrey, the prize of 5 sovs., for his sixteen months old Southdown Shear- ling Ewes, bred by himself. SHEEP III. Long-wools (not Ijeicesters). Judges. — Robert Beman, Donnington, Gloucestershire ; Henry Bateman, Asthally, Oxon ; Philip Skipworth, Aylesby, Lin- colnshire. To Edward Handy, of Sevenhampton, Gloucestershire, the prize of 30 sovs., for his sixteen months old improved Cots- wold Ram, bred by himself. To Charles Large, of Broadwell, near Lechlade, the prize of 15 sovs., for his sixteen months old New-Oxfordshire Rani, bred by himself. To Edward Handy, of Sevenhampton, the prize of 30 sovs., for his forty months old improved Cotswold Ram. To Edward Smith, of Charlbury, Oxfordshire, the prize of 1 5 sovs., for his sixty-four months old long-woolled Oxford- shire Ram, bred by himself. To Charles Large, of Broadwell, the prize of ten sovs., for his sixteen months old New-Oxfordshire long-woolled Ewes, bred by himself. To Edward Smith, of Charlbury, the prize of 5 sovs., for his sixteen months old long-woolled Oxfordshire Ewes, bred by himself. UIEEP IV. Mountain. Judges. — Griffith Evans, Maesypandy, Montgomeryshire ; Ri- chard Henderson, Langlesford, Northumberland ; Robert El- liot, Hardgrave, Dumfriesshire. To John Robson, of East Kielder, Northumberland, the prize of 15 sovs., for his three years and three months old Che- viot Ram, bred by himself. To John Robson, of East Kielder, the prize of 10 sovs., for his four years and three mouths old Cheviot Ram, bred by himself. To John Robson, of East Kielder, the prize of 5 sovs., for his two years and three months old Cheviot Ram, bred by himself. To Lord Bagot, of Pool Park, Denbighshire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his fourteen months old Cheviot Mountain Shearling Ewes, bred by himself. PIGS. Judges. — Jesse Kemp, Utterby Grove, Lincolnshire ; William Sandy, Holme-Pierrepont, Notts ; Samuel Jonas, Ickleton, Cambridgeshire. To Moses Cartwright, of Stanton House, near Burton-on- Trent, the prize of 10 sovs., for his one year aud six mouths old Boar, of a large breed, bred by himself. To Charles Randel, of Chadbury, Worcestershire, the prize of 5 sovs., for his two years, three months, and twenty-one days old enlarged Essex boar, of a large breed, bred by hiui- Sfclf. To Viscount Hill, of Hawkestone, Salop, the prize of 10 sovs., for his one year and twenty-two days old Boar, of a small breed, bred by himself. To Edward Urwick, of Felton, Salop, the prize of 5 sovs., for his one year and eleven months old Essex Boar, of a small breed, bred" by Mr. Henry Quikampton, of Little Totham, Essex. To Viscount Hill, of Hawkestone, the prize of 10 sovs., for his three years and one month old Leicestershire Sow, of a large breed, bred by Mr. W. Houghton, of Parbold, Lancashire. To William Fisher Hobbs, of Marks Hall, Kelvedon, Essex, the prize of 10 sovs., for his seven months old improved Essex sow, of a small breed, bred by himself. To William Fisher Hobbs, of Marks Hall, the prize of 10 sovs., for the best pen of three Pigs of the same litter, either of the large or small breed — namely, for his thirty-three weeks and five days old improved Essex Sow Pigs, bred by himself. EXTRA STOCK. To Jacob Bnwn, of Shrewsbury, the sum of 3 sovs., for his eleven months old Hereford Calf, bred by Mr. Edward Hum- phreys, of Walcot, Salop. To W. Taylor, of Dyffryd, near Llanymynech, Salop, the sum of 5 sovs., for his four years and four days old Hereford Heifer, bred by Mr. Richard Hill, of Goldiug Hall, Salop. To Charles Lirge, of Broadwell, the sum of 5 sovs., for his four years and four months old New-Oxfordshire long-woolled Ewe, bred by himself. To John Gregory Watkins, of Woodfield, Worcestershire, the sum of 2 sovs., for his five years and four months old pure Leicester Ewe, with her lamb. To Thomas Tumor, of Pool Park, Ruthin, Denbighshire, the prize of 5 sovs., for his Welsh-mountain Stallion Pony. CHEESE. Judges — Samuel Jonas, Ickleton ; Charles Stokes, Kingston ; Walter Anderson, Oakley. To John Justice, of Tyhtfield, Whitchurch, Salop, the prize of 10 sovs., for his sample of one hundred weight of Cheshire Cheese. To John S. Wilkinson, of Madeley, near Newcastle, Staf- fordshire, the prize of 5 sovs., for his sample of one hundred weight of Cheshire Cheese. COMxMENDATIONS. [The mark * signifies "Highly Commended", the omis- sion of it " Commended" by the Judges. * A. Bannerman's Short-homed Cow, bred by Mr. Booth. * E. W. Smythe Owen's Short-homed yearling Heifer, bred by himself. * W. Eyton's Hereford Bull, bred by the late Mr. Morris. * T. Lockley Meire's Hereford in-calf Cow, bred by himself. * J. Corbett's Hereford Yearling Heifer, bred by himself. T. Lockley Meire's Hereford in-calf Heifer, bred by himself. J. N. Carpenter's Hereford Bull Calf, bred by himself. * H. Allen's Cart Stallion, bred by Col. AVood, M.P. T. Carpenter's Oxfordshire Ram, bred by himself. * Rev. J. Hill's Essex and Neapolitan Sow, bred by himself. * Philip Pusey's Berkshire Sow-pigs, bred by himself. Viscount Hill's improved Lancashire Sow, bred by Mr. Jebson. W. Fisher Hobbs's improved Essex Sow, bred by himself. * Rev. J. Hill's Essex and Neapolitan Sow, bred by himself. * Viscount Hill's Short-homed Heifer, bred by Mr. Jaques. Viscount Hill's Short-homed Cow, bred by Mr. Holmes. * Eyton and Forester's Hereford Bull, bred by the late Mr. Jeffries. * Sir Francis Lawley's Hereford in-calf Heifer, bred by himself. * T. Lockley Meire's Hereford Bull Calf, bred by himself. Sir Francis Lawley's Hereford Yearling Heifer, bred by himself. T. Lockley Meire's Hereford Bull Calf, bred by himself. * T. Carpenter's Oxfordshire Ram, bred by himself. * W. Fisher Hobb's improved Essex Boar, bred by himself. 156 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Rev. J. Hill's Essex aud Neapolitan Sow, bred by himself. W. Fisher Hobb's improved Essex Boar, bred by himself. Rev. J. Hill's Essex arid Neapolitan Sow, bred by himself. W. Fisher Hobb's improved Essex Sow, bred by himself. E. Gough's Hereford Cow, bred by the late Mr. E. Gough. Matthew and Arthur Movmtford's Durham mil Short-honied Cow, bred by themselves. IMPLEMENTS. Judges. — William Bennet, Lewsey, Bedfordshire ; Charles Burness, Woburn, Bedfordshire ; Albert Edmonds, Long- Worth, Berks ; William Heseltine, Worlaby House, Lincoln- shire ; Thomas P. Outhwaite, Bainesse, Yorks ; Josiah Parkes, C. E. Westminster; William Shaw, jun., Far-Cotton, Northampton. To the Earl of Ducie, of Tortworth Court, Gloucestershire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Wrought-iron Cultivator or Sca- rifier, with five Tines ; invented by John Morton, and manu- factured by Richard Clyburn. To John Comes, of Barbridge, Cheshire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Chaff-cutting Machine, improved and manufac- tured by himself. To Sanders, Williams, and Taylor, of Bedford, the prize of 5 sovs., for their Set of Strong Iron Harrows, improved by Samuel Taylor, and manufactured by themselves. To Richard, Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Two-row Drill Presser, invented and manu- factured by himself. To James Richmond, of Salford, Manchester, the prize of 5 sovs., for a churn, invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To H. G. James, of Fish-street Hill, London, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Machine for Weighing Lime, Cattle, and Farm-produce generally, invented by M. George, of Paris, and manufactured by Mr. James. To James Richmond, of Salford, the prize of 5 sovs., for his Portable Steaming Apparatus, for Roots, &c. ; invented, im- proved, and manufactured by himself. To Henry Lowcock, of Westerland, near Marldon, Devon- shire, the prize of 5 sovs., for his One-way Plough, with Ran- some's trussed iron beams ; invented and improved by Mr. Lowcock, and manufactured by Messrs. Ransome. To John Bruce, of Tiddington, near Stratford-on-Avon, the prize of 5 sovs., for his Skim-Plough ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To John Read, of Regent's Circus, London, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Subsoil Pulverizer, with iron beam and handles ; invented by himself, improved by B. Stratton, and manufac- tured by R. Stratton, of Bristol. To William Crosskill, of Beverley, Yorkshire, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Clod Crusher Roller; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To James Wilmot Newberry, of Hook Norton, Oxon, the prize of 15 sovs., for his five-rowed Horse Dibbling Machine ; invented and improved by Messrs. Saunder and Newberry, aud manufactured by Mr. Newbury. To Alexander Dean, of Birmingham, the prize of 10 sovs., for his Machine for Crushing linseed, rape, and other seeds of an oily nature ; improved and manufactured by himself. To Edward Hill, of Brierly-Hill, Dudley, the prize of 10 sovs., for his wrought-iron Sheep-Fold ; invented by Mr. Munn, of Throwley House, Fearsham, and manufactured by Mr. Hill. To George Edward Frerc, F.R.S., 11, East Claremont-street, Edinburgh, an award of 10 sovs., for his Norwegian Harrow or Clod Crusher combined with a Field- Roller; invented in Nor- way, improved by Mr. Frere and Mr. Stratton, and manufac- tured by Mr. Stratton, at Bristol. To William Edward Vingo, of Penzance, an award of 10 sovs., for his Seed-Depositing or Planting Machine ; invented, mproved, and manufactured by himself. To Mrs. Mary Cartmell, of London-road, Liverpool, an award of 2 sovs., for her Weighing Machine ; invented by James Herriot of Glasgow, and improved and manufactured by John Craig, of Liverpool. To the Earl of Ducie, of Tortworth Court, an award of 2 sovs., for his Corn Crusher; invented by Persons and Clyburn, and manufactured at Uley. To David Harkes, of Mere, near Kuutsford, an award of 2 sovs., for his Parallel Exhausting Horse Hoe or Scarifier; in- vented and manufactured by himself. To Thomas Dickson, of Thoresway, near Caistor, an award of the Silver Medal of the Society, for his Iron Horse Hoe ; in- vented and manufactured by B. Dawson, of Caistor. To the Earl of Ducie, of Tortworth Court, an award of 5 sovs., for his Richmond Cart for general purposes ; invented and manufactured by R. Clyburn, of Uley. To William Crosskill, of Beverley, an award of 2 sovs., for Ins Improved One-horse Cart ; improved and manufactured by liimself. To Edward Hammond B entail, of Heybridge, near Maldon, Essex, an award of the Silver Medal of the Society for his Hand Seed Depositor ; invented and manufactured by himself. To John Read, of Regent's Circus, London, an award of 5 sovs., for his Double- Action Fire-Engine ; invented and manu- factured by himself. To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham, an award of 3 sovs., for his Double Od-Cake Breaker; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To William Sanday, of Holme-Pierrepoint, Nottinghamshire, an award of 10 sovs., for his Winnowing Machine; improved by himself, and manufactured by Samuel Wheatly, of Holme- lane. To Messrs. Charles Phillips and Co., of Bristol, an award of 5 sovs., for their Turnip-Cutting Machine ; invented by C. Phillips, and manufactured by themselves. To James Spencer, of Hopton, near Wirksworth, Derby- shire, an award of 5 sovs., for his large Chaff Cutter, for one or two men, and for horse or engine power ; invented and manufac- tured by himself. To Messrs. Wedlake and Thompson, of Hornchurch, Essex, an award of 3 sovs., for their Hay-making or Tedding Machine ; invented by Robert Wedlade, and improved by H. Hankinson, and manufactured by Messrs. Wedlake and Thompson. To Lieut. James Vibart, of Cliilleswood House, near Taun- ton, an award of five sovs., for his Compound Lever-Power, invented by himself, and manufactured by Mr. Richards, of Taunton. To the Earl of Ducie, of Totworth Court, an award of 10 sovs., for his Thrashing and Dressing Machine, invented by Parsons and Clyburn, and manufactured at Uley. To Alexander Dean, of Birmingham, an award of 10 sovs., for his Portable Steam Engine, of four-horse power, invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To William Cambridge, of Market Lavington, Devizes, an award of 5 sovs., for his Portable Steam Engine, of four -horse power, invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To Edward Hill, of Brierly Hill, Dudley, an award of 2 sovs., for his Iron Granary or Store-room Crane and Winch, invented and manufactured by himself. To Edward Hill, of Brierly Hill, an award of the Silver Medal of the Society, for his general exhibition of Gates, Hur- dles, Cribs, &c. To James Richmond, of Salford, Manchester, an award of the Silver Medal of the Society, for his Machine for Washing Vegetables ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. To Evan Thomas, of Keel Meifod, near Welshpool, an award of the Silver Medal of the Society, for his application of leverage in his scarifier ; invented and improved by himself. PLOUGHS, DRILLS, & TILE MACHINES, Selected by the Judges for further Trial (previously to a de- cision on their merits, or an award of prizes). David Harkes, of Mere : Plough for heavy land ; manufac- tured by himself. William Howard, of Bedford : Iron Plough with two wheels ; invented and manufactured by himself. Mapplebeck and Lowe, of Birmingham : new and improved Rutland Plough ; invented and manufactured by Messrs. Ran- some. Sanders and Co., of Bedford : Wrought-iron Plough, with two wheels and improved covdter ; invented and improved by themselves. William Wood, of Knutsford : Wrought-iron Swing Plough ; invented and manufactured by himself. E. H. Benthall, of Heybridge : Iron Plough; invented aud manufactured by himself, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 15? Richard Hornsby, of Grantham : Ten-coulter Drill for Corn and general purposes ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. Richard Hornsby, of Grantham : six-row Turnip Drill, for flat work ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. Richard Hornsby, of Grantham : two-row Ridge Drill ; in- vented, improved, and manufactured by himself. James Smyth, of Peasenhall : Ridge or Broad Work, Tur- nip or Mangel-Wurtzel seed, and Manure Drill ; invented, im- proved, and manufactured by himself. Richard Garrett, of Leiston : two-row Lever Ridge Drill, for turnips, &c. ; invented and manufactured by himself. Thomas Scragg, of Calverley : machine for making Draining Tiles and Pipes for agricultural purposes ; invented by him- self, and manufactured by James Hewett, of Calverley, Cheshire Henry Clayton, 21, Upper Park Place, Dorset Square, Lon- don ; Hand-machine for the manufacture of Drain Pipes, Tiles, and Bricks ; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. Robert Beart, of Godmauchester : machine for making Draining Pipes, Tiles, and Soles ; invented by himself, and manufactured by Messrs. Clarke, of Houghton, Huntingdonshire. [The Council have decided that the Winning Implement of the previous year, in each of these three classes, shall be tried along with the Implements thus selected by the Judges on the present occasion. LORD KENYON'S PRIZE. The prize of 20 sovs. for the best Essay on gorse, as the food of cattle, horses, or sheep, has been awarded to Mr. Roberts, of Bangor. A LIST OF THE VARIOUS AGRICULTU- RAL IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES, AND OTHER ARTICLES FOR FARM PUR- POSES; MANURES, SEEDS, ROOTS, &c. ; EXHIBITED AT THE SOCIETY'S SHOW AT SHREWSBURY, JULY 15th, 16th, and 17th, 1845: — Stand No. 1. — William Joseph Joyner, Aveley Hall, Romford, Essex. Article No. 1 (new implement), a chaff cutter; in- vented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 2. — Mr. William Abraham, of Bar- netby-le-Wold, Brigg. Article No. 1 (improved implement), a combined drag, harrow, and scarifier; invented, improved, and manufactured by Mr. Joseph Miller, of Barnetby-le- Wold. Stand No. 3. — Mr. Robert Beart, of Godman- chester, Huntingdon. Article No. 1 was selected for trial. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a patent machine for making draining pipes, tiles, and soles; 2 (new implement), a patent machine for making bricks, draining pipes, tiles, soles, &c. ; 3 (new implement), a patent machine for making draining pipes, tiles and soles ; all invented by the exhibiter ; manufactured by John and George Clark, of Houghton, Hunts. Stand No. 4. — Mr. Thomas Bigg, of 15, Craw- ford-street, Portman-square, London. Article No. 1, a sheep-dipping apparatus ; invented and improved by the exhibiter; manufactured by Mr. Robt. Wade, 113, Crawford-street, London. Stand No. 5.— Mrs. Mary Cartmell, of 34, Lon- don Road, Liverpool. Article No. 8 obtained a prize of 2 sovs. Articles No. 1, a four-knife hay and straw-cutter (diagonal knives for hand or power) ; invented by the late William Cartmell, of Doncaster ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a three-knife hay and straw-cutter for hand power ; invented by William Cartmell, of Liverpool manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a three-knife hay and straw-cutter for hand-power ; invented by Mr. Thomas Pasmore, of Doncaster, improved by Wm. Cartmell, of Liver- pool, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, an oil-cake crusher ; invented by Mr. John Cartmell, of Liverpool, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 5, a grain bruiser; 6, a grain bruiser; invented by Thomas Cartmell, of Doncaster, improved by William Cartmell, of Liverpool, and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 7, a double turnip-cutter, invented by William Cartmell, of Liverpool, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 8, 9, 10, weighing machines ; invented by James Heriot, of Glasgow ; improved and manufactured by John Craig, of Liverpool. Stand No. 6. — Egerton W. Harding, of Old- springs, near Market Drayton. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a one-horse cart ; 2, a harvest cart ; 3, a scarifier; 4, a subsoil pulverizer; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 7.— Mr. James Wilmot Newberry, of Hook Norton, near Chipping Norton. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 15 sovs. Articles No. 1, a five' rowed dibbling machine, in- vented and improved by Saunder and Newberry, of Hook Norton ; and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2 (new implement), a one-rowed dibbling ma- chine, invented by Saunder and Newberry, of Hook Norton ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 8.— Mr. William Bullock Webster, of Hounsdown, near Southampton. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a hand pipe and tile machine ; invented by the exhibiter, and manu- factured by Tasker and Fowle, of Waterloo Iron Works, A ndover, Hants. No. 2, a level for the pur- pose of draining, &c, &c. ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by George Cox, Optician, of 128, Holborn-hill, London. No. 3 (new implement), a beam draining level, with parallel plates, tripod stand, altitude and depression piece, with centre to move round on ; 4 (new implement), a 3imple workman's level, with line and plumb, and moveable spirit-tube ; inveuted by the exhibiter, improved and manufac- tured by George Cox, Optician, of 128, Holborn-hill, London. No. 5 (new implement), a patent hand- dibble, for making the hole, and depositing the seed in any quantity ; invented by the exhibiter; improved and manufactured by Richard Clyhurn, of Uley, near Dursley, Gloucestershire. No. 6 (new implement), a small seed depositor for hand-dibbling ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley, near Dursley, Gloucestershire. No. 7, an agricultural test chest; invented and manufactured by- George Cox, optician and practical chemist, of 128, Holborn-hill, London. No. 8, an angle meter; in- vented by Mr. T. R. Bakewell, civil engineer and mineralogical surveyor, and manufactured by George Cox, optician, &c, of 128, High Holborn, London. No. 9, the orthochronograph ; invented by Mr. Low- man, of Ramsgate; improved by R. Webster, of 128, Holborn-hdl, and manufactured by George Cox, op- tician, of 128, Holborn-hill, London. No. 10, a model of the tile machine exhibited. No. 11, tiles, pipes, bricks, &c, &c, made by machine exhibited, with specimens of clay they are made from. No. 12, some agricultural books. No. 13, a model of a set of iron machinery for drawing water; invented and manu- factured by Tasker and Fowle, of Waterloo Iron Works, Andover, Hants, 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Stand No. 9. — Mr. Edward Hammond Bcntall, of Hey bridge, near Maldon. Article No. 1 was selected for trial, and Article No. 4 obtained the silver medal. Articles No. 1, a patent iron plough; 2, a patent iron universal double-breasted plough ; 3 (new imple- ment), a patent dynamometer; 4 (new implement), a patent seed depositor ; all invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 5, a pair of Essex wheat dibbs ■ improved and manufactured by the exhibitor. Stand No. 10. — Mr. James Comins, of South Molton. Articles No. 1, a plough adapted to light land ; im- proved and manufactured by the exhibitor. No. 2, a plough adapted for heavy or light land ; 3, a one-way or turnover plough, registered; 4 (new implement), a registered one-way plough, improved for hoeing or earthing-up potatoes ; the three last articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibitor. Stand No. 11. — Mr. Joshua Cooch, of Harleston, near Northampton. Articles No. 1, a winnowing machine; 2, a barley hummellcr ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, an improved cultivator or scarifier; invented by Earl Ducie, of Uley ; improved and manufactured by the exhibitor. Stand No. 12. — Lieut. James Vibant, of Cbilles- wood House, near Taunton, Somerset. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a compound lever power (patent); 2 (new implement), a patent bell- crank lever thrashing machine; 3 (new implement), a patent bell-crank lever power; the three articles in- vented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Mr. Richards, engineer, of Taunton. No. 4, a thrashing machine ; manufactured by Mr. Richards, engineer, Taunton, Somerset. No. 5 (new implement), a chaff cutter ; 0 (new implement), a turnip cutter ; these two were invented by the exhibitor, and manufactured by Mr. Richards, engineer, of Taunton. Stand No. 13.— Mr. Forbes M'Neill, of 44, Fins- bury Circus, and Lamb's-buildings, Bunhill- row, London. Articles No. 1, a variety of models, showing the ap- plication of his patent asphalted felt roofing to cot- tages, sheds, hay and corn ricks, &c. No. 2, a sample of felt; invented by JNIr. Williams; and improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3 (new imple- ment), a portable and economical tar kettle ; invented and manufactured by Mr. Williams, of Lamb's-build- ings, Bunhill-row. Stand No. 14.— Mr. Frederick W. Ethcredge, of 15, Park-street, Westminster. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a horse tile- machine; invented by W. Worley,of Ipswich, and the exhibiter, and manufactured by Messrs. Ransomc, of Ipswich. No. 2 (new implement), a hand tile- machine; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Messrs. Ransomc, of Ipswich, Suffolk. No. 3 (new implement), a hand brick-making and com- pressing machine; invented by the exhibitor; im- proved and manufactured by S. J. Knight, of Maid- stone, Kent. Nos. 4 and 5, models of a tile yard ; in- vented by the exhibitor. No. 6, a horse tile machine ; invented and improved by the exhibiter, and manu- factured by Messrs. Ransome, of Ipswich. Stand No. 15. — Richard Robinson, Lisburn, near County Antrim. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a churn ; 2 (new implement), a churn made of block tin ; invented by John Rowan and Sons, of Ballyclare ; 3 (now imple- ment), a churn, all improved and manufactured by the exhibitor. Nos. 4 and 5 (new implements), milk ripen- ers, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. G (new implement), a steaming apparatus (cast metal boiler) ; 7 (new implement), a steaming appa- ratus (copper boiler) ; S, a steaming apparatus, of an improved and enlarged construction on the foregoing ; the boilers of each implement invented by Jennings, of America; improved and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 9, an economical cottage cooking appa- ratus, invented by a person in the county Wexford ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 10, a set of Rowan's patent axles, invented and manu- factured by John Rowan and Sons, of Ballyclare. Stand No. 16. — Mr. William Clay, of Lineal, Ellesmere, Salop. Articles No. 1, an iron threewheel double plough ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, an iron three-wheel single plough, press, &c. ; invented by Bcthuol Phillips, of Wackley Lodge ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, an iron two- wheel single plough; 4, an iron swing plough; 5, an iron swing plough ; (5, an iron two-wheel ridge plough and horse hoe complete ; 7, an iron two-wheel ridge plough ; 8, an iron scarifier, with ten tines and ten hoes ; i), an iron horse hoe for turnips, and to regulate the plants; 10, an iron horse hoc; 11, an iron three- wheel single plough ; all invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 17. — Mr. William Crosskill, of the Beverley Iron Works, Hull. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 10 sovs., and Article No. 10 a prize of 2 sovs. Articles No. 1, a patent clod-crusher roller ; 2, a patent wheat or corn pressor roller ; 3 (improved implement), a patent grass land cultivator ; the three articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4 (improved implement), a two-horse straw cutter, with five knives ; improved and manu- factured by the exhibitor. No. 5 (new implement), an iron liquid manure cart, with watering apparatus ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 6 (improved implement), a patent, port- able iron liquid manure pump ; invented by Bearc, of London ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 7 (new implement), an iron liquid manure cart, with watering apparatus; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 8 (improved im- plement), a patent portable iron liquid manure pump, small size ; invented by Beare, of London, improved and manufactured by the exhibitor. No. 9, a portable four-horse thrashing machine; 10 (improved imple- ment), an improved one-horse cart ; 11 (improved im- plement), a set of improved harvest shelvings; 12 (im- proved implement), a one-horse cart ; the four last articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 13 (improved implement), a set of patent wheels and axletree for agricultural carts, &c. ; 14 (improved implement), a sot of patent wheels and axletree ; the two last articles invented, improved, and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 18. — Mr. John Gillett, of Brailes, near Shipston-on-Stour. Articles 1, a rick ventilator, invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a guillotine chaff machine; 3, a large size guillotine chaff machine; the two last articles invented by Messrs. Ward and Colbourne, of Stratford- on- A von ; manufactured by the exhibiter. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 159 Stand No. 19. — Mr. Peter Love, of Naseby, near Welford. Articles No. l,a scarifier or grubber, for pulverizing the soil and eradicating all root weeds ; 2, a scarifier or grubber; both articles invented and improved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Alexander Ogg, of Northampton. No. 3 (new implement), a one- horse Scotch cart; invented and improved by the ex- hibiter, and manufactured by Eli Adnett, of Naseby, Northamptonshire. No. 4, a plough ; improved and manufactured by Mr. Crawford, of Uddingston, near Glasgow. No. 5 (new implement) a set of equalizing swingle-trees and pulleys, for from two to eight horses ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Eli Adnett and Alexander Ogg, of Naseby and North- ampton. Stand No. 20. — Mr. John Pritcbard, of'Broseley, Salop. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a swing plough without wheels, invented, improved, and manufactured by l William Wallace, of the Hill Farm, Chetton, near Bridgnorth, Salop. No. 2 (new implement), a swing plough with wheels, manufactured by William Wal- lace, of the Hill Farm, Chetton, near Bridgnorth, Salop. No. 3 (new implement), a wood double shieldboard plough, improved and manufactured by William Wallace, of the Hill Farm, Chetton, near Bridgnorth, Salop. Stand No. 21. — Mr. Evan Thomas, of Keel Meifod, near Welshpool. Article No. 2 obtained the silver niedal. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a combined furrow slice and subsoil plough; invented by T. W. Pound- ley, of Brook Cottage, near Newton ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a scarifier or cultivator, improved and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Stand No. 22. — Mr. Abraham Vickers, of Man- chester. Articles Nos. 1, 2, 3, & 4 (new implements), churns ; invented by John Rowan, of Ballyclare ; and manu- factured by the exhibiter. Nos. o, G, 7, and 8 chaff cutters, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 9, a chaff cutter, invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter. Nos. 10 and 11, com crushers, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 12, an improved steaming apparatus, for vege- tables, &c. ; 13, an improved cheese press ; both articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 14, an improved haymaking machine, invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 15, an improved winnowing machine, invented, improved, and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 10, a turnip cutter, invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 23. — Mr. Samuel Beardmore, of Leek. Article No. 1, a chaff cutter ; invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter. No. 2 and 3 chaff cutters ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhi- biter. INo. 4, rack and lever cheese press, made of wrought-iron ; invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Stand No. 24. — Mr. John Bruce, of Tiddington, near Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Articles Nos. 1, a skim plough ; 2, a patent subsoil plough ; 3, a patent scarifier ; 4 (new implement), a subsoil pulverizer; 5, a plough ; all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 25. — Mr. Henry Clayton, of 21, Upper Park-place, Dorset-square. Article No. 1 was selected for trial. Article No. 1, a patent hand machine for the manu- facture of drain pipes, tiles, and bricks ; invented, im- proved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a set of various kinds of tools for cutting the drains for pipe tiles and other descriptions of drain tiles ; improved by, and manufactured under the superintendence of, the exhibiter. Stand No. 26.- -Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and An- drews, of Reading. Articles Nos. 1, a double plough; 2, a universal plough; 3, a potato plough; all invented and manufac- tured by the exhibiters. No. 4 (new implement), an improved turnwrist plough ; invented by Mr. W. Exall ; manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 5 and 6, improved subsoil ploughs ; 7 (new implement), a light two-share subsoil plough ; 8, a light one- wheel plough ; 9, a light one-wheel plough ; 10, a light one-wheel plough ; 11, a strong one-wheel plough ; 12, an all-iron one-wheel plough ; 13, a two-wheel and swing-plough ; 14, a two-wheel and swing plough ; 15, an all-iron two-wheel and swing plough; 16, a light swing plough; 17, an all-iron swing plough ; the above 13 articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 18, an iron double cylindered field roller (10 in.) ; invented by Mr. W. Exall ; manufactured by the exhi- biters. No. 19, a two-wheel seam presser (30 in.) ; inventor not known ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 20, agorse or furze-crushing machine ; invented and improved by Mr. Wm. Exall, of Reading ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 21, a two-horse bevil gear work ; invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiters. No. 22, an improved chaff engine, No. 1 (8 in.) ; invented and improved by Mr. Wm. Exall, of Reading ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 23, an im- proved chaff engine. No. 2 (9 in.) ; 24, an improved chaff engine. No. 3 (10 in.) ; 25, an improved chaff en- gine. No. 4 (11 in.) ; 26, an improved chaff engine. No. 5 (12 in.) ; the last four articles invented by Mr. Wm. Exall, of Reading ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 27, an improved horse gear for one or two horses ; in- vented and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 28, a two-horse-power thrashing machine ; invented and impro- ved by Mr. Wm. Exall, of Reading ; manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 29, a one-horse-power thrashing-ma- chine ; 30, a hand-power thrashing machine ; both arti- cles invented by Mr. Wm. Exall, of Reading ; manufac- tured by the exhibiters. Nos. 31 (new implement), a win- nowing or corn-clearing machine; 32 (new implement), an improved lever horse rake ; manufactured by the exhi- biters. No. 33 (new implement) a continuous-feeding, self- cleaning pipe and drain tile machine ; invented by Mr. Wm. Exall, of Reading ; manufactured by the ex- hibiters. No. 34, a strongly-geared oilcake breaker ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 35, a malt, oat, &c, crushing machine ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 36, a grass, turnip, and other small seed machine ; invented by Mr. Bennett, of Farnham ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 37, a three-row universal drill ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 38, a universal expanding seed and manure drill ; in- vented and manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 39, a pair of rhomboidal grass harrows; 40 (new implement), a light pair of patent axle cart wheels; 41, a pair of strong cart or waggon wheels ; 42, a wrought- iron shifting horse hoe ; the last four articles manufac- tured by the exhibiters. No. 43, a model of an im- proved kiln for drying tiles, &c, &c. Nos. 44 to 55, baskets of the working parts of the above imple. ments. M 160 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Stand No. 27> — Messrs. Young and Spence, of Shrewsbury. Articles No. 1, A three-horse thrashing machine; im- proved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 2, a two-horse thrashing machine ; improved and manufac- tured by the exhibiters. No. 3, a horse movement ; ma- nufactured by the exhibiters. No. 4 (new implement), a clod crusher ; invented and manufactured by the exhi- biters. No. 5, a clod crusher; invented by Wm. Cross- kill, of Beverley, and manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 6, a scarifier with nine tines ; 7, a seven-tine sca- rifier ; both articles invented by Biddell, of Suffolk, and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 8, a triangular scarifier with seven tines ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 9, a triangular scarifier with five tines ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 10 (new implement), a couch grass rake and seed drill ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 1 1 , a couch grass rake ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 12 (new implement), a scuffle ; in- vented by Mr. Samuel Meire, of Berrington, and manu- factured by the exhibiters. No. 13, a single-row turnip drill ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 14, a drill harrow; manufactured by Drummond, of Stirling. No. 15, a barley hummeller ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 16, a sheep rack and troughs on wheels ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 17 (new implement), a grass scarifier and seed drill ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 18, a two-row turnip-drill, with self-adjusting rollers ; 19, a wheat mill, with French burr stones and dresser, for one horse ; both articles manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 20, a chaff cutter, with thirty knives ; invented by Worth, and manufactured by Richmond, of Salford. No. 21 (new implement), a train of iron barrows ; in- vented by Geo. Hilditcb, ofTreflack Hall, and manu- factured by the exhibiters. Nos. 22, a pair of two-horse iron harrows ; 23, a pair of light seed harrows ; 24, a liquid manure barrel ; the three articles manufactured by the exhibiters; No. 25, a patent winnowing machine; invented by Salter, and manufactured by Ransomes, of Ipswich. Nos. 26, an iron wheel plough, improved by Mr. B. Phillips, of Wackley Lodge, Salop ; 27, an iron wheel plough ; 28, an iron double mould- board plough ; 29, an iron swing plough ; 30, a subsoil plough, in- vented by Wilkie, of Udderstone ; 31, a universal ridge plough and horse hoe, invented by Clarke ; 32, a mole, draining, and sub-turf plough, invented by Sir Edward Stacey, Bart. ; 33, a bone and turnip drill ; the last eight articles manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 34, a fourteen-row corn drill ; 35, a nine-row corn drill ; both articles invented and manufactured by James Smyth, of Peasenhall. No. 36, a winnowing machine ; manu- factured by Thomas Davies, of Oswestry. No. 37, a corn crusher ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 38, a bean crusher ; manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 39, a corn crusher ; invented and ma- nufactured by Alexander Dean, of Birmingham. No. 40, a turnip cutter; invented and manufactured by Charles Phillips and Co., of Bristol. No. 41, a turnip cutter ; invented and manufactured by James Gardner, of Banbury. No. 42, a horizontal turnip slicer ; ma- nufactured by the exhibiters. No. 43, a steam presser, with drill ; invented and manufactured by Hornsby, of Grantham. No. 44, a hay-tedding machine, double bar- rel ; invented by Wedlake, of Hornchurch, and manu- factured by the exhibiters. No. 45, a twenty-four-inch land roll, with two barrels and hinges; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 46, a twelve-feet barrow clover drill ; manufactured by Thomas Davies, of Oswestry. No. 47, a No. 6 chafi" engine ; improved by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich, and manufactured by the ex- hibiters. No. 18, a chaff engine, with two knifes; in- vented by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich, and ma- nufactured by the exhibiters. No. 49, a chaff engine; invented and manufactured by Wilkes, of Sheffield. No. 50, a lever cheese press ; invented by Mr. B. Phillips, of Wackley Lodge, Salop, and manufactured by the ex- hibiters. No. 51, a hand dibble, invented and manu- factured by Smith, of Droitwich. No. 52, an iron field barrow, invented by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Salop, and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 53, a weighing machine ; manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 54, a steelyard, sack, and sheep weigher; invented by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham, improved by the exhibiters, and manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. Nos. 55, a wrought-iron hay rack ; 56, an iron hurdle wicket, and posts ; both articles manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 57, a wrought-iron rolled field gate; invented by J. Boydell, of Oak Farm Company, Staffordshire, and manufac- tured by the Oak Farm Company, of Staffordshire. Nos. 58, a wrought-iron field gate with flat bars ; 59, five pattern iron hurdles ; both articles manufactured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 2S — Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, of Winsley-street, Oxford-street, London. Articles Nos. l,acycloidal tooth grubber, withscvcu tines, invented by G. Cottam, of Win.-ley-strcet, London; 2, a cycloidal tooth grubber, with five tines, invented by G. Cottam, of Winslcy-street, Loudon ; 3, a subsoil plough, invented by Mr. Jas. Smith, of Deanston, improved by the exhibiters. Nos. 4, horse hoe for ridge work, or on the flat ; 5, a serrated chain harrow, invented by Mr. Jas. Smith, of Deanston ; 6*, a serrated chain harrow, invented by Mr. Jas. Smith, of Deanston; 7, an anti-patent clod crusher; 8, a seed and manure drill for one row ; 9, a seed and ma- nure drill for two rows ; the last six articles improved by G. Cottam, of Winsley-strcet. Nos. 10, a two-row dibble, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley-street; 11 (new implement), a two-row dibble and drop drill, in one machine, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley- street; 12, a seed dibble No. 1 ; 13 (new implement), a seed dibble No. 2 ; 14 (new implement), a seed dibble No. 3, called the fish mouth seed dibble ; the last three articles invented and manufactured by Richard Smith, of Upper Hall, Hampton Lovett, Worcestershire. Nos. 15, a land presser, improved by J. Bennett, Esq., M.P.,of Pythouse, Hindon, Wilts ; 1G, a liquid manure cart; 17, an iron -framed saw table, and boring ma- chine, invented by G. Cottam, of Winslcy-street ; 18, a set of horse work for four horses, improved by G. Cottam, of Winsley-strcet; 19, a vertical turnip cutter; 20, a bruising machine for grain; 21, a flax- seed crusher ; 22, an oilcake crusher for sheep and cattle ; 23, a tile machine for all kinds of tiles and pipes, invented by John Hatcher, of Benenden, Kent; 24 (new implement), a pug mill in iron case, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley -street; 25, a set of draining tools; 26 (new implement), an improved draining level, invented by Mr. Samuel S. H. C. Payue, of Llanelly House, Carmarthenshire ; 27, a set of digging forks ; 28, a weighing machine for sheep, calves, pigs, &c., invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley- street ; 29, a weighing machine for sacks, .Sec. ; 30, a double weighing machine; 31, a weighing machine, with iron frome and wheels ; 32, a wrought-iron sack truck, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley-street ; 33, a dynamometer, or draught gauge, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley-street; 34, an odometer, or land measurer, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley-street; 35, a salting machiue, invented by Carson, of York- street; 36, a pair of patent iron cart wheels ami axle invented by G. Cottam, of Winslcy-street; Nos. 37 38, 39, and 40, metallic churns with pans for hot oi THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 161 cold water, invented by Johnson of Loudon ; No?. 41 and 42, wrought- iron welded field gates ; Nos. 43 and 41, wroiight-iron sheep hurdles; 45, a wrought-iron light cattle hurdle ; 46, a wrought-iron strong cattle hurdle; Nos. 47 and 48, wrought-iron ox hurdles; 49. a wrought-iron wheel-barrow; 50, a liquid manure pump, improved by G. Cottam, of Wiusley-street; 51, a cast-iron stable pump ; 52, an assortment of garden tools; 53, a wrought and cast-iron rick stand; Nos. 54 and 55, cast-iron rick posts; 56 (new implement), a walking-stick level, invented by G. Cottam, of Winsley-street ; 57, a Roman stada, or weighing machine for sheep, pigs, &c, invented by G. Cottam. The whole of the articles in this stand, except Nos. 12, 13, and 14, are manufactured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 29. — Mr. Wrn. Colbourne and Mr. James Ward, of Stratford-on-Avon. Articles, Nos. 1, a guillotine chaff engine; 2 (new implement), a Cam chaff engine; 3 (new implement), a guillotine Cam chaff engine ; all invented and manufac- tured by the exhibiters. Stand No 30. — Mr. Thomas Dickson, of Thores- way, near Caistor. Article No. 2 obtained the silver medal. Articles, Nos. I, an iron plough ; 2 (new implement), an iron horse-hoe ; both articles invented and manufac- tured by Benjamin Dawson, of Caistor. Stand No. 31. — Mr. David Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford. Article No. 1 was selected for trial, and No. 2 obtained a prize of 2 sovs. Articles No. 1, a plough for heavy land, manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a plough for light land, ma- nufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 3, a subsoil pul- verizer ; 4, a fparallel expanding horse hoe, or scarifier ; 5, a parallel expanding horse hoe ; 6 (new implement), a horse hoe ; the last four articles invented and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. No. 7, a churn, invented by Mr. George Brown, of Capesthorne, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 8, a cultivator or scarifier, in- vented by Finlayson, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 9, a pipe and drain tile-making ma- chine, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 32. — Samuel Harris, of Barker-street, Shrewsbury. Articles Nos. 1 (new implement), an iron plough ; invented by Mr. Ransom, of Ipswich ; 2, an iron plough ; invented by Mr. Ransom , of Ipswich ; both articles im- proved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 3, a ridge plough ; 4, a turnip drill ; 5, a set of iron harrows ; the three articles invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Stand No. 33. — Mr. Joseph Haywood, Little Leigh, near Northwich. Articles Nos. 1, a plough, adapted for either heavy or light land ; 2, a plough, adapted for either heavy or light land; both articles invented by the exhibiter. Stand No. 34. — Mr. George Kelby, of Queni- borough, near Leicester. Articles Nos. 1, 2, and 3, machines for cutting hay or straw into chaff; 4, a corn and turnip drill ; the above articles invented and manufactured by William West, of Leicester. 5, a turnip and manure drill, in- vented by Thomas West, of Higham, Hinckley, im- proved and manufactured by William West, of Lei- cester. Stand No. 35.— Mr. Thomas Teago, of Long- worth, near Abingdon. Article No. 1 (new implement), a drill for general purposes, invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Stand No. 36. — Mr. Humphrey Chamberlaine, of Bredicot, near Worcester. Article No. 1, a drain tile machine, invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Messrs. Hardy and Padmore, of Worcester. Stand No. 37. — Mr. Thomas Coombs, of Nether Wallop, near Andover. Article No. 1 (new implement), a drill for general purposes, invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Stand No. 38. — Mr. John Comes, of Barbridge, near Nantwich, Chester. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 10 sovs. Article No. 1 , a chaff-cutting machine, with three knives, to be worked by two men or machinery, im- proved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a chaff-cutting machine, with three knives, to be worked by machinery, manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a chaff cutter, with two knives, to be worked by two men, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, a chaff cutter, with two knives, to be worked by one man, manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 5, a churn, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 39. — Mr. Thomas John Croggon, of 2, Ingram-court, Fenchurch-street, London. Article No. 1, rolls of patent asphalte felt, invented and improved by Thomas Robinson Williams, of Lon- don, manufactured under the direction of the exhibiter by Pocock and Co., of Belfast. No. 2, a model of al- lotment farm, invented by Peter Thompson, of Lime- house, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3 (new implement), a movable sheep fold, invent- ed, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 40. — George Edward Frere, F.R.S., of 11, East Claremont-street, Edinburgh. Article No. 2 obtained a prize of 10 sovs. Article No. 1 (new implement), a Norwegian harrow or clod crusher ; invented by a Norwegian implement maker in Norway ; imported from Norway for his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch by Mr. Andrew Black, Smeaton, Dalkeith ; improved by the exhibiter and Richard Stratton, of Bristol, and manufactured by R. Stratton, of Bristol . No. 2 (new implement) , a Norwegian harrow or clod-crusher, combined with a field roller ; invented by an implement maker in Norway ; imported from Norway for his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch by Mr. Andrew Black, Smeaton, Dalkeith ; improved by the exhibiter and Richard Stratton, of Bristol, and manufactured by R. Stratton, of Bristol. Stand No. 41.— Mr. Thomas Hunter, of Ulceby, near Barrow-upon-Umber. Articles Nos. 1, a drill for general purposes, with ten coulters for corn and five for turnips; 2, a turnip drill, either for ridges or flat surface, with two or three coulters ; 3, a corn and turnip drill, with eight coul- ters for corn and four for turnips ; the above articles invented by Mr. Cartwright, of Fordington, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, a drill for drilling grass seeds, with twenty coulters, invented and manufactured by the the exhibiter. Stand No. 42. — Mr. William Newzam Nicholson, of Newark-upon-Trent, Notts. Articles No. 1, 2, and 3 (new implement*), machines for breaking oilcake for beasts, sheep, &c. (with regis- tered improvements), invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4 (new implement), a machine for i breaking oilcake for beasts, sheep, &c., an I small for M 2 162 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the purposes of tillage (with registered improvements), invented, improved, and manufactured by the ex- hibited No. 5 (improved implement), a machine for crashing beans, oats, barley, malt, &c. (with registered improvements), improved and manufactured by the exbibker. No. 6 (improved implement), a machine for grinding linseed, and may be used for malt, oats, and other small grain (with registered improvements), improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 7 (new implement), a registered copying press, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 43.— Mr. William Sanday, of Holme- Pierrepont, Nottingham. The following article obtained a prize of 10 sovs. Article No. 1, a winnowing machine, improved by Wm. Sanday, of Holme-Pierrepont, and manufactured by Samuel Wheatly, of Holme Lane. Stand No. 44. — Mr. John Teasdale, of Burneston, near Bedale. Article No. 1, a drill for ridge- work, invented, im- proved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 45. — The Earl of Dueie, Tortworth Court, near Wotton-under-Edge. Article No. 9 obtained a prize of 5 sovs ; No. 12, 10 sovs. ; No. 17, 2 sovs.; and No. 19, 10 sovs. Articles No. 1, an iron swing plough, improved and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. No. 2, a subsoil plough, invented by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, and manufactured by Rd. Clyburn, of Uley. Nos. 3 (new implement), a dynamometer, recording 160 stones; 4 (new implement,), a dynamometer, recording 64 stones: both articles invented and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley, near Dursley. No. 5, a subpul- verizer, invented by the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange, Hinckley, Leicestershire; improved by John Morton, of Whitfield Example Farm, and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. No. 6, a five- tine fixed horse-hoe, improved and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. Nos. 7, a parallel expan- ding horse-hoe, with five hoes and five tines; 8, a pa- rallel expanding horse-hoe, with three hoes and three tines : both articles invented by John Morton, of Whit- field Example Farm, aud manufactured by Richd. Cly- burn, of Uley. No. 9, a Richmond Cart, invented and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. No. 10, a single row turnip and manure drill, manufactured by R. Clyburn, of Uley. No. 11, a set of improved screw spanners or wrenches, invented and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. Nos. 12, a cultivator or scarifier with five tines, covering a space of 40 inches ; 13, a cultivator or scarifier with seven tines, covering a space of 5G inches ; 14, a wrought iron cultivator or scarifier with five tines, covering a space of 40 inches : the three articles invented by John Morton, of Whit- field Example Farm, improved and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. Nos. 15 and 16, patent chaff cutters with two spiral knives; invented by the Earl of Ducie, R. Clyburn, and E. Budding, of Tort- worth, Uley, and Dursley, and manufactured by Rich- ard Clyburn, of Uley. No. 17, a patent corn crusher; invented by George Parsons and Richard Clyburn, of West Lambrook and Uley, and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. No. 18 (new implement), an improved cart axle, with cast iron naves, improved and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. Nos. 19 (new implement), a patent thrashing machine ; 20 (new implement), a patent winnowing machine ; both articles invented by George Parsons and Richard Cly- burn, of West Lambrook and Uley, and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. No. 21, a four-rowed dibbling machine, invented and improved by Saunder and Newberry, of Hook Norton and Bloxham, and manufactured by Richard Clyburn, of Uley. Stand No. 46. — Mr. Richard Hornsby of Spit- tlegate, Grantham. Articles Nos. 2, 4, and 6, were selected for trial ; No. 8 ob- tained a prize of 10 sovs.; and No. 10, 3 sovs. Articles, Nos. 1, a one-row ridge drill; 2, a two- row ridge drill ; 3, a one-row drop ridge drill ; 4, a six-row turnip drill for flat work ; 5, a ten coulter corn and seed drill; 6, a ten-coulter drill, for corn and general purposes; 7, an improved winnowing machine, registered June 14, 1844; 8, a two-row drill presser : all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 9, Read's patent subsoil pulverizer, invented and improved by John Read, of Regent circus, London ; manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 10, a double cake breaker ; 11, a single cake breaker ; both articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No 47. — Mr. Edward Hill, of Brierley Hill Iron Works, Dudley. Article No. 18 obtained a prize of 2 sovs.; No. 22 a prize of 10 sovs. ; and a sdver medal was awarded for the general exhibition of gates, hurdles, cribs, &c. Articles, Nos. 1, a wrought iron two-wheel pul- verizing plough, invented by William Mason, late of Warwickshire, of Brierley hill iron works ; 2, a wrought iron two-wheel pulverizing plough, invented by William Mason, late of Warwickshire, of Brierley hill iron works ; both articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 3, an iron G. O. or swing plough ; 4, an iron two-wheel plough ; 5, an iron double furrow plough ; 6, a wrough iron paring or skim plough ; the last four articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 7 and 8, iron skims, invented by Mr. J. Allen Stokes, of Harvington, near Evesham ; im- proved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 9 (new implement), an iron skim, invented by Mr. Charles Grazebrook, of Summerhill,near Stourbrige; manufac- tured by the exhibiter. Nos. 10 and 11, iron scarifiers ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 12, an expanding horse hoe, manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 13, an expanding horse hoe, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 14, an iron pul- verizing plough, invented by Mr. J. Wilson, of Aston; 15 (new implement), an iron subsoil plough; both articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 16, a set of iron harrows; 17, an iron barley roller; 18 (new implement), an iron granary or store room crane and winch ; 19, an iron sheep rack ; 20, an iron corn crib ; 21, an iron sheep feeder ; the last six articles invented and manufactured by the exhibitor. No. 22 (new implement), a wrought iron sheep fold, invented by Mr. W. A. Munn, of Throwley House, Feversham, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 23, an iron wheelbarrow for stable or garden purposes ; 24, an iron tree guard ; both articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 25, an iron tree guard, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 2(5, an iron tree guard ; 27, a wrought iron farmer's field gate and post ; 28, a wrought iron field gate; the last three articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 29, a length of strained wire fencing, improved and manufactured by tke exhibiter. Nos. 30, 31 and 32, sheep folding hur- dles, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 33, 34 and 35, sheep hurdles, invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter. Nos. 36, 37 and 38, iron cattle hurdles, invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Nos. 39, 40 and 41, iron ox hurdles, in- vented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos, 42, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 163 43 and 44, lengths of a new description of running sheep fence, invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. Nos. 45, 40 and 47, lengths of a new descrip- tion of running cattle fence, invented and manufactured by the exhibited. Nos. 48, 49 and 50, lengths of a new description of running ox fence, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 51, 52 and 53, lengths of a new description of running deer fence, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 54, 55 and 56, rabbit-proof iron hurdles, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 48. — Messrs. Robert Wedlake and Charles Thompson, of Hornchurch, near Rom- ford. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 3 sovs. Articles No. 1, a hay-making or tedding machine, invented by Robert Wedlake, of Horncurch, im- proved by Henry Hankinson, of Hornchurch, and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 2, a thirteen- hoed iron-frame scarifier ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 3 (new implement), an oil- cake breaker ; invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiters. No. 4, a turnip and manure drill presser ; 5, a broad-cast seed machiue, 8 ft. 6 in. long; 6, a chaff cutter, to be driven by horse or steam power ; the last three articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 7, a chaff cutter, or cane-top cutter ; 8, a chaff cutter ; 9, a scarifier, with three hoes ; 10 (new implement), a double-jointed iron-frame roller, invented by Robert Wedlake, of Hornchurch. No. 11, a barley hummeller ; 12, an iron turnip cutter; the last six articles manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 13, a subsoil plough; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 14, an earthing-up potato or mould plough ; 15, a foot plough ; both articles manu- factured by the exhibiters. No. 16, a light two-wheel plough; 17, a winnowing machine, with double mo- tion, for corn and small seeds; both articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 49. — Messrs. Mapplebeck and Lowe, of Bull Ring, and Smithfield, Birmingham. Article No. 60 was selected for trial. Article No. 1 (new implement), a Fairbank's patent ten hundred-weight weighing machine ; improved and manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birming- ham. No. 2, a ten hundred-weight weighing machine ; invented and manufactured by W. andT. Avery, of Birm- ingham. No. 3, a Fairbank's patent twelve hundred- weight weighing machine; improved and manufac- tured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 4, a five hundred-weight weighing machine ; improved and manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 5, a four hundred-weight weighing machine ; im- proved and ^manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 6. a four hundred-weight weighing- machine ; invented, improved, and manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 7, a three hundred-weight weighing machine; 8, a four hundred- weight weighing machine; 9,10,11, three-hundred-" weight weighing machines; improved and manufac- tured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 12, a steel-yard, with frame for weighing sacks ; manu- factured by W. and T. Avery, of Birmingham. No. 13 (new implement), a Fairbank's patent weighing machine, with apparatus for measuring the height of persons ; 14, a sugar mill ; both articles improved and manufactured by W. and T. Avery, of Birming- ham. No. 15, a portable kibbling mill, on a cast- iron frame; 16, a portable kibbling mill, on a wood frame; 17, a portable bean-splitting mill, on a cast- iron frame ; 18, a portable bean mill, on a wood frame ; 19, a malt mill, with wheel and iron hopper ; 20, a knibbling mill, with wheel and iron hopper ; 21, a bean-splitting mill, with wheel and iron hopper ; 22, a bean-splitting mill to work by power; 23, a kibbling mill to work by power; the lust nine articles improved and manufactured by W. II. Reynolds, of Birmingham. No. 24, an iron field roller; 25, an iron field roller; 26, a land presser, with an improved iron frame ; the last three articles improved and ma- nufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, Coal- brookdale. No. 27, an iron cattle crib, invented and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, Coal- brookdale. No. 28, a Herefordshire cultivator, im- proved and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Com- pany, Coalbrookdale. No. 29, an iron sheep cratch on wheels; 30, a two-horse power; both articles in- vented and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Com- pany, Coalbrookdale. No. 31, a scutch rake, im- proved and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Com- pany, Coabrookdale. No. 32 (new implement), a cheese press; invented and manufactured by the Coal- brookdale Company, Coalbrookdale. No. 33, a large iron wheelbarrow ; 34, a large iron wheelbarrow for manure ; both articles improved and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Coalbrookdale. No. 35, an iron sack barrow; invented and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Coalbrookdale. No. 36, a cattle trough; 37, a circular pig trough, with eight divisions ; 38, an iron pig trough ; 39, a set of iron stall posts and rails ; 40, a centre manger, three feet long; 41, a centre hay-rack, three feet long; the last six articles manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Coalbrookdale. No. 42, a cast-iron ma- nure pump ; 43, a garden pump on frame ; both arti- cles invented and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Coalbrookdale. No. 44, a garden rol- ler; 45, a wrought-iron field gate; both articles ma- nufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, Coal- brookdale. No. 46, a set of eight improved iron rick stands ; invented and manufactured by the Coalbrook- dale Company, of Coalbrookdale. No. 47, a wrought- iron stable bucket; 48, a two-knife chaff engine, invented by Passmore; both articles manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, Coalbrookdale. No. 49, a guillotine chaff engine, invented by Ward and Col- bourne, of Stratford, and manufactured by the ex- hibiters. Nos. 50 and 51, improved two-knife chaff engines, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 52 and 53, patent chaff engines, invented by Charles May, of Ipswich, and manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 54 (new implement), a registered hand-seed dib- bler ; invented and manufactured by Joseph Brook- house, of Smethwick. No. 55, a Budding's patent mow- ing machine, for cutting lawns, grass plots, &c. ; in- vented by E. Budding, of Dursley, and manufactured by John Ferrabee, of Stroud. No. 56, a patent hand ma- chine for scraping roads ; manufactured by Bourne and Harris, of Ilchester. No. 57, a turnip and manure drill ; 58, a patching turnip drill, both articles invented and manufactured by White, LeithandCo., of Worksop. No. 59, a wrought-iron double ridge plough ; improved and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Coalbrookdale. No. 60, a new patent plough, or im- proved Rutland ; 61, a new patent plough ; both articles invented and manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 62, a new patent plough ; invented by J. R; and A. Ransome, of Ipswich ; improved by B. Millington, of Agarsby ; and manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. Nos. 63 and 64, new patent ploughs ; in- vented and manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 65, a new patent plough ; invented by John Clarke, of Long Sutton ; improved and manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of 164 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ipswich. No. 66, a new patent plough; invented by Sir Edward Straeey, of Rackheath ; improved and ma- nufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 67, a set of patent iron trussed whipple-trees ; invented and manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 68, a patent scarifier; invented and improved by Arthur Riddell, of Playford ; manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 69 (new implement), a pair of registered garden shears ; invented and manu- factured by the Brades Company of Birmingham. No. 70, a wrought-iron garden seat for three persons ; in- vented and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Com- pany of Coalbrookdale. No. 71, a garden engine ; im- proved and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 72, a screw waggon Jack ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 73, a pair of 2^-inch cart arms ; manufactured by J. T. and C. W. Hill, of Birmingham. No. 74, a pair of cart springs; manufactured by the ex- hibiters. No. 75, a warranted black staple vice ; ma- nufactured by J. T. and C. W. Hill, of Birmingham. No. 76, a warranted anvil ; manufactured by J. T. and C. W. Hill, of Birmingham. No. 77, a harness-room stove ; invented and manufactured by the Coalbrookdale Company, of Coalbrookdale. Nos. 78, and 79, sets of names ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 80, a cattle gauge ; invented by Chesterman, of Sheffield, and manufactured by J. P. Cutts, Sheffield. No. 81, a seed dibble; invented and manufactured by Richard Smith, Upper Hall, Droitwich. Nos. 82, and 83, rustic garden chairs, with arms ; manufactured by Jeffs, of Derby. No. 84, a garden stool ; manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 85, a stand of models. No. 86, boxes, baskets, &c, containing parts of machinery, tools, shares, boards, &c, &c, Stand No. 50.— Mr. William Henry Vingo, of Penzance. The following article obtained a prize of 10 sovs. Article No. 1, a patent seed-depositing or planting machine ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 51.— Mr. John Howard, of Bedford. Article No. 1 was selected for trial. Articles Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, patent iron ploughs, with two wheels; 7, a patent iron swing plough; 8, and 9, patent ploughs with two wheels ; 10, a patent plough with a sliding foot ; the whole of these ploughs invented and manufactured by Howard and Co., of Bed- ford. No. 11, a set of patent four-beam iron harrows, invented by W. Armstrong and exhibiter ; and manu- factured by Howard and Co., of Bedford. Nos. 12, 13, and 14, sets of patent four-beam iron harrows, invented and manufactured by Howard and Co., of Bedford. No. 15, a set of patent iron harrows; 16, a set of patent two-beam iron harrows; 17, a pair of patent drag harrows; 18, a set of patent iron harrows; 19, a cultivator or scarifier ; the last five articles invented and manufactured by Howard and Co., of Bedford. Stand No. 52.— Mr. Andrew Gower, of Market Drayton. Articles No. 1, a corn and seed drilling machine ; in- vented by the late Mr. Smyth, of Peasenhall, Suffolk ; improved by Mr. A. W. Gower, of Hook, near Hart- ford-bridge, Hants, and manufactured by the exhi- bitor. No. 2, a turnip and manure drilling machine, for ridge work; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 53.— Mr. Wm. C. Cambridge, of Market Lavington, near Devizes, Wilts. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a four-horse port- able steam engine, complete with shafts and wheels for travelling ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2 (new implement), a double- action chaff-cutter, with a single knife (patent) ; in- vented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a thrashing machine (patent) ; 4, a patent 5ft. Gin. single-shaft press-wheel roller or clod-crusher ; 5, a patent eight-feet double-shaft press-wheel roller or clod-crusher; these three articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. G, a patent four-horse pertable thrashing machine ; 7 (new im- plement), a patent hand-lever thrashing machine, mounted on wheels and shafts complete for travelling ; 8 (new implement), a patent hand-lever thrashing machine ; 9 (new implement), a two-horse fixed or portable thrashing machine ("patent) ; 10 (new imple- ment), a hand-lever or twe horse thrashing machine ; the last five articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 54. — Mr. J. Bailey Denton, of Gray's Inn, London. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a drain pipe and tile machine; invented and patented by John Henry Charnock, of Wakefield, and the exhibiter, and manu- factured by Messrs. Bradley and Co., of Wakefield. No. 2, same as art. No. 1, converted into a turnip cutter, invented by John Henry Charnock, of Wake- field, and the exhibiter, and manufactured by Messrs. Bradley and Co., of Wakefield. No. 3, a draining workman's level ; invented by the exhibiter, and made by Messrs. Jones, opticians, ef Holborn. Stand No. 55. — Mr. John Elliott (Architect), of Chichester. Articles No. 1, a chaff-cutter, worked by one or two men; 2 (new implement), a reaping or mowing ma- chine, worked by a horse or two men ; both articles invented by the exhibiter. Stand No. 56. — Mr. Arthur Evans, of the Phea- sant Farm, near Welshpool. Article No. 1 (new implement), a two-horse plough, with or without wheels, adapted for heavy land ; in- vented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by George Dudley, of Pool Quay. Stand 57. — Edward Holland, of Dumbleton, Evesham. Article No. 1 (new implement), a single-horse cart for a hill farm ; invented and manufactured by Robert Staunton, of Dumbleton, near Evesham. Stand No. 58. — Mr. John Cartwright, of Shrews- bury. Article No. 1 (new implement), an improved lever corn-drill with twelve spouts; improved and manu- factured by the exhibiter. No. 2 (new implement), a clod crusher roller ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a four-horse power fixture thrashing machine; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, a three-horse power portable thrashing machine; manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 5, a two-horse power motion, with kibbling mill, straw cutter, and oat crusher; 6, a winnowing machine ; both articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 7 and 8, straw cutters ; manu- factured by the exhibiter. Nos. 9, a clover seed drill ; 10, a crushing mill for oats, barley, &c. ; both articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 11, 12, and 13, cast-iron land rollers, with frame* complete; manufactured by the exhibiter. Nos. 14, a lever cheese press ; 15, a sugar mill ; 1G, a cider mill ; 17, 18 and 19, turnip slieers ; 20 and 21, hand kib- bling mills ; 22 and 23, hand bean mills; 24 and 25, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 165 single iron ploughs; 20, a single wood plough ; 27, a double iron plough ; 28, an iron ridge plough ; 29, a turnip and manure drill; 30, a gorse crusher; 31, a straw cutter; all manufactured by the exhibiler. Stand No. 59 — Mr. Alexander Dean, of Bir- mingham. Articles Nos. 1 and 12 obtained prizes of 10 sovs. each. Articles No. 1, a portable steam engine of four-horse power, on wheels, with shafts, &c, complete for travel- ling ; 2, a steam engine of six-horse-power, stationary ; both articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a horse engine, or horse work, for one or two horses ; 4, a thrashing machine, adapted to the power of six horses, and to steam engines of about four-horse power ; both articles improved and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. No. 5, a new bolting thrashing machine (registered by act of Parliament) of four horse power ; 6, a newly-invented thrashing machine of two- horse power ; both articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 7, a chaff cutter upon strong iron frame, suitable for one or two men, or for steam or horse power. No. 8, a chaff cutter upon strong iron frame, to be worked by hand ; 9, a machine for crushing and breaking oilcake ; both articles improved and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. No. 10, a very powerful ma- chine for crushing barley, linseed, oats, beans, &c, and for rolling malt ; invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 11, a corn crusher for crushing oats, beans, malt, &c. ; 12, a machine for crushing linseed, rape, and other seeds of an oily nature; 13, a hand flour mill, with french burr-stones, and patent dressing machine attached ; the last three articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 14, a portable corn mill, with french burr and grey-stones; 15, a portable circular-saw bench; 16, a patent liquid manure cart; 17, a patent fire engine ; the last four articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand, No. GO. — Mr. Richard Garrett, of Leiston Works, near Saxmundham. Article No. 5 was selected for trial. Articles No. 1, a stand of models; manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, Leiston Works. No. 2, a drill for general purposes ; 3, a twelve-row lever drill, for all purposes of seed and corn ; both articles improved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, Leiston Works. No. 4, a drill for turnips, mangold-wurtzel, and other seeds with manure ; in- vented and improved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works. No. 5, a two-row lever ridge drill, for turnips, &c, and ma- nure ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, Leiston Works. No. 6, an eleven-row lever drill for all purposes of corn ; im- proven by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, Leiston Worts. No. 7, a patent horse hoe; 8, a four-horse-power thrashing machine; both articles invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, Leiston Works. No. 9, a bolting thrashing machine ; improved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leis- ton Works. No. 10, a patent sub -pulverizer plough; invented by John Reid, of London, and manufactured, by license, by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works. No. 11, a patent chaff-cutter; 12, a patent hand chaff cutter ; both articles invented by the exhibi- ter, and manufactured by Richard Garret and Son, of Leiston Works. No. 13, a chaff-cutting engine; 14, and 15, rape and linseed-cake crushers; 15, a linseed- cake crusher ; 17, a bean, pea, malt, and barley crusher, for horse power; 18, a bean, pea, malt, and barley crusher, for hand labour; 19, a patent lever drag rake ; the last seven articles improved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston works. No. 20 (new implement), a tile-making machine (patent) ; invented by Richard Weller, of Caple, near Dorking, and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works. No. 21, a corn-dressing ma- chine; 22, a barley aveler or hummelling machine; both articles improved and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works. No. 23, a patent rought-iron corn-rick stand, sixteen yards in circumfe- rence; invented by J. Springhalt, of Ipswich, and ma- nufactured by Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works. No. 24, a patent clod crusher ; improved by the exhibi- ter ; and manufactured by Richard Garrett and Son , Leiston Works. Stand No. 61. — Mr. Joseph Cook Grant, of Stamford. Articles Nos. 1, a Grant's patent lever horse rake, for hay, corn, stubble, couch, or twitch, &c, &c. ; 2, a Grant's patent lever pony rake; 3, a Grant's patent lever pony or hand rake; 4, a Grant's patent lever hand rake; all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 5, a Grant's improved hay- making machine ; G, a Grant's patent steerage lever horse hoe; both articles improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 7, a pair of Grant's patent self- cleansing lever harrows; 8, a Grant's new improved " G S" iron plough; 9, a Grant's improved Lincolnshire wood plough ; 10, a Grant's new improved paring plough; 11, a Grant's seed and garden drill; the last five articles invented and manufactured by the ex- hibiter. No. 12, a Grant's seed and manure drill; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 13, a Grant's improved turnip and manure drill; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 14, an improved horse hoe, with moulding plough ; 15, an improved chaff machine; 16, a stand of models; the last three articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 62. — Mr. Henry Lowcock, of Wes- terland, Marldon, Paington. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Articles No. 1, a patent one-way plough, with Ran- some's patent trussed iron heams ; invented by the exhibiter, and improved by him, in the details of form of mould-boards and head-draught ; and manufac- tured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. No. 2, a patent one-way plough, with beam of wood, plated with Iron ; invented by the exhibiter, and improved by him, in the details of mould-board and head- draught; and manufactured by Robert Adams, of Marldon, Devon. Stand No. 63.— Mr. William H. Roberts, of 10, Above-Bar, Southampton. Article No. 1 (new implement), an economical ma- chine for making drain-tiles, pipes, &c. ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 64. — Mr. Charles Montague, of Glou- cester. Articles No. 1, an improved horse power, for work- ing agricultural machines ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by William Montague, of Gloucester. No. 2, an improved chaff cutter, with 14-inch mouth- piece ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by William Montague, of Gloucester (registered April 14th, 1845). Nos. 3 and 4, improved chaff cutters, with 11-inch mouth-pieces; invented and improved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by William Mon- tague, of Gloucester (registered April 14th, 1845). No. 5, an improved chaff cutter, with 9-inch mouth-piece; invented and improved by the exhibiter, andmanufac- 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tured by William Montague, of Gloucester (registered April 14th, 1845). Stand No. 65. — Mr. William Morton, of Don- nington, near Newport. Articles Nos. 1 (new implement), a Scotch cart ; 2 (new implement), a harvest cart ; 3 (new implement), a two-wheel swing plough ; 4 (new implement), a double furrow plough ; all improved and manufactured by the exhibitor. No. 5 (new implement), a potato or couch plough ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 66. — Mr. Zachariah Parkes, of Bir- mingham. Articles Nos. 1 and 2, mills invented and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a bean mill, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, a patent domestic hand flour mill, invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter (patentee). Stand No. 67. — Mr. James Richmond, of Salford, Manchester. Articles Nos. 3 and 15 obtained prizes of 5 soys. each. ; ami No. 14 obtained the silver medal. Articles Nos. 1, an improved steaming apparatus for roots, &c. ; 2, an improved steaming apparatus for roots, &c. ; 3 (new implement), an improved portable steaming apparatus for roots, &c, invented, improved, and ma- nufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, a chaff engine, in- vented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 5, an improved chaff engine ; G, a registered chaff machine; 7, a registered chaff machine; 8, an im- proved mill for kibbling beans, oats, &c. ; 9, an im- proved mill for kibbling beans, oats, &c. ; 10, an im- proved mill for bruising linseed ; 11, an improved mill for bruising linseed ; 12, an improved mill for kibbling oats, beans, &c. ; 13, an improved mill for bruising oats, malt, &c. ; 14, an improved machine for washing vegetables; 15, an improved churn ; 16, an improved double churn ; 17, a machine for slicing turnips ; all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 18 (new implement), a patent manure and seed plough ; invented by George Browne, of Capesthorne, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 68. — Messrs. Charles Phillips and Co., of Bristol. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Article No. 1, a turnip-cutting machine, invented by Charles Phillips, of Bristol ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. Nos. 2 (new implements), a turnip- cutting machine, invented by Charles Phillips, of Bristol ; 3 (new implement), a turnip-cutting machine, invented by Charles Phillips, of Bristol ; both articles manufac- tured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 69. — Messrs. Sanders, Williams, and Taylor, of Bedford. Article No. 1 was selected for trial, and No. 4 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Articles No. 1, a patent wrought iron plough, with two wheels and improved patent coulter ; 2, a patent wrought iron plough, with two wheels and patent coulter ; both articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiters. No. 3, a set of patent diagonal iron harrows ; 4, a set of strong iron harrows, as above, for three horses ; 5, a set of light seed harrows, as above, for one horse ; 6, a patent horse ruge ; 7 (new implement), a new two-knife chaff machine ; the last five articles invented by Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End, Bedford, and manufactured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 70. — Mr. Thomas Scragg, of Calve- ley, near Tarporley, Chester. The following article was selected for trial. Article No. 1 (new implement), a machine for mak- ing draining tiles and pipes for agricultural purposes ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by James Hewett, of Calveley. Stand No. 71. — Messrs. H. Smith & Co., of Stamford. Articles No. 1 (new implement), a patent chaff engine ; 2 (new implement), a patent chaff engine ; 3 (new im- plement), a patent chaff engine; 4 (new implement), a patent balance lever horse rake ; 5 (new implement), a patent lever wheel hand rake ; all invented and manu- factured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 72. — Mr. Richard Smith, of Upper Hall, Hampton Lovett, Droitwich. Article No. 1 (new implement), a drain tile and brick machine, the artillery tile engine ; invented and manu- factured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 73. — Mr. James Smyth, of Peasenhall, near Yoxford, Suffolk. Article No. 1 was selected for trial. Articles No. 1, a patent ridge or broad work, turnip or mangel wurzel, seed, and manure drill ; 2, a patent nine coulter corn drill ; 3, a patent ten coulter lever corn drill ; all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4, a patent twelve coulter corn, seed, and manure drill, for general purposes ; invented by the exhibiter, and improved and manufactured by James Smyth, jun., of Peasenhall, in Suffolk. No. 5, a patent thirteen coulter lever corn drill ; 6, a patent fourteen coulter lever corn drill ; 7, a patent fourteen coulter lever corn and seed drill; 8, a patent fifteen coulter lever corn drill ; 9, a patent two-rowed drop drill ; 10, a clover or rye-grass seed barrow ; the last six articles invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 74. — Mr. James Spencer, of Hopton, near Worksworth. Article No. 1 obtained a prize of 5 sovs. Articles No. 1, a large chaff cutter, for one or two men, and for horse or engine power ; 2, a smaller sized chaff cutter; 3, an oat and bean crusher; all im- proved and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 75- — Mr. John Twist, of Bridgetown, near Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire. Articles No. 1, a registered skim or paring plough ; 2 (new implement l, a scarifier ; 3, an iron plough ; all invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 76. — Mr. William Wood, of Knuts- ford, Cheshire. Article No. 1 was selected for trial. Articles No. 1, 2, and 3, wrought iron 9wing ploughs ; all invented and manufactured by the exhi- biter. No. 4, a pair of harrows ; 5, a pig trough ; 6, a double or drill plough, for ridges ; 7, a parallel horse hoe ; 8, a horse hoe ; the last five articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 9, a horse hoe ; invented by Thomas Wood, of Knutst'ord, and manu- factured by the exhibiter. No. 10, an apparatus for churning; 11, a churn; 12 (new implement), a wrought iron cultivator or scarifier ; 13, a wrought iron cultivator or scarifier; 14, a pair of round har- rows ; 15, a subsoil plough ; 16, a lever cheese press ; 17 (new implement), a milk gauge; the last eight articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 77- — Mr. Joseph Wragg, of Derby. Article No. 1 (new implement), a plough ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by George Ford, of Derby. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 167 Stand No, 78. — John Wright, of Chipping Ongar, Essex, Article No. 1, a stack preserver ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No 2, a fruit gatherer ; invented and manufactured by Thomas Dray, of 86, Chiswell-street. No. 3, a chaff cut- ter ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 4 (new implement), an apparatus for steam- ing roots for cattle ; invented by David wright, of Chipping Ongar, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 5, an apparatus for steaming roots for cattle ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 6 (new implement), a sheep folding hurdle ; invented by David Wright, of Chip- ping Ongar, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 7, a small iron garden and lawn seat; invented and manufactured by J. Kenrick and Sons, of West Brom- wich. No 8, an improved patent mangle; invented by Mr. Joy, of Norwich, and manufactured by Andrew Smith, of Derby. No. 9, a self-acting machine for roasting coffee ; invented and manufactured by George Orpwood, of 82, Bishopsgate-street. Stand No. 79. — Mr. Wm. Ford, of Fulham, near London. Article No. 1 (new implement), a machine for making tiles of any form, pipe, and pipe tiles, with mould for making socket pipes ; invented by the ex- hibiter, and manufactured by Messrs. Simpson and Co. , engineers, of Belgrave-road, Pimlico, London. Stand No. 80. — Mr. H. G. James, of 44, Fish- street Hill, London. Article No. 2 obtained a prize of 10 sovs. Article No. 1 (new implement), a machine for weighing loaded carts, live cattle, and farm produce generally ; invented and manufactured by the exhibi- ter. No. 2, a machine for weighing live cattle and farm produce generally ; invented by Monsieur George, of Paris, and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a machine for weighing sacks, invented and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. No. 4 (new implement), a patent apparatus for preserving fruits without the aid of sugar, or any other ingredient ; invented and manu- factured by J. Cooper, of London. No. 5 (new imple- ment), a safety stable lantern ; invented and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. No. 6, specimens of James's artificial and chemical guano manures ; manufactured by James and Co., 44, Fish-street Hill, London. Stand No. 81. — John Read, of 35, Regent's Cirens, Piccadilly, London. Article No. 3, obtained a prize of 10 sovs.; and No. 6 a prize of 5 sovs. Article No. 1, a new patent turnwrcst plough; 2, a patent subsoil pulverizer, with wood beam and han- dles : both articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a subsoil pulverizer, with iron beam and handles; invented by the exhibiter ; improved by Benjamin Stratton, of Bristol, and manufactured by Richard Stratton of Bristol. No. 4, a new patent scarifier, on wheels, nine tines ; 5, a new patent scari- fier on wheels, five tines, mole, and broad share ; 6, a new patent double action fire engine ; 7, a patent single action fire and garden engine ; 8, sundry small implements for the relief of cattle : the last five arti- cles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 9, a Read's patent subpulverizer; 10, a Read's patent subpulverizer, fitted with surface pulverizing tines: both articles invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured under licence by Richard Stratton, of Bristol. Stand No. 82, — Mr. George Cornes, Wheelwright, of Weltenhall, parish of Overton, Winsford. Article No. 1 (new implement), a drain plough, to prepare the draius for tiles, at one lift, one or two feet deep ; invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 83. — Messrs. William Stace and Phi- lip Vallance, of Berwick, near Lewes. Article No. 1 (new implement), an apparatus for drawing and working ploughs and other agricultural implements by wind ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiters. I Stand No. 84. — Thomas Gibbs and Co., the Seedsmen, by Appointment, to the " Royal Agricultural Society of England; and to the Honourable Board of Agriculture of England and Sweden, corner of Half-Moon street, Picca- dilly, London. Grass Seeds. — Agrostis stolonifera, agrostis capil- laris. agrostis alba, agrostis spica venti, aira canescens, aira ccespitosa lutescens, aira flexuosa, alopecurus agrestis, alopecurus nigricans, alopecurus geniculatus, alopecurus prateusis, arundo arenaria, anthoxanthum odoratum, bromus pratensis, bromus arvensis, bromus mollis, bromus distachyos, bromus pennatus, bromus rubens, briza media, cynosurus cristatus, dactylis glo- merata, festuca fluitans, festuca tenuifolia, festuca ovina,*festuca hcterophylla, festuca elatior, festuca syl- vatica, festuca rubra, festuca loliacea, holcus avenaceus, lolium multiflorum, lolium multiflorum submutica, lolium Bretagne, lolium arvense, lolium tcmulentum, lolium perenne var, lolium Italicum, mellium effusum, melica ciliala, melica altissima, molina ccerulea, pani- cum Germanicum, panicum meliaceum rubrum, pani- cum Kalicum, panicum meliaceum giauce, panicum meliaceum album, panicum meliaceum nigrum, poa aquatica, poa distans, poa compressa, poa flexuosa, pua annua, poa nemoralis, poa nervata, poa fertilis, poa pratensis, poa trivialis, madia sativa, bunias orien- talis,Jotus corniculatus major, lotus corniculatus minor, ervuin monanthos, rrelelotus officinalis, specimens of the plant and seed of the tussac grass from the Faulk- land Islands. Turnips. — Gibbs's fine purple-top Swedish turnip, combining small top and beauty of form ; Gibbs's fine green-top Swedish turnip; Gibbs's large green-top yellow hybrid turnip, a useful turnip to sow after Swedes; Gibbs's large red-top yellow hybrid turnip, do. do. ; green globe turnip; white globe do.; red do. do.; green tankard turnip; white do.; red do. ; early stubble do. Mangold Wurzels.— Long red mangold wurzels, producing heavy crops ; yellow globe do., highly ap- proved for shallow ends; red globe do. do. do.; long yellow do. Carrots. — Large white Flemish carrot, producing extraordinary crops ; large Belgium do. ; Altringham carrot; early horn carrot; long orange carrot. Wheats. — Flander's wheat, Hunter's wheat, Belle- Vue Talavera wheat, white Hungarian wheat, Hick- ling's wheat, Tonselle wheat, Fellemburgh wheat, Pic- ton wheat, Paris winter wheat, Cressy wheat, common March wheat, Saumur wheat, Chili wheat, Tunstall wheat, Odessa wheat, Indian wheat, Chinese wheat, Naples white Richell wheat, Whittington wheat, Grant's wheat, Massalarge wheat, Marianople wheat, 168 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. red March wheat, golden drop wheat, early striped chaff wheat, Lammas wheat, red Mancha wheat, blood- red wheat, red Provence Tonselle wheat, red Caucasian wheat, Sicilian wheat, Cretan wheat. Miscellaneous. — Sainfoin, red clover, white clo- ver, trefoil, chicory, burnet, sparry, rib grass, astra- galus boeticus ; trifolium hybridum, oralsike; trifolinm medium, trifolium repens, medicago sativa, achellea mellifolium, trifblum filliformis, Gibbs's large drum- head cattle cabbage, large green kohl rabi, large pur- ple kohl rabi, rape or cole-seed ; a collection of field and kitchen peas and beans; a general assortment of of agricultural seeds; dried specimens of grass, clover, wheat, oats, barley, rye, beans, peas, &c, &c. Stand No. 85. — Thomas Taylor, of Banbury. Articles Nos. 1, a patent inflated saddle ; 2, a patent saddle, with moveable pannel ; both articles invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a registered bit for riding and driving bridles ; invented by the ex- hibiter. Stand No. 86. — Mr. George Bruce, Liverpool. Articles Nos. 1, a specimen of black japan varnish ; 2, a specimen of blue varnish ; 3, a specimen of red var- nish; 4, a specimen of green varnish; all invented by the exhibiter. Stand No. 87. — Mr. Freeman Roe, of 70, Strand, London. Articles Nos. 1, an improved hydraulic ram, for rais- ing water without labour, invented by Mongolfier, of France; 2, a new pump, invented by Harrison and Manning, of Ashford ; both articles improved aud ma- nufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a glass pipe ; in- vented by the exhibiter. No. 4, an hydraulic cylinder for purifying water ; invented and manufactured by Mr. Truman, of Brompton. No. 5, a liquid manure pump ; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. Stand No. 8S. — Messrs. Edward and John Davis, of Shrewsbury and Derby. Articles, Nos. 1, a water level for agricultural pur- poses ; 2, a spirit level for agricultural purposes ; both articles improved and manufactured by the exhibiters. Stand No. 89.' — George Gibbs, and Co., Seeds- men, &c, to the Agricultural Society of Belgium, &c, 26, Down-street, Piccadilly, near Hyde Park Corner. Alsike hybrid clover ; a valuable variety both for hay and feeding. It is a lasting plant, and is found sponta- neous in the meadows and grass lands of Sweden. South American clover, dwarf perennial red clover of the mea- dows, Flemish white clover, English white clover, trifo- lium minus, trifolium incarnatum. Samples of the most approved permanent grass seeds. A collection of dried specimens of British and other grasses, specifying the sorts adapted to various soils, &c. Samples of the mix- tures of grass seeds, as they are prepared for various soils, &c. Tussac grass seed ; the plant is a native of the Falkland Islands. Italian rye grass, evergreen pe- rennial rye grass, spurry (used in Flanders for autumn feeding on stubble), chicory, burnett (very useful in mix- tures for sheep feeding on thin surface soils), sainfoin, lucerne, sheep's parsley, white mustard, camelina sativa (oil plant), furze or gorse (French and English), broom, Ashcroft's large Swedish turnip (an excellent and nu- tritive variety ; it is a heavy cropper, and stores well ; it will bear sowing later than most other Swedes), Skirv- ing's Swede, Laing's new Swede, Matson's purple -top Swede, Pain's hardy green crown Swede turnip seed, true purple-top seed, G. Gibbs's green crown hybrid yellow turnip, G. Gibbs's purple crown ditto, Dale's hybrid ditto, Scotch yellow bullock ditto, yellow Tankard or Tankard Swede turnip, Tankard turnips (white, red, and green), globe or improved common turnips (white, red, and green), early stone or stubble turnip, Kohl Rabi or Hungarian purple turnip (all stock relish this root ; it is feeding and is very hardy ; it may be sown in March, and transplanted like a cabbage plant ; or it may be sown in drills the end of April or beginning of May, and treated like Swedes), dwarf rape or cole seed, thousand- head cabbage (should be sown in March ; it is very use- ful for ewes and lambs in severe winters), large white Belgium carrot, pale yellow ditto, large Altringham ditto, long Surrey or orange ditto, large Jersey parsnip, long red mangold wurzel, orange, yellow, and red globe ditto, long white or sugar beet ditto. Wheats. — Le Couteur's Belle Vue Talavera, Rus- sell white (an excellent variety), chidum white, Eley's gigantic, chevalier white, Australian white (a very neat and heavy grain), Mr. Fisher Hobb's red marygold, red cluster, red burwell. A collection of wheats in ear and straw. Barley. — Potter's prolific, Providence, Annat, Leg- horn, Moldavian, skinless, winter, &c. Oats. — Scotch potato, Hopetoun, Tartarian, winter. Stand No. 90. — Mr. Edward J. Lance, of Frim- ley, near Bagshot. Articles No. 1, a hand-seed machine for one row of turnips or small seed; invented by Mr. J. Bennet, of Farnham ; improved and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 2, a hand-seed drilling machine, for using pulve- rized humus, or other manures, at the same time with the seed; invented and manufactured by the exhibiter. No. 3, a collection of agricultural soils, arranged geolo- gically by the exhibiter. No. 4, a geological map of England and Wales; invented by J. A. Knipe, of Eccleston- street, London. No. 5, specimens of geolo- gical formations, sites of agricultural meetings ; ar- ranged by the exhibiter. No. 6, specimens of Lance's granulated manures ; invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Mr. W. Redgrave, of London. No. 7, specimens of diseased corn. No. 8, specimens of corn, the effects of manure and labour ; grown by the ex- hibiter. No. 9, the banc and the antidote of English farming. No. 10, agricultural books of exhibiter's own writing. Stand No. 91. — Jabez Hare and Joshua B. Hyde, of 10, Nelson-square, Southwark, and 19, Cecil- street, Strand. Article No. 1 (new implement), a working model of a machine for cutting heavy drains, &c, called the " English Excavator ;" invented by William J. Olis, of Massachusetts, U.S., improved anil manufactured by J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich. Stand No. 92.— Mr. W. D. Jones (saddler), of 5, High-street, Shrewsbury. Articles Nos. 1 (new implement), an improved shot- belt ; '2 (new implement), an improved game carrier; 3 (new implement), an improved spring starter or slips for a retriever dog ; all improved and manufac- tured by the exhibiter. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 169 BROMSGROVE FARMERS' CLUB. The lecture which was to have begun at one o'clock did not commence till nearly two, when G. F. Iddins, Esq., of the Woodrow, was called to the chair, on the motion of the Rev. H. Aldham, seconded by Mr. Joseph Russon. There were then some sixty or eighty persons present in the large room of the Town-hall, among whom we noticed the Revs. H. Aldham and T. Houseman, James Sanders, Esq., and Messrs. John Penn, Joseph Wright, William Lilley, John Holmes, Joseph Cresswell, John Cresswell, Thomas Saunders, B. Maund, James Haywood, H. W. Baker, Joseph Russon, George Horton, William Harris (Fairfield), William Harris (Stoke), W. Parkes (Howrings), Thomas Durham, R. Heynes, John Robinson, Joseph Jones, and Messrs. H. F. Fardon and B. Taylor, jun., the secretaries of the Institution. The gentleman engaged to address the meeting was A. Gyde, Esq., agricultural chemist, of Painswick, Gloucestershire, and the subject chosen was the important one of manures. The lecturer commenced by adverting to the importance of the subject to the practical farmer, as being the only means he had of so improving his soil as to produce crops sufficiently large to enable him to compete with foreign markets; and how effectually this might be done would be apparent from a statement of Mr. Pusey's, that if every acre of ground under cultivation in the United Kingdom produced only one bushel additional of wheat, reckoning its value at 50s. a quarter, the gross result would be 1,200,000/. He said that of course he could only advert to a few of the principal manures, and observed that their application much depended on the nature of the crops for which they were required ; for though all plants were composed of the same constituents, yet these existed in very different proportions ; therefore the manures applied must also be different. The component parts of plants might be divided in the first instance into two classes, the organic and the inorganic, the latter of which might be separated from the former by the influence of heat ; and he exhi- bited a mass of inorganic matter which resulted from the burning of a rick of hay. After burning a thousand pounds of hay, it was found that a much greater amount of inorganic matter was left, than after burning the same quantity of turnips, &c, as would be seen by the following table — Inorganic matter yielded by 1 ,000 lbs. of Meadow hay Clover hay . Potatoes . Turnips . lbs. GO to to to substances in different quantities, and these deter- mined the nature of the manures necessary to be applied to them. All plants required oxygen, nitrogen, ammonia, and carbon, to maintain their existence. The two first they obtained from the air, the nitrogen and ammonia in a state of solution from the soil, and the carbon partly from decayed animal substances in the soil, and partly from the air ; so that they would see that the soil was not only a bed for their roots to strike into, and from which they might grow, but it ought also to be a great magazine of food for them. The soil when first broken up was generally fertile, but when cul- tivated for a considerable time without being renewed by manures it lost its fertility. The fol- lowing table would show the constituent ingredients of a soil that was fertile without manure, another which required manure to render it fertile, and of a third which was quite barren and would produce nothing : — Fertile without with Barren. Manure. Manure. ... 8 Grain Wheat 22 Barley 20 Oats 35 Peas 28 Elm, 19 lbs.; poplar, 20 lbs.; beech, birch, 3\ lbs.; pine, 3 lbs.; oak, 2 lbs. The remainder, when subjected to chemical analy- sis, was found to be composed of eight different lbs 100 90 10 10 Straw. 50 50 50 50 4 lbs. J Composition of Soils. Organic matter Silica . . . Alumina 57 Lime Magnesia Oxide of iron . . . Ditto of manganese Potash and soda . . Chlorine .... Sulphuric acid. . . Phosphoric acid. . Carbonic acid . . . Loss 1000 97 50 40 648 833 778 57 51 91 59 18 4 8J 8 1 61 30 81 1 3 01 6 2 2 trace. — of — 4h If — 40 41 — 14 — 4 J 1000 1000 The principal part of the land in England was in the condition of the second kind, which required manure to render it fertile, though some alluvial soil by the banks of rivers was in the condition of the first. The next table would show them the way in which the soil was exhausted by a four years' rotation of crops, namely, turnips, barley, red clover, and wheat. Crops — inorganic matter carried off in a four years' rotation of Barley, Red Wheat, Turnips Grain Clover Grain Total. (Roots). or & Rye and Straw. Grass. Straw. Potash . . 145.5 10.1 73.5 3.9 233.0 Soda . . . 64.3 6.9 21.0 4.4 96.6 Lime . 45.8 15.0 79.5 8.7 149.0 Magnesia . 15.5 5.4 9.5 2.5 32.9 Alumina 2.2 3.9 1.1 3.1 10.3 Silica . . . 23.6 113.6 7o.o 92.0 299.2 Sulphuric acid . 49.0 4.0 18.0 1.8 72.8 Phosphoinc acid . . 22.4 7-9 15.6 5.6 51.5 Chlorine 14.5 1.9 8.1 1.1 25.6 970.9 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. From this it was clear that if the ordinary crops so exhausted the soil, it was quite necessary that manure should be applied. First, he should allude to the operation of vegetable manures. These acted mechanically as well as chemically by opening the pores of the ground, and they were not used in this country so much as in others. In the United States they sowed clover seed, and when the plant was in blossom they ploughed it in for the purpose of manuring the ground for corn. In other parts they manured their vineyards with the cuttings of the vines, and in Scotland and Kent, where access was had to the sea shore, the land was much more valuable, because they could use the sea weed as a manure, as that contained a great proportion of fertilizing substances. Dry vegetable refuse, to- gether with urine and animal secretions, formed that never failing source of fertility to the husband- man, farm-yard dung ; and it was lamentable to see the little attention which was paid to its preparation and preservation. It was often allowed to remain for months exposed to the air and sun; and the ammonia, which to the farmer was as valuable as gold, was allowed to evaporate, or the winter rains washed it out, and it was seen running along the ditches of the farm ; and the manure, when it came to be put on the soil, was little better than rotten straw. There was much discussion as to the way in which farm-yard dung ought to be applied, whether in the shape of long or half rotten dung, or in the shape of short or fully decayed dung. It was necessary, in order to determine that question, to know whether the effect was required to be immediate, or to extend over a long period. If the first, then short dung would be applied, and vice versa. The benefits of rape dust, bran, and other articles of that description, were two-fold. They contained a great quantity of earthy matter, and also much nitrogenous matter and ammonia, but their results were seldom lasting. Soot, employed as a top dressing, was also beneficial in its effects. Salts of ammonia and gypsum, employed in the same way, were also of great use ; they principally deepened the colour of the foliage and increased the weight of straw. One hundred weight of nitrate of soda applied to an acre of land, which was accus- tomed to produce 30A bushels of wheat, produced 6 bushels in addition ; but the additional weight of straw was very great, and the clear profit was 19s. 5£d. It was discovered, too, by Mr. Hyatt, of Painswick, that wheat grown on soil so manured contained more gluten then other sorts, and this was borne out by Dr. Daubeny and Professor Liebig ; such wheat was therefore more nutritious, and would go further than the common sorts. Salts of ammonia had the same result ; but he must caution them against mixing lime with it, as that caused the ammonia to be given off into the atmo- sphere. Common salt was also very useful along with dung ; especially, he should imagine, it would be beneficial in this neighbourhood, but it was not required near the sea. With regard to animal manures, these contained more nitrogen and am- monia than vegetable ones. They were principally flesh, blood, bones, urine, and all sorts of animal secretions. Flesh and blood contained large quan- tities of ammonia, and bones were also a very efficient manure, as would be seen by the following chemical analysis : — Composition of Bone. Phosphate of lime .... Ditto of magnesia . . . . Carbonate of lime .... Salts of soda Gelatine 555 30 4^ 35 332 1000 Here it would be seen that phosphate of lime, a valuable fertilizer, was found in them abundantly; and this substance was found in Spain in large quantities in a separate state, but at present the difficulty of obtaining it was so great as to prevent its being used, though there was no doubt that when properly prepared it would answer all the purposes of burnt bones. It was also found in Cornwall. The richness of the dung of horses which had been fed on corn, and of cattle fed on oil cake, was owing to the presence of this sub- stance. This sort of manure was necessary for the turnip crop ; but as that crop required it in its early stages, and bones decomposed but slowly, it would not do to manure them with crushed bones merely, and the farmer was indebted for the obviation of this difficulty to the man of science. It was found that if the bones were dissolved in sulphuric acid they would be improved as a manure, and their virtue could be immediately taken up by the plant. A prize essay had lately been published on this subject, in which the advantages of this method were stated to be the greater abundance of the crop, its less liability to the attacks of insects, and the shortening of the time necessary to bring it to maturity by nearly a month. There were some very striking experiments recorded in the book, of which he would mention some. The writer placed upon an acre of land sixteen bushels of crushed bones, at an expense of 2/., and the produce was 10 tons 3 cwt. of turnips, while when he placed two bushels of bones dissolved in sulphuric acid, on an acre of similar land, the produce was 11 tons 5 cwt. ; and with four bushels similarly treated, costing him 19s. 6d., he obtained 14 tons 0 cwt. The usual proportion of mixture was 60 lbs. of bones to 30 lbs. of acid, diluted with 100 times its weight of water ; but the English farmer had not yet learnt how to apply liquid manure to his land, and as so much water was not requisite, he should recommend that only two or three times as much water as acid be applied, and after the operation was completed, suck up the surplus moisture by throwing in vegetable refuse, &c, thus making a sort of dry compost, which would do quite as well. Mr. Gyde then referred to the refuse of sugar refineries, consisting of animal black, as a valuable manure. This substance had not been brought into much use in this country, but it was exported from hence to France for that purpose. The virtues of guano he need not state, as every farmer who had used it once wanted to do so a second time. He had here an analysis of it — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 171 Composition of Guano. African. Water Organic matter, with salts of ammonia . Bone earth .... Soluble salts. . . . 24 38 34 4 100 Peruvian. 10 M 22 2 100 He did not mean to say that these were invariably the proportions, for he had never found two sam- ples exactly alike, but they were about the mean. He had several samples with him : one from Gibbs, Bright, and Co., of Bristol was the best specimen of Peruvian he had ever met with. The urine of cattle, and particularly of the cow, was invaluable as a manure ; it consisted of urea, and contained more ammonia than any other substance known. It was quite as rich in fertilizing qualities as Guano. A gentleman applied one cwt. of that substance to ground usually producing 40 bushels of wheat and 20 cwt. of straw ; and the pro- duce next year was 50 bushels of wheat, and 25 cwt. of straw. He applied 1,000 gallons of the drainings of his farm and cow yard to another portion of the same land, and 52^ bushels of wheat and 26 cwt. of straw were the result. The loss sustained in this species of manure, by the farmer, was enormous. It had been calculated that a farm of 25 acres would produce 20 tons of liquid manure, worth 20?. a year, but at least 3-4ths of this was wasted. In Paris they refused to make any sewer- age, because of the value which they attached to urine and night soil as manures. Mr. Gyde here gave an interesting account of how it was prepared. As to the objection started to using it in conse- quence of its disagreeable smell, that might be obviated in five minutes by the addition, of a little sulphate of iron. Mr. Gyde concluded amidst the cheers of the audience, by expressing a hope that the same spirit which had actuated the manufac- turer to take advantage of the commonest substan- ces, and turn them to account, would lead the farmer to take advantage to those stores of fertility around him which at present were so shamefully wasted. Several questions were then put to Mr. G. by the Rev. T. Houseman, Mr. Maund, Mr. Lilly, and others, which he answered in the most polite and the clearest manner; after which G. F. Iddins, Esq., moved, and the Rev. T. Houseman, se- conded, a vote of thanks to the lecturer, which was shortly replied to by him. The audience sepa- rated much pleased, and we are sure they could not fail to have been much instructed. There was a very fine and extraordinary specimen of Battolian wheat, grown from a single corn, on the ground of the Rev. H. Aldham, of Stoke, planted in August last, which attracted considerable attention. ISLE OF SHEPPY AGRICULTURAL ASSO- CIATION. TENTH SHEEP SHEARING MEETING, AND PRE- SENTATION OF A TESTIMONIAL TO MR. G. B. CHAMBERS, THE HON. SEC. In our last annual report of the Sheppy Sheep Shearing Meeting we noticed the spirit and eclat which characterizes these anniversary assemblages in this district, and we instanced likewise the un- doubted benefit following to the employer from the stimulating influence given by agricultural societies to improve the skill and to raise the moral charac- ter of the employed. On this occasion, there- fore, we shall confine our remarks to the in- cidents of the day, content to commemorate the extraordinary event of thirty-five competitors enter- ing the lists for the premiums so liberally offered by this Society. From local causes the meeting had been deferred from the 5th to the 19th of June ult., and removed from its usual place of meeting at Maister to a meadow adjoining the Royal Hotel, Sheerness, delightfully proximate to the sea, and enlivened by an elegant marquee and a brilliant display of flags and banners of all nations. Precisely at the time appointed the clipping pro- cess commenced, and from thence unto the close a steady stream of visitors evinced the lively sym- pathy felt in the animating spectacle, and proved how wisely the Society had decided in altering their place of meeting to the neighbourhood of Sheer- ness. On the ground we observed the Rev. Dr. Poore, the Rev. J. Barton, Mrs. Barton and family, J. Dixon Dyke, Esq., Rev. H. Hilton and Mrs. Hil- ton, W. A. Munn, Esq., and Mrs. Munn, G. S. Newbon, Esq., J. Gaze, Esq., and Mrs. Gaze, Captain Fleming, R.N., and officers of Her Majesty's ship Ocean, Major Blackburn and officers of the 69th regiment, J. Miller, Esq., Mrs. Miller and family, G. Buckland, Esq., author of the best essay on the agriculture of Kent, &c, &c, with the elite of the isle and neighbourhood, presenting " A scene so gay, Heroic noble youths in arts and arms renowned, And lovely nymphs, the fairest of this isle, Where Beauty dwells delighted." At the close of their labour the candidates were pleasingly addressed, from a waggon, by the Rev. John Barton (president for the day), who subse- quently distributed the premiums awarded by the judges — Messrs. J. Oakley, Darland, H. Pye, Boughton Place, and E. Carter Hughes, Belle Vue — in the following order : — Class A. The championship 5 candidates. The premium of £l to No. 4. James Whitehead, shep- herd to Mr. Leese. Class B. 20 candidates. First premium, £3 to No. 10 ; Henry Knowles, shepherd to Mr. Wood. Second premium, £2 to No. 22 ; James Hodge, shepherd to Mr. Matson. Third premium £1 to No. 6 ; James Knowles, shepherd to Mr. Wood. Class C. Boys between 14 and 16 years of age ; 4 candidates. First premium, £1 to No. 29 ; John Tong, in the employ of Mr. Walter. Second 172 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. premium, 5s. to No. 26; George Dodd, in the em- ploy of Mr. Matson. Class D. Boys under 14 years of age ; 6 candi- dates. First Premium, £l to No. 35 ; William Hodge, in the employ of Mr. Matson. Second premium, 5s. to No. 32 ; George Wright, in the employ of Mr. Leese. At the termination of this interesting scene, the rev. speaker called the attention of the candidates to the brilliant assemblage of visitors present to witness and honour their exertions ; and as an ad- ditional proof of the lively interest felt in the prosperity of the Association by the ladies of Sheppy, he requested their notice of the handsome silk flag now waving over their heads, and which had been received by the Society that morning as a present from Miss Chambers, to whose honour he proposed three hearty cheers, which being responded to was followed, at the suggestion of the Rev. Dr. Poore, by a similar testimony of good- will to the Rev. J. Barton, whose zeal and devotion to local improvement is duly appreciated. Prior to assembling for dinner, the company ad- journed to enjoy a promenade in the beautiful gardens of the hotel, and the only drawback we observed to the admirable arrangements for the day was the absence of a military band. Soon after 4 o'clock the Rev. J. Barton took the chair at the dinner, supported by Revs. G. Bryant, H. Hilton, A. Fielding, W. D. Astley ; J.Dixon Dyke, Esq.; W.A. Munn, Esq.; G.S.Newbon,Esq.; Giles Morgan, Esq. ; George Morgan, Esq. ; J. Miller, Esq.; S. Seckette, Esq.; H. Everest, Esq., and upwards of one hundred gentlemen of the town and neighbourhood. The vice-chair was filled by Mr. Burford. On the removal of the cloth the Chair- man rose and proposed, as the first toast, " The Queen," which having been drunk and honoured enthusiastically, was followed by the National Anthem, sung by Mr. Moody, whose professional services contributed greatly to the subsequent plea- sures of the day. On proposing " The Queen Dow- ager," the Chairman alluded to the well-known be- nevolence of that illustrious lady, and instanced the assistance she had recently given to the national schools of the town wherein they were then assem- bled (loud cheering). Song (Mr. Moody)— "The four-leaved Sham- rock." The Chairman next gave — " Prince Albert, and the rest of the Royal Family." Song — " The Lass of Gowrie." J. Dixon Dyke, Esq., presented himself to propose as the next toast "The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Clergy of the Diocese," and in so doing passed a handsome compliment to the clergy present for the zealous aid they had uni- formly given to the Agricultural Association. The Rev. G. Bryant acknowledged the compli- ment. The toast in succession from the chair was " The Navy and Army." Major Blackburn returned thanks. Comic song — "Peel and Wellington at Green- wich Fair." The Rev. Henry Hilton next rose to propose " The Health of the Judges," to whom a heavy debt of gratitude he felt was owing, not only for the valuable services they had conferred that day, but also for the generous sacrifice of their own time in travelling such a considerable distance to aid in the good work in which they were all so interested (loud applause). John Oakley, Esq., on behalf of himself and colleagues, assured the rev. gentleman that it was a source of infinite pleasure to them to have been called upon to assist that day. Throughout his ex- perience he could find no parallel to the Sheppy Shearing Meeting, and although on former occa- sions he had seen the work performed by the men equally good with that of to-day's, yet he had never seen anything to equal the boys, whose work was be- yond all praise, particularly Nos. 29 and 35 : in them we had a witness of the advantage of such meetings, and a promise of future excellence (cheering). Song — " My native Hills." The Rev. Chairman again rose and said, Mr. Vice-Chairman, and gentlemen, in proposing the next toast I shall take advantage of the opportu- nity which it offers of executing the commission you have entrusted to me, of presenting our worthy Secretary with a testimonial for his valuable ser- vices. Mr. Chambers, it is highly gratifying to me to be the instrument of presenting you— a second time since my residence in Sheppy — with a public testimonial from your neighbours and friends for important services rendered to the community among which you reside. AVhen those exertions tend to benefit all classes, rich and poor, their value is considerably enhanced ; that such has been the residt of your labours past experience will bear me out in asserting. I remember the former testimonial bears the inscription, " For im- portant sen-ices rendered to rich and poor, by zeal, ability, and discretion in the administration of parochial affairs for a series of years," and was given you on your retirement from the chair of the Board of Guardians, where I was myself a witness to the kind consideration, the good judgment, and sound discretion with which you discharged its important duties during the three first years of the operation of the Poor Law Amendment Act. Simi- lar results in producing benefits to rich and poor have accompanied your connection with this Asso- ciation, inasmuch as the owner and occupier derive advantage from the skill and industry employed in the cultivation of the soil; the labourer is encouraged by the rewards offered for the exercise of that skill and industry, and the faithful servant recompensed for lengthened service under the same employer. I am aware how unpleasant it is for a man to listen to his own praises in public, I will therefore refrain from indulging further in the expression of senti- ments to which I should not hesitate to give utter- ance in your absence. The testimonial on the table before you marks the sense entertained of your valuable and indefatigable services in oriffinat* ing and upholding this Society. I am sure its value will be doubly increased in your mind when you learn that the proposal to offer you some ac- knowledgement beyond mere thanks was responded to by the most cordial and unanimous feelings of approbation, and the correspondence connected with it contains many most gratifying expresssions THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 of the high sense entertained of your character and public services. In the name of the members of the Isle of Sheppy Agricultural Association, I beg your acceptance of these pieces of plate before you, and I am expressing their feelings as well as my own in offering the fervent wish that your life may long be spared, and blessed with health to pursue the same honourable and useful career which has hitherto marked your course. I will offer one wish more, that, high as your character stands, you may yet enter the privileged order of Benedicts, by which you will become qualified to receive those gifts of Providence to whom these testimonials may descend as heir-looms. A simultaneous burst of applause followed this address, and was again resumed on Mr. Chambers rising, who, evidently overpowered by his feelings, briefly acknowledged his inability to express his heartfelt thankfulness for such manifestation of good will and esteem from his friends and neigh- bours, and emphatically referred them to judge by his future conduct how keenly he valued their present favour, and resumed his seat amidst cheer- ing that lasted for a considerable time. The testimonial consisted of a splendid silver ink- stand, on which was the following inscription : — " Presented to Mr. G. B. Chambers by the mem- bers of the Isle of Sheppy Agricultural Association, as a testimonial of respect, and in acknowledgment of the ability and perseverance with which, during ten years, he successfully advocated the welfare of the Association as Hon. Sec. June, 1845." Also a coffee-pot, a liqueur-stand, and a pair of salvers, on each of which was an abridgment of the above inscription, forming together a splendid offering, alike honourable to the Society and Hon. Secretary. The articles were highly admired, and furnished from the well-known establishment of Hunt and Roskell, late Store and Mortimer ; the value £80. The Chairman next gave "The Health of the President (D. Banks, Esq.), and prosperity to the Isle of Sheppy Agricultural Association" (ap- plause). \Y. A. Munn, Esq., claimed the attention of the meeting whilst he introduced to their notice, as the next toast, the health of the rev. gentleman who so ably presided over them, and who had so elo- quently expressed their united sentiments in his recent address to their Hon. Secretary. He well knew that strong interest alone in the welfare of the Society was the leading feature that induced his rev. friend, at considerable per- sonal inconvenience, to preside at the present and on other occasions of their meeting together, and lie felt it a supererogation to dwell at length on his subject, because his rev. friend, as a resident clergyman and zealous parish priest, was too well known to require eulogy from him ; but he would not resume his seat without offering his personal thanks, as a member of the society, to his rev. friend, for acceding to their request in fining the chair on this interesting occasion (great applause). The Chairman replied— Mr. Munn and gen- tlemen, I thank you sincerely for the honour you have done me, which I am not so presumptuous as to regard as a personal compliment, but rather to the accidental position which I occupy at the present moment. The kind feeling and forbearance with which you have at former meetings overlooked my inefficiency, emboldened me to consent to preside on the present occasion, combined too with the special request that I would on this day present in your name the testimonial to our worthy and most efficient Secretary. My own feelings would incline me to a less conspicuous place, but, as a resident in Sheppy, I have felt it a duty to waive all personal considerations, if by occupying the chair I could promote the welfare of the Society. I have been encouraged too by the kind feeling with which you have received the hints which I have ventured to make from time to time for the moral improvement and condition of the labouring class, an object which ought to be inseparable from the mind of a clergyman in his connexions with a society like the present. I feel I am trespassing too long on your patience, and will therefore only add, that so long as the meetings of this Society are attended with the good feeling and moderation which past ex- perience leads me to hope they always will be, I shall be glad to give them all the support in my power, being well assured that you will never give me, or my rev. brethren around me, cause to regret that, by our personal presence and support, we have aided a society, bearing for its motto, " To promote industry and reward merit." The rev. gentleman sat down amidst great applause. " The Members for East Kent" was given from the chair, who likewise read to the meeting a letter received that morning from Win. Deedes, Esq., regretting that unexpected parliamentary business would deprive him of the pleasure of being at the meeting in accordance with his previous intentions. Comic song, by Mr. Moody. "The Rev. Henry Hilton and Landlords of Sheppy" followed. The Rev. Mr. Hilton, in acknowledging the com- pliment, alluded to the pleasure he derived for some years during his residence at Sheppy, and the gratification it afforded him that his present resi- dence was within a convenient distance to occa- sionally attend and take part in all their important meetings ; indeed he was not unwilling to acknow- ledge that the remembrance of the past would occa- sionally create a feeling of regret that he had ever left the Island (cheers.) He presumed that it was this past connexion that afforded him the present pleasurable occasion of returning thanks on behalf of himself and brother landowners, between whom and their tenantry the Agricultural Society had proved a happy medium of more frequent inter- course, and producing thereby a mutual advantage (applause.) The Chairman, in proposing " The Health of Mr. Knight, the treasurer, and prosperity to the Sittingbourn Agricultural Association," observed the pleasure it afforded them to recognise in a neighbouring association the same kindred spirit which animated their own body, and the satisfaction it gave to be honoured on this occasion by the presence of several of its leading members. He remembered, moreover, the honourable contest, two years since, between the two Associations, for the honour of possessing the best sheep shearers, when ten men from each district exhibited a specimen of 174 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. their skill that could not be excelled ; and although the palm of victory was awarded to the Sheppy men, yet it was only justice to acknowledge, the office of a judge proved on that occasion no sine- cure ; and he felt it would not be an improper sub- ject of boasting that these kindred societies could, by union produce a body of shearers qualified to meet the whole county of Kent (applause). Song — "The man who never got warm." Mr. Knight returned thanks, highly eulogising the unity and spirit he always witnessed in the Sheppy Association, and lamented the absence of it in his own district ; nevertheless he concurred in the observation of the rev. Chairman, and should feel delighted to promote a friendly contest with other associations, feeling confidence that they must possess sharp shears indeed, to out-clip the united Associations of Sheppy and Sittingbourn (cheers). J. S. Kiddel, Esq., claimed the attention of the meeting to propose " The health of Miss Cham- bers," and to offer the cordial thanks of the Associa- tion for the present of the splendid banner which had that day ornamented their shear green ; although absent herself from the ground, yet he had oppor- tunities of knowing how lively was her sympathy for the welfare of the Association ; and it was a satisfaction to know that the testimonial which had that evening been presented to the brother would awaken the tender cord of sisterly affection, and prove to that lady a daily source of pleasurable reflection (applause.) The toast was acknowledged by S. Sackette, Esq., the brother-in-law of Miss Chambers. "The health of the Vice-Chairman Mr. Burford," " Mr. Wood, and thanks to him for the sheep sup- plied for the occasion," " The Town and Trade of Sheerness," " Messrs. Palmer and Masters," &c, &c. having been respectively drunk and spoken to, was followed by " The Ladies," when the rev. Chairman, attended by visitors and others, took leave of the company about 9 o'clock ; after which, Mr. Chambers being called to the chair, the con- viviality and spirit of the meeting was maintained for upwards of an hour, Avhen the party simulta- neously broke up, to return home with the agreeable reflection of having passed a well-spent day in aiding " To promote industry and reward merit." IMPORTANCE OF PRUDENCE TO THE FARMER. — There is a seede called Discretion : if a husbandman have of that seede, and mingle it amongst his other come, they will growe doubtless much the better, for that seede will tell him how many casts of corn a land ought to have. And if a young husband, or, it may so fortune, a man that by possibility might have grey-headed experience, hath not sufficient of that seede, yet he that lacketh, it is lawfull for him to borrow of his neighbours that have, and his neighbours be unkind if they will not lende this young husband part of their seede, for this seede of discretion hathe a wondrous virtue, for the more it is eyther taken of or lent the more it is.— Boke of Husbandry e, quoted by C. W. Johnson, Esq., Quarterly Journal of Agricicl- ture. SALTING-IN GRASS AND HAY, IN WET SEASONS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE EXETER FLYING POST. Sir, — The present threatening to be a precarious hay time, you may perhaps render your farming readers an effectual service in recalling to their notice this method of saving so important a part of their produce. Mouldy hay, put together with salt, from 81b. to 251b. per ton, was better relished by the cattle, and did them more good than sound hay stacked without salt ; and this in many instances (Johnstone on Salt, p. 105). The late Solomon Brown, of Landrake, many years ago, stacked damp hay with salt, which came out almost a paste when the rick was opened ; but the cattle de- voured it with avidity. In Germany they cure grass, fresh cut, by packing in pits with lib. of salt to the cwt., and find it go much farther in food than the same quantity of grass made into hay. In fact, by sun-drying, the hay seems to become rather more woody, and therefore less digestible and nutritious ; but the salt seems to have a contrary effect, softening the woody stalks, and thus rendering them digestible food. A method which appears to me preferable to these, both in convenience and economy, is to stack the green grass or clover in layers with straw or old dry hay, sprinkling the salt upon each green layer. Thus the juices drawn by the salt from the grass will be absorbed by the straw ; and I think that not only the nutritive power of the damp hay or grass may be improved in this way, but that the straw itself may be brought back to- ward the state of green stalk, by the salt juice absorbed gradually softening and rendering it soluble and diges- tible. The proportions may vary somewhat, according to the dampness of the jrass. Good upland grass, cut in dry weather, may contain two-thirds its weight of water ; that is, two tons in three ; and one ton straw will absorb three tons water. But as we do not want it wet, say one ton straw to four tons grass ; and suppose the grass to give out half its juice to the straw (by aid of the salt), we shall have the whole soft and damp, without being disposed to drop or leak. If old hay is used instead of straw, perhaps one- third, or even one-half might be nearer the mark, as it is much le.'s absorbent. For meadow grass or any green fodder, cut damp, the quantity of straw or old hay may be proportionably increased. For hay partly dried it may be reduced or omitted altogether. The best proportion of salt must be determined by experience. One lb. per cwt. appears but little for fresh grass ; 21b. per cwt., or about £ bushel to the ton of grass, I should think not more than the cattle would relish, and more likely to preserve the whole in a sweet and digestible state. For half dried hay lib. per cwt. may be enough. Where the farmer is short of straw or old hay (as often happens before hay time) bran would be an ex- cellent thing to use instead ; its cost being well repaid by the increased nourishment. The doubt is how far it would be liable to ferment and heat. It may be worth trying on a ton or two, mixing the salt first with the bran, and strewing it in as the grass is stacked. Chopped furze (gorse, whin) has been used as winter food for horses. Now if my notion be correct, that soaking with salt and vegetable juice tends to render woody fibre soluble and nutritious, stacking with grass and salt would much increase the value of furze; whilst its ragged form and stiffness would let the air through the rick, and dry it as it stands, or only pre« THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. 17' vent any chance of damage by heating, according to the proportion employed. Of this proportion the far- mer can better judge on the spot, than the chemist by reasoning: probably one-third or half the weight of the grass, according to its dryness, may be near the mark; and since both are green, and the furze hard, the salt should not be less than 31b. to the cwt. of grass. Yours, sir, &c., J. Pridka.ix. ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SHARE- HOLDERS OF THE ROYAL, FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY. At the annual meeting of the shareholders of the Royal, Farmers' Insurance Company, held at the Freemasons' Tavern, for the purpose of receiving the Report of the Directors for the past year, and for the transaction of other business : on the mo- tion of Mr. William Shaw, seconded by Mr. Martin, Mr. George Parker Tuxford was unani- mously called to the Chair amidst applause. The Chairman", in opening the business of the meeting, said — Gentlemen, twelve months ago you were pleased to confer upon me the honour of elect- ing me your Chairman, when for the first time the Shareholders of the Royal, Farmers' Insurance In- stitution met together within these walls, which special mark of approval you have done me the fa- vour of repeating on the present occasion. That 1 should have temerity sufficient to give expression to the pride and heartfelt satisfaction such an addi- tional proof of your confidence inspires me with, will I apprehend scarcely excite surprise when I tell you that my most sanguine expectations have never led me to anticipate a repetition of the com- pliment which has been so generously bestowed upon me by such a body of my brother share- holders as I see around me. When I addressed you at our last anniversary meeting, full well do 1 remember pledging myself faithfully to you, to dis- charge to the best of my humble ability the onerous and important duties of my office, as your Chair- man ; which pledge in all sincerity I now renew, and, without further preliminary of a personal cha- racter, will proceed at once to the business of the day we are here convened to consider and to settle. On our first meeting together to receive the report of the Directors of this Institution, it appeared to me as my incumbent duty to communicate to you, in the capacity I then stood as your Chairman, a detailed account, of the rise and progress of the Royal, Farmers' Insurance Office. I informed you by whom it had been conceived; under whose auspices it had been fostered ; the position it occu- pied in comparison with old-established offices ; of whom the board of Directors was composed, and the individual qualifications of those gentlemen for the important position they occupied ; with such other information as I thought you had an unquestionable right to possess. That statement, with the assistance of the agricultural press of this metropolis, has been given to the world, thereby rendering a repetition of it at the present moment a work of supereroga- tion. The duties you had then to discharge were of an important character : three Directors : going out by rotation necessarily involved a new election ; whereas at the present meeting you have only to decide upon the election of one auditor, j who, in accordance with the clause contained in the i deed of settlement, retires from office, unless re- ' elected. Mr. Ardron is the gentleman to whom I : refer. He again stands before you with the full j concurrence of the Directors, who recommend him i to your notice, believing him to be deserving of i your confidence, from the experience they have had of the very able manner in which he has discharged ! his duty. From these observations you will perceive | that our business to-day is comparatively unimpor- tant, and will necessarily prove short when placed ! in juxtaposition with the various matters which en- '■ grossed your attention at the last annual meeting. ', I will not anticipate the Report, which will be now read by your Managing Director, Mr. Shaw, and which I believe will command, what it justly merits, 1 namely, general satisfaction. Before I sit down, | however, allow me to congratulate you on the daily increasing business of the Office in its different : departments during the year, which has greatly i exceeded the calculations contained in the last an- ! nual report, and cannot fail to produce the most J gratifying reflections in the mind of every share- ! holder who has the prosperity of the Institution at | heart (cheers). Mr. Shaw observed that at the. expiration of three ! years from the establishment of the Institution, the au- ' ditors went out of office, and new ones were elected. Ac- cording to the deed of settlement, one would go out of office annually, but was eligible for re-election — this year Mr. Ardron; from what he (Mr. Shaw) had seen of the manner iu which he performed the duties of the i office, he was prepared to state that he considered him i well qualified, and would, therefore, propose him for re* election. Mr. Ford having >econded the motion, it was carried i ncm. con. Mr. Hh vw then read the report prepared by the Di- rectors, and laid the balance-sheet on the table. Mr. BaowN rose, and said — Having heard the report rend, it affords me great satisfaction in proposing its ; adoption. It must be a source of great pleasure to the shareholders to witness the progress of the Institution, and, considering the class to which it is devoted, it is still more gratifying to be enabled to state that amongst the other leading companies it stands fifth on the list, as regards insurance of farming stock {cheers). And, taking all those companies in the aggregate, the offica stands remarkably well in reference to general business. The report states that a considerable increase has taken place in the business, which is very satisfactory. There is one part of the report demanding the most serious at- tention, viz., Life Assurance. If all connected with the Institution were to give it due consideration, and re- commend the office to their friends, it would materially increase the business (cheers). I now beg to move that the report be adopted, and to state that we are all obliged for the very explicit manner in which the various terns are set forth. J. W. Jeyes, Escp, of Uppingham, Rutlandshire, se- conded the motion. Mr. Newman said — It is far from my wish to throw any impediment in the way, but I beg to remark there are — as shown by the report — 13,000/. in the hands of country agents. Now that is a large sum, and what \ IS 176 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wish to inquire is — Why should they not give security : When I insure my property, I pay instanter. I call, therefore, upon the Managers of the society to compel the agents to pay. The Society ought to have the benefit of the interest arising from these funds. I call attention to the subject, thinking it worthy of consideration. Mr. Shaw observed, after the remarks made on this subject last year the Directors went through the accounts, and got in a considerable portion of the money in the hands of the agents; we have about seven hundred agents doing business, and we must not forget that fire in- surance gives a good deal of trouble, and the agents therefore expect a little indulgence, in not having to make out their accounts too frequently. Many take the agency con amove, and not for the advantage to be derived from it. As regards the giving security, many of our agents are agents for landowners, managers of banks, and otherwise of such position and stability that we are obliged to wave the security. Not being an old office, the amount of business in each agency is not large ; and hence we cannot say that we confer an obligation upon the agents — on the contrary, they rather confer one upon us. B. Pitts Shearer, Esq., thought that, where it was possible, security should be taken. The Chairman observed, that a short time ago the Board of Directors deputed a gentleman to visit Scotland for the purpose of revising the agents, and appointing new ones where requisite, in the discharge of which duties he had given the greatest satisfaction. From one of these newly appointed agents, a banker of high standing, a letter was received yesterday to the effect that if the Directors were satisfied with an annual settle- ment, he should have no objection to continue the agency ; but if otherwise he must resign it, as the amount of his commission, from the newness of his agency, would be so limited as not to be equivalent to the time that he should have to devote to making up quarterly accounts. Mr. Shearer meant to observe that security should be taken where-possible. The Chairman remarked it was not possible to ob- tain it in all cases, but where practicable, he believed that it was never omitted. Mr. Brown said — From what we have seen of the progress of the society, we may place every con- fidence in the assiduity of those immediately connected with it. Now, it is well known that we have many country bankers acting as agents ; they are the most in- fluential parties in the country, and it would unques- tionably be very troublesome for them to send up quar- terly returns. The earliest period we might expect would be half-yearly. We cannot do better than leave the matter in the hands of the Directors (cheers). Mr. Newman said the reference made to Scotland was no doubt correct, yet he thought that 13,000/. was a large sum to have outstanding. He trusted, how- ever, that it would reach the ears of the agents (hear, hear), because that sum was considerable. Latitude might be given to small sums owing by the country agents, but payment should be required of the fifties and hundreds. Mr. Sharp said, previous to the report being carried, he was desirous to make a few observations upon life assurance. A person wished to insure his life in the office for £\ ,500. He made the proper application to a Mr. Attfield, one of the country agents. It was agreed to be done : instructions were forwarded to London for that purpose; but a policy was forwarded for a larger amount of premium than that for which the policy was ted. Had the office two rates ? for the policy was affected upon those in the printed forms, and which were handed to the party when the application was made. Mr. Shaw explained that some time since it had been deemed advisable to revise the rates of premium, tables of the new rates had been issued, but the party in ques. tion had not seen them, and he expected the insurance would have been effected upon the old rates, whereas it should have been upon the new tables. The explana- tion was given at the time. Mr. Sharp immediately rose, and said he was per- fectly satisfied with the explanation as given by Mr. Shaw. Mr. Newman said he had insured in the office, and he hoped the Directors would not adopt a low scale of rates. He thought the old rates in fire not equal to the risk. Mr. Sharp inquired whether the amount stated in the report set forth the disposable capital of the office. Mr. Shaw replied in the affirmative. The Chairman then put the question that the report be received and adopted. The motion was carried una- nimously. J. W. Jeyes, Esq., of Uppingham, said, in reference to the question of giving security, he had appointed several persons as agents, from whom security could not be had. He thought it unnecessary. If a person came to him to ask such a question as that of becoming security, he (Mr. Jeyes) should refuse such an appli- cation without a moment's consideration. Mr. Brown observed that a circular had been is- sued from the government upon the subject of paying up the duties. It was therein stated that the money must be regularly remitted. It in some measure superseded the necessity of calling upon the agents for security. They all felt great difficulty in becoming security for their friends. Those who looked to the matter in all its bearings would see that it was not very easy to obtain security from the agents. The payment of the accounts at an earlier period would render it in some degree un- necessary. While they were extending their business, there must be an increase of the amount in the hands of the agents. Mr. Lane moved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to the Directors — especially to the Managing Director — for the assiduity and zeal displayed in the ma- nagement of the affairs of the Company, which, he felt assured, would command the approbation of every share« holder. Mr. Blanch seconded the motion. The motion having been put, and carried unanimously, The Chairman said — 1 have great pleasure in ac- knowledging the compliment now paid to the Directors. It cannot fail to be gratifying to those who are absent as well as those present, and I beg to return you our best thanks. Mr. Shaw said — It would be ungrateful in me were I not individually to express my thauks to you for this additional mark of your approbation. It caunot be sup- posed that we should voluntarily place ourselves in any situation of difficulty in respect to the management of the business of the Institution. We exert ourselves to the utmost to do justice between the shareholders and the assured. We are none of us infallible, and I shall esteem it a great obligation if any shareholder will point out where an error has been committed, and afford us the opportunity of correcting it (cheers) . I can state with confidence that in so saying I speak the feelings of the board at large. Mr. Brown proposed that the best thanks of the meeting be given to the Secretary and the other officers of the establishment. The motion was seconded, and carried unanimously. Mr. Hanson briefly returned thanks. Mr. Sh arp begged to say that he considered the rates upon mill policies very high ; he conceived a corn-mill THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 177 to be as safe as a stable. Some other offices were taking mills at lower rates than the " Farmers'." Mr. Shaw observed that not only Mr. Sharp, but gome other parties residing in the neighbourhood of Abingdon and in Essex, had made the same remark. He (Mr. Shaw) had brought the subject before the board, and would do so again. He was sure it would receive every consideration, and he thought that a reduction might be safely made. Mr. William Ford rose, and said that, observing from the movement of their respected Chairman that the proceedings of the meeting were now about drawing to a conclusion, he should take upon himself with unaffected freedom the discharge of a duty to which he was prompted, not as to the performance of a mere formal courtesy, but for the purpose of making a cordial avowal of his (Mr. Ford's) obligations to their worthy Chair- man, for his most effective discharge of the responsibilities of his present position (cheers). Confident that the perfect application or Mr. Tuxford's opening observations to the 9ubject matter of the meeting — his courteous desire to assist the shareholders in their inquiries, and to receive their suggestions as matter for the deliberation of the Board of Directors — would all be attested by the unani- mous feeling of the gentlemen present, he (Mr. Ford) felt more than ordinary pleasure in moving the best thanks of the meeting to their worthy Chairman (cheers). Tlis motion was seconded by Mr. Jeyes, and carried jusly. The Chairman" replied : I thank you most cordially for the unanimous expression of approbation which I have received from you for my humble services on the present occasion ; and believe me, gentlemen, that I shall consider it a source of extreme gratification when- ever I am able by my exertions to promote the pros- perity of the Royal Farmers' Insurance Institution. (Cheers) The Chairman then left the chair, and the meeting se- parated. WHITE WINE FROM GREEN GRAPES. By J. Towers. The season is far advanced, and the weather, though, occasionally hot and sunny, has been of a character to prevent the rapid progress of the vines. It appears then more than probable that the out-of-door grapes of this year will not be favourably matured. I have observed that if June pass before the vines come well into blossom, and July be cool and rainy, the progress of the fruit is 60 retarded that the latter summer, however fine and hot it may be, cannot compensate for the time thus lost. Our climate is not propitious ; and during the last ten years I can retrace but two wherein the sweetwater and muscadine brought their clusters to tolerable perfection during Sep- tember. But as respects wine-making this is a minor consideration, provided the grower pay due atten- tion to lay in the fruit-bearing shoots close to the wall, to stop them all at one leaf beyond the point where they last pushed, carefully retaining all the leaves; but removing every useless, secondary, barren shoot ; so that the wall may be completely filled with verdant foliage, and yet not burdened or crowded with weak twigs. At the time I commence this article (July 10), the earliest clusters are in bloom ; therefore, if the season be warm, and the primary leaves duly ex- posed to the utmost power of the south or south- by-east sun, we may reasonably hope to see the berries of the full size which they can attain, prior to swelling-off by matm-ity, by the third week of September ; and that is the condition in which they are most suitable for the purpose of the vin- tage. A change takes place in the organic eco- nomy of the vine about the first or second week of August, according to the state of the season ; for then the stems thicken by the final arrangement of tissue, and elongation is greatly reduced. Pre* vious to that time the wandering shoots must be sedulously observed, as before directed ; but sub- sequent to it, greater care is still required, to ex- pose to the full sun all the parent leaves — that is, those which belong to the fruitful shoots — and to remove every unfruitful twig not wanted for the next year, in order to prevent the shading of those more important leaves whicn nurse and protect the clusters. It is a great truth, too little understood or acted on, both in the open air and under glass, that the shade produced by the main leaves, so far from retarding the fruit, is its most certain guar- dian from the scalding ray of the sun. So screened, the berries gradually and safely go through the precarious stages of the stoning process ; when that is completed, and they begin to appear slightly transparent, they are in the precise condition re- quired to produce the best grape wine. The wines from green immature fruit is, as Dr. M'Culloch long ago asserted, of a quality not to be distinguished from those of foreign growth, and can be prepared at a very moderate expense. It would be natural to suppose that a perfectly ripe, condition of the fruit would be preferable ; but this is a mistake, for, as the same author further observes in his " Art of Wine-making," " so far from this being the case, it will invariably be found that the produce of the immature fruit is superior to that of the ripe. In the ordinary grapes of our own growth, with the exception of some of the sweeter varieties raised in hot-houses, the effect of maturity is to substitute little else than water for those principles essential to fermentation which exist in green fruits. The quantity of sugar gene- rated in the act of ripening is of no value, as it ia easily supplied by an admixture of common sugar with the juice; nor is any flavour gained by the maturation of the grape. At the same time those advantages which would arise from the leaven and acid of the fruit are lost ; as these substances dis- appear in a great measure when the ripening is perfected." The great objection to home-made wine is found in the quality of the sweets artificially added, and we could wish that the sugar of grapes could be substituted for that of the cane. Persons in gen- eral complain that home-made wines disagree with them : and others say that where starch sugar has been used, the wine produces no similar inconve- nience. From any analyses it appears that grape and starch sugar contain at least five per cent, less of carbon than cane sugar : therefore it is desir- able, if possible, to obtain a supply of refined (not moist) starch sugar, and thus to follow the example N 2 178 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the French, who, it is stated, are in the habit of strengthening their clarets by that adjunct, when unfavourable seasons have prevented the due for- mation of saccharine matter in the grape. Preparation of "White Wine. The temperature to insure that perfect but gra- dual spontaneous fermentation which the prepared juice of the grape requires, is about 55° to 60° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and towards the end of September (the period when our green Sweetwater and muscadines are usually in a proper state) that temperature is of common occurrence. Dr. M'Culloch assumes 10 gallons of wine as his standard quantity when fully completed ; and for this he directs 40lbs. of fruit, 4 gallons of cold water, and 30lbs. of white sugar in the first in- stance : to be made up to 10A gallons by more water, if required. These proportions will yield a diy wine, if the fermentation be propitious ; but in order to be more precisely accurate, I have, during several years, been guided by the specific gravity of the must, after every addition of" sugar; and now, in order to furnish definite information, I shall collect the details of a trial made in 1836, when, in consequence of a very warm temperature, the fruit was ready for the vintage by the third week of August. In this experiment I introduced the tender green shoots and tendrils of the vine, and now may remark, in passing, that very good wine can be made by these alone in the event of a failure of fruit. August 18. — Prunings of the tender green shoots, leaves and tendrils, 2jlbs. boiled — after tearing them into small pieces — for twenty minutes with four gallons of spring water, and the liquor strained through a wicker sieve, and cooled in a broad earthen pan ; 20lbs. of green clusters, bruised by a clean wooden rammer in a strong tub, but in detail, so as to observe that each berry was crushed. In this operation the seeds should not be cracked ; but the stalks, whether bruised or not, yield no disagreeable flavour. As each parcel was thus prepared, it and the juice expressed were transferred to the pan containing the grape-leaf liquor. In the experiment of 1S36, having plenty of fresh honey, I washed the drained coombs with that fluid ; but failing afterward in a similar process, I desisted from the use of honey, its results being uncertain. The fruit and liquor being together, they remained for twenty-four hours covered with a flannel, in a close room ; and I think it advisable always to permit them so to remain, till a slight incipient fermentation be manifested by the ap- pearance of a very few bubbles of froth, as then the water will have extracted the leaven and solu- ble matters of the pulp. At this stage the specific gravity of the fluid should be taken, unless there be a saccharometer at hand, which, of course, will at once decide the gravity by inspection. It will be found that the weight is greater than that of rain- water, the standard which is assumed as the unit, or divisor, one cubic foot weighing about 1,000 ounces. To take the specific gravity with sufficient accuracy, a long-necked phial, like a capillane bottle, is to be correctly weighed, and its tare noted. It is then to be filled to the level of the lip, or to some marked part of the neck near its summit, with rain-water, and the weight reduced to apothecaries' grains, of which there are 480 in the ounce. The bottle is then emptied, and shaken several times, after which it is filled to the mark or top of the neck with liquor, at the same heat as the water weighed, and the weight also brought into grains. The product being divided decimally by the weight of the water Mill give the comparative specific gravity of the grape-fluid. Good loaf-sugar adds 36 per cent, or thereabout, to the gravity of a wine- gallon of water, and this being borne in mind, Ave may return to the details of the experiment of 1836. The fermentation being visible, the liquid was strained and pressed from the husks, and sugar gradually added, stirring well occasionally till the specific gravity was 1,112 — that is to say, 112 parts in the 1,000 — greater than that of rain-water at 60* of Fahrenheit. If this gravity be produced, and the fermentation proceed quietly in a temperate close apartment, the wine will become dry by slow degrees ; if 120 be attained, the sugar more than balances the leaven, and may leave the wine over- sweet for seven years. The sweet must of the ex- periment remained in the pan, covered with flannel, till the 22nd, when finding the gravity reduced by the spirituous fermentation, or alcoholic process then established, to 1.0827, it was barrelled to within an inch of the bung, and placed in the cellar, which is always warm. It there remained till January 1, 1S3T, when it was racked off" the lees. The cask was washed and drained, then rinced with a bottle of foreign Bucella, and the grape-wine returned upon it. It is of great consequence to ascertain the gra- vity of the must after each addition of sugar, for thus these small parcels of wine may always be ac- curately sweetened. Fifteen pounds will usually suffice for oHbs. of grape liquor; therefore lOlbs. may be added at first, and the remainder cau- tiously. The must should be reduced in gravity at least 30 per cent, before barrelling ; and when in the barrel, the bung should be loose till the hissing nearly ceases, when it can be safely put in, leaving a spile or vent-hole open for some weeks. I have rarely had occasion to rack twice ; but once is indispensable, to separate all the lees, which in March would create a secondary fermentation ; and the best season for racking is during a calm, bright frost, when the fluid is quite tranquil. The cask being then cleaned, or another perfectly sweet being ready, the wine should be returned, and bunged close down. As there is some waste of bulk, it is best to fill the cask with some foreign wine (avoiding spirit of every kind, and I think Bucella is to be preferred, as it approaches in qua- lity to the Rhenish wines, which our green grape process is intended to imitate. In a season gloomy and unsettled as the present, it is frequently impossible, even with the exercise of the greatest care and precaution, to guard against the over-heating of hay-stacks. The most simple THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 179 and effective means ever yet discovered for allaying the mischief, and preventing the actual firing, is by using " Gillett's Rick Ventilator,"' of which a de- scription will be found in an advertisement in another part of this paper. The saving of a single ton of hay will more than pay for the instalment. It is a really valuable implement in a " catching" season. We have no hesitation in recommending it in the strongest manner. A REVIEW OF THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE STATE OF THE WOOL MARKET. [abridged from the economist.] The consumption of English wool during the last twelve months has unquestionably been on a larger scale than at any former time. And during the last four or five months the heavy stocks held (in the latter half par- ticularly) last year have been very greatly reduced, and have presented the contrast with last year, that, so far from the stocks of wools of English growth being un- usually large, they were probably never known to be so small. The effect which might have naturally been ex- pected, from the small stocks of English wools, has been counteracted by two prominent causes : — First, notwith- standing the extraordinary increase of the import of foreign wools in 1844, that of the present year shows an increase over last year comparatively as great. And, second, some branches of trade in which English wools are largely used, especially that of Bradford, have been exceptions to the general brisk and highly remunerative character of the generality of manufactures. As com- pared, therefore, with this time last year, we conclude the season with probably a smaller quantity of English wool on hand, of former years' clip, than has existed for many years ; while last year, at the same time, it was somewhat larger than usual. By the accounts which we have this day published, in our " Monthly Supplement," of the quantities imported from the 5th January to the 5th May, we find the fol- lowing comparison with respect to the imports of wool : — Wool imported, Jan. 5 to May 5. 1843. 1844. 1845. lbs. lbs. lbs. 7,273,118 .. 10,800,430 .. 14,529,273 This is the latest date for which we have any accurate accounts for the whole kingdom ; but from information, on which we can sufficiently rely for all practical pur- poses, the following month, up to the 5th of June, will show a still greater relative increase. The imports to the 5th of June may be thus stated : — 1844. 1845. lbs. lbs. 14,050,430 19,705,593 Thus exhibiting an increase, even over the large imports of last year, of 5,000,0001bs. In looking, however, at this large increase, we are led to believe, after somewhat minute investigation, in the absence of any actual and authoritative account, that the largest portion of the increase is of colonial wools, and that in consequence of the shipments being much earlier than usual. There is no doubt we shall again, in the present year, receive an additional quantity from the colonies, equal to their steady increase, but not in anything like the proportion which has already arrived, compared with last year. As far as our in- vestigation goes, we are induced to believe that the im- port of European wools in the present year has rather diminished than increased. While, therefore, we un- questionably have a smaller stock of home grown wools, we have a larger one of those of foreign growth, though the latter may merely be in anticipation of shipments which arrived at a later period last year. The re-shipment of foreign wools has also been on a smaller scale even than last year. The whole of the quantity imported has been re- tained for consumption, except the trivial quantity of 275,3251bs. But the export of English wools, however, shows a considerable increase in comparison with former years. Exports of English Wool from January 5 to May 5. 1843. 1844. 1845. £92,966 £55,126 £152,491 So that, at an average of 15d. per lb., the quantity of English wool exported to the 5th of May was equal to 1,639, 8561bs. In forming an estimate of the supply of the future portion of the year, we will first advert to the circum- stances which we think are likely to affect the supply of home-grown wools. There seems now to be no doubt entertained by any one that the clip of the present year will be considerably less than an average quantity. The long and severe winter, and the great scarcity of fodder, no doubt operated to induce the farmers to send an unusually large quantity of sheep to market, so that the number yielding fleeces will be much fewer at this clip than in recent years. Moreover, there is no doubt that the same causes have operated in making the average weight of each fleece less than usual. In some parts of the country, especially in some of the counties south of London, this deficiency has been carefully estimated at one-fifth ,• but, taking the average of the whole county, and from both causes, the lowest estimate of deficiency is from one-eighth to one-tenth. From inquiries which we have instituted, we much fear that similar causes will operate in every part of Europe to produce lighter fleeces, and, in all the popu- lous districts, a considerable diminution of their number. We cannot doubt the diminution of the whole clip on the Continent will be at least equal to that in this coun- try. We are, therefore, brought undeniably to these conclusions : — First, that not only in England, but also throughout the Continent, the stocks of old wool were more closely worked up at the commencement of the present clip than in any recent year ; second, that the produce of the clip must be considerably less through- out Europe than in average years ; and, third, that up to the present time the report of colonial wool shows a great increase on any former year ; but it remains to be seen what portion of that increase is actually greater production, and what part merely earlier arrivals. These are all the ascertained facts as to the present and future supply. As far as regards the existing rate of consumption, we apprehend there can be no difference of opinion that it is in every department of trade greater than at any former period, and likely to continue so in every branch, unless the spinners at Bradford should be induced to lessen their produce, on account of the prices they ob- tain being barely remunerative. With regard to the consumption of the last three years, there is an import- ant feature which every close observer connected with this trade must have seen, namely, that the consumption of each of these years has been greater than the actual growth and import, and has been made up by the gra- dual use of the stocks which accumulated from 1839 to 1842 ; and it is certainly within the truth, if we say that the consumption of the three years — Midsummer 1842 to this time — has been equal to four years' growth ; and 180 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that the present year, into which we are now entering, is the first in which we have to rely simply on the pro- duce of the year for the supply of the year. As far as regards cur export trade of woollen manu- factures, the present year, so far, exhibits a further in- crease even upon last year, as shown by the following table : — Woollen Yarn and Manufactures Exported from Jan. 5 to May 5. 1843. 1844. Yarn .£125,774 .. £210,439 Manufactures 1,802,782 .. 2,351,884 1845. £273,930 2,483,916 £1,928,556 £2,562,323 £2,757,846 The present year is still in excess of last year, not- withstanding the large falling otf to India, the United States, and some other important markets. We know of no good reason to apprehend any falling off during the rest of the year in this branch of the trade. With regard to the home consumption, we have the best grounds for anticipating, not only a continuance of the late demand, but a considerable increase during the autumn and winter. There is no doubt the labouring population are now in a better state than they have been for a long time ; and, as the railway projects come into activity during the autumn and winter, the epiantity of employment will, with other branches, be greater than for many years past. We cannot, therefore, but antici- pate a great increase in the home consumption of wools, in common with all other goods and produce during the next year. The considerations and facts which we have now ad- duced, as likely to affect the price of wool, are strong in favour of its future prospects, inasmuch as stocks oa hand are comparatively light, and the whole European supply will be considerably deficient, while the general consumption is likely not only to be sustained, but even increased, if not checked by too sudden a rise in price, which would be very prejudicial to all parties. ESTIMATED averages OF JULY. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. Thermometer. , Wind and State. Atmosphere. Day. 8 a.m. 10p.m. Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p. m. 10 p. m. June 21 in. ct-. 30.13 in. cts j 30.04 , 51 70 60 X. East lively fine sun fine 22 30.00 30.06 ! 56 68 55 N. N.W. brisk fine sun fine 23 30.14 30.14 | 49 68 60 West, by N. liv. calm fine sun cloudy 24 30.10 29.85 55 65 57 W. N.W. strong haze sun cloudy 25 29.86 29.86 54 64 56 West brisk cloudy sun cloudy 26 29.80 29.88 52 64 56 West live, brisk fine sun cloudy 27 29.80 29.48 53 58 57 West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 2& 29.33 29.82 1 53 62 53 West by N. brisk cloudy cloudy fine 29 29.88 29.94 1 46 63 55 W. to S.W. lively fine sun cloudy 30 29-90 29.90 54 64 56 Westerly gentle fine cloudy cloudy July 1 29-59 29.65 55 65 57 West strong cloudy sun fine 2 29.80 29.83 53 61 57 W. S. by E. calm cloudy cloudy cloudy 3 29.70 29.87 j 56 72 57 Every way cal. brisk haze cloudy fine 4 30.00 30.13 j 54 66 58 S. by East gentle cloudy sun fine 5 30.18 30.20 ' 52 68 58 S. by East variable fine sun cloudy 6 30.10 30.00 56 76 67 S. by East gentle fine sun fine 7 30.00 30.02 60 73 63 Westerly gentle fine sun fine 6 30.01 30.00 j 58 68 58 S. by East brisk cloudy sun fine 9 30.00 30.00 57 65 57 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 10 29.87 ' 29-75 j 55 63 58 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 11 29.56 ! 29.78 ! 57 63 52 S.W. N. by W. brisk cloudy cloudy fine 12 29.92 I 30.00 45 59 53 Northerly live, calm cloudy cloudy cloudy 13 30.00 1 29.92 52 65 58 N. West calm cloudy cloudy cloudy 14 29.92 I 30.05 56 63 54 North brisk cal. cloudy sun fine 15 30.08 I 30.08 49 62 53 North gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 16 30.08 j 30.05 48 64 58 N.W. W. lively fine sun cloudy 17 30.04 1 30.06 55 66 59 W. W. by N. lively cloudy sun fine 18 30.11 1 30.12 55 68 60 W. by North gentle fine 6un fine 19 30.11 1 30.08 57 68 57 W. byN.N.E. gen. brisk fine sun fine 20 30.08 30.00 54 59* 57 N. N.W. gentle cloudy sun cloudy 21 29.99 29-97 1 56 68 60 E. by North. variable cloudy sun cloudy Barometer. Thermometer. North and N. East Winds . . High. ! Low. High. | Low. | Mean. 5 J days. 6 30.30 | 29.39 76 j 42 | 61 Real Average Temperature of the period. 91 io± High. Lo 65,42 53 w. Mean. 64 59.56 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 181 Wbather and Phenomena. — June 21st, . 22nd. Beautiful— hot sun— brisk wind. 22rd. j Change indicated. 24th. Hazy morning— great depression in temperature. 25th. Wind gradually veers to the wet quarter. 26th. The same — clouds give signs of rain. 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th. Rain more or less — low temperature and generally doubt- ful. July comes in wet. 2nd. Temperature im- proves. 2nd, 3rd. Both rainy — warmer. 4th to 6th. Rising barometer and great heat. 6th. Re- corded for furious storms and hurricanes — in Berkshire the day most beautiful, with only a few evening coruscations. 7th. Brilliantly fine, but change , indicated. 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th. Rain at intervals —strong wind— cold. 12th. Very cold and quite overcast. 13th, 14th. More or less rain. 15th. ! Swithin — fine forenoon — one shower. 16th. Fine. this superstition ought to be forgotten. July is ' the season for periodical rain: splendid weather | frequently succeeds a wet Swithin's day, reducing the saint to the dilemma of a shuffle; at all events, I we have had three fine days since the 15th. 17th. A little rain. 13th, 19th. Warmer and fine. 20th. Drizzle early— fine day. 2 1st. Much the same. Lunations. — Last quarter, June 26th day, 3 h. 27 min. after. July. New moon, 4th day, 4 h. 30 min. after. First quarter, 12th day, 2 h. 22 min. after. Full, 19th day, 6 h. 3 min. morning. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The season is too cool, and, therefore, the harvest must be rather late. June promised to recover lost time, but the equinoctial prognostic of frequent, sudden, mutations has been, and is realized. To trust to appearances, here there is plenty, with capi- tal quality and no damage, excepting from over heavy and luxuriant barley being partly lodged and twisted into gaps by this very windy season. It is to be hoped that our fears only have been excited, for we see no cause of alarm, and assuredly the corn crops give earnest of amazing improvement on the part of the cultivators. J. Towers, Maiden-head Thicket, CALENDAR OE HORTICULTURE.— AUGUST. Retrospect. — July, to the middle of the month, was of an ungenial character; but there exists so great a disproportion between the meteoro- logical phenomena of places, not even remote, that it is impossible to give any description of weather or results which can be generally applicable. Thus whole columns of reports refer to storms, on the 6th July, with devastating hurricanes, and hail, which laid waste fields, gardens, orchards. With us, not thirty miles direct west from London, the day was one of splendid sunshine, but oppressive heat. At eight, p.m., red and sombre clouds fringed the north-west horizon, wherein a few faint flashes were occasionally discerned; and two hours after, a fine cumulus cloud, in the south-east, was frequently illuminated. Not a roll of thunder was heard, nor did a drop of rain fall ; and the next day was still more beautiful. The ground was dust dry ; and though the weather had become rainy on the whole, the subsoil remained dry. Thus it will l;e evident that all our statements must be purely local and comparative ; but, upon the whole, vegetation may be considered healthy and promising, though we are constrained to qualify our favourable statement with the more assured fear of short and injured crops of apples, pears, plums, cherries, and grapes. Strawberries failed terribly, in ground so dry as ours, where rain scarcely fell till after the scorch- ing, sudden heat of June, and nothing but well- water could be obtained. They have been numerous, though late, in irrigated gardens, and in rich, moist, retentive soils. Operations in the Kitchen Garden. First week. — If turnips are not already sown, omit them no longer, otherwise the bulbs will be small: there is a yellow, high-flavoured variety, which we seldom see ; the yellow Dutch, or Maltese, are excellent. Sow the Yorks, Nonpareil, and other favourite cabbages, within the first ten days, for coleworts, and spring hearting plants : the precise season depends on the experience of local capability ; but, in ever}' instance, a great allowance of manure must be given to the final beds : the seed-plots need not be rich with manure. Sow caulifloicer, and again about the twenty-first day ; and repeat, as occasion requires, sowings of small salading, radish, lettuce, also carrots, and onion for early spring use; parsley for a main crop. Second week : Sow the chief crop of winter spinach and endive. Celery. — Transplant the last set of plants ; and earth up very carefully those in the earlier trenches. It is always prudent to consult the habits of plants for rotation, in reference to the varieties of soil. Loams, sand, rich and poor ground, are words of common occurrence; but they express little. A good loam is a combination of clay, t=and, chalk, and oxide of iron, with chemical traces of phosphate and sulphate of lime ; but these consti- tuents admit of fifty modifications ; yet, if the colour be hazel or rich brown, the texture unc- tuous, but not clodding, it is a soil wherein (when new) all the Brassicas will come to perfec- tion without manure; and though, after a period of cropping, the natural salts may be reduced, yet manure, with the salts of ammonia (all rich in nitrogen), will restore it to heart directly. If sand abound, potatoes flourish the more ; and these, as well as celery, revel in vegetable, peaty soils. Now, all soils must be duly enriched to bear successive crops ; but rotation, to a certain extent, is still re- quired; and, therefore, we would endeavour to make potatoes and Brassica alternate, recollecting that nitre (or saltpetre) is congenial to the former. After celery may succeed onions, because they like deeply wrought and enriched earth. Peas and kidney -beans affect nitrogenous earth with plenty of vegetable matter ; and broad-beans like a stiff loam; herein the latter and the Brassicas may also alternate. These general directions are not given 182 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. dictatorial!)', but are intended to induce watchful- ness and forethought. Fruit Department. J) 'all trees. — Many gardeners advocate and practise a much earlier regulation of peaches, nectarines., apricots, and plums ; but they either overlook the vigour of the July shoot, or prefer two operations. It may be very well to cut right away those rampant shoots, which are fore-right ; but we can see no advantage whatever in tak- ing out young wood till the summer growth be completed ; and particularly in a season like the present, which is at least a fortnight later than usual. Within the first week of this month, how- ever, it is quite time to look over every tree ; and selecting the shoots best prepared to be succession bearers of next year, to nail them in due order, and then to cut out every superfluous shoot. By so doing, the fruit will still be guarded by leaves, and yet exposed sufficiently to the maturing power of the sun. All spur-bearers ought to be pruned rather low, so as to cause the lowest buds to swell. Were apples, pears, and cherries cut hack in July, three or four wood-shoots would break from lower buds, every one of which must again be shortened. The wall-trees and espaliers ought now, however, to be brought into neat, trim figure, not by close spurring, for that is the work of winter, but by due fore-shortening to within five or six eyes above the origin of the brushwood and secondaries, which advance from spurs already formed, or that may be converted to such by judicious pruning. Vines are late: every lateral and useless green shoot should be removed, to let the sun have full power upon the main leaves and future bearing- wood. Strawberries. — By the middle of the month, the runner-plants are pretty well rooted ; ami if the portions of ground intended for beds or rows be moderately moist, they can be more safely planted out than at any period of the autumn. To pre] arc beds, first scatter a peck of bone-dust over every pole of the surface; then open an eighteen-inch deep trench at one end, and carry the soil to the other; place four or five inches of good manure at the bottom ; turn in half the soil of the next ad- joining space, and fork it up with the deposited manure, laying on an another coat of manure, but only of half the depth, and place upon that the earth remaining in the second trench ; so proceed, till the plot be completed. This work should be done early in the month, to allow of settling; and at the time of planting, fork over the surface for the first row, and set the runner-plants six inches apart, with as much soil as possible adhering to their roots, and give water to each. Work back- ward, and finish off, so as not again to tread the soil. Place each row two feet distant from the row last planted ; and thus, at the end, there will he a bed formed so thoroughly in heart, as to remain richly fertile for three entire seasons. There will be another advantage from such thorough preparation of land; for when the strawberries become old, they can be digged in ; and the site, with a little fresh dung, will thus be ready for any vegetable crop, deep enough, and stored with vegetable- decaying substances : thus a whole garden may be gradually trenched and enriched, rewarding labour all the time by one of the most delicious fruits due to industry. Of varieties, none equal for high flavour the old pine ; and, if obtainable, the genuine purple hautbois. Kean's is a weighty bearer, early, and very prolific. British Queen, large, fine-flavoured, a good bearer where it takes : and Knight's Elton, late ripe, tart, and exceedingly handsome. Cut away all the runners from plants which have done bearing, always keeping the rows distinctly apart ; but never dig the spaces, hoeing lightly the surface only to destroy weeds. Keep all fruit plots, in like manner, clean and orderly. Bud cherries, plums, apple and pear-trees. Floral Departments. Keep the ground clean; transplant perennials and biennials. Propagate, by oil-sets, auriculas and primulas ; support sweet-peas and other climbers ; gather seeds, and remove all annual plants that are past flowering. Bud roses of every desirable variety, some on low, others on high stocks, as standards. Prune evergreens, dress lawns, roll them and the gravel walks. Forcing Department. Keep up a full growing heat in the pine stoves. The late Vinery ripens its fruit, and therefore should enjoy abundance of air. If the nights be- come cold and damp, it must be prudent to light tires early in the day, so as to warm the flues, letting a stream of air pass from the front to an opening in the back-wall, under the sashes, which we hold should always be fixed, to avoid the temptation of leaving them open, and thus admit- ting foggy, damj) air. West's St. Peter's will keep all winter, provided the house be dry ; but its deli- cate berries suffer speedily from mouldiness. Melons ripen fast, and like plenty of ail : the glasses should be tilted, but not slided down, un- less it be during the warmest nights ; the heat by sun cannot be too high, provided the air be ; given behind by tilting. Greenhouse plants are generally exposed ; but they ought to have a north aspect, or rather, be in i inclosures made of well-kept yew hedges. Gera- niums arc now propagated by cuttings ; and these should haw bottom heat, to strike in, and then be potted off into pots suited to their balls of roots. Camellias are best in cool, shady pits, till the '. power of the sun abates. Heaths cannot have too much air, but should be under glass, with a northern exposure. At the end of the month begin 1 to take up, and carefully pot some of the best ! shaped small Pelargoniums that have been in parterre. Examine all the flues and water-courses, seeing that there be no defect in any machinery. Dent v. Royal, Farmers1 Insurance Com] j pany. — In this case the Company disputed the | claim made upon them for a loss by fire. The question was referred to arbitration, and an award - given in favour of the Company, with full costs. This Company lias only disputed two claims since its establishment, and in both cases the result was the same. THK FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 183 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JULY. As is invariably the case at this particular period of the year — one of the greatest importance to the community at large, from the near approach of har- vest work — the weather and the state of the crops in the fields have been the leading topics of discus- sion during the whole of the month just concluded. As usual, a multiplicity of statements has reached us from nearly every part of the United Kingdom, relative to the future prospects of the agricultural body ; yet, many of them having evidently been written without a correct knowledge of matters in general, we feel some little difficulty in arriving at accurate conclusions. However, it appears to us tolerably evident that, notwithstanding the asser- tions of some parties to the contrary, the wheats (though their progress towards maturity has been considerably impeded by the prevailing changeable atmosphere, and which must, of course, render the commencement of harvest somewhat later than usual), with some few exceptions, have not suffered to any serious extent. It is quite true that, in places, they have been caught by the blight ; but the instances are not, in our opinion, sufficiently numerous to warrant us in joining in the cry of alarm which has been so assiduously spread within the last two weeks. Looking, then, at all the cir- cumstances which bear upon the future prospects of the agricultural body, we are free to confess that, should the weather during the next month prove fine, a full average supply of wheat will be gathered in most parts of England. The rains which fell during the last fortnight of the month have, as might be expected, been taken advantage of by the holders of wheat, who have raised their pretensions, not only at Mark Lane, but, likewise, at the whole of the leading country markets, where the prices of that article have improved from 3s. to 5s. per quar- ter, at which advance the millers have purchased freely. It would, of course, be impossible for us to say at what point the improvement may stop, as everything must, for some time hence, be princi- pally regulated by the state of the weather ; still, it is pretty evident that, from the fact of the stocks in the hands of the growers (arising from the unu- sually large consumption going on for some time past in our manufacturing and other districts) being by no means large for the present season, much lower prices than those now ruling cannot reasonably be expected. Besides which, the stocks of both free and bonded foreign wheat at this time in the country are extremely limited, without any prospect of any material addition to them for some time hence, although fresh supplies will from time to time continue to come in. Our letters, generally speaking, report in favourable terms of the crop of barley; yet we have advices from many quarters to the effect that extensive breadths have been lodged in some of the barley districts. Oats, beans, and peas, are well represented, and very large growths are expected by the growers. In all quarters the appearance of the crop of tur- nips is extremely good. This, of course, is a mat- ter of great importance to our graziers, who will now have an opportunity of feeding their beasts and sheep with what may be considered good and useful provender. Swedes are also looking well, and we expect a large crop of them. In some parts the hay harvest has been brought to a conclu- sion, under, for the most part, favourable auspices ; while a good second crop may be fully expected. For quality and quantity, the supply of grass has never been exceeded. Both in Ireland and Scotland, the weather has been extremely changeable ; while the heavy rains appear to have done considerable damage to the turnips, as also to the heavy wheats and barleys. Yet, the accounts state that an average growth of those articles may be expected. The best wheats and oats have been in fair request at full prices ; but all other grain has moved off slowly, and the rates have been with difficulty supported. The ship- ments of Irish oats have been large; those of all other grain limited. The great attention now paid to the working of the new tariff induces us again to enter into the question of the imports of live stock, under that measure, for our markets, during the past month. On a comparison with those of previous months, we find a very great and important improvement in them ; indeed, they have very considerably ex- ceeded the expectations even of the most sanguine in these matters, with every prospect — knowing as we do that the Dutch graziers are making in- creased exertions to augment their supplies — of further improvements in them. We find, then, that from the 8th to the 26th of this month, the impor- tations into London and at the outports — such as Hull and Southampton — were as under : — Head. Oxen and cows 1,168 Sheep 136 Lambs 20 Calves 49 Total 1,373 Out of the above quantities, 1,079 oxen and cows came to hand from Rotterdam, and 89 from Ham- burgh : the whole of the sheep, lambs, and calves being derived from the former port. Respecting the quality and condition of these arrivals, we have to state that they have proved extremely good ; still, the meat does not come up to that produced at home in its eating qualities. However, it has proved useful, as will be seen by the quotations. For instance : in Newgate and Leadenhall markets, beef has produced from 2s. lOd. to 3s. 4d. ; and mutton, 3s. to 3s. 8d. per 8lbs.; at which clear- ances have been effected without difficulty. We may mark, also, that most of the beasts carry a good quantity of internal fat, which, of course, renders them "valuable to the slaughterers. The total imports of beasts this year have been 5,660 head. The following is our usual monthly statement of 164 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield cattle market. The former have been as under : — Per 8lbs. to sink the offals. s. d. s. d. Beef from 2 10 to 4 6 Mutton 3 6 „ 5 0 Lamb 5 0 „ 6 0 Veal 3 10 „ 4 S Pork 3 0 „ 4 2 In comparing the above quotations with those at the same time in 1844, we find a considerable ad- vance in them, as is thus shown : — July, 1844. Per Slbs., to sink the offals. s. d. s. d. Beef from 2 4 to 4 0 Mutton 2 6 „ 4 0 Lamb 4 0 „ 5 0 Veal 3 0 „ 4 0 Pork 2 8 „ 4 0 During the month just concluded, the following supplies of fat stock have been on offer, the state- ment also embracing those last season : — July, 1844. Beast9 12,010 Sheep and lambs 159,290 Calves 2,041 Pigs 1,863 July, 1845. Beasts 12,292 Sheep and lambs 118,300 Calves 2,3GO Pigs 1,900 Owing to the great falling off in the arrivals of Bheep up to Smithfield market, the mutton trade has ruled very active, and the advance which took place in the currencies at the beginning of June has been readily supported. Lambs have also been maintained in value, with a very steady inquiry. Some fluctuation has occurred in the value of beef, arising chiefly from the large imports from Hol- land and the increasing supplies from Scotland by steamers; yet on the 28th beef advanced from 2d. to 4d. per Slbs., the primest Scots readily pro- ducing 4s. 6d. per Slbs. Up to the 15th, the beasts from Norfolk, Suffolk, and elsewhere, came to hand in very middling condition ; but towards the close of the month a decided improvement was noticed in them, as well as in the sheep. To the numerous inquiries made of us respecting the fu- ture value of stock in Smithfield, we beg to observe that our firm impression is that that of beef will not be maintained beyond the next fortnight or three weeks ; but as regards that of sheep and lambs— arising from the shortness of stock in the country — we are of opinion that it is safe for the next six weeks. The simple question for our readers to consider is, how far it is expedient to over-supply our markets. If they send to the Me- tropolis only moderate supplies, and in which they would be pursuing a correct course for their own interests, our opinions will be verified. On the contrary, large arrivals would produce a heavy effect upon demand, and much difficulty would be experienced in maintaining present rates. The droves of beasts for Smithfield have been chiefly derived from Norfolk, Suffolk, the northern districts, and the western and midland counties. Notwithstanding the changeable state of the weather, extensive supplies of slaughtered meat have been again received up to Newgate and Lea- denhall markets, they having amounted to nearly 1,000 carcasses of beef, 6,500 do. of mutton, 1,200 do. of lamb, 950 do. of veal, and 4,000 do. of pork. The trade in the above markets has ruled firm, at fully previous rates. EAST CUMBERLAND. As harvest approaches, every week that passes is of more importance than the preceding one, as the crop daily approaches to that state which becomes more criti- cal as it is more influenced by, and dependent on, the state of the weather. Taking the season altogether, it may be considered as one of the most favourable descrip- tion— much more favourable than on an average of years, the principal drawback being its lateness. It promises at present to be about perhaps three weeks more so than last year, but that will necessarily depend much upon the state of the weather between now and harvest. At present it threatens to be still later than lately anticipated, as the weather for some days ba:k has been cloudy, with an extremely low temperature tor July. During the month of May the temperature was exceedingly low, which retarded vegetation very much, but which circumstance was partially made amends for by the very warm weather experienced during a part of the month of June ; and there being a sufficiency of moisture in the ground, produced by gentle refreshing showers, crops of all descriptions progressed rapidly to maturity. Its effect upon the wheat crop threatened to be unfavourable, as the straw increased so fast in length that, on dry loamy soils, and where put in in good time, there was every appearance of its being laid before the ears were fully developed, and a consequent bad sample of grain and a deficient yield. Fortunately this has not turned out to be the case, and entirely owing to the stnte of the weather, there never having been what could be called a heavy shower of rain up to the present time. Though showery for some weeks, the rain has fallen gra- dually, and never a great weight of it at any one time. During the time the earlier wheats were in bloom, the weather was frequently boisterous, accompanied with rain and a dull cloudy atmosphere, which would, of course, have an unfavourable effect. The later wheats bloomed under more favourable circumstances. On cold-bottomed soils, especially in the later districts, the wheats are thin and weakly, and suffered considerably from the boisterous weather a few weeks ago ; and the effects of the wireworm on the late sown wheat on dry soils is still visible. But should the weather be fine be- tween now and harvest, a good crop of wheat may safely be calculated on. Barley is a bulky crop, and stanc's well, owing to the absence of heavy rains, and bids fair to be well fed and strong in the pickle ; but may not be so fine in the skin, in consequence of the lateness of the season. Oats promise to be a fair crop, with a consider- able quantity of straw, but not quite so bulky as in some former years. Grass and clover seeds have hit well in all kinds of grain ci ops, and look strong and healthy; a good foundation is thus laid for a good hay crop next year. The weather being favourable for hay-making, very considerable progress has been made, and much of it has been secured and in excellent condition. The weather, though showery, and, consequently, retarding THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 185 the operation of bay making, was not at all such as to do any injury to the quality. Sown grasses offered to be light during the month of May, being short, with the clov r thin and weak. But the succeeding favourable weather bus produced a considerable change for the better, and the crop has turned off an abundant one. The same applies to meadows, they having produced a very good crop ; the rich natural meadows by the sides of rivers, &c, are better than for some years back. The weather, at the time for preparing the land for green crops, was exceedingly favourable, and there was every opportunity of getting the seed in under more than ordinarily favourable circumstances. Potatoes come well, being little affected with dry rot ; and though they look only indifferent in some situations, on the whole they bid fair to be a good crop. There was never, per- haps, a finer season for turnips ; there being plenty of moisture in the land, they came well, are growing rapidly, and promise to be a better crop than for many years back. A large breadth has been sown, the opportunity for doing so being now so great, owing to the use of guano, and so much land being now rendered fit for that crop by draining. Pasture lands have grown well, and cattle have improved in proportion ; the influence of this has been felt in the markets for grazing stock, which have sold well, at considerably improved prices. Store sheep, too, have been selling well. Fat has maintained its price ; and the demand being good, at better prices than for some time back, has caused many half-fat animals to go to market. The tendency of this must be to keep up the price, it requiring more of this sort to meet the demand than if they had been properly fattened ; this must, of course, prolong the scarcity. The price of grain has been nearly stationary ; the last two market days the sale has been a little more lively, at perhaps a shade of improvement in price. Labour has been plen- tiful, and all employed that were willing to work. Mowers have been scarce, and many have felt a diffi* culty to get the grass cut so fast as they wished, and t lie price by the acre has been higher than usual. — July 23. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. BRENTWOOD FAIR, on Friday last, was well at- tended by buyers ; but the show was very short j conse- quently those sold went off at prices beyond those at previous fairs. It was remarked as a singular circum- stance that there was not a single lot of Scot beasts shown. The steward of the Duke of Wellington was present, and bought a lot of very lean four-year-old short-horned steers at £15 a piece, and Mr. George Simpson sold to the noble duke's agent, ten little polled beasts at £7 10s. a piece. COLCHESTER FAIR.— Owing to several fairs, Ipswich Races, and Braintree market, being held on Wednesday, there was a very thin attendance at this fuir, and the show of stock wras very limited compared with former years. There were between four and five thousand sheep and lambs penned, the major part of which were sold at prices quite equal to those which have been realized at Colchester market for the last few weeks. There were a few pens of very superior fat wethers, grazed by a farmer near by, which were greatly admired, and sold at prices full 3d. per stone beyond what has been before realized this season. There were no fat beasts, and not more than 400 of other descriptions. Fresh beasts sold well, but the demand for lean ones was slack, and sales could not be effected unless at a slight decline in prices. The horse fair was by no means well supplied. High prices w-ere asked for the few best cart colts, but we did not hear of any sales effected at higher prices than were obtained for similar qualities and age at St. John's Green fair. Cart horses of mature age and nags were of secondary and inferior descriptions, and very few transfers took place, as there was an evi- dent dulness in the trade throughout. CROYDON WOOL FAIR.— The quantity for sale was said to be greater than last year ; but as most of the farmers merely sent samples, the exact amount could not be ascertained. The principal buyers were Messrs. Legg, Lewes, Powell, Gibbs, and Goodhart ; but there were not a great many sales effected during the morning. The company dined at the Crown, J. W. Sutherland, Esq., in the chair ; there were present— T. L. Robinson, Esq. ; — Chasemere, Esq. ; T. Weal, Esq. ; H. Row- land, Esq., and Messrs. Pymm, Langford, King, Sten- ning, Gutteridge, Brown, and about 40 of the principal farmers of the neighbourhood; J. Ellman, Esq., acted as deputy chairman. Both buyers and sellers appeared at first rather shy, there being a feeling on the part of the latter that, from the present state of the wool trade, there ought to be an advauce, while the former did not seem inclined to meet this view of the case. The average price appeared to be about 13 id. for ewes and wethers, and about 15Jd. for tegs ; sellers were trying to get 14d. and 16d. Mr. Stenning offered 600 wethers and 400 tegs at 15d. all round. Mr. Legg said he would give 14d. all round. Mr. Powell said he would advance a little on Mr. Legg, and would give 14£d. Mr. Sten- ning declined to sell. Mr. Weill announced that he had sold all his tegs at 16d., and his ewes at 14d. (hear, hear). Mr. Legg then offered Mr. Ellman 14d. and 16d. for his wool. Mr. Ellman said he had offered it at 16d. all round, and he should not take less. If he kept it a little longer he had no doubt the markets wTould get up, and he should obtain a better price. The Chairman said, that but for the large importations from Australia, wool at the present time would be lGd. or 18d. per lb. In the course of the evening a good many sales were effected, and altogether the result of the fair was con- sidered to be satisfactory. NORTHAMPTON "WOOL FAIR was the largest that has taken place in this town. From an early hour in the morning waggons laden with wool began to arrive, and at eleven o'clock the arrivals had been so numerous that the space ordinarily devoted to the beast and corn markets was fully occupied. The total quantity of wool was 30,302 fleeces. The first part of the morning busi- ness was rather slack, prices not suiting the buyers. Later in the day, concessions on both sides having takm place, business became brisk, and large quantities of wool changed hands at good prices. The highest price, 35s., was obtained by the Marquis of Northampton. The lowest price paid was 29s. The average price was sup- posed to be about 32s. 6d. Some of the principal buy- ers were Messrs. Whitworth and Co., Varley, Viewers, Marriott and Son, Marshall, Coles, and Jacque.-t. We are informed that a large quantity of wool was disposed of that was not brought to the fair. Nearly every lot pitched was sold, but the weighing and clearing away were not finished until past midnight. We would sug- gest to the committee the propriety of adopting a differ. ent method of weighing the wool on future occasions. Much time and labour might, we are persuaded, be thus saved. There was an ordinary at the George Hotel, at two o'clock, which was attended by between thirty and forty persons. Nothing of general interest occurred. — Northampton Herald, 186 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF JULY. The weather has since we last addressed our readers been extremely various, at times so cold and wet as to give rise to serious uneasiness re- specting its probable effects on the crops ; but these periods of unfavourable weather have gene- rally been succeeded by short intervals of fine, during which powerful sunshine and drying breezes have been experienced, so that no material harm has been done. The frequent changes which have occurred have naturally been productive of some excitement ; for no sooner have the fears of one day been allayed by the auspicious weather which has succeeded, than an alteration for the worse has again occurred, calculated to revive the misgivings previously en- tertained respecting the ultimate result of the har- vest. Under these circumstances, we need scarcely say the securing of the hay crop must have been attended with unusual anxiety and difficulty. In the Southern counties, a large proportion was carted before the fine weather of June broke up ; where this was not the case, the quality must have been a good deal injured. Even in the immediate neighbourhood of London, many fields where the grass was cut quite in the beginning of the month it remained out till the 18th and 19th inst., it having at no previous period become sufficiently dry to admit of its being safely carried to the rick yard. In the North the bulk of the hay is still abroad, and much of the grass uncut. With all these disadvantages the yield will, we believe, be large, but the quality must of course be extremely various. With respect to the appearance of the growing grain crops, reports are, as is usually the case at this season of the year, of a very contradictory character. Rumours of injury done to the wheat plant, or likely to be sustained under certain com- bination of circumstances, have at different times during the month been very prevalent. At one period, the heavy rain was said to have broken down the straw to such an extent as to render it impossible for the plant ever to regain an upright position. After a few days of fine sunshine, the matter was, however, admitted not to be quite so bad as at first anticipated ; subsequently the straw was said to be of too dark a colour, and we have also heard of red gum maggots and blight. We do not mean to affirm that these reports have been wholly without foundation ; but sure we are that the mischief likely to result from the weather hi- therto experienced has been much exaggerated. That too much moisture has fallen to be alto- gether favourable to wheat is unquestionable ; but a very large breadth of land is under this grain, which, with the superior drainage and other im- provements in the cultivation, will, we think, go far to counteract the effects of the superabundance of rain. The most serious cause for fear in our opinion is not that which has already occurred, but rather the danger which the crop mav still be exposed to before it reaches maturity. The want of genial warmth, both in the spring and summer, has kept back the plant, and it is admitted on all hands that the harvest must inevitably be a late one. Here lies the real danger, a fortnight lost or gained in the fall of the year greatly lessens or increases the risks to which the produce must be exposed ere it reach the stack-yard. L'p to the present period there is, we think, a fair promise of an average quantity of wheat, how the quality will turn out must depend on the weather in August and September. A considerable proportion of the growth will certainly not be secured till the latter month. The unsettled state of the weather, and the various reports it has given rise to in respect to the probable result of the harvest, have caused more or less excitement in the trade, and prices of the article have steadily advanced in all parts of the kingdom. The rise has been more important at those markets depending entirely on the farmers for supplies, than at the towns where stocks of free foreign wheat, however small, were held. That the latter are quite trifling admits of no doubt, and unless the deliveries from the growers hereafter become more plentiful than has been the case of late, the usual order of things will be reversed. Instead of London, Liverpool, &c. leading the rise, as in ordinary years, the advance has this season had its origin in the agricultural districts. Already the value of wheat is nearly if not quite as high at the shipping ports on the east coast as at Mark Lane, good qualities of red having latterly been sold in Lincolnshire and neighbouring counties at 52s. to 53s. per quarter. Those farmers who have been able to hold till now, are therefore obtaining more remunerating rates than any that have been made since last har- vest. What quantity still remains in the hands of the growers we have no means of ascertaining j but that millers and merchants have little or nothing to fall back upon is certain. It is therefore pro- bable that even with fine weather the recently es- tablished advance will be maintained until the new produce begins to come to market. Except in some very early districts, no wheat is likely to be cut till the second week in August, and reaping will probably not be general till about the 18th of next month ; , this is later than has been the case years past, and as the consumption of bread stuffs is at present extensive, there is little prospect of any surplus of old wheat remaining in the king- dom. The aspect of the growing crops of spring corn and pulse is generally well spoken of. Barley is said to wear a very promising appearance in those counties where this grain is most extensively culti- vated ; the only complaint we have hitherto heard of is its somewhat too great luxuriance, and its consequent liability to be lodged : indeed in some districts it has suffered from this cause, though not to such a degree as to give rise to apprehension. Of old English barley there seems to be scarcely THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 187 any remaining, and in many districts supplies from the growers have wholly ceased. There is, how- ever, still a considerable quantity of foreign left over, partly free and partly in bond. This circum- stance, and the limited character of the demand at this season of the year, have prevented prices rising, and quotations of the article have remained very nearly stationary as well in the agricultural markets as at the ports where the bulk of the foreign is held. The present duty, 9s. per quarter, is likely to check further importations from abroad, and will prevent that under lock being entered for consump- tion ; it is therefore more probable that the value of the grain will tend upwards than that any abate- ment from existing rates will occur. The weather, though too wet for wheat, has been favourable for the growth of oats, and the reports relative to the outstanding crop are of a very satisfactory nature, not only as regards Eng- land, but also from Ireland and Scotland. The trade in this article has taken a different turn to what was expected, the advance established in prices at the principal English markets during May and June, in consequence of the extreme scarcity of the supplies, brought forward larger arrivals from Ireland in July than had been calcu- lated on ; and instead of the further rise an- ticipated, a reaction has occurred. The Irish receipts alone would probably not have had this effect; but about the same period that increased supplies from thence began to make their appear- ance at the principal English ports, rather import- ant arrivals of foreign also came forward. We are inclined to think, however, that prices have now touched the lowest point ; old corn is sure to be required for some months to come, and as there are comparatively few oats of home growth in the country, the recent receipts, and any quantity which is likely to arrive either from Ireland or abroad are likely to be all required. Beans have held out rather better than was ex- pected ; the quantities brought fonvard at the dif- ferent markets have, it is true, been sufficiently un- important, still supplies have about kept pace with demand, and for some weeks past prices have scarcely varied. What we have just said with re- spect to oats is equally applicable to beans, viz., even after new shall have begun to come to market old will still be wanted ; and, as there can be no doubt that the last crop is well nigh exhausted, we do not anticipate lower rates. The arrivals of foreign have been small throughout the spring and summer : from the north of Europe very few have been received ; and the cargoes from Alexandria imported into London, Liverpool, Bristol, &c, have not on the whole amounted to the quantity expected. The duty on this article fell to 3s. 6d. per qr. on the 24th of July, the lowest rate charge- able since the existing corn laws have been in force. The stock in bond in the kingdom is by no means large ; it amounted on the 5th inst. to 46,528 qrs. With very trifling deliveries of peas from the far- mers, and scarcely any receipts from foreign coun- tries, the inquiry has continued slow ; and notwith- standing the scanty nature of the supplies, quotations have hardly varied since our last. Good boiling peas have brought very nearly the same price all over the country, viz., 38s. to 42s. per qr., accord- ing to quality ; and maple grey and other feeding sorts, 36s. to 38s. per qr. The duty has gradually receded, and is now only 4s. 6d. per qr., with a prospect of its receding another Is. in a week or two ; the stock at present under lock amounts to 1 3,455 qrs., will probably be liberated at the 3s. 6d. duty. We shall commence our remarks relative to the trade at Mark Lane by laying before our readers the quarterly account of the arrivals into London, with a statement of the supplies during the corre- sponding quarter in 1844, some useful information being afforded by placing the quantities received in the respective periods in a juxta-position. Arrivals from March 31 to Arrivals from March 31 to June 28, 1845. .Time 28, 1844. Wheat, English- 100,807 Qrs. Wheat, English- 80,468 Qrs. Scotch - 32 Scotch - 1,410 Irish - 100 Irish- - 10 Foreign- 44,315 Foreign- Total - - 142,993 Total - - 145,254 224,881 Barley, English- 18,283 Barley, English- 20,690 Scotch - 7,807 Scotch - 4,110 Irish 447 Irish 1,870 Foreign 37,625 114,162 Foreign Total - - 179,607 Total - - 206,277 Oats, English - 13,841 Oats, Euglish - 28,422 Scotch- - 24,418 Scotch 27,557 Irish - - 162,289 Irish - - 213,139 Foreign - 147,206 347,764 Foreign - Total - - 36,964 Total - - 306,083 Beans, English - 9,328 Beans, English- 14,237 .Scotch - — Scotch - 158 Irish- - — Irish-.- - 12 Foreign - 20,931 Foreign - 12,929 Total - - 30,259 Total - - 27,336 Flour, Knglish - 83,661 Sks. Flour, English - 77,582 Sks. Scotch - — Scotch - — Irish 608 Irish 444 Foreign - 376 Foreign - 50 » 3,922 Bis. Total - - 14,908 Bis. Total - - 84,645 Sks. 78,076 Sks. 3,922 Bis. 14,908 Bis. We shall make no comments on the differences shown in the various items, but leave the figures to speak for themselves ; it may be as well to observe, however, that since the close of June the arrivals of wheat have fallen off materially, the weekly sup- ply of English having only averaged about 5,000 qrs. Though the town millers have acted cautiously throughout the month, the value of wheat has since the commencement risen 4s. to 5s. per qr. at Mark Lane ; 50s. to 52s. was then about the top price of red, whilst 54s. to 56s. per qr. have latterly been currently paid. The first Monday in the month wheat began to tend upwards, on the 14th the advance amounted to about 2s., and a similar enhancement was again established on that day-week. So important and general an ad- vance as has occurred within the last two months has caused a material alteration in the 188 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. position of the averages, and though it is still doubtful whether any important fall will take place in the duty, there is every appearance of its reced- ing a step or two below the maximum point. The last London average was 55s., and tut general weekly return for the kingdom published on the 24th of July, 50s. per qr. ; it will, however, still re- quire a rise of 2s. 7d. per qr. on the aggregate by which the duty is regulated, to insure its fall below 20s. per qr. For some time past the entries of foreign wheat for home consumption have been trifling in the ex- treme, the possibility of a lower duty having in- duced holders of bonded to allow their property to remain under lock ; we have therefore had no additions to the stocks of free foreign by fresh im- portations, all that has come to hand from abroad having been warehoused in bond. The previously email quantity of duty-paid wheat in granary has consequently been further diminished, and there is now very little of good quality remaining at this port. The demand has at no period of the month been lively, still fine Danzig and the best sorts of red wheat have excited a moderate share of attention, and the rise on these descriptions has been fully as great as that established on English. About the third week in the month superior Ros- tock and Wolgast red wheat was sold at the high price of 58s., and for high mixed Danzig 60s., and we believe in one instance as much as 63s. per qr. was obtained. The transactions in bonded wheat have been comparatively unimportant, owing prin- cipally to the very high pretensions of holders. A disposition to enter into speculative investments has from time to time been manifested, but on every occasion business has been checked by the extra- vagant rates demanded. Moderately good parcels of red wheat have changed hands early in the month at 35s. to 36s., subsequetly at 37s. to 3Ss., and more recently at 40s. to 42s. per qr. ; whilst for high mixed Danzig prices have reached 48s. per qr. ; these prices are out of proportion to the value of the article free ; and, even sup- posing the duty should hereafter fall to 18s. per qr., the buyer could scarcely be expected to reap any advantage ; it is, therefore, by no means surpris- ing that the operations should have been on a restricted scale. By the latest official account, published 25th inst., it appears that there were 365,702 qrs. of wheat under lock on the 5th of July, of which 110,564 qrs. were in the London ware- houses. The steady enhancement which has taken place in the value of wheat has obliged the millers to put up the price of flour. For some time there was much uncertainty respecting the nominal top quo- tation, but on the 14th the principal manufacturers agreed to fix it at 49s. per sack, which advance has since been maintained. Norfolk and other Ship qualities have risen in the same proportion, good households which a month ago were obtain- able at 34s., having lately commanded 39s. per Eack. Some further arrivals of flour have taken place from Montreal for which high rates have been made, say for the best brands 28s. to 30s. per barrel. United States parcels in bond have been a good deal sought after and have risen 2s. per brl. The arrivals of English barley into London have been very small; trifling, however, as has been the supply, it has proved sufficient to satisfy the limited demand. In the finer descriptions scarcely any thing has been done, and it is difficult to give accurate quotations of malting barley. Distilling sorts haA'e also been neglected, and even feeding qualities, which have alone excited attention, have not risen in value. The latter circumstances may be accounted for by the fact that some quantity of free foreign barley still remains on the market, holders of which have been anxious to realise and have offered the inferior kinds at lower rates than sellers of English have been willing to accept; the loss to the importers must be considerable, as the greater part was bought abroad when prices were much higher both there and in this country than they have been of late, still arrivals continue to come forward from time to time partly from the Baltic and partly from the Black Sea. Since the duty has been at 9s. the greater proportion of what has been received has been landed under lock, and the quantity in bond has, therefore, slightly accumulated. On the 5th July there were 47.318 qrs. under the queen's locks in the kingdom against 18,972 qrs. the preceding month. The maltsters have experienced some difficulty in inducing the brewers to pay previous prices for malt ; really fine qualities having, however, be- come comparatively scarce, the best descriptions have been held very firmly at former rates. Secon- dary and inferior descriptions have been sold at irre- gular prices according to quality. In our remarks relative to oats last month we predicted increased supplies from Ireland, and subsequent events have proved that our opinion on that point was correct. In addition to fair receipts from the sister Isle we have had large arrivals from abroad, and though the supplies from our own coast and Scotland have been scanty, the value of this grain has tended downwards. The fall, however, has been almost wholly confined to secondary and ordinary kinds. Of the Irish oats which have come to hand, more than the usual proportion has consisted of light and otherwise inferior qualities, whilst the bulk of the foreign cargoes have arrived in very bad condition — some so hot as to be wholly unfit for use without being first landed and restored in some measure to condition. LTnder these circum- stances importers have naturally been very anxious to sell from on board ship, and to effect this object they have shown a willingness to accede to low terms ; the fall on some varieties from the highest point has amounted to is. to 2s. per qr. So material a reduction in the price of foreign has of course had more or less influence on the value of oats of home growth, and the trade has on the whole been exceedingly dull. As regards the future there is not much reason to anticipate higher rates, though we are inclined to think present quotations will be supported ; the grounds for supposing that no great rise can take place are, firstly, the large quantity afloat unsold at this port; secondly, the expected Riga and Archangel supply, which must now be close at hand ; and further, the receipts which must still be calculated on from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 189 Ireland ; added to which the crop on the ground is generally well spoken of, and green food of all kinds is abundant. , Beans have come forward sparingly; and, with only a limited retail enquiry, the scarcity of the article has enabled sellers to obtain quite previous prices. Good ticks have latterly been selling at Mark Lane at 37s. and 38s. per qr., and handsome samples 40s. and upwards. The few cargoes of foreign beans received have been placed -without difficulty at high rates, and importers must have realised good profits. Egyptians in bond have been held at 29s. and even 30s. per qr. since the fall of the duty to 3s. 6d. per qr. The stock under lock in London consisted, on the 5th inst., of 14,206 qrs. Of English white boiling peas scarcely a sample has appeared at market and very few maple or grey have come forward ; the previous value of the for- mer as well as the latter has therefore been fully maintained, though, at this period of the year, the demand for boiling peas is exceedingly trifling. It is not improbable that the duty in this article may fall to 3s. (id. per qr. in the course of a week or two. In taking our usual retrospect of the grain trade abroad, the weather experienced in the different countries from whence we are in the habit of re- ceiving supplies of grain, and the prospects in regard to the crops require to be particularly no- ticed. Contrary to what is usually the case, the character of the weather has during the summer been widely different in this country and continen- tal Europe. Whilst we had rather an excess of moisture in the early part of the season, in many parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia, the crops were actually suffering for want of rain ; and if dependence may be placed on the reports received from the principal Baltic ports, the produce of wheat in the districts where this grain is most extensively grown is likely to be very deficient. Owing partly to this cause, partly to the generally reduced state of the stocks, the foreign merchants have, notwithstanding the comparatively small quantity bought abroad on British account, ex- hibited very little anxiety to make sales of wheat, and the value of the article has gradually advanced at the chief shipping ports. At Danzig a good deal of speculation appears to have been carried on, which, with what has been drawn from thence to supply the consumption of the neighbouring town of Konigsburg, have enabled holders to realize very full terms. Good high mixed qualities, the growth of 1S42, have, it appears, excited the greatest share of attention ; and by the most recent advices we learn that equal to 42s. per quarter free on board had been paid. Wheat grown in 1843 and 1844, being of inferior quality, had been sold much cheaper; the supplies received from the interior down the Vistula, having been placed with some difficulty at 34s. to 36s. per quarter, accord- ing to quality. At Rostock, Stettin, and other lower Baltic ports, the stocks of wheat are stated to be very small, which, with the advices of an advance in the Bri- tish markets, have caused the value of the article to rise materially at those places. The most recent accounts from Rostock inform us that there were no sellers below 34s. to 35s. per quarter free on board ; and even at those rates it is stated it would be impossible to secure a large quantity of fine quality. At Stettin prices have lately risen to an equal height, contracts having been closed there for 61 to 62 lbs. qualities at 35s. per quarter free on board. Of spring corn and pulse very little appears to be left on hand at any of the continental markets ; and beyond some further shipments of barley and oats from Denmark and Sweden, there is not likely to be any exports of consequence this side of har- vest, old stocks of most other articles being nearly exhausted. In Holland and Belgium the growing crops of wheat are by no means favourably spoken of, and prices are quite as high in those countries as in the British markets. From the foregoing remarks it will be readily inferred that but little excitement would suffice to drive prices of wheat up materially all over Europe ; and should anything really occur of a nature to detract from the productiveness of our own crop, it would be necessary to pay very high rates abroad to make good the deficiency. We sincerely trust that so unfortunate a circumstance may not take place; for though high prices might be a tem- porary benefit to the farmer, he, like the rest of the community, must ultimately be injured thereby. Nothing would so much increase the power of the Anti-Corn Law League as a deficient harvest : whilst, on the other hand, a plentiful crop and mo- derate prices would be a severe blow to the agita- tion. The cheapest markets for wheat at present are undoubtedly ( )dessa and the Danube ; and whether we may require imports or not, some quantity will, we doubt not, reach us from the quarter named. The latest reports from Odessa state that sales of capital new wheat, weighing 62 to 63 lbs. had been made thereat equal to 23s. and 24s. : whilst for the common kinds, prices varying from 16s. to 20s. Cd. per quarter had been realized. Vessels were how- ever scarce, and freights high, which would, it was expected, act as a serious check to business. By the most recent advices from the other side of the Atlantic, we learn that the crops in the ground had materially improved in appearance, and that the trade in wheat, and flour had become dull at most of the principal markets of the United States. Good brands of western flour were never- theless still comparatively dear ; and even with the rise which has lately taken place in the value of the article at London, Liverpool, &c, it would not pay to import. From Canada we learn that the advices from Great Britain of the 4th of July had given an impetus to business in flour, and that some rather important contracts had been closed at 24s. to 24s. 6d. per barrel. These rates are high in comparison with prices here : still we are likely to receive rather a large supply from thence. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. July 28. Wheat, Essex 6c Kent, red .. 48 56 While .... 31 62 Norfolk and Suffolk.. 48 51 Do 50 60 RrE, new 30 83 Iudiah Corn 81 88 190 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. Barley, Chevalier, new 31 33 Distilling 27 29 Scotch 20 28 Malt, Brown 50 53 Halting ... ! Grinding .. ! Irish Pale Suffolk & Norfolk . Ware pale 56 5S Chevalier. OATS, English, feed 21 23 Potato, &c. Irish, Youghall&Cork.bk. 21 22 Cork, white Dublin ,21 22 Westport ., Clonmel , 21 22 Limerick .. Londonderry ,21 22 Sligo Newry „ 21 22 Gahvay.... Waterford „ 21 22 Ballina ... Scotch, feed „ 23 25 Potato .... 25 Peas, white, Essex and Kent, boWers new 35 Do. fine Suffolk 34 Do. do. extra 37 Do. foreign :>5 Do. non-boilers 34 Maple 35 Blue — Grey or Hog 34 Beans, Tick new 32 84 old 34 Harrow 33 35 35 Pigeon 35 36 38 Mazagan 80 32 — Flour, Town-made and first countrv marks, per sack.. 48 Norfolk and Suffolk '. 38 Stockton and Yorkshire 37 t'.l 26 sal 22 *a 23 20 •26 . sa 38 38 SO ' S3 PRICES OF SEEDS. July 28. Cloverseed nominal at present. Linseed, English, sowing 52 58 Baltic — — crushing 40 Linseed Cakes, English.. 11/. Os.lo Ml. 5s. per 1000 43 per q' Do. Foreign Mediter. ic Odessa 40 Carraway 44 Coriander 12 Mustard, brown, new.... 8 Rapeseed, English, new . . 2>.', Hempseed 35 Trefoil 17 10s. per ton. 44 46 new .. 48 50 per cw I. 18 perewt. 12 white.. 12 14 p bush 30/. per last. 38 per qr. 24 old.. — new — Tares, Spring. 6d. to 7s. Gd. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gnzette, of Friday last, July 23th, IS15. s. d. Whbat 30 0 Baulky 29 6 Oats '-2 4 Rye 32 8 Beans 39 9 Peas 40 2 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding (jazette in the last year, Friday, July 26th, 1844. K. "S «» 1 consumption, warehouse. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. LEEDS, July 15. — In combing and clothing wools the prices are firm at late epiotattons, and the demand is steady for the supply of the current requirements of the manufacturers. YORK, July 24. — We have had but. a moderate show of wool, with rather a slow sale, at the following prices : — hog, 15s. ; hog and ewe, Us. to 14s. 3d. ; locks and cots, 9s. 6d. to lis. ; moor wool, 7s. 6d. to 8s. per stone. This market, for the remainder of the present season, will be once a fortnight. LIVERPOOL, July 26. Scotch. — There has been a moderate demand for laid highland Wool this week. The accouuts from the fairs are rather conflicting, which makes buyers act with great caution. In white Highland we continue to have nothing doing. There has been a few sales of cross and cheviot Wool of the new clip, at barely late rates. Species of Grain. Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs White Highland do Laid Crossed Do. Do. Cheviot Do. White Do. 8. 8 12 do., unwashed.... 9 do., washed 11 do. unwashed .... 10 do. .washed IS do 23 d. s. 9 to 9 0 13 Wheat, from British Possessions ■ Oals, do j Peas, from do | Indian Corn, do. qrs. bush. 7073 850 3145 1340 Wheat, foreign 63'i90 Barley, do 37751 Oats, do 71318 Rye, do ' 1 Peas, do 83(16 Beans, do , 15004 Indian Corn, do 7520 Duck Wheat, do — jCwts. qrs.lbs. Flour from British Pos- sessions 75522 3 15 Flour, foreign j 3078 3 0 qrs. bush.! qrs. bush. 105 0 1 7065 8 0 850 0 4 2700 0 3 1310 3 3 1103 a 4 8564 5 6 46633 1 4 1 4 3 991 1 4 5648 1 4 159S 6 445 4 86.5597 47318 95566 130 10 46528 6977 cwts. qrs. lbs. cwts. qrs.lbs. 74874 0 o! 3177 0 27 320 1 14223428 0 13 Foreign. — The public sales of Wool in London con- tinue to progress satisfactorily, which gives a healthy tone to our market, and we have a pretty steady demand by private contract. FOREIGN. LEEDS, July 25. — A considerable business has been done in foreign wools, of nearly all descriptions and tpialities, this week ; and as the purchases made are. al- most exclusively to supply the immediate wants of the manufacturers, there appears every prospect of a con- tinuance of the present fair demand. Prices remain very firm. Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk Street, Strand, London. ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE ESSAY ON FENCES & C . '■and ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE ESSAY ON FENCES &.C. Hose r-S >n, Uth- iL, Norfolk. S* Sfrctnd.. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, SEPTEMBER, 1845. No. 3.— Vol. XII.] [Second Series. PLATE I. A HEREFORD OX. The subject of our plate is a Hereford Ox, the property of John Hudson, Esq., of Castle Acre, Norfolk (3 years and 10 months old). It was bred by Mr. John Longmore, of Orlton, near Leominster, and carried off the second prize of £15 at the Smithfield Cattle Show at Christmas last. It was fed on grass, hay, Swedes, linseed cake, and mangel wurzel. This animal was of first-rate quality. A great deal of discussion was raised at the show on the comparative merits of Herefords and short-horns ; we may mention an incident which occurred, and which would seem to tell in favour of Herefords. Mr. Minton, the Queen's purveyor, chose a Hereford beast, from which a baron of beef was taken as a present from her Majesty to the King of the French, and on last new year's day both their Majesty's tables were supplied from the same animal. PLATE II. ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE ESSAY ON FENCES, &c. ESSAY ON FENCES, &c. BY A PRACTICAL FARMER. The proper formation of fences seems, from present appearance, to have been hitherto a matter of little consideration. A great part of this country seems to have had its fences left by merely having fields grubbed out of a large wilderness covered with wood. These fences were, no doubt, composed of what- ever the surrounding wood chanced to be. A considerable portion of the most fertile soil seems to have been cleared of the wood, and where the grubbing of it was left off, there the fence or row of timber and underwood seems to have been made. As the best land became by degrees grubbed up, the necessities of the people caused them to extend their fields, so that in the course of time land of good and indifferent quality became cultivated. In grubbing up wood in this manner the value of a few acres of land must have been an object of no importance, judging from the quantity of land left in the hedgerows. The size of the fields seems never to have had much attention bestowed upon them. It may be observed that the boundary between good and bad land is generally anything OLD SERIES.} but straight ; and as the first cultivators would not extend their operations beyond the precincts of the good land, we may thus account for those crooked fences which are seen in almost all parts of the country. The first improvers of the soil having taken what they, no doubt, considered the best ground, would, if like the present generation, feel a degree of jealousy on seeing their neighbours begin to grub up the adjoining land. To prevent that feel- ing existing amongst them as little as possible, we may suppose that they must have left the large crooked divisions of fields, with the idea of not en- croaching upon each other's rights. As their wants became more numerous, and people more civilized, divisions or boundaries would become lessened, till they became what they are at the present day. In some parts of the country, wood appears to have been less abundant, and in other parts there seems to have been none at all; hence necessity compelled man to construct some other description of fence, for the protection and separation of his stock and crops. It will be impossible, within the compass of an essay, to define all the different manners of fencing ground, as minutely as in a large work. o [No. 3.— VOL. XXIII. 192 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In describing the different articles used for the formation of fences, I shall begin with the one most in use, the white thorn, or hawthorn (cratcegus oxyacantha). There are several other plants used for the formation of hedgerows, but as they are more of an ornamental nature than for the use of a tenant-farmer, and more slow and uncertain of growth than the hawthorn, I shall pass them over by merely giving their names. They are the sloe, or blackthorn (prunus spinora) ; the crab, or wild apple (pyrus acerba) ; the beech (fagus salvatica) ; the hornbeam (carpimus betulus); and the holly (ilex aquilfoUum). In describing any subject, it is necessary, in order to give correct information, to begin at the root of the matter. The extent and situation of the fields, although a matter of serious consideration, apart from this has no connexion with the formation of the fence. I shall, therefore, first take into account the forma- tion of the bank, or line of fence ; second, the preparation of the land, and the season of planting ; third, the preparation and planting of the thorn ; fourth, the protection and management of the thorn after planting until it attain sufficient size to be- come a permanent fence ; and fifth, the manage- ment of the thorn after it becomes a fence. For the better elucidation of the subjects treated of in this essay, I have thought it better, when necessary, to accompany the description with a diagram. 1st. As to the formation of the bank, or line of fence. In describing the formation of the bank for the planting of thorn, I shall entirely confine myself to those methods which I have found, from expe- rience and observation, to have answered best. Difference of locality will, no doubt, considera- bly affect the formation of such banks. In a suitable soil, and where the land is dry, the formation of a bank may be proceeded with in the following manner. Let the ground on which the fence is to be planted be dug or trenched two feet and a half in width, and about eighteen inches deep. A trans- verse section of the ground thus prepared is shown in the illustration, figure 1. This fence, including workmanship and all ma- terials, will cost about eighteen -pence per rod of 5 5 yards. Another method on dry land is to con- struct the bank as shewn in the transverse section, figure 2. By this plan a bank is raised about a foot above the level of the ground, by the sides being built up with turf cut from the adjoining land or brought from a convenient place, and the middle filled up with earth taken from the sides of the foundation of the bank. This bank should be 2| feet wide at top, and regularly sloped on each side. After it has thus been completed, it ought to be trenched eighteen inches wide and two feet deep ; or, a better way, is to trench the ground as the bank is formed, always leaving the best soil on the top. This fence will cost about two shillings per rod. The formation of a bank on wet land may be made according to either of the two ways as shewn in the transverse sections, figures 3 and 4. The only difference between these two methods is, that in Fig. 3, where the thorns are planted a scarcement of six inches is left between the brink of the ditch and the roots of the plants. The other bank, as shewn in figure 4, slopes regularly from the bottom of the ditch to the top of the bank, and differs only from figure 3 in not having any scarcement left. I have given sections of these (figures 3 and 4) merely to show the superiority of the one over the other. The expense of forming these banks differs little in either way. In cleaning the thorns it is necessary to loosen the earth, before the weeds can be effectually got out of it. In thus cleaning the ground at figure 4, the bank being sloped, the loose earth will, consequently, tumble down into the bottom of the ditch; and as this system of treatment must be resorted to at least twice in ever}' year, it must follow that each suc- ceeding year the roots of the thorn will be more and more exposed ; such exposure assuredly hurt- ing the growth of the plant, and eventually destroying it. Many fences, at the age of fifteen or twenty years, are by such means rendered useless. In cleaning thorns that have been planted on a bank formed in the manner as shown at figure 3, any quantity of mould which may be taken from the top of the scarcement and roots of the plants by cleaning away the weeds, is more than made up by the quantity which falls from the sloping bank behind the thorns in cleaning it. The mould thus loosened falls down the slope on the scarcement, amongst the roots of the plant, and makes up that quantity taken therefrom in cleaning away the weeds. These two ways will cost about two shillings and sixpence per rod. Having thus briefly described the different methods of forming a thorn bank, I shall, in the second place, describe the preparation of the land and the season of planting the thorns. The best season of the year to prepare the bank will be in autumn or winter; when the land is, comparatively, clear of all crops. It may be ob- served that the proper formation of the bank, though of considerable importance, is not more so than the preparation of the land prevkms to the planting of the thorn. The first operation in preparing the land will be to trench it two feet wide and about eighteen inches deep, taking care to keep the best soil nearest the top. In this state it should remain during winter, ex- posed to the frost. Early in the following spring it should have a quantity of good manure spread upon the surface, and dug in with a fork, and be allowed to remain till the month of May ; when a quantity of lime should be spread upon the top and hoed in. If any seeds should spring up during the summer, they should be immediately pulled out, so that the bank may be kept clean until the time of planting. About a week before the planting of the thorn is begun, the ground should be carefully dug over, and the dung, lime, and earth well and minutely blended together. When land has been thus prepared, it will be fit for the reception of the plants. The best season for planting thorns is in the autumn, after the leaf has fallen from the plant, which generally takes place about the latter end of October, or beginning of November. Thorns may, ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE ESSAY OH FENCES &c. ■ • : - Fig ' -. ■ ■ • h£h-. 14, Norfolk SKSb-asul. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 however, be planted any time from the end of October till the month of March, should the wea- ther prove favourable. In the third place, I shall take into account the preparation and planting of the thorns. Although the simple process of collecting and preserving the haws is by many so well understood, still, for the use of those who may wish to collect the seed and raise their own plants, and who may be un- acquainted with the proper method, I shall briefly state the system generally in use. After the haws are ripe, which will be about the month of October, they may be collected from any hedgerows where they can conveniently be got, and of any quantity that may be required. After being gathered, they should be taken to some convenient place, and spread out, about a foot in thickness, and mixed with dry, light soil, or sand ; in which state they should remain till the following autumn, when they will be fit to sow in beds. Some people allow them to remain in these heaps for eighteen months, and sow them out in beds in the spring. When lying in a heap the greatest care shoidd be taken to pre- vent them heating or fermenting too much ; as, by this means, their vegetative principle would be destroyed. If they appear to heat too much, they should be turned over occasionally ; by which treatment they would be kept uninjured, and the decomposition of the fleshy matter which surrounds the seed considerably hastened. The seed, when ready, should be sown out in beds ; or, a more im- proved method, in rows. The ground for the pur- pose should be a sharp soil, tolerably rich ; or, if not, made so, dug deep, and finely pulverised. The seed should be sown where the ground is being dug, and this will prevent the treading of the ground as little as possible. The width of sixteen or eighteen inches may be dug ; when the work- man should get a rake, and, standing in the trench, make the surface of the dug ground as fine as possible : with a hoe let him then make a rut, six inches wide, in which he should sow the seed with his hand. The thickness of the seed will be best adjusted by reference to its quality. After the seed has been sown, the earth should be raked on to cover it, of an equal thickness. The workman may again commence digging, and proceed in this man- ner until he has finished. After the seeds have been sown about twelve months, let the largest plants be drawn out, and taken to a convenient place, and rowed out. In drawing up these plants the greatest attention must be given, so that the roots of the plants pull up no more earth with them than is absolutely necessary ; as, even at that dis- tant period, a great many of the seeds will not have germinated, and if the plants are not carefully drawn up, a portion of these seeds are raised to the surface of the ground, and thereby rendered useless. When the seedlings are sufficiently large to be rowed out, a piece of land should be selected and prepared for the purpose. A poor soil should be chosen for rowing out the plants upon. The farmer, or whoever has a large quantity of fences to plant, should endeavour, if possible, to raise his own plants ; as they are, when properly attended to, generally stronger and better rooted than those purchased from nursery ground. The reason why the farmers' plants are, or ought to be, superior to those of the nurseryman is obvious. The nursery grounds are generally selected from good land in the vicinity of towns, and consequently valuable. It is therefore impossible, so to speak, for the plants in a nursery to be rowed out so far apart as those on a farmer's ground, where there are many odd corners, fit for no other purpose than being employed in such a way. The nurseryman, like every other cultivator of the soil, is anxious to get as great a produce as possible, and, consequently, in rowing out his plants, to save room, crowds them too much in the rows. The effect of this is, that the plants, instead of growing strong and well rooted, run up to a great height and have the appearance of a large plant at an early age. Plants thus treated may ap- pear a great length, and please the eye of many purchasers. A short, stiff plant, with a large root, is, however, decidedly superior to any plant so raised. The best manner of getting a good plant is for the farmer to grow them himself, or, which will answer his purpose equally as well and save him the greatest part of the trouble, will be for him to buy seedlings from the nurseryman (which will cost about two shdlings, or two shillings and sixpence, per thousand), and row them out himself, always taking care to select some poor soil for the purpose. In rowing out plants on such ground, they will be close enough together if put four to the foot, and sixteen inches betwixt the rows. Plants thus put in will have plenty of room to grow, and not force one another up too much. From the slow growth of the plants the stems will be much stronger than if raised quickly ; the ground being poor and deficient of nutritive matter, the plants will throw out more rootlets in search of food, than they woidd do on good and rich land. In cases where the plant grows too rapidly after being rowed out, they may be taken up and re- rowed, which will check the rapidity of their growth, and make them grow stiffer and better rooted. Plants will seldom have attained sufficient stem and roots to be planted out, before they have stood three years in the rows. During the time they are in the rows the land should be kept clean, and well hoed and raked, to prevent the growth of weeds. Having thus described the method of raising thorns, that which next claims attention is their planting in the hedgerows. The land having been prepared as previously described, and the season for planting commenced, the first operation will be that of taking up the plants and assorting them. When the weather is fine and no appearance of frost, as many may be taken up at once as will serve the planter for two or three days. When, however, there is any ap- pearance of frost, no more should be taken up than will be required for the day's planting. A careful person should be selected for taking up the plants, which will be best done by the common fork ; that implement not damaging the roots so much as the spade. The best method of assorting the plants will be by making three qualities thereof, viz., large, middle-sized, and small. Having thus assorted them, the next operation will be that of o 2 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. trimming the roots. This can be easily done by- grasping them firmly in the hand, and with a sharp knife cutting off the ends, the straggling roots, and those which may have been decayed or damaged in taking up. This operation having been completed, that which next falls to be done is the cutting away of part of the stem. This may be done by grasp- ing the root and lower part of the stem and cutting it through, at, or as near an angle of 45° as possi- ble ; leaving only three or four inches of stem above the root. After having rooted and trimmed them, they should be put into bundles of 25 or 50 each, and the three different sizes kept separate. If the plants are wanted immediately, they may be taken direct to the field, and planted. Those not used that day should be laid into the ground by the heels, as it is termed, to prevent their receiving any injury from too much exposure. Before the workman begins planting, he should carefully ex- amine the ground to be planted, so as to ascertain the different qualities of the soil. This, for con- venience, he may divide into three sorts ; on the best of which the smallest thorns ought to be planted, on the second quality of ground the middle-sized thorns, and on the worst portion of the land the strongest thorns. For the formation of a good hedgerow it is absolutely necessary to have the thorns sorted and prepared in the manner above recommended, before planting. "When the thorns are planted without sorting the smallest plants run a great lisk of being overgrown and choked by the larger ones. This indiscriminate planting is one of the reasons why we see so many blanks in young hedgerows. Immediately before the plants are put into the ground it may not be amiss to dip their roots into some urine taken from the liquid manure tank, and mixed with a little fine earth, to that consistency which will cause a quantity of the liquid to adhere to their roots. In figures 5 I have given transverse sections of the different banks or line of fence, made ready for the reception of the plants. In planting the thorns they should be put so deep into the ground that, when finished, only about an inch of the top of the stem should be visible above ground. Figures 6 are transverse sections of each fence when completed, and showing the situation of the plant. I 6hall now, in the fourth place, take into con- sideration the protection and management of the thorn after planting, until it attain sufficient size to become a permanent fence. The formation of the bank, the preparation of the ground, and planting of the thorn, would, if leit to themselves, form but a very poor fence : hence the necessity of protecting and managing them in a proper manner. To keep the young fence from the bite or tread of animals, it will be expedient to have a temporary protection along each side of it. In other situations it will only be necessary to defend one side, and in situations where there is nothing to injure the plant, it will be unnecessary to shield it at all. The materials used for the formation of a tem- porary fence will, of course, vary in different locali- ties. "Where wood is plentiful a very good protecting fence may be formed in the following manner ; any description of timber being used. Let stakes be cut out 4 h feet in length, and when the timber is so large as to require sawing, the stakes may be made by quartering the tree. "Where the wood is small enough, they may be cut the requisite length from the end of the tree Stakes formed in either way must be sharpened in the one end, for being driven into the ground. When the stakes are com- pleted, rails must be cut out about four inches wide and one in thickness, and of any length suitable. In putting up this fence the stakes should be securely driven into the ground, at the distance of two yards apart from each other, and at a regular distance from the fence. AVhen the stakes are thus set up, the first rail should be placed along the out- side of the stake, about a foot from the ground ; and at each stake let a nail, 3 h inches long, be driven through the rail into the stake. The nailing of the rail to the stake should thus be proceeded with, care being taken that the ends of the rails at joining are cut square off opposite the centre of the stakes. The second row of rails may be put on in the same way, leaving about a foot between the two. The third rail may be put on within a few inches of the top of the stakes. In some situations two rails will be sufficient. "Where wood is plentiful, this fence will cost about one shilling and sixpence per rod. A side view of it is given at figure 7. "Where wood is not so plentiful, iron wire may be used instead of railing ; the stakes being driven down as formerly described, and holes made therein, through which the wire ought to pass. The expense of executing this fence will ultimately be about the same as the other ; the difference in the first outlay being fully compensated for in the value of the old materials. Figure 8 is a side view of this fence when finished. Another description of temporary fence greatly in use in all parts of the country, and generally termed a "raddle fence," is made of stakes and binders. The stakes are driven into the ground in a slanting direction from two to tbree feet apart, and long boughs or withies bound between the stakes. This sort of fence, although deficient in durability when compared with the two others de- scribed, is nevertheless an excellent temporary division. Its cost will be from eighteen-pence to two shillings per rod. A side view of this fence is shown at fig 9. The common iron hurdle is the best temporary fence we have at pi'esent got ; and although the first outlay is considerable, still in the end it is the cheapest protection that can be erected. When hurdles are used, and the field happens to be in corn, the fence needs no protection, and they may be removed to another place where needed. Their cost will be from four shillings to four shil- lings and sixpence each, and are 6 feet in length. The rearing of the fence I shall now consider. During the first summer all that will be neces- sary is merely to keep the bank clear and free from weeds, which will cost about twopence per rod. Should any plants have died out, this will be the proper time to have the blanks filled up. The second year, in the month of February, or the previous autumn if preferred, let the 6hoots made THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1D5 by the thorns the preceding summer be cut off 6 inches from the ground ; the bank must be kept as clear as possible of grass and weeds all the sum- mer. This year's cutting and cleaning will cost twopence halfpenny per rod. In the third year, at the proper season, let the tops of the last year's shoots be cut off, leaving only about a foot of that year's growth ; thus the fence will be left about eighteen inches in height. Let the sides of the hedge also be dressed up a little, but not too near the stem of the thorn. This cutting and keeping clean of the bank will cost for the third year about the same as the preceding one (twopence halfpenny). The fourth year the fence must be cut at the same time as preceding years, and in a similar manner, leaving about 1 foot of the previous year's shoot. The fence will now be 2j feet in height. This year's expense will be about threepence per rod. The fifth year the fence will require similar treatment to the previous year, and when finished will stand about 3^ feet high. Its cultivation will cost threepence halfpenny per rod. The sixth year's treatment will be exactly similar to that of the two last, and will leave the fence high enough to need no more protection. The cost will be fourpence per rod for the season. The protecting fences will by this time be nearly useless. So far as the hedge is concerned this will be a matter of no consequence ; as it will be suffi- ciently large to protect itself, if it has been planted and managed in the manner described. I shall now in the fifth place, describe the man- agement of the thorn after it becomes a fence. All that will be necessary for its future welfare will be to cultivate the bank properly, and keep the hedge-row free from weeds. It will be neces- sary to cut the twigs off (in some localities termed brushing) once in every year. In the switching or brushing the fence it may be kept low, or allowed to get to any height to suit local circumstances and the taste of the gi-ower. A fence round a field where only sheep are kept need not be more than four feet in height, if shelter is not an object of importance. In exposed situa- tions it is of considerable importance to have the fence high to afford shelter to the stock. It may perhaps be desirable to have fences sufficiently high for every description of stock ; the best height for this purpose is from G to 8 feet. It is an object of considerable importance to have the top of the fence narrow, and the bottom as broad as possible. I have given, at figures 10, transverse sections of each of the fences at seven years' growth, which will show the appearance that they ought to have at that age. Having thus briefly described the best manner of raising a thorn fence, I shall, before leaving the subject, point out a few of the greatest blunders committed in attempting to raise a thorn fence without giving it proper management. A great many planters buy long, slender, bad- rooted plants, because they are a little less in price ; and instead of cutting the stem of the plant off be- fore planting, they plant them as they are, and very often upon land which has received no pre- paration whatever. I have known thorns to be planted on ground as full of couch-grass as it could hold, and, after being planted, left entirely to themselves, without any protection or looking after, and, at the end of three years, without ever having been cleaned. This sort of planter is as- tonished why he does not get a good fence. It would, however, be a much greater cause of aston- ishment if he with such mismanagement was to get one at all. I have seen many others, after having prepared the land tolerably well, plant the thorns without having the stem of the plant cut off. After thus allowing them to grow for two or three years they cut them half through, near the ground, and had stakes driven down amongst them ; and with the half-cut thorn and some binders, a sort of tem- porary fence has been made — half alive and half dead. This system cannot be deprecated too much ; it greatly injures the young thorn, and prevents its being a fence so soon as it would otherwise be. It is a common law of nature that two bodies, one of which is dead and the other alive, cannot long re- main together without injuring the one which is alive. The young live thorns are so much injured by being thus worked up with dead wood, that they seldom thrive well for a long time afterwards. Some parties, after planting the thorn without cutting the upper part of the stem off, allow it to reach a height of three or four feet without ever cutting it, and then, for the first time, cut a little off the top, which causes the plant to throw out lateral branches at a considerable height from the ground instead of near it. The fence by this treat- ment attains considerable height in a short time, but from not being cut off near the ground when planted, and afterwards cut annually, grows up thin at the bottom, and with a slender stem. It spreads out also by the twigs being cut off, and be- comes heavy at the top, and standing on a long weak stem ; consequently the hedge is blown about by high winds, and the roots very much injured. It is really necessary to have a thorn-hedge strong at its roots, and, by judicious cutting, to make it as broad at the bottom as possible, and tapering to a top as shown at figure 10. When thorn fences have been allowed to grow without being properly looked after, they will be- come, in the course often or twelve years, so thin and open at the bottom that they will be of no use for keeping sheep in the fields. The best treat- ment to which a hedge of this kind can be sub- jected, is, to have it cut down within a few inches of the ground, and the bank carefully dug and cleaned. Any blank which may be in the fence from thorns having died out should be filled up with young plants. Some people p refer, where these blanks occur, to have the nearest stem of live thorn cut half through, and laid down across the openings, and secured to the ground by means of small hooked pegs ; the stem thus cut and laid down throws up shoots, and fills the blanks they were laid across. This system of stopping up gaps in hedge-rows, although cheaper, is not so good as with young plants ; an old hedge, after being treated in the manner above described, will require the same treatment as recommended for the rear- 196 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ingand protection of young fences. In any descrip- tion of live wood it is of the utmost importance that in cutting through the stem the blow should be made upwards, and in a slanting direction ; by this means the force of the blow is directed against the portion of the stem cut off, which it splinters very much, and leaves the surface of the stem clean cut and free of splinters. If the blow be reversed the part cut off will be found uninjured, and the stub left with an uneven surface and much splintered. By this improper cutting the water gets into the splintered stub and causes premature decay ; the old stems by being thus injured throw forth weak shoots, which are easily hurt by severe weather. Although this system of cutting hedges with a downward blow is so injurious to the after growth of the plant, it is, I regret to observe, in many districts the prevailing custom. Whether this is from ignorance of its consequences, or from the negligence of the workman and master, I can- not say ; but whichever way it is, it cannot be doubted that the abolition of such a custom woidd materially improve the condition of many hedge- rows. The description of fence I shall now notice is the dry-stone wall. In high situations and mountainous districts the thorn will be found not to grow well, and therefore makes but a poor fence. These situations, how- ever, are happily supplied with abundance of material from which useful fences may be con- structed. In exposed situations it is most impor- tant to have a fence which will afford shelter to the stock in rough weather ; stone walls are admirably adapted for that purpose. In situations where soil and climate are not congenial to the growth of thorns, and where stones can be had, a cheap, durable, and efficient wall may be made of dry stone, without mortar. The best dimensions for a stone wall of this sort will be 6 feet high, 28 inches wide at bottom, and gradually sloped to 14 inches at the height of 5 feet 3 inches from the bottom or ground. On the top of this should be put a coping of thinnish stones of 9 inches high, set upon edge, and leaning back one against another ; this cope should project about a couple of inches on each side. The wail when finished will be G feet high. A transverse section of the same when completed is shown at figure 11, and a side view at figure 12. This fence, where stones are easily attainable, will cost about eight shillings per rod. This species of fence, though not so ornamental to a district, possesses several advantages over the thorn, or any other live fence, in high situations. It can be put up in a very short time, and when finished is of itself a complete fence, and serves either for the separation of fields, or as shelter to the stock. Before leaving this subject, I shall mention a few errors which some builders of dry-stone wall com- mit in the erection and execution of the work. It is absolutely needful, for the stability of the wall, that the foundation should be twice the breadth of its top; this, by many builders, is totally disregarded, although one of the principal points to be attended to, I have seen in many instances the sides of dry-stone walls built perpendicular, and coped with heavy stones, which were made to project over each side from 6 to 9 inches ; walls thus built cannot stand so well as in the man- ner previously recommended. The instances in my observation are not few, where walls built with perpendicular sides have actually fallen asunder. The system of building dry-stone walls I have heard condemned altogether as bad, merely through the ignorance of the operator, in having it dispro- portionately constructed. Another description of fence greatly in use in many parts of England is what is termed the " post and rail" fence, and is constructed in the following manner : — Posts are either used round or square, to suit cir- cumstances. Round posts should be not less than 6 inches in diameter, and if used square the side of the stake should be about 5 or 6 inches ; some people use rectangular shaped posts in pre- ference to either round or square. The length of the posts will differ with the number of rails used : where three are used, the posts will require to be 4 s feet in length ; and where only two are used, so great a length will not be required. The posts are generally set about eight or nine feet apart. The rails are formed by sawing a tree of only sufficient size down the middle ; and where the trees are large, a greater number of rails may be cut out of them. These rails are dressed a little at each end, and morticed into the posts. The wood generally used for making this description of fence is oak or chesnut. The expense of making this description of fence will no doubt vary very much in different localities ; the average cost per rod may, however, be stated at about ten shillings, and will last, with the addition of an occasional new post and rail, for nearly fifteen years. A side view, and also a transverse section of this fence, are given at figures 13 and 14. Another description of fence, used in districts where thorn would not grow, and were stones are not procurable, except at an enormous expense, is the furze or gorse (ulex Europceus), and is executed in the following manner. A bank is formed the same as a turf wall, four feet in height, six feet wide at bottom, and regularly sloped on each side to two feet wide at top. In forming the fence, let the site be marked out on the ground, six feet wide, and let an allowance of six inches more be added to each side as a scarcement. At the outside of this scarcement let the turf be cut off on each side, till a sufficient quantity is obtained to build the sides of the bank to their respective height. When the turf is thus cut off, let the best soil be carefully laid aside to finish the top of the bank with. The building up of the sides, and filling up of the middle of the bank, should be all proceeded with at the same time. The earth for filling up the middle should be dug out of the trenches at each side. The top should be finished with the best soil, pre- viously laid aside for that purpose. The best sea- son for making these banks will be early in the spring ; the furze should be sown about the month of March or April. The seed costs from Is. Gd. to 2s. per pound. The top of the bank should be made as fine as possible before sowing. The beet ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE ESSAY ON FENCES &-C. Roger., --',.<•••■'> THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 mode of sowing the furze will be to make a small trench or rut, at least six inches wide, along the top of the bank, in which let the seed be sown and covered in by the earth being raked over it. When finished, the seed should not be more than an inch from the surface. Figures 15 and 16 give a side view and transverse section of the fence, with the furze about a foot high. This fence will cost about 3s. per rod. The furze, like the young thorns, will in some situations require protecting for a year or two after sowing. The after treatment of this furze fence will be nearly the same as that recommended for thorn fences. They will, by being kept properly clean and brushed, or switched, form an excellent fence in a few years ; the proper season for switch- ing or brushing furze is in the month of June. In plantation fences, and such places as only require fencing from one side, the formation of the bank may be somewhat altered, and the cost of its forma- tion a little lessened. Figure 17 is a transverse section of this fence. The greatest evil attending this description of fence is, that the furze is very apt to be killed by frost in a severe winter. After they attain two or three years' growth, they however are not so liable to be injured as when young. After the roots get sufficient hold of the ground, although the tops should be blighted by frost, the roots will generally remain alive, and throw out new shoots. Having now described the different things more immediately connected with fences, I shall proceed to point out how far, in various parts of England, they are injurious to the farmer. First, by their size ; second, by their excess in number ; and third, by the over-abundance of timber which they contain. First, with relation to the extent of injury pro- duced by the size of the fences. It is the tenant's interest, after he takes a lease (of whatever duration), to get, by proper manage- ment, as great a return for his capital as possible. To enable him to do so, it is requisite that no more ground shall be taken up in the formation of hedgerows than is absolutely necessary for the sub- division of his farm. This saving of land seems, from present appearances, to have shared but little of that small attention bestowed upon the laying out and forming of the fences. The result of this inattention is shown by the fences being run crooked and uneven in all directions, and occupy- ing a greater portion of ground than is at all neces- sary. The land lost to a farm from being unneces- sarily taken up by these crooked hedges, is greatly increased by the acute angles found in the wind- ing of the fence, which prevents the plough from reaching near the side of the already too wide fence, and thus adds a quantity of land to the useless waste. It is no unusual occurrence in many dis- tricts to see fences averaging six yards in width. These, by their serpentine form, have their length extended fully a fourth more than is necessary. For example's sake, say that a fence of this descrip- tion was four hundred yards in length, and six yards wide. This, allowing it to be increased one-fourth by its winding would make two thousand four hundred square yards. A proper fence would only be three hundred yards in length, and need not exceed more than two yards in width; thus oc- cupying six hundred square yards in all. This sum deducted from the number taken up by the old fence would leave a difference of one thousand eight hundred square yards, or more than the third part of an acre. If the third, or even fourth-part of an acre could thus be saved on every four hun- dred yards of fence throughout England, the num- ber of acres clearly gained would exceed all belief. In the second place, I shall endeavour to show the amount of evil sustained from fences by their excess in number. In a farm of, say two hundred acres, it is no un- usual thing to see it divided into upwards of thirty fields, the largest of which will not exceed ten or twelve acres. From that extent we have them dwindling down to so small a size that they would not form a garden of sufficient size for a poor cot- I tager. This minute subdivision of the farm is not I at all wanted for its proper cultivation, but on the i other hand is ruinously unnecessary. A farm of ! the extent above stated does not require to be put into smaller divisions than fourteen or fifteen acres each ; a farm of two hundred acres might thus be divided into about fifteen fields. In many parts of England it is a general practice, in calculating the value of a farm, to allow a tenth part of it to be taken up in fences and roads, and from my own experience in the management of an extensive estate in the county of Kent, I find that this sum is by no means exaggerated. Now, allowing this cal- culation to be correct, which from experience I know it to be, there will be, in a farm of two hun- dred acres, twenty acres taken up in fences and waste alone. A farm of this size would in many districts be divided into thirty fields or paddocks ; this number, as I have before stated, is double the quantity required on a farm of this extent. Thus, by properly dividing the fields, one half of the fences might be abolished, and two-thirds of the remaining half, from their great width and un- necessary windings, might be safely done away with, and the quantity left would be about sufficient for fences and roads. On a farm of two hundred acres, where the fields are properly laid off, and containing about fifteen acres each, proper roads may be made, and all necessary fences erected, and not occupy more than 3 h acres of land, and for the site of the farm build- ings, adding another half-acre, we have four acres occupied in all; this deducted from the original number would leave sixteen acres to be added to the farm — no very small addition to a farm of that size. In the third place, I shall take into account the injury which the fanner sustains by an over-abun- dant quantity of timber being left in the fences. They are in many districts studded with trees, and the fields being generally small, I may safely state that, upon an average, they do not contain more than six acres each. Now, in a square field containing six acres, there will be six hundred and eighty lineal yards offence; half of this, however, which is all that belongs to the field, will be three hundred and forty yards. Now, any person at all ac- quainted with the rural districts of England, must 198 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. allow that on three hundred and forty yards of fence we shall have an average of nine trees ; this being about one tree to about every thirty-eight yards of fence. Taking this calculation as correct, which I think no one will dispute, we have I5 trees to every acre of land. These trees, I am sorry to say, are not always confined to the hedgerows, but repeated instances are to be found where they are allowed to grow in the open fields ; those trees thus situated are even more injurious to the tenant than such as are left in the hedgerows. I shall not be overshooting the mark when I say that the average size of an English tree will cover at least one hundred square yards, and with a tree- and-a-half for every acre, we shall have one hun- dred and fifty square yards overhung by the branches of the tree, and occupied by its roots. To this sum we may safely add other fifty yards as damaged by being shaded ; this will make the total sum two hundred yards, or nearly the twentyfifth pa'-t of an acre. To this may be added the great inconvenience in working the land, occasioned by the agricultural implements coming in contact with the roots of the trees and the trees themselves, where situated in the open fields ; which will make the deterioration of the land in value, by the over- abundance of timber alone, not less than five per cent. It would be much better to set aside a portion of land for the purpose of growing timber, and in this way it would also be more profitable for the land- lord, the tenant, and the labourer. We have thus, by the size of the fences, their excess in number, and the over-abundance of tim- ber which they contain, the land depreciated in value fully thirteen per cent. Thus in a farm of two hundred acres, by merely having what ought to be, roads and fences properly planned and exe- cuted, we should do as much for the farmer as if we were to add twenty-six acres to his farm. The value of it would be increased thirteen per cent., and by proper management, such as a better rota- tion of cropping and proper working and manuring, the land might be increased in value fully twenty per cent. This proper working and manuring, however, cannot be effected by the means presently used in many districts. The proper cultivation of the land will never be economically performed with an instrument for a plough which, in the present age, may fairly be termed a monstrosity, drawn along at a snail's pace by four, five, six, and some- times seven elephant-looking brutes, generally ac- companied in their slow pace by a man, lad, and a boy of equally slow pretensions. It seems to be the intention of the blacksmith and shoemaker, if we may be allowed to judge from appearances, to shoe the men and horses as nearly alike in weight as possible, so that the one may not outstrip the other in speed. Should the horse make an attempt to go faster than usual, his bridle rein is immediately tightened by one of his clodhopper attendants, so that he might not disturb the customs handed down, from J twenty generations, to the present agriculturist. The preparation and application of the manure in many districts too, deserves the most severe censure and condemnation. It is not unusual to see dung half prepared carried out to the fields and laid out in small heaps ; in which state it is frequently left for six week9 without any alteration. After remaining thus long in one way, exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, I have seen the remains of this half pre- pared stuff spread over the surface of the ground, and allowed in hot weather to remain a few more days before being ploughed in. The effect of proper preparation and application are thereby rendered useless by the negligence of the operation. An immense stride must yet be made in agricul- ture before such farmers reach even the borders of chemistry. If the feudal notions and old customs still in existence, which are a disgrace to this pre- sent enlightened age, were abolished, agriculture would receive more improvement in one generation than it has done for the last thousand years. Before any tenant farmer would bejustifiedin making landlords' improvements, however, he must have some security for the return of his capital in shape of a twenty-one years' lease ; or if the landlord will not grant a lease, he ought to make the im- provements himself, and let the farm " at its in- creased value." If twenty-six acres were gained to a farm of 200 acres as before stated, by proper roads and fences, and rightly cultivated, it would raise a gross produce of at least £10 per acre, which makes the sum of £260. From this deduct £173 6s. 8d. for rent and tenants' skill and capital, and we would have a balance of £86 13s. 4d. left for labour. This would be sufficient to employ constantly two extra labourers on such a farm, and afford them good payment ; or one labourer extra on every 100 acres. By carrying out this calculation a little further, in the same ratio, we will have, taking the county of Kent alone (which contains in round numbers 983,000 acres) employment for 9,830 of our starving workmen ; and if this number were employed, the idle men would be few in the county. But if the county of Kent alone were to employ nearly 10,000 extra hands, by simply adopting the best known means in conducting the different ope- rations of the farm, what would broad England employ ? Why if each county were to employ the same number as that above mentioned, we should have employment for nearly 400,000 of our able- bodied workmen at remunerative wages. But allowing that only half the number of these men have wives, and say three children each ; food and clothing would thus be given to 1,200,000 starving wretches, who, although willing to work, frequently cannot find any employment. This large number may at first sight appear startling, but is never- theless perfectly true. At the present moment the agricultural popula- tion is greater than the demand ; hence the neces- sity of workhouses. For the support of the in- mates of these dwellings the farmers and other holders must pay poor rates, although such a field of profitable labour stares them in the face, on which the ablebodied unemployed might be set to work. It is a curious thing that the farmer and other holders do not employ more labourers. Their favourite outcry is they have not the means. Such outcry is, however, to a great extent fallacious. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 199 Will not the same money that they pay in shape of poor rates support a man at work as well as in idleness and ease in a workhouse ? If every farmer would only spend upon labour, in the improvement of his farm, the money which is paid to support ablebodied labourers in the \ workhouse, he would have the advantage of re- 1 ceiving good interest for his money, instead of throwing it away ; as all money paid by the farmer for the support of ablebodied idle men is literally thrown away. We richly merit the opinion of the witty Ameri- can Sam Slick, when he says, "If there is any airthly clumsy fashion of doin' a thing, that's the way they are sure to get here. They are a benighted, obstinate, bull-headed people, the English, that's a fact, and always was." The whole blame of not employing the labourer cannot, however, be laid to the charge of the poor farmer. Instances there are to be found, and those not a few, whose tenants have the means and the will to employ more hands in improving their farms, but are, for want of the proper security and the permission of the landlord, debarred from employing the poor starving labourer, and receiving for themselves that amount of remuneration for their skill and capital which they are so fully enti- tled to. The landlord is in these cases the means of creating and keeping unemployed half the able- bodied men which we have in our poor-houses, simply by not granting the tenant that which he himself claims — security of tenure. Let the landlord grant to his tenant a lease for a term of years that would ensure him full time to be repaired for the improvements which he might make upon his farm. The form of that lease should be as simple as possible, and void of all old feudal notions and prejudicial customs, as well as the greater part of the legal phraseology which so greatly abound in some of our old leases. No more conditions or restrictions should be inserted in it than are absolutely necessary for the proper cultivation of the farm, in the locality in which it is situated. Landlords who will not grant such leases should by legislative enactment (to their own advantage, be it understood) be compelled to im- prove their own estates, or maintain the unemployed labourers. There are to be found landowners who adhere to old customs with such pertinacity that nothing short of such interference will remove them. These occupiers of the soil might think this interference rather hard, but as acts of Parliament are daily passed for the formation of railways through every description of property, and for the benefit of the public, I cannot see that it would be a greater hardship if the legislature were to pass bills bind- ing the landlord to improve his estates, and thus give employment to the working classes, which at the present time is so very much wanted. This act would not be prejudical to the landlords' in- terest. It would be the means of improving his estate and enhancing its value. It would no doubt meet with decided opposition from such as our game preserving landlords, but if passed, would benefit the community quite as much, if not more, than all the railways which have been, or ever will be made. If all the farmers were to join together for the purpose of obtaining such one act as above mentioned, they would receive more benefit there- from than from all the nostrums of the anti-corn- law league, the protectionist societies, and malt-tax repealers in the world. In conclusion, and in order to strengthen the supposition, contained in the preliminary remarks of this essay, as to the fields being grubbed out of a wilderness covered with wood, I have attached hereto the plan of a farm which is really in exist- ence, and which is situated in the weald of Kent, and "Garden of England." The following are its proportions, A'iz. : — Acres. Of arable land 104 Of meadow 17 Of orchard 3 Of hops 5 Of " fences and waste" 45 174 The farm, as will be seen, contains one hundred and seventy-four acres, and possesses the advantage over many others of being situated in a hop grow- ing district, which greatly enhances the value of the underwood grown in the fences, otherwise the land thus occupied would be comparatively value- less. ON THE INDICATIONS WHICH ARE PRACTICAL GUIDES IN JUDGING OF THE FERTILITY OR BARRENNESS OF THE SOIL. By James Anderson, Esq., late of Gorth- leck, author of various prize essays, &c, &c. It shall be our object in the following pages to describe in plain, familiar, and perspicuous language, the indications which are practical guides in judging of the fertility and barrenness of the soil. The first and most obvious indication is afforded by the character of the natural vegetation. The luxuriance and variety of the native vegetation must ever be a safe and unfailing index, and unerring guide in estimating the average fertility of the surface, and may, in some measure, be held to in- dicate the nature of the subsoil, whether favourable or unfavourable; as the productiveness of the superficial portion is materially and sensibly in- fluenced by the constitution and general character of the subsoil. The deeper rooted plants must also descend into the subsoil; and their habit, whether healthy or sickly, must be a pretty sure test of its quality and present condition, whether friendly or unfriendly to vegetable development. It is rare to find an individual, who has been engaged in agriculture, and whose eye has been accustomed to country objects, who would find much difficulty in discriminating with tolerable certainty between the probable productive powers of soils, as distinguished by the vegetation with which their surface was overspread, at least to the extent of pronouncing whether these soils deserved 200 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to be classed, in a general sense, among the fertile or infertile. This is, no doubt, more difficult and uncertain in lands that are subject to cultivation. Such lands may have been materially altered by draining, and artificial mixture with manures, and the various native earths, and any noxious particles which they originally contained, neutralized by oxidation, from exposure to the atmosphere, and pulverized, quickened, and mellowed by the sanatory and ameliorating agency of the exterior elementary in- fluences. But there are speaking and tell-tale in- dications which must ever certainly reveal the secret and original character and unaided capability of a 6oil to the experienced inquirer ; and we shall en- deavour to give rules, at once intelligible, compre- hensive, and sufficiently easy of application, which will be found materially useful to the agriculturist who would wish to be instructed as to the particular and specific indications which are practical guides in judging of the fertility or barrenness of the soil. We have said, that there are few individuals, ac- customed to country objects, who would find much difficulty in pronouncing, generally, as to the fertility or barrenness of a surface. An intelligent agriculturist, even without being able to name or discriminate botanically, can judge whether a tract be fertile or infertile, from the general appearance and character of its products, from the" vigour of the vegetation, the luxuriance of the herbage, the absence of the heaths and coarser plants, the rich- ness of the foliage, the clearness and cleanliness of the bark, the straightness of the stems, and the length and robustness of the annual shoots of the tress, the regularity, beauty, and free growth of the hedge fences, the richness of the natural meadows, and various other less striking indications. The preva- lence or simple occurrence of heaths, mosses, or lichens is always suspicious; and the inferior grasses, and less nutritious plants generally, are always found upon the inferior soils ; and as a general rule, the herbage and other productions are found to improve with the quality of the soil — the herbage as to quality, the variety of the species of the con- stituent individuals, and the closeness, and of course the number, of individuals composing a given extent of sward. There are few who do not know, although they may not be able to give the botanical names, that a light sandy soil is known by the presence of the purple archangel (lamium purptirium), the shep- herd's purse (capsilla bursa pastoris) ; that a barren unfertile soil is often productive of bedstraw ([/al- lium), or the air grasses (aria), &c, and also the parsley piers (alchimilla aphanes) ; that a fertile loam is favourable to the growth of common rag- wort (senecio Jacobcea), and the corn-field cirsium (cirzium arvense) ; that pervading fertility is de- noted by the presence of the great nettle urtica divica), the chickweed (stellaria media), and the yarrow (achillea millefolium), &c. ,• that a soil too finely pulverized is readily covered with corn- field spurry (spergula arvensis). Moist, strong, black loam, with dry subsoil, often produces the corn-field pimpernel (anagallis arvensis), corn-field madder (sherudia arvensis), corn-field grommell (Hthospermum arvense), salad lambs' lettuce (valeria- nella olitoria), &c, &c. Alluvial and aquatic soils are distinguished by the rush tribe (juncus), the meadow grasses (poas), various species of the reed family [a run dines), and the amphibious poligonum (poly- gonum amphibium) ; and arundines mark the better classes of alluvial soil, and such as may become very productive by draining. A calcareous soil is favourable to sainfoin (onobrychis sativa). Blue clay, a marley soil, produces the common coltsfoot (tussilago farfara). A cold and retentive subsoil is often marked by the corn horsetail (equisetum arvense), and other species of equisetum. The *«- ferior clays, and tills, and, peat, by the heaths (ericce), and peat by various species of sphagnum, Lancashire bog asphodel (narthecium assifragum), &c, &c. But for the benefit of those who may wish to in- quire farther, it is necessary for us to be more par- ticular and systematic in our details. ' The follow- ing plants may be generally held as indicative of the particular soils under which they are classed. We have thought it as well to please all tastes by giving the botanical names. 1 . Argillaceous, or clayey soils. Tussilago farfara — common coltsfoot Juncus, or rush family — many species Carices, do. do. Lotus major — greater bird's -foot trefoil „ corniculatus — horned do. Crobus tuberosus — tuberous bitter vetch Saponaria officinalis — officinal soapwort Potentilla anserina — goose tansy „ several species do. Thobetrum Javum — yellow meadow rue &c. &C. &c. 2. Generally fertile soils. Poa trivialis — rough stalked meadow grass Festuca pratensis — meadow fescue Achillea millefolium — common yarrow Arctium lappa — common burdock Cnicus lanceolatus — spear plume thistle Lolium perenne — rye grass Dastylis glomerata — cocksfoot Alopecurus pratensis — meadow foxtail Urtrica divica — great nettle Stettoria media — common chickweed Lapsana comminis — nipple wort &c. &c. &c. 3. Siliceous soils. Spergula arvensis — corn-field spurry Silene anglica — English catchfly Arenaria rubra — red sandwort Papaver hybrid urn — hybrid poppy Veronica triphyllos — three-leaved speedwell „ verna — vernal do. Hermaria hursuta — hairy rupture wort „ glabra — smooth do. &c. &c. &c. 4. Calcareous soils. Onobrychis sativa — cultivated sainfoin Berberis vulgaris — common berberry Campanula glomerata — clustered bellflower Lithospermum officinalis — officinal grommell „ purpura-cfeuleum — purple blue do. Prismatocarpus hybridus — hybrid prismatocarpua Veronica spicata — spiked speedwell THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 Gallium pusellum — little bedstraw Phyteuma orbiculare — round-headed rampion Verbascum lychnitis — lychnitis mullein Viburnum luntan — wayfaring tree &c. &c. &c. 5. Peaty soils. Calluna vulgaris — common ling Erica cineria — fine-leaved heath (wet soilj „ tetralix — cross-leaved do. (diy) „ two other species less common and local Spergula sublata— awl-shaped spurry Termentilla officinalis — officinal septfoil Oxycoceus palustris — cranberry Vaccinium aeliginosum — blackberry „ myrtillus — bilberry Sphagnum obtusifolium — blunt-leaved sphagnum „ acutifolium — sharp-leaved do. Eleocharis cespitosa — scaly-stalked spike-rush Eriophorum vaginatum — hair's-tail cotton grass „ augustifolium — common do. „ polystcechion — broad-leaved do. Polytrichum commune — common polytrichum Xarthecium assifragum — Lancashire bog asphodel &c. &c. &c. 6. Generally infertile soils. The following intermingled with heaths : — Salix tusca — dwarf silk willow Genista anglica — petty whin Cladonia rangiferina — rein-deer moss Cetraria islandica — Iceland do. Lycopodium clavatum — common club do. Empetrum nigrum — black crowberry Nardus stricta — matgrass Melica caerulea — purple melic grass Agrostis alba — fine bentgrass &c. &c. &c. 7. Saline soils. Salicornia fruticosa — shrubby glasswort „ radicous — rooting do. „ herbacea — marsh do. „ procumbens — procumbent do. Pulmonaria maritima — sea lungwort Ruppia maritima — sea ruppia Calystegia soldanella — soldanella bearbind Zostera marina — marine wrackgrass Illecebrum vertecillatum — whorled knotgrass Chenopodium Maritimum — see goosefoot „ fruticosum — shrubby do. Arenaria marina — marine sandwort „ peploides — sea chickweed Salsola kali — kali saltwort Sison verticillatum — whorl-leaved honeywort Atriplex pedunculata — pedunculated orach Ammophila arundinacea — common sea matweed Elymus arenarius— upright sea lime-grass Slatice armeria — thrift Carex arenaria — sea carex Triticum junceum — bushy wheat grass &c. &c. &c. 8. Ferruginous soils. Rumex acetosa — common sorel „ acetosella — sheep's do. 9. Very dry soils. Arenaria rubra — purple' sandwort Aria pra?cox— early hair grass „ cristatta — crested do. „ caryophyllea— silvery do. Gallium verum — yellow bedstraw „ sexatile — smooth-heath do. Linum catharticum — purging flax Rumex acetosella — sheep's sorel Campanula rotundifolia — round-headed harebell Hieraceum pilasella — mouse-ear hawkweed Thymus serpyllum — wild thyme JEynos vulgaris — common aeynos Trifolium arvense — field trefoil &c. &c. &c. 10. Every soil not moist. Serratula arvensis — corn thistle Curduno lanceolatus — bur do. ,, palustris — marsh do. Souchus arvensis — large sow do. „ oleraceus — annual do. A vena elatior — pearl grass Anonis arvensis — rest harrow &c. &c. &c. 11, Aquatic and alluvial soils. Great spearwort Tongue-leaved crowfoot Flammula, or lesser do. Reptans, or least do. Epilobium tetragonum — square-stalked epilobium Lamolus valerandi — common buckweed Lythrum salicaria — willow lythrum Thysselinum palustro — marsh thysselinum Viola palustris — marsh violet Caltha palustris — marsh marigold Hippurus vulgaris — common mare's-tail Pinguicula vulgaris — common butterwort Lycopus Europa?us — European water horehound Valeriana dioica — dioecious valerian &c. &c. &c. 12. Aquatic and infertile '. ] Ranunculus flammula — lesser spearwort Cardumine pratensis — meadow lady's smock Pedicularis sylvatica — pasture lousewort Juncus squarosus — heath rush „ acutiflorus — sharp flowered do. Cnicus palustris — marsh plume thistle Lychnis floscuculi — ragged robin Rhunanthus crista galli — yellow rattle Pinguicula vulgaris — common butterwort Tryglochin palustre — marsh arrow grass Gallium palustre — white water bedstraw &c. &c. &c. 13. Aquatic, but not infertile. Junceus effusus — soft rush „ conglomoratus — common do. Veronica beccobunga — brooklime Alopecurus geniculatus — floating foxtail Poa aquatica — reed meadow-grass „ fluitans — floating do. Catabrosa aquatica — water- whirl Equisetum arvens — corn horsetail Arundo phrogmites — common reed Stachys palustris — marsh woundwort &c. &c. &c. 14. Every soil. Rumex acutis — sharp dock „ obtusifolium — broad-leaved do. „ crispus — curled do. „ acetosa — field sorrel „ acetosella — sheep's sorrel 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 15. Fences and neglected ground. Allium aparine — Robin run hedge Urtica dioica — great nettle &e. &c. &c. 16. Neiv pasture. Senecio jacobed — common rag wort Chysanthemum leucanthemum — ox eye daisy Anthenus arvensia — corn chamomile &c. &c. &c. We must not dwell any longer on this part of the subject, however interesting it may be to some of our readers, and however trust-worthy the indica- tions it is calculated to afford, but at once proceed to consider the various further indications which are afforded by the general chemical constitution of soils, by their physical properties and mechanical relations, &c, &c. ; but let it not be supposed that we are going to enter into any statement which may not be rendered practically available by the intelli- gent agriculturist, without putting himself to the trouble of scientific study or research; on the contrary, it is just to prevent the necessity for any such study on the part of the agriculturist, who does not desire it, that this practical essay has been begun ; yet it is hoped there will be few who will not be tempted to pursue every branch of the sub- ject much farther than an incidental notice or our legitimate limits will at all permit. Next, then, let tis consider the indications afforded by the general chemical constitution of soils. Von Thaer has given the following table, the re- sult of many years of patient and careful investiga- tion. The first column shows the class and princi- pal grain crops, and therefore, to an experienced practical agriculturist, the general management and rotation to which such a soil is suited ; the next four figure columns, the proportions of the compo- nent parts ; and the last comprises the comparative value of the different component parts forming the different soils, and is the result of many years' care- ful examination and attentive observation of the soils and their products, specially noting the pro- ceeds of the crops best suited to the soils of which they (the component parts) form the constituents, deducting in each case seed and labour. Carb. Clay Sand of lime Humus per per per per Value. No cent. cent. cent. cent. 1 "1 First class f 74 10 45 11* 100 2 1 of J 81 6 4 8* 98 3 strong 79 20 4 6l 96 4 J wheat soils. 1 40 22 36 4 90 5 S Rich barley \ I ^ land. / 20 67 3 10 7S 6 } Good wheat/ J land. t 58 36 2 4 77 7 56 30 12 2 75 8 9 10 { Ordinary J i ditto. 60 48 68 38 50 30 75 3 2 2 2 70 65 60 11 S Good barley \ * land. J 38 60 c 2 60 12 J Ordinary { 33 65 2 2 50 13 S ditto. ( 28 70 jj: 2 40 14 * Oat and S 23i| 75 p IT li 30 15| J rye land. ( 18*1 80 1* 20 "Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are alluvial soils of the richest quality, and, from the large portion which they con- tain of vegetative mould or humus, and the intimate state of mixture in which it is found, they are not so stiff as the quantity of clay which they contain would seem to indicate. " No 4 is a fine clay loam, such as is found in many parts of the United Kingdom, and, although what may be called strong land, is yet of a texture which renders it easy to be worked, and conse- quently not difficult to be kept in heart, if properly managed. " No. 5 contains such large proportions of sand and humus mixed with the clay as to peculiarly adapt it for the growth of barley and green crops ; it is consequently evidently suitable to the alternate system of husbandry. " Nos. 6 and 7 are both good soils, the quantity of carbonate of lime in No. 7 compensating, in a great degree, for the smaller portion of humus, but necessarily requiring the addition of a propor- tionate quantity of dung to supply that deficiency. " Nos. 9 to 13, although soils of the fair average quality of common tillage land, yet, from the want of carbonate of lime, require the addition of lime or marl. " Nos. 14 to 15 are evidently light lands, which, though sometimes brought into cultivation, and even rendered productive through the application of manure and judicious management, yet can rarely be kept in heart without the aid of a folding flock ; the land of a poorer quality should invariably be kept in sheep pasture. " Throughout the entire kingdom there are but few districts the soil of which contains more than perhaps 5 per cent, of humus ; but, if the staple of the land be loamy, even 2 per cent, will render it fit for the production of grain. The friability of its texture is, indeed, an object of the first import- ance, for it occasions a great saving of labour and expense ; and, if the ground be tolerably well managed and dunged, it can be always maintained in good heart. " The analysis which has been thus made of these various soils, it should, however, be observed, extends only through the surface to the depth of six inches, without noticing the subsoil, which may greatly affect their value, for, however rich they may be, if that be either too porous or too reten- tive, they may be rendered in certain seasons un- productive. If, however, they contain a layer of nine inches to a foot of good earth, the subsoil may then be considered of little consequence, though a limestone bottom will always command a prefer- ence. The exposure, with regard to the sun, and the situation of the land, in respect to its shelter from cold winds, are also objects of such extreme importance that they may make a difference in point of climate equal to several degrees of latitude; they should, therefore, never be lost sight of in estimating the value of the ground." Many of these points will be noticed more at length here- after. We have said that the above analysis has only been made to extend through the surface to the depth of six inches ; but we shall presently see that depth and uniformity, and a favourable subsoil, are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 of infinite importance in judging of the probable fertility of a soil. Yet this table would be comparatively valueless for practical purposes, unless to the pre-educated and scientific agriculturist, did we not put along with it into the hands of the inquirer a few simple rules for determining the presence and relative proportions of each of the constituents mentioned in the table, in any soil that might hereafter come under his notice, and of which he might be disposed to make a rough general analysis for the purpose of classification, and with the view of thus making one step towards arriving at its probable money value, by determining the crops and rotation most suitable for it in its actual present condition, with the cost of cultivation, produce, and probable balance of profit on such rotation, or the extent of amelioration and improvement prudent and desira- ble, the probable cost of such amelioration or improvement, and the consequent improved value of the soil which ought to be the result. In a carefid selection of specimens to be sub- jected to analysis, a separate portion must be taken from every part of the upper stratum, which, from the character of its surface vegetation, from the texture, colour, or other indication, would seem to betray a material difference or specific A-ariety; great care being taken, on each occasion of selec- tion, to ascertain correctly the depth of upper stratum, and character of subsoil, and the general condition of the surface and subsoil, as regards moisture. We shall show afterwards, that depth, and the relation of soil as to moisture, are con- siderations of material importance in judging of the probable fertility of a soil. The portions, as they are selected, should be immediately placed in phials, with ground-glass stoppers, and the phials made quite full, and thus preserved until the analysis is about to be performed. The first preliminary step to be taken in pro- ceeding to the rough chemical analysis of a soil, with a view to classification, is the following: — After carefully weighing out a known portion of soil, and spreading it thinly over clean white paper ; place this portion in an oven, or on a metal plate, over a fire, and let it remain to dry, till the paper, from heat, begins to show symptoms of discolora- tion. Weigh now again, and the loss will corres- pond with the quantity, or proportion, of the water of absorption, or contained water, in the soil. It is important to ascertain this for many considerations. The first step, after this preliminary process, is to weigh out 100 grains from the identical portion of soil on which we have just been operating, and to place these 100 grains in a small vessel, composed of fire-clay, or platinum, and subject it to a dull red heat over a common fire, or spirit-lamp. Then weight it and the loss may be set down as the quantity or proportion of humus, or organic mat- ter, present (say II3). The second. Still retaining the same portion of soil, let it be mixed with a half pint of water, and to this mixture add half a wineglass-full of spirit of salt (muriatic acid), and stir it frequently. If lime be present, effervescence will take place; or, in other words, minute bubbles of air will rise to the surface, and escape. This air is the carbonic acid gas contained in the carbonate of lime present in the soil. Whenever these air bubbles cease to rise to the surface on stirring, the process may be con- sidered at an end. Then leave the mixture to settle down, and pour off the water carefully. Dry the soil as directed in the preliminary step ; and then weigh it carefully, and the loss may be set down as the quantity, or proportion, of lime pre- sent (say 4i). The third. We may noio take a fresh portion of the soil, dry it thoroughly, and weigh out 100 grains, so dried ; or take it without the preliminary drying, but making allowance for the proportion, or quantity, of the water of absorption already ascertained to be present previously, by the pre- liminary drying process, and let it be boiled, and thoroughly incorporated with the water. It may then be poured into a vessel (one of glass would be preferable), and allowed to settle, till all the large sandy particles shall have subsided. This point must be carefully watched ; and while the lighter clayey particles are still suspended in the water, and before they have begun to subside, let the liquid be poured off* and the sand in the bottom collected, and dried, as directed in the preliminary step, and second, and then weighed. This will give the quantity, or proportion, of sand in the moist soil, which by the preliminary step, was found to contain a certain quantity of water. Deducting, then, if the proportion of soil shall have been used moist, the ascertained proportion of the water of absorption, corresponding to the quantity examined at present, as instructed in the preliminary step to this analysis, let the quantity, or proportion, of sand remaining be found equal to 10 (say 10). Then we have Humus 11 J grains. Lime 4& „ Sand 10 „ Remainder will be clay 74 „ Making together 100 grains, exactly the proportions of a strong wheat sod. 1. Clay. — The presence of day in the soil may be known by its softness to the touch, its tenacity, plasticity, and adhesiveness ; and another general character of all aluminous or clay soils, is to give out a peculiar, or earthy, odour when breathed upon, which is supposed to arise from the combination of the clayey substance (alumine) with a portion of oxide of iron, which is present in most soils to such an extent at least as to influence or modify, in some degree, their colour, but in some rare instances in such quantity as to be prejudicial; though, in very small quantity, it is thought by scientific men to be rather favourable, if not ne- cessary, to vegetation. Clay, at least the aluminous particles, are thought to act as absorbents of gaseous substances — as of ammonia, for instance ; and they have a powerful attraction for organic matters, and the various salts, the produce of de- composition in the soil itself; and being very reten- tive of all such substances, the presence of a due admixture of clay must be ever necessary to a fer- tile soil. 2. Sand. — The presence of sand may be ascer- tained from soils containing it being capable of 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. scratching glass, and feeling rough to the touch. Sand has no apparent particular attraction for or- ganic matters or gaseous substances, and seems principally valuable from the just and desirable mechanical division which it ensures, when present in regulated proportion in a well wrought soil ; thus imparting to it the requisite friability and looseness of textiire, that healthful moisture and fostering heat may be freely conducted to the root fibres, and that evaporation and absorption may proceed unin- terruptedly. 3. Lime. — The presence of calcareous matter, we have seen, is easily detected by the test of spirit of salt. Calcareous matter assists in pulverizing clay, by attz~acting moisture at all times from the sur- rounding earth and air ; and this moisture, in winter being congealed by frost, expands, and disturbs every neighbouring particle in the mass, and also operates in giving adhesiveness to sand, aids in reducing insoluble organic substances, combines with them in part, improves the soil in texture, and renders it (particularly sandy and gravelly) more retentive of enriching substances, thereby incalculably increas- ing their fertility, particularly if applied in combi- nation with clay, in the form of marl. When ap- plied as quicklime, it has a powerful effect in de- stroying many noxious weeds and their seeds, be- sides insects and their larva, particularly on clover leys, which are often infested by them. The lime is found chiefly in the form of an insoluble carbo- nate ; but we may show, perhaps, under the head salts and saline matters, that some compounds of lime may be rendered in part soluble, and this with a view to ascertaining the gross quantity of 6aline matters present in the soil. 4. Humus. — The presence of humus, or organic matter, is detected by weighing the soil, after being thoroughly dried, exposing it to a red heat, and then weighing again. The loss is organic matter, or humus. Throughout the kingdom there are few tracts containing more than 8 per cent, of humus; but if the staple of the land be loamy, even 2 per cent, will render it capable of bearing grain crops, though a smaller quantity will not in any soil (un- less accidentally or extraneously supplied by irriga- tion or otherwise, which is often the case with grass lands) support the more valuable agricultural crops, favour their perfect development, and carry them on to productive maturity. The true nourishment of plants is decomposing organic matter; at least, such substances contain the elements of their nou- rishment. In the more minute analysis, the orga- nic substances are chiefly included under the varie- ties humic acid, insoluble humus, and organic sub- stances containing nitrogen. Ulmic, and humic acid, carbonic acid, and ammonia, are likewise produced during the decay of organic substances. 5. Metallic Oxides. — The presence of metallic oxides in the soil, such as oxide of iron and oxide of manganese, may be known by the colour — ferru- ginous, red, or yellow ; cupreous, with greenish streaks ; but cupreous impregnations are rare, the green colour being frequently and generally commu- nicated by iron. Indeed, ferruginous impregnations are the only metallic impregnations which occur to any extent in soils. Ferruginous impregnations in excess are injurious to vegetation; although, in due proportion, they are believed to be friendly to fertility. A few other substances will sometimes be met with by the agriculturist, such as salt, sulphur, coal, &c, in particular localities. 6. Salt or Saline Impregnations. — The presence of salt or saline impregnations in soils may be dis- tinguished easily by the taste on the palate. These, in due proportion, are friendly to fertility. The saline, or soluble portion of the soil, in this quan- tity, is in small proportions, and may be tolerably ascertained by pouring a pint, or a pint and a half of boiling rain or distilled water over a pound weight of soil, previously well dried in an oven; and after stirring sufficiently, and time being given to settle, let the pure liquid be poured completely off, and then evaporated or boiled to dryness over a fire ; and the quantity of solid saline matter left will give the number of grains of saline matter pre- sent. This will generally consist of common salt, (chloride of sodium), a substance composed of one part of a gas called chlorine, and another of a metal called sodium ; gypsum ; Glauber's salts, or sulphate of soda, composed of one part of a gas (sulphuric acid), and one part soda, itself a compound substance, and composed of one part of a gas called oxygen, and one part of the metal sodium, which we have already mentioned ; Epsom salts, sulphate of magnesia, composed of one part of a gas (sulphuric acid), and one part magnesia, itself a compound, and composed of one part of a gas called oxygen, and one part of the metal magnesium ; also of the nitrates of potash, soda, and lime, or compounds of one part nitric acid; and one part of potash, soda, or lime, severally. And these are the soluble sahne substances of the soil, which supply to the growing herbage the portion they require of this description of nourishment. Magnesia, potash, and soda, then, occur in soils, but generally com- bined with other matters. Magnesia often occurs in great quantity as a carbonate, or combined with carbonic acid gas. If it should remain un- combined in a soil in any quantity, it is uniformly prejudicial ; and some soils are found unfavourable to vegetation in consequence, and it becomes dif- ficult to apply a remedy. They are included then under this head without any separate notice. Mag- nesia, potash, soda, and lime, when combined with the gases, such as phosphoric acid gas, chlorine gas, sulphuric acid gas, or carbonic acid gas, are severally phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, and car- bonates of magnesia, potash, soda, or lime, and are here included under the head "salts, or saline impregnations." The presence of sulphur may be detected by the unpleasant odour soils containing it will give out on being thrown on a hot iron. Sulphureous im- pregnations abound in some localities, and often, where they occur in nature, seem to be connected with fertility ; and a portion is desirable. The presence of coal is detected by the appear- ance of its fragments after the soluble portions of a soil have been removed by water and spirit of salt. The soils on coal are generally infertile; though they are very often composed of alluvium, or trans- ported materials, and they are by no means in such cases necessarily infertile. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 205 Such are the simple rules for detecting the pre- sence of the elementary substances of which soils are generally composed, as also the proportions of those which occur in largest quantity, and most frequently. It was absolutely necessary to say this much, to enable the uninformed to comprehend us. But we must say no more of the chemical con- stitution of soils, but proceed to consider the in- dications afford by their physical properties. To go into any exact analysis of the minute chemical constitution of soils, would be either to take it for granted that our readers were one and all familiar with the principles upon which any nice chemical analysis must necessarily proceed ; and granting this, in the first instance, we would have yet far- ther to admit that it was within the range of pos- sibility to make ourselves intelligible, in briefly treating of such a very difficult and extensive sub- ject, in any incidental notice which would be here admissible, as illustrative, or explanatory, of the subject before us . But those who are at all acquainted with this beautiful science, will readily join us in proclaiming, that any such attempt must unfallibly prove unprofitable and fruitless. Besides, it is not to be expected that every practical agriculturist can thus be possessed of either the knowledge or adroitness necessary to complete a minute, satis- factory, chemical analysis ; and assuredly he has an ample sufficiency of other points of more im- mediate necessity, and a variety of knowledge of more indispensable practical utility, to awaken and occupy his constant and daily attention. The indications afforded by the physical and me- chanical properties of soils. 1. Depth and uniformity of soil are of great im- portance. Although the surface to the depth of six inches be fertile, yet, if the subsoil be either too re- tentive or too porous, the value of the superincum- bent soil may be seriously affected ; for, in certain seasons, an unfavourable subsoil may render the true soil lamentably unproductive. Every inquirer should carefully examine the subsoil, as well as the true soil, particularly if the true soil should not ex- ceed six inches in depth, or so; as such shallow soils are seldom productive, unless incumbent on limestone rock ; and when occurring on till, or sand, are invariably unfruitful. If, however, the upper stratum should extend to the depth of from nine inches to a foot, or upwards, of good loam, the consideration of the texture of the subsoil is of much less practical importance. However, a base,! or subsoil of limestone is ever most friendly to the crops of agriculture. It is an unfavourable indication when the plough is constantly turning up a subsoil of very different colour and texture from the upper stratum, or true soil. Wherever the rain water stands long in the furrow, and does not sink readily down into the soil, and become absorbed by it, but remains on the surface in puddles, till it dis- appears from atmospheric evaporation, it is also an unfavourable indication. In some rare instances of unusual fertility, it does happen that the subsoil is of nearly uniform texture and composition with the surface soil ; and such soils may be considered of almost inexhaustible fertility. However, these instances are seldom to be met with in old countries. 2. Density, adhesiveness, and state of division of the constituent parts of soils : — ■ The absolute weight of a siliceous or cal- careous sand has been found to be 1 10 lbs. Half sand and half clay 95 „ Common arable land .... from 80 to 90 „ Pure agricultural clay 75 „ Rich garden mould 70 ,, Peaty soil from 30 to 50 „ We may remark, under this head, that soils re- tain the warmth imparted to them by the rays of the sun in a ratio corresponding to their density ; but at the same time it must be admitted that dense soils are less easily and readily heated by the solar influences than lighter soils ; and many other con- siderations of intricate and difficult explanation, which we cannot pause to detail here, are for most practical purposes nearly valueless. However, as feeding ground for stock, par- ticularly in winter and in moist weather, and for the performance of the ordinary operations of husban- dry with facility on the surface, a certain measure of density is of importance. When a practical man finds a close-eaten pasture, after moderately moist weather, indented with the hoof-prints of the stock, cattle, and sheep, and these indentations remaining brim-full of water, till it gradually disappears by evaporation, his mind is at once made up as to the general character of the soil, and the class to which it belongs. The consideration of the adhesiveness of soils is of great practical importance, particularly as re- spects the expense of labour, their adapture for pasture or culture lands, and their probable fertility and value. Siliceous and sandy soils have no adhesiveness or drying ; while clays, according to their purity, become proportionably adhesive, compact, and hard or drying ; but a mixture of sand, in proportion to its quantity, corrects this adhesiveness. In a practical and economical point of view, the additional expense of working such adhesive soils must be deducted from their probable comparative fruitfulness, in estimating, in a practical sense, their fertility, or money value. According to the adhe- siveness of clays, when wet, they are found to offer a resistance to the plough in every square foot of its surface passing through them of from 8 to 25 lbs. ; a rich vegetable soil, when wet, &c, about 6 lbs. ; a sandy soil, when wet, &c, about 4 lbs. So that the absolute weight or density of a sandy soil exceeds that of a clayey soil; yet, in an agri- cultural or practical sense, clayey soils are weightier, that is to say, require much more physical power to turn them over and reduce them to the perfection of tilth required, than sandy soils. The state of division of the constituent parts of a soil is of importance in judging of its probable fertility. On this head we may just remark, that the more friable a clay becomes from draining and judicious tillage and intermixture with organic and calcareous matter — in fact, the more it is made to resemble and approach a loam in consistence and general character, the more fertile and valuable, as I tillage soil, does it become. A poor clay soil is j equally injured by excessive moisture and exces* 206 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sive succeeding heat and dryness, and thus re- sembles a poor sand as to the results produced by 3uch sudden changes; for in either case the ex- tremes of wet and drought are almost always, though in different ways in each case, lamentably prejudicial. The general character of clay-tillage land is, that though the crops are abundant, the expense of cul- ture is greater ; the fallow recurring so often, and great strength of teams and implements being re- quired. These lands are easily distinguished from their natural tenacity, and the consequences must be duly considered in estimating their fertihty. There are descriptions of heavy lands running into loam where a bare fallow may be safely dispensed with, and where wheat, beans, and other corn, and clover, succeed each other alternately. Here there is no interruption of productiveness by the fallow, which must be steadily borne in mind while esti- mating their comparative fertility. There is yet a description of heavy land or clay soil which is well described as a hungry clay, and which will be very generally found mixed up with gravel, and with a strong impregnation of ferru- ginous matter. No crops will thrive well on such soils without expensive improvement ; as, for in- stance, draining, to be followed by heavy liming, very perfect exposure to the atmospheric influences for the purpose of promoting thorough oxidation of the ferruginous particles, and an abundant ap- plication of manure. Such soils, from what Ave have said already of the plants that mark ferrugi- nous soils, and the general appearance of such soils just given, will not readily be mistaken ; and it is clear that in estimating their fertility, or probable fertility, by improvement, a great outlay must be taken into account, and deducted from the prospec- tive produce. Such lands are frequent in the neighbourhood of the chalk formation, and in such cases are capa- ble of ready and profitable improvement, by sink- ing pits and obtaining for the surface a good coat- ing of chalk from underneath. We may remark that the more a. sand is improved in the adhesive- ness of its particles from the presence of clay and lime, or marl combining both, and organic matter, &c, the more fertile and valuable does it become. Such improved soils are always early and kindly ; but in poor sands the manure is wasted, and the vegetation droops and is burnt up. Thus gravels and the coarser sands, mixed with fragments of rock entirely siliceous or sandy, are infertile ; but when the stony part and the in- tervening comminuted portion are in part cal- careous or limy or marly, and a proportion of organic matter present, they go on improving in quality and fertility like sandy soils. Poor gravels are similarly, and often in a greater degree affected, than sands, as regards dryness and moisture. The finely divided matter of a soil gives tenacity and collusiveness, and this in the greatest degree when it contains much aluminia, or earth of clay. The quality of the highly eommimuted por- tion of a gravelly soil must be particularly ex- amined, as well as its quality. The state of division of the component parts of a soil is intimately connected with its powers of ab- sorbing and retaining moisture. The powers of a soil to absorb water by capillary attraction increases with its minuteness of division. This is no doubt to be considered in estimating its probable fertility. The powers of a soil in this way may be tested by placing a portion of it in a flower pot, and the pot upon a sole, and filling the sole with water. The capillary power of the soil will be shown by the rapidity with which it sucks up the water, and the quantity it is capable of absorbing. A good soil, with considerable capillary power, is not likely to suffer so much, comparatively, in dry weather and seasons. The absorbent powers of soils, as regards the quan- tity of water they are capable of retaining, tvhen poured upon them before saturation, is intimately connected with their fertihty. Thus 100 lbs. of well dried quartz sand ] will be saturated when it has absorbed >■ 25 lbs. of water . . . . . . . . J Calcareous sand . . . . . . . . 29 " Loamy soil . . . . . . . . 40 " Clay loam . . . . . . . . , . 50 " Pure clay . . . . . . . . 70 " And Schubler found that peaty soils (which we shall notice separately, but very briefly afterwards) absorbed a much greater portion of water. Useful soils for aration are found to contain from 40 to 70 per cent, of their whole weight of water; and if less, they are only suited for pine forests ; and if more, for pasture lands. But the power of soils to absorb water from the atmosphere is also of great importance in consider- ing the probable measure of fertility they may pos- sess— Schubler found that lOOlbs. of quartz sand, previously well dried "\ in an oven, when exposed to the atinos- f ft 11 phere of a moist night for 12 hours, I s* gained . . . . . . J Calcareous sand . . . . . . 2 " Loamy soil . . . . . . 21 " Clay loam . . . . . . . . 25 " Pure agricultural clay . . . . 37 " And peaty soils, from the organic matter of which they are chiefly composed, much more. Sir Humphrey Davy found, that fertile soils were the most absorbent. — Thus, — 1000 lbs. of a perfectly dry and very fertile soil, from East Lothian, gained in an hour .. .. .. .. 18 lbs. Very fertile soil from Somersetshire ... 16 " Soil, worth 45s. per acre, from Mema, ) ., ,t in Essex . . . . " . . J Coarse sand, worth only 15s. .. 8 " Soil of Bagshot Heath . . . . 3 " This is a test to be applied to sandy, loamy, and arable lands generally; and when applied to such, as Sir Humphrey Davy asserts, does undoubtedly afford one means of judging of their agricultural value, and probable fertility and productiveness. We may remark, under the general head of the powers of absorption and retention of water by soils, that it is desirable that soils should be more absorbent in warm and dry, than in moist TrlE FARMERS MAGAZINE. so? climates. But we must again remark, to prevent tained cells and interstices, as in a sponge, and any chance of misconception, in connection with '. never in a state of aggregation, but rather of very Sir H. Davy's assertion, that pure clays, approach ing to pipe clays in nature, which take up the minute division, so that the mass shall be thoroughly moist, but not saturated. Peat bogs and saturated greatest quantity of moisture, when poured upon ! soils generally can never attain to great degrees of them in the form of water, are nevertheless not the ! heat or cold, and on this depends the existence and soils which absorb most moisture from the atino- growth of peat . The temperature of all soils ivill sphere in dry weather. The surfaces of such stiff be increased by thorough and perfect draining; clay soils contract with heat and drought, and become injuriously indurated and almost like abrick; and thus, upon contraction, present a diminished surface to the atmosphere, preventing free evapora- tion and absorption, and compressing the root fibre of the growing crops ; so that, on such soils, the herbage droops, yellows, and withers away, nearly as quickly as on soils containing an injurious proportion of siliceous sand. Sir H. Davy merely alludes, no doubt, to soils tolerably well suited to the general purposes of aration. It is always desirable that soils on declivities should be more absorbent than on plains in the 6ame locality, in order that they may the more certainly retain a sufficiency of moisture, and the enriching portions of the manures applied to their surface. When a soil is immediately incumbent on a rock, it will be drier than if situated on a subsoil of clay or marl. A sandy soil should have a clay 6ubsoil to supply it with moisture in dry weather, by capillary attraction. And it follows that a clavev upper stratum or true soil is much improved by a sandy or gravelly subsoil, which tends to correct the excess of absorption in the superincumbent true soil. A soil of calcareous marl, a few inches in depth, immediately incumbent on limestone rock, is not and in wet soils much of the solar heat is consumed in causing the evaporation of the contained mois- ture. Does this not account for the judicious draining of wet soils, along with many other advan- tages ensuring earlier maturity for the crops, besides increasing incalculably their general fertility and money value. All that we have said here should be very carefully studied by the enlightened inquirer, who would fain avoid error, if called on to give advice, and to act beyond his own immediate locality ; and who should thereafter be capable of pronouncing a clear and deliberate judgment, founded on sound and recognizable data of general application, well ma- tured and considered, on broad and comprehensive principles of almost universal application. Arthur Young (to whom agriculture owes so much) observed that if equal weights of different soils were taken, thoroughly dried, and reduced to powder, they produced, by distillation, volumes of air corresponding in some degree to the ratio of their fertility and money value ; and that these gaseous volumes so produced were partly inflam- mable. But although we have, by frequent trial, satisfied ourselves of the general truth of this state- ment, so far at least as to serve as a subsidiary guide in assisting to decide between the compara- tive value* of two arable soils of tolerable similar found to be infertile, as might be apprehended from apparent fertility, yet it is quite impossible within the near approximation of the rock to the sur- face; and such soils have been pared and burnt at intervals, for generations, without deterioration. Such soils are met with in North Wales and Derbyshire. This is accounted for from the highly absorbent nature of such soils, and the gradual decomposition and disintegration of the subjacent limestone rock, which is perhaps considerably assisted and facilitated by the heat to which it is exposed at each recurrence of the paring and burning process, and the subsequent absorption of moisture, causing the outer crust to swell, and scale or shell off gradually. In a moist climate, even a siliceous sandy soil may be comparatively productive ; while the same quality of soil in a dry climate would be compara- tively useless. The power of retention possessed by soils when exposed to the influence of atmospheric absorption is found to be pretty much in proportion to their capacity for absorbing and retaining or holding water when poured upon them. That is to say, if peat mil take four hours to dry, a pure clay will take three hours, and a sand one. This shews most satisfactorily the necessity for draining peat and adhesive clay soils. The condition of the soil and subsoil with respect to moisture very much influences the temperature of soils. In a perfect soil, the moisture should be suspended and divided among the con- our limits to attempt, with any reasonable chance of success, such a clear and intelligible exposition of the process as Mill enable any practical man, without previous knowledge, for the first time to undertake, unaided, this investigation for himself, at least with a prospect of arriving at any trust- worthy or valuable result. It must be evident in such an investigation, that without frequent prac- tice and great nicety of precision no trustworthy result whatever can be attained. Many soils are more heated by the rays of the sun. cateris paribus, than others, and are familiarly called hot, in contradistinction to others familiarly called cold ; and this much depends, as we have already remarked, on their condition as to moisture. Soils composed of a stiff white clay are heated with difficulty, and retain the heat but a very short time; and this difficulty is increased from their being generally saturated with water, and much heat is consumed in evaporating the moisture. White chalks are heated with difficulty, but, being generally drier, they retain the warmth longer, as the heat is not consumed in the evapora- tion of the contained moisture. A black or dark coloured soil containing much vegetable matter is most easily heated ; and dark coloured soils generally containing much carbona- ceous or ferruginous colouring matter are more easily heated by the solar influences than pale soils, and acquire, in 6ome instances, as much as §* 208 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. higher temperature. The temperature of the soil often reaches lCKP, and sometimes 150°, while the air. in the shade, makes only 70° to 80° . And in cold climates, such as Great Britain, this is no douht of some practical advantage, and, as calculated to induce early maturity in the crops, in some degree, in uncertain localities, and in forwarding spring herbage, is well worthy some consideration when judging of the general fertility of a soil in a particu- lar situation, and on an average of seasons. There is one caution which we have reserved to the last, in order that we might give it distinctly by itself, so as to prevent all possible chance of mis- conception. Beware of a peaty soil, and particu- larly of mistaking it for a rich black loam; and remember that rich black or hazel loam is the trustiest and perhaps the best of soils. These peaty soils are chiefly composed of imperfectly decomposed vegeta- ble substances — chiefly vegetable fibre. In their natural and unimproved state they are spongy, tough, elastic, and inflammable when dried, and easily distinguishable ; but when improved and un- der high cultivation, and well wrought up with suitable manures and the earths, they are less easy of detection. But we shall endeavour, in a few words, to explain some indications which will still betray their original character even when reduced to the appearance of loam by cultivation; and though capable of deceiving the inexperienced in- quirer, it is scarcely possible, without incurring a ruinous and perfectly unjustifiable expense in lay- ing on lime and the earths in profusion, so to cor- rect the texture of peat as to deprive it of its loose and porous character ; and though it may certainly be brought to produce bulky crops of straw and large crops of grasses as meadow land (particularly by irrigation, as in the case of the Orcheston Meadows with their calcareous matter), yet the quantity, quality, and weight of the grain produced will sel- dom be found to be at all in proportion. These soils, too, very often lying on a retentive subsoil, oppose a further serious difficulty to their success- ful improvement and advancement to fertility. But they may still be detected, even after im- provement, from their dull, dark colour, contrasted with the brighter hazel of the loam, from their comparative loose and spongy texture, compared with the earthy and more solid consistence of the hazel loams ; sometimes from the characteristic poverty and sterility of the vegetation on the sur- face, both as respects number of species and of individuals, and luxuriance of development ; the herbage of peat soils generally being marked by a very peculiar and slightly dusky brownish, red- dish, or yellowish green tint, particularly about the lower parts of the stems, and altogether strikingly opposite to the free and vigorous growth which ever hastens, magically and unbidden, to weave the rich, bright, glossy, verdant, and glowing mantle which so closely wraps a rich brown hazel loam. Loams are found in all situations on elevated table lands, where they are very often of a red colour ; on slopes, or declivities, where they are yellow, or hazel ; and in the hollows of valleys, where they are almost black, and of alluvial origin. The two last are the varieties with which the inex- perienced may possibly, without caution, be led to confound a highly improved peat. The consistence of a rich loam is friable ; readily permeable by air and moisture, and discharging with facility an excess of the latter ; sufficiently ab- sorbent and retentive of moisture in dry weather ; having a powerful attraction for manures, and yielding them up in uniform and abundant sup- ply to the growing crops in every stage of their progress to maturity ; neither easily parched by summer heat, nor drenched and chilled by the rains of winter. Except in the hardest frost and ; heaviest rain, it may be tilled at any time with j equal success. From the fineness of its texture, root weeds are easily shaken out and extirpated, and the expense of labour is small, and the cost of ! manures (from its natural fertility, and the intimate intermixture which its friability permits, and its retentiveness of fructifying particles) comparatively J inconsiderable, under proper management. It is therefore the most profitable of soils ; and on an average of seasons, and taking the clay fallow into view, with the consequent loss of a crop, and the cost of labour on a bare unproductive fallow — from all these considerations, we must regard such a soil as the most productive in clear profit, and therefore in practical fertility. We have shown how it is to be distinguished from the soil which it most re- sembles, a highly improved peat, and in drawing this distinction, have clearly explained the indica- tions, properties, and peculiarities, both of con- sistence, colour in different situations, vegetation, &c, &c, by which it is characterised, and which, if carefully studied, will serve sufficiently to guide the inquirer to distinguish a good loam from a peat, or indeed any other distinct variety of soil whatever. But they may be still detected, even after im- provement. There is yet another tell-tale character, and visible witness. Glance over the suspected tract, and mark well the colour of any stones that may appear on the surface. If they should present an uniform white and bleached appearance, and other corroborative indications had raised your suspicions, your doubts may have an end. This appearance is peculiar to peaty soils, and when your attention has once been directed to this infallible characteristic, you can never afterwards be mistaken, where stones occur. This whitening, or bleaching, is produced by the action of the acid properties peculiar to peat. If your suspicions should be aroused, and the stones are not present in any quantity, but perhaps care- fully removed, very probably to build the en- closures and fences, &c, still make a point of inspecting their appearance, and at the twelfth hour you may be saved from the lamentable blun- der of classing an improved peat soil side by side with the most valuable variety of soil, a rich sound, hazel loam. Where there is a growing agricultural crop, it no doubt affords very good data from which to make an approximate estimate of the general productive- ness and economical fertility of a soil. The rules for forming such an estimate are in every day use, and sufficiently simple, intelligible, and easy of ap- plication. But the inexperienced eye may even THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 209 here be deceived in forming a correct estimate of the real, inherent productive energies of the soil. The crop may be luxuriant, no doubt : yet it may have been produced by the profuse and unprofitable application of expensive, stimulating manure, a system which could not be continued with any pros- pect of reasonable remuneration, and which merely serves to veil and disguise the native poverty of the soil. However, the practised and experienced agri- culturist is even here at little loss to form a correct and speedy judgment. He will look at the crop, cast his eye on the surrounding vegetation, for the sake of comparison, and by this test, detecting, if possible, any striking disparity; observe the con- sistence and general characters of the soil, aided by the general knowledge which we have already en- deavoured to convey ; and if, after these prelimi- naries, his suspicions should be aroused from any apparent disproportionate excess of luxuriance, let him then examine the crop itself narrowly, and he will probably find, if it should indeed be the rank and unprofitable growth induced by profusely ap- plied and stimulating manures, that although the straw may be bulky, it will be soft, fragile, pliable, and succulent, and wanting in strength, body, firmness of substance and stiffness, in proportion to the size of its growth, when compared with the produce of sound fertile land ; the ear will be light, chaffy, ill filled, unsubstantial, and wanting in weight and plumpness, and the crop altogether will have more of a rank grassy appearance, than of a productive, promising, well ripened grain crop. Such forced crops are very apt to lodge, or fall down to the ground, from the want of natural ro- bustness, and desirable firmness and stiffness of culm, to which the stimulating manure, applied in unwholesome excess, by promoting a premature and unnatural development, had effectually pre- vented their ever attaining. There can be no doubt that land in the same parallel of latitude, cceteris paribus, is always more valuable in proportion to the comparative lownesfl of its situation. In high districts, the herbage is less succulent and nourishing, and growth slower, and at all events later, and not so long sustained, and grain crops run more to straw, and the grain is less plump and heavy, and less perfectly ripened, and the harvest late. But all this, and the con- sequences, are so well understood, that we need not enlarge on the subject. We may just remark, with regard to climate, that high elevations and thin soils are generally found together. The climate, as regards its influence on the crops at every season, and we must not forget the harvest time, must be carefully considered ; for even if the soil shovdd be rich, what matters it, if the crop is so late from an unfavourable climate, that it cannot be saved ? This is certainly a most important consideration in estimating the economical fertility of a soil. We may state that Humboldt calculates, that in the temperate zone, an ascent of 110 yards diminishes the temperature as much as an additional degree of latitude ; and it is stated by another authority, that, in round numbers, in determining the temperature of a country, 400 feet elevation is equal to a degree of Fahrenheit, and a degree of Fahrenheit nearly about equal to a degree of latitude. But this we state rather as curious, and uf general application. In Great Britain alone, it has been calculated that an additional elevation of 60 yards is equal to a degree of latitude. In placing a value on land in our own country, the practical man can easily determine without this short and simple rule. The character of the vege- tation, &c, will show at once its comparative state of advancement for the season. We must not extend our remarks any further; and we have anxiously endeavoured to be as brief as was at all possible, consistently with perspicuity and our determination to give a tolerably com- prehensive view of our subject. ON REAPING AND HARVESTING GRAIN. CROPS. BY THOMAS SULLIVAN. (Continued.) In my former article on this subject, I endea- voured to point out some of the numerous advan- tages secured by reaping wheat at that particular stage of its growth, between immaturity and full ripeness, in which it is said to be raw, by showing that an amount of loss much more considerable than is generally apprehended is actually sustained by the farmer, in the diminished quantity and the deteriorated quality of the produce both in grain and straw, in consequence of suffering the crop to remain uncut until it is considered to be thoroughly ripe. Several conclusive proofs have already been adduced to show, that grain, particularly wheat, is of the greatest value as an article of food about a fortnight before attaining full maturity, or what is commonly called dead ripeness; and that, conse- quently, it ought to be cut down at that period, in order to secure the maximum advantage from the crop. The grain is then thinner in the skin or husk, and therefore, when ground, yields a larger proportion of flour, and, of course, a smaller quan- tity of bran than at any more advanced stage of its growth. It then also contains the largest propor- tion of starch and gluten, both of which are its most valuable and essential constituents; and if reaped in the state of ripeness referred to, the sam- ple will weigh heavier per bushel, have a finer ap- pearance, and obtain a higher price in the market, than if allowed to attain a greater degree of matu- rity. It has likewise been shown that the loss aris- ing from the shedding of the grain by high winds, or in performing the several processes of reaping, carrying, and stacking, which is often very con- siderable when the crop is allowed to become tho- roughly ripe, is greatly diminished, if not altogether prevented, by adopting the practice of green or raw-cutting. The straw also, it has been ascer- tained, is heavier and contains more soluble or nu- tritive matter about a fortnight before fully ripening than at any subsequent stage of its growth, and consequently, it is then more valuable as an article of food for live stock. That all these important advantages are to a great extent secured by early p 2 210 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. reaping has been mo6t conclusively demonstrated by the results of the experiments which have al- ready been quoted ; and the propriety of the prac- tice has been further confirmed by the researches of scientific men, who have clearly and satisfactorily accounted for the deterioration or diminution of farinaceous matter which ensues after the grain has attained a certain stage of ripeness. Although these advantages may seem but of trivial moment, when considered separately and in reference to the produce of merely a single acre, yet when combined and applied to the extent of land under wheat-cul- ture in these countries, the importance of reaping the crop in the state of ripeness referred to cannot fail of becoming strikingly apparent. It is estima- ted that there are in the United Kingdom about eight millions of statue acres of land under wheat, producing annually, on an average, three quarters per acre, or about 24,000,000 quarters of grain in the aggregate, of which more than three-fourths are allowed to become ripe ; and when it is considered that by cutting this a fortnight before attaining thorough maturity, an increase of at least fifteen per cent, of flour would be produced, it is, I think, the imperative duty, as it is obviously the immediate interest, of every cultivator in the kingdom to give the practice of early reaping at least a fair and un- prejudiced trial. Its utility is not of recent dis- covery, nor the result of any new theory, as many persons may suppose ; for the advantages derived from cutting wheat from ten to fourteen days before attaining full ripeness have been known to some enlightened farmers in different parts of the kingdom for a considerable time back. This being a subject of great national as well as individual importance, it cannot, I conceive, be too frequently or promi- nently brought under the consideration of agricul- turists; and therefore no apology is deemed neces- sary for again adverting to it in this article. But it may be proper to caution some readers against fall- ing into the opposite error of reaping the crop too soon. It is obviously more injudicious to cut corn prematurely, than even to allow it to become ripe, as in the former case the grain always has a shri- velled appearance when dry, and is in every respect of an inferior quality ; whilst the straw, from being cut while yet green and succulent, is difficult to get sufficiently dry for preserving in the stack, especially in moist harvests, which are of such frequent oc- currence in the changeable climate of this country. The great object of study, then, with the farmer, is to guard against over-ripeness on the one hand, and immaturity on the other ; but it is hardly ne- cessary to observe, that the error of premature reaping is much less frequently committed than that of allowing the crop to remain too long uncut. From what has already been remarked in refer- ence to the implements employed in reaping, it is obvious that the sickle and the scythe are still the only instruments that can be generally or profit- ably used in cutting down grain crops. The Hain- ault or Flemish scythe was much in vogue at one period; and sanguine expectations were entertained of its becoming generally employed, and of its super- seding the use of the existing reaping instruments ; but, as has been already observed, it has fallen into almost universal disrepute and desuetude in those parts of North Britain in which the greatest efforts were made to introduce it in opposition to both the scythe and the sickle ; and the reaping machines which have hitherto been invented have not been found of much practical utility, and they are conse- quently but rarely employed at harvest work. The following remarks shall, therefore, be confined ex- clusively to details of the most approved modes of reaping with the first-named instruments — viz., the sickle and the scythe; but before preceding further with our subject, it will be necessary, and I hope not uninteresting, to offer a few observations in reference to the persons who are engaged in con- ducting the various labours of the harvest with the usual modes of hiring them, &c. As it is a point of the utmost importance to have the whole or as much as posssible of the crop cut down in the most proper state of ripeness, and secured in the stackyard as quickly as is consistent with sufficient dryness, despatch is peculiarly essential during harvest; and it is but rarely that the regular or constantly employed labourers of a farm are ca- pable of themselves to perform the whole of the necessary work at that busy period. Hence it be- comes indispensable for almost every fanner to employ several additional reapers, in order to expe- dite the different operations of the harvest. Reap- ing with the sickle is performed by both men and women, but the scythe can only be used by men ; and hence the proportion of female reapers that may be employed is of little consequence in the former case, provided they be sufficiently active and experienced at the work. Their number will, how- ever, be limited when the crop is to be cut by the scythe; and it is but. rarely that women are employed either in binding or in stooking corn, when a suf- ficient number of men can be obtained for these purposes. The mode of hiring harvest labourers differs considerably in different districts. In the Lothians and in most of the southern coun- ties of Scotland, where reaping with the sickle is still by far the most general method of cut- ting down grain crops, it becomes absolutely indis- pensable for every farmer to hire a considera- ble number of persons to aid those constantly employed upon the farm : viz. — thehinds and cottars, with their wives and adult children. The districts re- ferred to are, however, abundantly supplied with reapers from Ireland and the Highlands, and also from the towns and villages in the neighbourhood. The number of auxiliary harvest labourers em- ployed on particular farms varies from week to week according to the urgency of the farmer, or the quan- tity of corn just ready for cutting, the state of the weather, and other circumstances. Weekly hiring markets are held regularly at the principal towns in every district, at which the rate of wages is fixed, generally by mutual agreement between the farmers and reapers, but frequently also by the farmers themselves in private consultation. In most cases, the same rate of harvest wages is paid in all parts of every district or county ; but it is liable to fluctu- ate from week to week according to circumstances. During the last few years, the rate of wages paid to reapers in the Lothians has varied from eight to twelve shillings a week, with victuals and lodging, though not very many years ago they received eo THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 211 much as from twelve to sixteen shillings per week. The hours of working during harvest in that locality are from six o'clock in the morning to half-past six in the evening, two hours being allowed for break- fast and dinner, which are always taken in the field, and a quarter of an hour both in the forenoon and afternoon for rest; but of course this arrangement must be departed from towards the conclusion of the harvest, when the days become shorter. "When the corn is sufficiently dry for stacking, the carry- ing is proceeded with, in favourable weather, from break of day to twilight, during which time the horses are not unyoked, and get no rest except while the carter is taking his dinner. The food given to reapers in the Lothians generally consists of oatmeal porridge and milk for breakfast and sup- per, and bread and beer for dinner ; a Scotch pint (about two quarts) of porridge is the customary al- lowance for a man at the morning and evening meals ; and the quota of bread and beer is a pound of the former with a quart bottle of the latter. The average value of victuals amounts to about eight- pence a day for each reaper, exclusive of the expense of providing and cooking, &c. Some hired reapers frequently remain on the same farm from the com- mencement to the conclusion of harvest; but in most instances they are engaged and paid by the week, and are at liberty to leave, or may be dis- missed on any Saturday evening. "Women always get the same rate of wages as men, provided they are equally capable of reaping ; the hinds' wives, however, afford their services during harvest as payment for their house rent. The average num- ber of days occupied in reaping are twenty-four full-work days, and the whole business is usually ac- complished in thirty days; but the duration of the harvest is, of course, mainly dependent upon the state of the weather, and it will be long or short according as the weather proves unfavourable or propitious for carrying on the work. This is the general management of reapers in the southern counties of Scotland, but, of course, there are some slight peculiarities in the usages of different districts, even though the same instru- ment— the sickle — be employed. Reaping with the scythe has latterly been introduced to some ex- tent into most part of the Lothians, and has ne- cessarily occasioned a considerable difference in the mode of engaging harvest labourers. Although the mowing of grain-crops has been more or less resorted to in the Lothians from a remote period, yet it is only within the last few years that the practice has come into anything like general repute among the farmers. A considerable proportion of the oat crop was mown these last two harvests by scythes- men from Aberdeenshire — the county in which scythe reaping is confessedly practised in the most approved manner, the labourers there having ac- quired, from long experience, much dexterity at the work. The usual plan in this case is, for the far- mer to contract with an intelligent man, for per- forming the several operations of mowing, gather- ing, binding, stooking, and raking, at a fixed sum per acre. The contracter, who undertakes to have all these executed to his employer's satisfaction, then engages in his own county (Aberdeenshire) a sufficient number of reapers to accomplish the whole of the work ; and as he commonly has several bands of mowers, with their respective attendants, reaping simultaneously upon neighbouring farms, he usually succeeds in realizing for himself pretty considerable harvest-wages. The Lothian farmers generally are anxious to have the practice of mow- ing introduced and extended in that locality, for this among other reasons, that it obviates the trou- ble of superintending a large number of reapers, and of providing and cooking food for them. Those that cut the crop by the acre procure their own vic- tuals, but are accommodated with lodging by the farmer for whom they work. The Lothian labour- ers have not as yet acquired great dexterity in tak- ing up corn after the scythe, which explains the circumstance of the requisite attendants being, in most cases, procured from Aberdeenshire, in order to insure the accomplishment of good work. In the more northern districts of Scotland, par- ticularly in the counties of Banff and Aberdeen, where the scythe described in my former article is now, and has been for the last fifteen years, almost the only instrument employed in reaping, the mode of engaging auxiliary harvest-labourers differs con- siderably from that which is adopted in the south- ern parts of that country. Instead of being hired by the week, at a fluctuating rate of wages, as is the general custom south of the Forth, reapers in the former locality are engaged, for a stated sum, to attend when the crop is ready for cutting, and remain until the harvest is concluded, whatever number of days it may last. The ordinary duration of the harvest, including the reaping, carrying, stack- ing, and thatching of the corn, and the lifting and storing of the potato crop, is from five to six weekc, according to the state of the weather. Reaping wii h the scythe being much more expeditious than with the sickle, the number of persons required for the harvest, when the former instrument is used, is considerably fewer than is necessary when the lat- ter is exclusively employed — a circumstance that certainly furnishes a strong argument in favour of scythe reaping; but, in either case, the farmer will, of course, consider, previous to the period of hiring, what number of additional reapers it will be requi- site for him to provide, which is determined by the extent of the farm, or rather the proportion of it that is then under grain-crop. When corn is reaped by the scythe, as is now al- most invariably the case in the district referred to, every scythesman is attended by a woman, who gathers the corn from the swathe into small bundle?, and places them upon bands ; every woman is fol- lowed by a man, who binds the sheaves; anolher man sets up the sheaves into stooks, or shocks, as they are sometimes termed, which he can do to three binders, or bandsters, as they are indis- criminately named ; and lastly follows the raker, who, if a man, and provided with a large corn-raker, fur- nished with curved iron teeth, can rake to four scythes, if the ground be even on the surface. The ploughmen constantly employed on the farm generally act in the capacity of scythesmen ; but the gatherers, binders, and rakers have in most cases to be engaged some time previous to the har- vest, at one of the neighbouring hiring markets. The average rate of wages paid to these parties, in 212 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Aberdeenshire, has for some years past been as fol- lows : — £ s. To a man for mowing, stacking, &c. ..210 To do. binding, &c 2 2 To do. stooking, &c 2 2 To a woman for gathering, &c 115 To a man for raking to four scythes, &c. 2 2 To a lad do. three do 112 This rate of wages, it may be proper to observe, is exclusive of victuals and lodging, which harvest i labourers generally receive in all parts of the coun- ! try. The food commonly given to reapers in the ; northern Scotch counties consists of oatmeal j porridge and milk for breakfaet and dinner, pota- toes and milk for supper, with oat-meal bread ad ' libitum at every meal, and two quart bottles of| beer a-day to ever)' person. Bread and milk are also given as refreshments between breakfast and j dinner, and again between dinner and supper; sol that it will be perceived the reapers in that part of J the country are very well attended to in regard to j victuals, the motto of the farmers at that period ! being " to feed well and work well." It is ; hardly necessary to observe, that this species of food, however unpalatable it would probably be to j southern labourers, is highly esteemed by Scotch- 1 men; and a sufficient proof of its nourishing and I strengthening properties is furnished by the fact, j that the persons who subsist principally upon it go through at least as much severe work, from the commencement to the end of the year, as the la- bourers of any other part of the kingdom whatso- ever. In the northern counties, the average ex- ! pense of a man's food during harvest is estimated at about tenpence a day, which, it will be remem- bered, is twopence above the average daily value of i the victuals given to individual reapers in the Lo- j thians. The hours of working, when the corn is | dry, is from break of day to twilight, with about an hour's interval during the day for meals; and while the carrying of the crop to the stackyard is in pro- gress, all parties engaged have to work for several hours after night-fall, especially when the moon af- fords her valued light. Advantage is, as it should be, every where taken by the farmer of the " har- vest moon," which so opportunely and providentially occurs at that busy period. The modes of engaging harvest-labourers now adverted to, viz. — at a certain rate of wages per week, or at a fixed sum for the entire harvest, possess their respective advantages, and are most generally adopted in the districts referred to ; but grain-crops are also occasionally cut down at a sti- pulated rate of wages per acre, by reapers who go about for harvest work. This latter method is most frequently resorted to, when portions of the crop are much laid and entangled, as it would obviously be impracticable to employ a large band at the reap- ing of corn that is so circumstanced. In such cases cutting by the acre is certainly of much convenience to the farmer ; but considerable attention is requisite on his part to observe that the grain is cut and bound in a proper manner, and reaped only in suit- able weather. The cost per acre varies according to the sort and luxuriance of the crops, the seasons, and other circumstances. Reapers of this class are also occasionally paid by the stook of twelve, or the threats of twenty-four sheaves. Threepence-half- penny is the usual allowance per threave for cut- ting, binding, and stooking (setting up) barley and oats, and fourpence a threave for wheat, without food. "When trustworthy persons can be secured for cutting corn by the acre or the threave, the sys- tem may be productive of considerable advantage to the farmer, as it in a great measure insures the speedy accomplishment of the work, besides obvi- ating the trouble of providing and cooking food for a great number of reapers. It is, in fact, the di- rect interest of those that reap by the threave to work assiduously and to cut the straw as close to the surface of the ground as possible; for by low reaping, which is so much to be desired and attend- ed to by the farmer, they more readily fill their sheaves to the requisite size. But with dishonest reapers, on the other hand, the disadvantages at- tending this mode of payment may be very con- siderable, it being their immediate interest to make the sheaves of two small a size in order to increase the cost of the work ; besides there are many other ways in which unjust reapers are likely to be tempted to practice deception, when not under the direct superintendence of their employer. Having thus adverted to the usual methods and conditions of hiring harvest-labourers to assist those constantly employed on the farm, I shall now pro- ceed to describe the manner of conducting the pro- cess of reaping. As has been already remarked, grain crops are cut almost exclusively by either the scythe or the sickle, each of which instruments has its advantages and disadvantages, its advocates and opponents. The sickle has been used in reap- ing from the earliest times, and still continues to be the most popular and the most generally employed throughout the kingdom. It is admitted by all to accomplish the work for which it is intended in the most efficient manner, and to be equally well adapt* ed to the reaping of all sorts of grain crops, in whatever state or position the corn may be placed, whether upright, laid, or entangled ; but in a country like Britain, whose variable climate renders de- spatch in conducting harvest operations of para- mount importance, and in which economy of labour requires to be studiously attended to by the farmer, there are some weighty and forcible objections against the exclusive employment of the sickle in reaping grain crops. Hence the great advantages that the scythe has over the sickle in point of econo* my and despatch. But, nevertheless, I am far from advocating the total suppression of the latter instru- ment (as some writers scruple not to do), for I am quite satisfied that, notwithstanding its being more tedious and toilsome than the scythe, there are many situations and circumstances in which it can be much more advantageously used. Although I am decidedly in favour of scythe reaping wherever it would be at all practicable to adopt it, yet I should not, upon several grounds, like to see the sickle banished altogether from our harvest fields ; and therefore, in the course of this article, I shall advert to both systems of reaping, without prejudice to either, and describe the manner of conducting them in the districts in which each mode is considered tu be most judiciously practised and is most generally earned on, i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 Reaping with the scythe has been partially prac- tised from a remote period in many districts both in England and Scotland ; but it is only within the last few years that this system has received any thing like general attention ; and it is, in fact, still far from being universally approved of by farmers. The practice of scythe-reaping is, however, gaining ground, and there is every prospect of its becoming generally adopted at no very distant period, at least for standing corn. The sickle and the scythe have each their advantages and disadvantages, and each has also its respective advocates and opponents. It is admitted by all, that the sickle excels the scythe in the greater regularity with which the corn is laid in the sheaves, and in having the ears placed more in one direction, especially when the crop is heavy and happens to be much laid and entangled by the com- bined effects of wind, rain, and its own luxuriance; but in this case it is obvious that scythe-reaping should not be attempted at all. Another objection urged by the opponents of scythe cutting is, that a larger quantity of grain is shed during the- operation of mowing than is done in reaping by the sickle, which is undoubtedly true when the crop is allowed to become over-ripe; but of course this objection vanishes when the corn is cut down at the most proper period ; and the practice of suffering it to be- come so ripe as to endanger the shedding of much of the seed cannot be too strongly condemned, what- ever mode of reaping may be adopted. A similar objection and answer apply to the breaking of the ears of barley in mowing with the scythe. It is further urged that as the ears of mown corn are not presented so regularly to the rollers of the threshing- machine as when the crop is cut by the sickle the grain cannot be so effectually separated from the straw, and that the labour of threshing by the flail is considerably increased in the former case. With regard to the latter part of this objection, it is admitted that wherever that rude, laborious, and everyway imperfect instrument, the flail, is still used the preference is always given to reaped sheaves, as the grain, from being mostly at one end, is more easily threshed out; but, it is to be observed, that when an efficient threshing-machine is employed, the loss, if any, sustained in this way is extremely unimportant. Another common ground of objec- tion against mowing grain crops arises from the comparatively greater number of stalks left upon the ground to the rake ; but if any material loss ac- crues from this cause, it must be owing to very negligent management. Most farmers carefully rake the ground after the scythe, but it is not un- usual for some to allow the rakings to remain in the field until the principal part of the crop has been secured — until, in fact, what is so neglected be- comes either altogether lost for any useful purpose by unfavourable weather setting in, or if put along with the rest of the crop, it materially injures the whole sample. No prudent farmer will, however, suffer any portion of his grain-crop to remain so long in the field, after it is ready for carrying, as to become either rotted or so much damaged that, if put with the rest of the crop, it would impair the cmality of the whole ; so that this objection against the practice of mowing is readily overcome. Be- sides, it i» the general custom in those dis- tricts in which scythe-reaping is judiciously prac- tised, to put the rakings into a separate stack by themselves, so that no injury can arise from their mixture with the rest of the crop. But perhaps the most common objection that is urged against reap- ing with the scythe is, that mown sheaves are rougher in appearance, and not so even at the stub- ble end as those reaped by the sickle ; that in con- sequence it is more difficult to erect handsome stacks with them, and that the stacks have a rougher ap- pearance, and expose more grain to the action of the weather and the depredation of birds. Any farmer, however, that has given an unprejudiced trial to scythe reaping will be able to testify that this admitted and almost unavoidable roughness of the sheaves and consequent openness of the exterior of the stack, instead of being detrimental to the corn, is highly beneficial to it, as allowing the ad- mission of air into its interior much more freely than stacks whose outside is more even and com- pact. For this among other reasons mown sheaves can be stacked with safety in a state of dampness, which, in sheaves reaped by the sickle, would be ruinous to the grain. I may, however, observe that when the crop is mown by experienced scythes- men, and carefully gathered and bound up into sheaves, the quantity of grain that will be exposed on the exterior of the stack does not much exceed what is necessarily exposed in the case of sickle- reaping : but all that may appear can be secured in dressing the stack shortly after its erection, by spreading a cloth at the bottom, to receive the ears of corn as they are cut off. This dressing, which should not be omitted even when the crop has been reaped by the sickle, occupies but a short time after the stacks have been thatched and have subsided a little, as a man with a scythe-blade attached to a handle can dress a stack in an hour. This is always attended to where the practice of mowing has be- come general; and in regard to some parts of the north of Scotland, in which the scythe is exclusively used, I can say that neater or better finished stacks could hardly be desired than are there put up. These are the principal objections that are urged against scythe-reaping by its opponents ; but it will be seen that they are few and trivial compared with the many important advantages attending the prac- tice. The scythe possesses a great superiority over the sickle as a reaping instrument, in being much more expeditious and economical, and in requiring comparatively fewer labourers, in addition to those constantly employed on the farm, to cany on and complete the harvest work, which of itself is a most important consideration. It is true that the difference in point of economy and despatch be- tween the sickle and the scythe may appear unim- portant in regard to the reaping of a single acre of crop, but when a large extent is to be cut down, the saving effected by the use of the former instrument becomes of considerable magnitude, as shall be shown in a subseqnent part of this article; and considering the great expense necessarily attending harvest-work, it is almost needless to say that every practicable means ought to be adopted by the far- mer to diminish its amount. Another important advantage accruing from scythe reaping is, that the corn is cut much closer to the surface of the ground 214 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. than can be done by the sickle ; in fact, the straw can be cut by the scythe to any degree of closeness that may be desired, so that a larger quantity of straw is carried to the stack-yard, and less left up- on the ground, which it will "be admitted is a mat- ter of no trivial moment. Another important con- sideration in favour of mowing grain crops arises from the circumstance of the straw requiring con- siderably less time or drought to render it suf- ficiently dry for the stack than in case of corn reaped by the sickle. This well known advantage of mowing arises from the stems being less com- pressed together in the sheaf, which of course ren- ders it more pervious to the air. Oats commonly require a fortnight and upwards to become ready for carrying when reaped by the sickle ; but when the crop is mown, it seldom' requires to stand in the e^d longer than ten days, which, it will be al- o wed, is a most important consideration in our variable climate. Having thus briefly adverted to the principal advantages and disadvantages of scythe and sickle reaping, I shall now proceed to offer some remarks on the most approved method of conducting the mowing of grain crops. It may not be improper to observe, that I am enabled to furnish these details from personal observation in Aberdeenshire, in which county it is allowed that scythe reaping is practised in the most judicious manner. My remarks shall therefore be principally descriptive of the mode of reaping adopced by the best farmers in that lo- cality. When a considerable extent of grain-crop is to be cut down, as on large farms, the most economi- cal arrangement of the reapers is in bands, each con- sisting of four scythesmen with their respective at- tendants. This number of scythes kept actively employed is sufficient to reap a "very large quantity of corn during harvest ; but should the size of in- dividual farms render it necessary to have more than four scythesmen, they ought to be so arranged as to economise time as nnich as possible. In Aber- deenshire, the usual allowance of corn for each mower is twenty Scotch acres, or twenty-five acres imperial measure; so that on a farm of three hun- dred statute acres, cultivated according to the six course rotation of cropping, in which two- sixths of the whole are annually under grain crop, four scythers will suffice to perform the reaping. In this case the different parties required for the work are four scythesmen, four women for gathering up the corn into sheaves, four men who make bands and bind the sheaves, two men to set up the shvaves into stooks or shocks, and one man to rake the ground to four scythers, making in all eleven men and four women. This is allowed to be the most economical | arrangement of the reapers on farms of such a size as to require this number of persons to carry on the harvest work. Another very common arrange- ment of the reapers is in bands of three scythesmen each, in which case one man is required to stook to three scythes, which will afford him ample employ- ment, and a stout lad can rake to the same number. On farms growing less than sixty acres of corn an- nually, the band of reapers may consist of only two scythesmen, two gatherers, two binders or band- sters, and a woman or a boy to rake. The binders in this case have to set up the sheaves, and the gatherers to make their own bands. When other circumstances admit of it, the reap- ing should be commenced at that side of the field which is on the left hand of the mowers when at work, in order that the swathes may be more easily cast from the standing corn. Grain was formerly, but is now rarely mown towards the uncut corn. "When the crop is not laid and entangled, the scythesmen follow each other at a short distance apart, having the wind if possible on their right- hand so as to keep the corn a little from the scythe. In mowing grain-crops no regard is paid to the di- rection of the ridges, the particular inclination or lie of the corn being the only guide to the reapers. Land laid perfectly flat, without raised ridges or open furrows, is most convenient and favourable for scythe reaping; and when the ground is naturally dry or has been thorough drained, it should in every case be made level on the surface. When ridges are much elevated in the middle, the scythe makes the lowest and neatest reaping, by mowing right across them, and the corn growing in the open furrows can also be more closely cut in this way; but the operation of raking can hardly be performed so efficiently as is desirable ; so that, all other things being favourable, a diagonal direction across the ridges is to be preferred. This, however, must alto- gether depend on the inclination of the corn and the direction of the wind, which must be followed in all cases of scythe reaping, irrespective of the position of the ridges. When the crop is laid and twisted in various directions, the mowers cannot advantage- ously work in company, as in the case of standing corn ; every one must, therefore, take a separate ridge, to enable him to cut in the most suitable man- ner without being interrupted by any other. But here I must observe that the scythe, however dexterously it may be wielded, cannot be used with advantage in reaping corn that is much laid and entangled. The mowers must cut very slowly to perform any- thing like efficient work; and, however expert and careful they may be, the mowing of corn that is much contorted is a very fatiguing operation; besides, it is almost impossible, with all the atten- tion that can be exercised, to lay the stems in the swathes, and afterwards into the sheaves, with any degree ' of regularity. The same number of persons with sickles could cut it down in as short a time, and in a much more efficient manner. It is advisable therefore, in all cases of laid and entangled corn, to reap it by the sickle, and to cut the standing portion of the crop by the scythe. Most farmers in Aberdeenshire mow all their corn indiscrimi- nately, however twisted it may be; but this, in my opinion, is not a very judicious practice. The defective work unavoidably made by the scythe in reaping entangled corn has contributed more than any thing else to bring that instru- ment into disrepute among fanners ; but it ought to be remembered that the scythe can be used with advantage only in reaping standing corn, or that which lies evenly in one direction ; for quite erect corn is by no means the most easily mown. The scythe undoubtedly possesses many important advantages over the sickle, but it would be straining its supe- riority too far to say that it could be ad-- ntage- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 ously used in all cases, to the total exclusion of the other. Reaping with the scythe consists of the following operations — viz., cutting, gathering, binding, stook- ing, and raking; on each of which I shall now otter a few observations. Cutting. — The great art in mowing corn consists in cutting the crop as close to the surface of the ground as possible, in leaving a uniform stubble, and in laying the swathe at right angles to the line in which the operator proceeds, with the ears all in one direction, and the stems parallel to each other. Whatever method of reaping is practised, the corn should be cut close to the ground. Long stubble is justly regarded as a criterion of slovenly man- agement, and is never tolerated by correct farmers, who are always anxious, and take much pains, to se- cure the greatest possible quantity of straw, with the two-fold view of increasing the supply of pro- vender and litter for their cattle, and of enlarging their stock of farm-yard manure. It is obvious, therefore, that the firmer who suffers his corn to be cut otherwise than close to the ground is very negligent of these important considerations. It has been ascertained by experiment that for every inch of stubble, a half cwt. of straw is left per acre on the field; and when the value of straw is considered, the loss thus sustained over a large farm must be very great. In estimating the advantage of low reaping, it should also be remembered that the straw of corn is always most succulent and nutritious near the root, and that such a slight difference as an inch in the cutting makes an important one in the weight and value of the straw. When it is fur- ther considered that the straw is often upwards of two-thirds of the entire weight of the crop, we can- not but feel astonished at the mode of reaping which prevails in certain districts in England, where it is customary first to cut off the ears and upper portion of the stems, and afterwards at leisure to mow down the remainder of the straw. In many parts of the country it is not uncommon to see at least twelve inches of stubble left on the field; and although this practice undoubtedly effects a considerable saving in the cost of harvesting the crop, it is ob- vious that its utility in this respect is more than balanced by its disadvantages in many others. Not that the straw thus left upon the ground need be altogether lost, for if ploughed under immediate- ly after the removal of the crop from the field, its decomposition would materially contribute to the fertility of the soil ; but as, in agricultural matters, one improper practice is generally accompanied or followed by others of an equally injudicious charac- ter, it is well known that in those districts in which the method of reaping here referred to prevails, the advantages to be derived from ploughing the land early before winter are but little appreciated, it be- ing the most general custom to defer the ploughing of the stuble ground until an advanced period in the spring. Not only is the subsequent pulveriza- tion of the soil for turnips or other green crops thus rendered more difficult and precarious, but it is also obvious that the advantage that might be derived from ploughing under the long stubble is thereby greatly diminished, as most of the valuable constituents of the straw are dissipated by exposure to the influence of the weather, and the action of rain, &c, during winter. But even if the land were ploughed, as it invariably ought to be, immediately after the removal of the crop to the stackyard, still the propriety of leaving high stubbles in corn fields, with the view either of diminishing the expense of harvesting the crop, or of more economically ma- nuring the land than in the usual way, is exceedingly questionable. The farmer will in all cases find it to be more advantageous, and more conducive to his interest, to cut his grain-crops as close to the surface of the ground as possible, and thereby to secure the greatest available quantity of straw which he is enabled again to return to the soil after it has been converted into manure, and rendered every way better calculated to promote the productive- ness of the land, than by leaving a considerable proportion of it upon the ground, to be wasted away by the action of the weather ; besides, we not unfrequently hear complaints of a deficiency of straw for the purpose of littering cattle in the houses and yards in which they are fed, which would seldom be the case if the grain crops were cut close to the ground, instead of leaving several inches in height of stubble. There can be no doubt that the practice of low reaping is fast gain- ing ground, and that farmers even in the most backward parts of the country are becoming more and more alive to its utility ; but it is indisputable that there are several localities in which the con- trary practice still exists ; many farmers being favourable to its continuance for the double pur- pose of lessening the cost of harvesting the crop (which, in my opinion, is a very mistaken economy) and of increasing the productiveness of the soil by the gradual decomposition of the stubble after being buried beneath the surface. The roots of the cereal grasses left in the soil after the stems have been re- moved, contribute in no small degree to restore the matters abstracted from it by the crcp; but, as has been already observed, it is obvious that the straw itself can be applied with most advantage after it has been decomposed and combined with the ex- crements of the domestic animals. All these are, I think, conclusive arguments in favour of low reap- ing, the advantages of which are, in fact, so self- evident, that it would seem superfluous thus to dwell upon the subject, had not the neglect of it been so general in some quarters. After what has already been said, it is almost needless to observe, that not the least important of the advantages at- tending the practice of scythe-reaping arises from the circumstance, that the corn can be cut to any degree of closeness that may be desired. It is obviously of much importance that the corn be laid as regulraly as possible in the swathe, with the ears in one direction, and the stems parallel to each other, as all the other operations, particularly the gathering of the corn into sheaves, are thereby materially facilitated; and inattention, or want of dexterity on the part of the scythesman in laying down the corn with regularity, necessarily occa- sions rough-looking sheaves and defective work, aa the gatherer and binder have but little leisure to ar- range the stems while the reaping is being proceed- ed with. To mow corn properly, therefore re- quires considerable dexterity, attention, and experi- 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ence, on the part of the scythesman ; but it is re- markable with what precision the swathes are laid by those who have been much accustomed to the use of the scythe in cutting grain crops. Reaping with the scythe is laborious work under any cir- cumstances, but its severity may be considerably mitigated by the exercise of a little judgment and at- tention on the part of the operator. It is especially re- quisite, towards insuring efficient and agreeable mowing, that the scythesman shoidd constantly en- deavour to preserve a keen edge on his blade. The stoutest men find this to be a very fatiguing opera- tion when they neglect or are unable to impart a good edge to the scythe, and they may be outdone by mowers much inferior to them in point of strength, but who are better aware of the advantage of preserv- ing a uniformly keen edge, and better able to impart it. The scythe-stone, and its accompaniment, the strike or stikle, are therefore to be frequently put in requisition in sharpening the scythe ; and the time so occupied will not be in any degree lost; in fact, when regularly attended to, a few skilfully applied strokes of the stikle suffice for a considerable time. A swathe of from thirty to forty yards in length is as much as a scythe can properly cut with one sharping; but much will obviously depend on the nature of the crop and of the ground, and some- thing also on the quality of the blade itself. In mowing, the scythe makes a circular sweep amongst the standing corn, every successive cut clearing a space in the form of a crescent. The swathe should be laid at right angles to the line in which the mower proceeds, and be cut completely out a few inches from the standing corn, so that none of the stems be left uncut. In order to do this with fa- cility, the mower should be careful not to swing his arms too far to the right in entering the scythe for every cut. as he may not be able to bring the imple- ment far enough round to the left to cut the corn completely out. Too narrow sweeps should, how- ever, be avoided, as less work would thus be per- formed in the same time ; and the scythe should not be brought farther round to the left than is ne- cessary to lay the swathe a few inches clear of the standing corn. In order to work with ease and despatch, the mower should keep his feet well for- ward towards the uncut corn, which enables him to maintain a more erect position than he otherwise could do, and gives him the greatest possible com- mand over his instrument. He should likewise proceed as directly in a straight line as the inclina- tion of the corn will allow, with a free and steady motion, making as uniform sweeps with the scythe as possible. It is esteemed good mowing to cut constantly a sweep seven and a half feet in length by eleven inches in breadth : some men will occa- sionally take more; but in strong corn this is as long a swathe as most persons can continue cutting for any considerable length of time. In case of wheat less must be taken, owing to the difficulty of cut- ting the stems ; and the labour of reaping oats is increased when there is much grass amongst the crop. Gathering. — The gathering of the dissevered corn into sheaves is a branch of the work that demands a great deal of care and attention; for this part being imperfectly accomplished considerably in c leases the I labour of the binder and the stooker, and retards all I the subsequent operations ; besides, the grain is apt to sprout in unfavourable weather, when the sheaves are rough and uneven at the ends. It requires very , considerable practice, however, to be able to gather | up the corn after the scythe, and place it upon the bands,in as expeditious and regular amanner as could be desired. This difficulty is, in fact, a great, though certainly not an unsurmountable, obstacle to the ex- ; tension of scythe reaping. Good mowers of grass \ crops may be found in all parts of the country, and a ' little practice renders the cutting of corn quite easy I to such; but it is hardly possible to find eitherwomen or men who could gather it up in a proper manner and with sufficient despatch without considerable practice. A good illustration of this remark was witnessed a few years ago by the writer, on a large farm in the Lothians. Two scythesmen from Aberdeenshire were employed to mow part of a field of oats as a trial. The men were excellent mowers, and set to work very briskly ; but the at- tendants were so awkward and slow at the business, that, though several more than the usual number were allowed, yet in their attempt to keep up with the mowers, which they were far from being able to do, the work was so imperfectly done, particularly the gathering and binding, and so much was left upon the ground to the rake, that the farmer was obliged immediately to stop the mowers and to abandon the attempt, as being impracticable without more ex- pert gatherers, though at the same time highly ap- proving of the manner in which the corn was cut, particularly in being so close to the ground. Those who have always been accustomed to reaping ■with the sickle, require considerable practice to make them sufficiently expert in attending the scythe, as the work in both cases is somewhat dissimilar. The Aberdeenshire mowers now generally engage the necessary attendants in their own neighbour- hood, to accompany them to the Lothian harvest, and thus provide against the work being improperly performed. Women are much better adapted than men for gathering corn, and in Aberdeenshire they are ex- clusively employed for this purpose. But, as the la- bour is severe, it requires young, active women, who have been well accustomed to harvest work. In lifting the corn, the gatherer stands at the stub- ble end of the swathe, and collects it mostly with her left hand, until she has as much as will form a sheaf, when she lifts it in her arms, keeping the stems as even at the but-end as possible, and de- posits it carefully upon a band made of the straw, and previously laid upon the ridge for that purpose. When men are employed for gathering corn, they wear a long apron which reaches to their ankles, and is an important auxiliary in keeping the ends of the sheaves even. When the binders are not obliged to set up the sheaves into stooks, as in the case of three or four scythesmen working in com- pany, they make bands for their respective gather- ers ; and this they can do so readily that it imposes scarcely any trouble upon them. In fact, expert binders almost invariably prefer making the bands, than to be exempted from the duty. After binding a sheaf, the bandster draws the straggling stalks from the corn end, of which, in stepping forward, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 he makes a band, by twisting them at the ear ends, and lays it upon the ground ready for the gatherer to place the next sheaf upon it. The binder is thus required to keep close to the gatherer, and the latter must closely follow the mower; so that the entire band are obliged to keep up with one another in order that the work may proceed without inter- ruption. It may not be unimportant to observe here, that it is a common practice, in reaping with the scythe, to bind the sheaves with a single length of the straw, unless where it happens to be too short for that purpose, This cannot, however, in any case be recommended, as the grain at the corn end of the band is generally lost in tying the sheaf. In making bands, two lengths of the straw should therefore be joined together by twisting them at the ends next the ears. Binding. — Although the binding of corn into sheaves is apparently a very simple operation, and one that may easily be performed by most persons, it nevertheless requires much care and expertness to do it in an efficient and expeditious manner. In binding mown sheaves, it is to be observed, that it would be improper to tie the corn so near the stub- ble end as is necessary in the case of sheaves reaped by the sickle. The reason of making this differ- ence is, that in reaped sheaves the stems are mostly even at the stubble end, and hence, in order to in- clude the short stalks, the band must be passed round nearer the bottom of the sheaf than would otherwise be desirable ; whereas in mown sheaves, on the other hand, the most of the stalks are even at the ear end, and they must therefore be bound somewhat nearer the top in order to include the short stalks. The winning process is materially facilitated by this mode of binding, as the lower end of the sheaves is expanded by tying them near the ears, which renders them more pervious to the sun and wind. It is of importance to have the sheaves of a uniform size, and not too large, and that the bands be no thicker than just sufficient to bind and keep the corn together until it comes to be threshed. Inattention to these minutiae often occasions con- siderable delay and loss, at a period when economy of time is of so much importance and so necessary to be studied by the farmer. Stooking. — The stooks, or shocks, as they are indiscriminately termed, should always be set up on the ground cleared by the raker ; for this, among other reasons, that any stalks that may be underneath the stooks are likely to sprout in moist weather, and thus be rendered useless. They should also be set up on the middle of the ridges, and as nearly in a right line with one another as can conveniently be done, so that the carts may have a clear passage between them. It is of some importance also that the stooks be set up in a direc- tion from north to south, or nearly so, in order that both sides may be equally dried by the sun. To enable the stookers to set up the sheaves upon the clean ground, it is necessary that the raker should keep as close to them as possible, and by doing so his own work will be considerably lessen- ed, as otherwise he would be obliged to go round the stooks, which, of course, retards him conside- rably. The most general practice, even in Aber- deenshire where, it is allowed scythe-reaping is carried on in a more judicious manner than in any other part of the country, is to set up the stooks upon the most convenient part of the unraked ground ; and while the corn is in the course of being carried to the stack-yard, to rake the spaces upon which the stacks had been placed. But, in my opinion, this plan is not quite so judicious as that of raking the whole surface at first, and setting the stooks only upon the clean ground. Stooks of mown sheaves being narrower and more tapered at the top than those of coin reaped by the sickle, and for this and other reasons more easily dried, hood-sheaves are always dispensed with, though often resoi-ted to as a protection to the corn in the case of sickle-reaping, the sheaves having to re- main a longer time in the field to become ready for the stack. Raking. — If the ground be smooth upon the surface, a man provided with an improved corn- rake can rake to four scythes, and a stout lad is able for three. There are various kinds of the corn-rake, some of which are drawn by horses and some worked by the hand, the former being the most expeditious, and the latter most generally employed. The land-rake commonly used has a wooden head seven feet in length ; the shaft is about the same length, and, like the head, made of tough ash, with a short moveable helve or handle projecting at right angles from the shaft. There is also a ring fixed in the shaft at about two feet from the head, to which a leathern belt is attached, which is passed over the shoulder and across the breast of the raker, by means of which, and the short handle attached to the shaft, the implement is dragged along the ground to be raked. This part of the work is most efficiently performed by drawing the rake backwards and forwards across the ridges, by which the furrows are better cleaned than by raking along the ridges. The teeth are of iron, about seven inches in length, and fixed to the head by a small screw-nut, in order that they may be easily removed in the event of being broken ; they are four inches apart, and so curved at their points that the weight of the rake may rest upon the curve, thus preventing the points of the teeth penetrating the ground, which would not only render the instrument more difficult to work, but would mix much earth and sand with the rakings. In using the rake, the operator works right across the ridges, if it can conveniently be done, and empties it of the gleanings close to the standing corn, which, when the gatherers and binders are returning to commence another swathe, are care- fully collected into sheaves, bound up, and stooked apart from the rest of the crop. Four of these sheaves make a stook, three being placed upon the ground, and one on the top of the others. By thus gathering up and binding the rakings as the work is proceeded with, instead of allowing them to lie upon the ground till some future opportunity, as is sometimes done, no part of the crop is lost or im- paired in quality ; but still there should be as little left to be raked as possible. Considerably more rakings are left upon the ground when the crop happens to be light and scanty than when it is of average luxuriance, as the straw in the latter case adheres better together, and can therefore be more 218 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cleanly taken up from the swathe ; but much will obviously depend on the expertness of the gatherers. Instead of the hand-rakes above referred to, rakes drawn by horses are sometimes employed for raking stubble ; but, notwithstanding their being more economical than hand-rakes, they are little used in those parts of the country in which scythe-reaping is most generally practised. Machinery can be most advantageously resorted to for raking corn-fields after the crop has been removed to the stack-yard, as then the instrument will not be interrupted in its progress by the stooks. The raking machines in general use are so well known that any descrip- tion of them would, it is considered, be unneces- sary in this place. In a preceding part of this article it has been remarked that the great superiority of the scythe over the sickle in reaping grain crops consists in the work being much more expeditiously and eco- nomically performed ; and I shall now give a com- parative statement of the expenses of both methods, from which this will appear more evident. The actual cost of reaping, in either case, will of course depend in a great measure on the rate of wages paid to the harvesters, the nature and quality of the crop, and other obvious circumstances ; but it is to be observed that, as the mowing of grain is much severer work than any other operation of the har- j vest, the men employed at it must have more than j the rate of wages usually paid to reapers. The same remark applies to the wages of the parties re- j quired to attend the scythesmen, \-iz., the gatherers, I binders, &c, all of whom are kept actively employed. , We shall first take the expense of reaping with ■ the sickle. In Berwickshire it is allowed that a j band of six reapers, with their binder, will reap, on | an average, a Scotch acre and a half daily during | harvest; strong wheat will perhaps require more time, but this is the usual allowance for wheat, oats, and barley overhead. The rate of wages is taken at 2s. a day for each reaper, and the value of the victuals at 8cl. each per day : on these data the ex- pense of sickle-reaping in the county referred to may be ascertained as follows : — £ Wages of six reapers, at 2s. per day Do. one binder, do. Cost of food for six reapers and binder, at Sd. each per day ..0 . .0 s. 12 2 Cost of reaping 1 $ acre 0 18 Do. 1 do 0 12 8 5* In East Lothian, the usual cost of reaping with the sickle is estimated at from 12s. 6d. to 13s. Gd. per Scotch acre, including victuals. In Aberdeenshire the ordinary work allotted to every mower is two Scotch acres of oats a-day during harvest, when the corn is not much laid and entangled ; but in the subjoined calculation we shall take an acre and three roods only as the ave- rage work that can be done in a day by one scythesman and his attendants. As already ob- served, the expense of reaping with the scythe must be" computed at a' higher rate of daily wages than that paid to reapers with the sickle ; but the cost of the victualsmay remain the same as before, I viz., eightpence each per day. The expense of a day's work of a band of four scythesmen and their I respective attendants, will stand thus : — £ s. d. Wages of four scythesmen, at 3s. a day . . 0 12 0 Do. four gatherers, 2s 0 8 0 Do. four binders, 2s. 6d 0 10 0 Do. two stookers, 2s. 6d 0 5 0 Do. one raker, 2s. 6d 0 2 6 Food of fifteen reapers, at 8d. each 0 10 0 Total cost of cutting seven acres . . £2 7 6 Do. of one acre 0 6 ?? This may be taken as the average cost per acre for mowing, binding, and stooking oats ; wheat will, of course, be somewhat higher, and barley about a medium between both. In Aberdeenshire, where, as has been already observed, reapers are engaged at a fixed sum for the entire harvest, whatever number of days it may last, the expense of mowing, &c, is something less than the above, and, as it may be interesting to the reader to know the cost of harvesting in that county, I subjoin a calculation for that purpose. The usual duration of the harvest, including reap- ing, carrying, thatching the stacks, and lifting the potatoes, is five weeks ; but the principal part of the work is generally accomplished in four weeks, and even less in favourable weather. By referring to the rates of wages given in a previous page, in speaking of the hiring of reapers in Aberdeenshire, the wages of a band of four mowers and their at- tendants will be seen to be as follows : — £ s. d. Four mowers, at £2 10s. each 10 0 0 Four gatherers, at £1 15s 700 Four binders, at £2 2s. each 8 8 0 Two stookers, do 4 4 0 One raker do. 2 2 0 Total wages of a band of four scythes, &c £31 14 0 To this we must add the cost of food for fifteen reapers, estimated at lOd. a day for each, or 5s. lOd. per week, and amounting to 17/. 10s. in all, which brings the amount of wages and victuals to- gether to 49/. 4s. ; this divided by twenty-four, the number of work days, gives 2/. Is. as the total ex- pense of one day's work of four mowers and their respective attendants. As has been already observed, this number of reapers are expected to reap every full work-day eight Scotch acres : so that the ex- pense of cutting, binding, stooking, and raking comes to only 5s. l^d. per acre, on the assumption of the weather being at all times favourable for reaping, which, in our variable climate, is but very seldom the case ; and as corn should not be mown when in any degree wet with rain or heavy dew, the reaping is often interrupted, whereby the ultimate expense is, of course, increased to some extent. The common calculation, however, in Aberdeen- shire is that six shillings covers the whole expense of reaping per acre, which, it will be perceived, is no more than one-half of the cost of reaping with the sickle in the Lothians and several other parts of the country. (To be continued J THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 ECCLESFIELD FARMERS' CLUB. On Economy in the Production of Farm- yard Manure. by mr. jeffcock. In taking into consideration the various expenses incurred by the agriculturist, in the production of his crops, I find the manures comprise a serious item in those expenses. It will be allowed that land cannot be cultivated to advantage, unless it be supplied with manure of proper qualities, and in sufficient quantities. I am, therefore, induced to offer a few remarks upon farm-yard manures, it being a subject of con- siderable importance to the interest of the farmer, because the greater the quantity of good manure that he can produce or manufacture on his own farm, the less capital he will be required to expend in the purchase of artificial or other manures. Good farm-yard manure contains nearly all the ingredients required by the plant in the process of its growth, almost from the first stage of vegetation, until it arrives at maturity ; and every field of corn, is only an innumerable quantity of single plants, each of which, individually, has its proper functions to perform before the crop can arrive at perfection. 1 propose, in the first place, to consider the con- struction and constitution of plants, and the kind of food or nourishment they require. And, secondly, the nature and composition of farm- yard manure, and the means by which the quantity may be considerably increased, by proper manage- ment, and a due regard to economy. 1st. — In the process of vegetation, the grain com- mitted to the ground contains within itself sufficient nutriment, in the form of starch and gluten, to ena- ble it, in the first stage, to push a small stem up- wards, and to thrust a root downwards, which root throws out small fibrous shoots in every direction into the soil. The stem of a common tree is furnished with pith, consisting of a number of mi- nute hollow tubes, laid horizontally one over the other j and the wood and inner bark are composed of long tubes, bound together in a vertical or up- right position, capable of carrying liquids, up and down, between the roots and the leaves. The root, immediately on leaving the stem, has a similar structure, but gradually tapers away into fine ten- drils, the extremities of which consist of a colour- less spongy mass, full of pores ; and it is by means of these spongy fibres, that the plant is enabled to take in, and send forward the liquid food, with the sap, to the upper parts of the plant, and to supply it incessantly with that nutriment which it requires. The leaves have also an important function to per- form, by extracting from the atmosphere a large supply of carbon. The food or nutriment of plants is supplied in a liquid or gaseous form, they being incapable of as- similating it in a perfectly dry state. Professor Johnston informs us, that the organic (or living) part of plants constitutes 85 to 99 per cent, of their whole weight, the remainder being inorganic. This organic part consists of carbon, nearly one-half; oxygen rather more than one third ; hydrogen a little more than five per cent. ; and nitrogen, two to four per cent. The whole of the carbon and hydrogen, and the greater1 part of the oxygen and nitrogen enter into plants in a state of chemical combination with other substances — the carbon chiefly in the state of carbonic acid, and of certain other soluble compounds which exist in the soil ; the hydrogen and oxygen in the form of water, and the nitrogen chiefly, it is supposed, in that of am- monia and nitric acid. The inorganic matters are obtained by the roots directly from the soil. By the scientific aid of chemistry, we are thus enabled to ascertain the constituent properties of living plants, and, being possessed of this know- ledge, it becomes the duty of the agriculturist, in the management of his farm, to study the peculiar nature of the various plants that he wishes to pro- duce, and to introduce to them that kind of nutri- ment best calculated to suit their necessities and capabilities. And this leads us to the second part of our sub- ject, viz., the nature and composition of farm-yard manure, and the means by which the quantity may be considerably increased, by proper management and a due regard to economy. The quality of the dung depends, in a great measure, on the quality of the food consumed by the animal, and also on the peculiar construction of the digestive organs of that animal. The same kind of food given to animals of a different genus will produce excrements of very different quality. Thus the horse, the hog, the ox, or cow, although they may be fed nearly on the same kind of food, the excrementitious matter will vary very much in composition and quality. The dung of the horse affords ammonia in much greater quantity than that of oxen. The dung of swine is of a colder nature, and of a soapy mass, and forms a manure of great power and duration. The dung of oxen contains matter soluble in water, and produces, in fermentation, nearly the same products as vege- tables. The principal substances found in the animal secretions are gelatine, fibrin, mucus, fatty or oily matter, albumen, urea, and different saline, acid, and earthy matters. Most of their substances -will easily undergo decomposition, liberating gaseous fluid in the form of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, which, as we have noticed before, consti- tute the organic part of plants. Horse's dung is of a hot nature, fermenting much more rapidly than that of cattle, or hog's ; and when allowed to remain in large heaps, near the entrance to the stable or sheds in the farm-yard, and the vio- lent fermentation allowed to go on unchecked, great loss by evaporation takes place, and the fertilizing properties are greatly impaired; and this loss arises wholly from negligence or mismanagement ; for if it was spread regularly and evenly over the farm- yard, and properly mixed with faeces of the cattle and swine, which are of a much colder nature, no such injur)' would take place, and the one would correct the other, and the general quality of the ma- nure be improved. Straw, from wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, &c, or any other vegetable matter, being mixed with the animal feces, very much aug- ment and materially affect the quality of farm- yard manure. The constituent parts of these sub- stances, being principally earth and earthy soluble 220 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. salts, and in different proportions,, which, by enter- ing into combination with the animal and moi'e soluble matters in the dung, retard the too rapid putrefaction of them, and when in a proper state of preparation and amalgamation, form the most effi- cacious and durable manures that we have. Notwithstanding the great advantage that accrues to the farmer in having a large stock of good ma- nure upon his premises, how often do we witness the very essence of it, in the form of liquid manure, allowed to escape, either into an adjoining ditch, or purposely drained away into his pond, where it re- mains unapplied to any useful purpose, and to which his cattle are driven daily, and compelled to wash down their food with a strong solution of liquid manure ! This is by no means an overdrawn statement ; for there exist at this present time, in our own village of Ecclesfield, similar instances of mis- management where the drainage from several farm yards is purposely allowed first to run for a con- siderable distance along the side of the public street, entirely exposed to the exhalations of the atmos- phere, and afterwards to empty itself into the two ponds in the centre of the village, and which are two public watering places for cattle, there to un- dergo putrefaction, and by that means to become injurious in the highest degree to the health of the inhabitants. I trust that, ere long, this public nuisance will be removed, and that the oc- cupiers of these premises will become persuaded that they are themselves sustaining considerable loss by allowing the most valuable portion of their fertilizers thus to escape. Individuals of the high- est scientific attainments, as well as the most intel- ligent practical men, all agree, that the liquid animal excretions are much superior to the dung of cattle. Liebig says, "Liquid animal excretions, if suffered to undergo the process of putrefaction, contain the greatest quantity of ammonia ; and in the form of salts which has lost its volubility, and when presen- ted in this condition, they are the most valuable of all manures, and not the smallest portion is lost to the plants. It is all dissolved by water, and im- bibed by the roots." The loss of manure in a liquid state in the sewerage drainage, in the large towns in England, is enormous, and appears to be almost entirely overlooked ; whilst in Paris, and in the principal towns on the Continent, the drainage from the sewers is applied to the land, and considered of the greatest importance, in furnishing a large supply of the best tillages for agricultural purposes, Hannam, in his treatise on waste manures, in- forms vis " That by applying a portion of the sewer- age of Edinburgh, to 300 acres of grass land belonging to Earls Moray and Haddington and others, which was formerly let at 40s. to 50s. per acre, now lets at £20 to £30 per acre ; and they pro- duce crops of the richest grass, not to be equalled, and are cut from four to six times a year, and the grass given to milch cows." Dr. Granville, in his report to the Thames Com- mittee says, " that the sewerage waste of Ktrasburgh produces £12,000 sterling annually ;" and could the sewerage drainage of Leeds be applied to agricul- tural purposes, it is calculated that it would amount in value to £50,000 per annum ; and that of London the immense sum of £900,000 per an- num. We next proceed to consider the method of pre- paring the manure in the farm yard. Let all the buildings and sheds around it be spouted ; and the delivering spouts so arranged that the water may be made to flow into the yard, or not, at the option of the owner. In situations where it is practicable, let the floor or bottom of the yard be a little concave, in order that the straw, &c, may be well saturated with the liquid. Make drains from all the stables, cowsheds, piggeries, the dairy, and the kitchens into the manure yard. Make a spacious tank, in the most convenient part of the yard, to receive all the surplus liquid, which is not required for absorption by the litter in the yard. Having thus prepared the yard, proceed to cover the bottom with any vegetable refuse that requires the longest time to decompose, such as stubble, tops of potatoes, &c, and cover these with the litter from the stables and cow-houses, and in so doing take care that the dung of the different animals be spread in equal layers, and well mixed. When cat- tle are fed in the yard, occasionally remove the cribs, that the dung may be more equally spread and trodden. In order to keep it in an equal state of moisture, occasionally return to it the surplus liquid manure from the tank, or apply water, the first op- portunity that may occur, from the delivering spouts around the yard. When the manure has accumulated in the yard as high as is convenient, it may then be removed, and formed into a manure heap in the field where it is intended to be applied. The site may be covered with a layer of earth, or road scrapings, if they can be obtained, which will imbibe the moisture at the bottom. The heap may be square or oblong, with sloping sides, and should not exceed six feet in height ; and care should be taken that the litter be of an equal moisture, and spread regularly, thinly, and lightly over the heap, that an equal putrefaction may ensue j and care must be used that no lumps remain un- broken, but be well shaken out and mixed. A ma- nure heap, treated in this manner, will be ready to apply to the land in about two months without turning. Should it be desirable to postpone the decomposition of the manure for a long period, it may be done by making the heap as sad as possible by treading and carting over it, and adding a layer or two of earth five or six inches in thickness, at equal distances, in forming the heap, and covering the whole over again with earth on the outside, so as to exclude the air ; and in this state it may be kept uninjured for nearly twelve months, but re- quiring to be turned over and lightened up a month or so before it is applied to the land. When a manure heap is thrown up, regularly and lightly, as first observed above, it is then that the violent fermentation takes place which causes the decomposition of the animal and vegetable matter which it contains, and by which process the ingredients so necessary to vegetation are liberated, and enter into a chemical combination with each THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 221 other, and will pass off (if not prevented ) in larg \ quantities, in the form of carhonic acid and ammo- nia ; and if neglected, and thus allowed to escape the farmer sustains great loss both in the quantity and quality of his manure. This will appear pretty clearly, by the following statement of an experiment that I made some time ago — proving the loss in quantity. In November I placed four tons of long fresh litter (lately thrown from the stables) into a manure heap, to itself, on a separate part of the premises ; it was thrown up in the usual manner, and turned over once ; and in the beginning of May following it was used for the growing of Swede turnips, being then in that state which farmers would pronounce to be excellent rotten manure. In this state it was again put over the weighing machine, and found to weigh only 58i cwts., having lost 21^ cwts., or more than one-fourth of its original weight. Had there been 40 or 50 tons together in the heap, in- stead of only 4, the fermentation would have been carried on much more violently, and the evaporation more rapidly ; consequently, I think it reasonable to suppose the proportionate loss would have been greater, and probably nearer one-third instead of one-fourth would have been abstracted from the original weight of the fresh litter, as no means were applied to prevent evaporation. The loss in weight is attended also by the loss of a very valuable portion of the manure by evapo- ration, which is apparent from an experiment made by Sir Humphrey Davy, who says — " I filled a large retort, capable of containing three pints of water, with some hot fennenting manure, consist- ing principally of the litter and dung of cattle ; and adapted a small receiver to the retort, and connected the whole with a mercurial pneumatic apparatus, so as to collect the condensible and elastic fluids which might rise from the dung. The receiver soon became lined with dew, and drops began in a few hours to trickle down the sides of it. Elastic fluid likewise was generated; in three days 35 cubical inches had been formed, which, when analysed, were found to contain 21 cubic inches of carbonic acid : the remainder was hydro-carbonate mixed with some azote, probably no more than existed in the common air in the receiver. The fluid matter collected in the receiver at the same time amounted to nearly half an ounce. It had a saline taste, and a disagreeable smell, and contained some acetate and carbonate of ammonia.'' "Finding such pro- ducts given off from fermenting litter, I introduced the beak of another retort, filled with similar dung, very hot at the time, into the sod amongst the roots of some grass in the border of a garden. In less than a week a very distinct effect was produced on the grass ; upon the spot exposed to the influence of the matter disengaged in fermentation, it grew with more luxuriance than the grass in any other part of the garden." In order to prevent the loss of these gaseous fluids during the process of fermentation, the ma- nure heap should be lightly covered over with a coating of ashes, peat, charcoal, or sawdust, or other absorbents ; and this coating should be well saturated with a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, about ten gallons of water to one of acid. When enough of this acid mixture has been applied, there will be little smell ; a great part of the ammonia being absorbed by the acid and the charcoal, and the charcoal absorbing also a consider- able quantity of the carbonic acid from the heap. Gypsum (sulphate of lime) will answer the same purpose, in preventing the escape of the ammonia and carbonic acid from the manure heap, by means of the sulphuric acid contained in it separating from the lime and uniting with the ammonia, and thus forming sulphate of ammonia; and the car- bonic acid uniting with the lime, and forming car- tonate of lime, both compounds abounding in ex- cellent fertflising properties. I do not approve of the decomposition of the manure being carried on to too great an extent j a certain state of fermentation is necessary to liberate its various properties more rapidly ; but it is in the soil to which the manure is to be applied that its strength should be developed, and not in the heap ; a medium state of decomposition is, therefore, to be preferred. During the dressing and cleaning of fallows, I would abolish the custom of burning the twitch, stubble, &c, as being an extravagant practice ; for although the ashes and inorganic matter which re- main after burning contain valuable properties, yet these are obtained by too great a sacrifice of vege- table matter. Let every farmer consider how he can, by every possible means, accumulate the largest mass of ve- getable and animal matter from around his farm and about his premises during the year; let him collect the stubble and twitch of the fields, the re- fuse of his garden, orchards, and stack-yards, the scourings of his ditches, ponds, and watercourses, and weeds of ever}' description before their seeds are ripe, and form the mass into a heap, well mixed together, and saturate this occasionally with liquid manure from the tank, or, should that not be at hand, with some dduted acid ; turn the heap once or twice, and this will form an additional quantity of excellent compost for his grass land. Agriculture is greatly indebted to chemistry for many valuable discoveries made by the latter to promote and advance the interests of the former ; amongst these we may mention the newly-intro- duced tillage, termed artificial manures : but how frequently do we hear of disappointment arising in the using of them, on account of the spurious and adulterated articles which are too often imposed upon the farmer in this form ! He, therefore, ought never to purchase these manures to any great ex- tent without first submitting the sample of the bulk to a strict chemical test. In conclusion, I have endeavoured to show that the profits of the agriculturist in a great measure depend upon the proper management of his ma- nures. He ought, therefore, to display the same care and anxiety to procure large heaps of manure in his fields that he does to obtain large stacks of hay and corn in and around the buddings upon his premises ; for unless he possess the former, he will fail in producing the latter. Manure manufactured on the farmer's own premises, if wed managed, possesses this great advantage — it is genuine, and (perhaps with the exception of bones) stands pre- 222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. eminent above all the rest for efficacy and durability. If the energies which England possesses were put forth vigorously and effectively in the thorough-draining of the wet lands of this country, and only one-half of the waste manures of our large towns and villages were applied usefully to the soil, an important source of additional employment to our labouring population would be opened ; and instead of having to pay £500,000 to foreigners annually for bones and rape-dust alone, I think it reasonable to suppose that in a short time she would be able not only to furnish her own tillages, but also to produce corn sufficient for her popula- tion, independent of a foreign supply. Several of the members, amongst whom were Mr. Thos. Turner, of Eastwood, Messrs. Dixon, Fisher, Maugham, and others, expressed their gra- tification at the paper which had been read, and an interesting discussion took place. Thanks were voted to the Chairman for his valuable paper ; after which the meeting broke up. The next meeting was fixed for the 16th July, when Mr. Napier will give his promised paper on "The Value and Better Preservation of Liquid Manure." — Sheffield Mercury. JOINT STOCK BANKS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE. Sir, — Many months since, you kindly inserted my letter on Joint Stock Banks, and I had hoped that some of your intelligent correspondents would have given some sort of reply to my queries ; although I have the vanity to believe, that an honest and true answer woidd be very awkward for the success of many " flourishing concerns." But probably the rail-road mania has absorbed every other species of madness; although even the mighty power of steam must succumb to the mightier power of money, and perhaps reluctantly admit her master hand, and acknowledge that but for the aid of the bank- ing house, the list of subscribers to rail-roads would be wonderfully curtailed. But to my subject. Entertaining a very suspicious opinion of banking, by the ruin I have witnessed among pri- vate bankers, who were considered men of ample means,until the bank affairs came to be investigated, and believing Joint Stock Banks to be conducted precisely similar, or rather worse, from a greater command of capital, I have been induced to bring a few matters together in the shape of Dr. and Cr., in order to form some idea of what may be the pro- bable profit of a banking concern ; thereby to ac- count for the amazing assumption of wealth and influence displayed by all those concerned with that aristocratic trade, until the " wind up " comes, with all its withering consequences. I will suppose the establishment to be formed thus : Deposits, bearing interest at 2 per cent. £50,000 10,000 £50 shares (all sold of course, as after a certain day they cannot be obtained but through the kindness(?) of some friend), half paid up - 250,000 Customers' balances, bearing no interest 100,000 Capital sunk to build Banking House and three Branches, as it is derogatory to the system to pay rent Deduct one-eighth of £388,000 for what may be required as a rest for the parent establishment and three branches - 400,000 12,000 388,000 48,500 Leaving a working capital of £339,500 Outgoing. Annually. Interest on deposits of £50,000 at per cent. - - - - 1000 Interest on the 10,000 shares, at £50 each, at six per cent., as it would be bad policy not to allow a good per centage .... 30,000 General manager ... 1000 Coals, candles, servants, and other domestic expenses, taxes, &c. Salaries of 4 clerks of different grades 1st Branch. — Sundry expenses as above Manager - Clerk - 2nd Branch.— Sundry expenses as above Manager and one clerk 3d Branch. — Sundry expenses as above- Manager and one clerk Four Licences ... Composition for stamps Various contingencies and incidental expenses for travelling ; managers meeting for consultation, hurrying on the lame ducks, &c, &c. 200 800 150 200 100 100 300 60 230 120 200 120 Income. Interest on a working capital of £'339,500 lent on dis- count, or to individuals, say at 5 per cent - - 19,500 Commission on £200,000, supposing that sum to turn round six times a year at one eighth per cent - 1,500 £34,600 21,000 Annual loss £13,600 This tells a sad tale, but I do not think it far from the truth, nor am I aware of any other legitimate profit beyond what I have stated ; there is now no stock jobbing as in " the piping times of war," no " sudden news from the Continent," no possible tricks to be resorted to ; but there is a certainty of bad debts to be added to the loss here shown; however, the enormous capital would keep the " steam up " for many years even with this loss annually. If I am wrong, I trust some Gentleman more conversant with the subject will condescend to set me right. I am, Sir, Your most obedient servant, August 18, 1845. Daniel Dubiov*. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 223 ALE AND BEER. By James H. Fennell. The Egyptians are said to have been the inven- tors of ale, their soil producing an abundance of corn. In great Britain, malt liquor was used as early as the fifth century, and considerable breweries existed in London before the Norman conquest, supplying ales of different qualities and degrees of strength. Ale is mentioned in the laws of Ina, King of Wes- sex. It was the favourite drink of the Anglo- Saxons and Danes, as it was of their ancestors, the Germans. It very soon found a place at the table of royalty. We are told that it was one of the liquors provided at the banquet in the reign of Ed- ward the Confessor. Chaucer, who lived in the reigns of Edward the Third, Richard the Second, and Henry the Fourth, has celebrated the South- wark ale of those days as the " nappy strong ale of Southwark." It is probable, however, that the drinking of beer was not a general custom in England until the reign of Henry the Seventh, in whose time the breweries — which then stood on the banks of the Thames, at St. Catherine's, and distinguished in the map given in the " Civitates Orbis" by the name of beer- houses— were twice "spoiled" by the king's officers, either for sending too great a quantity abroad un- licensed, or for brewing it too weak for home con- sumption. During the whole reign of Elizabeth the foreign demand for English beer continued to increase, and the liberty of export was only occa- sionally checked by the occurrence of scarcity or dearth at home. What we call beer is of later origin than ale. Thus sings the poet : — " Ale for antiquity may plead and stand, Before the Conquest, conquering in this land ; Beere, that is younger brother of her age, Das not then born, nor ripe to be her page." (The Philosopher's Banquet, 1633.) Taken regularly and moderately, ale is nourish- ing, wholesome, and conducive to longevity. The epitaph on Brawn, the famous Irish beggar, who died at a great age in Cornwall, is a testimony in favour of this beverage : — " Here Brawn, the common beggar, lies, Who counted by his tale Some six score winters and above — Such virtue there's in ale. Ale was his meat, his drink, his cloth : Ale did his death reprieve ; And could he still have drank his ale, He had been still alive." Ale is highly extolled by Shakspeare in his plays. In the " Winter's Tale" (act iv. scene 2), he prompts Autolycus to say, " A quart of ale is a dish for a king ;" and in his " Henry the Fifth" (act iii. scene 5), the constable of France, trying to account for the dauntless bravery of the English, asks if our " barley broth," as he is pleased to call ale, can " decoct" our " cold blood to such valiant heat." In " Henry the Eighth" (act v. scene 3), mention is made of " ale and cakes," Anthony a Wood tells us that when Prynne studied, he seldom ate any dinner, but used every three hour s to munch a roll of bread, and refresh his exhausted intellects with ale. Then his " ale-washed wits" were ready for duty again. It was, no doubt, from its power to cheer up the sinking spirits that, in ancient times, it was customary to present to male- factors, on their way to the gallows at St. Giles', a great bowl of ale, their last draught in this world. A similar custom prevailed at York, and gave rise to the saving, that "the saddler of Bawtry was hanged for leaving his liquor ;" for had he conde- scended to stop a while and drink up this last offer- ing of ale, his reprieve, which was then on the road, would have arrived in time to have saved him. Such are the great merits of ale, that Dr. We st- macott could not avoid making a digression in praise of it even in his " Scripture Herball," (1695.). " Our old English ale," says he. "when without those vile commixtures and unwholesome additions which some use in order to increase its energy and for other compotating ends, is a most wholesome connatural drink. Beer (which only differs from ale by being well hopped for its pur- gation and preservation) was formerly more used by our old English gentry and housekeepers than in these days, being laid much aside, upon a vul- gar and erroneous opinion that beer high-boiled with hops causeth stone and gout, which was an absurd mistake ; for the temperate use of it doth not so. He that in his young days accustometh him- self to drink his ale mixed or dashed with alittle beer, shall never when he is old have occasion to repent ; for beerish drink keeps the stomach clean, excites the appetite, and carries off ill-humours ; whereas fat, new, ropy, sweet ale (too often none of the clearest), dulls the appetite, creates clam in the vis- cera, and lodges too long. For myself, ye may conclude that I am a toper at old beer, by my ap- pearing such an advocate for it." Every reader of romance knows that it was the custom of our Saxon ancestors to drink their ale out of skulls at their feasts. Such were the rude ale-bowls of antiquity. At Braintree and Bocking, in Essex, when topers partake of a pot of ale, the measure they have it in is a peg-tankard divided into three parts or draughts, the first of which is called neckum, the second sinkum, and the third swankum. For the origin of bottled ale, we sup- pose we must receive the quaint account given by Fuller in his " Worthies of Lancashire." He re- lates that the learned and pious Sir Henry Wotton, having one day left his usual piscatory companion — to wit, a bottle of ale — in the grass beside the river Thames, he found it some days after, when, lo and behold, it was no bottle, but a gun, such the sound at the opening thereof." This anecdote re- minds us of an Indian, who, being at an English- man's table at Surat, expressed his surprise by loud exclamations on seeing a vast quantity of froth ooze out of a bottle of porter as soon as the cork was drawn. Being asked what surprised him, he replied, " I don't wonder at all that the froth comes out of the bottle ; but how the deuce did you ever contrive to squeeze it all in r" For centuries past, la bonne bierre cV Anglcterre has been spoken of in raptures by Frenchmen, Belgians, Germans, and other people. When Q THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the Persian ambassador and his suite left Eng- land, a few years since, many of them shed tears. One of them, struck with the quiet of an English- man's life, compared with thai of a Persian, de- clared that he could not desire a better Paradise than Chelsea Hospital, where, for the rest of his life, he could wish to sit under the trees, and do nothing but drink as much porter as he liked. Madame Malibran, like many other foreign artistes of both sexes, preferred bottled porter to any other beverage. Her favourite repast, at the conclusion of an evening's arduous performance, consisted of oysters and bottled porter, 'yclept stout; not a very pernicious indulgence, but her fondness for it gave lie to a very ludicrous mistake on her part. Malibran hearing the name of the Honourable Craven Berkeley announced in company, ex- claimed, with great animation, as she seized his hand, "Ah, Mr. Barclay and Perkins, I do owe you so moch !" The Berkeley family pronounce their name Barclay — hence poor Malibran's mis- take. The last time Madame Pasta was in England, a literary lady of high distinction asked her whether ,'jhe drank as much porter as usual. " Xo, mia cara, prendo half and half adessa,*' she replied. At Munich beer is regarded by the king and his people as indispensable to the health and comfort of the entire community. Within the last few months that capital was the scene of a riot arising out of popular indignation against the brewers for raising the price of beer. If a Bavarian peasant is not at work, he is sure to have a can in his hand. Beer is to him what it was to Boniface — meat, drink, sleep, and clothing; for, notwithstanding this penehemt for beer, no signs of poverty are visible from one end of the Bavarian dominions to the other. Charles Lamb's fondness for beer is still in the recollection of his admiring friends. Hogarth's print of Beer-street has the following lines appended to it : — " Beer, happy produce of our isle ! Can sinewy strength impart, And, wearied with fatigue and toil, Can cheer each manly heart. Labour and art, upheld by thee, Successfully advance ; We quaff the balmy juice with glee, And water leave to France. Genius of health ! thy grateful taste Rivals the cup of Jove, And warms each English generous breast With liberty and love." The celebrated Professor Liebig says that wine, spirits, and beer are ?iecessary principles for the important process of respiration; and it would seem that the stomachs of all mankind, tee-totallers included, will secrete these articles from the food which is eaten. We see frequently an interesting evidence of this fact in the case of a horse, after a feed of corn, resuming his journey with readiness and energy, although quite knocked up and out of breath a few minutes before. The simple fact is, that the horse converts the corn into beer, which facilitates his powers of respiration, and gives him fresh vivacity. If any man is resolved to carry out total abstinence strictly, he must refuse every sort of vegetable food, even bread itself; for all such diet contains more or less of alcohol. In the Geo- graphical Society's Journal (vol. ii., p. 286) it is re- corded that, during a severe winter on the west coast of Africa, the crew of the Mtna suffered so much from scurvy, that the least scratch had a tendency to become a dangerous wound. Captain Belcher states that " fish diet was found to aggra- vate the complaint ; and it is worthy of remark that, when our ships used to suffer so much from scurvy, stockfish was a portion of their allowance. The only thing which appeared materially to check the disease was beer made of the essence of malt and hops ; and 1 feel satisfied that a general issue of this on the coast of Africa would be very salu- tary, and have the effect especially of keeping up the constitutions of men subjected to heavy labour in boats." — From the Journal of Agriculture. OX THE ATMOSPHERE OF STABLES. WITH A DEMONSTRATION OF THE NECESSITY THERE EXISTS FOR THE ADOPTION OF IM- PROVED STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS IN THE FORMATION OF THEIR FLOORS. The frequent and violent exertions which man requires of the horse, render it a matter of the highest importance that the animal's physical con- dition be as perfect as skill and attention can secure ; and, as there are no organs of this noble animal so severely taxed, during the performance of either fast or heavy work, as the organs of re- spiration, it is obvious that too much attention can- not be given to all circumstances tending to secure perfection in the condition of that delicate appa- ratus which plays so prominent a part. It is no matter whether the animal be of the high-bred order, whose legitimate profession is to skim over the turf with a speed that far outstrips the wind, or bound over hedge and ditch like the matchless " Blueskin," or whether he is exercising the more humble (but, it may be, quite as useful) calling, of inducing locomotion of the heavy drag — all re- quire perfection in the condition of the thoracic viscera. A pure and uncontaminated atmosphere, in all respects suited to the process of respiration, is therefore a sine qua non. One cannot help, for these reasons, expressing surprise at the almost universal inattention to stable ventilation, which so lamentably prevails in even many of our first-class establishments. But there is no circumstance con- nected with domestic life that appears to me more extraordinary than the almost universal want of attention to scientific arrangements in the con- struction of modern buildings of every description, both public and private, from the largest theatre or assembly hall down to the cottage of the most humble peasant. It is not, therefore, wonderful that gross errors may be discovered in the tene- ments devoted to the accommodation of our domes- tic animals. That these occur to a much greater extent than many intelligent persons are aware of, THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. I shall presently show. I hope I may confidently presume, that most educated persons are aware r once breathed by an animal is, by the sim- ple process of respiration, converted into a deadly poison, and therefore should be instantly removed from its presence, and replaced by a proper supply of pure and wholesome air. It is well known that the oxygen of the air is absorbed, and carbonic acid gas is thrown out at each expiration — a gas which neither supports life nor combustion : of the truth of this the unhappy fate of the unfortunate sufferers in the Black Hole of Calcutta but too painfully demonstrates. I could cite, were it neces- sary, numerous familiar illustrations of this subject, but I have no doubt the following sample will serve to inform such of your readers as may not hitherto have given especial consideration to theories of re- spiration, and who are therefore unaware of the importance which attaches to the subject : — All have heard of the fatal accidents that occur in breweries, from persons incautiously descending vats while these are surcharged with the products of fermentation. It is the carbonic acid gas which kills the individual in this case ; and who is not aware of the danger of descending close, deep wells, where foul air has accumulated, and ren- dered the atmosphere obnoxious to human beings ? Again, carbonic acid gas proves to be the baneful agent : few, perhaps, are cognizant of the fact that, if a bird be suspended from the roof of a closely-en- compassed bed, the creature is speedily put to death — it is poisoned by exposure to the carbonic acid gas — the natural product of the respiration of the persons occupying the bed ! Although this gas is naturally heavier than common atmospheric air, it nevertheless, when heated by the process of respi- ration, becomes much lighter, ascends, and occu- pies the space nearest the roof of the chamber where it may have been produced, so that persons near the floor, having a plentiful supply of cold air, may suffer no inconvenience, although they most as- suredly by each act of expiration, are slowly and silently contributing to the destruction of the ill- fated victim in the cage. But the products of re- spiration, poisonous although they be, are the re- sult of vital phenomena, and therefore cannot be dispensed with nor prevented ; but the grand source of vitiation to which I am desirous to direct attention, is both removable and preventible, be- cause it is dependent on the ammoniacal gas which is disengaged from the decomposing urine that is absorbed by the porous floors of stables. Now let me shortly describe the condition of stable floors as they are usually (I may say invariably) con- structed— and suppose we take a stall in the Piers- hill Barracks as our text : — Nothing could be more unscientific than the arrangements which are here everywhere to be observed. All that seems to have been aimed at is to secure a hard and resisting footing for the animals, and that this may be ef- fected at the cheapest rate, the following mode of procedure is practised : — Boulders, or irregular blocks of stone, are placed in a bed of sand or small gravel (I beg especial attention to this circum- stance), and it is believed that when these are made to present a fair surface that the "job" has been creditably executed ; but what are the facts ? They are simply these : When the liquid manures of horses are dropped on such a floor as that which 1 have described, they rapidly percolate between the interstices of the irregular stones — decomposition immediately ensues — and deleterious gases are abundantly disengaged. I would, therefore, beg to press upon the attention of all whom it may con- cern, that the principle of rendering stable floors impervious to moisture should never be lost sight of; without attention to this desideratum the most in- genious schemes for ventilation must be stultified ! So rapidly do the component parts of urine assume the gaseous form, that it has surprised many to find, on examining an imperfect floor, that perco- lation has extended to so small a depth ; but the true explanation of this circumstance no doubt is, that the recently-dropped urine comes in contact with materials in a high state of chemical action, which, like yeast to the wort, immediately induces a similar condition in the atoms of the recent ma- terials, ammoniacal gas is formed, which ascends and pervades the entire apartment. The irritating ammoniacal gas I have frequently found, on going into a stable in the morning, so concentrated that I could not breath without coughing, and my eyes lachrymated as if a newly-cut onion had been hanging under my nose. Now, the products of respiration contributed but in an inferior degree to this state of vitiation. I repeat again that it is impossible to preserve the purity of the atmosphere of a stable, while its floor continues pervious to moisture. I therefore cannot too strongly urge this fact upon the attention of every one who may find his stables in an objectionable and unwhole- some condition ; and it will be satisfactory to know that the means by which the desired improvement may be effected involves neither difficulty nor ex- pense. Let the centre of the causewayed stall be re- moved two feet in breadth and five feet in length, measuring from the croup end of the stall. Flags of sandstone pavement, of one foot in breadth, three inches thick, and of convenient length, hav- ing the inner of central edges bevelled to such an angle as that when the two are brought together there will be a space or central gutter formed like an inverted V, one inch and a half in breadth at the surface, and two inches deep at the apex of the in- verted cone, which space must be filled with cement or pitch — a slight downward and backward inclina- tion must be given to the paving stones, so that whatever liquid may be dropped upon them, shall be rapidly conducted towards the hind quarters, and from thence conveyed on the surface to the point in the exterior found most convenient for a tank or reservoir, where it may be stored till re- quired as manure. I find the making such an arrangement as I have shortly described would cost for materials about 10s. per stall — 10 feet for each stall, and 10 feet for that part of the floor immediately behind the animal opposite his stall. A most superior article I know could be furnish- ed by Messrs. J. Paton and Sons, of Ayr. The excellent quality of their sandstone, and the great advantages their ingenious and powerful stone- cutting machinery, gives to their establishment a peculiar claim to preferment. Q 2 22G THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I shall conclude this perhaps already too extend- ed communication by assuring gentlemen who may adopt such structural arrangements as I have pro- posed, that they will have no reason to regret then- conduct ; as to the pecuniary outlay which these improvements will require, you'll " Let me whisper in their lug, That's ablin's nae vexation ;" because all that is to be done is to give their noble animals (whose faithful servitude deserves so well at their hands) credit for one year, as the following statement will clearly demonstrate : — A horse voids more than 3lbs. of urine daily, or say l,100lbs. per annum, = 2 libs, ammonia, = 180lbs. guano, 10s. So that he pays like a gentleman for the enjoyment of an unvitiated atmosphere. The necessity there is for rendering stable floors impervious to urine appears to me so obvious and apparent, that I flatter myself no sensible man who may chance to cast his eye over this hurried and imperfect paper will hesitate for a moment in adopt- ing some plan which shall have the effect of render- ing his stable-floors impermeable to liquids. Until this be effected, it is idle to talk about any ventilating scheme whatever; therefore, I say, reform your stable-floors ! ! ! — IV. Di/ce Guthrie, Edinburgh, 1, Lothian Road, 9th June, 1845. P.S. — It will afford me great pleasure to com- municate with parties who may desire more minute information on this most important, and I think highly interesting, subject. — W. D. G. — Ayrshire Agriculturist. LANDLORD AND TENANT. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS. The subject of agricultural improvement has been much agitated of late, and various theories have been advanced in order to sound the feelings of those engaged in that important pursuit. A better acquaintance with chemistry, a more enlarged knowledge of science, a clearer understanding of mechanical power, and various other matters, have been recommended as means to en- able the farmers to meet the increasing difficulties by which they are sui rounded. Amidst such a variety of counsellors, the said difficulties remain not only un- abated, but continually increasing. May we not, then, look for other helps, in the hope that the united aids to be drawn from every quarter may at last enable the farmer to hold up his head, and struggle with a better hope to overcome them ? The connexion of landlord and tenant will supply a fruitful theme for the inquiry whether any improvement can be obtained by a consideration of the tenure now in general operation between the said parties. Letting land from year to year can never yield sufficient security to a tenant for the purpose of improvement, the con- fidence required in such a case being inadequate for this end. Who, it may be asked, will invest capital wheie there is but little chance of seeing a return ? And, though it must be allowed at the same time that the great bulk of land in this country is held under such a tenure, and great outlay is hazarded under it, yet it can scarcely be asserted by any one that such a mode of letting does not act as a restraint upon improvement. Leases, there- fore, may be reckoned among the means. The terms, however, of these contracts may be such as to counteract the whole benefit intended to accrue. It is to be feared that the superabundance of the demand over the supply in the land market is one of the causes why the conditions of agreements are become so exceedingly stringent as is too frequently the case. The natural desire of making the most of a disposable article will be sure to operate in the case of landletting, as in all other cases. The great demand for land induces the party having this article to dispose of to raise the terms ; and the advanced terms suggest a doubt whether suffi- cient profit will be derived by the occupier to keep the landlord's mind free as to the ability of the cultivator to fulfil his bargain. Restrictions, therefore, as to the mode of cultivation and the supply of manure, are brought to bear upon the tenant, in order to secure the landlord from loss of rent or deterioration of land. These conditions and restrictions it is now proposed to inquire into, in order to ascertain whether or not their tendency acts as a bar to improvement. It will be necessary to refer to some of them, to show how well they are calculated to effect that end. Now, it is not to be supposed that the landlord is always equally informed with the other party as to what may be allowed, or what denied, in a bargain of this kind. He therefore seeks advice of some one in whose judgment he has confidence, and applies for information to his lawyer, who may be a very good agent for those who in- vest money in land for profit, but is often quite the re- verse as respects the improvement of farms ; or to his land-agent, who, if not a practical farmer, may be ranked in the same class. The lawyer or agent is, moreover, not exempt from human infirmity ; and, knowing from whence he is likely to obtain the greatest share of patronage, his advice will, as a matter of course, tend to the side most likely to produce to him the greatest share of employment. The success of the landlord in obtaining an advanced rent by these means is among the reasons why improvement is held in check. A second bar to improvement is the great care on the part of the landlord lest the farm should suffer deterio- ration by what are termed exhausting crops ; so that the tenant is bound up to such a course of cropping as shall be copied from some old deed, or devised by the lawyer or agent, and set forth in the terms of letting. The farmer is either presumed to be ignorant of the best mode of farming, or he is supposed to be so intent upon his immediate profit as to bereave himself of the power of looking forward to succeeding years. The landlord, therefore, instructs him by the covenants of his lease how he may be allowed to manage the farm, and how he conceives the land may be best cultivated. Surely, it is approaching very near to absurdity, to be continually reiterating the word " Improve, improve," in the very teeth of a set of covenants which say, "Do it, if you dare !" It is not an uncommon subject of inquiry among landlords, how far they shall allow a tenant to follow his own judgment in cropping his farm. The tenant must ask permission to grow this or that. A question was agitated a few years back, at a meeting of the mem- bers of the Smithfield Club, at the York Hotel, if it was prudent to allow potatoes to be planted, and a ne- gative vote obtained, because potatoes were considered to be of an exhausting nature ; and in a conversation which took place in May last, in the house of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, No. 12, Hanover- square, after the business of the day was over, a land- lord announced it as his intention to allow his tenants to grow flax. Surely, when such things exist, it must be concluded that all wisdom dwells with the landlords, or those bonds which restrain the tenant from exercising a free judgment are among the bars to agricultural im- provement. A third instance may be adduced in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 227 over-care for maintaining hedgerows and preserving timber, some of the latter of which is growing in the said hedgerows, and some in the midst of corn in the open fielils. The great injury thus sustained in many farming districts by the immense hedgerows, dividing the farms into inclosurcs of from two to ten acres, has attracted the notice of many persons, and particularly that of Mr. Grant, surveyor and land-agent, in his remarks upon this subject in his " Survey of Devonshire," which are so much to the point that it will be needless to enlarge upon thein. It is but to read his very judicious obser- vations, and the truth of the injury sustained by their means will be obvious to every one who has not already made up his mind that no argument shall convince him of their injurious tendency. The preservation of game must not be omitted in the list of hindrances to agricultural improvement. Where this is carried to an extreme, as is frequently the case, it is in vain to think of improvement. The continual vexation occasioned by seeing every effort rendered nu- gatory is sufficient to destroy the energy of any one ; for improvement necessarily implies investment of capital : and for a farmer to see his property, after having (hu- manly speaking) secured a full return, capriciously wasted and consumed by hares, rabbits, pheasants, wild ducks, &c. (not one of which he is allowed to kill) is to some temperaments almost beyond endurance. A statement has been made of the destruction which took place on a farm in Hampshire, which amounted in one year to four hundred pounds ; and an instance can be produced where the landlord requires the stubble to be left a certain height, considerably above what is cus- tomary or needful, and the plough prohibited from dis- turbing the land between harvest and Michaelmas, lest the game should be frightened away, or induced to with- draw from want of covert. Surely, such things ought to be generally reprobated, if no law can be brought to bear upon them. It may be said, in reply, that the landlord allows in rent for such requirements, or will do with his own as he pleases. This may be very true ; yet it is, nevertheless, a great bar to improvement. Old pastures frequently present another difficulty. Heavy penalties are often attached to the breaking up of old pastures, where the only merit they possess is that they are old ; whereas, were a tenant allowed to convert them into arable, a great increase of produce, such as roots and corn, would be obtained, and at the same tin^e an equal, if not a greater, weight of beef and mutton, in addition to the said corn and roots. This, doubtless, much depends on locality of situation and nature of soil ; but thousands of acres could be pointed out where the march of improvement is thus retarded, and the power of production limited. The next bar to improvement, though last to be no- ticed, is not the least ; and that is, the entire indifference which some landlords bear towards their tenants. There are, happily, in this branch of the subject noble excep- tions ; but, nevertheless, numerous instances can be shown where neither length of occupation or re- spectability of character avail. The amount of rent is the ruling principle. A tenant under such circum- stances will, indeed is compelled to, act in self-defence : consequently, a cultivation that has reference only to immediate supply is practised, because the uncertain tenure, and the conviction in the mind that the holding may cease upon the first occasion of a higher offer, must so operate as to produce a sort of recklessness, which, so far from leading to improvement, will render the farm worse and worse, till at length it is left on the landlord's hands, and he reaps the due reward of his deeds. There are, however, sundry causes operating to up- hold the bad system. The demand for land has in- creased to such an extent, while the supply (as has been shown by Mr. Connor, and as every one must know) must always remain the same, that the fair result of the system is not immediately produced. The abundance of capital, and the desire of successful tradesmen to be- come farmers, acts as another stimulus to uphold the evil; but the consequence to improvement is fatal. Landlords have the means of setting a good example ; and, as has been observed, " their privileges bring with them a train of duties," which, if attended to, may work a good work. Their enlightened minds are presumed to be less under the influence of prejudice than their de- pendents, and may be made of essential service if pos- sessed of true liberality; not that spurious liberality which only shows itself in after-dinner speeches at agri- cultural meetings, but that which actuates noble minds. The principle adopted by the late Earl of Leicester (when Mr. Coke) was, to let his farms upon such terms as enabled him to require improvements ; so that he has entitled himself to the honourable appellation of Friend of his Country, having not only obtained for his estate a tenantry of the highest respectability, but for the public a great benefit. If he who has caused two blades of grass to grow where one only grew before is entitled to praise, then it is eminently due to the late Lord Lei- cester. This enviable character stands out in fine con- trast with that of another nobleman, who has signalized himself in an opposite direction by letting his farms by tender, without respect to qualification in the candidate, or any consideration but one — namely, the highest rent. The first, it is presumed, has added to the former value of his estate in a high degree, and obtained in addition a first-rate tenantry, with a fair prospect of progressing still further in improvement ; while the latter has earned a fame indeed, but such a one as few will covet, while the estate must suffer deterioration, and decline rapidly toward the lowest stage, and be tenanted, in the course of a few years (if at all), by the lowest class of culti- vators. A pamphlet, from the pen of Viscount Torrington, has lately appeared, containing, among other things, " A few Observations on the State of Agriculture in the County of Kent," which is highly valuable as showing the energy of an active mind firmly set upon the grand object of improvement. It may not possess a panacea for every evil ; but is chiefly valuable as opening a door for familiar discussion, and frankly inviting observations upon his opinions. His lordship may be reckoned upon as a true friend to agricultural improvement. While thus according a willing homage to the motives which appear to actuate the noble viscount, it may not, at the same time, be improper to canvass some of his proposi- tions. The noble viscount, in common with many others, appears to lay the chief burden upon the shoul- ders of the farmers, who are surely not more responsible than the landlords for the improvement of agriculture. " The rents" (says his lordship, pp. 95, 96) "now paid will be found, on examination, to form but a small portion of the difficulties of the tenant, or of those bur- dens which press upon him ; but under the present system, with slight education, and consequent want of information, on the part of the farmers, with an inade- quate capital and increasing population adding to their burdens, unless measures are taken for a better course of instruction, unless means are discovered to prove that vast tracts of land in this and other counties can be made to pay a good return on the money expended, it is too much to be feared that capital will be withdrawn : increased distress will follow ; and the soil of Britain, which at present is the chief means of administering to all our wants and necessities, will run a risk of being thrown out of cultivation, and will be viewed as a fatal 2-28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. investment entailing ruin and misery on those who pos- sess it." Farther: "Is it to be supposed, in the pre- sent times, that the mere knowledge of ploughing and sowing, that a slight insight into the course of cropping the land, making a stack or loading a cart, and the old- fashioned rules handed down from father to son, in ad- dition to a moderate education in reading and writing, are all the requirements sufficient in the present age to fit a man for the duties of his undertaking as a farmer?" If this idea be a correct one, it would naturally fol- low that the parties who have no rent to pay, who have been educated in the sciences, have read Liebig's " Agri- cultural Chemistry," and adopted Pvansome's machines, would have approached very near to perfection in farm- ing. The examples thus set would be followed by every unprejudiced farmer, and difficulties would in a short time disappear. But experience steps in with doubts, and looks abroad for proofs. The farming of the in- tuitive class, if examined, will be found not so far before the general average of others as to entitle them to parti- cular notice. The practical farmer, though an ignoramus as to science, will be found not far behind those who enjoy the advantages of learning ; and the sciences (as generally understood when speaking of farming) will be allowed to repose, or cautiously called forth to take the farming interest under the shadow of their wings. It is not, by thus speaking of science, in the least intended to deny its applicability and usefulness to agricultural ob- jects ; but there is a fashion abroad among writers on this subject which aspires to obtain for it everything. The sciences are by such persons thought to be omni- potent, instead of dividing with practice the glory of improvement. Instances of this are frequent. Even the Royal Agricultural Society of England is not exempt. The practice they adopt with ploughs appears to be in accordance with these views. Their stewards, it seems, are able to discriminate, in a collection of near two hundred implements, which of them are of no use in practice. About a score are selected, according to the received opinion, as according best with science (it might here be asked where the man is to be found who can decipher the properties of an implement at sight ?), and the remainder are left behind as unworthy of notice. It is giving to science an undue preponderance, and to practice little but the name, that has drawn forth the above observations, and not a repugnance to science it- self, or a desire to undervalue its powers. One observation more on the work of the noble viscount shall suffice. Surely, rent is not quite so in- significant as his lordship appears to estimate it. It is probably about three times the amount of that paid fifty years ago ; while the price of wheat (which generally regulates all other farm produce) is little, if at all, higher. How, then, can it be said to form a small item in the farmer's outgoings ? There appears to be a ten- dency to maintain rents under all circumstances. If a tenant complains of it, " Oh," it is answered, " you must be ignorant of the improved mode of cultivation, or prejudiced against machinery. You have not consi- dered, or are perhaps too old to learn, the value of the subsoil-plough, or the wonders wrought by liquid ma- nure, which, if used as directed by scientific men, will give a double crop." It will avail little or nothing to the poor tenant to reply, his farm is composed of dry land, with chalky subsoil, and has been always ploughed six inches deep ; and he thinks a little pressure would he quite as useful as a subsoil-plough ; and as to liquid manure, he had tried it without success. He obtains no credit for knowing anything about farming, though his great-grandfatlur and his descendants, down to him- self, had been tenants upon the same farm. The rent is maintained to be of small importance : it is not that which constitutes his chief difficulty. It would be far more profitable to a farmer to follow the energetic ex- ample of the noble viscount, both as a farmer and as a breeder, than be led by his theory. By the first he would be stimulated to give practice in ad- dition to science and the full weight of experience, with close attention to the improvement of cattle and sheep, and also a right noble example of liberality. In the latter he would study long before he came to the same conclusion respecting rent. Having attempted to show some of the hindrances to agricultural improvement, as existing under the relation of landlord and tenant, it will perhaps be expected to have shown what is proposed as a remedy ; so that practical men may be able to show the world that their want of success as farmers was less to be attributed to ignorance than the bondage they were held in ; that if their course of cropping was not the best, it was because ' there was no other left them. Their leases or agree- ments were such as the London lawyers or landlord's agents chose to fix, because it had been the usage im- memorial to have such clauses ; and, though long usage was deemed a prejudice when applied to tenants, it was quite a different thing when applied to landlords. First, then, let the leases or agreements for farms be framed on a different model. That the landlord should be secured is admitted. The tenant also, who employs his capital upon the estate of another, has a claim to se- curity ; and that may be obtained by fewer clauses in leases — that is to say, fewer restrictions. It has before been attempted to show that a farmer must conduct his business to disadvantage if his own judgment be ex- cluded in the management of his land. It is proposed, therefore, to have no restrictions during the main part of his lease. Suppose a tenant chooses, in this portion of it, to sow wheat on all his farm, and make no fallow for seven years together, who would be the sufferer ? That the tenant be left to himself to adopt the course of farming which his mind, under his circumstances, and according to his locality, shall suggest, this may, doubt- less, be considered by many as requiring too much ; but in support of this view an instance shall be related which took place a few years back. It was intimated to a tenant that, if he wished for a lease, his landlord was willing to grant it. He therefore allowed but little time to elapse before he presented himself, when the following conversation took place : — Landlord. — You wish for a lease, I believe? Tenant. — Yes, my lord, if you have no objection. Landlord. — If I grant a lease for twenty-one years, what restrictions as to cultivation can you agree to ? Tenant. — No restrictions at all, my lord. The noble lord, who was not remarkable for unbending to inferiors, could not here restrain a smile ; but, seeming to allow for the simplicity of the tenant, began again : — Landlord. — If, then, you object to restrictions, by what way do you propose to proceed ? Tenant. — My lord, I conceive that, in a lease of twenty-one years, I can do the farm no injury during the first fifteen or sixteen of it without inflicting upon myself a greater ; and I think my own well-doing (so far as the portion of time I have mentioned) is a suffi- cient security to your lordship ; but I am ready to al- low that for the last five or six years it is possible for me to benefit myself, and yet do great injury to the farm; therefore, for that portion of the time, I am willing to submit to any conditions your lordship may think fit to impose. Landlord. — Well, that is not so unreasonable. Then, for the last seven years, you will not object to farm the land equal to what has been done in the former part: say, one-seventh part fallow, (In- usual proportion of good preparation for wheat — Mich as clover-ley, be^ or pea-stubble — and so on to the end ? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •229 Tenant. — My lord, I shall be happy to take the lease upon these terms. A lease was granted immediately for the time speci- fied ; no other restraint was imposed upon the tenant ; the lease expired ; a second lease was granted upon the same terms, and is now in progress. In this case, which is proposed as an example of libe- rality to landlords, there has been no backwardness on the part of the tenant to invest capital ; as a proof of which, extra manure is annually purchased to the amount of two-thirds of the rent. This case has especial reference to leased property. With respect to yearly hiring, it is proposed to do away all the restrictions which landlords have thought necessary for their own security, such as amount of fallow, quantity of manure, denial to grow certain roots, bonds respecting repairs, preservation of hedgerows and timber, restraint as to the quantity of wheat to be sown, and upon what preparation. Indeed, so numerous are the restraints, that it is scarcely possible to avoid a breach of some of them. Now, it is proposed to omit all these, which merely serve to swell the parchment — and, consequently, the lawyer's bill — and to substitute in their place a mutual agreement to pay for all damage sustained or benefit conferred by either party. Suppose, for instance, a landlord agrees to pay an outgoing tenant for any outlay of capital which has been expended on the land. If the tenant has not received a sufficient re- turn, this to be ascertained by two respectable and in- different persons, one to be appointed by each party. If the outlay was not injudiciously done, but was such as farmers under short lease would consider proper, such as a heavy coat of dung, which was over what the farm would naturally produce, then an allowance to be made according to the judgment of the said persons. So with draining, &c. But should the tenant be induced to run the farm (as the term is), by refusing to apply all neces- sary labour and manure such as the farm would natu- rally produce, then the damage sustained by the farm shall be ascertained in the same way, and the sum re- quired to put the farm into a proper state, so as the in- coming tenant shall be remunerated, shall be charged upon the outgoing one. If any doubt should arise of his ability to do this, let security be taken of him at his first admission. This, it is presumed, would secure a landlord, and not restrain a tenant. What, it may be asked, can it signify to a landlord whether his tenant grows everything or nothing, so that at the expiration of the term, whether by lease or yearly hiring, the land- lord may re-enter upon his farm in a state fully equal to that in which it was when placed in the tenant's hands. After all, leases on liberal terms are the things most conducive to agricultural improvement ; indeed, they are the grand desideratum. It has been customary lo guard against exhausting crops ; but if everything that exhausts is to be carefully excluded, how is the tenant expected to live ? Is every- thing to tend to the landlord's advantage ? Ought not more care and thought to be employed in the tenant's favour ? It is presumed that no crop exhausts to a greater degree than wheat ; so, if every exhausting crop is to be refused, there will be nothing left for the farmer to do but to spend his last farthing in improving his farm, and then retire to the union house, to make way for some other to follow in the same line. Let landlords adopt the principle of " Live, and let live;" remove the restraints that now cramp the farmer's energies ; when they obtain a good tenant, take care of him : and then agriculture, the foundation of national wealth, will flourish, and not till then, and be the cause of trade and manufactures flourishing also. A Tenant Farmer. East Kent, July 22, 1315. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the 30th of July. Present — The Right Hon. Lord Portman, Pre- sident, in the Chair ; J. Baines, Esq. ; T. Raymond Barker, Esq. ; S. Bencraft, Esq. ; J. F. Burke, Esq. ; Rev. Thos. Cator ; Col. Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; W. A. Cherry, Esq. ; W. Dalgairns, Esq. ; Col. Mac Douall ; A. Ogilvie ; Esq.; C. E. Overman, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; J. H. Tremayne, Esq. ; T. Turner, Esq. ; and T. R. Tweed, Esq. Newcastle Meeting. — The Duke of Northumber- land, one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society, com- municated, through the Hon. Robert II. Clive, M.P. his wish to place the sum of 100/. at the disposal of the Council, to be applied by them in any nay which in their opinion will best contribute to promote the agri- cultural improvement of the northern district, in which the Society's meeting will be held, at Newcastle-on- Tyne, in 1846. This communication was received with the best thanks of the Council, and its considera- tion referred to the next monthly meeting on the Gth of August. Early Spring Feed. — The Duke of Richmond transmitted to the Council the following communica- tions addressed to him by Mr. Dickinson, in reference to his mode of obtaining early spring feed for the horses of his establishment. " 7, Curzon-streef, Mat/ F..i •, London, "July 12, 1845. " I beg to send your Grace a report of my mode of cultivating Italian rye- grass as food for my horses, the success of which has astonished me very much, and which I am anxious to make known for the general wel- fare of agriculturists at large. " My land, a strong clay in good heart, and under- drained, is finely pulverized during the summer months, after tares, or any early crop of corn ; is sown broadcast with four bushels per acre of seed, grown by myself — without weeds — harrowed very lightly with bushes — iron harrows bury the seeds too deeply ; if weeds grow they are pulled, and the grass stands for a crop, which in 1844 was cut the first time, the first week in March, with about ten inches of grass ; April 13th it was cut the second time, May 4th the third time, May 24th the fourth time, June 14th the fifth time, July 22nd the sixth time, with ripe seed and three loads of hay-straw to the acre. Immediately after each of these crops the land was watered once from a London street water-cart, with two parts of pure urine from the stables, and one part of water, the produce of each crop increasing with the temperature of the atmosphere, from three quarters of a load per acre, as hay, to three loads per acre. The crop having shed a quantity of seed, I was doubtful the urine might injure its growing, so discontinued to water, but well harrowed it with iron harrows, and left it, ex- pecting nothing more from it ; it produced, however, three or four, I believe four, light crops afterwards, and has now standing upon it again three loads to the acre, the third crop for seed. My first cutting (1845) this year was not till April Gth ; second, May 3rd ; third, June 9th ; fourth, two feet and a half long, now standing on the land. I think it necessary to observe, from my own experience, Italian rye-grass differs as much in quality and variety as English rye-grasses cr English fruits ; there are Italian rye-grasses that bloom at one foot and a half high ; and that I grow, as your Grace has seen, stands from four to five feet. Any fur- ther information that may be required, so far as I am 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. able, shall be given to any one wishing to grow the plant. I attach a letter sent me by a practical farmer, to whom I supplied seed for an acre, which will furnish interesting information to sheep graziers. (Signed) " William Dickinson." [Mr. J. Hunt to Mr. Dickinson.] " Hayes Gate, near Uxhridge, July 1. " With the Italian Rye Grass seed I had of you, I sowed about an acre the first week in September last, after a crop of spring Tares ; the ground was manured with about 10 tons of good horse-dung. The second week in April I began to feed it off with ewes and lambs, and they made very quick progress, especially the lambs : the Grass producing an abundance of milk. There were forty-two couples, and the Grass supplied them three weeks, giving the ewes chaff and Oats, and the lambs Peas. After this they began to feed it again for want of other food. I took them off the Grass on the 13th of May, and on the 18th of June we mowed the whole for hay, which produced nearly two loads per acre ; this was above five weeks' growth. I should not have pur- sued this plan had I not had Tares which I wanted off the land to sow with Swedes. The Grass is now grow- ing freely, but not so fast as after feeding off. I want your water cart. I am quite satisfied of its being the most valuable plant I know of, especially for early spring feed : it comes to perfection for feed quite as early as Rye , and the comparison between the two for feeding qualities is as ten to one in favour of the Italian Rye Grass. I am so well satisfied of its goodness that I in- tend sowing a much larger breadth in the ensuing autumn after Wheat. (Signed) J.Hunt." The President informed the Council that he had made arrangements for the trial of Mr. Dickinson's plan on the clays and alluvial soils of Somersetshire, as well as on the chalks of Dorsetshire ; the result of which he would in due time communicate to the Council, along with those of an extended comparative trial he had in- stituted of the cultivation of the various Wheats on the soils of Dorsetshire. Germination of Seeds. — The President laid before the Council the following communication addressed to him by Mr. La Beaume, in reference to the application of lie currents to seeds for the purpose of exciting their vitality and quickening their growth. " London, 11, Argyle-street, July 30, 1845. " As the President of your Society, I beg to lay be- fore you the following facts, which I think important to the interests of agriculture, horticulture, and floricul- ture. By former, and also more recent experiments on a limited scale, I have fully succeeded in quickening the ination of various seeds, invigorating their plants, increasing their fecundity, and improving the quality of the produce. This is particularly important in turnip- seeds, as you well know. The means I have employed not atmospheric electricity, galvanism, or electro- magnetism, which cannot apply, but electricity deve- loped by a machine of adequate powers, and by a simple, peculiar, and effective process, easily understood, and easily used with very little manual labour. The time required is, on the whole, about half an hour, and 1,000 bushels of Wheat, or any other grain, can be electrified as easily as an ounce at the same time. I beg also to remark, that this my process applies equally to the resuscitation of the impaired vitality of old as well as bad seeds, to the revivification of withering plants, and to tlij increase of the quality and quantity of their fruit. In order to a more extended trial, and to the establish- ment of the facts I have communicated, if several mem- of your body will send me some pack, ts of turnip and other seeds, I will freely and cheerfully electrify and return them in a day or two, so that success may be proved by an impartial trial under your auspices, and I shall neither seek nor receive any other reward than your approbation, and the satisfaction of diffusing prac- tical knowledge for the public good. (Signed) " M. La. Beaume." Mr. La Beaume expressed his intention of commu- nicating to the Council at their next meeting the re- sults obtained by the Earl of Essex, Mr. Lefroy, and others, in their comparative trials under similar cir- cumstances, of seeds prepared, and not prepared, by this process ; as well as an explanation in detail of the mode in which such process may be most advantage- ously effected. M. Van Voost and M. D'Hondt, of Ghent, invited the members to an inspection of the results of their new mode of promoting the growth of plants. Wheat Crops. — Capt. Hamilton, of Rozelle, in Ayr- shire, communicated the following remarks in reference to the state of the wheat crops in Scotland : — "Rozelle, near Ayr, July 13, 1845. "I am happy to inform you that there were never seen finer crops of every kind than now on the ground in Ayrshire, and the farmers are all in good spirits, and the labourers generally fully employed. The weather has been, however, lately cold and wet, and yet it is surprising how forward our wheats are ; almost all are now in full ear. I had Neapolitan Amalfi, red wheat, in full ear early in June ; this is the wheat from which the best Macaroni is made, and is said to contain the largest proportion of gluten of any. It was sown 10th Jan., has stood perfectly well this severe winter, and seems a very early wheat — a good quality for our gene- rally late climate ; an acre of it was in full ear when Chidham wheat sown the same day alongside of it was barely in the shot blade. (Signed) "Archibald Hamilton." The following communications were also laid before the Council : — 1. From the Honourable Edward Everett, a letter ex- pressing his willingness to receive, and carry out, as an Honorary Member of the Society, the wishes of the Council, on his return to the United States, on the termination of his diplomatic mission to this country. 2. From the London and Birmingham and Grand Junction Railway Companies, acknowledgments of the Society's thanks for their efforts in promoting the objects of the Annual Country Meeting, by free conveyance of stock and implements along their respective lines, and the grant of every requisite facility in favour of the Exhibiters. 3. From Mr. Towers, of Pinkney's-green, Maiden- head, a communication on Dibbled Wheat, and the result of his trials of steeping grain. 4. From Mr. Hutchings, of Hanover-square, speci- mens of New Zealand and Australian Wheats, with a statement of their cultivation, by Mr. Brown, of Welfield, near Streatham Common. 5. From Mr. Chapman, of Doctors' Commons, a statement of the numerous uses to which Wheaten Flour is applied, besides that of food ; and the economy of employing, for the purpose of paste - making in the arts, a cheaper farina from other sources. 6. From Mr. T. K. Short, of Martin-hall, Bawtry, an account of the cultivation and uses of the Cow- Parsnip. 7. From Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., a communication THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 231 addressed to him, by Mr. C. Newman, of Court- farm, on the subject of the failure of the Potato- crop, and the results of his experience in draining. 8. From Mr. Davidson, of Darlington, an essay on rotation of cropping. 9. An essay on the cultivation of Heath-lands, re- ceived after the date prescribed for competition. 10. From Mr. Dalgairns, of Guernsey, a description of a simple barrow-drill, used in that island with great economy and success. 11. From Mr. Hillyard, of Thorpelands, suggestions in reference to the Society's prize-sheet : and notice of a motion for rescinding the present regu- lation which excludes castrated animals from exhi- bition. 12. From Dr. Johnson, of Shrewsbury, a letter and * pamphlet on the application of the town-sewerage of Shrewsbury. 13. From Mr. Moss, of Hull, a letter on the employ- ment of labourers. 14. From Mr. Dickson, communications on Flax-cul- tivation. The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, 6th of August. A Monthly Council was held at the Society's House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 6th of August — present, the Right Hon. Lord Portman, Pre- sident, in the chair ; Col. Austen, MP. ; T. Raymond Barker, Esq. ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; J. French Burke, Esq. ; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; W. A. Cherry, Esq. ; A. E. Fuller, Esq., M.P. ; H. Gibbs, Esq. ; S. Grantham, Esq. ; W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. ; E. Hussey, Esq. ; J. Kinder, Esq. ; Col. M'Douall ; R. Mil ward, Esq. ; H. Price, Esq. ; Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; J. A. Ransome, Esq. ; Prof. Sewell ; Prof. Solly ; J. Manners Sutton, Esq. ; and T. Turner, Esq Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, presented to the Council the Monthly Report of the Accounts of the Society ; from which it appeared, that the current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers was 5, 3115/., and the amount of invested capital 8,200/. Resolutions. — 1. That the communication made by the Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P., of the Duke of Northum- berland's donation of 100/. in promotion of the objects of the Society at their next year's country meeting, be referred to the General Newcastle Committee, with a request that they would report on the subject to the Council at the Monthly Meeting on the first Wednesday in December. 2. Mr. Etheredge having represented to the Council, that some of the exhibitors whose Tile-machines had been selected for subsequent trial, in competition for the Society's prize, infringed on certain patent rights held by him in reference to his own machine ; the Council, on the motion of Mr. Gibbs, seconded by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, passed the following resolutions : — (1). That the trial of the Tile-machines proceed. (2). That the Judges be informed of the protest of Mr. Etheredge ; and be indemnified by the Society against any legal consequences. (3). That such arrangements be made through the lawyers of the Society with the proprietors of the selected Tile-machines, as shall save the Society from action-at-law, as users of the machines. (4). That Mr. Pusey, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Ran- some, and Mr. Gibbs, be a Committee to carry out the foregoing resolutions. between Wolverhampton and Shrewsbury, on the oc- casion of the recent country meeting for an increased rate of remuneration beyond the terms of contract. 4. On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr. Raymond Barker, it was resolved unanimously (1). That a communication be made to the com- missioners of police, conveying the best thanks of the Council for their arrangements, and the excel- lent conduct of the parties selected by them to attend the Shrewsbury meeting. (2). That the silver medal of the Society be presented to inspector Charles Otway, of the metropolitan police, in testimony of the unqualified approbation entertained by the Council of his conduct, and of the valuable services rendered by him to the So- ciety, at their annual country meetings. Notices of Motion. — 1. Mr. Shelley, at the monthly Council in November: — "That it is advisable, in the payment of the judges, both of implements and stock, that their bond fide expenses be repaid them." 2. Mr. Hillyard, at the monthly Council in Decem- ber : — "That the resolution of Council, passed on the 26th of July, 1844, ' That no castrated or spayed ani- mals be allowed to be exhibited at the country shows of the Society,' be rescinded." 3. Mr. Raymond Barker, at the Monthly Council in December : — " That the bye-law which requires the final settlement of all the prizes of any particular year, by the month of June in the year preceding, be taken into consideration." 4. Mr. Milward, at the Monthly Council in Decem- ber : — " That as the sales by auction have hitherto not been satisfactory, it will be better to appoint an auc- tioneer." Communications — From the Marquis of Northampton, informing the President that the Royal Agricultural Society of Jamaica had offered a prize of 100/., placed at their disposal by the Governor of that island, along with second and third prizes of 30/. and 20/. each re- spectively, supplied from the funds of the Society, for the best text-book on agriculture, for the use of schools in Jamaica. From Mr. Grey, of Dilston, on Arrange- ments for the Accommodation of Judges of the Society's Shows. From Mr. La Beaume on the Germination of Seeds, the Preservation of Corn, Hay, and Clover stacks from spontaneous combustion, and the treat- ment of diseases to which labourers are more peculiarly liable. From Mr. Dodds, on the state of the crops in Lancashire. From Professor Sewell, presenting to the Society two transfusion Syringes for passing water or other liquids into the jugular vein, with a view to counteract the effect of rabid poison taken into the sys- tem ; and at the same time repeating his request of last year, that should any of the members of the Society have sheep, calves, steers, or heifers, bitten by rabid dogs, and apprehensions be entertained from their symptoms that canine madness wrould ensue, they would do him the favour of sending them, without loss of time, addressed to him at the Royal Veterinary College, Lon- don, when he would cheerfully defray all expenses of such conveyance, and report to the parties the result of his experiments on the animals. From Lord St. John, offering his Tile-yard for the Society's trial of tile- machines. From Mr. Hillyard and Mr. Crisp, sugges- tions in reference to the prizes of the Society. Among the numerous presents made to the Society, were a collection of samples of Alpaca wool, from Capt. Stanley Carr, and a China jug of large dimensions, em- bellished with designs of an agricultural character, as a specimen of art to the Society, on the occasion of their Shrewsbury meeting, by Messrs. Rose and Co., of the 3. That the Council cannot grant the petition of the Coalbrook Dale China Works. For all which the thanks omnibus and coach proprietors who worked the ground | of the Council were ordered. 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The House Committee having received authority to undertake the requisite repairs of the Society's house during the autumn, agreeably with the tenor of the lease, and the Finance Committee to make the usual arrangements for leave of absence to the Secretary, and to the clerks of the establishment, during the autumn recess, the Council adjourned to Wednesday, the 5th of November, NEW MEMBERS. Ashton, Richard, Limefield, Bury, Lancashire Baker, John, Bridgnorth, Salop Barker, Robert, Glynn, Barmouth, Merionethshire Belliss, Thomas, Birmingham Boddington, Benjamin, Presteign, Herefordshire Bowman, Edward, East Stoke, Newark, Notts Champion. Henry, llafud, Rhayader, Radnorshire Cholmondeley, Lord William Henry, Cholmondeley-hall, Cheshire Cookson, John, Hatherton, Nantwich Corbett, Rev. Joseph, Longuor, Salop Davenport, Edward, Speenston-hall, Bunbury, Cheshire Day, Theodore, Porthomal, Brecon Dunn, George, Elhngham, Belford, Northumberland Edwards, Sir John, Bart., Greenfields, Machynlleth, Montgo- meryshire Edwards, Joseph, Ross, Herefordshire Elliott, Evan, Marsh, Landulph, Devonport Field, James Pope, Chesliam \'ale, Bucks Field, Joseph, Market-cell, Market-street, Beds Glynne, Sir Stephen R., Bart., M.P., Ilawarden Castle, Flintsh. Hamilton, John, Sundrum, Ayr, Dumfriesshire Hammond, Horace, Horsemonden, Lamberhurst, Kent Hampton, Robert, Wytheford, Shrewsbury Haslam, John, Chesham, Bury, Lancashire Hickman, Captain, Old Swinfbrd, Stourbridge, Worcester Hogarth, John, Akehl, Wooler, Northumberland How, William, Hammond's End, Harpenden, Herts Jesty, Thomas, Druce Farm, Piddletown, Dorset King, James, Dnlliugham, Cambridge Marshal], Rev. Thomas, Eccleston, Cliorley, Lancashire Marshall, Francis, Grimstone Cottage, Wolverhampton Middleton, John, Sparkham, Reepham, Norfolk Moore, Rev. George Bridges. Tunstall, Sittingbourne, Kent Morton, William, Tunstall, Sittingbourne Ogden, John Maude, Sunderland, Durham Owen, Richard, Nantwich, Cheshire Pardoe, James, Sion-hil], Kidderminster, Worcestershire Rees, Richard, Gelligron, Swansea Smith, Samuel Steedman, Hopton Castle, Ludlow, Salop Stroud, William, Swansea, Glamorganshire Taylor, George, Brecon Taylor, Silas B., 30, Regent-square, St. Pancras Thompson, Robert, Walton, Stune, Staffordshire Tohemache, Henry Bertie, Guard's Club, St. James's Welch, John, Bachymbid, Bach, Ruthin, Denbighshire. VALUE OF LAND AT THE CAPE OF GOOD TIOPE. — A sale by auction took place lately at the Auction Mart of a farm for sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, comprising about 2-1,000 English acres of land. It was situated on the east side of the river Hope, and on the north, south, and west was bounded by Govern- ment land, being in the southern part of the "division of Beaufort, called Van Rooyens Kreel, at Shoorstein. It was held under the crown at a cpiit rent of £l Gs. per an- num. The auctioneer stated that the Cape wools were nearly on a par with the best Australasian crops, and that the lowest price of Government land was 2s. an acre. At that value the property was worth .£2,400. It was a dis- trict well known to all those who have been at the Cape, and favourable to those who desire to emigrate. The first offer was £2o0. The biddings went on at .£10, and the property was disposed of for £500. YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Wednesday, August 6. The following is a list of the prizes awarded : — SHORT-HORNED CATTLE, Class I. — For the best Bidl of any age, £25 ; second ditto, £10. C. W. Harvey, Walton, Liverpool, first prize ; Richard Booth, Warlaby, Northallerton, second prize. Class II. — For the best yearling Bull, £20 ; second ditto, £10. William Hutton, Gate Burton, Gainsborough, first prize; The Earl of Harewood, Harewood House, Leeds, second prize. Class III.— -For the best Bull Calf, £10; second ditto, £5. Thomas Wetherell, Durham, first prize ; George Wood, South Daltou, Beverley, second prize. Class IV. — For the best Cow of any age, in calf or milk, £15 : second ditto, £5. John Booth, Killerhy, Catterick, first prize ; Joseph Duimington Jefferson, Thicket Priory, York, second prize. Class V. — For the best three-year old Cow, in can" or milk, and having had a cab0, £15 ; second ditto, £5. Hugh William Jackson, Leven Canal, Bevierley, first prize ; John Collins, Dau- thorpe, Hedon, second prize. Class VI. — For the best two-year old Heifer, in calf, £10; second ditto, £5. Richard Booth, Warlaby, Northallerton, first prize ; W. T. Carruthers, Arthington Hall, Otley, second prize. Class ATI. — For the best Yearling Heifer, £10; second ditto, £5. E. W. Smith Owen, Condover, Shrewsbury, first prize ; John Booth, Killerby, Catterick, second prize. , >s MIL — For the best Heifer Calf, £10; second ditto, £5. William Brandham, Dringhoe, Burlington, first prize; John Parkinson, Ley fields, Newark, second prize. CATTLE OF ANY BREED. Class IX. — For the best Fat Ox of any age, £10. Henry Simpson, Bainton Field, Driffield. Class X. — For the best Fat Cow or Heifer of any age, £10. John Smith, Welton Garth, South Cave. LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP. Class XI. — For the best Shearling Ram, £15 ; second ditto, £7. Percival Richardson, llorkstow, first prize ; John Taylor, Buniham, Barton-on-Hninber, second Class XII. — For the best Ram of any age, £10; second ditto, £5. George Robinson, Carnaby, Burlington, bred by liim, lirst prize ; John Taylor, Burnhain, Barton-on-llumber, two shear, bred by him, second prize. Class XIII. — Lor the best pen of five Ewes, £10; second ditto, £5. Robert Dawson, Sewerby, Burlington, bred by him, first prize ; W. E. Botterill, Eastthorpe, Market Weighton, second prize. Class XIV. — For the best pen of five shearling Wethers, £10; second ditto, £5. John Holliday, Barmston, Beverley, bred by him, first prize; George Angas, Neswiek, Driitield, second prize. Class XV. — For the best pen of five shearling Gimmers, £10 ; second ditto, £5. William Abraham, Barnetby-le-Wold, Brig, first prize ; Mr. W. Richardson, Great Limber, second prize. PIGS. Class XVI. — For the best Boar, large breed, £5 ; secoud ditto, £2. James Teal, llolm-ou-the- Wolds, Beverley, lirst prize; Robert Biglin, Preston, Hedon, second prize. Class XVEL — For the best Sow, large breed, in pig or milk, £5 ; second ditto, £2. John Beetham, West Harlsey, Northallerton, first prize ; Samuel Cole, Walkington, Beverley, second prize. Class XVIII. — For the best Boar, small breed, £5 ; second ditto. £2. John Higginson, Thorraauby, Thirsk, first prize; James Naylor, Rye Hill, Hedon, second prize. Class XIX. — For the best Sow, small breed, in pi milk, £5; second ditto, £2. John Higginson, Thormanby, Thirsk, first prize; George Dunhill, Moxon, Pontefract, second prize. Class XX. — For the best throe store Pigs, of the litter, from four to nine months old, L"> ; second ditto, £2 ; Samuel Wiley, Brandsby, York, first prize; Lord Wenlock, Escrick Park, York, second prize. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 233 HORSES. Class XXT. — For the best Stallion for hunters, £10; se- cond ditto, £5. Edward Homer Reynard, Sunderland wick, first prize ; George Allan, Brauihaui, Tadcaster, second prize. Class XXII. — For the best Stallion for coach horses, £10 ; second ditto, £5. Thomas Holtby, Rotsey, Driffield, first prize ; Joseph Veils, Crowle, second prize. Class XXIII. — For the best Stallion for roadsters, £10 ; second ditto, £5. Thomas and Henry Smith, Shipton, Market Weighton, first prize ; Thomas Richardson, York, se- cond prize. CLASS XXIV. — For the best Stallion for agricultural pur- poses, £10; second ditto, £5. George Angas, Neswick, Drif- field, first prize; John Dawson, Buttercrambe Stamfordbridge, second prize. Class XXV. — For the best Mare and Foal for hunting, £5 ; second ditto, £2. George Foster, Wansford, Driffield, first prize; Robert Crowe, jun., Speeton, Burlington, second prize. Class XXVI. — For the best Mare and Foal for coaching, £5 ; second ditto, £2. Botterill Johnson, Frodingham-Bridge, Driffield, first prize ; William Burton, Water Fulford, York, second prize. Class XXVII. — For the best roadster Mare and Foal, £5 ; second ditto, £2. Henry Barkworth, Tranby, Hull, first prize ; Luke Dennis, Beverley, second prize. Class XXVIII. — For the best Mare and Foal for draught, £5 ; second ditto, £2. John Todd, Swanland, Hull, first prize ; J. B. Thompson, Anlaby, Hull, second prize. Class XXIX. — For the best three-year-old hunting Gelding or Filly, £5 ; second ditto, £2. Thomas Appleby, Holtby, York, first prize ; Luke Dennis, Beverley, second prize. Class XXX. — For the best three-year-old coaching Gelding or Filly, £5 ; second ditto, £2. John Tinegate, Preston, Hedon, first prize ; Thomas Appleby, Holtby, York, second prize. Class XXXI. — For the best two year old coaching Gelding or Filly, £5 ; second ditto, £2. Tilburn Dickinson, Bishop Wil- ton, Pocklington, first prize ; James Hall, Scorbro', Beverley, second prize. Class XXXII. — For the best three year old hackney Geld- ing or Filly, £5 ; second ditto, £2. Richard Jameson, Beverley, first prize; Luke Dennis, Beverley, brown Filly, bred by him, second prize. Class XXXIII. — For the best pair of Horses of either sex, for agricultural purposes, worked during the season, £5 ; - ditto, £2. George Angas, Neswick, Driffield, first prize ; Luke Dennis, Beverley, second prize. PREMIUMS FOR POULTRY. BEIXG A DONATION FROM SEVERAL GENTLEMEN. Class XXXIV.— For the best pair of Fowls of the Dorking breed, male and female, £1 ; Thomas Jolly, Acomb, fork. Class XXXV. — For the best pair of Fowls of the Spanish breed, male and female, £1 ; J. W. Nutt, York. Class X?vXYI. — For the best pair of Fowls of the Malay breed, male and female, £1 ; Miss Ann S. Bolton, Beverley, aged 3 yrs. Class XXXVII. — For the best pair of Fowls of any breed or cross, £1 ; Thomas Jolly, Acomb, York. Class XXXVIII. — For the best male Fowl of any breed or cross, £1 ; Thomas Campbell, Sancton, Market-Weightou. SHEPHERD. To the shepherd, being an annual servant of a member of the society, who shall have lost the smallest proportionate number of ewes and lambs previous to the 12th of May, from those that produced lambs in 1845, the number of the flock not being less than two hundred, £5. To ditto, whose flock is not less than one hundred, £3. To ditto, whose flock is not less than fifty, £2. William Jordan, Speeton, Burlington : John Stephenson, shepherd ; No. of ewes, 250 ; lambs produced, 420 ; ewes lost, none; lambs lost, 17. — 1st prize. George Scott, Market Weighton: Christopher Wright, shepherd; No. of ewes, 101 ; lambs produced, 188; ewes lost, none ; lambs lost, 6. — 2nd prize. Thomas Eeles, New House, Richmond: Joseph Martin, shepherd; No. of ewes, 97, lambs produced, 148; ewes lost, none; lambs lost, 4. — 3rd prize. PRIZES FOR IMPLEMENTS. For the best assortment of implements in the show ground, the gold medal, to Mr. Crosskill, of Beverley. For the best hand straw cutter, silver medal, to Mr. Busby, for Mr. Richmond's straw cutter. For the best winnowing machine, silver medal, to Mr. Horns- by, of Spittlegate, Grantham. For the best drill for general purposes, silver medal, to Mr. Homsby. For the best clod crushers, silver medal, to Mr. Crosskill. For a new improved set of patent cart-wheels and axles, silver medal, to Mr. Crosskill. For a winnowing machine, £3, to Mr. Wilson, of Beverley. For a cake crusher, £2, to Mr. Homsby. For an improved churn, £2, to .Mr. Busby. For a harriiT machine, £2, to Mr. Harrison, of Keyingliam Marsh Hedon. For a lot of iron fencing and gates for agricultural purposes, £2, to Mr. Hill, of Dudley. For a sis-holed hand dibble, £2, to Mr. S. Walker, of Dalby Lodge. For a fruit gatherer, 10s., to Mr. Thomas Reed, Malton. For a brick-pressing machine, £2, to Lord Weidock, Escrick Park. For a liquid manure-cart, £3, to Mr. Crosskill, Beverley. For a hand- thrashing machine, £2, to Messrs. Barritt and Exall, Reading. For the best tile and pipe maclnne, £10, to Mr. Charnock, of Wakefield. THE JUDGES. The following gentlemen were appointed the judges : — Cattle. — Earl Spencer, of Wiseton, Bawtry, Notts ; Mr. Thomas Charge, Barton, Richmond ; Mr. Leonard Severs, Oliver, Richmond. In consequence of the absence through illness of Earl Spencer, Mr. Thomas Short, sen., of Martin, near Bawtry, was elected and served in his room. Sheep and PiGS. — Mr. Hugh Watson, Keilor, Cupar Angus; Mr. Rd. Scott, Torworth; Mr. Wm. Torr, Etiby, Limber. Horses. — Mr, John Booth, Killerby, Cntterick ; Mr. Wm. Dickinson, 7, Curson-street, Mayfair, London; Mr. J. Harrison, Ever- ton, Bawtry. Implements. — Mr. Peter Fairbnrn, Leeds ; Mr. Mansfield Harrison, Keyingham Marsh, Hedon. LIQUID MANURE COMPOSTS. By Mr. Geo. Wm. Hay, Whiterigg, Melrose. Much has heen said and written on the subject of liquid manure, and it is one to which we all pay- far too little attention ; for, in allowing it to escape, from our cattle-folds in the first instance, we lose the very essence of ovir manures, and, in not pro- viding ourselves with a tank, or other means of re- taining it after its escape from these, we lose it al- together. In Number VII. of the Journal of Agriculture for January, 1845, there is an article on this head by Mr. John Lawson, Elgin, giving us a method adopted by him for the application of the surplus urine of his cattle-folds. I am at all times anxious and ready to try, not only everything by which there may be no waste of manure, but also any means by which I may be enabled to add to my stock of that very valuable article ; but it appears to me that this method of Mr. Lawson's, though it may suit farmers in his part of the country, will not at all suit those in our locality (western district of Roxburgh), where the lime has to be driven 30 miles, less or more, and where the price per ton is 15s. at the least; and 234 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the distance from any town where sulphuric acid can he got is 36 miles, and the price per lb. is 2d., besides carriage — I mean the best acid ; for I am aware that it can be got cheaper. Besides, we have no lime-kilns whereon to burn the earth, and consequently would require to construct one, which of itself is a consideration. Then there is the cart- ing of the earth to be burned, as well as the after- carting to the pit beside the tank where it is to be mixed ; all of which things it is scarcely possible to expect a small farmer to do. There is also the raising of the wooden shed to be added to all this, which probably is the most impracticable part of the whole. Far be it from me to wish to detract, in the smallest degree, from the merit due to Mr. Lawson for recording the practical results of his experience in this matter, and for his kindness in thus laying a means of supplying a great deside- ratum before his brother farmers ; at the same time, I am afraid that not only is the labour of his method too great, but that the cost will far exceed the profit, seeing that guano and other manures can be had so cheap. Having taken it upon me to differ so far from Mr. Lawson as regards the management of liquid manure, yet agreeing with him in the need there is for the husbanding of all our resources — and that at the very cheapest rate — I may be allowed to give my own method of using it for the last two years. I have no cattle-folds, but from the stable and byre, as also from the court into which the manure from these is wheeled, as well as from the water- closet in the house, the liquid manure is conveyed by means of drains to a large covered tank, from which it is pumped occasionally into a large barrel, and run out upon grass land. Beside the tank there is a pit dug, about a foot or eighteen inches deep, into which all the ashes from the house are put, together with the cleans- ings of the hen and pigeon houses, the floors of which are strewed often with sawdust — which can be obtained from sawyers, or a saw mill, if there is one near, at a nominal price, if any — and this is done every week, or oftener if needful. A large covered barrow, such as is used by sca- vengers in towns (it is a square box placed upon a wheelbarrow frame, having a lid hinged in the cen- tre, and moveable at pleasure, to allow of its being emptied the more easily), stands near the kitchen door, into which the ashes as brought from the grates are put. This I find by far the cleanest and simplest mode of retaining them for a time, as it gets quit of the filthy ash-pit so generally seen, and saves the usual cartage required, besides affording a ready means of transport to the pit. When the ashes and cleansings from the houses are put into the pit, they are carefully mixed, and well watered with the liquid manure from the tank, either by means of a pitcher, or piece of pipe lead- ing from the pump, as answers best at the time ; and as a fresh supply of the several materials is brought, they are spread over the top of the last heap, and all turned over, and well watered. Besides these several articles, there are two of great value, and which are too much lost sight of — nightsoil and blood. The former of these can be collected in considerable quantities about a farm, at very little trouble and expense. I have two houses on the premises, having boxes which slip out and in beneath the seat ; these are regularly emptied into the pit among the ashes and turned over along with them. From the water-closet in the house a drain runs into a large barrel, sunk deep into the ground, puddled with clay outside, covered with a flat stone, and well cemented over with clay, and a thick coating of gravel over all ; this is opened once a year, and the contents carried to the pit. There is a drain from the upper part of this barrel which allows the liquid part to run off into the tank. The blood, which is used in the same way, I ob- tain from a slaughter-house in the neighbouring village ; this, however, though it is of much conse- quence, cannot be obtained by farmers generally, and should not be taken into account. In addition to the above, I may state that I have a supply of gas-water from a gas-work a few miles off — when the weather or other circumstances prevent its being run out upon the grass-land, the pit and its contents receive the benefit ; this also must not be reckoned upon in general cases. As I have touched upon gas-water, I may men- tion my method of using it, in case that way be dif- ferent from what is practised by othars. The barrel made use of is one holding 120 gal- lons ; 15 gallons of gas-water, previously mixed with sulphuric acid at the rate of four ounces to the gal- lon, are put into the barrel, which is then filled up with water, making seven parts of water to one of gas-water, about the right proportion I think ; this is then run out upon the young grass. An acre of land requires 14 of these barrels full, making in all 210 gallons of gas-water, and 52 lbs. of sulphuric acid. The expense of acid alone for this is about 8s. 8d., not taking into account at all the expense of gas-water, nor the far heavier one of filling the bar- rels and carting. This process does well enough for experiment, and is, I must say, highly beneficial, my grass being a splendid crop when it was cut; but it does not pay, nor can it be expected to do so ; for unless the articles made use of be really at hand, it cannot be profitable to make such mixtures, and we had better, therefore, buy an article which we are sure will repay us. With regard to the mixture thus obtained, the effects produced by it are felt not merely by the crop to which it is applied, but by the succeeding ones, as in the case of spring wheat this year after turnips. It was spread, not by the hand, but by a shovel out of the cart, regularly over the open drills, and these being drilled up, Swedish turnip seed was sown, and a very heavy crop followed, superior to that raised on well-rotted stable-yard manure, the drills being contiguous. On their removal, spring wheat was sown, and after it brairded, and during its growth, a great difference was perceptible, for which we could not account at first, until it was re- membered that the mixture had been sown on that part of the field. The young grass is also very good. At present, although we have used a considera- ble quantity for the garden and other purposes, there are about six or eight cart-loads lying ready THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 for use, and by turnip time there will be a good deal more ; and if I, who have so few resources at hand, am able to raise twelve, fourteen, or even more cart-loads, what may not be done upon a farm of moderate size, where there are several cottages, and consequently a quantity of ashes, &c, besides what comes from the farm-house itself? A vast quan- tity of very valuable materials may thus be easily collected, at a cost which is neither known nor felt, for there is no actual outlay, and the time taken in removing to the pit and turning is only an hour or so once a week. I fear this has been drawn out to an unnecessary length, but should it be the means of inducing any reader of this journal to be more saving than hi- therto of his ashes and nightsoil, as well as of the recent guano of his hen-house, I trust I shall be excused. — From the Journal of Agriculture. EXTRACT of a LETTER from PROFESSOR JOHNSTON to W. M. ALEXANDER, Esa., of BALLOCHMYLE. Nothing is more perplexing to the farmer than the varied effects of lime in different parts of such a district. I am sure you recollect the very in- teresting meeting of the St. Quivox Farmers' Club, at which we were present in Ayr, in October last, when the subject of discussion was the use of lime, and the very contradictory opinions which the most intelligent practical men expressed on that occasion. One unacquainted with the subject, would have considered it very strange and puzzling to hear, as we did, one-half of the fifty farmers there assembled declare, from their oivn experience, that lime was of no use whatever ; while the other half thought favourably of it, and some, who had been laying it on at a cost of several hundred pounds a year, an- nounced their intention of continuing to do so, because of the profit they derived from it. What would a merchant have thought of such contradic- tory opinions ? How little skill, he would say, must these men have — how very uncertain the art they cultivate — how destitute of fixed principles on which a prudent man may rely ! And yet the stranger would err in thus supposing either that the art of culture is destitute of fixed principles or that those who prosecute this art are inferior in natural intelligence to the cultivators of any other art. The art is not destitute of principles nor the farmers of clear heads and strong natural sense ; but these principles have never been dis- tinctly stated to them — never put before them in the form of regular instruction, when their minds were young and open, or since they have been concerned with the cares of life, exhibited as a clear and ob- vious source of larger profit. Diffuse a knowledge of principles, and contradictory opinions, as well as contradictory practice, will disappear. Each case of success or failure, from any mode of treating the land, will have its own specialities, and must be studied by itself; but it is obvious that if one soil contains naturally a large proportion of lime, while another contains almost none, the application of lime to the former must, as a general rule, be much less beneficial than to the latter. Now such is the case with the soil formed from the trap rocks. It contains naturally much lime. The rock of Balcarres Crag, for example, from an analysis made in my laboratory, appears to contain in every four tons as much lime as is present in one of pure limestone. There must be much, therefore, in the soil that is formed from such a rock. Now, in Ayr- shire and in Fife, these rocks appear here and there in patches of greater or less extent over the breadth and length of both counties ; and their crumbling or rotten portions form isolated tracts of fertile soil. Those who farm these soils may conscientiously and correctly declare that, on their land, while they have held it, lime has done no good ; while their neighbours, who farm the cold clays of the adjoin- ing coal measures may be applying it with a certain hope of profit. The road-scrapings which the former despise, the latter may find to act upon their grass lands, or on their green crops, like a moderate ap- plication of marl. In connexion with this latter observation I may mention to you, as a curious fact, that the road- scrapings from Leith Walk and some adjoining streets, which are metalled with broken trap, are carted to the sea-shore at Leith, at an expense of £'700 a-year, to be washed away and wasted by the tide. It is even said, I do not know how correctly, that parties are prohibited by a penalty from carry- ing any of this refuse away for the purpose of ap- plying it to the land. To make them sensibly use- ful, these scrapings should be laid up in heaps for a year, to allow the silicates they contain to undergo partial decomposition. I had the pleasure of meeting at Balcarres a num- ber of the most intelligent farmers of the district, whom Colonel Lindsay had been kind enough to bring together. We had much conversation in the course of the evening, and we mutually put and answered many interesting practical questions. My friend and pupil, Mr. Norton, who was a spec- tator and listener, expressed, the following day, what I had myself thought, that during our many excursions, he had seldom met a more intelligent and less prejudiced company of practical men. They were not all from the immediate neighbourhood of Colinsburgh, some of them, whose farms I should like to visit, had come from Leauchars, the district which lies between the Eden and the Tay. Among the topics to which our conversation turned was that of feeding with different kinds of turnips, and to their use with or without tops. When given to milk cows, I found the opinion here to be, that white turnips produced much more milk than Swedes, some said twice as much, but all al- lowed that yellow turnips gave a richer milk. Still that the same weight of globes should give so much larger a quantity is not easily explained, since the difference in the relative proportions of water they contain is comparatively trifling. I asked some questions about turnip tops. All agreed that the turnips gave more milk when the ^36 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tops were given along with them. This also must arise from some other cause than the quantity of water they contain, since according to experiments made in my laboratory, the Bulbs of Swedes contain. ... 88 per cent of water, Tops of Swedes contain. ... 85 do. do. so that the quantity of milk must depend upon the. chemical composition of the tops, and not merely upon the water they contain, since the bulbs con- tain the most. A difference of opinion prevails as to their use in the feeding of growing and fattening stock. I am inclined to concur with one or two of the practical men present, who pronounced them to be good feed- ing, when given with a proper admixture of hay, straw, or other dry fodder, and especially to young stock. I am inclined to this opinion in consequence of the very interesting result of an analysis I am now making of the tops compared with the bulbs of the turnips. These experiments are not yet completed ; but, so far as they have gone, you will see how prac- tically interesting they are, from the following facts in regard to Swedes : — Water. Dry Matter. 1° A ton of bulbs contains 1970 lbs. and 270 lbs. A ton of leaves contains 1900 lbs. and 340 lbs. Or the leaves contain, in the same weight, one fourth more dry food than the bulbs. 2° A ton of the bulbs gives 17 lbs. of ash. A ton of the leaves gives 33 lbs. of ash. Or the leaves, weight for weight, take from the soil twice as much as the bulbs do. Of course they con- vey into the stomach of the animal, in these same proportions, the inorganic substances of which the ash consists. But further — 3° In the ash of the leaves a much larger propor- tion than I had anticipated consists of the earthy phosphates— chiefly the phosphate of lime, of which as you recollect, the earthy part of the bones in a great measure consists. Tims, A ton of bulbs contains 3 to 6 lbs of phosphates. A ton of leaves contains 10 lbs. of phosphates. So that not only does a given weight of leaves ex- haust the soil of phosphates in a greater degree than an equal weight of bulbs, but it is also fitted to give to the animal more of those materials from which the bones are to be formed. Hence the reason why I am inclined to concur in opinion with those of the Fife farmers, whose experience had led them to con- sider the turnip tops a nourishing food for young stock. And as milk contains and requires for its production a considerable supply of these phos- phates, it is not unlikely that the increased yield of milk caused by the turnip tops may be in some measure owing to the large proportion of phosphates which they convey into the stomach of the animal. Of course, every practical man knows that, if any food scours an animal, as turnip tops are sometimes said to do, it may prove injurious when given in too large quantity. It will be necessary therefore to give some other, perhaps some dry food, along with the green tops, to check any tendency they may have to produce this effect in an improper degree. In regard to turnip tops, another opinion enter- tained by some of the Fife farmers attracted my at- tention. It is said that if the turnip tops are left in the field, and only the bulbs carried off, the land will be as much benefited as if the whole be eaten off with sheep. I do not know how far experience bears out this opinion — of what kind of soils it is correct — nor in reference to what kind of sheep. I shall make further inquiries, therefore, before I ven- ture to offer you the explanation of the alleged fact which at present occurs to me. ACCOUNT OF A VISIT TO MR. HEWITT DAVIS'S FARMS, NEAR CROYDON, SURREY. The report of the deputation from the members of the Maidstone Farmers' Club, who inspected Mr. Davis's farms in October last, incited a desire in many other members to see his crops as they were approaching maturity. Mr. Davis was, there- fore, kind enough to give a general invitation to the members of the club, of whom about twenty availed themselves on the 19th ult. Although this course did not render imperative any report, yet the previous report of the deputation from the club having excited considerable public attention, it has been deemed desirable to make one, and the fol- lowing remarks embody the opinions, as to Mr. Davis's system of cultivation, the nature of the soil, and the estimated quantities and state of the crops, of the most experienced agriculturists of the party. The historical portions are founded on in- formation derived from Mr. Davis himself. In giving an estimate of the growth of crops, the first considerations must always be, the nature of the soil, and the cost of such crops. On entering Spring Parle farm, the members were unanimous in their opinion as to the very great inferiority of the soil, which, as was stated in the former report, consisted of beach gravel and black sand, with a hard subsoil of white sand, in some parts of the field more resembling the sea-beach or a gravel walk than a cultivated soil. This land has been drained, subsoiled, and is now ploughed by the Kentish plough, once in every course, to the depth of twelve inches. Mr. Davis's rotation, quantities of seed, and times of sowing, are the following : — ■ 1st year. .Rye and tares, for green meat and feed- ing-oft' with sheep, in April, May, June, and July, and followed by „ Mangold-wurzel -| „ Swedes I With a liberal dressing „ Cabbages f of farm-yard dung. „ Turnips J 2nd year. . Oats or barley, sown with clover. 3rd year. . Clover, twice mown for hay. SThe beans have turnips drilled between the rows, and which come into feed 5th year. .Wheat. Vin Sept. and October. The quantities and periods at which he sows are the following ; — THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 237 live U bushels. . In Aug. and Sept. Tares I3 „ In 3 sowings, Aug, Sept. Mang. war. 61b In April. [and Oct. Swedes. ... 1 quart In May. Turnips . . . 1 „ In July. Cabbages.. I every 3 ft.. In June. Oats 7 pecks In Jan. Feb. and March. Barley.... 6 „ In Jan. Feb. Mar. & April. Wheat. . . . 3 „ In Sept. and October. Peas 8 „ In Dec. Jan. and Feb. Beans 8 ,, In Sept. and October. Mr. Davis's rye and tares for green feeding are sown in rows at nine inches apart, all his white crops at ten and a half or twelve inches, his pulse at 27 inches, as are also his root-crops and cab- bages on the ridge. The first piece of wheat on entering Spring Park farm was on a piece of rough heath land, of about ten acres, recently broken up, which few persons except Mr. Davis would have sown with wheat. Its preparation had cost a bushel of seed per acre and once ploughing, for which the two quarters per acre, at which the crop was estimated, was deemed a profitable return. The average of the crops which the members saw on Spring Park farm was cautiously estimated at from 3| to 4 quarters per acre, barley 5i to 6 quarters, oats 7h to 8 quarters, beans 4 § quar- ters ; and it was a matter of surprise to most of the members, that such crops should be grown under any system, on the very inferior land which Mr. Davis cultivates. The tillering of the plants was this season apparently greater than that of the plants of last year (as stated in the last report, from the appearance of the stubbles). A considerable number of roots were examined, when the number of stalks to each root appeared to range as follows: — Wheat from 10 to 14; oats, from 10 to 20; and barley, from 10 to 15. The ears of all the crops were perfect and well filled, and the plants were very uniform and even in growth, much judgment having been apparently exercised in putting into the land rather a less than a greater number of plants than its capacity could mature. Judging from the general vigour of the plants, and the ful- ness of the grain, in no case did the land appear to be overdone. The strength of the straw deserves particular notice. It was more like reeds than straw. Indeed, Mr. Davis stated that he had last year sold his own straw at 60s. per load, and pur- chased inferior straw at 30s. for his own purposes. The beans were observed to be podded much lower on the stalk than is usual when more thickly sown. The most striking features of Spring Park farm were most certainly the cultivation of the turnip and the cabbage. Mr. Davis drills his turnips on the ridge, and the workmanship was admirable. The plants had all " taken," and to the eye of a farmer a more beautiful sight than one of Mr. Davis's turnip fields could scarcely present itself. Amongst the implements noticed on this farm were a nine hollow-ringed presser, and a Scotch expand- ing horse-hoe for cultivating between ridges, which were much noticed. The presser Mr. Davis uses both before and after sowing his seed, the effect of which is to chequer the land into little squares, and almost wholly to defeat the wire-worm, which can scarcely make its way from one square into the next so as to do much damage. The members next walked over Shirley farm, the greater part of which is also evidently very poor land, and before Mr. Davis took it, had had four tenants in seven years. The most remarkable objects on this farm were a splendid piece of mangel wurzel, which, for forwardness and uniform vigour, excited the admiration of every member of the party ; a very fine piece of peas, which were ex- ceedingly well podded, and some beans, with tur- nips sown between the rows, attracted much notice. Both farms were in admirable cultivation; except- ing annuals, there was scarcely a weed to be seen. The party then visited Selsden farm. Mr. Davis states that this farm in 1833 came into his hands for cultivation, as agent to the late George Smith, Esq. The soil, which lies on the chalk, was considered very poor, and scarcely worth cul- tivation ; indeed, it was offered, with excellent farm buildings, to a farmer of the neighbourhood, at 10s. per acre, free of tithe; and the only offer that could be obtained for even a portion of it was 8s. per acre. It was deemed too poor to grow either beans or clover. The stack-yard contained only three stack-frames ; and the hay, oats, and straw, for keeping the fourteen horses which were found necessary to do the work of the farm and the estate, had to be purchased. The number of sheep kept was only sixty-seven. The whole of this farm has been since trench-ploughed 15 inches deep, and some thousand loads of flints carried off from it. The result has been that nine new stack-frames have been added to the stack-yard, and there has been sold off the farm annually about 600/. worth of clover hay, beans, and oats, besides the fattening of about 260 wethers, 100 couples ewes and lambs, 12 bullocks, and about 150 pigs. Nine horses now do the work, which before required fourteen horses ; and the weekly wages are little more than half the amount which they reached under the old system. Manure was formerly pur- chased, but none has been bought for many years, and Mr. Davis considers that no more will in fu- ture be required than is furnished by the stock, so long as the present system of high feeding with oil- cake, and rotation of cropping, are continued. The cattle are fatted on oil-cake and straw : all the dress- ings are reserved for the green and root-crops ; the rotation observed separates widely the same crops, and care is taken not to put two plants into a space of land which has only the capacity to mature one plant. The total results of this experiment Mr. Davis was kind enough to give to the party in figures. After deducting agent's salary and bailiff's wages, and all other charges which a farmer would not have to pay, giving a higher rate of wages than that generally paid by the district, and all other expenses, the following sums have been handed over to the proprietor by Mr. Davis, as profit on the last five years. For the year ending Michael- mas— £ s. d. 1840 228 17 8 1841 497 19 1 1842 334 14 3 1843 259 4 1 1844 158 3 8 238 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The falling off in the years 1842 and 1843 is at- tributed to the sudden and general depreciation of agricultural produce, on account of the alteration in the tariff and corn laws. The profits of 1844 would also, as Mr. Davis estimates, have reached between 300/. and 400/., had it not been for the serious injury done to the crops by rabbits. Part of Selsclen farm adjoins some hundreds of acres of wood-land, of which the game, as well as that on two adjoining estates, is strictly preserved ; and Mr. Smith, the owner of the farm, haring himself taken to preserve in 1842, the rabbits increased so ra- pidly, that of one 12-acre piece of wheat, only three acres were cut at harvest, the rest having been completely destroyed. Leave has since been given to destroy the rabbits. The party were highly interested by the appear- ance of this farm, which is generally in admirable condition. The average yield of wheat was esti- mated at not much less than four quarters ; but one piece, from a bushel of seed per acre, drilled at 12 inches, was unhesitatingly set at five quarters. A piece of barley was declared by several expe- rienced farmers to be one of the finest they had ever seen, and was estimated, at least, at from six to seven quarters. The clover showed exceedingly well for a second cut. The cabbages and Swedes were excellent, one piece of Swedes being particu- larly forward. The winter beans were rather patchy, evidently from having been eaten by birds ; and the only field which could be said not to be in the cleanest possible state of cultivation, was a piece of peas, of which, however, the pods were re- markably good. A field of buck-wheat attracted much attention. The field had missed for clover, had been once ploughed, and a bushel of buck- wheat drilled per acre. Mr. Davis highly recom- mended this crop in cases where clover misses, and calculated on getting five quarters per acre from this piece, which certainly looked very promising. The members were much pleased with the state of the crops on this farm, which were very greatly superior to those which might have been expected even from much better land; and although not prepared to recommend the immediate adoption of such thin sowing in all soils, they were yet much impressed with the general superiority of Mr. Davis's system on the soils he cultivates, the very rational principles on which he appears to have formed every part of it, and the unconquerable zeal and determination with which, in the face of many difficulties, he had so triumphantly carried it out. The members were no less sensible of the readi- ness and candour with which Mr. Davis courted and met every inquiry, and the general urbanity which they experienced at his hands. George Whiting, Hon. Sec. P.S. — The secretary having written to Mr, Davis for the statistical matter relating to Selsclen farm, that gentleman has favoured him, in addition, with the assurance that he grows all his wheat at a cost of 35s. per quarter, and that " this can be proved by calculating the labour and the rent on one side, and the return of corn and straw on the other." — Maidstone Gazette. RAPE AND STONE OR STUBBLE TURNIP FOR USE IN AUTUMN. The period of the year in which the stock-master perhaps experiences the greatest difficulty in main- taining the condition of his stock is from the early part of September, when the pastures begin to fail, to the early part of October, when the turnips are begun to be consumed ; and this difficulty is not so much felt in the mere inability to support the condition required by the stock during the summer, as in the injury inflicted from the want of suf- ficient food on the constitution of the animal, by a rapid falling off of its condition in the beginning of winter ; for it is a fact which admits of no doubt, that, when an animal loses condition in autumn, the greater part of the succeeding winter passes away before it regains the point at which it began to fall off, whatever may have been the quantity, and however nutritious the food it may have re- ceived. Cattle majT have plenty of fresh air, and abun- dance of exercise in seeking a subsistence upon bare pasture, and though these are necessary means for maintaining good health, yet, M'hen ac- companied with exposure of the body to a cold atmosphere, in the latter end of autumn, and with a deficiency of food to generate animal heat to counteract the effects of the cold, they only aggre- vate the evil, by wearing the flesh off" the bones. And sheep may brouse upon the tufts of grass loft by cattle in summer, and nibble the points of the twigs of bushes, and thereby keep in life, but the astringent property of such food, immediately suc- ceeding the effects produced by the succulent cha- racter of pasture grass, produces derangement of the digestive organs, which renders sheep easily susceptible of diseases incident to the vicissitudes of weather and of hunger. It is a melancholy sight to observe creatures, which are only profitable in a high state of condi- tion, allowed to wander over the bare fields in autumn in quest of food, and thereby to eke out day by day a miserable existence. It has often ex- cited our wonder, why people will attempt to keep stock when they know they have not the means of supporting them in condition from birth to matu- rity. As long as that best of forage plants — the red clover — afforded two good cuttings in a season, the aftermath of the second cutting supplied as much pasturage as supported the stock in good condition to the beginning of winter, until, in fact, the turnips were ready for use ; but since the land has evidently become tired of growing red-clover so often, and a second cutting of it cannot be depended upon every season in the latter part of autumn, a period of a month's duration then not unfrequently occurs in which stock suffer from the pinching effects of hunger. Such an occurrence should, indeed, never happen on a well-regulated farm ; for, since depen- dance cannot be placed on clover every year, a substitute should be cultivated, ready to be made use of whenever the clover is seen to fail ; and, fortunately, there is more than one plant which comes to perfection at the very season when a scarcity of clover is most felt. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 239 One of these autumnal substitutes is the rape, and it has the accommodating property of growing well in any species of soil — whether clay, turnip land, or moss. Raised in the same manner as turnips, and at the same time, it will be ready for use by the beginning of September. No assurance of a full crop, however, can be expected but by means of manure, and both bone-dust and guano present ready means of securing such a crop. The rape imposes little trouble in cultivation during the sum- mer, farther than to scuffle the ground to keep the weeds down at first, and the subsequent rapid growth of the crop will check the future progress of the weeds. The rape crop is not singled ; and, on that account, the seed should be sown much thinner tban with turnips, to allow the air to pass between the drills, in order to encourage the deve- lopment of the leaves, which are the useful part of the plant Avhen cultivated for forage. Inconvenience may be felt in sowing a large breadth of rape at once, and for this reason. By the time the entire crop is nearly eaten down, the stems become so strong as to be troublesome in dis- poning of them, when the land is about to be ploughed for the succeeding grain crop. Large stems of plants must either be pulled up, which is a laborious operation for even men to perform, and much more so for women, and carried off the land ; or be ploughed down, and buried by the furrow slice, on beingplaced in the plough furrows with the small graip. The only way of avoiding this inconvenience is fortunately a simple one, which is, to sow the entire space of ground to be occupied with rape at dif- ferent times, so that the crop shall always be found in a young growing state, when the stock which subsists upon it arrives at it, and the stems then being always small and succulent, are either eaten estirely up, or the stems are easily buried with the plough. It must be borne in mind, however, that rape is only suited for the support of sheep upon the land, and cannot conveniently be mown like clover with ■y+!'", or pulled like turnips for cattle. It is a fortunate circumstance, nevertheless, that so useful a forage plant as rape can be so easily raised for the use of sheep alone, and become available at the very season it is most desirable for that species of stock to have it. It has also proved itself a valuable preparation for ewes about to be put to the tup, by inducing that habit of body most favourable for the conception of twin lambs. Besides rape, there h a species of turnip, bearing the appellation of the stubble or stone turnip, which is fit for use by cattle at the same season that rape is useful for sheep. We believe this stubble turnip to be the ordinary white stone turnip of the gardens. It is not large, being about the size of a small white globe turnip, and the largest specimen does not weigh more than seven pounds. The stem and leaves are small. Mr. Richard Makins of Shellacres, in Northum- berland, was the first person we know who cultiva- ted it in the field ; and he informs us that it may be sown as late as the first of July, and yet be ready for use by the 1st September, that is, in only two months, though, of course, it will continue to grow after that period. Should it be desired to attain its full size by the 1st September, it should be sown earlier than July. Mr. Makins sowed it as late as the 1 1th July last year, and had a good crop of it by September ; but last year was a peculiarly favour- able one for the growth of turnips. There would still be time to sow it this season after this notice of it shall have reached our readers. It is apt to sport a flatness of top, which is an objection against it as a winter turnip, but which is one of the characteristics of the garden stone turnip. It may be easily raised with bone-dust or guano, or a mixture of them with rape-cake. Being a fast grower, it cannot be expected to be very firm in the bulb, though that is both juicy and sweet. It is consumed by being led out to the pasture fields to the cattle, or upon the stubble immediately after harvest. It has been so used in England for several years ; and hence may have arisen its cog- nomen there of the stubble turnip. \\'e would remark, in conclusion, that when we possess the rape for sheep, and the stubble turnip for cattle, it will be the farmer's own fault should his stock want a sufficiency of food in autumn, before the period has arrived for hurdling the sheep on the land, or for housing the cattle in the steading for the winter. — From the Journal of Agriculture. ON FARM ENCLOSURES. In every cultivated country enclosures are neces- sai y both for shelter and protection to the growing crops from the intrusion of animals ; nothing, in fact, contributes more to the comfort, the conve- nience, and the successful prosecution of the busi- ness of husbandry than a proper subdivision of farms into suitable enclosures. The enclosing of land, therefore, being a fundamental and important Ii of agricultural improvement, the general principles on which it is founded, and the best method by which it may be effected, are esential objects of inquiry to the farmer. In the enclosure of farm lands there are peculiar circumstances to be taken into consideration, de- pending on locality, as well as general circum- stances, which, in all cases, are to be regarded. Among the former the most important, as imme- diately demanding attention, is the nature of the soil. This prescribes the system of husbandry to be adopted, and that system mainly regulates the number and size of the enclosures. On the richer class of soils pasturage is sometimes not practised, the land being in constant cultivation ; and then, however necessary lines of division may be for the purposes of tillage, enclosures, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, are not required. Although an important purpose of enclosures is protection from storms, as well as protection from the inroads of the domestic animals among the growing crops, both purposes being secured by fences of conside- rable height, of whatever kind may be most suitable to the locality, yet in the case of soils of such great fertility as to admit of pasturage being dispensed R 240 THE FARMERS MAGAZINE. with, it is seldom that protection from storms forms i a very important object; exposed situations, where ! such protection is most required, being almost invariable accompaniments of soils low in the scale of fertility. Shelter obtained by enclosures is not less essential in exposed upland situations for the welfare of live stock than for the production of their food, though the latter circumstance is seldom regarded in the light in which its importance de- mands. All experience in times past showed the importance of shelter to the domestic animals of the farm, and the miserable condition which was an invariable concomitant of undue exposure, how- ever well they may have been fed ; but it was reserved for modern science to show satisfactorily why such a result is always to be expected, and that heat is, to a certain extent, an equivalent for food. But a uniform and rather elevated tempera- ture is not less essential to animal than to vegetable life. The stunted growth and miserable appearance assumed by such parts of the plantation as are exposed to the biting blast sufficiently exhibit its injurious effects ; and here they are so conspicuous because they have been so long endured. On the sapling of a few years old exposure has not so palpably affixed the indelible characters of its in- jurious influence, unless placed in juxtaposition with another similar to itself, and differing only in being sheltered, when the very different progress attained by both will be apparent, ^lien such effects are only of one year's standing, then the injurious consequences resulting from undue expo- sure are still less perceptible, although it is not less true on that account that they exist. Evaporation is constantly going forward from the surface of the earth whereon moisture exists, and one of the most important consequences of this process to the husbandman is the production of a greatly diminished temperature in the soil thereby, as it proceeds. A certain, though varying, pro- portion of watery vapour is constantly in suspen- sion in the atmosphere, the precise proportion which it can take up from the earth, and retain, depending on its peculiar state as regarding uniformity of temperature and the absence of currents at the surface of the ground or at any degree of elevation in the atmosphere to which this vapour extends. In calm weather evaporation must take place slowly, as is well known to every one who must have observed the comparative slowness with which any peculiar substance is said to dry when the air is still. In this case that portion of the atmosphere in contact with the earth soon absorbs from the soil as much vapour as it can retain, after which the process of evaporation must go forward very slowly. The agitation of the atmosphere, however, causes it to be again carried on afresh, in conse- quence of bringing another portion of air, not previously saturated with vapour, into contact with the damp surface. But currents of wind are con- siderably affected in all cases by strips of planta- tions and by hedge-rows, and sometimes they are altogether guarded against by these means. Evapo- ration, therefore, being seen to be productive of an increased degree of cold, and this process being facilitated by the agitation of the atmosphere by winds, it follows that any means which can at all reduce the velocity of currents of air in passing over the surface of the ground, and protect the soil from their action, will, at the same time, ensure the main- tenance of an increased degree of temperature in the ground, and thus materially add to the growth and luxuriance of the plants produced on it. It would at present occupy too much space, and prolong this article beyond all due limits, to enter at length into the theory of the action of heat upon plants and animals. Instances of its effects are constantly occurring. "Who has not observed the luxuriant foliage along the fence, while the exposed centre of the field may be quite bare ? But although shelter is known to be so beneficial, it may, like every thing else, be abused, by being carried too far, when it is not less injurious than undue expo- sure. The produce of paddocks, though luxuriant, is often unhealthy; and it cannot be questioned but much injury is sustained by many of the English farmers by the over-spreading of the trees in their hedgerows, which, within proper limits, are not less objects of beauty than of utility.* * It is scarcely necessary to dwell further on the utility of shelter, properly arranged; but it may not be uninteresting to quote the remarks of Mr. Thos. Bishop on the subject, in a letter to Mr. Bain, of Edinburgh, and published by the latter gentleman in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture :— " I must say generally that the advantages of shelter from plantations in cold and exposed situa- tions are very great ; not only to the agriculturist for his grain crops, the food and comfort of his live stock, and the beauty of the country by a change of scenery, but they are the source of an extended income to the proprietor, who, by a comparatively trivial outlay in planting, and the purchase of plants judiciously selected for soil and climate, secures himself the most beneficial returns. At the same time he is creating healthful employment for the industrious and labouring classes at ever}' period of the year, and in all is adding to the wealth and happiness of the country, in accordance with the primitive injunction of the Great Lawgiver, to sub- due the earth. " "Within my recollection, from the flow of the Almond Water by Lyndoch Cottage to the Vale of Mowni, a distance of ten or twelve miles in length, by two and a half in breadth, the whole was one bare waste of moorland, whereon the curlew, the plover, and moor bird reigned supreme, being only occasionally invaded by flocks of wild geese in their passage from north to south. The greater part is now under thriving plantations, with various smiling residences in the intervening hollows. " Previous to the division of the common muir of Methven, included in the above range in 1 793, the late Lord Lynedoch and Lord Methven had each secured their lower slopes of land adjoining the moor with belts of plantation. The year following I entered Lord Methven's service, and in 1793 planted about sixty acres of the higher muir ground, valued at 2s. per acre, for shelter to eighty or ninety acres set apart for cultivation, and let in three divi- sions to six individuals. The progress made in improving the land was very slow the first fifteen THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. £41 In the arrangement of enclosures in exposed situations provision should be made for shelter by planting, whether in large masses or in belts sur- rounding the quarter from which the prevailing winds blow. In upland districts shelter obtained by such means, when employed on a large scale, improves even the climate of the country in a sen- sible degree, prolongs the duration of food on the pastures, and protects the live stock from many diseases incidental to wet and cold. Where there are great variations in the nature of the soils to be enclosed, it will be proper to separate the light from the heavy. They are not only better calculated for different crops and different rotations, but are naturally adapted to be cultivated at different seasons of the year. It is unfortunate, therefore, to have soils of a heterogeneous nature in the same field where it can be avoided. Where a small part of a field only differs from the remainder in com- position and properties, the constituent parts of it may often be so altered by admixture with the other parts as to nearly assimilate the whole in quality. It is seldom that possession of a farm is obtained which is not previously divided into enclosures of some kind. These, however, are often of such a description, both with regard to size and shape, and the nature of the fences by which they are separated, that it may be desirable to level the old fences in whole or in part, and adopt an arrange- ment more in accordance with the nature of the farm. Where the fences are crooked, and occupy a large space, either by the spreading of bramble or by large earthen banks, the better plan is to re- move them at once, even were they situated in the proper place, and form new ones in their stead. In some of the finest parts of the country, and in situations in which shelter cannot be an object, but rather a nuisance, huge banks of earth may be seen for fences, overgrown with bramble of every description, and frequently occupying from ten to fifteen or twenty feet in breadth. The great loss sustained by such fences from the large extent of surface they occupy, and the harbour for birds which they afford, must be enormous, more espe- cially when the enclosures are small. But the removal of these, however desirable, is exceedingly expensive ; and how far the occupier may be jus- tified in encountering such expenditure, must de- pend on the particular circumstances of the case, and cannot be ascertained without reference to them. In considering the arrangement of the entire divisions of a farm, the position, shape, number, and size of the enclosures demand especial atten- years, but thereafter went on more rapidly, being aided by the shelter derived from the groivth of the plantations j and the whole has now become fair land, bearing annually crops of oats, barley, peas, potatoes, and turnips, &c. ; and in spring 1S38, exactly forty years from the time of putting down the said plantations, I sold four acres of larch and fir (average growth) standing thereon for £220, which with the value of reserved trees, and average amount per acre for thinnings sold previously, gave a return of £67 per acre. tion, these being also altogether regulated by the peculiar circumstances of the case. The position of an enclosure mostly depends on the aspect of the ground, and it is ascertained by finding the proper direction of the ridges which it contains. The ridges should always, if possible, ran north and south, to permit both sides of them to derive equal benefit from the solar rays. On flat ground this direction may be easily secured; but the inclination of uneven ground may be in an opposite direction, and as surface water may en- gender more evils to land than the solar rays can confer benefit, the ridges must follow nearly the inclination of the ground. Where there is any considerable declivity, the length of the ridges and consequently that of the fields should be compara- tively short, as currents of water after heavy rains would be so much increased by the length of their course as to carry a great portion of the finer par- ticles of the soil off the land. In ploughing, also, the horses become too much fatigued by an inor- dinate length of furrow. The direction of the ridge and consequent position of the enclosure, where a uniform degree of inclination prevails throughout, are in some degree dependent on a circumstance connected with the operation of ploughing. The draught in ploughing is very great in the ascent beside in the descent, and in our arranging the direction of the ridge it should be an object to diminish this in the former case, even should we increase it in the latter ; and this is to be done by altering the line slightly from that of the inclination of the field ; or instead of ploughing right up and down the hill, that the furrow should be carried somewhat in a slanting direction. But in deter- mining the direction of the ridge, it is important to distinguish between carrying this slanting line to the right or to the left of the line of ascent. If carried to the left hand side of this line, the inclina- tion will be thereby diminished ; but a little reflec- tion will suffice to shew that to counterbalance this, an increased degree of resistance is given to the furrow slice in endeavouring to throw it against the hill, while the resistance of the furrow slice in descending is diminished. This variation from the line of ascent has, therefore, increased the evil it was intended to remedy. In carrying the furrow slice in a slightly slanting direction from the line of ascent to the right hand side, it will be seen that these disadvantages do not exist, and that the draught in ascending has been considerably less- ened. An increased facility has been given to the falling off of the furrow slice in the ascent, though it has been decreased in the descent ; but as the draught in the latter case is at all times easy, it is only necessary in the case of the descending furrow to arrange the line so that the slice can be deposited in the required position, without having any ten- dency to fall back again to its original place after the plough has passed along. The position thus fixed on for the ridges should regulate that of the field, as, unless in cross ploughing, in preparing the land for a drill crop, short ridges should not occur at the sides of the field, as occasioning a waste of time in ploughing. The shape of enclosures, when circumstances permit, should invariably be rectangular. It is easily R 2 242 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. demonstrable that the shape which constitutes most to economy in the labour of a moderately-sized field is the square ; and in the case of small enclo- sures, the oblong rectangle is to be preferred. Fre- quent turnings of the plough occupy much time ; but on the other hand, as already remarked, an inordinate length of ridge, to obtain few turnings, fatigues the horses beyond their strength. The strength of the animals of draught is, in this case, the measure of the greatest length of ridge, to secure the greatest economy of labour in ploughing a field. The corners of fields should also, if possible, be right-angled ; as the plough can turn over more of the ground in four square corners of a field than in two acute and in two obtuse angled corners. The foregoing observations will be better under- stood by a reference to the illustration annexed. Ascending in the direction A B will be seen to in- crease the up-hill draught, by causing the furrow- slice thereby formed to be thrown against the hill ; but a furrow-slice carried along in the direction C D will fall from the plough as formed with greater facility than when the line of ploughing is right up and down the hill. It must be observed that this deviation from the line of ascent must not be carried too far, as the decending furrow slice could not then be kid over with regularity. B D The length of the field, and consequent length of the ridges, is known to have a much greater effect in influencing the quantity of ground which can be ploughed in a given time than is usually sup- posed, from the additional loss of time thus occa- sioned in turning at the headlands of the field. The difference thus produced is strikingly exem- plified in the accompanying table. The time occu- pied in turning is only calculated at half a minute, but this is quite sufficient for an expert ploughman and pair of horses. When more than two horses are employed in the plough, the time lost in turn- ing will, however, be much greater ; and this will, in a corresponding degree, influence the quantity gone over in a given time. Breadth Leneth of of Furrow Eidje. Slice Inches It is an important arrangement, in laying out farm lands, to have the fences of the fields placed parallel to each other. The advantage of this ar- rangement is unquestionable, as an opportunity is thereby afforded of carrying on the operation of cross ploughing when necessary, as well as that of ordinary ploughing, with the greatest facility ; and wherever this parallelism is neglected, wedge- shaped ridges must be thrust in somewhere to equalise the field; and the ploughing of these ridgelets consumes much more time than ploughing an equal space woidd under other circumstances. The suitable place for all such truncated ridges is at the boundaries of the farm, the position of which do not admit of alteration. The situation of the fences, too, sometimes re- quires considerable judgment to ascertain. A fence running in a straight line along the summit of an elevated piece of ground affords excellent shelter on both sides. Indeed, a fence placed in this position secures more shelter to fields, than placed in any other situation; and, if other circumstances will permit, the elevated summits of rising grounds may be advantageously chosen as the sites for fences. But it frequently happens that the lower ends of fields cannot be enclosed by straight lines, a rivulet or hollow between two rising grounds occasionally terminating their lower ends. In that case the fence ought to follow the water or hollow ground, in order to provide the means of ready egress for the surface water coming from both sides. A serpentine fence in a hollow, contrary to such on a rising ground, affords more shelter than a straight one, as the direction of the wind in such situations is almost invariably that of the valley. A public road or canal passing through a farm, or stripes of plantation already growing in it, affect the laying out of enclosures. Whether any of these exists before or after the land is enclosed, the irregular sides of the enclosures, which alone should contain points or truncated ridges, should be placed next such obstacles. It may not be out of place, here to mention that a public road is a great acqui- sition in passing through or near to farm lands, as it may save the making of more than one private one ; and in the arrangement of the fields, it should be an object as much as possible to secure easy ingress and egress to each from the road. Easy access to and from fields to roads is an important means of preserving the health and strength of horses, and of saving the tear and wear of carriages and harness. The number and size of the enclosures must obviously be regulated by that of the farm, and by the course of cropping practised on it. It is a general rule to divide the fields according to the rotation ; that is, a farm on which the four-course rotation is practised should have four enclosures or fields ; and if the six-course rotation, then a corresponding number of fields is required. It is a good arrangement to have the whole of each field in the same description of crop, and to have the produce of the farm every year as equally divi- ded among the several cultivated crops as the soil and season will admit ; and this can be obtained only by having the enclosures of an equal size, and adapting the number of them to the rotation. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 243 When the four or five years' course rotation is adopted, the farm, it is thus seen, is conveniently laid off into four or five divisions ; hut in the case of large farms, the fields would then he of inordi- nate size, and eight or ten divisions would suit the rotation equally well, two of the fields, in that case, being in the same sort of crop. Placing the same kind of crop, particularly green crop and grass, in moderately-sized fields in different parts of the farm almost always insures a good crop in one of the situations ; and the labour bestowed on any kind of crop being for the time confined to one mode- rately-sized field, probably secures a favourable seed-time and harvest to that field; at least, the risk arising from a change of weather, which affects labour as well as crop, is, in a great degree, avoided. A very obvious advantage attending this arrange- ment is, that it tends to equalize labour. On large farms, where the entire of the turnip or clover crop, for example, is near the extremity of the grounds, or at a considerable distance from the buildings of the farm, it is clear that the labour of supplying the cattle with these bulky crops, as well as the carriage of the manure to the fields, is much greater than if the fields were so arranged that the half of each of these crops should be situated more con- venient to the homestead ; and by means of there being two fields for each crop on the farm, it is easy to connect one field thus conveniently situated with another at a greater distance. But the advantages of this arrangement are not confined merely to the equalization of labour. It may also in a great measure render the annual produce of the farm equal and uniform, notwithstanding a con- siderable diversity of quality in the soil. A field of inferior soil may be connected in the rotation with one that is naturally rich ; and in the consump- tion of the green crop, as well as in the application of the manure, the poor land may gradually be assimilated in the quality and quantity of its pro- duce to the rich, without injury to the latter. Thus, a field under turnips may be so fertile that it would greatly injure the succeeding corn crop to consume the turnips on the ground ; while another may be naturally so poor or deficient in tenacity, as to render it inexpedient to consume any considerable portion of the crop elsewhere. Two or three small enclosures near the homestead are also indispensable on any farm. These may be from half an acre to two or three acres each. They are conveniently used for tups when out of season, ewes at the period of lambing, young calves, and for young animals generally after being weaned. They also afford an appropriate retreat for sick and con- valescent animals, where they can remain undis- turbed from the intrusion of others. In the enclosure of upland and mountain dis- tricts the course of proceeding is different from that to be adopted on the plains. In the former case shelter is an especial object to be secured, and frequently every other consideration must give way to the attainment of it. Such situations are fre- quently exclusively devoted to the use of live stock, and the enclosures are for the most part of a large size. The live stock of the mountains possess more active habits than those of the plains, as they undergo more exercise in the collectionof their food. Access to good water is an important considera- tion in every enclosure in which live stock are at any time to be kept. The best pasturage will never improve the condition of cattle to the extent of which it is capable of doing without the digestive aid of plenty of good water. The peculiar kind of fence to be employed in the division of farm lands depends in a great degree on the locality. The live fence is generally to be preferred in all situations where it can be produced; but in exposed situations and in mountainous dis- tricts none, or few, of the common hedge plants can be made to grow. In this respect it is to be regretted that the range of the common hawthorn is not mere extended as regards the climate in which it can be grown. As a hedge plant no other can at all enter into competition with it, but it will not succeed on inferior soils or in exposed situa- tions. The whin or gorse may often be substituted in such cases for the hawthorn, but, as compared with the latter, it is exceedingly limited in its dura- tion, and is also liable, by the dispersion of its seeds, to spread over the surrounding grounds, unless prevented by the operation of the imple- ments of tillage. Plants are occasionally cultivated in hedge-rows more with a view to their produce than to serve the purpose of a fence, such as the various kinds of timber grown as hop-poles in cer- tain districts, and willows for basket work ; but such are obviously not to be included in the list of hedge plants, properly so called. A mixture of plants in hedge-rows cannot generally be recom- mended though frequently introduced, as it gives a bad appearance to the fence, and it rarely happens that a soil will be found equally suited to the growth of a great number of plants. The comparative merits of the different kinds of fences which may be employed have been warmly contested ; but in such cases it seems to be lost sight of that this is purely a question of cir- cumstances. In bleak situations hedges certainly will not grow ; and there are also some situations in the most favoured soils for the growth of hedges in which other kinds of fence may be introduced with advantage, as in those parts of low-lying fields near the margins of sluggish rivers, which are liable to inundate their banks in winter, or even during the periodical rains of summer. Hedges in such situations lose their vigour of growth, and become a prey to parasitical mosses and lichens. In hollow grounds near bogs or fresh-water lakes, over which vapours are frequently suspended during the nights in summer, and which blight the vege- tation of the most vigorous hedges, stone walls, or railing of some sort, will be preferable to hedges. The sides of paths leading to watering places from fields, and particularly if they are environed with plantations, are best protected by stone walls. In these situations, which are all inimical to the growth of hedges, stone walls will constitute a better fence, and they will be produced at less expense, than the thorn hedge. In every other situation hedges will certainly be preferable, as they become not only a strong fence, but they at the same time afford a most valuable shelter to every kind of live stock. Currents of wind passing over the top of stone walls receive a percussion, and generate blasts of 244 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. air in whirling motions on the leeward side of the ! wall; whereas these currents, in being permitted to pass through a hedge, are much weakened by being subdivided into numerous smaller ones. Such considerations as these should guide the farmer in constructing that kind of fence which is best suited to the particular situation in which it is to be placed. It is further to be regarded as a wise provision j in the economy of nature, that the earth itself fur- nishes the most appropriate materials for the fenc- ing of land. On elevated grounds much exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, which would greatly retard the vegetation of arborescent plants, rock generally predominates ; and in gravelly de- posits, which are not favourable to the development of most shrubby plants, materials are often abun- dant which are eminently appropriate to the con- struction of diy stone fences. Again, in a cham- paign country, abounding in those rich deposits of clay and loam which are highly qualified for the rearing of every kind of tree, stone is scarce, and cannot be employed in the formation of fences. To the live fence it is often objected as being supposed to be expensive to rear to maturity, for the attainment of which a considerable length of time is required, during which it is not effi- cient as a fence — to be difficult to keep in order afterwards — to occupy too much land — to exhaust its fertility for a considerable distance around them, and to afford a refuge for vermin. On the other hand, stone walls are supposed to produce a bleak appearance in a cultivated country, — to afford little or no shelter to live stock, and to require constant repair ; and they cannot be made an efficient fence for some kinds of sheep without incurring great expense in either building high walls or in "placing some inconvenient fence-wood on the top of low ones. As a mere fence for cattle in particular, the wall is as good as a hedge ; but the former is in its best state from the hands of the builder, and un- fortunately decays daily; but the latter acquires strength with its growth, and under proper man- agement will last for ages. Another consideration may be noticed in the arrangement of fences, which, though of compara- tively minor importance, is yet not altogether un- deserving of regard. In every case fines of fences will occasionally intersect each other, forming cor- ners which the plough cannot reach, and which, to prevent the untidy appearance which waste patches of ground invariably produce, must be cultivated by the spade. In these it is advisable to form a small enclosure, a portion being taken off each of the surrounding fields for the purpose, though a small additional expenditure in fencing be thereby incurred. The space thus enclosed may be planted for shelter and ornament ; or a portion of it may be reserved for a watering place, which may be easily approached by a simple contrivance from each of the surrounding fields. Before concluding this subject, a passing notice of the propriety of introducing timber trees into hedge-rows may not be irrelevant. This is a sub- ject on which there is much difference of opinion. So far as regards the appearance of hedge-row timber on the landscape, every one must admire their effect, and were we to estimate their value by the consideration of beauty alone, they would be beyond all price. Notwithstanding the objection of formality urged against timber trees arranged in this manner, it cannot be doubted that they impart such a clothed and lively aspect to the country as nothing else can give ; and the cultivated scenery of many parts of England is on this account amongst the richest any where seen. "Were there not, then, serious objections to be brought against the practice on other grounds, no difference of opinion could exist regarding it. But the practical farmer is accustomed to look at things rather on account of their utility than their beauty, and so far as the testimony of practical men is to be re- garded, it may be considered to be all but universal in the condemnation of the system. So early as the time of the author of the " Gentlemen Farmer," the injurious effects of trees in hedge-rows were loudly complained of; and in that work we find Lord Kames declare, as his opinion, that ** to plant trees in the line of a hedge, or within a few feet of it, ought to be absolutely prohibited as a pernicious practice. It is amazing that people should fall into this error, when they ought to know that there never was a good thorn-hedge with trees in it. And how should it be otherwise? An oak, a beech, or an elm grows faster than a thorn ; when suffered to grow in the midst of a thorn hedge, it spreads its roots every where, and robs the thorns of their nourishment. Nor is this all. The tree overshadowing the thorns, keeps the sun and air from them. At the same time, no ti-ee takes worse from being overshadowed than a thorn." Severe as is this censure of the practice, it cannot be said to be unjust. Even as regards the value of timber in hedge-rows, much cannot be said in its favour, as it rarely or never attains to a great size, and is besides often distorted in shape by the force of winds. "When any portion of this timber comes to be removed either by accident or design, the fence also suffers severe and irreparable injury. On the whole, then, it may be said, that, so far as regards appearance, he who would not advocate the extension of hedge-row timber would be deci- dedly wanting in taste, and therefore it is not to be wondered that landed proprietors generally are advocates of it ; but so far as the practical farmer is concerned, it cannot be doubted that the trees do much injury not only to the fence, but also to the surrounding crops, both by the shade of their tops, and by the exhaustion of the soil by their roots ; and further, that their disposal, were they even left in the hands of the farmer (which, however, is generally not the case), to counterbalance the injury which they inflicted during their growth, would not afford any considerable return. But, however inimical the farmer may be to the existence of timber trees in his hedge-rows, the total or even partial destruction of such as at present exist cannot be recommended. It would, to use the words of an eloquent writer on the subject, be ungracious treatment, now that they are planted and growing, to root out every one of them without delay ; but they may be treated as annuitants, whose consummation may be devoutly wished for, and whose places will not be replenished by similar occupants. Plantations, and clumps and belts of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 trees, afford better shelter than single rows ; and when they can be judiciously planted in situations where little us? can be made of the ground for culture (and there is no property without many such situations upon it), and in other situations where they would screen fields from the prevailing winds, they not only become usefid timber, but ornamental objects in the landscape— objects which fill the eye, rivet the attention, and are vastly more tasteful than any single row of stunted trees can be. Closely connected with a convenient arrangement of the fences of the farm is the proper situation of field gates, which impart an air of neatness and order. This branch of farm management is often too much neglected,, and the entrances to fields may often be seen to consist merely of an opening made in the fence, and defended only by a number of large thorn bushes, or by some other means equally simple and inartificial. The situation of the gate should be in the middle of that side of the field which is nearest to the road leading to the farmery ; because in carting home produce and in carting out manure, the labour is less on a well formed road than on the soft head- land of the field, and carting more or less injures the ground. When the entrance to a field is situated near a corner of it, the headland is cut up and injured by the frequent repetition of the carts in the same track, and this is avoided as far as possi- ble by having the gates placed near the centre of the fence forming the near boundary of the field. When a public road passes through the farm, entrances to the field maybe made from it; but in the case of large farms many fields may occur not thus advantageously situated, and especially in the case of clay farms ; such roads must be formed as will secure convenient access to every field. On wet and clayey soils these roads must be formed of durable materials, otherwise access to the fields is impracticable during the winter months ; but on dry soils, provided attention is paid to fill up the ruts as they are formed, farm roads may easily be kept in order. It is essentially necessary that a piece of road should be formed at the entrance to every field, in the gateway ; that being the place which is most frequently subjected to injury. Without this precaution it often becomes a mire, where corn is thrown down and spoiled in the harvest; or if it is attempted to avoid the mire, the gate-posts and adjoining fence are damaged. J. Sproule. FIXING AMMONIA IN DUNGHILLS. TO THE EDITOH OK THE BURY AND NORWICH POST. Sin, — It is now two years since I took some pains to bring' before the public a plan for experimental co-operation, by means of which practical agriculturists might efficiently test the suggestions of chemists and others, without much trouble or cost on the part of separate individuals. By this means also, as it appeared to myself and others better judges than I am, a secure method might be established of accelerating the progress of certain inquiries which must yet be made before a satisfactory connexion can be established between science and practice 1 selected, almost at random, an experiment to be tried by not less than 50 experimenters, according to the plan proposed ; and 95 individuals consented to undertake it, and to return to me certain printed schedules filled up with the re- sults they might obtain. I promised to collate these schedules, and to make known the general result, whatever it might be, which could be deduced from them. I have received returns from only 17 persons, and six others have given me reasons why they were unable to keep to their engagement ; but I have had no communications from the remaining 72. It is very possible that whatever zeal I felt in promoting the scheme has been considerably damped at finding so great a falling off, as more than three-quarters in the numbers have sent me no notice whatever of their proceedings ; whilst, of the 17 returns, not more than 12 are sufficiently filled up to make their results of any positive value. I suspect that I have, in consequence, been procrastinating the somewhat troublesome task of re- ducing the various quantities in the several schedules to a common standard of comparison — a trouble which might rea- dily have been avoided, if all the experiments had been under- taken on the same scale. I had purposely left it open to the judgment of the several experimenters iu this first essay to de- termine for themselves whatever spaces and quantities they might choose to adopt ; but experience has convinced me that this latitude has been a source of embarrassment to some, and that I should have received more returns if I had been more precise in exactly stating how much ground should be set out, and the precise quantity of the several materials to be used in the experiment. Though I shall not feel justified in deducing any positive conclusions from returns that have not been suffi- ciently numerous, according to the scale upon which the expe- riment has been undertaken, yet I find, from much additional information that has been obtained, that gypsum does cer- ium!;,- act to a limited extent in arresting decomposition in open dunghills ; and that a certain, but not large, amount of sulphate of ammonia is finned by its decomposing some of the carbonate of ammonia. It has been announced that the com- mon green copperas (sulphate of iron) is far more serviceable than gypsum for this purpose. Although I had no iutention of engaging further in these inquiries, my knowledge of che- mistry being much too limited, yet, as an application has been made to me to prepare a schedule for an agricultural society in Devonshire, I have suggested an experiment for testing the comparative values of gypsum, sulphate of iron, and muriate of lime, as fixers of ammonia in open dunghills. I have been fur- nished with several copies of this schedule B, and shall be happy to forward one to any person who may be inclined to undertake the whole or part of the experiments it suggests. It is drawn up more briefly and precisely than the former. The expense of the materials to be used cannot amount to more than a few pence ; and the time that need be consumed in ear- ning it out would not occupy a couple of labourers above a few hours. I shall hope before another fortnight is past to have my time sufficiently at command to draw up a tabular view of the scanty results which schedule A has produced, and to offer some comments upon them. I find my former views of the utility of the scheme proposed vastly refreshed and strengthened 'by having lately breathed a little of the scientific atmosphere that was distilled at the important meeting of the British Association at Cambridge; and I cannot yet utterly relinquish the hope that those persons who are professing the greatest anxiety for the union of science with practice will sooner or later become convinced of the necessity of organizing some efficient scheme of experimental co-operation. The failure of my own efforts ought not to be taken as a bad omen : I am not competent to have done more than point out its import- ance, and to have directed attention to the like suggestions on the part of persons best qualified to make them, Success can be expected only when those who are directing the aim of the whole agricultural body shall have prevailed with the locally dispersed societies and clubs to unite in carrying out so de- sirable an object, Hitcham, 7th July. Hen slow. 24fl THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. A PRIZE ESSAY OX MANURES. By Samuel L. Dana. Published by the Massachusetts Society for the Protection of Agriculture. "Manures are the riches of the field." — Ciiaptal. SECTION FIRST. Clearing and breaking up, and making Compost. There is one thing settled in farming, stable manure never fails. It always tells. There are no two ways about it. There is here neither theory, nor speculation, nor doubt, nor misgiving. " Muck it well, master, and it will come right," is an old proverb. It is considered a fact so well established, that nobody thinks of disputing it. There is ad- vantage in asking why barn-yard manure never fails. The answer is easy. It contains all that plants need for their growth. If we know then what plants contain we can easily tell what is in manure. The whole doctrine of manures then falls into two plain principles, on which hang all the law and the "profits" of agriculture. 1. Plants contain and need certain substances which are essential to their growth. 2. Manure contains all those substances which plants want. If then we would find out what it is which manure contains that makes plants grow, we must first find out what a grown plant contains. This cannot be done ■without some little, a very little knowledge of chemistry. Do not be startled, reader. I suppose that you may know nothing of chemistry, no, not even its terms. As a very sensible man, who wrote letters on Botany to a young lady, said, to encourage his pupil, it was possible to be a very good botanist without knowing one plant by name, so is it possible to become a very good agricultural chemist without knowing little more than the chemical names of a very few substances. You know nothing of chemistry it may be, and as little of law ; yet you will go to law, and learn some of its terms by a dear-bought ex- perience. The law terms are harder to learn than the chemical terms. Now I fear that some persons, who have followed me thus far, will shut up the book. It is, say they, all stuff, book-farming, and beyond us. If one may not understand what manure is without this learning, we may as well begin where our fathers ended, and that was where our forefathers began ages ago. By a little law, however, picked up as a juryman or witness, selectman, town-clerk, justice of the peace, yea, perhaps, hearing an indictment read, men do come to understand what a lawyer means when he talks. So, too, by a little chemical talk, a man may learn what a chemist means when he talks of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, and carbon ; potash] soda, lime (all these are old friends, the very names make us feel at home again), alumina, magnesia, iron, manganese, and silex, sulphur, and phos- phorus. Here is a long list. Lonn- as it is perhaps it will be thought worth learning, when you are told, that these are the names of all the substances found in plants— every substance which they want. Out of these is made every plant— every part of every plant, from the hyssop on the wall to the mountain cedar, contains some or all of these. Be not disheartened. Look over, reader, the list again carefully, see how many are old names of things which you know. Of the fourteen, you know nearly one half by name and by nature. These are potash, soda, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphur. Perhaps you will add, that you know carbon is coal, or rather coal carbon. You have heard, from some travelling lecturer at your town Lyceum, that oxygen and hydrogen together form water. That oxygen and nitrogen form the air you breathe ; that nitrogen and hydrogen form ammonia or sal volatde, which gives the sharp smell to the smelling-bottle. Besides, the thing has been said so often, that you must have heard it, that chlorine, the substance which bleaches in bleaching salts united to soda makes common salt, or if chlorine is united to ammonia sal ammoniac is formed. Now by changes and combinations among these fourteen things, nature makes everything we find in plants. Many of these are invisible, as is the air. The substance called chlorine, perhaps you have never seen, but if you ever smelt it you will never forget it. It is often smelt in a piece of bleached cotton when opened in the shops. It gives the smell to bleaching powder used to disinfect the air, during cholera and other diseases. If you could see it, it would appear merely a faint yellowish green air. It is all-powerful on vegetation. As it forms a part of common salt, say half of its weight, we may dismiss the further consideration of it, by saying, that, in some shape or other, chlorine is universally diffused in soil and plants. The list above may be divided as follows : first, the airy or volatile ; secondly, the earths and metals ; thirdly, the alkalies ; fourthly, the inflammables. Only the third and fourth divisions require to be explained or defined. The substances called potash and soda are termed alkalies. They are said to have alkaline properties. Touch your tongue with a bit of quicklime, it has a hot, burning, bitter taste. These are called alkaline properties. Besides these they have the power of combining with and taking the sour out of all sour liquids or acids, that is, the acid and the alkali neutralize each other. This word alkali is of Arabic origin ; its very name shows one of the properties of alkalies. " Kali" is the Arabic word for bitter, and " al," is like our word super — we say fine and superfine ; so kali, is bitter ; alkali, superlatively bitter : or, truly, alkali means, the " dregs of bitterness." I wish, reader, for your own sake, as well as my own, that you should fix in your mind what I have said about alkali and alkaline properties. Alkali is a general term : it includes all those substances which have an action like the ley of wood ashes, which you use for soap-making. If this ley is boiled down dry, you know it forms potash. Now lime fresh slaked has the alkaline properties of potash, but weaker, and so has the calcined magnesia of the shops, but in a less degree than lime. Here we have two sub- stances, earthy in their look, having alkaline pro- perties : they are called, therefore, alkaline earths. But what we understand chiefly by the term alkalies, means potash, soda, and ammonia. Potash is the alkali of land plants ; soda is the alkali of sea plants; and ammonia is the alkali of animal sub- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 247 stances. Potash and soda are fixed, that is, not easily raised in vapor by fire. Ammonia always exists as vapor unless fixed by something else. Hence we have a distinction among alkalies which is easily remembered. This distinction is founded on the source from which they are procured, and upon their nature when heated. Potash is vegeta- ble alkali, derived from land plants ; soda is marine alkali derived from sea plants ; ammonia is animal alkali, derived from animal substances. Potash and soda are fixed alkalies ; ammonia is a volatile alkali. Potash makes soft soap with grease, and soda forms hard soap. Ammonia forms neither hard nor soft, it makes with oil a kind of ointment, used to rub a sore throat with, under the name of volatile liniment. But though there be these three alkalies, and two alkaline earths, I want you to fix in your mind, reader, that they all have common properties, called alkaline, and which will enable you to understand their action, without more ado about their chemistry. The inflammables, or our fourth division, are sulphur and phosphorus ; both used in making friction matches. The phos- phorus first takes fire by rubbing, and this sets the sulphur burning. Now, the smoke arising from these is only the sulphur and phosphorus united to the vital part of the common air. Tins compound of vital air, or oxygen, as it is called, and inflammables, forms acids called sulphuric and phosphoric acids. So if you burn coal or carbon, it is well known you form fixed air, or carbonic acid. That is, by burning, the coal or carbon unites with the oxygen or vital part of common air, and forms carbonic acid. The heavy, deadly air, which arises from burning charcoal, has all the properties of an acid. And now let us see what these properties are. All acids unite or combine with the alkalies, alkaline earths, and the metals. When acids and alkalies do thus unite, they each lose their distinguishing properties. They form a new substance called a salt. It is very important you should fix well in your mind this definition of a salt. You are not to confine your idea of a salt to common salt. That is a capital example of the whole class. It is soda, an alkali, united to an acid, or chlorine, or, to speak in the terms the most intelligible, to muriatic acid. So saltpetre is a salt. It is potash united to aqua-fortis. Yet in saltpetre you perceive neither potash nor aqua-fortis. These have united, their characters are neutralized by each other. They have formed a neutral salt. Our list of substances found in plants is thus reduced from things which you did not know to things which you do know ; and so we have saved the trouble of learning more of their chemistry. We have reduced the airy or volatile into water, formed of oxygen and hydrogen ; or volative alkali, formed of nitrogen and hydrogen ; or into acids, as the carbonic, formed of oxygen and carbon — as the sulphuric, formed of oxygen and sulphur — as the phosphroric, formed of oxygen and phosphorus ; and having thus got water and acids, these unite with all the alkaline, earthy, and metallic bodies, and form salts. To give you new examples of these, I may mention Glauber's salts and Epsom salts. Glauber's salt is formed of soda and sul- phuric acid ; Epsom salts, of magnesia and sul- phuric acid ; alum, of alumina or clay and sulphuric acid ; green vitriol, of iron and sulphuric acid ; white vitriol, of zinc and sulphuric acid ; plaster of paris, of lime and sulphuric acid ; bones, of lime and phosphoric acid ; chalk and limestone, of lime and carbonic acid. These are all examples of salts ; that is, an acid or a substance acting the part of an acid, united to an alkali, metal, or earth. We have thus gone over, in a very general way, enough of chemistry for any one to understand the chemical nature of manure. You see, reader, that with common attention, bestowed for an evening's reading, one may learn these chemical terms and their meaning. And now, having learned this first lesson, let us review the ground gone over, and fix once and for all these first principles in our minds. Let us do this by a practical application of the knowledge we have gained. Let us analyse a plant. Do not be startled at the word. To analyse, means to separate a compound substance into the several substances which form it. This may be done by a very particular and minute, or by a more general division. It may be done for our present purpose, by separating the several substances of a plant into classes of compounds. You are already chemist enough to undertake this mode of analysis ; in truth, you have already done it, again and again. For our purpose, the ancient chemists had a very good division of all matter into four elements — fire, air, earth, and water. Now, by fire you separate plants into the other three elements. You are, reader, though perhaps you do not know it, somewhat of a practical chemist. Whenever you have burned a charcoal-pit, what did you? You separated the wood into air, water, and earth. You drove off* by heat or fire the airy or volatile parts of the plant, you left its carbon or coal ; if you had burnt this, you would have left ashes. Now the^e ashes are the earthy parts of plants. If you burn a green stick of wood, you drive off first its wa- ter and volatile parts, which form soot. You burn its carbon,and leave its ashes or salts. So that by simply burning you reduce the substance or elements of plants to water, carbon, salts. All plants then, with- out exception, contain the several substances in our list above, as water, carbon, and salts. To apply this knowledge to manure, we must say a word on the form in which some of these, which we call the elements of plants, exist in them. The sap is water, it holds dissolved in it some salts of the plant. This sap or juice forms a pretty large proportion of the roots, say seventy-five to eighty parts in one hundred of potatoes, turnips, beets, &c. This may be called the water of vegetation. If we dry beet- root, or any other plant, we merely drive off this water of vegetation. Now what have we left ? To go back to our process of analysis, let us char the dried root. We drive off" more water and volatile parts. This water did not exist as such in the plant. It existed there as hydrogen and oxygen gas. Now this word gas is a chemical term, and it means any substance in vapor, which cannot be condensed into a liquid or solid at common tem- peratures. Different gases may unite, and so be- come solids or liquids. Steam is not gas, for it is the vapor of water, and immediately returns to the state of water, below 212 degrees. Perfect steam 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. is invisible, so are most gases. The air we breathe is composed of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. We do not see them, we cannot by cooling or com- pression make air take other shape than invisible air. This is the general property of gas as dis- tinguished from vapor or steam. Oxygen and hydrogen in plants exist in just the proportions to form water, but we do not know that they are united in these proportions. We have compelled them to unite by heating the substance or root. The carbon is by this same process consumed, and, you know, has thus formed carbonic acid. Besides this a portion of the carbon unites with some of the hydrogen of the plant. This forms hght, inflammable air. Now you may collect this light, inflammable air in any stagnant water where plants are decaying. Decay gives exactly the same products as are formed in making charcoal. Decay is only slow combustion or burning; no matter whether we char the plant or leave it to decay, we obtain exactly the same products as we did by our analysis, that is, carbon and salts. But because there is not heat enough we leave by decay a portion of the hydrogen and oxygen still united to the coal. A slow mouldering fire leaves products more like those of decay. Decay is a slow mouldering fire, hence the products of the decay of plants are very aptly termed mould. It is the product of a mouldering fire, that is, an imper- ceptible union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon of the plant. A union so slow that it gives out neither heat nor light. And yet it is in its results the same as if fire had actually been seen and felt. Mould contains, then, a part of the car- bon, oxygen, and hydrogen, or, if you like the terms better, mould of soil consists of the water and coal and salts of the plants. Mould is truly manure. If the mould of soil, as it has thus been defined, were separated from the earthy portions of soil, it would deprive that soil of the power of growing crops. Here then we come to a broad distinction between soil and manure. The soil is the earth on which plants grow. The mould is the manure of that soil. The soil is the earthy ; the mould, that is, the carbon and salts, together with the elements of water, are the vegetable part of arable land. But though the earthy part, the soil, as it is usually called, acts as a support, on which plants grow, it does not play a mere mechanical part. It has a distinct, decided, and important action upon the manure. This action is chiefly chemical ; and the fact that soils and manures do mutually afl'ect the growing plant, is proved by the circumstance, that the first plants which grew derived their salts from the earth. But this chemical action of soil does not belong to the present discussion. We can understand what manures are without deciding how they act. We can theorize and guess about the how of their action when we have learned what they are. That is chiefly what the farmer wants to know. He wants to know what manure is, and what is likely to act as a manure. To these points we shall confine our present remarks. Pointing out the great principles applicable to all manures, the nature of soils, and the manner in which they afl'ect manures, must be left for another essay. The vegetable or manure part of soil alone is to be now considered. Consider now, reader, the great results to which our analysis has led us : that a slow, mouldering fire gives us the same products as are formed by decay ; that this is only a slow, moul- dering fire, and that mould, its product, is the natural manure of plants, It follows, that what- ever substance produces mould, that is, water, carbon, and salts, may be used instead of this natural manure. Among the salts found in mould, some are volatile, and are easily dissolved by water. Others are fixed, that is, not evaporating easily, or not at all, and are quite insoluble in water. Now the first, or volatile, and soluble, first act when used in manure. The)' act quick and are quickly done. The fixed and insoluble act slower, they last longer. The volatile act in the early stages of growth, the fixed in the later periods. The great difference in the action of manures depends almost entirely upon the salts which they contain. These are the most important and essential. It is not so much the vegetable mould of manure which you want, as the salts which it contains. This is a well- settled principle. Land which has undergone the skinning process, old, worn out and run out land, still contains a very large portion of vegetable matter ; the coal or carbon of mould without its salts. Give this worn out land salts, and you may by these alone bring it back not only to its first virgin freshness, but you may even by salts alone make it fairer and richer than it was before man ever cultivated it. Too much stress has been all along laid upon the kind of soil. Go now to " Flob," in West Cambridge, no better farms or farmers, look the world through. Ask any of these practical men, whether the sandy and gravelly soil of Old Cam- bridge Common, or even of Seekonk Plain, can be made to bear as rich crops as their land? They will tell you yea. If your land will hold manure, muck it well and it will be as good. Now this holding of manure belongs to the subject of soils, and throwing that out of consideration, it is found that even lands which do not hold manure, which have been worn out and exhausted by cropping, hold yet a great deal of insoluble coal of mould. They want salts, and something which will make this inert, dead vegetable matter of the soil active. The mould is active in proportion as it is more or less dissolved by water. Mould consists of two parts ; one is dissolved, though only in a slight degree, by water; the other is not dissolved by water. Some substances, however, do render mould very easily dissolved by water. Hence, if you reflect a moment on these facts, it will be seen that mould itself, being valuable in proportion to the ease with which water dissolves it, that whatever substance so enables mould to dissolve, may be added to it, and thus increase its value. Now the things which do this are the alkalies, soda, potash, and ammonia. These principles being well settled, we may enter on the consideration of each different manure. They will be valuable in proportion to the quantity and kind of salts each contains, added to the power they may have of producing by their decay substances which make their mould soluble. Now this last property, that is, the property of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 249 producing a substance which makes mould soluble, depends wholly upon the nitrogen of the manure. This nitrogen in the process of decay, becomes volatile alkali or ammonia. The word ammonia will occur so often in the present discussion, that we should endeavour to fix some definite idea to it. You need not, reader, be acquainted with all its chemical properties. I suppose every man who will be likely to read these remarks has smelled ammonia. It has been already said, that it gives the peculiar pungent smell to the common smell- ing-bottle. This is volatile ammonia. It is always formed when animal or vegetable bodies decay. It has been already said, and is now repeated in order that it may never be forgotten, that ammonia is formed by the union of hydrogen and nitrogen. Hydrogen and nitrogen, two airs, nitrogen forming four-fifths of the air we breathe, let that be borne in mind, and without going into the chemistry of ammonia further, or the mode of calculating how much ammonia a pound of nitrogen will make, it may be laid down, and must be remembered too, that every pound of nitrogen may be called two and a half pounds of sal volatile, or smelling salts of the smelling-bottle. Two and a half pounds of volatile ammonia formed from one pound of nitro- gen. If then we can determine, as chemistry may, how much nitrogen exists or forms a part of manure, two and a half times that will be the ammonia of that manure. If then the vegetable part of manure is as we have said, valuable and active, in proportion to its degree of being dissolved by water, then, as ammonia gives it this easy solu- bility, we may safely say, that the quantity of nitrogen in manure, is the measure of the value of its vegetable part. One thing must be guarded against, not to place from this view the whole of the value of manure upon its ammonia. Remember that manure consists of carbon, water, and salts. The whole are equally essential to its action. There is no eye, nor ear, nor foot, nor hand in manure which may say to the other members, " I have no need of thee." The whole act together ; but it is not to be doubted, that ammonia is the heart of manure, and keeps up the healthy circulation among the other members. SECTION SECOND. Shovelling over the Compost Heap. The above remarks may be called our compost heap. It must be well shovelled over. You must, reader, before you cart it out and spread it, under- stand well what this compost contains. Now just let me turn over a few shovels full, and fork out the main points to which I wish to call your attention. 1st. That all plants find in stable manure every thing they want. 2nd. That stable manure consists of water, coal, and salts. 3d. That these, water, coal, and salts, consist in all plants of certain substances, in number four- teen, which are called, 1. Oxygen, 2. hydrogen, 3. nitrogen, 4. carbon, 5. sulphur, 6. phosphorus, 7- potash, 8. soda, 9. lime, 10. magnesia, 1 1. alumina or clay, 12, iron, 13. manganese, 14. chlorine, which last, as we have said, forms about one half the weight of common salt. And if you always associate with the word chlorine, the fertilizing properties of common salt, you will, perhaps, have as good an idea of this substance as a farmer need have, to understand the action of chlorine. 4th. These fourteen substances may be divided into four classes. 1st. The airy or gases, oxygen, hydrogen, nitro- gen, and chlorine. 2nd. The combustibles, carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus. 3d. The earths and metals, lime, clay, magnesia, iron, and manganese. 4th. The alkalies, potash, and soda. You may be surprised that I have not turned up ammonia, but this exists in plants as hydrogen and nitrogen. 5th. The term salt includes a vast variety of substances, formed of alkalies, earths and metals, combined with acids. Fix well the meaning of this term in your mind, and remember the distinction pointed out, that some salts are volatile, and act quick in manure, and others are fixed and act slower. 6th. When plants die or decay they return to the earth or air these fourteen substances. Those returned to the earth from mould, which thus is composed of carbon, salts, and water, is natural manure. 7th Mould consists of two kinds, one of which may be, and the other cannot be dissolved by water. Alkalies put it into a state to be dissolved, and in proportion as it is dissolved it becomes valuable as a manure. 8th. If then manure contains only water, carbon, and salts, any substance which affords similar pro- ducts may be substituted for it. Hence we come to a division of manures into natural and artificial. The consideration of these is the carting out and spreading of our compost. And we shall first consider in detail the natural manures. That is, those which are furnished us by the dung and urine of animals, and the manure or mould formed by the decay of animal bodies or plants. These are truly the natural manures, con- sisting of water, mould, and salts. This is all that is found in cattle dung. This being premised, we may divide manures, reader, for your more con- venient consideration, not by their origin, hut by their composition. We may divide manures into these three classes — First, those consisting of vegetable or animal matter, called mould ; secondly, those consisting chiefly of salts; and, thirdly, those consisting of a mixture of these two classes. And, beginning with the last first, we will now pro- ceed to their consideration. SECTION THIRD. Carting out and Spreading. The general chemical information set forth in the preceding sections will be of no service to you, reader, if it conducts you not beyond the result arrived at in the close of the last section, that cattle dung is composed of water, mould, and salts. You want to know what salts, and how they act. 250 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. If you understand this you may be able to say be- forehand whether other things, supposing their nature understood, can take the place of the mould and salts. The mould, then, of cattle dung, as of all other mould, contains the following substances : — The water consists of oxygen and hydrogen. The mould consists of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and ammonia. Thus it is seen that the mould contains all the substances found in the first class into which the elements of plants were divided. The salts con- tain the sulphur, phosphorus, and the carbon as sulphuric, phosphoric, and carbonic acids, and the chlorine, as muriatic acid or spirits of salt. The acids formed of the elements of the fourth class of the substances entering into plants are combined with those of the second and third classes, namely, the potash, soda, lime, clay, mag- nesia, iron, and manganese. Here then we have all the elements of plants found in cattle dung. Let us detail their several proportions. We have all that plants need distributed in cattle dung, as follows : — In lOOlbs. of clear cattle dung are — Water S3-C0 Mould, composed of hay . . . .14*10 Bile and slime .... T275 Albumen, a substance like the white of an egg . . . . • 1 T5 Salts, silica or sand . . . . "14 Potash united to oil of vitriol, forming a salt '05 Potash united to acid of mould . '07 Common salt ..... '08 Bone-dust or phosphate of lime . -23 Plaster of Paris . . . .'12 Chalk or corbonate of lime . . • 1 2 Magnesia, iron, manganese, clay, united to the several acids above . . "14 100 SECTION FOURTH. Of the Action of Mould in Cattle Dung. Here, then, we have cattle dung with its several ingredients spread out before us. We have now to study its action. We need here consider only the salts and mould. The water is only water, and has no other action than water. The mould includes the hay, for that has, by chew- ing, and the action of the beast's stomach, lost so much of its character, that, mingled with the slime and bile, &c, it more rapidly decays than fresh hay would placed in similar circumstances. During this act of decay, as you have already learned, the volatile parts of the mould are given off' in part. These escape, as in burning wood, as water and steam, carbonic acid, and ammonia. In con- sequence of this slow mouldering fire or decay, the manure heats. Here then we have three very decided and important actions produced by the vegetable part or mould of cattle dung. First, car- bonic acid is given off; second, ammonia is formed ; third, heat is produced. Let us now con- sider each of these, and their effects. First, the great action of the carbonic acid is upon the soil, its earthy parts. It has the same action on these that air, rain, and frost have ; it divides and reduces them. It not only reduces them to powder, but it extracts from the earth potash and the alkalies. This is a very important act, and shows why it is necessary that decay or fermentation should take place in and under the soil among sprouting seeds and growing roots, in order that they may obtain from the soil the salts they want. If well-rotted manure contains abundance of these salts ready formed in its mould, then there will be less necessity of this action of carbonic acid. But here again it must be remembered, that this abundance of salts ready formed in mould can be produced only at the expense of great loss by fennentation of real valuable parts. For, Secondly, the next great action of the mould of cattle dung is to produce or form ammonia. This plays a threefold part ; its first action is to render the mould more soluble, this action it possesses in common with the fixed alkalies, potash, and soda. All the alkalies put a large but undefined portion of mould into a state fit to become food for plants. The second action of ammonia is this, it hastens decay ; it is the bellows, we may say, kindling the slow mouldering fire. The third action of ammonia is to combine with any free acids, such as vinegar, or even an acid formed of mould itself, but espe- cially with aqua-fortis or nitric acid, which is always produced where animal or vegetable matters decay. This is a highly important fact. The result of this action, the production of ammonia and aqua-fortis during the formation of mould, is, that a kind of saltpetre is thereby produced; that is, the ammonia and aqua-fortis unite and form a salt with properties similar to saltpetre. But we want the first and second action of ammonia to occur before the third takes place. Consider now, reader, whether a more beautiful and effectual way can be devised to hasten decay, and render mould more fit for nourishing plants than this which nature has provided. The ammonia is volatile ; it remains, not like potash and soda, where it is put, incapable of moving unless dissolved by water ; but ammonia, like steam, pervades every part, it is as expansive as steam ; heated up by the slow mouldering fire of decay, it penetrates the whole mass of mould. It does its work there. What is that work ? It has already been told. But, if it finds no acid to com- bine with, it then unites with the mould itself ; it is absorbed by it. The mould holds it fast ; it stores it up against the time when growing plants may need it. Now it is only where the abundance of ammonia produced satisfies these actions of hastening decay, making mould soluble, and filling its pores without com- bining with it, that the formation of saltpetre takes place; so where animal matters, which are the great source of ammonia, decay, there we may ex- pect all these actions to occur. How important, then, is that action of mouldering, which produces ammonia. If, reader, you will reflect upon the consequences of this action you will at once see, that if the mould is in too small a quantity to retain the ammonia it may escape. If by a wasty exposure you allow your mould to dissipate itself in air, as it certainly will, you not only incur the loss of that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 251 part of the mould, but you diminish at the same time the chance of keeping the ammonia which has been formed. No doubt all cattle dung exposed to air forms more ammonia than it can retain. Hence the necessity and the reason of forming composts with this substance. Keep what you have got and catch what you can, must never be lost sight of in manure. The third action of mould is, the pro- duction of heat. Little need be said upon this ; that a slight degree of heat hastens the sprouting of seeds you well know ; that different manures pro- duce different degrees of heat ; that some are hot, some cold, you well know, and adapt your seed and manure to each other. The degree of heat depends upon the rapidity with which decay occurs ; and this is effected by the quantity of ammonia which each manure can afford. The great point to which your attention should be directed when considering the power of mouldering to produce heat, is, that it shall not go so far as to burn up your manure just as hay will heat and take fire. SECTION FIFTH. Of the Action of the Salts of Cattle Dung. Here it is we find ourselves thrown on a sea of opinions, without chart, compass, or pilot, if we trust to the conflicting theories which have been set up for land-marks and light-houses. Let us there- fore, reader, trust to ourselves, aided by the little chemistry we have learned from the preceding re- marks about the composition of salts. I have endeavoured to impress on your memory that the term salt is very comprehensive. But then, to encourage one, it is also to be remembered that salts are compounds of alkalies, earths, and metals and acids. Now the earths, alkalies, metals may be united to each of the known acids (and their name is legion), yet you may not, by this change of acids, alter the nature of the earth, alkali or metal. That always remains the same ; every time you change the acid you alter the character of the salt. Thus soda may be united to oil of vitriol and form Glauber's salt, or to aqua-fortis and form South American saltpetre, or to muriatic acid and form common table salt. The soda is called the base, or basis, of this salt, that is always soda ; you do not change its character by changing the acid. To give another example, lime may be united to carbonic acid and form chalk or marble or lime- stone, or it may be united to oil of vitriol and form plaster of Paris, or to phosphoric acid and form bone-dust. Now, in each case, the base of the salt — that is, the lime — remains unchanged; but, changing the acid, we change the nature of the salt, and of course its effects will be different. Now it is plain that where the base of the salt re- mains the same that will always act the same, but different effects will be produced by different acids. Each base acts always one way, but each has an action similar to every other. Each acid acts also one way, but each has an action distinct from every other ; impress this on your mind. Reflect upon it a moment, and you will per- ceive that salts produce different effects according to the nature of their acid. Now this may be illustrated thus : you take every day, probably, with your every meal, common salt, that is, soda, a base, united to muriatic acid. Your digestion and health are all the better for it. You give your cattle a little salt. It does them good. Suppose now you change the acid of that salt, leaving soda, its base, in the same quantity you daily take. Instead of the muriatic, suppose you substitute the nitric acid, or, what is the same thing, suppose you use saltpetre, from Peru, instead of common salt. You need not be told, that you would poison yourself and your cattle by so doing. You can drink, I dare say you have, cream of tartar punch. You feel the better for it. It is refreshing, cooling, opening. Now cream of tartar is a salt of potash ; it is potash and tartaric acid. You have a fever. Your doctor gives you a sweat with Silvius's salt, that is, acetate of ammonia, a salt composed of that and vinegar ; or you take perhaps an effervescing draught, formed of lemon-juice and pearl-ashes. All does you good ; but suppose now you change these cooling, vegetable acids for a mineral acid, say oil of vitriol. You may not take potash, united with a dose of oil of vitriol equivalent to the tartaric acid in the cream of tartar, without serious injury. So is it, reader, in farming, the acids of some salts are not only harmless but beneficial to plants ; others are actual poisons. In the first case salts help to nourish plants, as common salt helps to nourish yourself; in other cases they poison plants, just as they would impair your constitution, or perhaps kill you. But it is to be remembered, as in our own case, even those that poison, in a small dose, become medicines, so, in plants, a small dose is not only good, but truly essential. Now if we divide the acids into two classes, the nourishers and the poisoners, such will also be the nature of the salts. AVhen we, therefore, attempt such a general division of the salts, it may be said that all the acids derived from the vegetable kingdom are harmless; so are the acids called mineral, yet whose components are in part like those of the vegetable acids ; for instance, aqua-fortis or nitric acid. But the true mineral acids are poisonous, such are oil of vitriol and spirits of salt. One thing is here to be borne in mind. It must never be out of sight, in trying to understand how salts make plants grow. You cast your salt upon the ground, it lies there, no action occurs. It rains. Your salt is dissolved and disappears; it seems to do no good. Cast your salt now among sprouting seeds, and growing roots ; here is life ; well, now, life is just as much a power of force as electricity is. It exerts its force, no matter how, that is quite another consideration. I say, life exerts its force here to separate the acid and the base of a salt, just like a chemical force. We can and do separate the components of salts by other substances, nay, we do it by electricity alone. Now this is all which it is necessary for you to know, and to understand about this action of plants upon salts ; it does disunite the components of the salts. What is the consequence ? The alkali, earth, and metal act as such, the same as if no acid was present. The acid also acts by itself; if it is a nourisher, it helps the plant ; if it is a poisoner, it hurts it. It produces either a healthy, green crop, the effect of alkali, or a stunted yellow, 252 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sickly plant, the effect of acids. Now neutralize this acid, kill it. You see your crops start into luxuriance, and reap where you have strewed. So much for illustration. Let us now apply this view of the action of salts to those contained in cattle dung. In the first place we have salts of potash, of soda, of lime; these are the most abundant and active. Then we have salts of iron, manganese, of clay, and magnesia. These last, existing in small proportion, may be thrown out of the account, bearing in mind, however, that, though we set these aside, a plant does not ; they enter ecpially with the others into its composition. Let us begin with the salts of potash. It is found combined in cattle dung, first, with a vegetable acid, the acid of mould. It is a nourish er of plants. Secondly, with sulphuric acid or the acid of sulphur, called oil of vitriol. This is one of the poisoners, existing only in small pro- portions in cow dung ; it ministers to the wants of a healthy plant. The same is true of the common salt or the muriate of soda of dung. If it existed in larger quantities it would poison the plants to which it might be applied. The next salts are those of lime, phosphate and sulphate of lime, or lime united to sulphuric or phosphoric acid, forming plaster and bone-dust. The acids here, if abun- dant, would have a decided bad influence, they are poisoners ; but the curbonic acid, in the carbonate of lime, is a nourisher. Now from the small quan- tity in which these all exist in cattle dung, they act only beneficially. But if you apply a great excess, even of cattle dung, you may be sure of an unfavo- rable result. It will be produced by the acids of those salts which we have called poisonous. To continue our remarks on the acids of salts of dung, it is to be observed, that they act also upon the soil. They decompose that. That is, they extract from the soil alkalies, or other substances, like those in the original salt. Now though applied, as they must be, in very small doses in cattle dung, yet, because of their decomposing action on soil, they continually renew themselves, they last till all their acid is taken up to supply the wants of growing plants. Let us now, reader, if you understand how the acids of the salts of dung act, turn to the bases or the alkalies and metals and earths of these salts. What is their action ? What purpose do they serve in dung applied as manure r First, they enter into and form a part of the living plants, they form a part of its necessary food as much as do the constituents of mould. Secondly, when these alkalies, and metallic bases are let loose, by the disuniting power of a growing plant, then they act aa alkalies upon mould. They hasten decay, render mould more soluble, fit it to become food for plants. This account of the action of mould and salts in cattle dung may appear to you, reader, long and hard to be understood. I do request you not to pass it over on that account. A patient reading, perhaps some may require two or more readings, will put you in possession of all you need know, to understand the why and the wherefore of the action of mould, and salts of whatever manure may be used. What has been said of the action of mould, and salts in cattle dung is equally applicable to all manures. If, then, you bend your bones to this subject, and master it, your labour of understanding the action of other manures will be reduced to the mere statement of the several substances which they may contain. We therefore proceed to point out other manures, composed of the droppings of animals. .SECTION SIXTH. Of Night Soil, Hog Manure. Horse and Sheep Dung. These have not all been analysed with the same degree of care, and as often as has cattle dung ; some, as, for instance, night soil, has been examined thoroughly but once. Now it is not quite fair to base our reasoning upon these single analyses, and say, that this or that manure contains this or that salt in greater or less quantity than another. The quantity and kind of salts are materially affected by several circumstances, which will be considered in the next section. An analysis, made when the animal is fed and worked one way, will vary from the result which would be obtained when the circumstances are varied. It is, therefore, quite useless, in the general consideration of the composition of manures, to enter upon the details of each. General results, general expressions of facts, are sufficient for understanding the nature of animal droppings. It is well ascertained, however, that all these droppings, of various animals, con- tain essentially the same salts as does cattle dung. They all contain portions of each of the substances which form plants. It will be enough for the pur- pose of this essay, to present to your eye, reader, -. a table, showing the proportions of water, mould, and salts, which the dung of yourself and your stock presents. Water, Mould. Salts. Night soil and hog manure, 75.30 23.50 1.20 Horse dung, 71.20 27.00 .96 Sheep dung, 67.90 22.50 3.06 SECTION SEVENTH. Of the circumstances which affect the quality and quantity of Animal Dung. That we may reduce to some general principle, easily understood and easily remembered, the facts scattered up and down among the mass of writers and observers about the different quality of manure, afforded by different animals, or the same animals at different times, let me, reader, request your company while I walk into a new department of your chemistry. You may not understand the reasons of this difference in manures ; why, for instance, fattening cattle give stronger manure than working oxen, without going a little into the mode how animals are nourished. The whole may be stated in plain terms thus : — All food serves two purposes. The first is to keep up the animal heat, and this part of food disappears in breathing or in forming fat ; that is, after serving its purpose in the animal body it goes off in the breath or sweat, or it forms fat. It is so essential to the action of breathing, that we will term it food for breathing, or the breathers. The second purpose answered by food is, to build up, sustain, and renew the waste of the body. Now all this is done from the blood. To form blood, animals must be supplied with its materials THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 253 ready formed. They are ready formed in plants ; and animals never do form the materials for making blood. We may therefore term this kind of food the blood formers. We have then two classes of food. The breathers and the fat formers ; and the blood formers. If we look to the nature of these different classes, we find that sugar, starch, and gum are breathers. Now there are three principles found in plants exactly and identically the same in chemical composition with white of egg, flesh, and curd of milk. Now these three principles exactly alike, whether derived from animals or from plants, are the only blood formers. I shall not, reader, tax your attention further upon this subject, than to say and to beg you to remember these important facts. First, all food for breathing and forming fat contains only these three elements, oxygen, hydro- gen, and carbon. Secondly, all food for forming flesh and blood in addition to these contains nitrogen. This is the gist of the whole matter, so far as relates to manure. Bear in mind as you go on with me, reader, this fact, that of all the food ani- mals take, that alone which can form flesh and blood contains nitrogen. The door is now open for explaining why age, sex, kind of employment, difference of food, difference of animal, can and do produce a marked difference in the value of different manures. And first let us consider how the quantity is affected; this depends on the kind of food. The analysis of cattle dung which has been given, is that of cows fed on hay, that is, herds, grass, red top, &c, or what is usually termed English hay, potatoes, and water. The cattle kept up the year round ; an animal so treated consumed in seven days, Water 611 lbs. Potatoes 87 " Hay 167 a During this time she dropped clear dung 599 lbs., or very nearly a bushel of dung a day. Every atten- tion was here paid to accuracy of measurement and | weight. The annual amount of dung from one cow exceeds by this account that which is usually as- signed. But, as it is a matter of some importance for the farmer to estimate what the produce of his stock may be in dung, the following statement, containing the results of a large establishment, will probably give that average. At this establishment the cows were kept up tha { year round for their dung. It was collected for use j free from litter, and measured daily into large tubs of known capacity. The average number of cows kept was fifty-four for nine and a half years. During that time they consumed of beets, meal, and pumpkins, brewery grains, cornstalks, turnips, potatoes, carrots, and cabbages, 942,436 lbs. giving an average of green fodder, for each cow per year, 1,837 lbs. Average consumption of hay for each cow per annum, 8,164 lbs. The total dung for nine and a half years was 120,520 bushels, or per annum 235 bushels. This gives a daily consump- tion of green food, 5 lbs., and 22 lbs. of hay per cow, and two and a half pecks of dung per day, or about 56 lbs. per cow. But according to some experiments, made to determine how much the quality of the food affected the quantity of dung, it appears that the solid and fluid excrements partially dried, were compared with the food, as follows : Cattle. Sheep. Horses. In lbs. lbs. lbs. 100 lbs. of rye straw gave dung 43 40 . 42 " " " hay " " 44 42 45 " " " potatoes " " 14 13 " " " mangel-wurzel " 6 « " " green clover " 9i 8h " " " oats " " 49 51 " " " rye " " 53 My own experiments on this subject gave for 100 lbs. of hay and potatoes as above, estimating both as dry, or free from water of vegetation, 32.9 lbs. of dung, and this estimated as dry is re- duced to 5.6 lbs., or 26 lbs. of dry food gave 14 lbs. of dry dung. But as a general fact, we may say, that well-cured hay and the grains give one half of their weight of dung and urine; potatoes, roots, and green grass about one tenth. It will be easily understood why the quality of food should affect the quantity of dung. The more watery, the less in bulk is voided, because there is actually less substance taken. And as the animal requires this to form its flesh and blood and fat, and to keep up his breathing, so will he exhaust more completely his food. More going to support him, less is re- turned by the ordinary channels. So when much vegetable fibre exists, as in chopped straw and hay, then, as it goes but little way towards supporting breathing or forming blood, a greater bulk is re- jected. In grains, on the contrary, which afford much of all that the animal requires, less is extracted and more voided. These circumstances are inti- mately connected with The Quality of the Du>ty. It is affected first, by the season; second, by the age ; third, by the sex ; fourth, by the condition ; fifth, by the mode of employment ; sixth, by the nature of the beast ; seventh, the kind of food. 1st. The season; it is because digestion is worse in summer than in winter, a general fact, summer manure is best. And where cattle are summer soiled, it is said the manure is worth double that from stall-fed winter cattle. I do not think much is to be attributed to the worse di- gestion in summer, but the cause of this great difference in value, is to be found in the fact, that soiled cattle generally get a hrge proportion of blood-forming food. The wear and tear of their flesh is little, and hence, requiring little of their food to keep up their flesh, a greater portion goes off in dung, which thus becomes rich in ammonia. The green plants, rich in nitrogen, afford abundance for milk, which, being rich in all the elements of cream, should afford large returns of butter. 2nd. Age; from the fact, that young and grow- ing animals require not only food to form flesh and blood, to repair the incessant waste and change taking place in their bodies, as in older animals, but also a further supply to increase the bulk of their frame, it is evident, that their food will be 254 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. more completely exhausted of all its principles, and that also less will he returned as dung. All experi- ence confirms this reasoning, and decides that the manure of young animals is ever the weakest and poorest. 3d. The sex. This is one of the most powerful of the causes which affect the strength of clung. From the remarks which have heen already made, and which I trust, reader, are now fresh in your memory, of the important part acted by nitrogen in dung, it must be plain why sex should exercise such influence. 1st. In all food, as we have explained, that only which contains nitrogen, can form flesh and blood, or substances of similar constitution, that is, re- quiring a large proportion of nitrogen, as milk. Hence an animal with young, that is, a cow, before calving, requires not only materials for its own re- pair, but to build up and perfect its young. Hence the food will be most completely exhausted of its nitrogen, and consequently the dung become pro- portionably weaker. 2nd. The young having been formed, then milk is required for its sustenance. Milk contains a large proportion of nitrogenous or blood-forming elements, and so the cause which originally made the dung weak, continues to operate during all the time the animal is in milk. Sex, then it is evident, affects materially the quality of the dung. 4th. The condition. If the animal is in good condition, and full grown, it requires only food enough to supply materials to renew its waste. Hence, the food, supposing that always in suf- ficient quantity, is less exhausted of its elements, than when the animal is in poor condition. In the last case, not only waste, but new materials must be supplied. If the animal is improving in flesh (and here, reader, I would have you bear in mind, the destinction between flesh and fat), if the animal is improving in flesh, then the manure is always less strong, than when he is gaining fat. There is no manure so strong as that of fattening animals. An animal stall fed, kept in proper warmth, requires but. little of his breathing food, to keep up his heat. All the starch, gum, sugar, &c, go to form fat. Having little use for his muscles or flesh, that suf- fers little waste, and the nitrogen which should go to form flesh, is voided in dung. If it is a she, no milk is given during this period, for a cow, in milk, fats not. The dung then of fattening animals, contains more of all the elements of food for plants, than at any other period, and is peculiarly rich in nitrogen. I trust, reader, it is not so long since you have met the word ammonia, that you have forgotten its source and origin are due to this nitrogen. Now the source of this nitrogen is in the food, and as, during fattening, grain is supplied for its starch, &c, to make fat, and very little waste of the body taking place, the extra nitrogen of the blood-forming ma- terials of grain, is nearly all voided in dung. 5th. The mode of employment. Your working beasts, suffer great wear and tear of flesh and blood, bone and muscle, thews and sinews. Hence their daily food supplies only this daily waste; the food is very thoroughly exhausted, and of course the dung is weak. It derives its chief value from the excretions of those parts of the body which are voided as waste materials, among the excrements. There is a distinction to be noted here ; excretions are the worn out flesh and blood elements, excre- ments the undigested and unused food ; dung in- cludes both excretions and excrements. Now the chief value of the dung of working cattle depends upon the excretions. 6th. The nature of the beast. If his coat is wool, he requires more sulphur and phosphorus, the natural yolk or sweat of his wool, more lime and ammonia, than does the hairy coated animal. Hence sheep produce manure less rich in many of the elements of plants, than cattle ; but as at the same time it contains a large proportion of nitrogen, and is very finely chewed, it runs quicker into fer- mentation. It is a hotter manure, quick to eat, quick to work, and is soon done. 7th. The kind of food. We have already spoken of this as affecting the quantity of dung. Its effects are no less marked on its quality. Now all that requires to be said on this subject, is to re- mind you, reader, of the two divisions of food, the fat formers, and the flesh and blood formers. It must be evident, that the more of this last the food contains, that is, the more nitrogenous is the food, the richer the dung. Hence, grains of all sorts, peas, beans, &c, will always give a richer dung than fruits, as apples, &c. The more nitrogenous the hay the richer the dung. Meadow catstail and rye grass are nearly six times stronger in ammonia than oat grass. Red clover is twice as rich in ni- trogen as herds grass ; wheat, barley, and rye straw, green carrots and potatoes, contain only about one third to one fifth the ammonia of herds grass, and turnips only about one sixth. The quantity of am- monia contained in these different grasses and straws, shows at once, the effect they must have in the compost heap. The kind of litter must have no small effect upon the value of manure. And while we are upon this subject, it may not be out of place to mention, that the kind of a green crop turned in, materially affects the value of the process. While the straws of the grain bearing-plants afford for every ton of green crop turned in, about three quarters of a pound of ammonia, green corn stalks and herds grass, about five pounds of ammonia per ton ; red clover affords about seventeen pounds of ammonia per ton. 'Hie very great value of clover in enriching land is thus made evident. But to return to the quality of the dung, as affected by the food, it has been proved, that animals fattening on oil cake, give manure in value double that of common stock. Here abundance of nitrogen is supplied where very little is required, and con- sequently much is voided in dung. The point to which we have arrived is a breathing place ; the re- marks which have been offered upon the action of salts, have prepared the way for our entering upon the next Section; — the second class of manures. SECTION EIGHTH. Manures consisting of Salts. In using the term salts here, to designate a class of manures, I wish to distinguish between these and mineral manures, as they are usually termed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 255 These manures are similar in kind to the salts whose action in cow dung we have already con- sidered. They are truly mineral salts, derived from the mineral kingdom, entering into and forming a part of plants, and from this source introduced into the dung of animals. Their action, whatever be their name, has been explained. But the salts composing the second class of manures now under consideration, are not of mineral origin. They are derived from the animal kingdom. The source from which they are formed is the living process of the animal body. They are animal salts. Here, then, let us divide the second class of manures into animal salts, which are truly manures, both their base and their acid acting as nourishers of plants, and into mineral salts. Here again, reader, you will find that the few facts, which we have pointed out relating to the food and nourishment of animals, will help us on our way, in tracing the source of these animal salts. It has been already said, that the food of animals is divided into two classes; that which does and that which does not contain nitrogen. All domestic animals eat these classes together. In a few words, let us trace their course after the animal has digested them. The one class goes to form fat, or to support the natural heat of the body, and passes off by the skin in sweat, or in moisture of the breath, and all its excess or un- digested part goes off in dung. The excess of nitrogenous food, all that not required for repairing the daily waste of the body, or to increase its growth, also passes off in dung, as excrement. This is a small portion, and its effects on the strength of dung have been pointed out. But the wear and tear, as we may call it, of the flesh and blood, the parts which are daily and constantly thrown out of the body, as excretions, or old ma- terials, enter the circulation, and pass out of the body in urine. This is the point to which I would call your attention. The undigested food, and the excrements not containing nitrogen, go off in dung. The food and the spent parts of the body, contain- ing nitrogen, go off in urine. This last, too, is the course of most alkaline salts taken into the body. They pass off in urine. Here, then, we come to the subject quite prepared to understand it. The urine is a collection of salts, some are of mineral, others of animal origin. But that which gives the urine its peculiar and characteristic properties, is a substance formed from the nitrogenous food, and termed urea. Now you need hardly trouble your- self to remember this new name ; all I want you to understand about it is, that when urine is exposed to air it rots, and this peculiar substance is changed to ammonia. That is the point to be remembered. In considering urine, therefore, as a manure, it will not be necessary to point out further the mode of its action, than to refer that of every animal, to its salts and power of forming ammonia. The quan- tity of the last will be in proportion to the quantity of urea. There are other salts of ammonia in urine, and also mineral salts. These affect but little the value of urine as a manure. It is the urea, essence of urine, that substance which forms ammonia in rotting urine, which alone makes this liquid more valuable than dung. Hence, reader, if this is impressed on your mind, you will perceive, that the chiefest things to be regarded in urine, are first, the circumstances which affect the quality, and quantity. Second, the best mode of promoting a change of urine to ammonia. Third. the time required for the process, and fourth, the best mode of preserving the ammonia, when formed. You will perceive, reader, that all along, I have en- deavoured to point out the principles on which ma- nures act. If you go by general principles, then for a plain practical farmer, like yourself, with only chemistry enough to understand a few of its terms, it must be quite a thankless service, to point out to you in detail, all the various things contained in urine. It will confuse you more, than the names, ay, and hard ones too, which are given to the varieties of pears and apples. All you want to know is this, does urine contain, as solid dung does, water, mould, and salts ? It does. The mould is so small a part, it may be left out of view. The salts are like those in the solid dung, mineral salts, and then we have the pe- culiar principle urea, which for all practical pur- poses may be called ammonia. We may then with this division present in a table the composition of the urine of various animals at one glance : Water. Salts. Ammonia. Cattle urine, per 100 lbs. 92.62 3.38 4. Horse " " " 94.00 5.03 .70 Sheep " " " 98. 12. 2.80 Hog " " " 92.60 1.76 5.64 Human " " " 95.75 1.88 2.36 Now cast your eye carefully over this table, the figures at once tell you the value of these different liquids. The last column gives the true value. The other salts vary much in quantity, and this af- fects the quality. The actual amount of ammonia in human urine and cattle dung is about the same ; yet in actual practice it is found the effects of urine are double those of dung. Look now for the rea- son of this ; in the first place, the principle which gives ammonia in urine runs at once by putrefac- tion into that state. It gives nothing else ; whereas in dung, the ammonia arises from a slower decay, and the principle which here affords ammonia may, and without doubt does, form other products. Hence we have a quick action with the liquid, a slower one with the solid. A second cause of the better effects of the liquid is, that it contains besides its ammonia, a far greater amount of salts, and these give a more permanent effect. The amount of salts in human, cow, and horse dung is about one pound in every hundred. While the urine of the same animals contains nearly six pounds in every hundred. A third cause of the greater fer- tilising action, is found in the peculiar character of some of these salts, which are composed of soda, potash, lime, &c, united to an acid formed from urea, in the animal body, This acid is like the acid of saltpetre ; it is a nourisher of plants, as much so as is carbonic acid. SECTION NINTH. Of the causes which make Urine better or worse , more or less, and the Modes of Preserving it. There can be no boubt, that the same causes which we have pointed out as affecting the value of dung, affect also the urine, 256 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. We have already alluded, (page 255), to the four chief circumstances to be regarded in urine. And first, of its composition. It will be affected by the age, sex, food, and difference of animal. The pro- cess of forming urine is the same in man and an- imals. Now if we reason here, as we surely may, from analogy, then the effect of age and sex upon the quantity of the essence of urine or urea, will appear from the result of one hundred and twenty analyses of urine. In 24 hours there are discharged by men, 432 grains of urea. By women, . . , . . . . . 293 " By old men, from 76 to 80 years of age, 123 " By children 8 years of age, . . . . 208 " By children 4 years of age . . . . 70 " It will be recollected, that each grain of urea is equal to a grain of carbonate of ammonia of the shops, so that a healthy man discharges daily about an ounce of this salt. If then other animals are affected by age and sex, as is the human species, then we may say that bulls and oxen give a better urine than cows, steers better than calves, and a venerable old cow gives nearly as much of the es- sence of urine as two calves. Food affects the quantity of water, and that act- ing merely to dilute the urine, renders it weaker in salts for a given amount, though perhaps not the daily amount of salts. Supposing the animal well fed, so as to keep up the wear and tear of his blood and flesh, then as the urine derives its chief value from the worn out materials of the body, the actual amount of urea daily discharged may be the same, though the amount of the urine may vary consider- ably. We may increase the amount of salts and acids by particular food, but this can never be con- tinued long enough to change materially the cha- racter of urine as a manure. Difference of animal has also a great effect on the quality of urine. The more active, the greater the wear and tear of the flesh, the better the urine in working animals. Where the animal is stall-fed, there no doubt the urine is still richer, and the urine of fattening animals, is still more valuable. Hence of all animals, com- mend me to swine, as manufacturers of ammonia. Cast your eye on the table (page 255) of the amount of urea or ammonia furnished by various animals. No one exceeds the hog. He seems specially formed by nature for this office. He eats every thing. His habits require very little of that class of food which forms flesh and blood. He is a fat- former, a magazine of lard, a real oil-butt, and de- mands, therefore, the food essential to form fat and keep up his heat. He returns of course, having little lean meat to form, (nobody would praise him for that), having little flesh to form to increase his size, he returns quickly the waste his body suffers, as urea, which becomes ammonia. But it is only the still, and quiet, and penned animal, which gives this valuable product. If we would cause him simply to produce the greatest amount of his manufactory, without taking into account his labour in shovelling over the compost heap, perhaps no better rule can be given, than the Shaker practice of feeding with lettuce leaves. Having little brains to replenish or build up, and not quick in his nerves, (for be it known to you, reader, the opium of lettuce leaves is supposed to contribute mainly to the formation of brain and nerves), the opium-eating hog will re- turn a vast amount of the nitrogen of his lettuce, in the shape of ammonia. If now you add to the facts, common to the nourishment of swine, the action of ammonia on mould, as it has been explained, you will see, that he who neglects to fill his yards with mould, and swine to convert it, overlooks one of the cheapest, most effectual, and certain modes of forming manure, which practice and theory unite in pronouncing the surest element of the farmer's suc- cess. Not only is the quality of urine affected by age, sex, food, difference of animal, but the season also exerts an influence upon this liquid. The urine of cattle often contains ammonia ready formed in summer, but never in winter. In cold weather the amount of ammonia, or rather the principle af- fording it, is less : often it is not one half in winter what it is in summer. This certainly is a misfor- tune to the farmer, who generally keeps his cattle up only in winter ; but then it is an argument also for the practice of summer soiling. Secondly, with respect to the circumstances ne- cessary to change urea to ammonia ; or, in short words, or to fully ripen urine, or to make it a fit manure. These also depend upon the season, in part. It is to be remembered, reader, that this rot- ting of urine is only fermentation. It takes place because there is a principle in urine which brings on fermentation, just as it does in new cider. Now if it is by fermentation that urine rots, it will take place, as all fermentation does, best at a moderate temperature. The cold of winter will prevent it. Hence your winter manure must be allowed time, as the heat of spring comes on, to ferment, that the urine may be changed to ammonia; and every means must be taken to prevent the heat rising be- yond, in the manure heap, or falling below a mo- derate temperate warmth. These are the circum- stances which chiefly promote the change from urea to ammonia. Thirdly, in regard to the time in which this change will take place, it will require at least one month; and six weeks are better. If urine be allowed to rot for a month, it fully doubles its quantity of ammonia, In fact, it woxdd have con- tained more than double the ammonia of fresh urine, had not a portion escaped. This brings us to our fourth point, the best mode of preventing the flying off of the ammonia when this change has taken place. Much has been said about tanks, and vats, and urine-pits, and many plans de- vised for preventing the escape of volatile ammonia. But when once the action of ammonia upon mould is understood, as we have already pointed it out, I am persuaded, reader, that these tanks, and vats, and urine carts, will appear to you not only expen- sive and cumbersome, but useless. Your first point is, to save your ammonia, your second is, never to use urine in its caustic or burning state. If you do, you will assuredly burn your crop, as the puddle formed by a cow burns the grass upon which she empties her watering-pot. Here the urine forming caustic ammonia acts as would caustic potash, or a lump ^ of stone lime, left to slake upon the grass, You THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 want to change this burning or caustic ammonia into mild ammonia, or to combine it with some substance which has not only that effect, but also keeps it from flying away. Unless you understand, then, the principles of these actions, and apply them too, your labor is all vanity, when you attempt to save your own or your cattle's urine. These principles are, in number, two. Fust, the principle which changes caustic to mild ammonia, is carbonic acid derived from air, or decomposing mould. Second, the pi-inciples which render am- monia less volatile, or wholly fixed, are certain acids formed in mould, as sour mould, or certain salts which give up their acid to the ammonia. Plaster of Paris does this, by changing its lime for ammonia. Now let us go into the reason of this a little, and see if we can understand it. Very slowly and supposing moisture present, the oil of vitriol of the plaster quits its lime and unites to the am- monia, and so changes a volatile into a fixed salt. Now this is a change which has been of late much insisted on, and the practice recommended of strewing the stable and barn-cellars, and even the privies, with plaster, to save the ammonia which escapes in these places. But it is doubtful whether the saving is as great as is usually supposed, for the ammonia arising from the urine is caustic, it flies off* as caustic ammonia, that has no effect upon plaster. To produce this mutual effect of ammonia and plaster, the caustic ammonia must previously have been made mild. However, this plan is ap- plicable only on a small scale. Copperas, alum, common salt, potashes, and wood-ashes, all act to fix the volatile ammonia, and have all been recom- mended for this purpose. But it is easily seen, that, in employing some of these substances, is to buy ammonia almost at apothecary's price. These practices will be followed, therefore, only by those who place the crop and its value upon ammonia. This is a limited and narrow view. The true and farmer-like, as well as the most scientific and natu- ral mode of preserving the ammonia of urine, is to fill your yards and barn-cellars with plenty of mould ; by which I mean truly decayed and decay- ing vegetable matter as well as loam. There is no mode more effectual, no mode more economical. Consider now for a moment how mould formed and forming, and ammonia act. Have I not said again and again, that ammonia hastens decay r that it makes mould more easily dissolved ? and cooks the food of plants ? That action having occurred during its progress, acids were formed. The am- monia unites with them, loses its burning proper- ties, and becomes fixed. The acids having been satisfied, the ammonia is actually imbibed and retained by mould. It does not drink it in like a sponge, but the mould forms a peculiar chemical compound with ammonia. This peculiar compound, while it does not render the mould an easily dissolved matter, yet holds ammonia by so feeble a force, that it easily yields to the power of growing plants. It gives up the stored ammonia at the place where, and the time when, it is most wanted. If you remember these actions of mould and ammonia, it will be as plain as day, that what we have said of the inexpediency and expense of vats, and tanks, and urine-carts, must not only be true, but is confirmed by the experience of a host of hard-working, thinking, practical men. In connection with urine, the dung of birds, for instance, domestic fowls of all kinds, and pigeons, may be here mentioned. These ani- mals discharge their solids and what we may term their liquids together. Their urea comes out com- bined with or forming part of their dung. Now reflecting a moment on the nature of their food, strongly nitrogenous, being seeds, grains, &c, all animals, bugs, grasshoppers, &c, we can under- stand how their droppings are peculiarly rich in ammonia and salts. The strongest of all manures is found in the droppings of the poultry-yard. But since these form but a small portion of the farmer's stock, and are never regarded as a princi- pal source of manure, their further consideration may be omitted. It may perhaps be here added, that as from their nature bird-droppings run quickly into fennentation, with warmth and mois- ture, so they act quickly and are quickly done. They are more allied to sheep dung than to other manures. Their mould not being great, droppings of poultry require to be mixed with decayed vege- table matter or loam. To this class belongs the manure brought from the Pacific Ocean, under the name of guano, a Spanish word for excrement. New England fanners can find cheaper sources of salts, to which the main value of guano is owing, and therefore, reader, we shall detain you no longer on this point. SECTION TENTH. Mineral Salts or Manures. Having thus considered the salts derived from the animal, let us now proceed to those derived from the mineral kingdom. Among these we shall find some whose action is similar to that of the animal salts. That is, they are true nourishers of plants. They afford, by the action of the growing plant, the same elements as the animal salts. Of this nature is saltpetre. Now, reader, I want you to understand by saltpetre, not only that well-known substance, but also that which has lately been much used in farming, South American saltpetre. This differs from common saltpetre by changing its potash for soda. One step more ; I want you to understand by saltpetre, not one salt, but, in farm- ing, a class of salts ; that is, a number, having the same acid, which may be combined with several different bases which all act one way. Saltpetre being a salt, of course must be composed of an acid and a base. The acid is always aqua-fortis or nitric-acid. The base may be potash, or soda, or lime, or ammonia. These all may be called salt- petre. In forming saltpetre, it is generally that variety which contains lime and aqua-fortis which is procured. So far as we understand the action of salts, and this has been fully explained, the action of the varieties of saltpetre is the same ; and were it not for the peculiar nature of the aqua-fortis or acid of saltpetre, the explanation of the action of this salt might be referred to the general laws above set forth. But the acid of saltpetre is composed of volatile ingredients. It is nothing more or less than a compound of the common air we breathe. Surprising as it may seem, reader, yet it is not the s 2 258 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. less true, the common air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. "What a hland and harmless, yea, what a healthful blessing is air, not only to us but to plants ! It is a mere mixture, not a chemical compound, a mere mixture. In every hundred parts, eighty of nitrogen, twenty of oxygen. Yet if you compel, as natural operations are continually compelling the air to unite chemically, so that four- teen parts of nitrogen shall unite to forty parts of oxygen, you will form aqua-fortis. Now I do not mean to trouble your head further with the chem- istry of saltpetre than merely to say, that having thus shown you the composition and origin of the acid of all kinds of saltpetre, you mil readily see that a substance which affords such an abundance of nitrogen cannot but be beneficial to plants. This nitrogen may and probably does form some portion of ammonia in the soil. It may enter as nitrogen into the plants dissolved in water as a very weak aqua-fortis. We have said so much upon the action of am- monia and nitrogen that you will see how impor- tant a part nitre is likely to play in manure. Not only does the nitrogen act here, but the oxygen, the other component of the acid, also acts. It acts upon the mould as air itself would. Besides, the mould of soil and manure imbibes and condenses this oxygen in its pores, and consequently heats a little ; so that saltpetre, whether added as such to soil, or formed in manure, as it is always, helps to warm a little the soil like fermenting manure. So far as these effects are desirable they may be ex- pected from the use of saltpetre. But this, reader, if you buy your saltpetre, is procuring a small effect at a great price. The action of the alkali of salt- petre is not different from alkali in other shapes, and therefore if you have money to lay out for salts, let me advise you, reader, to spend it rather for ashes than for saltpetre. SECTION ELEVENTH. Of Artificial Nitre Beds. But there is a fashion in manures as well as in other things, and saltpetre is now so fashionable that you may be inclined to use it. Be it so. I will show you, reader, how to make it for your- self, and at the same time form a large pile of capital mould. But as you have began to inquire a little into the reason of things, let us go a little into the reasons why the earth under all barns where cattle are kept, why the plaster of old houses and cellar walls, always afford saltpetre. You well know that this is the case, and why ? We have al- ready told you that the acid of saltpetre, that is, the aquafortis, is formed of the air we breathe. Now alkalies and porous bodies compel the constituents of air, under certain circumstances, to unite and form aqua-fortis, and this immediately unites to the alkali and forms saltpetre. The best alkali to com- pel this union is ammonia. Hence, where plenty of animal matter is fermenting or rotting, or where plenty of urine is, there, porous bodies being pre- sent, saltpetre will be formed. Now this is enough for you to understand the principle upon which I propose to you to form an artificial nitre-bed for your own use. It has been found that the manure of twenty-five cows, asses, and mules, in layers of about four inches thick, with layers of the same thickness of chalky soil, first one and then the other, and now and then damped with the urine of the stable, produces from 1,000 to 1,200 lbs. of saltpetre in four years. The heap is formed under cover, and occasionally shovelled over. At the end of two years it is a mass of rich mould. It is left two years longer with an occasional turning over, but it is not wet with urine for the last few months. The dung the farmer has always ; he wants the porous chalky body. This may be furnished by spent ashes mixed up with its bulk of loam. Hence the fol- lowing rule may be given : — One cord of clear cow- dung, one cord of spent ashes, one cord of loam, or swamp muck. Mix the ashes and the swamp muck well, and having hard-rammed the barn- cellar floor, or that under a shed, lay a bed upon it four inches thick of these mixed materials, then a layer of dung, three or four inches thick, and so on, till the pile is two or three feet high, topping off with loam ; wet it occasionally with urine, keeping it always about as moist as garden mould ; shovel over once a fortnight for two years. The pile now contains about fifty pounds of several varieties of saltpetre, and mixed throughout with nearly three cords of excellent manure ; it may, therefore, be now used according to the farmer's judgment. By thoughtful management he may, after the first two years, annually collect as many fifty pounds as he employs cords of cow dung. But, however prepared, nitre affords by its elements nourishment to plants; all its parts act ; its alkali acts, and its acid acts. SECTION TWELFTH. Ashes. It is easy to see that salts, whatever be their name or nature, which are likely to be of any ser- vice to the farmer, are those only which either enter into and form part of the plants, or which, by the action of their acid or base, act on the earthy parts of soil, or upon the mould. Salts either poison or nourish plants. The first, like the medicines we take, are good in small doses; the second can hardly injure, even by their excess. If we recur to the principle with which we set out early in this essay, that the ashes of plants contain all their salts, then rightly to know what salts are likely to pro- duce good effects as manure, we should first study the composition of ashes. We have in ashes a great variety of substances — they come from the soil; they form a part of plants. The dead plant returns them again to their mother earth, or we, losing the volatile parts of a plant, its mould and am- monia, by burning, collect its salt as ashes. Let us see what these salts are made of. In the first place, you know all salts are composed of an acid and a base. The bases are The acids are Potash and soda, Carbonic, or carbon united to oxygen. Lime, Phosphoric or phosphorus, united to oxygen. Magnesia, Sulphuric, or sulphur, united to oxygen. Clay, Muriatic, essentially com- posed of chlorine. Iron, Manganese, Silex, or the earth of flints. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 259 Now, if we throw out the carbonic acid, which has been formed in burning, we have left in ashes, three acids, which are united with the bases, and may form the following salts in plants, namely : — Glauber's salt, Epsom salt, common table-salt, bone-dust, a salt of lime, and what we may term a bone-dust salt of iron, or phosphate of iron, plaster of Paris, or gypsum, copperas, alum, and some other salts, which need not be enumerated. Our list comprises the principal and those most likely to be used in farming. AVell, now the lesson to be drawn from this composition of ashes is this, that there is scarcely any salt occurring in commerce which may not be used in agriculture, instead of those found in ashes. In fact, almost all salts which occur in a large way, as refuse materials from manufactures or other sources, have been used, and all with greater or less success, as manures ; and if you cast your eye over the acids and bases of common ashes, this seems quite reasonable. It is not expected that a plain farmer, possessing little or no chemical knowledge, should be able to tell be- forehand what the effect of a salt would be applied to his land ; but if he understands what the com- position of ashes is, he may be sure that in any quantity in which the salt is likely to occur it can- not be injurious, provided it is mixed up with plenty of mould, and a little ashes, or alkali, which will kill or neutralize any excess of the poisonous acid. In ashes, we have one part which may be leached out, and a part which remains after leaching, called spent ashes. Let us see, then, in leaching what parts we take away. First, we take away all the acids except the phosphoric ; secondly, we take away nearly all the potash and soda — what is left ? The phosphoric acid, and all the bases. It is evi- dent, therefore, that the strength of ashes can never be wholly leached out, if that depends upon the salts. In spent ashes, we have nearly all the bone- dust left ; and, besides this, a portion of what is usually considered the real strength — that is, the potash. This is chemically united to certain of the other constituents of ashes. You cannot leach it out, leach you never so long. Upset your leach- tubs, shovel over your spent ashes, mix it up with fermenting manure, where a plenty of fixed air is given off. Here is the secret of the value of spent ashes, so far as the potash or ley is concerned. This exposure to air, to carbonic acid, lets loose the potash which was chemically combined with the other matters. Water would never have done this. Mark now a practical lesson taught here by che- mistry, and confirmed by experience. Leached ashes must never be used on wet soil, if we want its alkali to act. The close wet soil, perhaps even half covered at times with water, excludes the air. The carbonic acid of air, that which alone extracts the alkali from spent ashes, cannot here act. There is this other lesson to be learned from these facts, that it is chiefly the alkaline action which is wanted from spent ashes. Hence no one who thus under- stands the source, and the true value of ashes, will allow the alkaline portion to be first leached out, unless he can find a more economical use for it than its application as a fertilizer. Perhaps no fact speaks louder that the great action of spent ashes is that of its potash than this, that where we pre- vent that from being extracted, the spent ashes are of little value. If, then, spent ashes derive their great value from the potash, much more will un- leached ashes derive their value from their potash. Now, reader, the point to which I have led you in these remarks is this, that the more alkaline any salt is, the better is it for manure. Hence, as a general rule about the use of salts, it may be laid down that the alkaline salts, that is, potash, pearl- ash, common ashes, barilla ashes, white, or soda ash, are the best. And as these, in all their various shapes, are the cheapest and most common articles, so you need not run after a long list of other salts. Next in value to the real alkalies are spent ashes, used in a light, porous, open, sandy soil, if you would derive the greatest benefit from them. Next to these comes peat ashes. You well know these are of no value to the soap maker; but not so to you — they show only traces of alkaline power; But treat them as you did spent ashes. Their power, independent of their bone-dust, which is by no means small, and their plaster, which is still greater, and their lime, which is perhaps the great- est, lies in the alkali, which is locked up, as it is in spent ashes. Treat them, therefore, as you did spent ashes, and then, peat ashes will and do afford alkali. So too coal ashes, even your hard anthra- cite ashes, yield all the substances which spent ashes do. It is easily seen, therefore, when, how, and where, spent ashes, peat ashes, coal ashes, are most likely to do good. Perhaps we may not have a better place to state the fact, that a cord of soap- boiler's spent ashes contains about fifty pounds of potash. When we add to this, one hundred and seventeen pounds of bone-dust, and about a ton and a half of chalk, or carbonate of lime, which acts chiefly on the soil, and so comes not now under consideration. It is seen that there is no cheaper source of alkali and salts, to one within reasonable carting distance of a soap-boiler, than spent ashes. They are marl, bone-dust, plaster, and alkali combined. SECTION THIRTEENTH. Manures composed chiefly of Mould. These are of vegetable or animal origin. And first, of animal mould. Here we shall find, that we come perhaps better prepared to understand this part of our subject, than either of the preceding classes. We have explained the principles which enable us to understand, why it is that animal and vegetable substances produce, by decay, identical matters. The only difference consists in the quantity of these matters. Let me here, reader, call to your remembrance, the facts we stated respecting the two classes of food, and the two classes of substances formed from that food by animals. A certain por- tion of that food contains none of that principle, which forms ammonia. This portion of food makes fat. Another portion of food contains the substance which forms ammonia. This part of the food forms flesh and blood, and the other parts of the bod}-, skin, hair, feathers, bristles, wool, horns, hoofs, nails and claws, thews and sinews. Now, when a body dies and decays, the mould which it forms will be rich manure, or poor manure, just in pro- portion as it contains more or less of the sub- 260 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. stances, formed out of that portion of food which furnishes flesh and Mood. The fat, therefore, in animal mould, plays a very inferior part to that acted by the flesh and hlood. In a word, as I wish to dismiss the fatty matters from our present con- sideration, I may do this, reader, by stating to you, all that you need know — that in decay, fat forms chiefly carbonic acid. If, therefore, you call to mind what we have said about the action of that, you will see how fat acts in manure. But the flesh and blood, and the substances formed from it, give precisely the same things as vegetables do when they decay, that is, water, mould, and salts. The great difference between the decay of animal and vegeta- ble matters, is this, that as the animal bodies are far richer in the substance, which forms ammonia, so they afford a richer source of manure. The animal body contains that element, in quantity enough, not only to fill the pores of its own mould, but also enough to impregnate a large quantity of mould from other sources. The vegeta- ble body, on the contrary, contains scarcely enough ammonia to fill its own mould. Vegetables differ in the quantities of the elements of food which can furnish flesh and blood, and hence those vegetables are best for manure which furnish most ammonia. We have already remarked on the difference, in this respect, between straws, grasses, and clover. But without going further into this comparison, which can have no other practical bearing than to show you the immense difference in value, in animal and vegetable bodies, in forming manure ; we may here resolve the subject into one great principle. The substance which forms flesh and blood, whether derived from plants or animals, alone forms ammonia during their decay ; and the mould thence arising, is rich or poor manure, just in proportion as it contains the substance fit to form flesh and blood. Starting from this principle, we find that animal substances, as flesh, fish, fowl, the body generally, including its various forms of covering, hair, wool, feathers, nails, hoofs, horns, claws, &c, afford, in the process of decay, about ten times more ammonia than the straws and grasses usually entering into the compost heap. The animal bodies give more volatile alkala than their mould can contain. It is given off in such quantity that decay is rapidly hastened. All the signs of putrefaction, therefore, rapidly take place. The quantity of mould being small, nothing holds the volatile parts, they escape and are lost. Now common sense and practical foresight have Btepped in here, from time immemorial, and taught mankind the necessity and the utility of preventing the waste of the volatile and most valuable parts of the decayed animal substances, by covering them in with earth, soil, &c. These imbibe the escaping virtue or strength, and become rich and fertilizing. It remains to state, that every pound of animal carcass can im- pregnate ten pounds of vegetable mould ; or, taking our arable soils as they usually occur, one pound of flesh, fish, blood, wool, horn, &c, can fertilize three hundred pounds of common loam. You will see, therefore, reader, how little you have now to learn of the necessity of saving everything in the shape of animal matters, and converting them to manure, by turning them into your compost heap. It is to be remarked, that the dry forms of animal substances undergo the process of decay when left to their own action very slowly. Wool, hair, flocks,horn-shavings,&c.,or even leather chips and curriers' shavings, bear long exposure, and seem quite indestructible. They yet are rich in all the true virtue of manure. They want something to bring this out, to set them a working, to bring on fermentation. Well, on this head we may lay down two rides 5 the first is, that if buried among a heap of fermenting matter, that communicates a similar change to these dry, animal substances. This is slow work. The second ride is, that if these dry matters are buried in the soil among the roots of growing plants, then these act more powerfully than fermentation, and the dry substances are con- verted to manure with a speed which may be called quick, compared to the fermenting process. The practical lesson to be drawn from these differences of action between the fleshy and horny parts of animals is, that when you want a quick and short action of manure, to use the fleshy and fluid parts. Where you want a more slow and permanent ac- tion, to commence and long last after the first is over, to use the dryer and harder parts. If now we turn to the other division of mould, that from vegetables, we find it lacking in the very thing which was superabundant in the animal mould. That thing is volative alkali. The great mass of vegetable mould is always impregnated, but always slightly charged with volatile alkali. There is not enough of the flesh and blood forming element in vegetables to hasten the decay of vegetable matter, or to convert them after decay into rich manure. Now here again not science, but practical common sense steps in, and did step in long ago, and as she taught mankind the necessity of adding soil or mould to the decaying animal matter, so here, to enrich vegetable mould, she teaches that animal matter, or that which is its representative, alka- line salts, must be added to vegetable mould, to make it active. It is not the mould alone which plants want. We have seen all along how nature provide! a certain amount of salts in her virgin mould ; we by cropping exhaust these faster than the mould. We have tons of that, yet our fields are barren. They want, as has been explained, salts. And now, reader, having been brought by this course of reasoning to what the mould wants, consider what tons and tons of useless mould you have in your swamp muck and peat bogs, your hassocks, and your turfy meadows. All these, foot upon foot in depth as they lie, are truly vege- table mould in a greater or less degree of decay. If you dig this up, and expose it to the air, that itself sets it to work ; decay is hastened, volatile matters escape, yea, ammonia, the master-spirit among manures, is secretly forming and at work, warming and sweetening the cold and sour muck. Without further preparation, practice confirms what theory preaches, that this process alone furnishes from these beds of vegetable mould, a very good manure. It is already highly charged with all the salts which a plant wants. But experience, doubt- less led by the light of the good results of mixing mould with animal matter to preserve its strength. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 261 has also reversed the practice, and taught the uti- lity of adding to vegetable mould quickening salts ; that is, either the volatile alkali, by composting the mould with stable manure, or alkali in the shape of ashes, or potash, or soda ash, or lime, or a mix- ture of these. In fact, whatever substance can by putrefaction give off volatile alkali will, and must, and does convert vegetable mould, of itself dead and inactive, into a quick and fertilizing manure. If, then, reader, you pause here a moment upon this fact, and then cast your view backward over the principles we have endeavoured to impress on your memory, you will perceive that there is not among all the classes and kinds of manure which we have shown you, one which may not be added, or, as is the phrase, composted with peat, meadow- mud, swamp-muck, pond-mud, or by whatever other name these great store-houses of vegetable matter are called. These are the true sources of abundant manure, to all whose stock of cattle, &c, is too small to give manure enough for the farmer's use. It is the farmer's business to make a choice, if he has any but Hobson's, of what substance or mixture of substances he will use. We have shown him how small a portion of animal matter, one to ten, of pure mould, will impregnate that substance. Taking then a cord of this swamp-muck, we shall find it contains, in round numbers, about one thou- sand pounds of real dry vegetable mould. So that the carcass of an animal weighing one hundred pounds, evenly and well mixed up with a cord of fresh-dug muck, will make a cord of manure, con- taining all the elements, and their amount too, of a cord of dung. But it is not from the carcasses of animals that the farmer expects to derive the quickening salts for his muck. This can be the source of that power only to the butchers (what fat lands they all have !), or to the dwellers near the sea, where fish is plentiful. A barrel of alewives, it is said, fertilizes a waggon-load of loam. The carcass of a horse converts and fer- tilizes five or six cords of swamp-muck. A cord of clear stable dung changes two cords of this same muck into a manure as rich and durable as stable- manure itself. These are all the results, reader, of ac- tual practice. The explanation of the principle has only come in since the practice, and showed the how and the why of this action. But the merit of explaining this action, would be. is nothing, if it had not conducted one step further. The explanation of the principle of the action of animal matters, animal manures of all kinds, whether solid or liquid, or muck or peat, has led chemistry to propose, where these cheap and common forms of quickening power are not to be had, to mix ashes or potash, or soda ash with swamp-muck. Now, reader, this is not an idle, visionary, book-farming scheme. It is, per- haps, one of the few successful, direct applications of chemistry to farming, which speaks out in defence of such book-farming, in tones and terms which bespeak your favourable consideration for the at- tempt which science is making to lend you, reader, a helping hand. This proposal, the offspring of science, has been carried out successfully by prac- tical men in our country, and has made its way abroad, Though this is not the place to give you the details of their results, you may rely upon the fact that alkali aud swamp-muck do form a ma- nure, cord for cord, in all soils, equal to stable dung. Well, now, after your patience in going- over these pages, I hope you will find your reward in this statement. To be sure, it might have been said at once, and so have done with it, but I hoped, reader, and I am sure I have not been disap- pointed, that you liked to dive a little into the reason of things, and felt that you had farmed too long by the ride of thumb, to be satisfied that it wa6 the road either to improvement or profit. And so among your first attempts at improving your worn- out lands, always supposing you have not a barn- cellar, hogs, and swamp-muck, so aptly called by one of your own self-made practical men, the " farmer's locomotive," I presume you may like to know the proportions in which you may mix swamp-muck and alkali. You can hardly go wrong here by using too much ; the great danger is, you will use to little alkali. But calculating on the proportion of mould in fresh-dug swamp-muck or peat, it may stated as a rule, grounded on the quantity of quickening power in a cord of stable manure, that every cord of swamp-muck requires eight bushels of common ashes, or thirty pounds of common potash, or twenty pounds of white or soda ash, to convert it into manure equal, cord for cord, to that from your stable. Dig up your peat in the fall, let it lay over winter to fall to powder, calculate your quantity when fresh dug, and allow nothing for shrinking in the spring ; when your alkali is to be well mixed in with the mould, and after shovelling over for a few weeks, use it as you would stable manure. These quantities of ashes and alkali are the lowest which may be advised. Three or four times this amount may be used with advantage, but belli the quantity of alkali and the number of loads per acre must, and will be determined by each for himself, It is a question of ways and means rather than of practice. But supposing the smallest quantity of ashes or of alkali to be used which we have advised, then at least five cords of the compost should be used per acre. This may be applied to any soil, light or heavy. But there is another form of this same swamp-muck and alkali, which should be used only on light, loamy, sandy soils to produce its greatest benefit, though even on heavy soils, if not very wet, it may be used with great advantage. This is a compost of one cord of spent ashes to three cords of swamp-muck. This is decidedly the best mixture which has yet been tried ; we have in this all that mixture of various salts and mould which plants want, and both by the action of the mould and by that of the air, the alkali of the spent ashes, which no leaching would extract, is soon let loose, and produces all the effects of so much clear potash or soda. I have thus, reader, given you a few of the ways by which you may convert your peat bogs and swamps into manure when you have neither cattle nor hogs. I have not thought it worth while to go into this subject further, and give you directions for lime and salt, or other matters which might be used. I have given you the most common and those well known and at hand, All you want 262 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. then to apply these principles of forming composts is, to give them that little attention which will enable you to understand them ; and the rest must be left to your practical common sense, without some share of which, farming, like everything else, would be vanity and vexation of spirit. I would here, reader, take my leave of you, and in the hope that we may again meet to have another talk. There are a great many other points relating to manure which can be understood only after we have made ourselves somewhat acquainted with the chemistry of the soil. Then, having explained that before the full action of manure can be understood, we must proceed a step further, and consider what changes take place in growing crops, and the effects of these growing crops upon soil and manure ; the quantity and kind of salts they extract, and how soil is exhausted. This would lead to the considera- tion of the quantity and kind of manure to be ap- plied to different soils, and the value of different manures. But there is one other very important thing belonging to our subject. Crops exhaust land, but fatten animals. Now this last properly belongs to that part of our subject relating to the changes occurring in vegetables, and their power of exhausting the soil. It will be seen, therefore, that the whole covers the ground called " agricultural chemistry." This essay is only its first part. If it meets your acceptance, I trust it may encourage its author to draw up its second part on soils, and its third part on the effect of crops on soil, and their value as food for animals. ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON VEGETATION WITHIN THE LIMITS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. BY JAMES ANDERSON, ESQ., LATE OF GORTHLECK, AUTHOR OF VARIOUS PRIZE ESSAYS, &C. &C. It is necessary to preface our subject with a few introductory remarks regarding the properties and relations of the atmosphere which surrounds us, to enable an uninstructed reader to form anything like a correct estimate of the general action and modes of operation of climatic influences, in order to his more perfect comprehension of the influence of climate on cultivation within our own island. But we shall endeavour to be as brief and practical as is at all consistent with ordinary perspicuity, and after a very few words of necessary initiatory expla- nation, we shall be careful to limit our remarks to what is strictly applicable to practical agriculture. The air which we breathe, then, with the clouds and vapours floating in it, surrounds the earth on all sides to an unknown height, and together form a moveable envelope or covering denominated the atmosphere. The air is a fluid body, elastic, com- pressible, and ponderable, exerting the force of weight and pressure on every body by which it comes in contact. The mean pressure on a square inch, at the level of the sea, is 14 £ lbs., decreasing as the place is above its level, and increasing if below it. The air has also a variable capacity for" heat, becoming hotter and colder by rarefaction. On ascending the atmosphere the density dimin- ishes, as the lower parts are more condensed by sustaining the greater weight or pressure of the air above them. The heat of the air is mainly derived either immediately from the sun, by the interception of the solar rays, or indirectly from contact with the earth's surface, which is heated more or less as it is turned towards the sun. The greater the tem- perature of the air, the greater the quantity of aqueous vapour that can exist in a given space — the more capacity, in a word, has the air for moisture. The artificial cultivation of vegetables, as well as the natural distribution of plants, appears to be principally regulated by the temperature of the at- mosphere ; and each plant has generally a particu- lar climate which it prefers, and beyond certain limits it cannot exist. Elevation and moisture are conditions which may likewise be considered as powerfully affecting their artificial cultivation and natural distribution. But temperature has the most obvious effect on vegetation. In regard to climate and vegetable productions, our globe has been aptly compared, in its two hemispheres, to two im- mense mountains placed base to base, the cir- cumference of which, at foot, is constituted by the equator, and the two poles represent the summits, crowned with perpetual glaciers ; and thus the two extremes of climate are represented by the country within the tropics, and that which approaches the poles; and in the intermediate zones the climate becomes progressively colder as it approaches the poles. The same gradation is observable on ascend- ing a tropical mountain ; and as the temperature falls in the ascent, so does the exuberant luxuriance of the vegetation decrease, until a soil and climate be found in a higher summit, similar, in respect to a general character, to those in the vicinity of the poles. This, in an inferior degree, though in pretty uniform gradation, holds true of mountains and elevated grounds in our own islands. We may state that the natural situation of each cultivated agricul- tural crop, at a determined elevation above the level of the sea, is so much greater in proportion as the country is nearer the equator, and less in more temperate regions ; or the further we recede from the equator, the greater influence has the exposure on temperature. But in temperate climates those plants which are but little affected by temperature, and which grow in all its latitudes, are found to thrive often indifferently at various elevations. But where those plants are found that avoid, naturally, too high or two low a degree of tempe- rature, and yet grow at different latitudes, we always observe it is where the effect of elevation may compensate that of latitude. Thus, the potato, which succeeds so well in our plains, is cultivated at 10,000 feet above the level of the sea in Peru. There can be no question that heat is the most obvious and powerful agent in effecting the exis- tence and growth of plants. Vegetation is arrested when the temperature is below the freezing point, for water becoming solid cannot enter into the vegetable tissue; and it is now a universally received opinion that water is the great menstruum which holds the food of all vegetables in such a fit state of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 263 solution as to render it capable of being absorbed by the root pores or spongioles. At other times, from excessive drought, the soil may be so parched, or dried up, as to render it incapable of parting with its nutritive properties. Plants with a large and spongy cellular tissue, those with broadly expanded leaves, with many cor- tical pores, those with few or no hairs on the sur- face, those of very rapid growth, and which deposit little oil or resin, and those whose texture is not easily injured by humidity, and such as possess numerous roots, require to absorb much moisture, and can only live in situations where they find it in large proportion. But plants with a firm and compact cellular tissue — those with small rigid leaves, few pores, and abundantly clothed with hairs, of slow growth, and depositing much oil or resin, whose cellular tissue is easily corrupted or decayed by excessive moisture, and the root deve- lopment scanty, generally succeed best in dry situa- tions. With regard to temperature, not only ought the medium temperature of a country to be considered, but the temperature at different seasons, and parti- cularly of winter. An attack of frost is always most prejudicial in a moist country in a humid season, and when a plant is situated in a bed saturated with moisture. We state, generally, in determining the tempera- ture of a country, that 400 feet of elevation are held to be equal to a degree of latitude, and a degree of latitude to a degree of Fahrenheit. Nevertheless, Humboldt's opinion is, that in the temperate zone, an ascent of 110 yards diminishes the temperature equal to a degree of latitude. In Great Britain, however, it has been calculated that an additional elevation of 60 yards is equal to a degree of latitude. It must be observed, however, of mountains dis- tant from the equator, that the warmest side is towards the south, though this is often counter- balanced by the comparative inferiority of soil, as soils which face the south are more liable to have their substance carried away, from the heavy rains beating upon them from the south and south-west, and from the variations from frost to snow in the spring months, which are greater with a southern than a northern aspect. Hence, while the soils fronting the north may be firm'and fast bound, those fronting the south may be loosened by the influence of the sun, and washed away by occasional showers in the intervals of thaws. We shall now approach our subject in the follow- ing order, and state as succinctly as possible — I. Our own observations of the influence of climate on the various cultivated agricultural crops. II. The influence of climate in determining the system and rotation of cropping in various localities. III. Its influence on the cultivation of wood-land and the various forest trees, and IV. We shall briefly conclude with a few interest- ing tables, accompanied with explanatory statements and general remarks. I. We shall state in this division of our subject our own observations on the influence of climate on the various cultivated agricultural crops, and we shall begin with wheat as the most important and valuable. 1. Wheat. — The most considerable elevation to which the cultivation of wheat extends in the north of England does not exceed 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. In Scotland, between latitude 57° and 58°, wheat cannot be expected to thrive at a greater elevation than 400 feet. Many individuals from the south had attempted its cultivation on an extensive scale at upwards of 600 feet; but their suc- cess has not been equal to their expectations, nor even so great as to justify the continuance of the practice on the same scale — not to talk of an exten- sion— for the crops ripened only in favourable sea- sons, and then, no doubt, returned pretty satisfac- torily. However, along the coast margin wheat does succeed tolerably in some favourabe spots at a somewhat higher level. The cultivation of wheat in Scotland is almost wholly confined to the eastern side of the country, at least in latitude 56°, the west being the district of pasture ; and the climate of the west of Ireland is also moist, though mild ; and this may be also stated of England. Perhaps generally in our Islands we may say that there are few places where wheat will succeed well at at a greater eleva- tion than 600 feet, and 500 feet may be more safely stated as the extreme medium level at which this crop can be cultivated with a probable chance of profit, and even then harvest will be a month later than at the foot of the eminences, and the grain lighter. The spring and summer varieties have been long cultivated in some parts of England, and they may be very suitable for the more southern, although they are not so well adapted for the northern climates. Of winter wheat, the red varie- ties are the most hardy, and suited to late and less favourable climates though yielding inferior flour ; and the woolly chaffed white yield the best, but are delicate, and liable to mildew and disease, and only suited to the most favourable climates of our is- lands. A wheat crop will endure a great deal of cold, if sown in dry and well drained soil, particu- larly with a covering of snow, and in such a situa- tion, with a temperature of 32°, will vegetate and establish its roots freely in the soil. The crop is often injured, however, severely by our dry wither- ing frosty winds in February, March, and April, and hoar frost, when in ear ; and sultry winds and fogs produce mildew and blight. In low situations, such as river banks and valleys, mildew is very fre- quent. Wheat should have a dry, warm, moder- ately moist season for blossoming and ripening; and cold or heavy rains at this season are very prejudi- cial, and produce an inferior grain deficient in glu- ten. Sir Humphrey Davy found Sicilian wheat much superior in this respect to our best growths, and the growths of the Mediterranean coasts and isles will ever command a proportionally higher price in our market. The principal grain counties in England, and where the largest holdings are to be found, are the following: Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Hertford, Surrey, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Bedford, Berks, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. It speaks volumes for the climate in those localities. 2. Barley. — This crop is often a hazardous one in the climate of our islands, as it is very easily injured by heavy rains or superabundant moisture, either during the period of growth, blooming, ripen- ing, or harvesting, which, at either of these periods, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. must everreduce the value of the crop very seriously. A crop of barley has been frequently reaped with- out a shower from seed time ; though gentle show- ers from seed time till it shoots into ear are desir- able. A good harvest time is of immense import- ance, for this easily injured crop in particular. In selecting a sort for cultivation, due regard must be had at all times to climate ; for there is a hardy variety of winter barley which is very suitable to some climates, though the earliest and the best is the spring barley. Now, from what we have said, it will be evident that barley delights in a dry cli- mate, and that an excess of moisture is at any period highly prejudicial. The following are the principal English barley counties — Norfolk, Suffolk, Cam- bridge, Bedford, Lincoln, Northampton, Berks, and the upper parts of Hereford, Warwick, and Salop. The climate of the east coasts of Scotland and Ireland are, of course, best adapted for this grain, being less humid than the west. There is a coarse variety cultivated in the higher districts and less favourable climate of Scotland and Ireland, called " Bigg," or " Barley Bigg," which produces a smaller grain, and, of course, less valuable ; and this variety was till lately, and sometimes even yet. is fed down with sheep in spring, and left for a crop, when it usually proves immensely productive, both in quantity of straw and grain. This grain is found at the intermediate heights between wheat and 3. Oats. — This is an invaluable grain in north- ern climates, too cold or moist for either wheat or barley, and seems in such situations intended by Nature to supply their place as bread corn. In warm climates it degenerates, and becomes chaffy and light of weight ; its open panicle gets dried up and contracted, being ill adapted to protect the grain, and resist the influence of a hot sun, or to convey sufficient nutriment to the ears. Even in the south of England this crop degenerates. In Lancashire, Cornwall, and some parts of Ireland, and on the western coast of Scotland, where the annual depth of rain equals from 40 to GO inches, this crop thrives admirably, and in such situations is less impover- ishing to the soil than in more favoured local- ities. The oat then requires a comparatively cool and moist climate to come to perfection ; and in a very dry season, even in its more favourite local- ities, it becomes thick-husked, long-awned, and un- productive. In England oats are grown at a height of nearly 200 feet, though in backward seasons the sheaves will be found among the snow, in Oc- tober and November ; in Scotland about the 57th degree of latitude; and in similar climates in Ire- land, oats will not ripen in an average of seasons in an inland situation, at a greater elevation than 900 or 1,000 feet; and this, we have had particular occasion to remark, was entirely owing to climate, as the soil was sufficiently good where they were tried in some parts at a higher level. 4. Turnips. — The turnip will produce small tubers at the same height at which we have placed the oat. A cool and temperate, but not rapid, cli- mate, is most suitable to the turnip; and this crop does not succeed so well in the extreme south of England as in Northumberland, and in Scotland, and Ireland, under tolerable management. In such localities the turnip is found to produce greater weights with less forcing. 5. Clover. — A temperate climate is best suited to clover, neither very hot nor very dry and cold ; but if a herbage crop is alone desired, warmth, attended with moisture, is desirable ; if a seed crop, then a dry climate and warm temperature. We need not give a special notice, but include rye-grass under this subdivision, as it is generally sown in some proportion for hay with clover ; but may just mention that rye-grass is very valuable on uplands, where clover is a precarious crop, and will not succeed. The great value of rye-grass is its adap- tation to almost all soils and climates. The clover and rye-grass will succeed perfectly at the same elevation with oats. 6. Mangold Wurzel. — This crop is adapted to a milder climate than the turnip, as it requires to be sown from the beginning to the middle of April ; and the soils for which it is adapted can rarely be got ready in time on a large scale, as they require to be brought to a very fine tilth ; and its germina- tion is very tender, and easdy injured by early frosts and insect enemies ; and, consequently, in our islands its cultivation is but partial and local. 7. 1'otato. — The potato will produce moder- ately at the same height as oats, turnips, and clover, and succeeds even in a similar climate — that is to say. in a climate moist rather than dry, and cool rather than hot. In the localities we specified, in talking of the oat, and particularly in Lancashire and Ireland, the potato crop arrives at greater per- fection than any where else. 3 The Pea. — The pea thrives best in a temperate climate, not too warm but yet dry. In this country the seasons are often moist, and sometimes extremely dry and hot in June and July; so that in our climate there is no field crop more uncertain than the pea. In wet weather, in the harvest time, it creates a great loss by shedding and otherwise. It is a strange fact, however, that the white Norfolk pea will actually ripen at an elevation of 950 feet in inland situations in Scotland, as far north as 57 deg., and in favour- able situations before the bigg ; and here the grey pea very often fails. The Norfolk white pea is a very valuable variety in such situations, and is de- serving of a more extended trial, perhaps. 9. Bean. — The climate for the bean ought to be temperate ; but neither too dry nor too moist, as the first brings on the aphis or black fly, or, as it is locally called variously, the bean dolphin, or the collier, in May ; and the second prevents the setting of the blossoms, and, like the clover, indeed all the legumes moist weather favours the develop- ment of the haulm, or herbage : and a dry season insures a plentiful production of seed. There is often, in unfavourable weather, as we have said, a great loss in harvesting ; and we have often seen a luxuriant crop, in unfavourable localities, so injured by wet as to be of little more use than as it aided in swelling the manure heap. 10. Grass. — The grazing counties in England are Leicester, Lincoln, Northampton, and part of York; Durham, and Somerset ; the dairy counties, Ches- ter, Salop, Gloucester, Wilts, Bucks, Devon, Dorset, Essex, Suffolk, Cambridge, and parts of Derby and York. This arises partly from localitv. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 265 partly from the adhesiveness of the soil, and the difficulty of working, and partly from climate ; grass husbandry in larger proportion from one or other, or all of these causes, being in particular lo- calities more profitable. 11. Hop. — The hop requires tbe best climate, and, although extensively grown in England, has never been cultivated to any extent in Scotland, or Ireland. The hop counties are Kent, Sussex, Sur- rey, and parts of Essex, Worcester, Hereford, and Nottingham. (To be continued.) ON RENT. By Cuthbert W, Johnson, Esq., F.R.S. Continued, THE LEASE. The opinion, once so common in England, that the land can be as well and as profitably farmed | by yearly tenants, as by leaseholders, is now, I believe, generally exploded. It is a conclusion, indeed, which can hardly be correct, even when applied to the smallest class of cottage tenants, and I cannot but feel that the situation of that farm must be rather peculiar where an annual tenant, of sufficient capital, can farm it as well as an equally qualified leaseholder. If, indeed, it be an acknowledged fact, that the great general cause of bad farming is to be found in the absence of a capital sufficient for the most profitable cultivation of the soil, in what way can we hope for the supply of that capital but by affording a greater security of tenure to the cultivator than an annual tenancy affords. The view taken by the farmers of Haddington- shire is, I believe, correct, as expressed by Mr. George Barns (Farm. Magazine, p. 22, p. 268) — "That a tenant can afford a higher rent, and, at the same time, make more money himself during the currency of a twenty years' lease, than if he continues liable to be dismissed at six months' notice ; taking it for granted that his lease is a fair one, and unincumbered with absurd restrictions, and that he possess skill and capital for the stock- ing and improvement of his farm." Of the cove- nants of the lease itself it is idle to attempt, as several persons have done, to give the form of a lease which shall suit all situations and soils. I will in this place, therefore, only touch upon one or two chief points upon which great difficulty commonly arises. The Covenants directing the Mode of Cultivation. — These can hardly be too general. The best mode is to compel the tenant during the last years of his holding to cultivate the ground according to an agreed mode, and, at the expiration of his tenn, to leave on the ground a certain proportion of green and other crops. For the first and largest portion of his lease I would strongly recommend that the farmer should be left to his own good sense and to the custom of the country. It is true that the custom of the country is in some degree vague and uncertain ; but still, in spite of all diffi- culties of this kind, the courts of law have always managed to decide with justice in regard to the great good customs of agriculture. Thus, as Mr. Mathews very truly remarks, in his valuable work "On the Law of Landlord and Tenant," p. 452 — '•' The rule of law, wherever the relation of land- lord and tenant exists in the absence of express covenants, imposes an obligation on the part of the tenant to manage a farm fairly and in a husband- like manner, according to the course of proper management in that part of the country where the premises are situated (Powley v. Walker, 5 Term Rep. 373,) upon the breach of which an action of assumpsit may be maintained ; and this right is given and the remedy afforded in all cases where a tenancy, whatsoever its description, is in existence; indeed in one case the court held that the custom of the country must be insisted upon under a written agreement, unless it be expressly excluded by the terms of the instrument. — ( Wigglesworth v. Dallison, 1 Dour/las, 201 ; Senior v. Armitage, Holt, 197). " In order to constitute this particular custom, it is not necessary that it should have been immemo- rially adopted, as a general system of cultivation applicable to farms of a similar description will be sufficient. Thus, in a late case, where a custom was set up that the outgoing tenant should receive a reasonable compensation from his landlord for the expenses of tillage and cultivation, in respect of which he had not received the benefit either from the. previous tenant or in a due course of husbandry, Da/las, C. J., observed that this was a custom which afforded the strongest encouragement to good husbandry, as being beneficial to both landlords and tenants, the land of the former receiving a lasting benefit from the labour and expense be- stowed by the tenant on payment of a reasonable compensation to the latter, and the tenant being thereby encouraged to pursue a good course of husbandry. (Dulby v. Hirst, 3 Moore, 536 ; S. C. 1 Brod. § Bing. 224). Iu an action against a tenant, upon promises, for not occupying his farm in a good and husbandlike manner, according to the custom of the country, the custom is proved by showing that he treated it contrary to the pre- valent course of good husbandry in that neighbour- hood, as by tilling half his farm at once, when no other farmer tilled more than a third, though many tilled only a fourth ; and it is not necessary to show any precise definitive custom or usage in respect to the quantity tilled. {Legh v. Hewett, 4 East, 154.) So this implied obligation was held to be broken when evidence was given of dung and compost having been carried off the premises without any stipulation or agreemeent to that effect having been entered into. (Powley v. Walker, 5 Term Rep. 373). But it is presumed that in this case, the carrying away was contrary to the custom of the neighbourhood where the farm was situated; because in some counties where much hay is grown for the market it would be an extreme hardship upon the tenant if he were necessarily bound to consume all the produce of his farm upon hi3 premises. Indeed, in a case some time since de- cided, but only recently reported, it has been held by 266 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lawrence, J., that there is nothing to prevent a yearly tenant, by the general rules of husbandry, from carrying away straw or hay from the premises; and the learned judge mentioned a case before Mr. Justice Buller (Furbree v. Andrews, Winch. Sum. Assizes, 1788), where the latter judge took a dis- tiction between dung and straw, and said that the former, by the common course of husbandly in all places, ought to be used upon the premises ; but the latter was part of the produce of the land, and if not permitted to be sold, none could be brought to market. (Gough v. Howard, Peake Add. Cases, 197, and see Exparte Nixon, 1 Ross, Bank Cases, 446). In some cases, however, contracts relative to the disposal of manure are entered into between the landlord and tenant which will give the latter, when he leaves the farm, a power of disposing of it to an incoming tenant, for it must be remem- bered that in all cases the usage of the country may be waived or controlled by express contract, if the intention to do so be clearly apparent. Where an outgoing tenant had contracted with his landlord to leave the manure on the premises, and to sell it to the incoming tenant at a valuation, it was held that it gave him a right of onstand for the manure on the farm, and that the possession and property remaining in him until the valuation was made, a removal or use of it by the incoming tenant before that was done would render him liable to an action of trespass by the outgoing tenant. (Beatty v. Gibbons, 16 East, 116). Where a tenant, who was bound to bring back dung for all hay sold by him to be carried oft* the premises at the time of his quitting, sold a part of a rick then standing to a purchaser, without mentioning his liability to bring back manure, it was held that the succeeding tenant had a right to refuse to permit the hay to be removed until the manure should be deposited. (Smith v. Chance, 2 Barn. Aid. 753). Neither can old turf land be broken up for tillage, and it is conceived that a tenant from year to year is not even entitled to plough up grass land which he himself has laid down, and suffered so to remain for a great number of years, as such a proceeding would be evidently against the rules of good hus- bandry." Covenants to Repair. — With regard to covenants to repair, the lease can hardly too clearly define by whom, and to what extent, tbe repairs of the farm are to be done ; for in the absence of an express stipulation there is still only the custom of the country to be referred to. Thus adds Mr. Mathews : " The implied liability in the grant of the tenant to repair the buildings on his farm is also regulated by the custom of the county. Mr. Harrison observes, that, generally speaking, the tenant is bound only to repair the dwelling house, and that the burden of repairing the out-buildings, home- steads, and other erections on the farm must be sustained either by the landlord or the tenant, as regulated by express provisions in the lease, or by particular customs of the country. But it is much more usual, indeed it may be said to be the general custom, for the tenant to keep the whole of the buildings infair and tenantable repair, soasto prevent waste or decay of the premises, but not to be liable to substantial and lasting repairs, as the law will not imply a contract on the part of a yearly tenant to repair generally, or to do any particular acts, but merely to use the farm and buildings in a tenantable and husband-like manner. The occu- pation of farms and premises, however, creates so much a duty in tenants to repair, that the courts are always ready to extend this obligation upon them as much as possible; thus an agreement by the tenant to leave a farm as he found it, has been held to be an agreement to leave it in tenant- able repair if he found it so (Winn v. White, 2 W. Black. 840), and a tenant who had been let into possession under an instrument which did not amount to a present lease, and had paid rent under the agreement, was held liable in an action for the mismanagement of the farm, under a count stating the premises to have been demised to him. (Tem- pest v. Rowling, 13 East, 18)." These, with proper covenants clearly defining the extent of unexhausted improvements to which the tenant shall be entitled to be repaid upon the expiration of his term, are the chief covenants to be regarded in the drawing of a farm lease. To these last I have already referred in a pre- vious paper (see page 8, vol. xii.), and through- out the whole lease, the person who draws it, will do well to remember, as is well expressed by a Scotch writer (Quar. Jour. Ag., v. 2, p. 134), " that the great error in drawing leases consists in vain precautions and attempts to provide against every possible contingency from which the nature of the transaction, and the unforseen events to which it may give rise, it is impossible to do. All that can be done is to make as precise as pos- sible the conditions which experience shows to be necessary. The terms of the contract should be few and simple, and easily understood and complied with. Not only are hurtful covenants to be avoided, but such as are unnecessary, since to increase the number of them too much serves but to perplex the farmer, and give birth to quarrels; and besides, all experience shews that the interest of either party may be sufficiently guarded without multiply- ing too much conditions, penalties, and restrictions." THE LEICESTER MONUMENT. We subjoin an abridged report of one of the most interesting ceremonies that any person connected with agriculture — nay, any lover of his country — can possibly contemplate, namely, that of laying the first stone of the Leicester Monument; a structure which we should rather consider as raised for the purpose of recording the sense of the nobility, gentry, and yeomanry of Norfolk, of the merits of the late Thomas William Coke, than as intended to perpetuate the recollection of his great and good acts, of which the county of Norfolk is at once the most complete, and we trust will con- tinue to be, a lasting monument. We regret that space does not admit of our giving a more lengthened account of the proceedings which, as reported in the Nonoich Mercury, must have been most striking and effective. In order to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2G7 shew the principles — the practice of which obtained so much respect for the late proprietor of Holkham — we give insertion here to the order of procession. These principles were emblazoned on the banners ; and, in the words of one of them, we say to all landlords, " Do likewise." A RICH BANNER, on which were The Arms of Lord and Lady Leicester emblazoned, and very handsomely ornamented. Flags and Banners, borne by some of the workmen in the employment of Mr. Watson, the contractor for the work, dressed in white jackets and trousers, with straw hats. Body of Tenantry on Horseback Three a-breast. Mr. J. Overman. Mr. Hudson. Mr. Wrightup. A Flag. A Flag. A Body of Tenantry on Horseback. Banner. " In the Virtues of the Past we read the Hopes of the Future." Banner. Banner. The Plough, Howlett's Agriculture, and Brass Manufactures, a good use of it. Band. and Commerce. Stewards of the Dejeuner, on Horseback. A Flag. A Flag. Members of the General Committee, on Horseback. Banner. Banner. Long Leases to Speed the Plough. Good Tenants. The Hon. and Rev. T. Keppell, The Rev. R. Ackroyd, The Rev. P. Gureon, The Rev. R. Collyer, The Rev. W. Napier, The Rev. J. Bloom, &c. Banner. Banner. Peace to the Nation ! Plenty to the Poor! The Respectability of the Crown. The Durability of the Constitution. The Prosperity of the People. Banner. Happi- ness to those who wish Happi- ness to others. Wright's Band. Gentlemen of the County, on Horseback. Sir W. Foster, A. Hamond, Esa., F. Astley, Esq. M. Folkes, Esa., &c. Banner. Prosperity to the House of Holk- ham. A Flag. Banner. Not for Himself, but for the County. Banner. Banner. Banner. He lived an example of what a He His Man might become, accompanied was the Memory by liberality and perseverance. Go Farmers' survives, thou, and do likewise. Bene- factor. Masters Craven and Beck, Two Young Gentlemen of the Christ's Hospital School. Lord Colborne, hi his carriage, Accompanied by Sir William Folkes, Bart. The Chairman (Mr. Leamon), and Mr. Neave, a Member of the Committee. Flag. Flag. Stewards of Stewards of the Ladies' Carriages. the Ladies' Booth. Booth. Banner. Banner. The Husbandry Liberal Landlords of and Norfolk. Grateful Tenants. Banner. Banner A Fine Fleece Breeding and a Carriages. in all its Fat Carcass. Horsemen. Branches. Flags. Flags. Banner. Banner. Success A Good Under- to Carriages. standing between Agriculture. Workmen. Landlord and Tenant. The Norfolk Chronicle states that — " The monument stands on a base of forty-four feet square, and will be one hundred and twenty-five feet in height. The following is the description : — " This design is composed of a pedestal, on which is erected a fluted column, surmounted by a wheat sheaf. Three sides of the pedestal are bas reliefs ; one re- presenting the late Earl granting a lease to a tenant ; the second representing the Holkham sheep-shearing, through which the great stimulus was first given to agriculture; the third to indicate irrigation. The fourth side of the pedestal is left for the inscription. " The four corners of the pedestal shew the means by which cultivation and production were improved and in- creased by the late Earl. At the first corner a Devon ox, with the inscription under it — ' Breeding in all its branches.' At the second corner Southdown sheep, with the inscription under them — ' Small in size, but great in value.' The third corner the Plough, with the inscription — ' Live, and let live.' The fourth corner the Drill, with the inscription — ' The improvement of agriculture.' " Fortunately for himself, as well as for those with whom he was connected, the late Earl of Leicester perceived early the advantages which must result from establishing the relative position of landlord and tenant on a proper footing ; and we are gratified at seeing the sense of the farmers of Norfolk re- corded, upon this point, by devoting one side of the pedestal of this monument to a representation of the late Earl in the act of " granting a lease to a tenant." He did not wait till the evil day came, and then seek how he could himself meet, or enable his tenantry to meet, the difficulties they might have to encounter. He enabled them to place themselves in that position which would render them capable of withstanding the changes which the purblind and the shortsighted are just beginning to perceive. The most striking argu- ment used against leases at the present day, amongst farmers themselves, is, that there is no knowing what changes may be made in the standard 268 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of value or in the Corn Laws ; and that, compara- tively, no man could safely take a lease in such an uncertain state of things. AYe hold it to be utterly impossible that any so great changes can take place in the next twenty years as have taken place in the last twenty years. The alterations in the currency occasioned by Sir Robert Peel's bill and an admitted reduction in the amount of protection — presumed, by law, to be requisite — of upwards of 30s per qr., cannot again take place. The late Earl of Leices- ter's tenants have, with leases, surmounted these difficulties, have gone through a most trying period, and yet we believe they will be found in a condition quite as prosperous as those who, being without leases, have been in a situation to receive the per centage return which the kindly feelings of the landlord might consider them entitled to. It somehow or other happens that, where leases are granted, or where without leases the terms of agree- ment between landlord and tenant are based upon a sound principle of mutuality, a great deal of the lecturing about the necessity of farmers being " wide awake," and being " up to all the new methods and discoveries," is spared ; and hence, we presume, not wanting. The first stone of the Leicester monument was laid by Lord Colborne, who addressed the assemblage, by whom he was surrounded, with much feeling and effect. After the ceremony was concluded, upwards of a thou- sand of the subscribers and their families partook of a sumptuous entertainment; and, upon their retirement, upwards of three hundred labourers and their families were regaled in the self-same booth ; the noble Earl of Leicester himself superintending with the same kindness and attention that characterized his hospitality to those who had pre- ceded. Thus is the well-known Holkham senti- ment of "Live, and let live" likely to be perpetuated by the present noble owner of Holkham. The ceremony of laying the first stone of the monument, to be erected by subscription, to the memory of the late Marl of Leicester, better known in his day as "Coke, of Norfolk," took place on Tuesday, July 12, in Holkham, in that part of the exten- sive park which stretches before the north front of the house, and a distance of perhaps a quarter of a mile or thereabouts from it. The announcement of the committee, and Mr. Robert Leaman, the chairman, in the Norwich papers, &c, that the ceremony was to come off on Tuesday created a great deal of interest throughout Norfolk and those portions of the adjacent counties connected with it, and accordingly all the admirers of the late nobleman, and all those who remembered his hospitality in by-gone times, felt anxious to pay the tribute of respect to his memory by being present on the occasion, and made pre- parations to attend. The programme or directions, which were published, appointed the meeting of the subscribers, &c. to the monument to be held at 12 o'clock in the morning, at Longlands, a farm-house about two nnles from Holkham, and accordingly by that time a vast concourse of people was as- sembled at that spot. All the towns and villages round contributed their quotas to the meeting, and beside the actual subscribers, who amounted to several hundreds, and their families, there were several thousands of farmers, yeomen, labourers, workmen, and many others, attracted by cu- riosity, the sake of a holiday and merrymaking, or by respect. The towns and villages of Wells, Burnham Market, Burnham Thorpe, Docking, Snettisham, North and South Creek, Swaff- ham, Deerhain, Fakenham, Holt, Cromer, Brandon, "Walsing- ham, Ramham, Norwich, &c, poured out a portion of their in- habitants, great or small ; and no doubt many more would have attended had not the previous night and the early part of the day been most unpropitious for journeying from any dis- tance or the enjoyment of any fete. However, all along the road leading to Longlands were to be seen carriages of all classes, the barouch, chariot, phaeton, gig, farmers' carts and farmers' waggons, besides many rural vehicles, little in usage in Loudon or near it, but sufficiently commodious on such an occasion to convey numbers with safety if not with speed. The procession was some time in being formed ; indeed, it was no Very easy task to arrange so many and so heterogeneous a group. It was, however, at last got into good order, and began to move. The weather cleared up at this time, and although the day was dull, cold, and lowering, still no rain fell to spoil the ladies' bonnets and dresses, and soak those wdio w:ere not in covered vehicles, The train was of great length, scarcely less than a mile and a half, and made a gay and gallant show. First came the Norwich band of musicians, under the direction of Mr. Howlet of that city : then came 150 stonemasons, employed by Mr. Watson, the gentleman who has undertaken to build the monument, dressed in the costume of their calling, namely, straw hats, flannel jackets, and aprons. Then came Lord Col- borne, heading a numerous cavalcade of country gentlemen, all well mounted, and advancing in excellent order ; next followed the committee of the subscribers' carriages, and so forth, and the Fakenham band of musicians, and closing up the rear a band of bricklayers and labourers in flannel jackets and red caps. The whole, having reached the spot on which the first stone of the projected monument was to be laid, deployed in as good a style as the nature of things woidd allow, were re- ceived by the present Earl of Leicester and his brother, the Hon. Mr. Coke. The Countess of Leicester was not present, in consequence of the recent calamity which has happened in her family ; her absence was certainly a great drawback to the fete, and no doubt was a reason why many more persons did not attend. The ladies were accommodated in a tem- porary gallery close to the spot ; and all things being read}-, the stone was laid with the usual ceremonies, Mr. Donthorn, the architect, presenting the trowel, a silver one, to Lord Col- borne, and that nobleman acting the part of founder of the mo- nument. His lordship also addressed a short speech to the company, eulogising the character of the deceased nobleman, in honour of whose memory they were assembled, and speaking under evidently strong feelings of his recollection of him. The stone having been lowered, and the ceremonial concluded, the company made their way to the south side of the house, where were erected seven tents or marquees, and amongst them the su- perb marquee lately used at Cambridge, on the occasion of the opening of the railway to that University; allof them were sup- plied by Mr. B. Edgington, of the Borough, whose judicious ar- rangements were appreciated by the numerous host which were assembled beneath them. Into the larger marquee, over which floated the standard of England and the flags of variotts na- tions, were first admitted those who had the honour, not to say the convenience, of the entree by means of tickets; of this number there might be about 1,200 or 1,500 ; nevertheless there was room for .all, and champagne and other wines, refresh- ments of the best sort, and, in short, all the creature comforts that the most dainty and the most hungry could require to tickle the palate or appease the appetite. All tliis part of the arrangements was under the management of Mr. Salmon, the house-steward to the noble earl, at whose expense so many were feasted, and certainly the whole of the arrangements were in the best taste and on the most liberal scale. But this was not THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 269 all. Lord Leicester, like the good old English gentleman, in the song, who "Tho' he feasted all the great, Yet ne'er forgot the small," as soon as the most aristocratic portion of his guests had re- tired to look about the park, &c, ordered all who had attended the ceremonial to be admitted to the good things beneath the marquee. There might be seen a right jovial meeting ; there was such a profusion of viands and such a flood of drink, that no one was left out of his or her share of the banquet, whilst in another part of the park the workmen for Mr. Watson, a very large company indeed, sat down to a substantial dinner in the old English style. Nevertheless, there was no confusion ; a little crushing, a good deal of good humour, some share of the excitement which wine and strong beer produces, but no intox- ication, no brawls, and no violence. The comity police were in attendance, but their presence was scarcely required, though it was said a gang of Loudon thieves were in the grounds. Meanwhile the bands were playing, and all was a scene of jo- viality and rustic enjoyment. It should be mentioned that the healths of the Earl and Countess of Leicester were proposed in the earlier part of the day by Lord Colborne, and drank with enthusiasm. This scene of revelry lasted till dusk. The noble owner of the domain entertained Lord Colborne, Lord Hastings, and a small select party to dinner in the house. The park was not emptied of the numerous guests till past 10 o'clock in the evening. Along the roads, as the more boisterous returned home, was to be heard the usual amount of hurrahs, singing, blowing of homs, and other noises by which a village wake is distinguished. The neighbouring inns were all filled with oc- cupants, and it was with some difficulty that at Wells and in the immediate neighbourhood of Holkham accommodation could be obtained for the sudden influx of arrivals. AVe did not hear of any accidents in the park or in the roads leading to it ; but a shocking calamity overtook four men on Monday night, who had gone out in a lugger with a pilot to a ship off the harbour; in returning, owing to some mismanagement, the boat was upset by a wave or breaker striking against her, and the four unfortunate seamen perished. One of them has left a wife and nine children to deplore his loss. TREES. PREPARATIONS FOR PLANTING. As the season approaches when trees of all kinds may be planted with every prospect of success, under circumstances most favourable to their suc- cess, it has been judged fitting to make some allusion to the preparation of land in general, referring to a future opportunity any notice of the soil peculiarly suitable to each. Trees — agriculturally considered — are great ene- mies to the crops of the farm, and, as such, many writers of the day have successfully laboured to show, that, however ornamental they may be in themselves, and to the landscape of the country, their existence, in hedge-rows above all, is an evil, unless it be in exposed situations, where they may act as screens of defence against the violence of prevailing winds. There are two or three writers of recent date whose works will be referred to, and recommended as guides to readers interested in the culture of ornamental and timber trees. These writers are Mr. Withers, of Holt, Norfolk, who has written con amore upon this his favourite topic ; and Mr. Stephens, of Edinburgh, avithor of " The Book of the Farm," a work which ought to be in the hands of every agriculturist of the new school who is emulous to meet the emergency of the times by the relinquishment of ancient prejudices, and the adop- tion of new and improved modes of culture. They who have candidly perused " The Wood- lands" of the late "William Cobbett, must acknow- ledge that his directions, whether in all cases correct or not, are precise, and intelligible to all. Its style is clear, its rules simple and perspicuous, and, as the author really begins at the beginning, any one who is desirous to do the work of planting effectually, may confide at least in the rules which are there laid down for the preparation of the land, because there is no mystification in them. It is certain that the beauty of English scenery is mainly dependent upon the multitude of its hedges and hedge-row trees ; but, as was proved by a late writer on the agriculture of Devonshire, the country suffers severely by these ornaments; utility and productiveness are thus sacrificed; and, therefore, as we would have things put in their right places, we at once urge the abandonment of all those harbourers of vermin, which cause the waste and deterioration of agricultural grain crops in more ways than one, without any redeeming qualification, insomuch as the timber and under- wood about a farm are, in themselves, of no remu- nerative value whatever. But timber is a source of wealth ; trees are glo- rious objects ; and plantations adorn a country : therefore we would place them in appropriate situa- tions, and grow them when there to perfection; but to do so, the preparation of the land is a con- sideration of first-rate importance. Trees ought, in fact, to be grown in woods, also as screens or belts for protections, and in groups, or positions, where, placed singly, they may con- stitute a prominent and striking feature of park scenery. The late Rev. William Gilpin, in that interesting book, " The Forest Scenery," has afforded many striking examples of the effects of grouping, chiefly with a view to picturesque beauty, and we recommend the perusal of it to every one interested in the art of planting, for that express object. But beauty cannot consist with stunted deformity; therefore we must, in the first place, study the soil, and its effectual preparation ; and upon these points our best writers are perfectly agreed. Cobbett insists chiefly upon the thorough trench- ing of the land to the depth of at least two feet, reversing the surfaces if the soil be good to that extent; but he justly qualifies this position by observing that the soil may be such, in respect to its subsoil, " as to bring to the top something in which hardly any thing will ever strike root — as, for instance, clear chalk, or pure sand, or gravel, or clay." When this is the case the top mould must be kept at top ; " but still the trenching is always to be performed, for the ground must be moved and turned to the depth of two feet." Mr. Withers is not content with trenching or deep 270 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ploughing; he adds manure to the amount of twenty loads per acre, and says that " when you manure, you never want to fill up, for all the trees are sure to take, and instead of filling up you may, after the third year, take out and transplant at least a tenth part of them." (Memoirs 1827). Mr. Wither' s "Letter to Sir Henry Steuart, Bart., on the Improvement in the Quality of Tim- ber"— 1829 — is a very valuable treatise, and worthy of being better known. It is perhaps needless to revive the subject of a controversy which once was carried on most strenu- ously between the advocates of effectual preparation of land by deep trenching, and others who were content to open holes in the ground for each indi- vidual tree. "The cheap, hole-digging, short- sighted Scotch system," as it was called some twenty years ago, was " calculated to bring upon those who adopted it only loss and disappointment" that in this day of philosophical inquiry and chemical research, we have little cause to make further allusion to that which experience must have disqualified. But it cannot be wrong or in- vidious to inquire into the causes by which deep comminution of soil will contribute to the permanent advantage of every species of vegetation. Without further entering into the mechanical processes of trenching already described in the first part of the articles upon " Orchards," it will be relevant to insist upon the agency of those chemical constituents of soil — loams especially — which never entered into the calculation of the earlier writers. Our forefathers knew nothing of analysis ; they had no idea of the existence of the phosphates, silicates, and alkalies, which modern chemistry has brought to light. But now we know, and the knowlege is widely diffused — thanks to the en- lighted German chemist, Liebig, — that, by the breaking up, and the pulverisation of earths, a volume of salts — usually termed the inorganic con- stituents of land — is distributed through the staple earth, and afford to timber those salts, the presence of which was deemed inexplicable. Thus the thousands of tons of pearl and pot ashes that have been articles of commerce to an extent almost unlimited, are now understood to be derived from the soil and distributed only through (not formed or created in) appropriate vessels of the vegetable tissue. The laboration of the ground, therefore, is now proved, beyond question or doubt, to be indispensable, not only, as was supposed, to the first advances of young trees, but to their future progress towards perfection. Trenching is in no case labour lost, and even where a single tree only is to be planted to produce a particular effect, the hole to receive it ought to be prepared upon the principles of trenching ; that is, by opening and comminuting the earth to a very considerable extent and depth, so as to insure good drainage, and the free tracings and extension of the roots, laterally, through a number of feet around the bole of the tree. They who have travelled extensively, and wit- nessed the wretched progress of young trees that have been planted in holes so small as to require their roots to be, as it were, screwed into the ground, will want no other monitor to impress the great, undeniable truth, that early and effectual preparation is the only guarantee of success. Let any one try the experiment upon a couple of goose- berry bushes, by planting one in a narrow hole, and the other by expanding its roots in a soil worked and made permeable to the extent of a square yard, and the difference of the results will be sufficiently established before the lapse of two entire seasons. The soil shall be the same — « free unctuous loam — and the sites contiguous ; yet one tree will be stunted, while the other shall produce luxuriant and healthful young wood ; one will bear early a few starved berries — the other, though not so soon in maturity, will maintain a high state of fertility for perhaps fourteen years. J. Toners. BENCRAFT'S PATENT HAMES. Our attention has been drawn to this newly invented Hames, the object of which is to increase the power of the horse, by securing to him the free use of his fore legs (hitherto impeded by the point of draft being placed in front of his shoulder joint) and to protect him from the sufferings of galled shoidders. The inventor considers that he has succeeded in transferring the draft to the withers, or front of the spine (the seat of the horse's greatest muscular power), by means of the upper trace ; the lower strap being intended to keep the collar in its proper position, or, in case of galling on the upper part of" the neck, to relieve the draft from pressing on the wounded parts, until they are healed. We give a sketch, explanatory of the details of the invention, which is patronised by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. EFFECT OF OILCAKE ON THE MANURE OF ANIMALS FED ON IT.— A friend of mine has lately adopted a plan which, under the same circumstance, I should strongly recommend : it is that of giving a small quantity of oilcake to animals grazing, for the sake of improving an ordinary pasture, and its effects are aston- nishing. The pastures I allude to are small, and one or two bullocks more than they are calculated to carry are put into each ; the lot are then allowed 41bs. of cake per day per head ; this, at a cost of about 2s. per head per week — which, I believe, the stock well paid for — has entirely altered the face of pastures from what they were three years ago, when the plan was first adopted by him, and, I believe, without any loss to himself. — G. Dobito —English Agricultural Society's Journal. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Ml 4 £ "re £•-£:& £,£ 9." fr£3 g - g-s Cc <« cTg-,2 g^§~ gPO 3 P CD * ET*< re a P i ^4 3 g2. § x S3 b-S g=B B 3" ^5 H » (t (t - " r0 3 . e-B c3 a g | £-22 3 O CD O ££, C^ p P^ CD "* P p 2,3 &. 3 St 3 .2 B§P-SBS=iogCiqgg. 5 S n n * 3 O a: < o oE-3°5-Srt-Sm3 lLo^3-b m f0 ir1 fi — BBSog^^S _.>-s ■- • p "-B a >-s 3* 3 B" 00 re 0*-3 '•-< TO S ^ CD £• 3 -°° 5' 2 « 3 o a g. „.S^ 2-^2 SLCKj ^ - ^ n «: H 5 " C 1 g P*° g ° g'^re g^~ 3S2 3S3?.-^^? 3 M 3 o «♦ re. 5 ° o 3, 5' 33 2 ai 3-. B-3 B S «PaDsPB>§J 2-SU* b-3 ^2 2 ff-S o ^ & 5- 3' s 2 O 2,' 3 P O P CD CD p 2. i— * — . a 3." ' 5 ST- o S- •§ .S" o - 3--— 3 ? Sg J2 „.">"> » S g re 35re p « re 0 3%S,3^2 i-fs"* 2** ^*" m- *~^i ST ?P ^' "^ 2^-§cr^~s&s£ E- 3 es ff" K 2 re o ' pj- 3 .5-g 3 X S 3 p t- "O S ft? » s-'-^ ^ a.r« a g S "^ n> -i SZ» t*» •- ^^CD^wa^CDS^wCD ^ 'I, V\\\\ o, °° 2 SE g s 3" £ ^ B s h ^ \ — ! V * q co p- fs re re "3 B* J5 -.re 3 3 2?2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, ON FARM BUILDINGS. TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — The old adage of " Ne sutor ultra crepi- dam" has not been more fully verified in any ease than in the attempts of architects to lay down plans of farm-buildings. Xo person doubts their pro- fessional skill in erecting walls and in laying on roofs, in making Gothic windows and spiral co- lumns ; but in devising convenient plans of farm- buildings, experience has shown them to be most wofully deficient. It has been my lot to have been practically concerned in the management of several very large arable farms, where the buildings were partly planned and arranged by architects, and where many blunders existed ; and on looking into the plan in your magazine of July last, I find the very same errors shown. Simple as it may appear, no person is capable of arranging farm-buildings who has not practised the art in the most minute details, and has experienced the blunders he intends to correct ; whereas architects have never studied the art they wish to assist, nor have experienced the wants they pretend to supply. " Let us have the ground plan," said the late Mr. Loudon ; " the walls and the roofing will soon be managed :" and the great desideratum in farm buildings is the juxta- position of the edifices, so as to produce the greatest possible convenience with the least possible labour. In the plan prefixed to your magazine of July, the cart-shed and tool-house are placed at extreme opposite corners; and as carts and tools are used together, these two accommodations should in every case be adjacent, and under the same roof. A farm- bailiff or manager goes to the stable in the first place, in the morning, and gives the orders ; he goes in the second place to the cart-shed, to see the or- ders verified, and tools are wanted ; and he would reckon a most miserable arrangement, to have to go to the extreme corner of the farmery to the tool house, to seek picks and spades. Next we have a straw-house; a place for making oil-cake, &c. ; space for thrashing-power, and for chaff; and a second straw-house is placed further to the right. But we are not shown nor told how the straw is got to the houses j if thrown by ma- chiney ; nor where the machinery is placed. No dressing barn is shown, nor any granary. The latter should always communicate with the dressing barn by an inside stair, so that the transportation of grain may go on in any weather. I was not a little surprised to see so eminent a'practical judge as Mr. Grey, of Dilston, affix an outside stair to a granary, in some plans he sent the English Agri- cultural Society, and published in their Journal. The exposure is inconvenient during inclement weather. The bailiff's house has a Cold situation in the north-east corner; but his bedroom must be warm enough — attached to the boiling-house. The riding-houses' stable is placed in the diametrically opposite corner from the dwelling-house, to which it should be contiguous for the sake of convenience ; or they should be wholly disjoined from the farmery, and erected near to the dwelling-house. The covered manure tanks might be more conveniently placed behind, or laterally to the farmery; as in front they may create obstruction and inconveni- ence. Sheds and yards are shown in the plan, for the work horses ; but we are not told when they are used — if wholly, or only partly, during the year. I have always recommended that farm-horses, sad- dle-horses, and hunters, should all run in open sheds ; and once got a most hearty sneer and laugh for my advice to this effect to a hunting nobleman, while he had thermometers in the stables to show a temperature of 80 deg. The fee ding-house for 52 cattle is much too large : the number is too great for feeding together — the air is contaminated. The advantage of respiratory animals breathing in a large volume of un contaminated air seems not yet understood, though experience shows that both feeding and keeping animals for store do best in open sheds, and in small numbers together. There is only one shed and yard shown for cattle and sheep ; and the only road to the cattle house must he through this yard, — a very great objection in any farmer}7. Each yard and every house in a well-planned farm-building, should have an opening from itself to a road, and without intruding on any other yard or department. The pigsties and the poultry-house are crammed into a corner of the cow yard, where the latter must be very much annoyed ; and their tender nature re- quires ease and repose. These two departments snould have each of them a separate encampment. The boiling house should adjoin or be included in the piggery, as that kind of five stock are most benefited by cooked food. The whole area of the building is much too small for a farm of 600 acres ; and consequently the accommodation is too limited. The railway under cover of the houses is a no- velty, and must be a very great improvement; but it shoidd in all cases run in front of the animals, and not behind them, as it will get clogged with their excrements. The editor of the Agricultural Gazette, some short time ago, told us that Professor Low, of Edinburgh, first showed the absurdity of having only one wet yard in a farmery, and suggested the shape of the long parallelogram for a farm-building, and the great advantages to be derived from the admission of sun and air into the yards. That one yard was fashionable at one time is certain, and yet prevails ; but I am much inclined to think that sun and air were admitted to yards before the days of Professor Low; for in his last work, "Landed Property," where some plans of farmeries are shown, the build- ings are divided into two parts, and one is placed before the other, apparently for the purpose of ex- cluding sun and air from the part behind. The carpenter andblacksmith's shops, are placed in front, and they need no sun : the piggeries are behind, and they need it much. But our northern agricul- turists are so conceited of their fame, that every- thing must proceed from them ; as old Dennis, the actor in the reign of Queen Elizabeth imagined all the acting and every imitation on the stage, even of thunder, to proceed from him — 'twas his thunder. Just so with our northern farmers; 'tis all their thunder. Great as their merit is, it should not be overstated. The bailiff's room and his bedroom, stuck up THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 273 in a corner of this farmery, seems to be copied from the Scotch erections, in which everything concerning the labourers is so besmeared with " pottage milk ideas," that one room, or a hovel like a pigsty is hardly allowed them. If Professor Low claims the lirst idea of admitting sun and air to the yards, the room is still open for the first idea of admitting common decency into the habita- tions of the labourers, which should have preceded the cattle yards. — August 20, 1845. D. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR AUGUST. During the greater portion of this month the weather in nearly all parts of England, especially in the first three weeks, proved extremely unfavourable to the wheat and other crops. This circumstance, as might be expected, was productive of considerable anxiety not only on the part of the agriculturists themselves, but also on that of the community at large, respecting the fate of the corn in the fields, the progress of which towards maturity — arising from the unusually large quantities of rain with which we were visited — was slower than almost ever before remembered : hence has resulted a very late harvest time. The high winds and heavy show- ers with which we were visited during the first fort- night of the month, caused extensive breadths of corn to become lodged and beaten down ; yet we are happy to say that the expected losses in this particular are not of a serious nature. From all quarters numerous accounts were received to the effect that considerable damage had been sustained by the wheats, and that many of those diseases to which that grain is subject had made their appear- ance. Since, however, the late beneficial change in the atmosphere has taken place, and which has allowed cutting and carrying to be commenced in nearly the whole of our forward districts — though as yet comparatively little wheat, the time of year considered, has reached the stack yards — our ad- vices are of a by far more favourable tenor. Still it is conceded, by one and all engaged in agriculture, that the present year's produce of wheat will not exceed an average one, even should the weather, from the present date up to the close of September, prove fine. In many parts of the country, and even in Scot- land and the Channel Islands, a most unfavourable change has taken place in the potato crop. This change appears to have been caused by the long saturated condition of the land, which, we all know, is a great enemy to potatoes, and it is likely to prove extremely detrimental to them this year. Those taken up at the beginning of August were tolerably good in quality ; but since then, the rot has made its appearance to a most serious extent, and which is likely to cause really fine parcels to rule high for some months to come. This dis- ease does not appear to be confined to the United Kingdom, but is very general throughout France and Belgium, as well as Holland. It is, therefore, fair to presume that the imports from those portions of the Continent will be very small during the re- mainder of this and the whole of next year. Foremost in importance may be considered the operation of the new tariff, more especially that portion of it allowing the importation of live 6tock for our markets. Since the date of our last re- port, the arrivals from the continent have — as we have long since predicted would be the case — con- siderably exceeded those of any former period, they having been as under : — London. Head. Beasts 715 Sheep 1183 Lambs 140 Calves Ill Total head 2149 About two-thirds of the above stock have reached us per steamers from Rotterdam — the remainder from Hamburgh. Respecting the quality of these arrivals, we may observe that it has been by no means first-rate, though several well made-up beasts have been received, particularly from Hol- land. At the outports, the numbers have been again good — 466 beasts and 300 sheep having been received at Hull from Rotterdam, 75 oxen and cows at Glasgow from the same port, and 30 oxen at South- ampton from Vigo, forming a total importation of 3,020 head, exclusive of the arrivals previously this year. The last Government returns give the annexed totals for the first six months of 1845, compared with those at the same time in 1844 and 1843 :— Oxen. Cows. Calves. Sheep and Lambs. Swine. Imported in six months in.1845. 3566 1667 102 1304 260 Do. in June, 1845. 1112 639 58 170 52 Imported in six monthsin 1844. 602 318 37 110 114 Do. in 1843.. . . 422, 155 17 95 153 Nothing could more fully test the accuracy of the views we have taken of this measure than the above decided increase in the importations. Some rather severe losses have been sustained at sea in the course of the month ; but this will not deter those who are feeding for our markets from for- warding the supplies which we learn are now await- ing shipment hither. Still, these extensive exports are beginning to be severely felt in Holland, where we learn that the prices of meat — both live and slaughtered — have considerably advanced within the last two months. Looking at the arrivals, we find an increase in them this year of Jive hundred and twenty per cent, upon those of 1844, and nearly eight hundred per cent, on T 2 274 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. those of 1843 — a staggering proof of what may be accomplished by such alterations in our import trade. We have made very strict inquiries respect- ing the slaughtered condition of the foreign ani- mals, and we find that the Hambro' beasts, from their age, carry a larger internal weight of fat than those from Rotterdam, hence are more in favour with the butchers. As to that of the sheep little can be said, only a limited number of that description of stock coming to hand in a fat state. The beasts lately landed in Scotland were disposed of for graz- ing purposes, at present they are doing well in their pastures : but they are not progressing so rapidly as was expected, arising, we presume, from the change in food. The plentiful supplies of pasture and other her- bage have tended materially to benefit both beasts and sheep, which have rapidly improved both in weight and condition since our last. It is, there- fore, by no means improbable that a further decline will take place in the value of mutton all over the kingdom within a few weeks from this time. As to that of beef, veal, and pork, we see no reason to expect much alteration in it. The second crop of hay is likely to prove abun- dant, owing to the present fine condition of the pas- tures. Generally speaking, the hay does not appear to be well got in this season, from the long con- tinuance of wet during the period it was en the ground. From Scotland our advices are favourable. Less rain appears to have fallen there than with us; con- sequently, though the temperature has been com- paratively low, the crops have gone on extremely well. The corn trade appears to have ruled steady, yet prices have somewhat fluctuated. In Ireland harvest work is progressing rapidly, several parcels of new wheat and oats having been disposed of in Dublin market in fair condi- t on. The yield of the wheats is well represented. The principal hay markets have been very scan- tily supplied with old hay, the demand for which has ruled steady, at prices quite equal to those paid during several preceding months of the year. The supplies of new hay have been abundant ; yet a large business has been doing at fair currencies. The following is our usual statement of the sup- plies and prices of fat stock exhibited and sold in Smithfield cattle market during the past month The former have been as under : — Head. Beasts 16.22S Cows 525 Sheep and lambs 151,330 Calves 2,205 Pigs 2,511 The following were the returns for the corres- ponding month in 1844 : — Beasts 12,010 Cows 620 Sheep and lambs 195,412 Calves 1,290 Pigs 1,462 The above comparison exhibits an increase in the number of beasts this season of nearly four thousand; but a falling off in those of sheep by thirty-six thousand head. The prices this year and last — and which have ruled a trifle lower than advised in our last report — have been thus : — Aug. 1845. Per Slbs., to sink the offals. s. d. e. d. Beef from 2 8 to 4 2 Mutton 3 4 „ 5 0 Lamb 4 8 „ 5 8 Veal 3 8 „ 4 8 Pork 3 2 „ 4 4 Aug. 1844. Per 8lbs., to sink the offals. s. d. 8. d. Beef from 2 4 to 4 0 Mutton 2 6 „ 4 0 Lamb 3 8 „ 4 8 Veal 3 4 „ 4 6 Pork 3 2 „ 4 0 For nearly every description of prime stock — but more particularly the best Old Downs — the demand has ruled steady, and good clearances have been effected. Otherwise, the trade has proved dull. The bullock supplies have been derived from the following districts: — Head. Norfolk, Suffolk, &c 3,250 Northern counties 1,300 Western and Midland 2,400 Other parts of England .... 1,850 Scotland 2,085 Ireland 400 The remainder of the supplies has been received from abroad and the neighbourhood of the me- tropolis. For the time of year, the rece'pts of slaughtered meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall, from Scot- land and various parts of England, have been liberal, as will be seen by the annexed return. Arrivals during the month. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pig8. Scotland 81 1,200 .. 610 Yorkshire 104 1,180 .. 650 Lincolnshire 105 340 Norfolk 37 140 .. 60 Suffolk 20 60 .. 50 Essex 98 220 230 460 Cambridgeshire 90 160 .. 20 Surrey 97 310 420 620 Devonshire 104 130 .. 50 Wiltshire 128 530 300 240 Other parts 180 750 570 820 Although the trade has not ruled very brisk, the demand may be considered steady, at about pre- vious rates. At the yearly meeting of the Nottinghamshire Agri- cultural Society, at Nottingham, on the 13th inst., Mr. Parkinson, of Ley Field, exhibited four animals of the improved Shorthorn breed, for which he obtained four first prizes, and a medal for the be6t bull exhibited. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. 275 Barometer. Thermometer. Wind and State. Atmosphere. Day. 8 a.m. 10p.m. Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p. m. 10 p. m. July 22 in. cu. 29-97 in. cts. 29.97 57 65 57 E.byN. N.byE. variable fine sun cloudy 23 29.97 29.97 55 58 55 N. by East gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 24 29-97 29.97 53 57 56 Northerly gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 25 29.97 29.97 52 62 58 E. by South calm cloudy cloudy cloudy 26 29.97 29-97 57 65 58 N. West gentle cloudy cloudy fine 27 29.90 29.85 56 64 57 West brisk cloudy cloudy fine 2S 29.79 29.65 48 62 53 S. West gentle cloudy cloudy fine 29 29.65 29.80 47 59 53 West, by N. gentle fine sun fine 30 29.80 29.62 48 60 53 S. Westerly lively fine cloudy fine 31 29.65 29.60 47 61 53 S. Westerly lively fine cloudy fine Aug. 1 29.65 29.65 51 64 56 S. S. by East variable fine sun cloudy 2 29.46 29.52 54 59 55 S.E. N.W. variable cloudy v cloudy cloudy 3 29.62 29.70 50 61 55 W. S. by W. brisk fine cloudy cloudy 4 29-70 29.71 54 65 57 Westerly brisk fine cloudy fine 5 29.66 29.69 56 65 58 Easterly gentle cloudy cloudy fine 6 29.82 29.83 55 65 57 W. W. bv N. variable cloudy sun fine 7 29.83 29.80 53 63 55 W. by North gusty cloudy cloudy fine 8 29.86 29.86 50 65 57 N.W. S.W. gentle fine sun cloudy 9 •29.54 29.57 55 63 53 S.W. N.W. strong cloudy cloudy cloudy 10 29.59 29.60 52 58 56 West brisk cloudv cloudy cloudy 11 29.64 29-77 54 63 56 W. N.W. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 12 29-85 29-97 53 63 58 N. West gentle cloud v sun cloudy 13 29.99 30.05 51 61 55 X. West gentle cloudy sun cloudy 14 30.01 29.90 55 59 54 N. West gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy 15 29.80 29.81 50 53 50 N. West gentle cloudy cloudy fine 16 29.86 29.90 45 51 51 N. by West gentle cloudy sun cloudy 17 29.91 29.88 49 61 52 Westerly gentle fine sun fine 18 29.87 29.66 47 62 55 S. West variable fine sun cloudy 19 29.38 29.40 52 60 53 S.W. West strong cloudy cloudy cloudy 20 29.55 29-77 49 60 52 N. Westerly stiong fine B. n fine ESTIMATED AVERAGES OF AUGUST. Barometer. Thermometer. North and N. East Winds . . High. | Low. High. | Low. | Mean. 3! days. 30.26 | 29.350 82 | 41 I 61.6 4^ Real Average Temperature of the period. 14£ High. 61.5 Low. Mean. 51.77 56.635 Weather and Phenomena. — July 22nd. Fine till evening. 23rd. Rain — gloomy — wet eve- ning. 24th. Overcast. 25th. Gloom — rain — sultry, sun for a short time. 26th. Gloom — here ceases that singular motionless state of the barometer which commenced on the 21st. 27th. Rain — changeable. 28th. Rain — fine cloudy masses. 29th. Rain — cold showers — red fiery sunset. 30th. Rain incog. 31st. Rain — no quantity falls, but sufficient to keep every thing wet. Aug. 1st. Rain — fine day till evening — heavy showers. 2nd. Rain nearly all day. 3rd. Rain — heavy showers. 4th. Fine day and warmer. 6th. Rain early — then warm and finer. 7th. Rain in brisk showers — massy clouds— fitful wind. 8th. Pretty fine. 9th. Rain in quantity — rough weather. 10th. Rain — very damp. 11th. Rain — occasional gleams. 12th. Improved. 13th. Rain — cold dark morning — fine afternoon till six. 14th. Changeable. 15th. Rain morning- little sun fine red sunset. 16th. Very cold — a 17th. Quite fine. 18th. Rain — very fine till evening. 19th. Extremely rainy. 20th. Clearing — a fine windy day. Lunations. — Last quarter, July 26th, 3h. 20 m. morn. New moon, Aug. 3, 7 h. 25 m. morn. First quarter, 10th day, 10 h. 41 m. afternoon. Full moon, 17th day, 1 h. 1 7 m. afternoon. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — It has been too wet, not so as to quantity of rain, but by the ever-recurring frequency of trifling showers. Three fine days are all our locality can register. Oats and much wheat have been cut and are cut- ting ; but none of the latter was carried on the 20th. Oats first ricked on the 17th or 18th. No injury appears, no discolouration ; but the season has been most tantalizing, and far too cool to com- pare with the ordinary registered averages. J. Towers, Maiden-head Thicket. 876 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.— SEPTEMBER. Retrospect. — A more singular summer has not often been noticed. July began with rain, several thunder storms occurred, and there followed a great tendency to wet weather. Blow the wind from what quarter it might, there was little meliora- tion, and still less sun. August maintained the same characters, and to the 18th there were twelve days on which rain fell to a greater or less extent. It is always hazardous to speak of weather, for its condition depends upon local meteoric disturbances; and this ought to become daily more evident, as by provincial reports we are assured that the weather, in two or more localities not remote, may be altogether dissimilar. So far as our own observations extend, there is an absolute deficiency of ground moisture ; and, notwithstanding the fickle and perplexing state of the weather, there have been few soaking showers — no fall of rain in any degree sufficient to compensate for the protracted aridity of 1544, which was extended to Lady Day of the present year. Besides the proof obtained by trenching only to the depth of fourteen inches, when we have found clods hard, and dry almost as dust when broken up, we discern signs of low-seated drought in the flaccid state of deep-rooting perennial vege- tables. These remarks may aftbrd subject of in- quiry and investigation, but otherwise, however, are of little utility. As to crops in general, the cabbages and broccoli — indeed all plants of brassica — have abounded with clubby defective centres; these have shown no tendency to grow, or produce healthy shoots, but curl, and are abortive in the middle. Fruit is late; currants and gooseberries were very fine and plentiful at the middle of August, though the white sorts of the latter, and that deli- cious berry, " Pitmaston Greengage,'' cracked and became worthless. Plums are very scarce; apples and pears very uncertain ; peaches in places abundant, in others a short crop. OPERATIONS IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. Sow small salads, corn-salad and cresses at several periods as required ; radish early, for a late crop ; lettuce in a frame ; winter spinach for the last time. Transplant seedling cabbages or others from nursery beds ; by becoming strong early in autumn, such plants stand the winter much better. Trans- plant cauliflower into their winter quarters, either for hand-glasses or in frames. This vegetable when finely grown is deservedly admired ; but, generallv. the white broccoli is better, for it is of extremely fine flavour, and rarely fails to heart well ; nothing but intense frost destroys it, and the variety called " Miller's Dwarf" is very likely to stand even that. Potatoes — the champions, and most others called " mediums" or middle-early, are ready ; do not wait till the haulm be dead, but choose a dryish state of the ground, and take them up effectually when the plant becomes yellow. To save seed stock, collect tubers of good form, sound, but not large, and expose them to the air and light till they be green; then store in a cool, dry place. In the state of our present knowledge, when analytic chemistry has detected many certain facts containing the inorganic constituents of plants, leaving much to be yet discovered, every man of forethought should follow in the wake of science. Thus in the instance of potatoes, the haulm has hitherto been thrown away or misused. It is in- convenient to bury it, and yet its inorganic com- ponents ought to be given back to the soil. We would therefore burn the haulm, by which process the saline matters are collected in a small volume of the ashes ; these should be scattered over the surface prior to re-digging the plot, and laying it up in ridges. Dung would supply the hydro-car- bonous, decomposable substances required, and any intermediate crop might be planted without depriving the earth of those specific saline matters which a future crop of potatoes would require. Thus, in every instance — either by digging in green vegetable matter, or by burning such as cannot be so treated — the earth would receive back what it had contributed, at least to a considerable extent. Celery will require nice earthing up ; half the injury done is occasioned by allowing soil to fall into the hearts. Gather seeds; cut and collect cucumbers for pickling — onions for the same purpose, and also as store bulbs. Trench and ridge dig ever)' vacant plot, choosing the dryest weather ; remove litter ; kill weeds effectually, for they progress with the greatest rapidity at this season ; and bring every part of the garden into neat autumnal order. FRUIT DEPARTMENT. Strawberries. — Plant all the main beds and rows early in the month ; let the ground be deep and well dressed ; we believe that wood-ashes furnish alkaline, and earthy inorganic substances very available to this fruit. Pot, or rather re-pot into 32's and 24's the prepared runners for forcing. Peaches and nectarines ripen ; suspend nets, gather the fruit tenderly, and train the shoots in open order, to ripen the wood of next year's bearers. Store in dry weather such apples and/;ea»\s as are ready. Train carefully the fig trees whose fruit has been gathered. Jlnes, we fear, will entirely fail this year; but wine can be made of the green berries, and after gathering these, the young bearing wood should be pruned back, and exposed to the sun as much as possible, to cause it to ripen, as thereby a tree may be rendered more early fertile. FORCING DEPARTMENT. The late or autumnal vinery ripens its Hamburg grapes, and brings the West St. Peter's very for- ward. Damp is now to be guarded against, espe- cially in a season like the present. Fires, to bring the flue into lively action by seven or eight o'clock in the morning, are necessary ; and when the heat radiates front and back, dry air ought to be put on till afternoon. The flue being warm, no fire will be required at night. The pine pits are kept in full action, abating water ; the plants grow rapidly at this season. The full grown plants, now in their THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27? largest pots, pass into the fruiting house, and are plunged in very gentle tan, or sand beds ; water is withheld, and a low temperature created to bring the plants to a state of rest, prior to their final excitation. Thus a winter house of spring fruiters is prepared. Melons still bear, and demand air by day, and closed sashes at night. FLOWER GARDEN. Plant evergreens, prune others, cut box-edgings at the commencement of the month : roll and mow the lawn, and regulate gravel walks. Cut away with scissors seed vessels and old flower stems. Take up from the parterres the smaller pelargonia, and other plants intended to be preserved, and let them be carefully potted in appropriate moulds. After painting and white-washing the green- house, replace all the plants, having previously dressed and cleansed the surface soils and washed the pots. FLOWERING-PLANT HOUSES. Look to the repair and good order of the water- channels ; for the safety of the plant depends on these circumstances. It has been hinted that when the gutters, as they are called, are made of paving tiles or bricks, jointed and coated with Parker's cement, they are subject to crack and leakage when out of use. It may be so, provided the water is removed after they are out of use in summer; but we have ocular proofs that the cement and tiling remain perfectly secure, when kept always full of water. Nothing can be more satisfactory than the operation of this mode of heating, but we greatly dislike the common coke cylinder furnaces, believing them to be expensive and troublesome. A furnace should always be employed which will keep alight, consume any rough material, and thus economize labour and fuel. Frost is the agent most seriously to be guarded against ; the channels should never be suffered to freeze, otherwise a most serious loss at a critical period would be incurred. We once knew a con- servatory of plants ruined by the water being frozen solid in iron pipes. a phial bottle. The tap root is entirely gone, and the turnips valueless. I at first thought a maggot inside may be the cause, but, on examination, do not find that to be the case ; then I supposed it may be owing to bad seed, or to some particular kind of manure, but find that various manures were used, principally from the stables and fold-yard, and that the disease, if so it may be called, extends to four or five sorts of turnips, even the Swedes being af- fected by it, though in a less degree. I therefore con- clude it arises from some peculiarity in the weather, and may possibly have been prevented by the application of salt or lime. The farm last year produced almost the best turnips in the neighbourhood, and consists of light turnip soil. Yours respectfully, Kidderminster, Aug. 9. William Hopkins. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. FINGERS AND TOES IN TURNIPS, &C. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — I wish, through the medium of your valuable publication, to obtain information respecting a singular phenomenon which has appeared throughout the crop of turnips of Mr. George Burgess, an eminent farmer, at Check-Hill, near Enville, and partially on some adjoin- ing farms, and shall feel obliged to any of your numerous correspondents who can explain the cause, and suggest any means of preventing the evil in future. The first appearance to which my friend's notice was attracted was the withering of the leaves, and on draw- ing the roots from the earth, he found small bulbs about the size of walnuts, to which excrescences are attached longitudinally of three or four times the size. From the sides of these also proceed smaller ones, somewhat in the shape of fingers and toes, tapering to points, and twisting over each other like the folds of a long worm stuffed into Sir, — Being a young farmer and a subscriber to your paper, and having taken a farm last Michaelmas, which is very subject to the common field thistle, and through neglect of my predecessor they have become quite inju- rious, being in large patches on my fields, I should feel greatly obliged, through the medium of your paper, if either yourself or one of your subscribers would let me know the best means of eradicating them at the least ex- pense. My neighbours being in the same predicament as my- self in many instances, and even in one case after a summer fallow last year, they cannot give me the re- quired information. I know of one method — that is, to salt them heavily ; but that will injure the crop for several years afterwards I remain, sir, yours respectfully, Francis Kidner. Sunbury, Aug. Ath. Sir, — Permit me to inquire, through the columns of your very valuable journal, the best and most advanta- geous mode of applying the refuse of fellmongers' and ganners' yards, consisting, as I presume, of lime, wool, flesh, sumac, &c. ? Perhaps some one of your nume- rous and experienced readers will render me the neces- sary information, whether it is best to apply it to pasture or arable land — if the latter, to what crop it should be applied, the quantity requisite per acre, and the season for applying it — also if the article called sumac is per- nicious to vegetation. A reply to the above inquiries will greatly oblige, yours, St. Neots, Huntingdon, A Subscriber. August 14. Sir,— I shall feel greatly obliged if any of your readers will inform me where I can purchase the rye-grass seed spoken of by Wm. Dickinson, Esq., at the Beverley meeting, which produced ten crops in one season. Also, what quantity per acre should be sown, and at what season ? By inserting this question in your valuable journal, you will very much oblige Your obedient servant, Aug. 20. A Subscriber. Sir, — Will any of your readers have the goodness to inform the writer of this, through the medium of your paper, where a good portable four-horse thrashing ma- chine may be had, that will do its work effectually, and not in the least break the straw, but must come from the machine as straight as if threshed by the flail. ^ A machine that breaks the straw is of no use in the neigh- bourhood of London. Q- E. D. West Barnes, Surrey, Aug. 1. 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sir, — A friend of mine wishes to know how long the Italian rye-grass will stand in the ground after the first crop ; but, as I have not sown any before the present season, I cannot satisfy him upon that point. Perhaps some one of your numerous correspondents, who is com- petent to give the requisite information, will be kind enough to forward me, through the medium of your excellent paper, the result of his experience upon the subject. If so, he will greatly oblige Yours, &c, Simonsbath House, South Motion, H. H. Devon, Aug. 18, 1845. Sir, — Can any of your subscribers tell me whether i the scarifier will eradicate thistles better than the | plough ? It is not generally used in this part, nor will j my foreman use it. We plough and plough for ever, as the saying is, and the thistles increase twenty-fold every year upon us. — Yours, A very old Subscriber. Suffolk, Aug. 21. sun's influence, after being wet by rain, we see no cause of doubt or hesitation, provided the subsoil be chalk, or even gravel over chalk. The Isle of Thanet proves the efficacy of, and security during the driest summers ob- tained by, such a subsoil of chalk ; but a pure clay, forming a tenacious bottom, should be deprecated. As to "gait," we must plead ignorance, after searching in vain for the term in three or four competent works ; one of which is Mr. Stephens's admirable " Book of the Farm," where thirty pages of the first volume are devoted to the consideration of soils. Whenever a sound staple, however strong, rests upon a good drainage bottom, it can be meliorated by labour, particularly in the case of Lucerne, where coal ashes might be applied at the first preparation ; and subse- quently as top dress, prior to the hoeing, which should be given after the crop is mowed for green fodder. ANSWERS to AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. Our old Subscriber, J. H., must give proper notice to his neighbour that the trees overhanging his land are detrimental to him, and desire him to remove the overhanging branches in a given time, which if he does not do, Subscriber will then be J justified in lopping them oft' himself. Sir, — For the information of your correspondent, Q. E. D., at West Barnes, Surrey, who wishes to know where he may purchase " good portable four-horse power thrashing machines, to work effectually, and not in the least to break the straw ;" we beg to say that we have been for many years makers of such machines, and shall be happy to afford your correspondent every par- ticular respecting them upon receipt of his name and address. — We are, sir, your most obedient servants, Richard Garrett and Sox. — Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, Suffolk, Aug. 8. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. To the question of our correspondent, " S. L., of Hitchin" (received too late for the paper of the 29th), we offer it as our decided opinion — fouuded upon twelve years' experience, and also upon information derived from extensive observation — that Lucerne can not only be grown, but will thrive perfectly, bringing luxuriant crops, on a strong loamy soil, which many would con- sider clayey. As to pure stiff clay, such as the blue clay of London, we know of no trial ; but, on a marl, or loam so strong as to bind and clod hard under the Sir, — In answer to a correspondent in your paper of the 4th instant respecting thrashing machines, I beg to say that I can furnish the writer with a portable one, of four or five horse power, that will thrash cleaner and not injure the straw so much as if thrashed by hand. The proprietor will warrant the machine, and if not approved of may be returned after a month's trial. By inserting the above you will oblige, yours, &c, Thos. Humphries, Agricultural Machinist. Pershore, Worcestershire, August 6. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c, CREDITON FAIR was remarkably well supplied with cattle of every description, particularly sheep, which, however, the butchers say were in very bad con- dition, and which declined in price, although some good lots sold at 6d. per lb. Bullocks also were disposed of at lower prices, except those adapted for feeding, on which there was a good sale. BEDFORD FAIR.— There was an unusually large supply of stock. There were more sellers than buyers, and consequently the trade was dull and heavy. The prices were from 2s. to 3s. lower in sheep than were quoted a fortnight back, and beasts were lower in the same proportion. BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— There was a good show of both beasts and sheep, and a good attendance of buyers. Fat beasts sold from 5s. 6d. to 6s., and prime 6s. 6d. per stone. In-calvers met with ready sale, with a little advance in price. Lean stock was also in de- mand. Fat sheep sold from 5Jd- to 6d. per lb. There was a good sale for lambs : country-bred lambs sold at about 25s. ; Scotch do., 13s. SAXMUNDHAM LAMB FAIR was numerously attended by all the principal farmers and dealers in the neighbourhood, and there were present also several deal- ers from Essex and Norfolk. There were several flocks of sheep and lambs penned, and the trade commenced brisk and continued so throughout the day ; nearly all the lambs were sold, at prices varying from 15s. to 25s. per head. Shearlings fetched 28s. to 35s., according to their condition. Crones sold at 17s. per head. Fat bullocks and sheep met a ready sale at 8s. per stone of 141bs. There were a few lots of young store beasts, which were all sold. FALKIRK AUGUST TRYST. Tuesday, Aug. 12. This is the first great market in Scotland for Argyle- shire, Angus, Aberdeenshire, and Morayshire cattle. There are no sheep at this (August) Tryst ; conse- quently the sales did not commence till Tuesday. The day was fair throughout the whole day, and the ground was in fine order for the occasion. Sales were long in commencing, few having been effected before eleven o'clock, holders of stock standing out for high prices, and intending purchasers firmly declined to give the prices asked, consequently this may be designated " a dull and dear market." Upon our entering the ground, it struck us as having more the appearance of a September or October tryst than of an August one, there being from a third to a fourth more cattle on the ground than has appeared for some years past at the August tryst. There was a great want of stir and animation throughout the whole day, and sales continued languid till the close of the market. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 279 As compared with last year's August tryst, we have to quote Argyleshire and north country cattle, black cattle, one and two years old, at an advance of from 10 to 18 per cent, [up : whilst for Aberdeenshire, Angusshire, and Morayshire beasts, of two and three years old, being fat and half fat, the rise in price was not nearly so great — in general about 5 per cent. There were above an average proportion of the supply from Buchan and Garry. Holders of stock gradually gave way as the day advanced ; and, to a certain extent, purchasers also ad- vanced their offers in the afternoon ; the market, how- ever, continued languid throughout, and a good many remained unsold, and we should suppose that a number will appear on the ground to-morrow (Wednesday). We may mention that the description of stock brought forward to-day could not, either as to breed or numbers, be properly considered as known stock, generally speak- ing, much of it being (in the railway sense of the term) merely brought forward as feelers. As compared with the usual Falkirk trysts, only a few English dealers were present, which, together with a scanty supply of second crop grass, partly damped the demand for beasts; how- ever, if they could have been had worth the money in the southern markets, there were a number present sufficient to have cleared the market ; but those from the south maintain that the prices asked were such, that they could not venture to purchase for the southern markets. The only English dealers we noticed were the Messrs. Carmichael and the Messrs. Stobbs, from North- umberland ; the Messrs. Brown, from Carlisle ; Mr. Midsley, Yorkshire ; and Mr. Bray, from Lincolnshire. There were also five or six from Dumfriesshire, for small beasts. A rather novel feature has sprung up in the market this year, from a considerable number (600 or 700 to- day) of Irish cattle having been brought forward ; the presence of this sort of stock in the Falkirk tryst may be accounted for partly from the facility of transmission, and perhaps more particularly from more attention as to breed, the Irish cows being crossed by fine shorthorn breeds. What tended to make the holders of stock stand out more firmly was the fact of a number of sales having been effected last evening at higher prices than what could be obtained in market to-day. The first sale we heard of was for a lot of very good stirks (stots) from Mr. A. M'Arthur, Lochaber (six charters old of course), at 3/. 10s. a head ; they were purchased by Mr. Gray, Balmaclelan. A lot of two and three year old queys, from Argyleshire, Mr. M'Naught's, Dumbartonshire, fetched 41. 15s. ; and a lot of Argyleshire, two years old, at 3/. 15s. : this last lot was from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a head up from last August tryst. Forty head of two years old stots, from Skye, fetched 41. 4s. — last year 3/. 10s. ; they were sold by Mr. Donald Cameron, Euchrea, Lochaber ; this gentleman sold twenty head of the same breed, two years old, at 41. ; and another lot at 3/. 5s. This last lot was bought by Mr. Anderson, of Dumfries. A lot of forty head of two years old, from Morven, Ar- gyleshire, fetched the second top price, 6/. 10s. Mr. Alex. M'Farlane sold the top priced two years old west Highland stots at 6/. 14s. a head. A lot of spotted cattle in very good condition fetched 13/. 15s. A lot of Lewes two years old fetched 3/. — last year 21. 15s., and same condition. A lot which had been purchased yes- terday month from Mr. Fraser, banker, Dornoch, at the Kyles of Sutherland, for 41. 4s., were sold yesterday for 4/. 10s. a head, being a loss of fully 2s. 6d. each ; in- deed, we may mention that in several cases dealers com- plained that they had sustained loss on recent purchases, while we understood in other cases, especially from the West Highlands, good profits had been realized. This stock gave 4/. and 4/. 5s. at the August tryst last year. A lot of three years old Mull queys fetched 6/ — last year 5/. 8s. and 5/. 10s. A lot of two years old Lewes cattle fetched 3/. 12s. 6d. — last year 3/. 5s. ; they were for the county of Essex this year. Another lot of Lewis two years old stots fetched 21. 1 5s. ; this lot was also for Essex. Other lots were bought by Mr. Bray, of Lin- colnshire ; Mr. Bray also bought a lot of small ponies at 3/. 5s. each. Mr. Flockhart, salesman, Edinburgh, sold mixed Highlanders at 5/. 10s. and 57. 15s., two years old. A lot of small West Highland stirks fetched 1/. 10s. ahead; they were from Dumfriesshire. A lot of three years old Aberdeenshire, half fat, fetched 13/. 15s. for Overtown, Kirkliston. Generally good two years old West Highland stots fetched from 5/. to 6/. 10s. Mr. Cameron, of Corrychoilie, sold a lot of two years old Argyleshire at 5/. 10s., and a lot of three years old ditto, queys, at 11., to Mr. Riddell, of Cum- berland. Heavy Cattle. — Mr. Fife, Kirnemuir, a lot of Angus, half fat, three years old, fetched 11/. 10s., and a lot of three years old Ross- shire at 11/. 15s., and a third lot of Angus three years old at 10/. A lot of fat Angus fetched 14/., being about 7s. 6d. per Dutch stone. A lot of two and three years old Angus fetched 8/. 15s., to winter in Fifeshire. A lot of two and three years old Perthshire queys fetched 11. 10s. — last year 6/. 15s. and 11. Twenty head of two years old Angus for graziers fetched 5/. 5s. — last year 4/. 7s. 6d. ; and twelve head of half fat cross Angus two years old, for feeding out, at 11. 10s. Mr. Campbell, salesman, bought three years old Angus at 12/. 10s., strong-boned, to put on turnip in Mid Lothian. Mr. J. Archibald, dealer, Edinburgh, bought a large lot of Angusshire half fat at 11/., three years old. Fife Breed. — There were none of the Fifeshire breed shown. Irish Cattle. — Mr. M'Alroy sold year-olds at 6/. 6s., strong boned, and two years old at 10/. a head, and several other lots at proportionate prices, but all at a shade below Edinburgh prices. Fat Cattle. — A lot of 42 head of prime fat cattle were bought by Mr. Bell, flesher, Glasgow, at from 7s. 9d. to 8s. per Dutch stone ; other lots of fat cattle realized about 7s. 9d. Dutch, and all sold. Horses. — There were a good number of horses shown, but all of an inferior sort ; in fact there was only one really good, a draught horse, which sold at 44/. There was neither hunter, harness, riding, coach, nor other draught horse, fetched a price worth quoting; con- sequently, any sales effected form no criterion as to the price of horseflesh. There wras a demand for good horses, but they were not to be had. Milch Cows. — A good number of milch cows ap- peared, for which there was a dull sale, owing to dealers having bought at higher prices at Rutherglen thau they could realize at this tryst. Wednesday, Aug. 13. To-day there appeared a great part of yesterday's un- sold stock. Up to twelve o'clock scarcely a sale was effected. There were very few buyers on the ground, the principal ones having left early yesterday afternoon, in order to be in time for other markets to be held this week. After five o'clock last evening, beastswere selling from 5s. to 7s. 6d. per head less than was offered for them in the former part of the day. Before sellers will get their beasts sold to-day, they will have to submit to considerable sacrifices. From the appearance of the market there will be a great many left unsold of both West Highland and north country cattle. To those who sold on Monday evening, or early on Tuesday morning, the tryst has proved a good one ; but those who hung back from twelve o'clock yesterday, have either lost money on what they have sold, or have not sold at all. 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF AUGUST. Though the early part of the summer was not particularly favourable, there were no just grounds for uneasiness as to the probable result of the har- vest till about the middle of June ; the very inaus- picious weather since experienced has, however, given rise to serious apprehensions, and there is too much reason to fear that both the quantity and qua- lity of this year's crop of wheat will prove defective. It has been ascertained beyond doubt that the cold rain which fell about the blossoming time caused the grain to set imperfectly ; the defect thereby oc- casioned woidd of itself have been sufficient to pre- vent a very large yield, however auspicious the wea- ther might afterwards have become. So far, how- ever, from subsequent events having occurred to counteract the ill effects of the injury complained of, the general character of the summer has been the reverse of propitious. Abundance of rain, days without sunshine, and nights so cold that the ther- mometer frequently fell to 45 and even 42°, both in July and August, were certainly not calculated to remedy the original defects ; indeed, it may be regarded as surprising that the prospects are not far worse than they are. The absence of genial warmth, whilst it has re- tarded the crops, has, in one respect, been fortunate, for had the wet been accompanied by heat, one of the worst evils which can at any time befal the crop must have occurred, viz., that of the grain vegetating in the ear. Since the 20th inst. the weather has been very fine, previous to the auspicious change which then took place, most parts of the Kingdom were visited by a heavy fall of rain accompanied by a violent gale of wind, by which extensive mischief was done to the growing corn. The storm was much more severe in the northern and eastern counties than in the south, and the reports from some of the districts over which it passed are of a very distressing nature. Harvest operations were partially commenced in the earlier localities the first and second weeks in August, but reaping was by no means general even in the southern counties till the 18th; for two or three days subsequent to that date the work was to- tally suspended in consequence of the rain, but lat- terly it has been proceeded with under more aus- picious circumstances. Hitherto, comparatively little new wheat has been brought forward at any of the markets in the agri- cultural districts, and the test of thrashing has not as yet been tried on a sufficiently extensive scale to admit of an accurate estimate being formed relative to the yield per acre. It is almost universally ad- mitted that there is a decided deficiency ; but to what extent, it is at present impossible to determine. At one time it was believed that the falling off in the home growth would be so great as to render a large importation absolutely necessary, and even now many well informed parties adhere to that opi- nion. Had there not been a very large stock of old wheat in the hands of the growers to meet the extra demand caused by the lateness of the season, ( die harvest being at least a month later than last year,) we should ere this have been under the necessity of importing ; hitherto, however, the farmers have been enabled to keep the markets plentifully sup- plied, and notwithstanding the enormous quanti- ties brought forward of late, a considerable stock is still, we believe, in the hands of the growers. To enable our readers to form a correct notion of the extent of the supplies, we beg to submit to them the following comparative table of the quantities sold at the towns from which the returns are col- lected for compiling the averages during June, July, and August, this year, and in 1844. The difference between the two periods is, it will be seen, upwards of fifty per cent. 1845. 1844. Week end- Qrs. Price. Qrs. Price. ing s. d. s. d. June 7.. 120,143 at 47 7 .. 95,399 at 55 6 14.. 108,254 48 2 .. 103,354 55 9 21.. 109,041 47 10 .. 96,865 55 8 28.. 102,35S 47 11 •• 86,823 55 9 July 5.. 98,243 47 11 •• 83,193 55 8 12.. 105,629 48 10 .. 84,387 54 10 19.. 117,093 50 0 .. 83,728 54 1 26.. 118,666 51 7 .. 86,756 52 9 Aug. 2.. 139,009 53 3 .. 78,491 51 0 9. . 165,574 55 3 . . 62,105 48 10 16.. 172,628 57 0 .. 66,010 49 1 23.. 162,977 57 0 .. 85,814 50 4 Total. . 1,519,615 Total. . 1,012,925 Notwithstanding the abundance of the supplies the prices continued to advance until they had ac- tually risen from 10s. to 12s. per qr. from the lowest point : this occurred in the early part of the present month ; then, however, buyers began to act on the reserve, and the deliveries from the growers having, in the meanwhile, rather increased than fallen off, a reaction to the extent of from 3s. to 5s. per qr. took place. Whether the down- ward movement will continue must depend, in some measure, on the ability of farmers to keep the markets fully supplied. Should the demand once overtake the supply, prices would immediately rally. This, however, is by no means to be de- sired; present prices are sufficiently high to re- munerate the producer, without being so high as to occasion serious inconvenience to the consumer; any material rise on the existing rates would cause distress among the poorer classes, without being of ultimate benefit to the agriculturist. In that case the averages would speedily rise, so as to cause a low duty ; speculators, who have long been on the look out, would immediately clear in the bonded stocks for consumption ; and our foreign neigh- bours would not be slow to take advantage of the event, to send us as much of their surplus stock as they could manage to spare : the foreign mer- chant and the speculator would therefore be the parties most likely to be benefited. We are in- clined to think that our farmers have acted wisely THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 in thrashing out and supplying the markets freely ; ! by these means they have rendered any tampering with the averages difficult, realized good prices, and prevented the outcry against the corn-laws which would unquestionably have been raised had anything like scarcity been experienced. The arrivals of English wheat into London have been the largest we ever recollect in the month of August. During the three weeks, ending the 23rd instant, the amazing quantity of 42,005 qrs. has been received, independent of good supplies of country manufactured flour. Prices were, never- theless, well maintained till Monday the 11th, and even then the decline did not exceed 1s. to 2s. per qr. ; the abatement then conceded caused an improved inquiry, and large sales were made during that week; on the 18th, however, there was again an enormous display of samples at Mark Lane, and the day being comparatively fine, factors lost confidence : a further reduction of 2s. to 3s. per qr. was the result. The heavy rain of the fol- lowing day caused a partial reaction to the extent of Is. to 2s. per qr., but the fine weather since en- joyed has rendered it impossible for sellers to make further sales at the improvement, and the business done on Monday last (25th), was at rates quite 28. per qr. below those current on that day se'nnight. It is not to be supposed that the whole of the 42,005 qrs. wheat received this month have gone into consumption. The millers are certainly better stocked than at any previous time for some months past, and even should the receipts now become moderate, no immediate want is likely to be felt. A considerable proportion of the supply has been taken by speculators, some of whom are likely to wish to effect re-sales, which may also be expected to act as a check to an early advance. At the same time, we feel fully pursuaded that the value of old wheat will not fall materially, and that it will, later in the season, be in much request for mixing with the damp and inferior samples of new. No wheat of this year's growth was exhibited for sale at Mark-lane till the 25th instant, and then the quan- tity was insignificant ; a few of the lots shown were of fair quality; none really fine, and the greater proportion very inferior. The best white brought 58s. to 60s., and for the ordinary kinds only from 48s. to 55s. per qr. was obtained. The abundance of English wheat has caused free foreign to be neglected, and though the quan- tity of the latter remaining in warehouse is trifling here as well as at the outports, prices have gra- dually tended downwards since the first week in August. The actual decline has not, it is true, been great, as holders have refrained from pressing sales ; but had any anxiety to realize been mani- fested, it would have been necessary to have sub- mitted to rather an important reduction to have placed large quantities. As compared with the quotations at the close of July, prices are, how- ever, still high, the advance subsequently estab- lished having been only partially lost. Superior high-mixed Danzig could not at any period of the month have been bought below 65s. to 66s., nor are there yet sellers under those rates. Fine Ros- tock and similar descriptions of red wheat continue to be held at 60s. to 62s. per qr.; but it must be remarked that these terms have become almost nominal, our millers having given the preference of late to wheat of home growth, which they have been enabled to purchase relatively cheaper. A good deal of speculation has taken place in bonded wheat during the month, and rather con- siderable orders have been forwarded to the Baltic on British account. For parcels already here, as well as for cargoes to arrive, extravagantly high prices had been demanded, and in many instances obtained. The best qualities of Danzig have been sold under lock at 50s., and superior red at 45s. to 46s. per qr., whilst for free on board Danzig cargoes 42s. to 44s., and for Rostock, Stettin, and other favourite varieties of red, 38s. to 42s. per qr. have been realized. How the speculation will ulti- mately turn out remains to be proved. To realize a profit on these rates, it will be necessary for the duty to fall to a low point, of which, at present, we see no great prospect. The averages have certainly got up very considerably ; but it will be found a much more difficult matter under the present than under the previous corn-law to reduce the duty to a low point. Hitherto the first rest in the scale has not been got over ; and unless a fresh impetus be given to prices by untoward weather, or some other unforeseen cause, we much question whether wheat will be admissible for home consumption for some time to come below 17s., or perhaps 16s. per qr. Add the lowest of these two rates to the prices paid on the other side, with 5s. to 7s. per qr. for charges, and it will at once be observed that the chances of a profitable result are not very great. Spring-sown corn not being so easily injured by a wet summer as wheat, promises a much better return. In respect to barley the reports are on the whole of a satisfactory character, the only com- plaint being that of its having been a good deal lodged by the rain, in consequence of its extreme luxuriance. Should September prove auspicious for the ingathering, the yield of this grain would undoubtedly be very great. As regards the quality we cannot speak with the same confidence : much of the produce must be expected under any cir- cumstances to be coarse ; and we are inclined to think that really fine malting samples will be com- paratively scarce. The old stocks appear to be quite exhausted in all parts of the kingdom ; at many of the markets supplies have for weeks past totally ceased, and the arrivals into London have for the last month or two been unusually small ; had the demand, therefore, been at all active, the value of the article must in- evitably have risen materially. Such, however, has not been the case ; beyond a trifling inquiry for feeding purposes, and an occasional speculative pur- chase of the finer sorts, very little has been done ; but, moderate as has been the sale, some trifling improvement has taken place in prices, good distil- ling sorts having latterly commanded 30s. at Mark Lane, and grinding parcels from 24s. to 26s. per qr., according to weight, sweetness, &c. The high duty (9s. per qr.) has prevented any entries of foreign for home consumption, but the stocks in bond have recently been decreased by shipments to Holland and Belgium, where, in con- sequence of a great deficiency in the potato crop, 282 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. all articles likely to be used as substitutes for that important root have risen materially in price. It may not be amiss to notice, in this place, that the same disease which is reported to have attacked the potatoes so extensively on the continent has made its appearance in a modified form in the Channel Islands, as well as in some of the southern and western counties. From what we have been able to learn of the subject, it appears to be a species of blight, manifesting itself first by the discolouration of the haulm, but afterwards extending to the roots. In some parts of Kent the complaints are very general; but we are happy to say that neither from the north and east, nor from Ireland, have we as yet heard any mention made of the disorder, and we are therefore inclined to hope that it may not prove eerious in Great Britain. Oats, like barley, have been rather benefited than injured by the prevalence of shower)'' weather, and if well secured, the produce, taking the whole of the British islands together, is likely to exceed an average. Where reaping has been commenced, and this has been pretty generally the case both on this side of the Channel and in Ireland, the quality and quantity are described as extremely good. At Liverpool several small parcels of new Irish have been received, as well as meal made of the new produce, and report speaks very favourably of the mealing properties of this year's growth. In Scot- land the crops are unusually backward, but in other respects the prospects are by no means bad there, and, on the whole, we feel disposed to believe that the produce of oats, provided no injury be done by unpropitious weather, will be satis- factory. The trade in this grain has remained quiet throughout the month : the scarcity of British grown corn would in all probability have caused a small advance in prices, had not good supplies of foreign been received. Even with the assistance of the arrivals from abroad, the finer sorts have rather risen in value. At Mark Lane the best English and Scotch feed oats have commanded from 25s. to 27s. per qr., prices which were barely obtainable in July ; secondary sorts have, on the other hand, rather receded than advanced, owing to the comparatively low terms at which free foreign have been offered. Danish, Swedish, and similar descriptions of oats have been selling at from 20s. to 22s., and Archangel at 21s. to 21s. 6d. per qr., duty paid. Of the latter the receipts have been important within the last fortnight, and a further large quantity is believed to be close at hand. The quantity of this year's shipments from that port is very good, many of the cargoes averaging 40lbs. weight per bushel. Archangel oats are always a favourite sort with the London dealers, and whilst they can be had on the moderate terms named, Irish, are likely to be neglected. At one period there appeared some chance of the dutyjon this grain falling a step or two, but latterly the averages have not come so high as expected, and, from the fact of the existing rate (6s. per qr.) being freely paid by the importers, it would seem that they have given up the idea of any decline occurring later in the year. The outstanding crop of beans is, on the whole, tolerably well spoken of. At one time its appear- ance was splendid, but the excess of moisture seems [ to have encouraged the growth of the haulm at the j expense of the pods ; and we do not think the j yield will be equal to what was expected earlier in j the season. Of old beans there are very few re- , maining, and, as the new cannot for a considerable time be fit for use, the present value of the article, j high as it is, seems likely to be maintained. In the : London market the current price has become 40s. for ; fine quality, and in other parts of the country even higher rates have been paid ; the averages have consequently continued to tend upwards, and the duty to recede. On the 15th instant it fell to 2s. 6d. per qr. ; and from the present aspect of affairs it is by no means improbable that it may decline to the minimum point. Under these circumstances, Egyptian and other foreign sorts have brought high prices in bond. The stock under lock is by no means large : by the last official returns it appears that, on the 5th of August, there were only 55,580 qrs. in the kingdom, of which 17,164 qrs.were in the London warehouses. Respecting the crop of peas, the accounts vary materially. Some of the early varieties have un- questionably suffered extensively from the wet ; in many places the pods are said to have opened, and allowed the peas to escape ; and by this means alone the productiveness of the crop is likely to be detracted from. The reported injury has, however, failed to produce any effect on prices, and, with very scanty supplies and a strictly retail demand, quotations of the article have remained very nearly stationary. The transactions in the London mar- ket have been on a strictly retail scale; white boilers, of which there are still a few parcels of foreign in warehouse, have scarcely been inquired for ; the nominal price has been and still continues 36s. to 38s. A few small lots of new English have come forward, which have sold at 40s. to 42s. per qr. No new nor old grey or maple peas have for some weeks been exhibited, and the first arrivals of the present year's growth are likely to command high rates. Early in the month the town millers succeeded in fixing the nominal top price of flour at 53s. per sack, being a rise of 4s. on the former quotations : other sorts rose in the same proportion, and for some weeks the enhanced terms were pretty freely paid ; latterly, however, the bakers have declined entering into further contracts ; and on Monday, the 25th inst., Norfolk and other ship marks were in vain offered at 40s. per sack in the river, being a decline of fully 2s. per sack from the highest point. The arrivals of flour from Canada have not been so large as was expected this season, and full prices have consequently been obtained for the article. From the United States very little has come to hand, and the few parcels of sweet in the market have commanded high rates. Before bringing our remarks on the trade to a close, we deem it right to take some notice of the probable result of the wheat harvest abroad, the stocks held at foreign ports, and the fluctuations which have taken place in the value of the article in those countries from which, in case we should hereafter require a supply, we are most likely to receive it. With the exception of Holland, Bel- gium, and part of France, where even a greater THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •283 amount of rain appears to have been experienced during the summer than in Great Britain, the wea- ther seems to have been more auspicious on the continent than with us. From many of the large f wheat-growing countries, where early in the year we received unfavourable reports as to the crops, the advices recently received represent the prospect as much improved. July, which was a cold, wet month here, was comparatively warm and dry in many of the countries bordering on the Baltic, and there can be no doubt that sufficient wheat will be grown in Poland, Prussia, and other parts of Ger- many, to afford a considerable quantity for export- ation. At Danzig there is, besides a large stock of old, not far short of 400,000 qrs.; but at the Lower Baltic ports little or no Wheat remains on hand. The advance which took place in this country in July was immediately followed by a corresponding rise at the principal continental markets, whilst the recent reaction in prices here has not been so readily responded to. The highest price paid for wheat at Danzig, in August, has been 46s. per qr., and, by the latest accounts, really fine high mixed, the growth of 1842, continued to be held at that rate, though the news of a fall of several shillings per qr. in the British market had been received there. The firm- ness of holders had, no doubt, been increased by the accounts from Holland, where, in consequence of the failure of potatoes, wheat was known to have, risen 7s. to 8s. per qr. The shipments from Danzig to England do not appear to have been on an extensive scale, owing partly to the exorbitant demands of holders, and partly to the scarcity of vessels. Many of the ships chartered to load wheat to London had been taken up at 4s. to 4s. 3d. per qr., being a higher freight than that paid at any previous time this summer. At Rostock, Stettin, and the neighbouring Pome- ranian and Mecklenburg ports, very little business has been done,in consequence of the almost total ex- haustion of the stocks of old. The harvest, which was rapidly being brought to a close, would, it was expected, prove very satisfactory in those localities. We have ourselves seen samples of the new pro- duce from Stettin and Rostock; the wheat is of fine quality, and the barley fully as good as grown in those countries in average years. The last sales of old wheat made at Rostock were at 40s. to 42s. per qr., and the same prices were asked at Stettin on the 19th August. At the Mediterranean ports the value of wheat has, in anticipation of England requiring supplies, risen even higher than in the Baltic. The crop in Italy is described as defective ; and though there are rather large stocks of Black Sea wheat at Leghorn, as well as at Marseilles, the high terms asked at those places will, we think, prevent any speculative purchases of importance being made there on British account. From Odessa we learn, under date of 4th August, that some extensive transactions had taken place, partly for shipment to this country, but prin- cipally in execution of orders received from dif- ferent places in the Mediterranean; oidinary qualities had sold at equal to 19s. to 21s. and the best samples at 25s. to 28s. per qr. free on board. From the United States, as well as from Canada, the reports relative to the wheat harvest are on the whole favourable. In some of the states the crop is said to be rather deficient, but the falling off in one place appears to be about balanced by the su- perior yield in another. As a proof that the total produce is considered good, we may mention that prices of both wheat and flour had receded at seve- ral of the principal ports. By the latest accounts from Canada we learn that the crops had not then been secured, but they were described as promising, and quotations at Montreal had consequently tended downwards, though stocks were by no means large there ; we expect, however, that the advices which left this country about the latter end of July and the be- ginning of the present month have, ere this, wrought a material difference in the position of affairs on the other side of the Atlantic, and are fully prepared to hear, by the next accounts, that an advance has taken place, not only in the Cana- dian, but also in the markets of the United States. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. August 25. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new, red 56 53 Old, red 68 60 RTE.old 82 34 Barley, Grinding, 28 80 Malting 80 S2 Irish 24 2(5 Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 58 03 Kingston and Ware 60 — Oats, Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 28 24 Youghall and Cork, black20 21 — Dublin 21 22 Waterford, white 21 22 Newry . 23 — Galwav.. 20 21 Scotch, feed ... 24 28 Clonmel 22 28 Londonderry 22 23 Beans, Tick, new 3« 40 Peas, Grey 38 40 White 38 40 Seed, Rape 271. 261. Irish., Linseed, Baltic. 38 4t Odessa Mustard, while 12 15 brown Flour, Town-made 51 58 Suffolk 42 — Stockton and Norfolk 42 — Irish White 60 62 66 Do 62 64 New.... h6 — Chevalier 33 — Bere ... 25 — Brown.. 56 60 Chevalier 65 — Potato.. 24 86 Cork,white22 — W«stport 22 23 Black .. 21 22 Potato.. 25 28 Limerick 22 24 Sligo .. 22 23 Old, small 40 42 Maple.. 38 40 Boilers. . 38 40 , 22*. 26(. per last. 45 47 10 12 per bush. per sk. of 2801b«. 42 44 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat. Dantzic 46 — fine 48 50 Hamburg 38 Rostock 42 Barley 19 Oats, Brew 17 Beans 28 Peas 28 Flour, American, per brl 24 40 44 23 18 Feed ... 14 17 29 32 — Baltic ..21 — IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Weekending Wheat. Barley. Oats. July 12th 48 10 10th 26th Aug. 2nd 9th 16th Aggregate average of the six weeks which regulates the duty. Duties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival of the mail of that day from London . . Do. on grain from British possessions out of Europe ... 52 8 18 0 29 4 9 0 4 0 0 6 22 5 Rye. Beans. 31 11 82 8 81 7 34 6 83 10 34 4 89 8 39 9 4'> 8! 40 5 41 0 41 2 33 6 40 4 2 6j 1 6 8 0| Peas. 38 11 40 2 88 10 41 0 39 7 3 6 3 0 m THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES by tlie Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, Aug. 22nd, 1845. Wheat 57 Barley 29 Oats 22 Bye 34 Beans 41 Pkas 39 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in the lasl year, Friday, Aug. 23rd, 1844. g. (I. Wheat 49 1 Barley 34 6 Oats 20 0 Rye 35 11 Beans 35 7 Peas 33 7 Account shewing the Quantities of Corn, Pulse, and Flour imported into the United Kingdom, in the month ended the 5th Aug., 18-15; the Quantities upon which Duties have been paid for Home Con- sumption during the same month, and the Quantities remaining in Warehouse at the close thereof. Quantity en- Quantity tered for remaining in consumption, warehouse. Species of Grain. Wheat, from British Possessions Oats, do Peas, from do Beans, do Indian Corn, do Wheat, foreign Barley, do Oats, do Peas, do Beans, do Indian Com, do Buck Wheat, do. Flour from British Pos- sessions Flour, foreign . . Quantity imported. qrs. bush. 5.372 3976 42'1 2 1004 55198 65759 3260 20143 1478 467 CwtS. qrs.lbs. qrs. bush. | qrs. bush. 5SS4 3809 4656 2 311 884 1306 60830 3297 11039 2Sl I 92 5 1C6 6 6*9 4 11294 2 57714 7 98589 6 12607 ! 55580 4 8125 0 467 5 cwts. qrs.lbs. cwts. qrs.lbs. 95190 0 20, 95693 2 17| 2717 2 13 642 0 2 80 1 12,221914 2 21 PRICES OF SEEDS. August 25. There was not much doing in Seeds. Canaryseed, of which the yield is expected to be rather short, was held for quite as much money as on Monday last. In Coriander, Carraway, &c, there was little pass- ing, llapeseed found buyers at £25 to ,£'26 per last. Cloverseed nominal at present. Linseed, English, sowing 52 68 Baltic — — (lushing 40 45 per qr. Linseed Cakes, English. .11*. 0s. to 11/. 5s. per 1000 Do. Foreign.. 71. 7. to 71. 10s. per ton. Mediter. & Odessa 40 44 Carraway 42 44 new .. 46 48percwl. Coriander 12 18 percwt. Mustard, brown, new.... 8 12 white.. 12 14 p bush Rapeseed, English, new . . 26.'. 28/. per last. Hempseed 35 38 per qr. Trefoil 17 24 old..— new — Tares, Spring 0s. Od. to 0s. Od. Tares, old ... . — — new— — per qr. Rye Grass, English — — Scotch— — nominal. Canary, 48 51 per qr. fine 54s. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Monday, Aug. 25. The market for Hops has been steady, and the rise of last week seems to be maintained ; although in some respects, the accounts from the plantations are better. The duty is called 170,000/. to 175,000/. We quote Weald of Kent pockets, 5/. 6s. to 6/. ; Mid. Kent, 51. 10s. to 8/. ; and East Kent, 6/. 10s. to 9/. 5s. Sussex are about 5/. 10s. to 6/. WORCESTER, Aug. 23.— Our Hops are gone from bad to worse this week, and the crop is now likely to be very deficient, the continued cold wet weather having been too much for them ; added to which, the vermin has in many places increased to an alarming extent, and completely destroyed the hopes of the planters. The duty is dow currently estimated at 12,000/. ; and the market continues brisk at an advance since last Saturday of 10s. per cwt., fine samples being readily sold at 6/. to 61. 1 0s. per cwt. HOPS, OLD DUTY, &c, 1845.— A short and ready reckoner, showing the amouut of old duty from one to ten cwts. per acre, on a series of numbers of acres ; within which range the extent of the hop plantations for the present year is likely to fall : — Numbers of Acres : Fractious omitted per 45548-9 1 45962-8! 46376-7 46790-1 47204-5 47619-20 Acre. Acres. Acres. 1 Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Cwts. £ £ £ £ £ £ 1 22000 22200 i 22400 22600 22S00 23000 o 44000 44400 44800 45200 45600 46000 3 66000 66600 67200 67800 68400 6H000 4 88000 88800 i 89600 90400 91200 92000 5 110000 111000 j 112000 110000 114000 115000 6 132000 133200 | 134400 135600 186800 138000 7 154000 155(00 ; 156S00 158200 159600 161000 8 176000 177600 179200 ' 180800 182400 184000 9 198000 199S00 ' 201600 , 203400 205200 207000 10 220000 222000 224000 | 226000 228000 230000 From the above it would appear that the difference be- tween a moderate increase of acres from last year, and one to the extent that many suppose it will reach for the present year, will amount iipon an average crop to ,£6,000 and upwards in old duty. It is therefore ob- vious that strict attention should be paid to the probable increase or falling off of the plantation, before a correct estimate can be formed of the duty for the present year. — Sussex Express. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. LEEDS, August 22. — This market remains much the same as stated in our last week's report, and last week's prices were fully maintained. WAKEFIELD, August 22. -The unfavourable wea- ther of the early part of the week had again cast a gloom over the Wool trade, and very little has been done ; the favourable change of yesterday has inspired better hopes, and prices are nominally the same. YORK, August 21. — There was not much business done in this market to-day, there being only a small show of Wool and few buyers. Prices continue much the same as they have been for some time past. Mixed lots of hog and ewe, 14s., 14s. 6d., to 14s. 9d. ; Moor Wool, 7s. to 7s. 6d. per stone. LIVERPOOL, August 23. Scotch. — There has been only a moderate demand for laid Highland Wool this week, at barely late rates ; the continued unsettled weather prevents people operat- ing with any thing like confidence. White Highland is still neglected. There has been a few fresh arrivals of crossed and Cheviot, which have found buyers from the quay at late rates. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 241bs .... 9 3 to 9 7J White Highland do 12 0 18 0 Laid Crossed do., unwashed.... 10 9 12 0 Do. do.. washed 11 6 13 6 Do. Cheviot do. unwashed .... 11 6 14 0 Do. do. .washed 13 6 17 6 White Do. do 24 0 28 0 Foreign. — The public sales of foreign Wool have gone off with considerable spirit ; the colonial and Cape about Id. per lb. above the late London sales. The low Wools only partly sold, there not being time after the fine were sold to get them fairly brought forward, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. t«5 FOREIGN. From Port Philip, under date of April 5, we learn that an enormous number of sheep continued to be boiled down for the sake of their tallow. The following has come to hand this week : — " The production of wheat in the United States in 1843 amounted to 100,310,856 bushels, equal to 20,062,371 brls. of flour, of which about one million brls. were ex- ported. The production of wheat in 1844 was equiva- lent to 19,121,400 brls. of flour, of which 1,438,574 brls. were exported — leaving a balance in the country equal to about one brl. per head per annum. This sur- plus is of wheat alone, the production of which is only equal to one-fifth that of corn. Nearly one-tenth of the agricultural production of the United States is annually exported, leaving nine-tenths for home consumption. All we want is markets for our productions to stimulate cultivation, and we could supply all Europe with bread- stuffs. Since 1838 the wheat crops of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois, have nearly doubled ; and the pro- ductions of the soil increase ten-fold more rapidly than consumers. According to the census of 1840, 3,711,000 individuals in the United States were employed in agri- culture, and only 909,356 in commerce and manufac- tures. A very great change has no doubt taken place in the employments of the people of this country since then. The revival of trade and rapid increase of ma- nufactures have required a greater number of labourers in most branches, and many may have been withdrawn from the cultivation of the soil, to supply the demand for operators in manufacturing establishments. The agri- cultural class has been by no means reduced by the withdrawal of those required in this branch of business. The influx of foreigners has increased the number of producers full as fast as consumers, and every employ- ment is fully supplied with labourers. In 1840, when the census was taken, there were more engaged in agri- cultural pursuits than for many years previous. The revulsions that just previous to that time had taken place in commercial affairs induced many to turn their atten- tion to agriculture who were previously engaged in mer- cantile and manufacturing operations. Since then mat- ters have improved, and every branch of business has become active, and the productions of the soil and of every other industry, within the present year, have without doubt been greater than in any previous year. The increase in Great Britain is very large in the num- ber engaged in commerce and trade. Within ten years, from 1831 to 1841, the number engaged in agricultural pursuits decreased. Comparative Table op Employments. 1831. 1841. Incr. Agriculture 1,251,751 1,215,264 — Commerce and trade.. 1,572,292 2,039,409 467,117 The changes that occurred in the interim are not great, and as the numbers employed in any particular industry fluctuates, from time to time, as the policy of the govern- ment and the movements in the currency may make them profitable or otherwise, we may take it for granted that this is a very favourable view, taken at a very favourable time. In this country, where the existence of the commercial interest depends upon the policy of the government and the state of the currency, the num- ber employed in the different branches of business fluc- tuates enormously, and in no one more than in manu- facturing establishments." LEEDS, August 22. — There has been a partial im- provement in the demand for foreign Wools this week, as compared with the preceding one, but, owing to the continued ungenial state of the weather, buyers are still very cautious in their operations, suiting their purchases generally to their immediate requirements. In prices we have no variation to notice. LIVERPOOL WOOL SALES. The public sales of Wool, which commenced on the 21st instant, and closed this day, were as numerously attended as usual, and the number of the smaller manu- facturers who give such support to the sales was larger than we ever remember. For the fine Wool there was a spirited competition throughout, particularly for the finer kinds of Australian and Cape clothing, which have been sold at a decided advance on the prices of last sales, and fully equal to those lately held in London. With regard to the Australian Wools, we are glad to be able to confirm the improvement in condition and ge- neral mode of management we have before noticed, which were more particularly apparent in the Wools from Port Philip and South Australia, which bid fair in time to rival those from Sydney. The Cape Wools were, for the most part, a fair assortment, although inferior to se- veral former imports we have seen this season. There still remains, however, much to be desired, both as re- gards more even classification and greater care in pack- ing ; and when this is not properly attended to, it is difficult to estimate their full value ; and, as it would act very much against them in a dull market, these noints cannot be too strongly pointed out. Several bales of Entre Rios and Buenos Ayres Wool attracted considerable attention from their superior condition and the absence of burrs, and realized full rates. It is much to be regretted that this improvement is not more ge- neral ; and we believe the growers would be amply re- paid for any trouble and attention. The finer kinds are very much required by our manufacturers ; but, from the unmarketable state they are at present sent in, and the expense and difficulty in getting them cleaned, they remain comparatively neglected, and an article of pre- carious sale. For the lower kinds of Wool there was a fair demand ; but the quantity brought forward being unusually large, and the time allowed being inadequate for their inspection, a large quantity had to be with- drawn, which otherwise might have been avoided, as there was a very ample attendance of the trade, both home and foreign. The hurried way in which the sales are managed here is a source of great complaint ; and if a little more system were adopted, and they were brought on earlier in the week, so as to afford more time for examination, it would not only be a conveni- ence to the buyers, but of advantage to the importer, and would also lead to more extensive sales by private contract. We beg to refer to the annexed prices : — 2,031 bales Sydney, good, Is. lid., 2s. l|d., and 2s. 3d. ; middling to fair, Is. 9d. to Is. 10^d. ; locks, &c, lid. to Is. 5d. 1,281 bales Port Philip, good, Is. 8d. to Is. 10^d. ; middling to fair, Is. 7d. to Is. 9d. ; locks, &c, lOd. to Is. 3d. 258 bales South Australia, good, Is. 7d. to Is. 8£d. ; middling to fair, Is. 5d. to Is. 7d. ; locks, &c, lOd. to Is. 3d. 245 bales Cape of Good Hope, good, Is. 7d. to Is. 8^d. ; middling to fair, Is. 4d. to Is. 6d. ; locks, &c, 7-£d. to lO^d. 72 bales Spanish, withdrawn. 226 bales Portugal and Oporto, chiefly low qualities, 9^d. to ll§d., and 6£d. to 8jd. 2,436 bales Entre Rios, Buenos Ayres, and Cordova, fine merino, Is. 6d. to Is. 10^1. ; do. do. burry, 11 £d. to Is. 2d. ; do. mixed do., 7d. to 10£d., chiefly with- drawn; coarse and ordinary, little or none sold. 1,078 bales Smyrna and Turkey, washed, 6£d. to 8^d. ; or- dinary unwashed, 2£d. to 3£d. ; chiefly withdrawn. 618 bales East India, fair white, 8d. to 9d. ; yellow, 6f d. to 7d. ; ordinary and grey, 3d. to 5d. 390 bales Russia, withdrawn. 1 76 bales Italian, &c, withdrawn. 369 bales Iceland, white, 7d. to 7£d., a few lots, 7£d. ; grey, 5£d. to 6|d. 208 bales sundries, chiefly withdrawn. Total, 9,342 bales. Hughes and Ronald, Wool-brokers, 286 Olv. last Sharss. half year THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES OF SHARES. RAILWAYS. •'2 a I 5,100 11,475 4125000/ 41,250 54,450 43,01)0 Aberdeen 2$/ pd 21 Ospsh Armagh,Coleraine,Portrush25/shliJZpd 103 Birmingham and GloucesterlOOZ sh pd Do. New, iss. 7$ dis. .. 25Z sh 174? Pd Ditto Half Shares 50Zsh 8/ pd Birminsham&OxfordJimct. 20/sh 2Zpd Brighton, Lewes, &Hastings,50/sh20/pd lZSspsh Bristol and Exeter ... . 100/ sh 70/ pd Ditto New 21 pd 12s p sli Bristol and Gloucester ..50/ sh 3"/ pd Caledonian 50/ sli 5/ pd Do. Extension 50/ sh 2$Z pd Cambridge and Lincoln. ...25/ lj'pd Canterbury and Dover if/ pd Cheltenham and Oxford ...... .-21 pd Chester and Holyhead. . .50/ sh 15/ pd CMchester and Brighton 20/ pd Clydesdale Junction 5/ pd Cork and Killarney . . . 50/ sli i$Z pd Cork and Waterford 25/ sh 1$Z pd Coventry, Nuneaton, Bir. & Leicester, 25/ sh lj/ pd Cornwall 5l!Z sli 3/ pd Direct Northern 50/ sh 2.JZ pd Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd Diss, Beccles,& Yarmouth. 25/sh l$/pd Dublin & Belfast Junction 60/sb 24/pd DubIin,Belfast,&;Coleraine,50'sh'2J'p<] Dublin and Galway 50/ sh 2$Z pd Dundalk and Enniskellen50/sh 2$/pd 4s p sh Eastern Counties .. 25/ sh 14/ 10s pd Do. New 25/ sh 4/ 16s p.i Do Perpetual, No. 1.. 6/ 13s 4dsh pd Ditto ditto. No. 2 ..6/ 13s 4d 13s 4ri East Dereham and Norwich ... 1/ pd Eastern Union 50/ sh 20/ pd Ditto Extension 25/sli 1$/ pd 3 a 2jJ U2s61ps!Edinburgh & Glasgow .... 50/ sj pd 90 0 89 6s7$d p s Ditto Quarter Shares 12$/ sh pd Ditto New J Shares 12$/ sh 5/ pd 14$ Edinburgh and Northern,25/sh 11/ pd Edinburgh and Perth l|/ pd Ely and Bedford .... 25/ sh \\l pd 4jJ a Enniskillen and Sligo 2$/ pd Exeter, Yeovil, and Dorchester, 23/ pd Goole and Doncaster 25/ sh ljj/ pd 5/ per ct Grand Junction 100/ sh pd 5/ perct Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd 6/ per ct Ditto Quarter Shares 25/ sh pd Grand Union (Nottingham and Lynn) mpdiia Great Grimsby i: Sheffield, 50feh afipd Gt.Southrn&Westn.(Irelnd)50/shl5/pd Ditto Extension 50/ sh 2£Z pd,ll$ a i Great Munster 2$/ pd 3/ p sh Great North of England 100/ sh pd220al9$ 10s p sh Ditto New 40/ sh 5Z pd 53 Ditto New 30/ sh 2/pd 32 a If Great North of Scotland 24/ pd 4/ per ct Great Western 100/ sh 80/ pd 18 ex-d. 4/ per ct Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd I18al6$ 1/ per ct Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 20/ pd 46$ ex-d. Guildfd,Fanilim,Portsmth,50/sli 2$'pd 2g Harwich 20Z sh 1/ pd if Hull and Gainsborough.. 25/ sh ljj/pd 1/l.isps Hull and Selby 50Zsh pd 106 SsOdpslJDo. Quarter Shares 12$/ sh pd Do. Half Shares 25/ sh 2/ pd 24$ a 4 Inverness and Elgin . . . 20/ sh 1/ pd Kendal Windermere . . . 25/ sh 1$/ pd Lancaster and Carlisle... 50/ sh 25/ pd 55$ a 6 Leeds and Bradford ...50/ sh 15/ pi Leeds & West Riding Junctn., 1*/ pd Leicester and Birmingham . . . ,22s pd Leicester and Bedford.. 20/ sh 22s pd 2 piu Limerick and Waterford 2$/ pd Lincoln, York, and Leeds 1 |z pd 4$/perct Liverpool & Manchester.... 100/ sh pd " /perct Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd 4j/perct Ditto Quarter Shares ....25/shpd 5/ per ct London & Birmingham. . ...... Stock 226 a 5 5/ perct Ditto Thirds 32/ sh 10/ pd 46 a $ / per ct Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/sh 2/ pd 28 a 4 3s London & Blackwall . . Av. 16/ 13s 4d 10£ a 3 Ditto New l$/pd5 a 4jj 30s p sh London and Brighton 50/ sh pd TtijJ a 7$ Ditto Consolidated Eighths50/sh 35/pd dsOd p sh London & Croydon . . . . Av. IS/ 15s 9d 25 J a $ Do. New 13s 4d pd I pm 83,000 48,077 11,136 46,200 00,000 20,000 lO.Of'O 10,000 8,000 10s 2/ Ospsh 5s p sh 13.000 j>/16s ps 13,0t>0 21s()dps 13,000 22,750 30,000 30,000 1 Z p sh 4155000Z:3Z per ct 12,500 I 978500/ 15,000 20,000 20,000 24,000 36,000 10,256 3,136 12,208 19,000 19.000 19,000 2,600 125.C00 12,000 26,000 7,000 18,000 22,000 56,000 28,000 42,000 126,000 50,000 43,000 9,000 15,000 7,500 20,000 30,000 1/ 10s 22s 6d 7s 6d 5| a 2 4 3$ a 3 4a J '$a| 801 a t> 94 a 3 34 a 6 12gal34, 62 a 3 10 8 "i pm 174 a 5 26J a $ 133 a 2$ 3 23J a U 3ja? 53 ex-d. 2* Do. Guaranteed 5 per Ct.. 9/ sh 6/ pd 7$ a | London & Greenwich .. Av. 12/ 15s 4dil0$ a % Preference or Privilege. .Av. 18/ 1 7s 2d | London & South West... Av. 41/ 6s 10d|77$ a 8$ DittoConsolidatedEighths,40/psh20Zpd Ditto New 50/ sli 2$/pd 16$ a $ Ditto New 40/ sh 2/ pd London and York 50/ sh 2$'. pd London and Windsor. . . . 25/ sh 1/ pd London, Salisbury, and Yeovil. .2$/ pd Londonderry&Coleraine, 50/ sh 2J/ pd Londonderry&EnniskilleniO/sh 2$/pd Lynn and Ely 25/ sh 2.J/ pd Lynn and Dereham .... °5/ sh \%l pd Manchester & Leeds . . 100/ sh 76/ pd : Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh 84/ pd ! Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 21 pd Ditto Sixteenths 6Z 5s sh 4$/ pi Manchester & Birmiiig.. 40/sh40/pd I Do. $ Shares 10/ sh 4/ pd Do. New i Shares 10/ sh 2/ pd I Manchester, Buxton, and Matlock, 20/ sh 22s pd ' Midland Stock Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 2/ pd Ditto New 40/ sh 2/pd' 40»8d p c Ditto Birmingham & Derby .... Stock MidlandGrt.West.(Irish)50/ sh 2»/ pd ! Newcastle & Berwick. 25/ sh i / 10s prl ' 21 p sli Newcastle and Carlisle . . 100/ sh pd Newcastle, Durham, and Lancashire Jum tion 1 §/ pd ! 10s p sh NewcstlScDarlingt June... 25/sh 25/ pd' 17s5d ps Ditto New (Brandling).. 25/ sh 10/pd •' Newport and Abergavenny 2$/ pd Newry and Enniskillen, 50/ sh 2$/ pd f Newark and Sheffield 25/ 1»/ pd'SJ a $ North British 25/ sh I5/pd3i$ a | Ditto New l/pj9$ a $ Northern & Eastern .... 50/ sh 45/ pd 73$ a 2 Do. Scrip . . iss. 5 dis. . .50/ sh 35/ pd Do. $ Shares 12/ 10s sh pd North Kent 50/ sh 2|/ pd North Staffordshire. . . . 20/ sh 22s. pd 4 pm North Wales 25/sh 1$/ pd 3i Norwich and Brandon ,.2'H sh 14/ pd 23$ a 2$ Ditto New. 10/ sh 1/ pd|6 a 5J Nottingham, Erewash Valley, & Man- chester lj(/ pd Oxford and Worcester 2$/ pd 7$ a £ Perth and Inverness 24/ pd Portsmouth Direct 50/sh2$/pd4J a 5$ Preston & W vre 60/ sh pd 40$ a I Richmond 20/ sh 1/ pd 6$ a $ Rugby, Worcester, andTringJO/shl/ pd 2J a § Scottish Central 25/sh 2$/ pd 7j a 6$ Scottish Midland 25/ sh 14/ pd 2 a $ Sheffield and Lincoln 25/sh l$/pd Sheffield and Manchester 100/sh 95/ pd Ditto $ Shares 25/sh 8/ pd Shrews., Wolverham., Dudlev, Birm., 50/ sh 2$/ pd ^| a g Shrewsbury and Trent Yallev Union, 20/ sh 22s pd 2$ pm Shrewsbury, Hereford, & North Wales 23/ pd 3f a 4 South Devon 50/ sh 20/ pd 3ug a 1 Sligo and Shannon SouthEasternandDover. .Av.83/ 2s 4d -46 a jj Ditto New, iss. at 82/ No.l,50/shl2/pd 213 a $ Ditto New 33/ 6s 8d.. No.2,50/sh7/pd 15 a 14^ Ditto New 30/ No.o,50/sh2$/pd 8J a 7} South Midland 20/ sh 22s pd H pm South Wales 50Z sh 2$Z pd 5g a 3 Staines and Richmond ..20/ sh 1/ pd 13 a 2 Trent Valley 20/ sh 2/ pd 18$ Trent Valley &; Holyhead Junc.lg pd 1? a 2 Warwick and Cheltenham .... ljj/ pd l| Waterford and Kilkenny, 20/ sh 1 / pd H a $ Waterford, Vt'exford, Wicklow, and Dublin l$/pd 1$ West Cornwall 20/ sh 1 $/ pd West End and Southern Counties 50/ sh 1$Z pd West London, Old Shares.. 20Z sh pd Welsh Midland 2$Z pd 3j a 2 West Yorkshire 50/ sh 24/ pd Wexford and Carlow 2$/ pd Wilts, Somerset, and Weymouth, 50/ sh 2$/ pd 43 a $ Worcester, Shrewsbury, and Crewe ' Union, IJ/pdSJ a | 15s6dps 1-1 1. 1 p s Printed by Joseph Rog«rton, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London' ' THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, OCTOBER, 1845. No. 4.— Vol. XII.] [Second Series. PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF THE LATE JOHN PRICE, ESQ., OF POOLE HOUSE. PLATE II. THE NORFOLK COB; a Celebrated Trotting Horse. MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN PRICE, ESQ., OF POOLE HOUSE. The detail of the exertions, the long-continued labours, and the success which the subject of the following brief and imperfect memoir attained in the improvement of the great and valuable breed of Herefordshire cattle, cannot but be interesting to the farmers of the United Kingdom — nay, to every portion of the earth where agriculture and the importance of its improvements are only even par- tially regarded. Living in a district where the Herefordshire cat- tle to a very great extent are preferred, it was natural that Mr. Price should have his attention directed to their improvement. This breed, perhaps, have never had their superior merits (especially for some soils) so generally allowed as they are justly en- titled, although the true Herefordshire breed have had their claims powerfully advocated by Marshall, and by Professor Youatt, in a work on cattle, well known to every accomplished English farmer. It is certain that they fatten to a much greater weight than the Devon breed, and quickly at an early age. For labour they are excellent on the heaviest soils, for they have certainly all the docile honesty of the oxen of Devonshire, with greater strength, although they certainly have not their activity. And if the cows of this breed are rather worse milkers, they are hardier, and will readily OLD SERIES.] grow fat where the more southern breed would starve . These were the opinions of the late Jshn Price. He early saw their merits. He set about their development, and persevered with a skilful energy, with whose reward Herefordshire may be justly proud. He tried, he tested — he succeeded ; and he was not one of those who were content to let the merits of his favourite cattle remain unknown and unappreciated; he speedily, therefore, sought the field of friendly contest with other great breeders, and he succeeded on most of these occasions ; he publicly challenged, in fact, at last, all England to show against him. The late John Price was the eldest son of Job and Elizabeth Price, who with great industry occupied a farm at Earlscroome, in Worcestershire. It was at this place that the subject of this sketch was born in 1776. The son of an industrious farmer who brought all his sons up to the same pursuit, with one exception. John Price was from an early age engaged in all the manual operations of the farm. Thus employed, he had little opportunity for receiving any other than a plain village-school education. He was taught to read, to write, and the use of figures. Whatever disadvantages, however, he experienced from the want of a more extended education, was amply com- pensated by the possession of great natural abilities, of a mind powerful and original in its conceptions and its conclusions. Ar±d as soon as he commenced U [No. 4.— VOL. XXIII, 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. business on his own account, be let sbp no oppor- tunity of improving his education, by reading, and seeking the society of gentlemen of high respecta- bility. He early in life became a favourite with the Earl of Coventry', the father of the late Earl, and at whose table there were always a knife and fork at his service. He was from the first distinguished as an excel- lent farmer, but his great efforts rendered him most remarkable as a breeder of Hereford cattle ; and of him, in fact, as is well remarked by an excellent correspondent, " it may not be too much to say that he soon became the most eminent breeder of Hereford cattle in the kingdom." It was when living at Ryall, near Upton, a farm at which he went to reside about the year 1814, that his first labour in the breeding of stock commenced; and it was here that about the year 1820 he first generally attracted the attention of his brother farmers, by winning a bet of twenty guineas with Mr. Meek, " to show twenty Hereford cows against twenty of his long-horns." We believe (but Ave are not sure of the fact) that he obtained his first stock from Mr. Tomkins, who fanned near Here- ford, and who was the first great breeder of that sort of Herefords. " He bought," says a relative, in a recent obliging communication, " at various times, a number of Benjamin Tomkin's Herefords, until he obtained a herd entirely of pure Tomkin's blood. B. Tomkins lived at Willington Court, in the County Hereford, and of whose judgment as a breeder I have heard Price repeatedly declare to have been of the first-rate description, and superior to any man's he ever met with." It must not be supposed by the distant breeder that the farm of Mr. Price possessed any peculiar natural advantages, or that he fed them at the reckless expense in which some exhibitors have in- dulged. He thus described his farm, and the dif- ficulties of keep under which he laboured, in a let- ter to the editor of this Magazine, dated in Novem- ber, 1841. (See vol. xv. p. 446.) " The important point for persons to consider is to breed and keep those cattle and sheep that will pay the most money for the food they have to give them ; this has always been my opinion, and have as far as it was practicable acted upon it by breeding the cat- tie I did, and Leicester sheep bred purely from Mr. Buckley's flock : and I will leave the public gene- rally to decide, after having received the statement I am about to make of the size of the farm 1 have oc- cupied for the last twelve years, the quality of land, and the buildings thereon, together with the num- ber of stock I have usually kept, as my late sale will prove, whether I have not cause to be satisfied with the result. "The farm that I have occupied since 1829 has not at any time much exceeded one hundred and fifty acres ; twenty of which are arable, totally unfit for the growth of turnips, and nearly one hundred and twenty acres, part of the Croome demesne, be- longing to the Earl of Coventry, in one ground, and rather below second-rate quality of land, greatly covered with ornamental timber, and neither build- ings or fold-yards on my farm sufficient to hold twenty beasts; yet on this land I have usually kept one hundred head of cattle, together with a flock of two hundred and fifty sheep, forty of which were rams, beside my cart and other horses. These are facts well known to the whole of my neighbours, who have always given me full credit for being the worst keeper of stock in England. I have seldom made use of oilcake, and on no occasion have I given corn or meal to any of my stock." At Ryall he continued to reside until 1829; where, after an occupation of fifteen years, he sold the estate, and removed to Poole House, near Upton, where he died, after a lingering and painful illness, on the 20th of June, 1843, aged 67 years. It was at Ryall that, in 1816, his first great sale of cattle took place. The prices obtained at this period for his stock, indicate pretty clearly the high estimation which his splendid herd had even then attained. Many were the noblemen and gentlemen who thus gladly availed themselves of the oppor- tunity of adding to their stock some of the finest specimens of the purest-bi'ed Herefords of the day. This sale consisted of 126 head, and these averaged fifty-four pounds eight shillings and two- pence each. The valuable stock which he raised with so much care soon became well known and dispersed over most portions of the kingdom; for he not only instituted his speedily celebrated sales, but he exhibited his cattle and sheep at a great number of agricultural shows in various parts of the United Kingdom; winning prizes at Bath, Ciren- cester, London, Worcester, Gloucester, Herefoid, Bristol, and at many other places. At the great sales also, to which we have before referred, most of those noblemen and gentlemen who are well known as breeders of " Herefords" availed them- selves of the opportunity to purchase extensively from his stock. Of these may be named Sir Fran- cis Lowley (who to the last warmly and constantly was the patron of Mr. Price), Earl Talbot, Sir F. Goodricke, Captain Walters, and many others, well known admirers of the Hereford breed. These sales were not annual ; he had, however, for several years, an annual ram-letting. He attended one of the (then) Lord Althorp's annual sales in Northamptonshire, where, after dinner, he chal- lenged to show the next year a bull against any short-horn one. He ultimately succeeded in get- ting up a sweepstakes of five pounds each, which he won with his bull " Lundyfoot," which was al- lowed to be the completest animal any of the com- pany ever saw, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 289 Previous to his last sale (for Price's enthusiasm [ in favour of his splendid Herefords continued to J Lot. the last), he publicly advertised a challenge (for, j ^_ _ we believe, one hundred guineas) open to all Eng- ' 2g land, to show one bull and twenty cows against the ' 29 — like number of any other fanners of the Hereford 30 — breed against an equal number of any other breed. ; ~ But it was in vain that he threw down the gauntlet : no one was found daring enough to take it up. The last sale which Mr. Price held was in October, 1841 — a sale which a few days after- wards he thus described, in a letter addressed to the Editor of this Magazine (see vol. xv. p. 444). " Sir, — As I am very desirous that an authentic statement of the late sale of my herd of Hereford cattle should appear in one, at least, widely circu- lated agricultural paper, I herewith transmit you for insertion a correct account of what each lot 6old for, and the name and residence of the pur- chasers. " The document I have sent you' will give to those who were not buyers all the information they re- quire ; and those who were, and doubtless provided themselves with catalogues containing the short pedigree I therein gave of my stock, have only to procure one of your papers to make their catalogues complete. Names of Age. Cattle. - 5 Strawberry . . Her cow calf. . Laura Silver Her cow calf. . Stock Dove . . 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Prunella . . . Her cow calf. Woodrose • . . Her cow calf. Nutty Names of Purchaser and Lot Age. Cattle. S um. Residence. 1 • —22 Toby Pigeon. . £U Sir F. Lawley, Bart, Mid- dleton Hall, Warwick. 2 ■ 25 Mr. Stallard, Redmarley, Worcester. 3 ■ —10 Young Lovely. 29 Mr. Hobbs, Mark's Hall, Essex. 4 — 9 Prima Donna . 26 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 5 — Her martin cBlf 7 Mr. Moore, Ham Castle, Worcester. 6 — 9 Burton Pigeon 40 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 7 — Her bull calf. . 30 ditto. 8 — 8 Peg Murphy.. 42 Samuel Peploe, Esq., Garnstone, Hereford. 9 — 8 Wood Nymph 50 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 10 — 8 Wood Lark .. 45 Earl Talbot, Ingestre Hall, Stafford. 11 — Her bull calf. . 24 Mr. Jukes, Kearne, Salop. 12 — 8 Duchess ...» 44 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 13 — Her cow calf. . 33 ditto. 14 41 Rev. W. P. Hopton, Bishop's Froome, Here- ford. 15 — 7 Countess .... 71 Sir F. Goodrick, Bart, Studley Castle, Wor- cester. 16 — Her bull calf. . 36 Mr. Gravenor, Hereford. 17 33 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 18 — Her bull calf. . 26 Mr. Hayward, Weston Turvil, Bucks. 19 — 6 Wood Pigeon . 150 Mr. Bird, Hampton Court Hereford. 20 — Her bull calf. . 80 ditto. 21 77 Rev. J. R. Smythies, Lynch Court, Hereford. 22 — 6 Blue Pigeon . . 74 Earl Talbot. 23 — 6 Woodbine .... 50 Sir F. Goodrick, Bart. 24 — Her ox calf . . 6 Mr. Jukes. 25 — 5 Red Rose .... 30 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 39 40 11 42 43 41 4. j 4 0 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 7G 77 Her bull calf. . 5 Wood Lass .. Her bull calf. . 5 Miss O'Connel — 5 — 4 — 4 — 4 — 4 — 4 — 3 Rosamond.. .. Her cow calf. . Lavender .... Philomel .... Her bull calf.. Young Diana. . Her cow calf. . Flora Her bull calf. . Beauty Her bull calf. . Carmelite .... Her bull calf. . 4 White Pigeon . 4 Jay Her bull calf. . 4 Dahlia 4 Dainty 3 Pied Pigeon . . Her cow calf. . 3 Plover Her cow calf. . Matchless 3 Pretty Maid . 3 True Love . . . Heroxcalf. .. 3 Prudence . . . Her cow calf. Nonsuch . . Rock Pigeon Tuberose . . Sappho Cora Lily Rosa Aurora .... Vesper 2 Ceres 2 Giantess 2 Valentine . . . 1 Crucifix . . . 1 Kate Kearney 1 Venus 1 Violet 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 — 1 Cowslip 1 Sunflower . 1 Daisy 1 Primrose . Purchaser and Sum. Residence. 50 Earl Talbot. 40 ditto. 73 ditto. 40 Rev. W. P. Hopton. 35 Earl Talbot. 52 Mr. Pratt, New Field, Warwick. 80 Sir F. Goodrick, Bart. 28 Earl Talbot. 38 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 42 Earl Talbot. 50 Mr. Hearn, Broome Hall, Warwick. 67 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 50 — Shepherd, Esq., East Wood House, Devon. 34 ditto. 37 Capt. Walters, Barnwood House, Gloucester. 44 Mr. Hearn. 33 Earl Talbot. 51 — Shepherd, Esq. 36 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 33 ditto. 80 Capt. Walters. 40 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 42 Earl Talbot. 80 ditto. 50 Capt. Walters. 20 ditto. 63 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 40 — Newbury, Warwick. 60 Mr. Pratt. 30 Sir F. Lawley. 40 Rev. J. R. Smythies. 30 Earl Talbot. 33 Mr. Yeomans, Hereford. 55 Sir. F. Lawley, Bart. 30 Earl Talbot. 40 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 40 ditto. 66 Capt. Rayer, Hillworth, Worcester. 66 Mr. Pratt. 37 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 5 ditto. 30 ditto. 8 Mr. Sharratt, Lichfield, Stafford. 70 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 48 Capt. Walters. 100 Earl Talbot. 52 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 40 ditto. 50 ditto. 40 Sam. Peploe, Esq. 52 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 46 — Wickstead, Esq. Sha- kenhurst, Worcester. 115 Sir F. Goodrick, Bart. 70 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 45 ditto. 63 Mr. Pratt. 52 Sir F. Lawley, Bart. 60 ditto. 42 — Wickstead, Esq. 30— Adderley, Esq., near Coleshill, Warwick. 34 ditto. 31 ditto. 50 Sir F. Lawley, Bart; u u 2 290 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE Names of Purchaser and Lot. Age. Cattle. Sum. Residence. 1 —10 Trusty ) 2 — 8 DanO'Connell i Not sold. 3 — 8 Woodstock . . ) 4 — 7 Woodpecker . . 56 — Morris, Esq., Salop. 5 — 5 Blenheim .... 70 Mr. Pratt. 6 — 5 Satirist Not sold. 7 — 4 Tramp 100 Mr. N. Smith, Martley, 8 — 3 Blandford 70 Mr. Homes.' 9 — 3 Patriot 72 Mr. Jukes. 10 — 3 The General .. 55 Mr. Walker,Burton Court, Worcester. 11 — 3 Young Trueboy 140 Sir F. Lavvley, Bart. 12 — 2 Victory ., 100 ditto. 13 — 2 Faithful 40 W. Barnaby, Esq., near Bromyard, Hereford. 14—3 The Duke .... 84 Sir F. Goodrick, Bart. 15 — 1 Washington . . 166 Earl Talbot. 16 — 1 Murphy Delany 110 Sam. Peploe, Esq. 17 — 1 Goliah 80 Rev. J. R. Smythies. 18 — 1 Forester 30 Mr. Walker. 19 — 1 The Rejected . 110 Mr. Evans, Pendeford Hall, Stafford. county, and also to my late and much respected friend, Mr. Jellicoe, of Brighteston, a great number of cows and bulls : the former in lots of two, four, five, six, and eight each — the lowest price for any lot being fifty pounds a head ; and two lots five and six — the former one hundred pounds each, the lat- ter for eighty pounds each ; and several bulls, vary- ing from fifty to one hundred pounds each ; and my bull Toby, for two hundred guineas. My sole motive for giving the latter part of my statement is for the purpose of letting the breeders of Herefords know where in future they are most likely to find bulls, &c, of the best sort." i,5354 ,£5354 sum realized 26 deduct for lots 5, 24, 66, 68, being ox calves or martins, and one not got by my bull. £5328 The remaining 99 lots averaged 53/. 16s. 4i d. " I deem it no more than an act of common jus- tice which I owe to those noblemen and gentlemen who were purchasers of the above stock, the greater number of whom have for many years past bred from and patronised my sort of cattle, to give a few further particulars relating thereto : — " On the 17th and 18th of October, 1816, I had sold by auction at my late residence, Ryall, near Upton-on-Severn, 126 head of Hereford cattle com- prising 14 bulls of various ages, 6 bull calves, and 106 breeding cows, heifers, and calves, which, together realized 6850/. 12s. 6d., giving an average of 54/. 8s. 2d. " Now, although this average is a little above the average price of my last sale, it will, I think, appear evident on taking into account the length of time (25 years) that has elapsed between the two sales, the great reduction which has taken place during that time (and since the sales of the Messrs. Collins' herds of short-horns) in the price of first-rate herds of cattle, and also of other herds of cattle, together with circumstances too well known to both landlords and tenants to need any comment from me, that the average of my last sale is much the best ; thereby placing the herd that gave it on much higher ground, compared with all other, than they heretofore occu- pied ; and I do sincerely hope, that the hands these animals have fallen into will take care that they keep their present high position. Should they not con- tinue to do so, and lose caste, the fault will not be in the cattle. I further beg to make known to the public, that during the interval between my two sales, I sold to Earl Talbot, Sir F. Lawley, Bart., J. Gerrard, Esq., of Gibstown, Navan, Ireland, Mr. N. Smith, Martley, Worcester, Mr. Jukes, of Kerne, Salop, the late Mr. Ravenshaw, of the same At this, his last sale, it was resolved by some of the gentlemen who attended it, that a portrait should be painted of him. This resolution was speedily carried into effect; and the excellent likeness painted by Mr. Frederick Tatham, thus procured, has since been lithographed ; impressions of which are in the possession of about seventy of his friends, who are numbered amongst the original subscribers. The judgment and strong perception which the subject of this memoir displayed, in seizing upon the desirable points of animals of all kinds, was remarkable, not only in cattle, but in most kinds of stock. An enthusiastic lover of the chase, a bold, an excellent, and a successful rider, it was natural that the horse should engage his earnest attention ; hence he possessed, at various times, many excel- lent and celebrated hunters, which, with their rider, were well known in the Warwickshire Hunt. Of these gallant horses we may only refer to " CecU," the favourite hunter ox Lord Jersey, for which begave £500 ; although Mr. Price sold him previously to Mr. Wilson Roberts, of Bewdley, for £200. He obtained a better price for his splendid horse "Judgment;" for which he received of the late Lord Coventry, then Lord Deerhurst, the sum of eight hundred pounds. " He bred," adds an intelligent correspondent to whom we are indebted for many of the facts contained in this paper, " many valuable horses, which he sold for sums varying from two to four hundred pounds each. He was a beautiful rider, and the success of his horses was naturally, to a considerable extent, attributable to his discreet treatment of them as their owner and their rider. He long hunted with the late Major Bland, of Ham Court; with Mr. Meynell, of Leicestershire; Colonel Berkeley, the late John Corbett, of Strat- ford-on-Avon, and with many others of hunting celebrity ; and was generally " in at the death. " So ardent," says the relation to whom we have fore referred, " was the zeal of this renowned sportsman that it once led him very near to the terminus of his own existence, and that of a valu- able hunter, by endeavouring to save a fox from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 291 peaceful and successful exertions ; triumphs, it is true, not so much heeded by the world at large, rs other more brilliant, though far less nationally profitable, exploits, for which it is more wont to award its plaudits. Yet they were of a higher order than any of those to which we have glanced ; for where many of those produced misery and de- solation, these more happy achievements caused no one to lament ; and far from impoverishing, they adorned, they enriched, the soils of the hmd of his birth. being torn to pieces on the side of Malvern Hill. ! England's benefactors, was remarkable for only Hunting one day with Major Bland's hounds, they found a fox near the south of the hill, which took along the side of the hill to the northern extremity, and Price being well in at the find he kept on the summit and opposite to the hounds all the way, and half a mile before any one of the field ; he saw the hounds gaining ground of the fox (which was also in sight) until they ran into him ; and, thought- less of his danger, he rode down a sheep track to rescue the fox from being torn to pieces before the Major arrived, in which attempt his horse slipped and fell, but fortunately threw him on one side, or he must have been crushed as flat as a pancake ; for his horse rolled down the hill for more than forty yards, but at length came against a heap of rugged stones, which stopped him, not materially injured, though much cut and braised. Price rolled further, but fortunately caught hold of something which stopped him, but so badly bruised and shaken that he was obliged to keep his bed for a week. "I once rode from Cirencester to Ryall to see him, when, on my arrival my sister informed me he had that morning left home to meet the Duke of Beau- fort's hounds at Farmington Grove, a cover near Northleach, but promised to dine with her, as he expected me there. He did so, and informed me they had had a splendid run of an hour and a quar- ter, and killed their fox without a check. I once saw him, when hunting with Corbet's hounds, take a leap into a gravel pit which he had no knowledge of, when his horse fell and pitched him against the side of the pit, which broke his collar bone ; he mounted again, and rode with his whip and reins in one hand until the end of the chase ; his servant drove him home in his gig the next day, and re- turned for his horses." As a proof of the kindness with which Mr. Price treated his labourers and servants, it should be re- corded to his credit, that in 1841 he certified to the Secretary of the Worcestershire Agricultural Asso- ciation, which gave premiums for long and faithful services to labourers and servants, that his carter had been in his service 45 years, shepherd 32, groom 24, and servant maid 1 1 ; for three of whom he obtained premiums, and the other was beaten only one year ; those four formed the whole of his regular establishment (except an occasional plough- boy), and they all remained in his service until his death. Such is a brief outline of the successful career of the late John Price, of Poole House ; of whom his contemporary farmers will be glad to learn even the few facts contained in this imperfect memoir. His ca- reer, like that of most other of the celebrated breeders who are ranked, and so justly too, in the class of ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE BREED OF HORSES. Impressed with the opinion that a great radical change is requisite in the breeding of horses, more so than in any other class of our domesticated animals, I have ventured to offer the following essay on this branch of rural economy to the notice of your readers. From the earliest records " the horse" has been a theme for the warrior and the historian, the poet and the philosopher ; so much so, that it must be confessed that the inquiry appears all but exhausted, did not every-day experience prove, that we have still much to learn both in our practical and theo- retical knowledge of this noble animal. Britain prides herself, among other excellencies, of possessing the finest breeds of horses in the world ; and without detracting from this national pre-eminence, which dignifies our noble and illus- trious land — for there certainly is no country in the world that can boast of producing so many different kinds of horses to such high perfection— still it becomes a question of very considerable import- ance, and every way worthy of inquiry, whether they cannot still undergo very considerable improve- ment. The ox, the sheep, and the pig are acknow- ledged by every one to be in a state of progressive amelioration. Is the horse improving in the same ratio ? At the present time no kind is more difficult to obtain than a really useful hack or hunter, and so general is this complaint, that by many practical men an opinion is entertained that these valuable kinds are actually in a state of progressive deterio- ration. This opinion prevailed at the great meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, at Doncaster, last year.* Yorkshire has been long celebrated and " sung in song" " as the nursing soil for martial steeds;" but at this meeting, the boast of the Yorkshire men was, that their cattle and sheep were brought to such a high degree of perfection, that no other part of the country, nay, even of the world, could compete with them. This is I believe no idle boast ; but they acknowledged at the same time their belief, that their breed of horses were annually deteriorating. The opinion which I have formed on this subject, and which is the result of twenty-five years' experience, is, that there are as * The meeting of 1844. 20-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. many serviceable horses bred now as there were some fifty or seventy years since ; but the relative number of indifferent and worthless horses is incal- culably greater: they have increased in quantity, but most certainly not in quality. Many of my readers may suppose that the valuable prize offered from year to year by the Royal Agricultural Society at their different meetings, for the express purpose of encouraging a better description of thorough- bred stallions, or half-stock getters, would in some measure remedy the evil complained off; but, on the contrary, if we are to judge from those ex- hibited at the Bristol, Derby, Southampton, and Shrewsbury Meetings, in this class of stock, we should say, that they were getting worse and worse. Those particularly, exhibited at the two last meet- ings were of such a decidedly bad character, that the judges would have done their duty better by refusing the prizes altogether, than by taking so much pains as they did, to select the best of two bad lots. The improvement of our horses at this particular period, when agriculture is making such rapid strides, in order to produce sufficient food for an annually increasing population, is a matter of very considerable importance, even in a national point of view. According to M'Culloch, we have in Great Britain about 1,500,000 of horses, employed for various purposes of pleasure and utility; and it has been assumed by many persons, whose opinions are really worthy of attention, that one-sixth part of them are not worth one quarter of the cost of rearing, and that if a better description of horses were generally introduced, an immense saving would be effected, as it has been frequently proved that even three moderate good horses will do the work of four inferior ones. This is a calculation which may very safely be relied on, for the man that employs bad instruments can never have his work economically done. The first important step, whether on a farm or in any other business, in order that the greatest possible profit may be realized from animal labour, is, that no more animals should be kept than are really wanted, and these should be kept in good condition. But in order to effect this, it is requisite that the labour- ing stock should be of the best description. An animal may be compared to a steam engine in this respect : the moving power, which is the food, like the coals to the engine, produces the steam which sets the whole in motion; but whatever quantity of force or energy may be applied in this manner, neither the vital nor mechanical machine will work with regularity and effect, unless the individual parts of which either is composed are properly adjusted. It is not enough that the animal machine is put in motion by the noblest spirit, or nourished by the most nutritious food — every bone must have its just weight and length, every muscle and tendon its proper pully, every joint the most accurate adjustment — all must have their relative proportions and strength, before the motion of the machine can be accurate, vigorous, and durable. It may be easily believed that the only per- fect form of the horse consists in that corresponding unison of the parts or proportion which is best adapted to the purposes for which he is intended to be used ; and a horse possessing these qualifi- cations, whether a cart horse, blood horse, or hackney, will not consume more food than one whose parts are disproportionate and unsymmetrical; although, as it has just been stated, "three well formed horses are equal on an average to the labour of four inferior ones." But supposing, by a better system of breeding, that a reduction might be made of only one-eighth of the total number, and estimating the cost of rearing a horse to three years old at £15 only, the saving in the rearing woidd amount to the immense sum of £2,812,500. But the loss does not stop here, for upon the principle that seven good horses only are equal to eight inferior ones, and assuming that the age of this worthless lot to be eight years on an average — for, from their defective formation, like the machinery of an engine which is not pro- perly adjusted, the wheels quickly become worn, and the springs soon lose their elastic force — so they are unable to undergo the fatigue which ordi- nary horses can easily perform, and they are gene- rally short-lived. Thus, valuing the expenses of their keep for the remaining five years at £ 1 5 per annum only, it would amount to £14,062,500, making altogether the enormous sum of £16,875,000 in eight years, a sum of money which may be considered as a dead loss to the country. This picture which I have attempted to pourtray is far from being highly coloured — so much so, that I believe the loss to be considerably greater than I have represented it, and most certainly shews the urgent necessity of an almost radical change in tins branch of rural economy. We will now examine the principal causes which have contributed to the multiplication of so many inferior horses. It is a very common opinion, that owing to the fashion which has prevailed within the last half century, of gentlemen riding and driv- ing mares, which was not formerly the case, the farmers have been induced to part with these " hens that laid the golden eggs," and have been breeding from others of an inferior description. Tins i9 true enough : besides, numbers of our best brood mares have been exported to France and Germany, and the consequence is, we have been parting with the very machinery that manufactured the raw material, which not only give foreigners the means of manufacturing themselves, but at the same time of shortening our powers of production. But this is a subject of national policy, rather than an agri- cultural inquiry, so we will let that pass, and exa- mine the principal cause. The description of horses to which our inquiry extends are of that class constituting hunters and roadsters, both in saddle and harness, coachers and chargers being generally the produce of a thorough- bred horse with half, two-thirds, three-fourths, and four-fifths bred mares, and are frequently classed together under the term of half stock. Many of our hunters are found "full blood" or nearly so, for an inferior animal cannot live with modern hounds — modern hunting partaking much of the character of racing as far as the speed is concerned. The qualities which we require in our half stock generally, then, are speed and endurance, with the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 293 capability of carrying heavy weights, with varied pace, through deep ground or across a broken and stony country ; and in order that they should pos- sess these capabilities, they should have what are commonly termed in hunters' phraseology, " bone, muscle, and compactness," by which is understood compactness of form, and the bone and muscle in their proper places. Are these qualities then to be met with in the thorough -bred stallions ? Yes, in a few of them certainly, but scarcely even in the blood stallions that travel the country markets and fairs, from which the principal portion of our half stock are produced. Then is it not a folly to attempt to produce such qualities with a horse wanting them altogether, and more particularly, as it too frequently happens, where the mares are also wanting in those very indispensable properties ? Many of the mares have plenty of bone and muscle in their heads and necks, but we require these requisites in their other extremities. Where these qualities are met with in the thorough-bred stal- lions, they generally prove most valuable "half stock" getters. It would appear that our blood stock formerly possessed these characters in an eminent degree, and by reference to former sport- ing publications, it will be seen that they were shorter in the leg, and capable of carrying heavy weights and running long distances • now they run with light weights and short distances, where bot- tom and stoutness are not so necessary7. Our fleetest racers were then what are now called small horses, which means that they were not the tall, lengthy, leggy racers of the present day, but com- pact and muscular, and remarkable for their capa- bilities of carrying heavy weights and power of endurance. This change in our blood stock has originated in consequence of alterations which has taken place on the turf. If the great stakes at present were two and three miles, instead of half or one mile distances, they would certainly be won by the " stoutest blood," though not perhaps the fastest horse. I am by no means an advocate for four- mile heats, with high weights, which was formerly so much the fashion, but a medium between that and the present system would be highly desirable. A mile is not sufficient to try the strength and endurance of any horse, although it may do to test its speed for the purposes for which he is now chiefly required, viz., to win a heavy stake. By reference to the racing calendar, it will also be found, that in the earlier part of the last century, it was a very uncommon occurrence to run horses under four and five years old ; this accounts for the durability and superior speed of Childers, Bay Malton, Old Crab, Eclipse, and a host of others which might be mentioned. Dr. Syntax was one of the few modern racers that have appeared at the post for ten consecutive years ; he was descended from the son of Trumpator, as well as combining that of Snap and Regulus in his pedigree, animals characterized for strength, stoutness, and durability. But in the present system of racing, they run at two and three years old, and to enable two-year-old colts to come to the post with some credit at this early age, they are obliged to undergo very severe treatment. " At eighteen months they are broken in and trained, the principle being the same as with the older horses. They are taught how to use their legs, and made acquainted with the advantage of their stride and of exerting themselves to the full extent of it; and if they do not break down, and are cool and clean on their legs, and go cheerfully to their work, their task is regular and strictly- exacted.* It cannot certainly be surprising that by this system of early training, the capabilities and powers of a noble and useful animal are prematurely ex- hausted. Hence, how common it is to hear of an extraordinary instance of speed exhibited at two years old, in consequence of which the colt becomes a " little wonder" for the time, but is seldom or ever heard of as figuring at any other race, the rapid growth of the favourite's popularity being as sudden as his downfal. Still this is no fault of the horse ; the growth of the youngster has been forced beyond his age— the deposit of bone has been prematurely hastened before the membranous parts have become fully developed, and the bones in consequence never attain their proper size, or the muscles their full power— like a hot-house plant, his growth and strength have been increased in an artificial manner, and he is no sooner ripe than rotten. It is well known that an immense number of colts, thus prematurely trained, are never brought to the starting-post. " They must have no unsoundness either local or constitutional, nothing approaching to a chronic affection of the lungs, not even a trifling cough, not the slightest possible disease, or enlargement of the tendons of the leg or the ligaments of the joints. To bring a horse to the post with one of these faults about him, would be to throw money away. But these faults have been produced in a considerable portion of the young stock by the premature exertion they have undergone, and are accordingly disposed of as soon as possible to horse jobbers, post-masters, or any one that will buy them."t Many of them are purchased for the purpose of being led about the country, for the improvement of hunters and roadsters; and there are very few counties in England, but that have been favoured from time to time with some of this hot-house breed. The argument to be drawn from this part of my subject is a fair and reasonable one — that this dif- ference in the style of racing has, by altering the former character of the race-horse, likewise altered the character of our half stock. This is a fact, and one I believe generally acknowledged, and which clearly accounts for such an immense number of worthless trashy horses that are now generally met with. I do not flatter myself by these remarks, with the hope of making any alterations in _ the present system of racing — indeed we have no right to expect it, or even to complain. The turf man has cultivated a plant in the most careful manner for his own peculiar purpose, and from it has organized a race that for speed for a short distance has not its equal in the world; whilst the hunter or the roadsman neither tilled nor sowed, but trusted to a supply from the gleanings of his neighbour's harvest, and he finds at last that it would have been Youatt on Humanity, t Idem, 294 THE FARMER'S MA8A21S better policy to have confided in his own resources. But it is not too late to prepare the land and sow for ourselves ; and if so, depend upon it that the seed will soon genninate and grow, and we shall then see, "first the blade, then the ear, and then the full corn in the ear," and a rich and abundant har- vest will be the reward of our united labour. It has been advocated that since all the good qualities of our horses are derived from the Arab and his progenitors, we should go back to the primitive blood to commence with. There is not a doubt that the cross of an arab with the common average of half-bred English mares, would do much good, particularly with those possessing heavy fore- quarters. In a neighbourhood where the mares generally speaking, are of bad forms, having clumsy heads, and sometimes ewe necks, with indifferently- made legs, although, many of them, possessing plenty of action, I would have no objection as a first cross to try the Arab. It woidd reduce the size of their heads and necks, and inspire a spirit of endurance in the breed which would last for hun- dreds of years. This would also prepare the way for obtaining a larger breed if required. Most of the attempts that have been made to breed from the thorough-bred mare and the Arab stallion, for racing purposes, have utterly failed ; this was particularly seen in the Cole Arabian.* He had some of the best Irish mares put to him, but none of them could run with the common average of English and Irish race horses, except when receiving weight; and accordingly he was kept at Dublin for half stock, and his stock proved most excellent, sinewy and spirited, with extra- ordinary powers as hunters or roadsters, some of them distinguishing themselves as steeple chasers. We have another instance in a very fine grey Arabian, imported by General Brownrigg:f the best Irish and English blood were put to him for trial; but although he got some splendid hunters, as to racing it was altogether out of the question. Major Gwatkin, the superintendent of the East India Company's breeding stud at Bengal, allud- ing to the Arab blood, says — " A good hunter or a good roadster, which here, as well as at home, I fancy is by far the most difficult horse to meet with in perfection, will always fetch a handsome price, with profit to the breeder ; and I must own with surprise, that for the distinct object of breeding hunters and roadsters, the Arab is not tried in England. All his points, combined with perfect good temper, would indicate his fitness — a beautiful head, a high generous spirit, graceful in his carriage, generally a light shoulder, with great elasticity of pasterns, rendering his paces easy, with silky short hair, wiry legs, feet good, hocks particularly clean, and generally carrying both ends well." He adds, that "the mare in this part of India is coarse and vulgar, both in shape and qualities, and I may add colour, and does not at first cross well with the English blood-horse ; whereas the cross from the Arab tends materially to correct her natural bad qualities, to prepare her to receive the English blood." But the system of crossing is at the best but "Sporting Magazine," Dec, 1833. f Idem. a very fallacious principle of breeding although there cannot be a doubt that much good would be effected by the introduction of the Arab blood. A true breed is never made by casual crossing in this manner, but by a long perseverance in breeding from similar animals, until a uniform class of character is required and rendered permanent. The great advantage of having a breed of hunters and roadsters possessing a uniformity of character must be very evident, for then the breeder will have in such a case the assurance of being able to repro- duce in the offspring the characters of the parents ; whereas, by the method in which they are now generally bred, no uniform breed can be established. The next question which naturally arises is, How is this to be accomplished ? Not by any private individual certainly, for such an attempt would be altogether impossible. It can only be undertaken by such a body of men as compose the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and I would most respectfully solicit the attention of the council of this society to the following scheme : — In the first place a committee should be appointed, and, after agreeing on the principle on which they intend to proceed for the purpose of establishing a new and permanent breed of horses, due notice of the same should be given to the agricultural public, setting forth the necessity of the improvement, and the means which they considered requisite to attain it. In the second place it woidd be requisite to obtain the services of 100 valuable half-bred mares,* which should be put to stallions purchased for the purpose by the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; the mares to be kept and the progeny to be reared by their respective owners, but honour- ably considered at the disposal of the committee, as far as the breeding from either was concerned. As soon as a sufficient number was offered for the trial, a competent person should be selected, whose business it should be to carry out the objects of the committee. This individual, who might be called the director of the breeding stud, should be one familiarly acquainted with the natural habits of the horse, as well as those various states in which he is placed by art, either in the stable, upon the turf, in the field, or upon the road. To him should be entrusted the purchasing of two thorough- bred stallions, possessing every qualification likely to produce a progeny having size, strength, and action. No one respects high breeding in horses more than I do, provided it be accompanied by " substance ;" the blood of Childers or Eclipse would be useless without it. There would not be the least difficulty in getting thorough-bred horses of the right sort, whose stock with half-bred mares could be previously seen and examined. This inspection is decidedly necessary, for the success of the experiment will chiefly depend on the qualifica- tions of the stallion, I do not apprehend that there will be any diffi- culty in getting a sufficient number of the most valuable half-bred mares in the kingdom for this purpose, but on the contrary, I believe there would be a great many more offered than will be required. It would be advisable to select some central district, By half-bred mares is meant half-stock generally. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 295 where the best horses are reared, as a residence for the stallions as well as the director of the breeding stud ; in some parts of the North Riding of York- shire, for instance, where the advantage of sending the mares by railway would make such a locality highly desirable. In no instance should a bad-formed mare be selected ; nearly the whole success of the experi- ment will depend on this. The selection, of course, should be made by the individual before alluded to, and might be determined by points, which should be considered as standards of excellence. 1st Point — Breed. — It is real economy to breed from animals that have been carefully selected for several generations. The courage and capability of endurance entirely depend on this principle, any defect of which, particularly in an animal in- tended for great occasional exertion, must render it unfit to be selected to continue an improved breed. 2nd Point — Symmetry. — The meaning of this word is " adaptation of parts to each other, pro- portion, harmony, &c." That progressive motion is the result of mechanical organization, I believe every one will admit; and this motion will be found superior or otherwise, precisely in proportion to the form and quality of the mechanism by which it is produced. At present we have no absolute standard of beauty, in a practical point of view: varying from ! race to race, by homogeneous mixtures and crosses, I such a standard would be impossible; but by the ' scheme which I am recommending, it would be just as easily accomplished and preserved as that of the new Leicester sheep by Bakewell, the short-horns by Codings, or the improved Herefords by Tomkins. 3rd Point — Substance. — I have before stated that I would not breed from the blood of Eclipse, if I could not obtain animals of sufficient size and power. But by the word "substance," it must not be understood to mean, " large, roomy mares," such as were recommended by the late Mr. Cline, who contended for size in the female compared to the male, from an opinion, that this capaciousness not only afforded more room for growth to the foetus, but that more nourishment also would thereby be supplied to it; the consequence of which advice, coming from such high authority as Mr. Cline, led to the practice of crossing great cart- mares with thorough-bred horses, the object being to obtain carriage-horses. This heterogeneous connexion frequently produces a colt as bad as could possibly be generated, possessing the heavy forehand of the dam, supported by the slender limbs of the sire. I am very much of the Earl Spencer's opinion in this matter, since Mr. Cline's theory is one " contra naturam," and experience proves that large mares are not absolutely necessary to the production of a large produce. But I am not an advocate for breeding from either large or small mares ; for hackneys, every inch you exceed above fifteen hands one inch high, you deteriorate from their value. But hunters being required to carry heavy weights through deep ground and sometimes across a difficult country', stoutness and substance as high as 16 hands are desirable; but there is always a difficulty in breeding large size animals with true symmetry. Mr. Charles Codings, in im- proving the old Teeswater breed of cattle, found this out soon after he commenced establishing the short-horned race ; and there is no doubt that he effected very considerable improvement immediately, by lessening their size, and thereby improving their form. 4th Point. — In every instance the mares should be the property of gentlemen who have not only the inclination, but the means of carrying out to its full extent the intentions and object of the committee, and would consider it a point of honour in doing so. It might be requisite that many of the first selected mares, if their stock proved valuable, should be served by the stallions a second or third time ; at all events, the committee should have the power to do so, and the whole of their progeny must be con- sidered as being altogether under their manage- ment. For although a great deal of the success of the undertaking will depend upon the first selec- tion, yet much wdl remain to be accomplished in the second. The person to be trusted with the first selection will have to examine the produce occasionally, and to select such as are considered worthy of distinc- tion. These should be put, when three years old, to the thorough-bred stallions, as their dams were be- fore them. There will be no occasion to breed in and in, in this instance, having two stallions at your command, unless it be considered desirable. Some may imagine that the half-stock might be coupled together, but this method of breeding has often led to disappointment : the first cross generally proves good ; whilst in breeding from the progeny of the cross, the expectations are seldom or ever realized ; for not only are the good qualities of the first seldom found in their progeny, but frequently there are found in it defects which cannot be traced to the parents ; and to prevent this, it is found ne- cessary to couple the produce with a superior male of the same breed, and so on until the good cha- racter of that breed become permanent in the pro- geny. This was the system produced by Charles Collings, in producing the improved short-horned breed, termed the "alloy." He put his short- horned bull Bolingbroke to a beautiful red polled Galloway cow, and the produce being a bull-calf, was in due time put to Johanna, a pure short-horn, she also producing a bull-calf. This grandson of Bolingbroke was the sire of the cow Lady, by an- other short-horned dam; from which sprung the valuable family, that at his sale in 1810, forty-eight lots, including the cow Lady, fetched £7,115 17s. In about the fifth year from the commencement, a third stallion may be requisite; but this will alto- gether depend on the number of females selected, for it may happen that many of the old mares will be rejected in the second trial, and so likewise may their progeny. In a few years, by breeding of animals on such an extensive scale, always keeping one particular character in view, a great many valuable ones would be obtained, and a permanent character of horses established at a trifling expense to the so- ciety. The first difficulty likely to be met with by the committee mil be, when will the particular 296 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. character which ha9 been all along their object to obtain be considered as sufficiently established, and brought to that certain state of excellence, that it will maintain itself without having recourse to the thorough-bred stallion ? I should imagine that this might be safely done in ten or twelve years from the commencement. It is important to know the degree of blood which the stock will possess at this period. Supposing that the mares first selected be only half-bred, and the value of the pure blood of the horse being represented by 1, and the negation of pure blood of the mare being represented by *, tbe value of blood in the first produce, foaled say in 1845, would be f ; the second produce, foaled in 1849, h the third produce, foaled in 1853, j|j and the fourth produce, foaled in 1857, $. A trial, however, might be made before this period. The cow Lady, before alluded to, was the produce of the third generation. Great difficulties must be expected to attend the conservation of the new race, for, without incessant care, deterioration from the point attained will soon be evident ; and in spite of the fine appearance of the new breed, unless the original mares have been of a very superior description, it will carry in its blood a maternal indestructible germ of debasement, always ready to develop itself by little and little under certain local influences, always under the power of divers agents impairing or modifying the general economy, until at length a certain alteration of form, an effacement of the paternal type, takes place, and a reproduction of the stock of the mother, with all its characters of inferiority. Breeding the new breed as closely as possible to their natural affinities will be one of the surest means of establishing the permanent character that is required ; but this of course will depend on the committee, and the judgment of the individual appointed to carry their wishes into effect. For my own part, I cannot see any real physical objections to the practice, when the male and female are per- fect ; besides, there will be no occasion, with so many mares, to continue breeding very closely, although I am inclined to think that, being once in possession of good blood, it is right to con- tinue in it for one or two generations at least. Such was the principle on winch Bakewell established the new Leicester and the improved long-horned cattle, and Mr. C. Collings the short- horns ; first selecting the most suitable individuals for breeding, and having produced by this means animals of the properties required, confined them- selves afterwards to their own stock. As soon as the new race is considered sufficiently established, a number of the different local agri- cultural societies will be, or ought to be, in a situ- ation to purchase many of the stallions belonging to the improved breed, from their respective owners. I stated that a cross of the Arab with the generality of brood mares intended for the saddle in the coun- try, would very materially assist in removing many of their objectionable points, and would prepare them to receive a larger breed ; this would be a very desirable preparation previous to the introduc- tion of the new brood, but could not be very easily managed. Arab horses of sufficient character are not easily obtained. However, where it can be ac- complished, I would most strongly recommend its being tried. The same system of selection ought to be adopted now by the branch societies as has been pursued by the Royal Agricultural Society, and if prosecuted with perseverance and attention, success will cer- tainly attend their endeavours. In breeding from the female progeny of the new breed, if the party engaged in the local improvement of their horses were apprehensive of injurious consequences from coupling the sire with his progeny, ex- changes could easily be effected between the dif- ferent societies from year to year ; but on no ac- count must the progeny be immediately coupled together: the true system is, to take one cross, and then return to and adhere to the original breed. There is nothing chimerical in this scheme, nor can there be any doubt as to the result. There is no expensive machinery required ; the first outlay will be a couple of stallions and their keep, and attendance, with the income and expenses of the director of the breeding department, who may be selected by the committee to carry the whole into effect, whilst the owners of the mares will be amply remunerated by possessing a valuable stock of really useful and valuable animals. I said that a great deal of the success of this experiment will depend on the owners of the mares, for to them must be entrusted the rearing of the young stock — means second to none in accomplish- ing the committee's object. This also should be conducted on a system, but varied occasionally by the situation or advantages on the farms. It would be unnecessarily occupying the atten- tion of the reader to inform him, that the interest of the breeder of this description of stock in par- ticular is best consulted by a careful provision of shelter and a liberal supply of food during the first two years. Daily experience, indeed, fully proves the folly and impolicy of neglecting young stock of any kind ; but especially is such neglect impolitic and injurious in the case of those animals whose value depends on their size, strength, and powers of endurance — qualifications mainly promoted by liberal feeding and careful treatment. In conclusion, I would most respectfully solicit the attention of the Royal Agricultural Society to the foregoing scheme. There are man)- parts that may be no doubt altered for the better ; but whatever may be your decision on the system which I have recommended, this much is evident — that in spite of railroadsand steam ships, good serviceable horses were never more realty valued than at the present time, nor so difficult to be obtained. How far the rules of this valuable society will allow of their undertaking a work of such importance, I do not pretend to know ; but this I believe, that there is no single branch of agriculture connected with na- tional prosperity, which so greatly requires the super- intending care of this society as the improvement of the breed of horses. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 297 CHEMISTRY FOR FARMERS. Proximate Elements of Plants. In considering the chemical constitution of vege- table substances, it is found convenient to distin- guish their proximate from their ultimate elements, and before proceeding to give an account of the former it is necessary that such distinction should be explained. Even to those least acquainted with the subject, plants are known to contain a variety of substances, the result of organization, widely different in their chemical properties, and usually obtained merely by mechanical operations, such as starch, sugar, gum, and many other matters ; and to these, al- though compound substances, the term of proxi- mate elements is applied. The ultimate elements constituting the organic portion of plants have already been seen to be very few, namely, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen ; and it is of various combinations of these that the proximate elements are formed, although the number of the latter is very considerable ; and what is still more remarkable, they are for the most part composed of three of these ultimate elements only, nitrogen not being a general constituent. These proximate principles are further divided into two classes or sections ; namely, such as may be called special products of certain particular plants, and sometimes only of particular organs, and such as are always present in every plant, and together make up the great bulk of the solid portion of its structure. To the first of these classes belong the vegeto-alkalis, morphia, cinchinia, quina, and many other sub- stances which usually occur only in very minute quantities ; and although exceedingly interesting in many particulars, especially for their application in the arts and in medicine, they do not require ex- tended notice in a brief sketch like the present. The second group is, however, much more impor- tant, as forming the great mass of all vegetable subjects, and demands special attention. They conveniently admit of a still further classification into four sub-divisions, namely, neutral substances, acids, oils and resins, and albuminous matters. The latter of these only contain nitrogen. The most important of the neutral substances are sugar, starch, gum, and lignin or woody fibre. The properties of these are highly interesting, on account of the curious transformations which they may be made to undergo by artificial means, and the great importance of some of them as articles of food. Their composition is also very remarkable : they consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the two latter always existing in the proportion to form water. They are termed neutral substances on ac- count of the little tendency which they exhibit to enter into a chemical union with other matters. Though so apparently similar in their composition, they differ widely in their physical characters, some being soluble, others insoluble, some being sapid, and others altogether tasteless. Of these principles woody fibre and starch deserve the most attention : the former by reason of its abundance in all plants, constituting, as it does, the great bulk of their substance ; and the latter, on account of its extra- ordinary structure, which forms, as it were, a con- necting link between strictly organized bodies and those which are crystallizable. The term lignin or woody fibre is generally ap- plied to the fibrous residue which remains after the various other principles are extracted by different solvents : hence insolubility is one of its most ob- vious characters. It is also recognized as the most desirable product of vegetation, and the ex- treme perfection in which it is occasionally found in mummy cases, in ancient buildings, and even in submerged forests, shows its powers of resisting decay. When, however, it is long exposed to the joint influence of air and moisture, it often becomes pulverulent, acquiring a brown or grey colour, as is seen in the rotten wood of very old trees. It is also liable to more rapid decay and disintegration under the influence probably of parasitic plants, especially when the place is damp, and air imper- fectly admitted, as in cases of what is termed dry- rot. In some cases it is entirely decomposed, leaving only a carbonacous residue. The action of heat upon woody fibre is extremely interesting. When wood is thoroughly dried at a temperature of about 220° it shrinks and splits, or if previously in powder it loses variably in weight, depending on its humidity. When it is carefully baked, so as to become of a pale brown colour, it acquires solubility in water to some extent, yielding a brown infusion, in some respects similar to toast and water ; and, indeed, under proper management it may be converted into a palatable and nutritious bread, for which purpose it is occasionally em- ployed by the peasantry of Sweden and Norway ; and the process for preparing which is described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1827. Burned in air, it affords large quantities of inflammable gases, which produce flame, and under it a valuable fuel ; and if decomposed with a partial access of air only, it affords common charcoal or carbon, already described. Woody fibre has been said to constitute a large portion of the entire mass of vegetable matter pro- duced during the growth of plants. That such is the case in the more gigantic vegetable productions of which forests consist is sufficiently evident. It is also true of the dried stalks of the grasses and the corn-growing plants, of which it forms nearly one-half the weight ; but in roots and some plants which are raised for food, the quantity of woody fibre, especially in the earlier stages of their growth, is comparatively small. Thus, in the beet-root it forms only 3 per cent, of the whole weight when taken from the ground. If suffered to remain in the soil until it becomes old, or if the growth be very slow, the beet becomes more woody, as many other roots do, and the quantity of ligneous fibre increases. The following table shows the per centage of woody fibre contained in some common plants in the green state, and when dried in the air, and again when dried at a temperature of 212°.* * Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Che- mistry, &c. 298 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In the green state. Dried in Dried at Woody the air. 212°. fibre. Water. per per per per cent. cent. cent. cent Barley straw, ripe 50 — — — Oat straw, ditto — 47 — — Pea haulm — — 10J 80 Bean straw 51 — — — White turnip — — 3 92 Common beet — — 3 86 Vetch plant 42 — 10§ 77? Regarding the ultimate composition of woody fibre little diversity is found to exist, though differ- ing so much in its mechanical properties. Speci- mens of the box and willow, which appear to pre- sent the greatest contrast in this respect, on being submitted to analysis by Prout,were found to consist of carbon and water in the following proportions in 100 parts. Box. Willow. Carbon 42.7 42.6 Water 57.3 57.4 Starch, next to woody fibre, is probably the most abundant product of vegetation. It is found abun- dantly in nearly all the tissues of plants; stem, leaves, roots, seeds are occasionally charged with it almost, in appearance, to bursting. It is only necessary to instance the common potato, and grain of all kinds, as examples. When these are torn to pieces by grating, and placed in a little trickling stream of water, the starch is washed out of the cellular tissue which contained it, and on the water being allowed to stand it settles down as a white powder, which, under a lens, exhibits the appearance of rounded, transparent, colourless granules, the magnitude of which varies very much, according to the plant from which they were ob- tained. The large quantities of starch produced by wheat and potatoes are well known to ever)' one. Sago, tapioca, and cassava are also varieties of starch. Sago is produced from palms of the genus Sagus, and though possessing the leading characters of common starch, differs from it in being soluble in cold water. Tapioca and cassava are prepared from an American plant — the Jatropha manihot, the milky juice of which is poisonous, but diffused through water, deposits a harmless starch, nearly allied to sago. Pure starch, from whatever source it may be ob- tained, is a white substance, of a specific gravity of about 1.5; insoluble in cold water, but readily soluble in a temperature of between 160° and 180°. When dried at 212° it is found to consist of Carbon 44.0 Hydrogen 6.2 Oxygen 49.8 100.0 One of the most interesting properties of starch, as regards its importance in the vegetable economy, is its capability of being resolved into sugar by artificial means, the same process taking place naturally during the growth of plants, as shall be afterwards seen. The artificial means employed for the purpose are digestion in water, and boiling afterwards with dilute acids. A pound of starch may be digested in six or eight pints of distilled water, rendered slightly acid by two or three drachms of sulphuric acid, and the mixture sim- mered for some time, fresh portions of water being occasionally added to make up for the waste caused by evaporation. After this process the acid is saturated with chalk, and the mixture filtered and evaporated to a syrup ; its taste is then sweet, and by purification in the usual way it affords granular sugar. The conversion of starch into sugar is seen in the germination of grain, and is familiar in the process of malting ; and while this is going for- ward, a peculiar principle called " diastase" is generated from the azotized matter of the grain. This diastase has the remarkable property of oc- casioning, even when present in very small quan- tity, the conversion of starch into grape sugar, at all temperatures, from that of ice to near the boiling point of water. The proportion of starch found to exist in some of the cultivated plants is shown in the following table, 100 lbs. of each substance being submitted to examination : — Wheat flour 39 to 77 per cent. Barley ditto 67 to 70 „ Oats ditto 70 to 80 „ Rice 84 to 85 „ Buckwheat 52 Pea and bean meal .... 42 to 43 „ Potatoes, containing 73 to 78 per cent, of water 13 to 15 „ Gum. — Under this term are included several modifications of a distinct proximate principle of vegetables, which are of extremely common and almost universal occurrence. To some of them the term mucilage is occasionally applied. Gum occurs in the form of an exudation upon the bark of trees, and collects into drops, which gradually harden by exposure, and of which gum arabic furnishes a very perfect example. It may also be discovered more or less abundantly in the sap and juices of almost all plants and fruits. Gum is slowly soluble in cold water, and more rapidly in boiling water, yielding a mucilaginous solution, which is more or less viscid or clammy, according to the proportion of gum, this solution being extensively applied in the arts. The ulti- mate composition of gum is as under : — Carbon 45.1 per cent. Hydrogen 6.1 „ Oxygen 48.8 „ Sugar, the remaining neutral proximate ingre- dient of vegetables, is found to exist in the juices of most plants. The sugar of commerce is obtained from the sugar-cane — Arundo saccharifera, a plant naturally thriving only in hot climates. In certain parts of North America sugar is plentifully ob- tained from the juice of the maple tree, and in the Caucasus that of the walnut is employed for the same purpose. In the juice of the carrot, turnip, and beet, it is also present in considerable quantity. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 299 In France and Germany the latter plant is exten- sively cultivated for the production of sugar alone. Sugar in a pure state is perfectly colourless and devoid of smell. It is also unchanged by air ; and in the state of a syrup, which is merely sugar largely dissolved in water, it is not prone to change ; hut the addition of other vegetable substances, though in very minute quantity, materially in- fluences the action of air on this solution, inducing fermentation to take place, a process to be after- wards noticed. The composition of pure cane-sugar is almost analogous to that of starch, as will be seen from the following statement of its ultimate elements : — Carbon 44.92 per cent. Hydrogen 6.11 „ Oxygen 48.97 „ Vegetable acids are found in the juices of all plants, usually in a state of combination with pot- ash, soda, ammonia, or some of the earths which remain behind (except ammonia) after the destruc- tion of the plant by fire, in the state of carbonates. The most important of these are the acetic, oxalic, tartaric, citric, and malic acids. They abound chiefly in fruits, and do not otherwise form any large portion of the vegetable produce of the globe. These acids are readily formed by artificial means from the various other products of plants ; but little is yet satisfactorily known regarding the pur- poses which they serve in the economy of vege- tation. In combination with vegetable substances they contribute to resist the progress of decay. They rarely exist in plants in an uncombined state, but in combination with the various bases already mentioned. The bases evidently regulate the for- mation of the acids, for the diminution of the one is followed by a decrease of the other j thus, in the grape, for example, the quantity of acid contained in its juice is less when it is ripe than when unripe ; and the bases, under the same circumstances, are found to vary in a similar manner. Such consti- tuents exist in small quantity in those parts of a plant in which assimilation is most active, as in the mass of woody fibre ; and their quantity is greater in those organs whose office it is to prepare sub- stances conveyed to them for assimilation by other parts. The leaves contain more inorganic matters than the branches, and the branches more than the stem ; hence in the former the organic acids will be found most largely to exist. The oily and resinous principles of plants do not require extended notice, as they are chiefly to be regarded rather as valuable products of vegetables than as performing any important function in their growth. In the neutral substances first examined, the oxygen and hydrogen which they contained were seen to exist in precisely the same proportions as that in which they form water ; in the organic acids, with few exceptions, the oxygen is in excess ; and in the oils and resins which plants are found to contain the hydrogen predominates. These lat- ter are further characterised by the readiness with which they burn with flame ; and the production of light is accordingly one of the most important pur- poses to which they are applied. Oils are divided into volatile or those which dis- til over unchanged, and fixed, or such as undergo partial decomposition when the attempt is made to convert them into vapour. The former have gene- rally a powerful taste and smell — properties which the latter do not possess. The volatile oils are usu- ally obtained by distillation, but sometimes by ex- pression, such as those of the lemon, orange, and bergamot; but the fixed oils are invariably obtained by the latter means alone. The resins closely resemble the oils in composi- tion, and are usually regarded as products of the latter by still further oxidation. The nitrogenous principles of plants, or those al- ready mentioned as albuminous, play a very im- portant part, and are deserving of more attentive consideration. Nitrogen exists in the vegetable structure in much smaller proportion than either of the other organic elements, and hence, until the in- vestigations of Liebig were placed before the world, it was considered to be of inferior importance in the economy of vegetation. The importance of al- buminous matters has, however, now been placed in its proper light by the discoveries of that distin- guished chemist, as to the absolute identity of some, at least, of the nitrogenous compounds with the so-called proximate constituents of the animal frame — albumen, fibrine, and caseine. Nor can this be regarded as conjecture, as it is now esta- blished by the most unequivocal evidence. The origin of these substances in the animal structure is to be sought only in the plant on which he feeds, there being no other source whence it can be ob- tained ; and, arrived in his stomach, they undergo simple solution in a peculiar manner, and are then directly absorbed into the system. Gluten is an important nitrogenous compound of plants, so termed from its adhesive character. It is found in many of the esculent seeds, and especially in wheat, associated with albumen and starch. Its characteristic properties are insolu- bility in cold water, elasticity and adhesiveness when moist. When a thick paste of wheaten flour is tied up in a piece of coarse canvass, and washed and kneaded in water till the whole of the starch is extricated, and the washings are no longer milky, it leaves a grey, viscid, adhesive, and elastic sub- stance, which consists of gluten and albumen, with a little residue of starch. By boiling this substance in alcohol, it is separable into a soluble and insoluble portion — the soluble part is gluten ; the insoluble, albumen. Gluten is then obtained by mixing the alcoholic solution with water and distilling off* the alcohol ; it separates in straw-coloured flocculi, which aggregate, on stirring them together, into an elastic mass, tasteless, and of a peculiar odour ; ex- posed to the air, it becomes superficially brown and glossy, and gradually dries into a semi-trans- parent, horn-like mass. Gluten is obtained by similar means from the flour of the other grains, but in them it exists in much smaller proportion. The quantity contained in the several cereal crops is as under: — Wheat contains from 12 to 35 per cent, of gluten. Rye „ 9 to 1 3 „ Barley „ 3 to 6 „ Oats „ 2 to 5 » 300 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Albumen is the orignal portion of wheaten flour insoluble in alcohol. In an uncoagulated state it is found in most vegetable juices, and when these are boiled, the albumen becomes insoluble, and separates from the other portion of the liquid. This is called vegetable albumen, to distinguish it from the albuminous matters found in animal sub- stances, a familiar example of which, in a pure state, occurs in the white of eggs, which is exclusively composed of albumen. Vegetable albumen, when fresh and moist, has neither colour, taste, nor smell, is insoluble in water or alcohol, but dissolves in vinegar ; when dry it is brittle, more or less colour- ed or opaque ; it exists more largely in the fresh juices of plants than in the dried seeds. The different kinds of grain contain the following proportions : — Wheat contains from J to Rye „ 2 to Barley „ ^ to Oats ,, i to I2 per cent. Ox ■, Gluten and albumen seem to bear the same rela- tive proportions to each other as sugar and starch, being almost identical in composition, consisting of the same elements, united together in the same pro- portions, and, like the latter substances, being re- solvable into each other. They are, further, pre- cisely analogous to compounds existing in the animal economy, and hence the nutritive qualities which they impart to those plants in which they are contained is apparent. This is one of the most interesting departments of organic chemistry, and will be noticed more fully in the sequel. Beans and many other seeds which contain oil, such as almonds, besides albumen, are loaded with a substance quite indistinguishable from the caseine of animal milk, and, still more strange to say, ap- parently in the same state of combination, and associated with the same inorganic substances, as are found to exist in milk inself. Diastase has been mentioned as another nitroge- nous compound, formed during the germination of seeds, and in the process of malting. If cold water is poured over malt ground into flour, and permitted to remain over it for a quarter of an hour, on pour- ing off and filtering the solution, and aftenvatds evaporating over hot water, and being then mixed with alcohol, a white tasteless powder falls, to which the name of diastase has been given by chemists. In unmalted grains this principle is not found to exist, but after germination or malting it is readily obtained ; hence it is apparent that it is a product of these processes. Diastase is supposed to perform important func- tions during the growth of plants. Like sulphuric acid, it possesses the property of transforming starch first into gum and afterwards into sugar; and so powerful an agent is it for this purpose, that one part of diastase will convert into sugar 2,000 parts of starch. The importance of such trans- formation in the nutrition of plants will be apparent when it is considered that starch is an insoluble, and sugar a soluble substance ; and further, that it is only by means of matters in solution that the growth and development of vegetables are produced. When the young shoot is protruded from the seed, this singular principle is formed, and produces the transformation just mentioned, rendering the nutri- ment existing in the seed available for the support of the young plant until it is so far advanced in growth as to claim its food from the atmosphere and the sod. Having examined the nature and properties of I the substances influencing the growth of plants, the ultimate elements of which they are composed, and the proximate elements formed by various com- binations of these in the vegetable structure, we are now prepai'ed to consider the various chemical changes produced during their growth, from the deposition of the seed in the ground untd maturity has been attained. In this department of the sub- ject, the means at the command of the husbandman for accelerating or retarding these processes shall be fully noticed, and the knowledge acquired in the preceding pages practically applied. GUANO AS A MANURE. At the meeting of the Wakefield Club on August 15th, H. Briggs, Esq., opened a discussion "On the beneficial effects of Guano as a Manure." He began by observing — I shall make a few observa- tions, which I hope will provoke a discussion. Farm-yard manure is thought to be the best ma- nure ; but this is certain, that kind of manure is best which has most of the nutritive properties of food for plants in it. Now let us compare the analyzation of manure and guano : — A ton of manure yields 2 lbs. 4 oz. of potash. " guano " 66 " 8 " " manure " 1 " 10 " 6oda. " guano " 36 " 15 " manure " 5 " 1 " phosphoric acid. " guano " 283 " 9 " " manure " 1 " 4 " sulphuric acid. " guano " 93 " 8 " " " manure " 1 " 9 " chlorine. " guano " 62 " From which it will be seen that one ton of guano contains about as much potash as thirty tons of manure. One ton of guano contains about as much soda as 19 tons of manure. One ton of guano con- tains about as much phosphoric acid as 55 tons of manure. One ton of guano contains about as much sulphuric acid as 80 tons of manure. One ton of guano contains about as much chlorine as 45 tons of manure. Bones are said to be a valuable manure ; the principal fertilizing ingredients in bones are phosphoric acid and lime. Now, a ton of raw bones gives 580 lbs. of phosphoric acid. A ton of guano gives 283 lbs. of phosphoric acid. So that bones give double the phosphoric acid that guano does, but bones give no potash, soda, sul- phuric acid, or chlorine ; in yielding lime they are but equal. Rape dust contains no potash, soda, or sulphuric acid ; so that if the land does not contain these, rape dust would be an inefficient or only partial manure, so far as the above three ingredients are concerned. There are only four manures which will do to be applied alone, viz ; yard manure, gu< m^mm. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 301 ano, night soil, and urine. The following are only partial manures : — soot, blood, bones, rape dust, and nitrate of soda. A comparison of night soil and guano is as follows : — A ton of night soil yields 6 lbs. 7 oz. of potash. guano night soil guano night soil guano 66 4 36 120 283 10 15 9 ' soda. i ct phosphoric acid. The comparative value of farm-yard manure and guano (leaving out the gaseous ingredients) appear to be this : — Guano is worth thirty times as much per ton as farm-yard manure, as far as solid fertilis- ing matters go. Practice confirms this : we have in our farm as good turnips from less than five cwt. of guano per acre, as from twenty tons of farm-yard manure ; but it may be asked, is it equally durable ? I say more so — farm-yard manure, it is admitted, yields more gaseous ingredients, but being very valatile, much more flies off than can possibly do from guano. On the ground we tried with five cwt. of guano for turnips, and twenty tons of farm-yard manure, the crops of turnips were equal. The next crop, which was wheat, the part which was tilled with guano produced the best crop. There is a clear benefit to the farmer ; he can raise more turnips by the aid of guano, which gives him more food for his cattle, and of course makes more manure for him afterwards. managed when at home. To return, however, to the Norfolk Cob, who is, by the description we quote, a brown bay, rather over fifteen hands high, with capital shoulders, fine forehead, remarkably neat head, well put on, short back and powerful loins, arms long and very muscular, and legs clean as when foaled, and short from the knee to the ground. He is completely master of twenty stone ; an extraordinary good walker, a very fine and high goer in his faster pace ; and in fact, as the portrait proves, as good a specimen of a real Norfolk trotter as ever was seen. As a stallion, perhaps the strongest proof of his excellence is the fact of his covering for fifteen seasons, in nearly the same circuit from which he was brought two years since by Mr. W. Howlett, Veterinary Surgeon, Bath, where he stood at Mr. Harvey's establishment, until the last few months, when he was purchased by Sir William Codrington, and sent out to his estates in the West Indies : rather long in the tooth, per- haps, for such a voyage, but still full of health and vigour. THE NORFOLK COB. A CELEBRATED TROTTING HORSE. The Norfolk Phenomenon, late the property of Mr. Theobald, of Stockwell, where he stood for some seasons, was bred by Mr. Burgess, of Well Fenn, and was got by that justly-renowned horse Young Fireaway, a famous trotter, who challenged all England, after beating Mr. Slade's celebrated mare, in a match for four hundred, on Sunbury Common. Young Fireaway was, of course, by Old Fireaway, out of a very fast mare by Old Marshland Shales, one of the very best trotters ever known, and who accomplished the then unrivalled feat of seventeen miles within the hour, in a match he ran with and beat the almost equally celebrated Driver. This performance, even up to the present period, has never been exceeded; at least, there is no public match on record to that effect, although eighteen miles and more are said to have been done in trials. For a greater distance, a hundred miles in ten hours is about the best deed of the kind yet achieved, which, in America, according to the Neiv York Spirit of the Times, was performed so late as the fifth of last May, on the Bull's Head Course, Albany. The match, for five hundred dollars, was against time ; and the animal chosen, General Dunham's Fanny Jenks. By the time -keepers, 6he was declared to have finished a hundred and one miles, twelve minutes within the time ! — a wonderful thing, certainly; but it is no less re- markable than true, that the American trotters have never yet equalled in England that they have FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. Article I. — Oak. Having, in the last number, offered a few preliminary remarks on the general preparation of laud to insure success, I propose to notice some of the choicest trees which are known to flourish in Britain, and constitute the chief ornaments of its park and forest scenery. The Oak, termed by excellence " the king of trees," botanically considered, forms a very numerous genus, comprising above sixty species, and many varieties, forty of which are natives of the continent of America and of Mexico. The British Isles claim only three species — viz., Quercus robur, sessile-fruited and va- riegated-leaved oak ; Q. pubescens, downy-leaved oak ; and Q. pedunculata, peduncled oak. The others are chiefly natives of France, southern Europe, and the Levant- Most of the oaks are raised from seed. The process is tedious, little adapted to ordinary practice ; and, be- longing to the nurseryman, it will be always more pro- fitable to purchase young plants than to attempt their propagation. They, however, who take delight in the entire progress of the trees they cultivate, can meet with ample instruction for raising oaks in that amusing work, "The Woodlands," by the late Mr. Cobbett, commencing with No. 419 of his arrangement. Botanically, the oak (Quercus) belongs to the na- tural order Amenlacece (from Amentum, a catkin), and to the Linnaean class order Moncecia Polyandria. The flowers male and female separately upon the same tree. The British species and their few varieties affect a firm and strong loam : their early developed roots "tap" deeply, and penetrate even a strong clay. In such soil they flourish when firmly established ; but to make their first start, the soil, though a true loam, ought to be free and of easy pulverization : and, as a general rule in all plantings, every kind of land, be its texture and 3U'2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. components what they may, should be trenched and made porous by labour, as directed in the previous ar- ticles. With this remark I quit the Common Oak, as it is essentially the tree of the forest, and appropriated to naval architecture. Still, it must be acknowledged that, in sites where it nourishes in ample development and rich verdure, it forms a glorious single object : wit- ness the magnificent oak at Panshanger, near Harting- fordbury, the seat of Earl Cowper. Of deciduous oaks, natives of North America, two require particular attention. These are — 1. Quercus rubra, the Champion Oak, introduced anno 1739, thus described in " Loudon's Catalogue :" — " Leaves smooth, oblong, sinuate, on long stalks ; lobes acute, sharply toothed, bristle-pointed. Calyx of the fruit flat underneath ; nut oval." 2. Quercus coccinea, Scarlet Oak, introduced 1691. " Leaves smooth, oblong, deeply and ^widely sinuated, on long stalks. Calyx of the fruit turbinated, half as long as the nut." These trees are beautiful objects. Planted singly, with taste and judgment, upon a spacious lawn, within view, at different points, from the mansion, they claim admiration. Their figure is light and graceful, their foliage remarkable ; and, whether as mere shrubs six feet high, or as trees forty or fifty feet high, these oaks stand pre-eminent. T have not seen them in groups; but it appears to me that, so arranged, their singularly graceful form would be compromised. Loudon says, " Q. coccinea is one of the handsomest of the American oaks. The leaves, which are six inches long, change in autumn to a beautiful scarlet colour ; and, unless hard frost come on early, they do not fall off the trees till near Christmas. Q. rubra bears a near resemblance to the last species." They are both raised from seeds, and succeed on a sandy loam. I saw Jhe red oak last year, in beautiful perfection, on a large property, the staple soil of which was a poor, hungry sand, abounding with heath ; but there was evidently ferruginous clay in the subsoil. The Live Oak, Q. virens, was introduced from Ame- rica in 1739. It is an evergreen of rare value, not at- taining a high stature, but producing wood of excellent quality. Loudon describes it thus : " Leaves coriaceous, elliptic oblong, revolute, entire, pointless, obtuse, at the base clothed with starry down beneath the footstalk ; nut oblong." It is rarely seen in our nurseries ; but Cobbett has exalted its character beyond all comparison. " Of all the oaks," he tells us, " this is one of the most valuable. It is evergreen, grows well in England, and ripens its seeds. There are several trees of it in the King's gardens at Kew ; and I have seen acorns upon them in a very perfect state. It does not afford large timber ; but is extraordinarily prolific in those knees which are so very useful in the building of ships. Mi- chaux tells us that it flourishes best near the sea, and is proof against all storms and blasts. It is sought after with most destructive eagerness ; and he considers its dis- appearance from the United States within fifty years as nearly certain." " Besides the utility of it, besides the great interest the country has in its cultivation here, it is a large and beautiful evergreen, not liable to be broken by the winds, every twig being as tough as a bit of rope, never flinching at the frost and snow, and affording the amplest of shelters to gardens and houses." The Live Oak can only be raised from seed ; and success is rather doubtful. The young plants require careful nursing for two years, in soil and beds most carefully prepared ; but, with due precaution, " a planta- tion of live oaks," as Cobbett said (we fear to little purpose), " would be a most beautiful thing, and valu- able beyond all calculation." The Evergreen, Holly, or Holm Oak (Quercus ilex), stands next in estimation ; and here we can speak a little more practically. Like the " virens," it can be raised only from seeds ; but these, happily, ripen plentifully in England. It has two noted hardy varieties : the " en- tire-leaved," and that with serrated edges, somewhat like the holly. The foliage is firm, dense, of deep, sombre green, and rather hoary underneath. Bark smooth, and grey-brown. It affects a lightish sandy loam, and finally attains the height of sixty feet. Some years since, I gathered a few acorns which had fallen from a fine tree upon the road that runs along Hedsor hill, that bounds on one side the seat of Lord Boston. These were sown directly, and several vege- tated in the following spring : they were at the edge of a border, in the open garden, where the soil was rather binding. Finding the growth very tardy, and there being danger of accident in several ways, the young plants were cautiously raised, and transferred to pots containing fine light soil. The tap-roots were very long ; and this was a dangerous circumstance. How- ever, six or seven lived, acquired strength, and in two seasons were nearly a foot high. They were then moved to the open ground in prepared holes, and throve well. One of them is now (Sept. 17) full of fruit, and is a handsome, compact shrub, about eight feet high. The Evergreen Oak ought to be raised in pots, and kept under glass, in a cold frame, during the two first winters. It is, from the first, a beautiful evergreen ; and retains its character for rich foliage and compact growth even when a full-sized tree. It must never be removed after being once established, because the roots extend, and cannot be raised with a compact ball. There- fore, if admired as an evergreen shrub, it must be raised from seeds in succession, and the former stock sacri- ficed as the plants become too large for the shrubbery. Wherever the tree in its full dimensions is the object, there the small shrub must be planted, and there re- main. The only point to be considered is, the final effect to be produced ; and surely there is not a tree in our collections which, take it for all in all, can surpass the Evergreen Oak. J. Towers. PRODUCE OF A SINGLE POTATO.— Mr. Thomas Johnson, of Beaduell, planted a potato of the Norfolk kind in his garden this year. Last season, 1844, it grew in a field at Beaduell, belonging to John Railston, Esq. Mr. Johnson cut the potato into twenty-eight sets, and planted the sets in his garden this year, and 681bs. weight has been produced from that single potato. — Berwick Warder. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 303 STEWPONEY FARMERS' CLUB. The periodical meeting of this club took place at the Stewponey Inn, near Stourbridge, on Monday. The meeting was scarcely so numerous as usual, the members of the club present, among whom were Mr. Robins (the chairman) and the Rev. George Wharton, not quite reaching twenty. After the usual preliminary proceedings, the Chairman called upon Mr. Maughan for his essay " On brick-kilns, or kilns for burning pipes and tiles for draining ; on the machines for making such pipes and tiles ; and on the best method of using them." Mr. Maughan, of Dudley, then read the fol- lowing paper : — The subject to be discussed this evening may appear to many persons very uninteresting ; and probably, in the hands into which it has fallen, it will prove as uninteresting as to those persons it may appear to be : but I nevertheless claim for it an importance not surpassed, if equalled, by any subject which has hitherto engaged the attention of our club ; for in the economical construction of our tile-yards, in the cheap production of our pipes and tiles, and in the consequent reduction of the cost of draining, depend the employment of many thousands of our labourers, many thousands of capital, and the creation of many millions of na- tional wealth. First in the order of our subject is to be consi- dered the best and most economical plan of con- structing kilns. There are two aspects in which this term "econo- mical" is to be viewed. It will be undoubted economy, in the construction of a kiln intended for a sale-yard, and where fuel is dear, and where a considerable business is to be carried on, to incur the expense of the most improved plans of con- struction ; but it will be a very questionable economy to adopt an expensive plan of construc- tion where fuel is extremely cheap, and the kiln is to be used for ?. temporary purpose, or for a very small trade, or for a small private consumption of the goods to be produced. The kilns in general use in our own district are the round kilns or ovens, and the oblong kilns, various in length and breadth, some of them arched over at the top, and some of them open at the top. I find, amongst practical brick-makers, that their opinions vary as to the comparative merits of these modes of construction. The round kilns are said to be " quickest ;" that is, they raise a higher de- gree of heat, and burn in less time. They are, however, on that account, said to be unsuited for the burning of some particular qualities of clay. The number of bricks required in the construc- tion of an oblong kiln of any given capacity varies with the strength of the side-walls and the general substantialness of the structure ; but, as a rule of general application, it may, I apprehend, be laid down that it will require 10,000 bricks to con- struct a kiln calculated to burn 10,000 bricks, and that it will require ] 7,000 or 18,000 bricks to con- struct a kiln calculated to burn 20,000 bricks, and about 25,000 bricks to construct a kiln calculated to burn 30,000 bricks, and so on. The small kiln requires ends as well as the larger ones ; and hence the difference in the proportion of bricks re- quired in their construction. If any one desires to know the cost of a well-made brick-kiln, adapted for the burning of any given number of bricks, if he adds for the bricklaying 6s. or 7s. per thousand to the cost of the bricks as required by the fore- going general rule, he will arrive at an approxima- tion to the outlay to be incurred on that head. As regards the mortar for the kiln, it may be in- formation, to those who have never had occasion to construct a kiln, here to state that lime should not be used in the inner part of the walling. Some persons use mortar made of soil only, throughout the walls, inside and outside. It is, however, con- sidered best to use mortar to the courses laid out- side. The action of the fire cements the soil used for mortar inside, and runs it and the bricks into one compact surface. The escape of the heat through the walls is thereby materially prevented. But the use of lime in the outside courses and but- tresses adds to the strength and durability of the structure. Of course, in situations where suitable stone is near at hand, a kiln may sometimes be most sub- stantially constructed at a less cost than if made entirely with bricks. In the fifth volume of the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society" (page 551) will be found a communication from Thomas Law Hodges, Esq., of Hemsted, near Cranbrook, in Kent (a gentleman who for many years has laboured to impress on the community the great and paramount importance of draining, and to devise expedients for diminishing the cost of it). In that communication, Mr. Hodges states that his neighbour, the late Mr. Hatcher (the inventor of the valuable tile-machine that bears his name), had devised a method of con- structing a kiln of considerable durability for the sum of £5. He thus describes the construction of the kiln : " The form of the clay-kiln is circular, eleven feet in diameter, and seven feet high. It is wholly built of damp earth, rammed firmly toge- ther, and plastered inside and out with loam. The earth to form the walls is dug round the base, leaving a circular trench about four feet wide and as many deep, into which the fire-holes of the kiln open. If wood be the fuel used, three fire-holes will be sufficient; if coal, four will be needed. About 1,200 common bricks are wanted to build these fire-holes and flues ; if coal is used, rather fewer bricks will be wanted, but then some iron bars will be necessary — six bars to each fire-hole. The earthen walls are four feet thick at the floor of the kiln, are seven feet high, and tapering to the thickness of two feet at the top : this will deter- mine the slope of the exterior face of the kiln. The inside of the wall is carried up perpendicularly, and the loam plastering inside becomes, after the first burning, like a brick wall. The kiln may be safely erected in March, or whenever the danger of in- jury from frost is over. After the summer use of it, it must be protected by faggots or fitter against the wet and the frost of winter." I have not had opportunity of seeing any kilns of this construction, but it is likely enough that a kiln so constructed may answer a temporary pur- X 304 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pose extremely well, and that with one of the best ' of the pipe-making machines of the present day, at a cost of fifteen guineas, and a few thatched hurdles, or, better still, some lightly constructed frames covered with the patent asphalted felt, for roofing, at Id. per square foot, made by M'Neil, of No. 44, Finsbury Circus, or by Mr. Croggon, of No. 2, Ingram-court, Fenchurch-street, London, the establishment of a tilery is practicable, at a very small cost — a tilery, too, capable of producing many more pipes and tiles in a season than many j gentlemen are disposed to incur the cost of buoy- ing. Mr. Hodges says a kiln of the dimensions described will enable a pipe-maker to turn out , 705,000 1-inch pipes in the course of the sum- j mer, 487,000 1^-inch, or 300,000 of lf-inch ' diameter. If, however, a gentleman intends to construct a [ tilery for a permanency, he will do well to inquire into the merits of the different plans now in use. Mr. Clayton has a plan of his own, Mr. Ford has | another, Mr. Etheredge has another, Mr. Beart has another, Mr. has another, and there may be others with which I am not acquainted. The right construction of the kiln (especially where fuel is dear) is a matter of considerable im- portance, and is entitled, at the hands of the Royal Agricultural Society, of local societies, and of the public generally, to much more investigation than it has yet undergone. Making all due allowance for the difference in coals and the difference in clays, I have been astonished at the discrepancies in the statements of practical brick-makers in re- gard to the quantity of fuel required for the burn- ing of 1,000 bricks. Some idea may be formed of those discrepancies when I state that, whilst some brick-makers boast of being able to burn 1,000 bricks with four cwt. or five cwt. of coal, there are others who state it cannot be effected with less than twelve cwt. or thirteen cwt., and that in some cases it will require eighteen or twenty cwt. It appears that there is a great deal depending upon the quality of the coal, a great deal upon the nature of the clay, a great deal — a very great deal — upon the attention and judicious feeding and ma- nagement of the burner, and no doubt there is a good deal depending upon the construction of the kilns. I have not had opportunity of instituting any experiments on these subjects. They would have involved a considerably greater application of time and money than I should have deemed it expedient for my present purpose to bestow. It occurs, however, to me to mention and to throw out as suggestion for experiment, that, at a place called The Cape, about a mile from Warwick, there are two kilns constructed upon the plan of Mr. Etheredge (where is also to be seen in opera- tion one of his pipe and tile machines driven by horse power). Ahnost side by side with those kilns, and burning clay of the same quality precisely, there is a kiln upon the old plan of construction. ' The manager of this kiln, and of the yard to which it belongs, appears to entertain the most perfect contempt for all the new devices employed at the rival establishment ; and I have no doubt he would be ready to back his old kiln and his own skill against the modern structures and science of the adjoining yard. It is probable (with the consent of the pro- prietors) that a small sum of money to be dis- bursed amongst the men, and to defray, during the experiment, the expenses of a competent superin- tendence, would enable the public, after two or three trials of skill — that is to say, after two or three burnings — to appreciate the advantages of Mr. Etheredge's plan of constructing his kilns. This experiment, or one similar to it, would cer- tainly be desirable ; and it is, I should say, almost due to the members of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety, because there has lately been awarded to Mr. Etheredge the society's prize of 201., offered in 1844 for "the best essay on the cheapest and best method of establishing a tile-yard." I do not happen to know how or in what manner the council of the society give the members and the public the benefit of their prize-essays. Upon in- quiry recently made, I found Mr. Etheridge's essay was not published ; and I, moreover, rather under- stood that it was not intended to publish it. I believe the practice of the Highland and Agri- cultural Society of Scotland is to print and publish all their prize-essays ; and it appears rather odd that the Royal Agricultural Society of England should award prizes of 201. for essays, and not deem them of sufficient importance to be after- wards printed, and made available, at least to the members of the society, if not to the public at large. Next, as regards the tile-sheds, and the best and most economical plan of construction : A remark made in reference to the construction of kilns will apply to the construction of sheds. Where permanency is aimed at, and where a busi- ness of some extent is to be carried on, an amount of expenditure made in the erection of a good shed would be justifiable, which would not be so in a case where the shed was intended for a temporary service only, or for a very small manufacture. As regards the roofing, for instance, most of us can understand the difference between putting on a good roof with good sawn beams and rafters and tiles, and one made with Scotch firs, or any other cheap or almost unsaleable stuff, and thatched with straw or reeds or heath or ling. Mr. Law Hodges, in the article before referred to, states the expense of a tilery thus : Hatcher's machine for pipes or tiles £25 Pug-mill 10 Kiln 5 Straw for shed (exclusive of hurdles, as they can be used for sheep-folding in the winter) 10 Total.... £50 Or the matter may be presented thus : £ s. d. Beart's machine for pipes or tiles .... 15 15 0 Pug-mill 10 0 0 Kiln 5 0 0 A shed of M'Neill's construction, with 1,000 feet of his asphalted felt roof- ing, or that of M'Croggon (see M'Neill's estimate at page 15 of the Catalogue of Implements at Shrews- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 305 bury in July, 1845 ; and see what M'Croggon 6ays at page 61) 19 19 Total. ... £50 14 1 In order, however, to get fairly under weigh, there are, besides the foregoing, many little matters to be thought of, if we chose to look the subject fairly in the face. The brick-ground is to be formed, soil to be removed, a roadway to the tilery made, drying shelves to receive the tiles to be fixed, a hut for the brick-makers to shelter in, or perhaps for one of them to live in, or, at all events, a lock-up for the machine and dies, and other small matters to be provided. Hence, if we do not de- sire to deceive ourselves, the proper way to deal with the foregoing estimates will be to deal with them as we generally find it necessary to deal with estimates — double them. In a debate upon draining at the Cardiff Farmers' Club, in February or March last, Mr. Fothergill, one of the members, furnished an ac- count, from actual expenditure, of the cost of making his own tilery ; and it stood thus : £ s. d. Sheds capable of containing 11,000 tiles 105 0 0 Kiln, to hold 12,000 tiles 85 0 A cast-iron mill 13 0 A Tweeddale patent tile-machine 40 0 License 2 12 Incidentals 10 0 Total £255 12 6 I have estimated the probable cost of a .small, snug tilery, very fairly constructed, situate near Holly Hall, near Dudley. There are two kilns, one to contain 10,000 bricks, the other 15,000. The kilns are oblong, and arched at the top. The shed is 70 feet by 15 feet, and contains flues and shelves made of four strips or laths, two inches broad, placed two and a half inches apart, to admit of a free circulation of air amongst the pipes ; and that, I consider, is the best plan for the shelves. The estimate stands thus : £ s. d. The two kilns 80 0 The shed and shelves and flues, &c. . . 80 0 The rollers to grind the clay, and setting the same 30 0 The forming of the road 10 0 Levelling, draining, and incidentals . . 20 0 Total £220 0 0 Add for a pipe and tile machine from 20l. to 30/. I do not happen to know how many pipes or tiles of any given size the kilns will contain. Bricks are always burnt with the tiles and pipes there ; and no accurate calculation has been made of the number of pipes they would contain. No doubt the tilery would turn out in the year 200,000 or 330,000 bricks, and as many pipes or tiles. The foregoing observations and estimates, taken together, will, I think, enable parties contemplating the construction of tileries to judge with consider- able accuracy as to the cost of construction, and will enable parties about to drain their lands or to use bricks for buildings or repairs, to judge of the expediency of incurring the necessary outlay, or of sending their teams to the sale-yards in their re- spective neighbourhoods. In addition to the first outlay for a tilery, there is the wear and tear of kilns, sheds, roads, &c, to be taken into the calculation. We come next to the consideration of the plans in use for making drain tiles. I need not describe the form of the old draining tile, nor the sole made for it to rest upon in all properly executed drainages. There are, however, two or three sorts of tiles before us, the length 12 h inches ; height, 4| inches ; breadth, 3f inches in- side, or in the bore ; weight, about 7lbs. The sole made of clay necessary to sustain it weighs about 2$lbs. ; so that 1,000 feet (mind, I speak of feet, not tiles, for they vary in length) of those tiles, and 1,000 soles to accompany them, weigh at least 4 tons 5 cwt. The cost of making by hand and of burning those tiles and soles— the cost of producing them cannot, I apprehend, under average circumstances, be laid at less than 32s. per 1,000 feet for the tiles and the soles. If we are draining at distances of eight yards (and that is a distance quite wide enough in the 0 compact, clayey subsoils of the coal districts of 0 South Staffordshire, and of many situations else- where) — if we are draining at eight yards apart, about 1,800 feet of tiles and about 1,800 feet of soles are required. A few years ago tiles of this enormous size and weight were deemed indispensable. There is a small tile before us 12 inches in length, 2j inches in height, and 2£ inches in breadth inside, or in the bore ; weight, 4lb. 3 ounces. A thousand feet of these tiles, and one thousand soles to accom- pany them, weigh from 2 } to 2 i tons. In circum- stances parallel to those before described, 1,000 feet of those tiles, and 1,000 feet of soles for them, cannot, I apprehend, be produced by hand for less than about 22s. Observe that, when I speak of the cost of pro- duction, I speak of average circumstances, and assume that the kiln and sheds and clay are the property of the maker. For instance, coal costs 5s. in some places, and in others 30s., per ton. I have used these small tiles for some years past in all situations, excepting that I have occasionally used the larger sizes for the main or carrier drains ; but to this moment many of the farmers have a great prejudice against them, as being, as they consider, too small ; and some farmers can hardly be persuaded to use them. What those parties will say to the fact that, so far from their being too small, they are really unnecessarily large (and, consequently, unnecessarily heavy and unne- cessarily costly), I know not ; but of that fact ex- perience is daily affording incontestible evidence ; and I believe I may say that the time is fast coming when parties engaged in the surface draining of clay soils will almost refuse the old large heavy draining tiles and soles even as a gift— certainly, in cases where they would be subjected to many miles of carriage. . There have lately come into use, as most readers of the agricultural publications know, and as all who attended the meeting of the Royal Agricultural x 2 306 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Society at Shrewsbury last month saw, a great number of machines for making pipes for drain- ing. Experience seems to have demonstrated that in almost all situations (except for the mains) pipes of one inch in diameter are sufficiently large for surface draining. Here is one of such pipes, twelve inches long, and one inch diameter, weight lib. : a thousand of them weigh about 9 cwt. No soles are required. Made under circumstances parallel to those I have described when speaking of tiles, they cost at the utmost 6s. or 7s. per 1,000. Some parties say they can have them produced, where fuel is three times dearer than with us, at 5s. 9d. or 6s. I am informed that in Kent they may be purchased in the sale-yards at 10s. per 1,000. There are some other pipes before us, of other ozes. I myself make, with a machine of my own sicntrivance, pipes of one inch diameter inside, the clay or rim of the pipe being three-eighths of an inch when first made, and when dry half an inch thick. Along with these one-inch pipes I make a pipe two inches diameter inside, and of the same strength of clay. These are specimens be- fore us. The one-inch pipe is burnt inside of the two-inch ; and I have adopted hitherto the plan of using them together in the drains, putting the ends of the one-inch pipe into the ends of the two-inch. The two-inch pipe weighs 2lb., or 18 cwt. per 1,000 feet, and mil cost about 10s. per 1,000, when the one-inch costs 6s. or 7s.; so that the average cost of 1 ,000 feet of those one and two- inch pipes used in the drain is about 8s. or 8s. 6d., made at the proprietor's own kilns, but exclusive of any consideration for capital, royalty, repairs of kilns, sheds, &e. I deem this plan of laying a safer and better plan than that of using the one- inch pipes by themselves, laid end to end, and risking displacement. The plan described renders that next to impossible, and is less trouble, and of as little expense as the plan of socketing recom- mended by some gentlemen who have turned their attention to these matters. There are specimens of socketed pipes before us, made by Mr. Ford's patent, which is a very simple and very effective contrivance. It must add 5s. or 6s."per 1,000 feet to the cost of production. There is, however, a plan of laying these pipes bet- ter than that now described, which consists of putting a collar about two inches long over the ends of the pipes at their junction with each other. Thus sup- posing you are using a pipe one inch in diameter, let a pipe two inches in diameter be cut in lengths of two inches. Place in the drain your one-inch pipes end to end with the collar over their junction, and you render displacement impossible. Care should be taken, in laying, so to pack the pipes that they do not lie hollow. The specimens before us illustrate what I mean. If you are surface draining with a pipe one inch and a half in diameter (large enough beyond all doubt) then, of course, the col- lars must be formed of pipes two inches and a half in diameter. I believe the merit of this suggestion respecting the collars is due to Mr. Clayton, the patentee of the excellent pipe and tile machine which bears its name. I was conversing at Shrewsbury the other day with Mr. Beart, the patentee of another most excel- lent machine, on this subject. He admitted the merit of Mr. Clayton's contrivance, but observed, and justly, that the manipulation and cost attending the making of 1,000 of these collars were little less than what attended the making of 1,000 pipes, and that they would add considerably to the cost of the drainage. At that time I thought so too: but I have since that conversation devised a very simple and effective method of making these collars, and that the cost of them may be laid, say for collars two inches in diameter, at the almost incredibly small sum of Is. lOrf. per 1,000, or about 2d. per 100 — so that in draining at eight yards apart, they would not add above 2s. 6c?. or 3s. per acre to the cost of the drainage. Mr. Clayton's process of producing these collars is, as I understand, to cut the pipes into lengths of two or three inches, and when dry to put them over the one inch to be burnt. Now, when you have to deal with 1,000 of these collars — the handling of them — the drying of them — the setting of them in the kiln — the removing of them after burning — the loading them into carts — the laying of them by the side of the drains, these various manipulations must add considerably to the expense. I obviate it thus : — The rim of the pipe, when it comes through the die, is, say three-eighths of an inch thick — the pipe itself is, say fourteen inches long. I have a board like that now before us, with knives laid along it at distances rather more that two and a quarter inches apart. Those knives stand up about three six- teenths of an inch — a roller being introduced into the pipe, the pipe is rolled over the knives, and put back on the shelf to dry. By contraction, the col- lars are reduced to little more than two inches in length. The nick made by this rolling process does not cut the pipe in pieces. It still adheres, and admits of being placed in the kiln, and of being drawn from the kiln entire ; and these pipes being properly distributed in the field by the side of the drains, the drainer there will have nothing to do but to break off a collar in the manner that we break off a piece of nicked gingerbread. The board, with the knives and the pipes, before us, perfectly illustrate what I have been describing. A boy or girl at Is. per day, will roll and replace on the shelf many more than 1,000 pipes. If one pipe, fourteen inches long, when fresh from the die, makes six collars, 1,000 pipes will obviously make 6,000 collars. If 1,000 pipes, two inches in di- ameter, cost as before stated 10s., the 6,000 collars will cost only lis., or rather less than Is. 10c?. per 1,000. I believe I am entitled to appropriate to myself the merit of this simple contrivance. Simple though it be, I deem it important, very important, in rela- tion to our present subject, because, at a cost of some 2s. 6d. or 3s. per acre (a consideration really not worth mentioning), it renders the introduction of soil into the ends of the pipes, and the displace- ment of the pipes themselves, impossible, and it gives a quietus, and puts an end to those uneasy apprehensions respecting displacement which I have heard almost a thousand times expressed by men THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 307 distrustful, on the ground of displacement alone, of the small-pipe system of draining. I shall pause here for a moment, to discuss the cost of a drainage executed with such tiles and soles as were universally in use in these districts five or six years ago, and are partially so still, and of a drainage executed with the pipes. Suppose an acre to be drained at eight yards apart, three feet deep in soils such as I have before mentioned ; including the mains, we should have about eighty perches of our local measure of eight yards. Can we have the drains cut three feet deep in the furrows, and three feet six when they occur out of the furrows, and the tiles carefully laid and the drains refilled three feet and three and a half feet deep, in a district where the wages of labour are about 145. a week, for less than 8 s. per perch, or id. per yard ? I ap- prehend not. Now, with the large-sized tiles, and suppose the kiln or sale yard-three or four miles from the drain- age— £ s. d. Eighty perches (or 640 yards) of drains, cutting, laying the soles and tiles, re- filling the drains three feet and three feet six inches, &c. 8c?. - - 2 1 3 4 Carriage of 1,800 soles and tiles, weigh- ing nearly eight tons, say three or four miles, and suppose the work going on partly in rough winter weather, the teams plunging over two or three wet heavy fields, going twice one day and once the next, and laying the tiles con- veniently along the drains for the drain- ers. What is this worth ? The car- riage of eight tons three or four miles under the circumstances ? say 3s. per ton-- - - -140 Cost of the tiles and soles, even where the landlord makes them, 32s., add for capital and wear and tear and repairs of kilns, sheds, roads, &c. 10s. per 1,000, and say - - -440 Cost per acre - -814 A drainage with the smallest sized tiles will stand thus : — £ s. d. Eighty perches (or 640 yards) at 8c?. per perch - - - - 2 13 4 Carriage of nearly 1,800 feet of tiles and soles, nearly five tons - - 0 15 0 The tiles and soles at 22s. and 8s. for capital, &c, &c. - - - 2 14 0 6 2 4 The cost of a similar drainage executed with the one and two inch pipes would be — £ s. d. Eighty perches cutting, laying refilling, &c. - - - - 2 13 4 Carriage, under circumstances parallel to those before mentioned, of 1,800 pipes and collars, weight nearly 20 cwt -030 Cost of the 1,800 feet of pipes and col- lars at 8s. 6c?. per 1,000, add for capital, wear and tear, &c. 5s. per 1,000 - 1 4 3 4 0 7 From the foregoing calculation it will be seen that when the drainage is executed with the drains, say, at eight yards apart and three feet six inches deep, more than 41. per acre is saved by using the pipes instead of the large heavy tiles and soles, and that 11. Is. 9c?. per acre is saved by using the pipes instead of the tiles and soles of the smallest sizes yet adopted. Of the efficacy of the pipes there is not the least room for doubt ; some years of experience in other counties, as Kent, Sussex, Essex, and Suffolk, have demonstrated their efficiency. In the course of last winter I drained some lands in the occupation of Mrs. Russell, at the Straits, near Askew Bridge, about a mile from Himley, and I laid the drains (three feet deep) alternately with one-inch pipes,two- inch pipes, and with tiles and soils. The main or carrier drain has been left open, that the neighbours might observe, if they thought proper, the action of the different drains. The one-inch pipes have dis- charged after heavy rains as freely as the others. I purpose leaving the main drain open for some little time to come, and I hope that parties in the neigh- bourhood, both farmers and tile makers, who have any prejudices against pipes, will take occasion to observe the action of those drains after a fall of rain. I was myself at first rather distrustful of the one- inch pipes; I never doubted their sufficiency to carry off the water required of them in ordinary frequent or furrow draining, but I was apprehensive of displacement at the ends, and consequently of obstruction. If care be taken in the laying of the one- inch pipes, experience has assured us that they are in all respects efficacious. To make certainty, how- ever, doubly sure, and to guard against any dis- placement at the ends, I have adopted and shall continue the plan of laying the end of the one-inch pipe into the end of the two-inch pipe, or rather of laying the pipes end to end, with a collar as before described, which is perhaps the better plan ; and as to the sufficiency and efficacy of drains so con- structed for surface draining in stiff clay soils, I do not entertain any doubt whatever. Some of the lands at the Straits before mentioned have been drained in the way first described, and the drains work admirably. We had a soaking rain on the night of Thursday, the 10th of July, and through- out a great part of Friday. On the afternoon of Friday I examined those drains, and have from time to time subsequently, and nothing can be more satisfactory than the manner in which they dis- charged the water after rains. The drains are three feet deep, some laid at eight yards apart ; some in- tended for subsoiling at five yards, and in one field intended for subsoiling, the drains are laid at four yards apart ; that field was drained some time ago at eight yards apart, two feet deep ; that drainage proved insufficient, and it has been drained between the old drains at three feet in depth, and the improve- ment in the working condition of the land is most unquestionable ; two horses will plough it hence- forth as easily as three have heretofore done. The subsoiling has not yet been executed. It is intended to subsoil portions of those fields, that it may be seen in what degree the land drained and subsoiled will differ from that drained but not subsoiled. Parties living in the neighbourhood know the 808 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hitherto wet and miserable condition of those lands and they will thus have opportunity of observing the effects of the operations referred to. "With men who have familiarised themselves to the use of the large heavy draining tile, there will, no doubt, lurk for a time to come a distrust of the efficacy of these pipes of small diameter. Prejudices are not all at once surmounted. I put it, however, to the consideration of the most prejudiced of those who now hear me, whether, if they will doubt the efficacy of one pipe of one inch in diameter, they can entertain any doubt of the efficacy of a pipe two inches in diameter; or, better still, of two pipes of one inch in diameter laid in the same drain side by side — the junctions of the one line of pipes being made to lie half way down the lengths of the pipes in the other and parallel line ? In the doctrine of chances, remote, indeed, must be the probability of the two orifices or tubes becoming obstructed. Even with these double lines of pipes laid in each drain, the saving to be effected in the expense of a drainage is most important, as compared with that incurred by the use of tiles and soles, whether large or small. It is hardly possible to over-estimate the import- ance of bringing down the cost of drainage from 81, 10/., and 12/. per acre to 3/. or 4/. The cost of an effective, permanent, and extensive drainage, under the old system, was wont to daunt both land- lords and tenants. Few men had courage to face it. It was, indeed, a serious matter to undertake ; and hence it is that so many thousands, aye, millions of acres, have never yet been subjected to those ameliorations of which draining must unquestionably be the forerunner. It will be observed that it is in the cost of production, and in the cost of carriage, that the saving under the pipe system arises. The cost of labour remains as before, or nearly so; in- deed, in many soils, entirely so. The next desideratum in practical draining is a plough to diminish the spade work. I amaware of several ploughs that have been brought before the public for that object, but I am not aware of any that have acquired extended popularity. I remarked in the proceedings at the Farmers' Club, held in January last, at the York Hotel, Bridge-street, London, that Mr. Smith, of Deanston, was directing attention to the plough of Mr. M'Ewen of Blackdab, in Perthshire, by which, with twelve and sixteen horses and eight or ten men, the cost of the spade work admitted of being greatly reduced ; indeed, Mr. Smith states the expense of a drainage with that plough at 9d. for thirty-six yards, or exactly %d. per yard ! I feel, however, that a plough like M'Ewen's, re- quiring such a power as twelve or sixteen horses, will be slowly adopted. The machine is too un- wieldly, and in small drainages and in small en- closures must be of doubtful economy. If we could have a plough to execute its work cleverly with not more than four horses, even if it did less work at once, and had to go up and down the fur- row the more frequently, such a plough, I doubt not, would, at the present time, be in great request. In the few estimates I have made in this lecture, I have founded them upon a supposition that the drainage was being executed with drains at eight yards apart. I must guard myself against having it supposed that I consider that the distance to be adopted in all cases. It is hardly practicable to lay down a rule on that head applicable to all soils and situations. Experience is the best instructor as to the distance proper to be adopted in the cutting of drains ; and perhaps the subject requires closer and more philosophical observation than it has yet re- ceived. There is, however, in the present state of our science in draining, much justness in an ob- servation somewhere made by Mr. Smith, of Dean- ston, that from eighteen to twenty-five feet from drain to drain will be found a good practical dis- tance in surface draining. The depth of the drain in surface draining should never be less than three feet, and there are those who affirm confidently that four feet is far better than three. From experience and observation, I am fully con- vinced that a great majority of drainers are cutting their drains much too shallow. I advise men who have any doubt upon the subject, and who consider twenty or twenty-four inches sufficient, to try in the same field depths of two feet, three feet, and four feet, and to leave their mains or carriers (where practicable) open, and to observe closely the work- ing of the different drains, and the effect of the drainage upon the condition of the land. The ex- periment is easily made, and the subject is most important. Connected with thisbranch of the subject is theim- portant—the highly important— matter of refilling the drains. When Mr. Smith, of Deanston, first pro- pounded his news on draining and subsoiling to the public, he advised that the drains should be 30 inches deep, and should be filled twelve or fourteen inches with stone, and with materials as porous as it was prac- ticable to obtain. From the results of an enlarged experience (and with a candour which does him in- finite credit), Mr. Smith has recalled his first opinions, and now admits that they involved an un- necessary expense, and that better cannot be done than to throw in over the pipes or tiles or stones the very clay that is brought out by the cutting of the drains. As this is a point upon which drainers are not yet agreed, and upon which farmers in general are very sceptical, it may be necessary to explain the manner in which the water finds its way to the pipe or tile laid in a drain filled up with clay. Simply thus : — If we cut a drain in a soil with a subsoil however clayey, however stiff, and throw in again the clay brought out, it is obvious that no junction takes place between the side of the drain and the soil which has been replaced in that drain. To effect a perfect junction a very troublesome and costly operation of puddling would be necessary. The water that falls upon the surface descends, where the subsoil is impervious, through the upper soil, until it meets with the impervious clay or sub- soil beneath it. It then percolates down to the drain, and finds its way to the pipes or tiles down the fis- sures made by the imperfect junction of the sides of the drain and the clay thrown back in the process of refilling the drain ; when, however, a permeable soil rests on sand or gravel, the surface water filtrates thither, and reaches the pipes or tiles, for the most part, from the bottom of the drains. The dryer the land becomes by the action of the drains, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 309 the more those fissures open in the manner we con- stantly see effected by the contraction of, and by the rends and fissures made in, clayey soils by evaporation in dry summers. This contraction of soils by drying is often lost sight of in the opera- tion of filling in the drains, especially in grass lands. I doubt not most gentlemen present have noticed where grass fields have been drained, there has often been a subsidence of the soil thrown back into the drain, and a somewhat unsightly shallow gutter thereby produced. That arises partly from the oc- cupier being in too great haste to spread the soil lying on the tops of the drains, and from the con- solidation and contraction the soil in the drain un- dergoes in the process of drying. Hence it should be observed that all the soil brought out of a drain is required to refill that drain, even where a mo- derately sized pipe has been buried in it ; and that in grass lands especially no part of the soil should be spread. I have no hesitation in saying that this information as to refilling with the clay or other soils brought out of the drains will save 5/. or 6/. per acre to many a drainer of the old school. I have repeatedly seen men wasting more than that sum per acre in raising and breaking stones, and carting and plunging over their wet lands with them to get them to their drains, and then filling them in. The draining of many an acre of land has thus been made to cost 10?. or 12/. where 3/. or 47. would now, upon the plans of recent adoption, effect the object equally well. I see that, a meeting of the Durham Farmers' Club (reported in the Durham Chronicle, a few weeks ago) the subject of draining was discussed ; and it is to be collected from that report that many of the farmers of that county (as elsewhere) are still imposing upon themselves the unnecessaiy ex- pense of carting " refuse coke and small coals " to maintain the porosity of their drains, and that they are " keeping all the clay out of the drains," to be spread over, and to be intermixed with, and to dete- riorate the lands so drained. It is also to be col- lected that the cost of draining twenty-eight inches deep is there from 6/. to 8/. per acre. The distance of the drains is not stated, and consequently the expression "per acre" is vague and uncertain; but no doubt a loss of some pounds per acre is in- curred by the cartage of the " refuse coke and coals." As regards the laying out of drains : — This being rather a controverted point, it may be as well to notice that some drainers contend for the propriety of running the drains across the slopes of the land; others of running them down the slopes. I believe that either plan will drain the land, but that the drains down the slopes will effect it soon- est. Where, however, it is intended to subsoil, or where possibly a disposition to subsoil may there- after arise, it is most undoubtedly the best plan to run the drains down the slopes. If the drains be, say, eight yards apart, the water has only four yards to percolate to reach the drain. In the other case it has often to travel nearly the whole distance of eight yards from drain to drain. On the subject of subsoiling I wish to speak with diffidence. I have not seen any instance of an ex- periment in any field fairly tried, which was cal- culated to show how much the field had been bene- fited by the draining, and how much by the draining andsubsoiling combined. I have not done much in the way of subsoiling, myself. I have lain by, to see ho wit answered in the hands of others. I have noticed attentively some fields of clay-bottomed soils on the estates of the Hon. R. H. Clive, in Worcestershire and Warwickshire, which were drained and sub- soiled a few years ago with great care, and the beneficial effects have been in the highest degree questionable. Indeed, I think I may say that the opinions of some of the tenants are that not only has no benefit been induced, but rather an injur)'. That is certainly the opinion entertained in the case of a twenty acres field held by Mr. Wharford, of , near Alvechurch. Some of the land on the Cofton farm, held by Mr. John Penn, has been drained and subsoiled. No perceptible advantage resulted from the subsoiling. Both those gentle- men are exceedingly good fanners, and free from all prejudice against subsoiling. The lands in question were drained two and a half feet deep, at distances of from seven to eight yards — those on Mr. Wharford's farm being filled in over the tiles laid on soles, with cinders and gravel, at consider- able expense. The clay was thrown out, intermixed with, and worked with, the soil. The subsoiling was executed with the utmost care. The twenty acres field before mentioned has re- ceived the very best and most generous treatment during the six or seven years which have elapsed since the subsoiling ; and it is doubtful to this hour whether any the least improvement in it is percep- tible. Moreover, Mr. Wharford and Mr. Penn alike noticed that the grain does not ripen so early on the subsoiled pieces as on those adjoining which have not been subsoiled ; and Mr. Wharford is of opinion that the water does not percolate to the drains so freely in this twenty acres field, and the land is not after heavy rains so speedily restored to condition for working, as in the adjoining fields not subsoiled. I have no explanation or theory to offer for these phenomena. I simply state the facts, and they are deserving the attention and investigation of gentle- men about to subsoil on an extensive scale. If I were to hazard any conjecture upon the failure of this subsoiling (Mr. Wharford's more particularly) — if I were to hazard a conjecture on the causes of the questionable improvement of the soil and the lateness of the ripening of the crops, it would be that the many tons per acre of clay which were thrown out of those drains and worked into the soil were of themselves calculated materially to damage a soil already too stiff and clayey. I deem it, too, not improbable that in such a subsoil the drains at seven or eight yards apart are too distant for free and ready filtration after subsoiling, and that the subsoil becoming, by the operation of the subsoil ploughing, a depository for the water, a redundancy of water rests there until carried off by evaporation, the water in the meantime obstructing the absorp- tion of heat — in other words " starving the land." On the subject of draining it should further be stated that there are situations in which surface draining three or four feet deep alone will not lay the land sound and dry. It will mitigate but not 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. totally remove the wetness. In such cases the ap- plication of Elkington's system of tapping the springs by deep cuttings or borings should be resorted to. This system of draining requires in- finitely more experience and judgment than that of mere surface draining. There is at this time on Gouldsborough Moor, not far either from Harro- gate or Knaresborough, in Yorkshire, on the estate of the Earl of Harewood, perhaps one of the best — if not itself the very best — exemplifications of this system to be met with in England. The moor, properly so called, consists of some 250 acres, lying very flat and level, composed of a deep alluvial soil, which in its wet condition appears as impervious as a clay ; but, when dry, is absorbent and permeable There are, perhaps, 250 acres more affected by the drainage. Numerous attempts have from time to time been made to lay the moor dry, but without suc- cess, until about two years ago, when a line of boreholes was put down at the bottom of long and deep cuttings. The water rushes up with astonish- ing force from a porous stratum from depths of from fifteen to twenty feet ; and the bore holes dis- charge along the mains which have been cut a quantity of water equal to that of a not very incon- siderable river. The pressure and force of the water have enlarged many of the bore holes five or six feet in diameter. The springs and bogs have been laid totally dry. When I saw the drainage about twelve months ago, I doubted whether surface drainage to some extent would not be required. I am, however, told by parties who have seen it more recently, that from all present appearances the surface waters will percolate downwards with perfect freedom beyond the reach of vegetation, and that the probability is surface draining will not be required. It may certainly be worth while to delay surface draining for a time ; a short period will test the efficacy of the present excellent drainage. It may be useful to say a word here to the manufacturers of the old-fashioned heavy draining tiles, most of whom, I am aware, dislike the in- troduction of the pipe or tile machines, and some of whom have set their faces altogether against them. I earnestly advise those gentlemen to march with the times, to provide themselves with machines suitable to the nature of their respective trades, and to offer their goods at a fair price. I would urge them to reflect that if the cost of draining can be brought down from S/. or 10/. to 3/. or 4/. per acre, they may safely speculate that, for one acre drained heretofore, five acres will be drained hence- forth, and that their increased sale will yield them as good a profit under the new system as the old. It might also be suggested to gentlemen who are about to drain their estates in different and dis- tant situations, to pause in some instances before they incur the expense of erecting tileries of their own, because a tilery can seldom be placed upon a large estate within a convenient distance of all the tenantry, and the carriage is consequently rendered onerous to many. If there be existing tileries in the country, and the proprietors of them reasonable men, a landowner possessing a portable pipe ma- chine might have it shifted from tilery to tilery, the proprietor to be paid a proper consideration for making and burning any given number of pipes or other goods. By arrangement, the man rendered by practice expert in the use of the machine might travel along with it. Several of the pipe machines are now so portable that they can be placed in a cart, and conveyed with perfect ease. It may not be amiss to put down here the names and addresses of some of those meritorious in- dividuals who have bent their minds and have bestowed their time and talents to the contriving of some of those valuable machines which have already effected, and are still effecting, such im- portant reductions in the cost of draining, and who have thereby rendered such signal service to ag- riculture and their country. The ingeniously contrived machine of the Mar- quis of Tweeddale has been before the public for some years. It possessed much merit at the time of its appearance, but it has been superseded by machines of more recent date. The tiles made from it are too heavy and costly for our present notions of the weight and cost of materials, to be employed in draining. There were fourteen pipe and tile machines ex- hibited at Shrewsbury last July, all perfect and in good working order. A pipe maker would not make a great mistake who purchased anyone of them; but, certainly, some were better adapted for par- ticular purposes and objects than others. The fol- lowing is a list, preceded by the number of the stand in the Shrewsbury catalogue : — 14. Mr. Etheredge, of 15, Park-street, Westminster, had three machines of different constructions, prices from 25/. to 50/. 3. Mr. Beart, of Godmanchester, Huntingdon, had one, price 15/. 15s. 8. Mr. Webster, of Hounsdown, near South- ampton, ditto, from 20/. to 50/. 25. Mr. Clayton, of 21, Upper Park-place, Dorset- square, ditto, 2GZ. 28. Mr. Hatcher, of Benenden, Kent, ditto, 25/. 31. Mr. Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford, ditto, from 16/. to 20/. 36. Mr. Chamberlain, of Bredicot, near Worcester, ditto, 20/. 60. Mr. Weller, of Caple, near Dorking, ditto, from 15/. to 30/. 54. Mr. Charnock, of Wakefield, and Mr. Denton, of Gray's-inn, ditto, 20/. 70. Mr. Scragg, of Calveley, near Tarporley, Cheshire, ditto, 21/. 72. Mr. William Ford, of Fulham, near London, ditto, 28/. 7s. ; License, 3/. 3s. Mr. Ainslie, of Acton, Middlesex (not in the catalogue — not having complied with the rules as to time of application for admission to the show yard), price 30/. The respective machines of Messrs. Clayton, Beart, and Scragg were set apart by the judges for further experiment. To which of those gentlemen the honour of the Society's prize for the best ma- chine will be awarded is not yet known. To parties in our own neighbourhood, who may wish to see some of those valuable pipe machines in actual operation, it may be useful to mention that one of Etheredge's is at the Cape, near War- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 wick — another in the tilery of Mr. William Wood, of the Cock public-house, Droitwich. Mr. Richard Smith, of Upper Hall, near Droit- wich, has two very effective machines of his own invention, although he has not made any public exhibition of them. It is due to Mr. Smith to say that he has been considerably in advance of the present generation, in his own vicinity, in this de- partment of agricultural improvement. He has made pipes these six years, and has executed seve- ral extensive drainages with them. One of Clayton's machines is at work near Tardebigg church, near Bromsgrove, in a tilery of the Hon. R. H. Clive. One of Hatcher's (belonging to J. H. H. Foley, Esq.) is, or lately was, at Mr. Mobberley's yard, near the Lye Waste, and near Amblecoat, near Stoux-bridge. There will be one of Beart's (if he keep his pro- mise) at Holly Hall, near Dudley, in a week or ten days. A number of Mr. Beart's machines are about to be manufactured by Mr. Walton, of Old Hall, Wolverhampton. It may not be out of place here to mention that the honour of being the inventor of the pipe system of draining is due to Mr. John Reid, now of Regent Circus, who about thirty-six years ago was a farm servant to the late Rev. Dr. Marriott, of Horsmon- den, in Kent. — (See p. 372, vol. 4, of Journal R. A. Society.) Atall events, Mr. Reid wasan inventor, and the first who applied the invention to practical pur- poses. Itmustbegratifyingtohimtohavelivedto wit- ness the important consequences which have already resulted from the invention of his youthful days, and to contemplate the benefits to arise from it in time to come. It should, perhaps, in justice to all parties, be mentioned that, at the Cardiff Farmers' Club, in November, 1844, the Rev. E. W. Richards ac- qnainted the meeting that his ancestor, T. Edwards, Esq., of Llandaff House, had taken out a patent for making draining pipes upwards of half a century ago, and which patent he (Mr. Richards) had then in his possession. We are not informed whether (as in the case of Mr. Reid) the invention of Mr. Edwards was ever made available to any useful purpose. In the consideration of the advantages of draining should be noticed (as respects heavy clay lands especially), the striking effect produced in the work- ing condition of the land. It is not too much to say that many lands which in their undrained state require the power of three or four horses in the plough, particularly when strung one before an- other, after the fashion of our midland counties, may, after a thorough and perfect drainage, be worked with two horses. Without perplexing the subject with too many figures, it may be stated that the economy of working through a rotation with two horses, instead of three or four, will amount, at least, to four or five shillings per acre. Let it be considered by tenants what this amounts to on farms of a few hundreds of acres, and by landlords to what it amounts on estates of ten or twelve thousand acres; and the vast importance of the subject, to both landlords and tenants, will strike the mind with a force which ought to stimulate to prompt and decisive action. Perhaps one of the best applications of the funds of the agricultural societies of the midland counties would be to defray the expenses of an intelligent deputation into the northern counties, to investigate and report on the causes which enable the farmers there to work their heaviest lands with two horses in a plough, whilst here, in parallel circumstances, we persist in string- ing on three or four. I am convinced that effectual drainage, and a positive prohibition on the part of landlords against the use of three and four horses yoked one before another, would speedily beat down and render ob- solete this most insensate custom. Some forty years ago, Mr. Cooke, a farmer from Yorkshire, was introduced into a farm called Caerwys Hall, in Flintshire, situate between Holywell and Denbigh. Mr. Cooke set the example there of ploughing with two horses abreast. The gentlemen of the county (and to none more than to Sir Edward Pryce Lloyd, the present Lord Mostyn, is the merit due), by pecu- niary rewards and by personal commendation, en- couraged the ploughmen and the then rising youth of the county to adopt the plan of ploughing two abreast ; and for nearly twenty years past the prac- tice of ploughing their heaviest soils with more than two horses has been obsolete. Again, in Gla- morganshire, the examble set by the north country bailiffs, introduced some thirty or forty years ago by the enterprising ironmasters of that county, has rooted out the practice of using more than two horses in a plough. I feel that I cannot, and ought not, to conclude a lecture on a subject akin to draining, without pointing attention to the valuable papers on drain- ing dispersed through the journals of the Royal Agricultural Society, and most particularly to that of Mr. Josiah Parkes, contained in the 5th volume — a paper which I hesitate not to say will open out to most men who will take the trouble to read it many new views on draining, and will furnish many most valuable suggestions. The paper in question is " On the influence of water on the temperature of soils ; and on the quantity of rain water and its discharge by draining." The paper in question affords a striking illustration of the value of science and of general intelligence when brought steadily to bear upon any given subject, and will, I think, go far to dispose the merely practical agriculturist, who may read it to receive sometimes with some degree of" complacency and respect the suggestions of men of science on agricultural topics, although those men might not have been trained to hold the plough nor to dig in a ditch. In Mr. Parkes's own language, " the discovery of causes is of the high- est importance to the arts ; and a correct theory of any action so rapidly accelerates, extends, and per- fects sound practice, that we cannot too highly prize its possession." To those who value the possession of a correct knowledge of the causes which render it of importance to drain land three or four feet deep, instead of twenty inches or two feet deep, I earnestly advise them to peruse Mr. Parkes's essay ; and perhaps this recommendation is the most valuable suggestion I have this night to offer, and is the best compensation I can make 812 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. for having presumed to occupy the time and atten- tion of the present meeting. The efforts of Mr. Pusey, and of his able ally Mr. Parkes, to diffuse information in this depart- ment of agricultural improvement, have been most valuable, and claim from the public at large, no less than from the agricultural community, the ex- pression of a grateful sense and appreciation of the important and well-directed labours of those gen- tlemen. Postscript. — On Saturday evening, Aug. 2nd' I chanced to be in the neighbourhood of Alvechureh' on a visit to a friend. I took occasion to cast my eye over the subsoiled fields of Mr. Penn and of Wharford, to which reference is made in a fore- going part of this discourse. There is a good crop of wheat growing on Mr. Penn's field, and an ex- ceedingly good crop of beans on Mr. Wharford's — the first fair crop seen on the latter field since it was subsoiled. It was in wheat in 1844, and was a very shy crop (about twenty-two or twenty-three imperial bushels), even in parts not damaged by the game. The farm adjoining to that of Mr. Wharford, sen., is The Grange, occupied by his son, Mr. Wharford, jun., who is likewise an ex- ceedingly good tenant. Upon this farm there is a field of beans, part of which field was drained, about three years ago, 2£ feet deep in the furrows, at dis- tances of sixteen or seventeen feet, but not sub- soiled, and the remainder was neither drained nor subsoiled. There is a very mai-ked difference in the crop — the beans on the drained part of the field being an excellent crop, alike in ridge and furrow, and being at least seventeen or eighteen per cent, better than that growing on the undrained part of the field. I think there is more growth — more straw — on this drained land of Mr. Wharford, jun., than there is on the subsoiled land of Mr. Wharford, sen. ; but I think the beans of the latter are rather the best podded, and, from present ap- pearances, will yield the most per acre. The beans of Mr. Wharford, jun., on the land drained have come up too thick. It may and should perhaps be stated that this field of Mr. "Wharford, jun., is naturally a better field than the subsoiled field of Mr. Wharford, senior. At the conclusion of the lecture, a vote of thanks was voted to the lecturer ; and the following re- solution, after a very interesting discussion, was passed : — "That the usual construction of kilns for burning bricks, and pipes and tiles for draining, is imperfect, and that the subject requires further investigation ; that the construction of a shed for drying should depend upon the purposes for which it is intended ; and that the best method of using pipes or tiles in draining is at depths of three or four feet, generally at distances varying from fifteen to twenty-five feet, the drains being carried clown the slopes of the land rather than across them. That, for tempo- rary purposes, the meeting approves of the plan for a tilery suggested by Mr. Law Hodges ; and that the use of pipes of small diameter, instead of tiles and soles, is calculated to effect a most import- ant reduction in the cost of draining." The business of the meeting then terminated. PRIZE ESSAY ON THE MANUFACTURE OF MANURES, AND THE APPLICATION OF THE SAME TO THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SOILS. BY ASAHEL FOOT. READ BEFORE THE BERKSHIRE (AMERICAN) AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. " A good agriculturist will neglect no means of forming dung-heaps : it ought to be his first and daily care, for without dung there is no harvest." — Chaptal. Preliminary Propositions. That vegetation annually appropriates to itself, and thus removes from the soil, a certain amount of nutritive principles ; and that the removal of a succession of crops, without some compensation in the shape of manures, will gradually impoverish, and, if carried far enough, ultimately exhaust the soil, are propositions so manifestly true as to re- quire no illustration. We every where see that the process last indicated is sure to be followed by a gradual change in the colour and texture of the soil , and by a proportionate dimunition of its vegetable products, until, if not arrested, the final result is absolute sterility. The truth of the converse of these propositions is equally evident. Take an old field which has been reduced to barrenness by an unrelenting system of cropping without compensation, and restore to it a portion of those vegetable matters by the abstrac- tion of which its poverty has been occasioned, and amendment is at once the consequence. Repeat the operation, and a further progress towards fer- tility is made; extend it sufficiently far, and the face of nature is entirely renewed, and every symp- tom of a full recovery exhibited. From these, and kindred considerations readily suggested to the reflecting mind, we draw the fol- lowing Inferences. 1. That the appropriate food of vegetation is, for the most part, neither more nor less than the ultimate results of vegetation itself, modified by the action of the animal organism, and the several pro- cesses of fermentation. 2. That a limited amount only of the food of vegetation is contained in any given quantity of soil. 3. That a single crop cannot be removed from the soil, without diminishing, to a certain extent, its capabilities for supporting vegetable life. 4. That an uninterrupted cropping of any given portion of soil, without remuneration, will at length infallibly reduce it to sterility. 5. That the original fertility of any given portion of soil can only be maintained by faithfully re- storing to it, in the shape of manures, an amount of vegetable matter equal to that which is annually abstracted from it. 6. That an impoverished soil can only be re~ stored to its original fertility by the application to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. S13 it, of an amount of vegetable matter greater than I Nutritive Manures. that which is annually taken from it. The great depositories of the manures of this 7. That the most exhausted lands can not only class are the barn-yard, the piggery, and the privy be regenerated, by sufficiently increasing the pro- \ vault ; each of which will claim our attention, for portion of vegetable matter in the soil, but raised , a moment, in relation to the causes which operate above the highest point of their original fertility. 8. That the deteriorated condition of the major part of our cultivated soil is proof conclusive, that to diminish the amount and value of their contents. Causes of Waste. How, then, are the contents of these depositories chiefly liable to waste : We answer, ] st, by iw- filtration, or soaking away into the earth; 2nd, by evaporation, or being taken up by the sun and winds ; 3rd, by excessive fermentation, in which the heaps accumulate so great a degree of heat, as to dissolve the salts which they contain, and dissi- pate them in the form of gaseous exhalations ; and, 4th, by drainage, or flowing away in the currents of water, which are suffered but too often to despoil our barn-yards of their richest treasures, and to defile our highways and clog up our ditches with that which might otherwise fatten our corn- fields. Remedy for Drainage. To close effectually the last-named waste-gate, it is only necessary so to excavate the central portions of the yard, as to form a sufficient reservoir for the liquids that will naturally find their way into it, and carefully convey away the droppings from the roofs of the buildings, by good conductors, and to turn the course of any superfluous waters from higher grounds, by effective trenches. Remedies for Infiltration and Evaporation. To guard against infiltration, let the yard, and especially the excavated portions of it, receive a thorough coating (if nature has not been before- hand in supplying one) of the purest clay at com- mand; and to escape the mischiefs of evaporation, furnish it with an abundance of litter, such as refuse straw, orts, weeds, and leaves from the forest, to- gether with muck, surface-soil from the road-sides, hedges, and ditches, or any other convenient matters of a porous nature, to absorb the liquids and pro- tect the whole mass from the influences of the atmosphere. A further security still, will be found in occasionally strewing the yard with plaster, which, by combining with the volatile portions of the manure, and converting them into salts not volatile, will rob the atmosphere of that portion of its prey. Remedy for Fermentation. Having taken the above precautions, little danger need be apprehended from excessive fermentation, except in case of considerable piles of horse-dung ; and here it will be very easy to avert the evil, either by occasionally spreading open the heaps, or, what is far better, by interlarding them, at proper inter- vals, with muck or surface-soil, which will not only effect the object in question, but, by absorbing the juices of the pile, become of equal value with the dung. Value of Liquid Manure. It will readily be perceived, that the principal effort of the farmer, in the preservation of his ma- all the resources of the farmer have not, in general, been put in requisition. 9. That the secret of all good farming lies in the skilful management and judicious application of the common home-made manures. 10. That it is of the highest importance to the agriculturist to study more carefully the nature of soil, the wants of vegetable life, and the mutual re- lations and dependencies of the soil and vegetation ; and above all, to cast about him and explore the sources of those animal, vegetable, and mineral substances, the proper application of which to his cultivated fields is not only an indispensable pre- requisite to their increased fertility, but the certain harbinger, if coupled with economy, of competence at least, if not of affluence. Definition of Manure. Manure is a term of almost unlimited application, embracing an immense number and variety of substances — including, indeed, whatever can be named in the animal, vegetable, and mineral king- doms, capable of improving and fertilizing the soil. Says the author of "British Husbandry," "Anything whatever may be called manure, which, when ap- plied to the soil, rectifies its defects, corrects any bad quality, or either stimulates it to yield, or stores it with nutriment." Any classification of so hetero- geneous a mass of substances, which should at once prove satisfactory to the agricultural chemist, and intelligible to the merely practical farmer, cannot, in the present state of agricultural science, be at- tempted with any prospect of success. A practical classification alone, however, would seem to be called for on the present occasion, and that which is regarded as the simplest will be chosen. Classification of Manures. " From the earliest speculations on the nature of manures, down to a very recent period, manures have been divided into two classes — nutritive and stimulative, or such as furnish the direct food of plants, and those which act as stimulants, or excite plants to take up and assimilate such kinds of food as are presented to them. In the first class have been placed all decayed vegetable matter, farm-yard manures, animal excrements, night-soil, and such other matters as, having been derived from plants, are considered as capable of being reconverted into vegetable matter. In the second class, it has been the custom to place gypsum, lime, such salts as are found to produce a favourable effect on vegetation, as the phosphates of lime in bones, and the nitrates existing in saltpetre, soda, &c." [Albany Cultivator, Vol. 8, p. 95.] To these maybe added a third class, consisting of variable mixtures from the two former, with several kinds of earth, and denominated "com- posts." Thus we have the simple classification of _ all the manures into, 1st, Nutritive Manures; 2nd, nures, must be directed to their liquid portions Stimulative Manures ; and 3rd, Composts. these portions not only being by far the most ex- 314 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. posed to loss, but possessing a superiority in value, which renders their loss irreparable. This last senti- ment, involving, as it does, a subject of vital interest in agriculture, we shall take the liberty of illustrat- ing by the introduction of several authorities. " The greatest value should be attached to the liquid excrements of man and animals, when a ma- nure is desired which shall supply nitrogen to the soil. The greatest part of a superabundant crop, or, in other words, the increase of growth which is in our power, can be obtained exclusively by their means. When it is considered that with every pound of ammonia that escapes, a loss of sixty pounds of corn is sustained, and that with every pound of urine a pound of wheat might be pro- duced, the indifference with which these liquid ex- crements are regarded is quite incomprehensible. In most places, only the solid excrements impreg- nated with the liquid are used, and the dunghills containing these are protected neither from evapo- ration nor from rain. The solid excrements con- tain the insoluble, the liquids all the soluble phos- phates, and the latter contain likewise all the potash which existed as organic salts in the plants con- sumed by the animal." [Liebig's Organic Chem- istry, p. 191.] " Liquid manure consists, in a great degree, of the urine of various animals, which, during its de- composition, exhales a larger quantity of ammonia than any other species of excrement. Now, all kinds of corn contain nitrogen, and consequently any manure which yields a ready supply of am- monia must cause a fuller development of those parts of the plants which are of the greatest use to man. Even the kind of animal manure usually employed in this country owes its efficacy, so far as it is dependent en the ammonia present, to the urine, rather than to the solid excrement, of which it is made up, and hence becomes materially de- teriorated in this respect, when the more liquid portions are allowed to drain off from it." [Dau- beny's Lectures on Agriculture.] " The quantity of liquid manure produced by one cow, annually, is equal to fertilising one and a quarter acres of ground, producing effects as durable as do the solid evacuations. A cord of loam, sa- turated with urine, is equal to a cord of the best rotted dung. If the liquid and solid evacuations, including the litter, are kept separate, and soaking up the liquid by loam, it has been found they will manure land in proportion, by bulk, of seven liquid to six solid, while their actual value is as two to one. One hundred pounds of cow's urine afford thirty-five pounds of the most powerful salts which have ever been used by farmers. The simple state- ment, then, in figures, of the difference in value of the solid and liquid evacuations of a cow, should impress upon all the importance of saving the last in preference to the first." [Dana's Muck Manual, p. 171.] " Urine is always a most valuable manure. No farmer should permit it to run to waste, but should so prepare his cattle-yard, by loam or swamp muck, and by plaster, as to save these invaluable products of his stables, and of his own dwelling. As the urine is commonly mixed with the solid excrements in the barn-cellar or cattle-yard, it increases the value of this manure, it promotes its decay, and adds its own salts : but if the whole is exposed to the influence of atmospheric agents, it facilitates their action, and aids in depreciating its value; I hence it is generally wholly lost to the farm. Far- I mers ought to know this, and to be apprized of the ] fact, that at least one half of their manures is wasted." [Gray's Elements of Agriculture, p. 302.] " Upon nearly all our farms, the dung of quad- 1 rupeds is exposed to the open air, without the pro- J tection of a shed, as soon as it is removed from the stables, and is thus washed by the rains, which carry off all the salts, urine, and soluble juices, and form at the foot of the mass a rivulet of blackish fluid, which is either wholly evaporated, or lost in the ground. In proportion as fermentation ad- vances, new soluble combinations are formed, so that all the nutritive and stimulating principles of the dung gradually disappear, till there remain only some weak portions of the manure, intermingled with stalks of straw, which have lost all their good- ness." [ChaptaVs Agricultural Chemistry, p. 55.] A Valuable Hint. " To remedy as much as possible an abuse so in- jurious to agriculture, it is necessary at least to dig a deep ditch, to receive all the juices which flow from the dunghill, in order that they may be used in the spring upon the corn or grass lands ; or that they may be preserved to water the grass-lands with, after the first mowing. A large cask fitted upon a small cart, and which can be filled by means of a hand pump, is sufficient for this purpose. Beneath the tap of the cask must be fitted a narrow chest, about four feet long, with the bottom pierced with holes, through which the liquor may be scattered. This mode of watering, when used after mowing, produces wonderful effects upon the crop of the following year." [Ib.~] An Experiment. In confirmation of the statement last quoted, the writer may be permitted to notice an experiment with liquid manure, made by himself during the past year. Some one hundred and fifty gallons of liquid were dipped, in the month of October, from an excavation beneath his horse- stable, and evenly distributed over a small area (perhaps twenty square rods) of old meadow land, the soil a stiff clay loam, on which but little grass had grown for four or five years. When that area was mowed, about the first of August last, it was judged to yield at the rate of at least three tons to the acre ! an increase of certainly not less than five to one, and attributable to no otherassignable cause than that dressing of liquid manure, of which, too, a con- siderable portion must have been made up of water. Management of our Stables. From facts like the above, we should be quick to gather lessons of wisdom ; not lessons of knowledge merely (for they may be profitless), but lessons of that practical wisdom, which not only comprehends and appreciates what is good, but employs the best means for its attainment. Let our stables receive a justshareof attention; let the ground beneath them be so shaped, as to conduct the urine which falls from it, directly to the common reservoir in the yard ; or THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 315 let it be excavated in a proper form, and supplied with suitable absorbents ; or let tbe floors be made tight, so that the urine can be taken up by the lit- ter, or conveyed by gutters to the yard ; and there can be no question that at least one-third will be annually added to the value of our stock manures. Where any of the improved machines for that purpose are in use, the expense of cutting the straw intended for litter will be more than repaid by the greater ease with which the floors may be cleaned, especially in winter, by the greater amount of li- quid it will absorb, and by the greater facility and evenness with which the manure may be spread in the spring. Dry powdered muck and loam, stored under cover for the purpose, may also be highly recommended for free use in stables, as being well adapted to prevent the waste of the liquids there, and also the escape of the juices and gases from the heaps as they are formed without. And last, not least, an occasional sprinkling of plaster over the floors will not only preserve such salts as would otherwise be lost by exhalation, but at the same time greatly contribute to the sweetness of the stables. Merita of this System. It is not imagined that the system now indicated for the preservation of our barn-yard manures is a perfect one, securing all the advantages desirable to be secured. It does not wholly protect the manures from the wasting action of the atmosphere, nor from Uability to loss by infiltration and drainage. But perhaps, considering the universality of its application, and the comparative ease and cheap- ness with which it may be adopted, it is the best that can be recommended for general practice. In situations where it is practicable, additional ad- vantages may be unquestionably secured by the use of a barn-cellar, into which any or all of the manures of the establishment may be thrown, with suitable absorbents, and the whole wrought to- gether into the richest of all composts, by the voluntary labours of the swine. No doubt farmers will find their account also in housing their ma- nures as much as possible, since, by being thus protected, their most valuable portions (their juices and salts) will be preserved to a much greater ex- tent than it is possible for them to be in the open air. Comparative Value of Manures. The barn-yard being the common receptacle of the excrements of the horse, the cow, and the sheep, and the great object having been, thus far, to point out the best mode of saving the whole of them, the comparative value of these different sub- stances has passed unnoticed. In order, however, that the farmer may direct his labours for the pre- servation of his manures to the greatest profit, he should certainly have the benefit of all known facts on this point. " The quantity of vegetable and animal matter in horse-dung is considerably larger than in cow- dung, it is as twenty-seven to fourteen, or nearly double ; and of course the quantity of nitrogen which it is capable of yielding is nearly double that of cow-dung. Sheep-dung is similar to horse- dung, but contains a greater quantity of vegetable matter in a soluble state. It is also richer in salts; and the quantity of nitrogen which it is capable of yielding is greater than in either of the preceding substances. Hog-manure contains still larger quantities of soluble matter, and is capable of yield- ing a large quantity of nitrogen, in the form of amo- nia. It ranks next in value to night-soil, which has ever been celebrated as the most valuable sub- stance used for manure." [Gray's Agriculture, p. 286.] " Experiments undertaken by order of the Saxon and Prussian authorities, varied in every form, and continued for a long period, prove that if a soil without manure yield a crop of three for one sown, then the same land dressed with cow-dung yields seven for one sown — with horse dung, ten for one sown — with human manure, fourteen for one sown." [Dana, p. 143.] The Piggery. Still greater care will here be requisite, to " see that the commonwealth receives no detriment," inasmuch as the treasures at stake are of higher value, and from two circumstances, more liable to waste; namely, there being a greater proportion of liquid excrements, and the solid portions being more exposed, from the fact of their being con- stantly upturned by the rooting of the swine, and thus presenting, every hour in the day, fresh sur- face to the action of the sun and winds. The former of these circumstances will be ju- diciously met by supplying the pens with an abun- dance of straw, leaves, saw-dust, and the like ; the latter by furnishing the yard with an occasional load of muck, and almost any quantity of weeds, pea and buckwheat straw, potato-vines, &c, all of which will be rapidly converted into the most efficient supports of vegetable life. It is suggested, whether it would not be an im- provement on the present system, were the yard and pen but one enclosure, consisting of an open area under cover (with floors for eating only), where the same use might be made of muck and litter, as at present, and the whole completely shielded from the atmosphere. The Privy Vault. This, in proportion to the volume of its contents, should command a greater share of our solicitude than any other of the depositories of the farm ma- nures. Considering simply the nature of the food from which the substances under consideration re- sult, we might well suppose them to possess a su- perior efficacy in promoting the growth of the finer plants and grains — a supposition which agricultural chemistry unites with all experience in fully justify- ing. So far, therefore, as the simple preservation of manure is concerned, it is doubtless from this quarter that the farmer can derive the greatest profit at the least expense. Let the vault, then, (constructed with a due regard to convenience, as well as to the exclusion of air and moisture,) be carefully supplied, at proper intervals, with powdered charcoal alone, or with dry powdered muck and gypsum, (the best of all substances for this purpose, but for which cut- straw, surface-soil, ashes, and old lime may be 316 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. substituted,) and the object will be fully accom- plished. The liquid portions will be absorbed, and the volatile products converted into fixed salts; the whole mass will become inodorous and inoffen- sive, (no small advantage to the family as well as to the farm,) and a goodly quantity of the richest of all manures will be prepared for convenient application to the cultivated crops. Value of Human Excrements. Deeply impressed, ourselves, with the value of these excrements, and deeming it of no small im- portance that a general interest should be awakened in relation to them, we cannot forbear from present- ing our farmers with one or two pertinent quo- tations. "In respect to the quantity of nitrogen contained in excrements, one hundred parts of the urine of a healthy man are equal to thirteen hundred parts of the fresh dung of a horse, and to six hundred parts of those of a cow. Hence, it is evident, that it would be of much importance to agriculture, if none of the human urine were lost. The powerful effects of urine, as a manure, are well known in Flanders, but they are considered invaluable by the Chinese, who are the oldest agricultural people we know. Indeed, so much value is attached to the influence of human excrements, by these people, that laws of the state forbid that any of them should be thrown away, and reservoirs are placed in every house, in which they are collected with the greatest care. No other kind of manure is used in their corn-fields. The agriculture of that country is the most perfect in the world." "If we admit that the liquid and solid excrements of a man amount, on an average, to one and a half pounds daily, (five-fourths of a pound of urine, and one-fourth of a pound of faeces,) and that both taken together yield three per cent, of nitrogen, then, in one year, they will amount to five hundred and forty-seven pounds, which contain sixteen and a half pounds of nitrogen, a quantity sufficient to yield the nitrogen of eight hundred pounds of wheat, rye, or oats, or of nine hundred pounds of barley. This is much more than is necessary to add to an acre of land, in order to obtain, with the assistance of the nitrogen absorbed from the atmosphere, the richest possible crop ever)' year. Every town and farm might thus supply itself with the manure, which, besides containing the most nitrogen, con- tains also the most phosphates ; and if an alteration of the crops were adopted, they would be most abundant. By using, at the same time, bones and the lixiviated ashes of wood, the excrements of animals might be completely dispensed with. — [Liebig, p. 185.] " In Belgium, which has been the cradle of en- lightened agriculture, and where good modes of cultivation are continued and constantly improved, they make astonishing use of this kind of manure. So great a value do the Flemings attach to it, that the cities set a high rate upon the privilege of dis- posing of the cleansing of their privies, and there are, in each one of them, sworn officers for the assistance of those who wish to make purchases. " We shall find great difficulty in bringing this branch of industry to the same degree of perfection amongst us, that it has arrived at in Belgium, because our farmers do not realize its importance ; and have a repugnance to employing this kind of manure. But could they not collect carefully all these matters, mix them with lime, plaster, or gravel, till the odour was dispelled, and then carry the whole upon the fields ? " Already, in most of our great cities, the contents of the privies are used for forming poudrette ; this pulverulent product is sought for by our agricultu- rists, who acknowledge its good effects ; let us hope that, becoming more enlightened, they will employ the faecal matter itself, as being more rich in nutritive principles, and abounding equally in salts; they can easily govern and moderate the too powerful action of this, by fermentation, or what is still better, by mixing it with plaster, earth, and other absorbents, to correct the odour." — [Chqptal, p. 62.] Pure Animal Matter. All animal substances, such as the carcasses of dead animals, unmerchantable fish, the refuse of the slaughter-house, the relics of the kitchen, and the waste of the tan-yard, the shoe-shop, the card- ing-mill, the comb, glue, soap, and woollen cloth manufactories, &c, by being seasonably gathered up, and either incorporated with the barn-yard manures, combined with compost materials, or buried directly in the soil, will prove the most efficient aids in promoting fertility. " The carcass of a dead horse," says Lord Mead'owbank, " which is suffered to pollute the air with its effluvia, has been happily employed in decomposing twenty tons of peat earth, and transforming it into the most valuable manure." In illustration of the value of numerous refuse matters, commonly accounted " good for nothing," and thrown away, it may here be stated that the finest crop of eight-rowed corn inspected by the Agricultural Committee of Berkshire, the present year, owed its superiority, in their opinion, to the employment of a compost manure, in which the principal ingredient was woollen flocks. The soil was thin, consisting of exceedingly coarse gravel; yet the growth was luxuriant, and the ears well filled, perhaps beyond comparison for the present season. Pure Vegetable Matter. This may include straw, leaves, vines, &c, and green or ripened crops ploughed under, to improve the soil ; but the consideration of this topic being unnecessary in the present connection, it will be reserved for a future paragraph, under the second branch of our general subject, namely : — THE APPLICATION OF MANURES. In order to the most judicious application of our manures, it is obviously necessary that we have regard to certain characters and conditions of soil; as the proportions of its inorganic constituents, the amount of its organic materials, and its relatione to temperature and to moisture. Inorganic Constituents of Soil. By the inorganic constituents of soil, are meant those purely earthy substances which form the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 317 baste, and chiefly determine the texture of all soils, but which, of themselves, whether in a combined or separate step, are wholly incapable of supporting vegetation. Such are gravel, sand, and clay, (as also lime,) which constitute the basis of the great majority of all our soils. Constitutional Character of Soil. When either gravel or sand predominates in the constitution of a soil, it is termed siliceous, from silica, the common name of gravel and sand. "When clay preponderates, it is denominated argillaceous or aluminous, from argil and alumina, both which signify clay in a pure state. If lime be a principal constituent, it is called calcareous^ from calx, sig- nifying chalk, which is only a certain modification of lime. Physical Conditions of Soil. The different proportions in which the inorganic constituents enter into the composition of any soil, will also chiefly determine its physical condition ; that is, it will be light or heavy, (more properly, loose or compact,) wet or dry, warm or cold, in proportion as it consists chiefly of gravel and sand, or mostly of clay. Organic Constituents of Soil. By the organic constituents of soil, are meant those vegetable and animal substances which help to compose the soil to a certain depth, which exert a considerable influence, also, upon its texture, and upon which vegetation is entirely dependent for its subsistence. In scientific works on agriculture, this portion of the soil is usually treated of under the name of geine, humus, or vegetable mould ; and embraces every thing in the soil capable of under- going decomposition, and thus becoming the food of plants. Object of the Application of Manures. To increase this organic portion of the soil, is the great object of the application of manures. It should not, however, for a moment be imagined, that the simple augmentation of the proportion of organic matter will insure fertility, since very much depends upon the state, as well as the quantity of this matter in the soil. It is upon these two cir- cumstances, taken in connection, that the farmer is wholly dependent for success in all of his agricul- tural operations. Certain Conditions of the Soil Prerequisite. In illustration of what is meant by the depend- ence of fertility on the state of the geine in the soil, it may be observed, that manure, applied to either gravel or clay in a pure state, might as well be applied to the surface of an equatorial desert, a pool of water, or an island of ice ; the former (gravel) being destitute of that quality of compactness which is necessary to prevent the salts and juices of the manure from escaping at once into the earth or air, and to retain a sufficient degree of moisture for the purposes of vegetable life ; and the latter wanting that opposite quality of porosity, which is requisite for the escape of that superabundance of moisture, which, by its own presence, and the exclusion from the soil of the other atmospheric agents, would prove equally fatal to all the processes of vegetation. The proposition, therefore, must approve itself to every intelligent farmer, that the fertility of a soil depends not only on the quantity of geine it contains, but also on the state of that geine, as affected by its relations to the inorganic constituents. Hence the importance to the agriculturist of making himself acquainted with the nature of soil in general, and of his own soil in particular, that he may husband to advantage his means of fertili- zation, and not expend his strength in labours that will, in the end, prove fruitless. Constitution of the best Arable Soils. The proportions in which chemical analysis has ascertained the different constituents of the most productive soils to exist, are about as follows : silica (gravel or sand), sixty parts in one hundred ; alumina (clay), sixteen parts ; lime, three parts ; oxide of iron and manganese, seven parts ; geine (organic matter capable of becoming the food of plants), nine parts ; potash, three parts ; soda, one part ; magnesia, one part. Says Chaptal; " From the results of analysis we find that in the best earths there is a large pro- portion of gravel, which renders the soil light and easily worked, and facilitates the passing off of superabundant rains. In consulting the analysis of less fertile soils, we find that their fertility di- minishes in proportion as one or the other of the three principal earths (silica, alumina, and lime) predominates, and that it becomes almost nothing in those which possess the properties of but one. The mixture of earths, then, is necessary to the formation of a productive soil; and their proportion can be varied only according to the nature of the climate, and the kind of plants to be cultivated. Siliceous and calcareous earths may form a larger proportion of the soil in moist than in dry coun- tries ; and alumina may, in its turn, predominate in those lands, which, from their declivity, suffer the water to flow off freely ; but a mixture of the three earths can alone form a good soil, and too great a disparity in their proportions materially affects the character of it." [p. 26.] Starting-Point of Improvement. Here, then, is evidently the starting-point, from which the farmer, that would run the race of im- provement, must calculate his "latitude and depar- ture." From this "post of observation," must he survey the sphere of his labours, carefully noting the several ingredients of his soils, and the different proportions of their several combinations, as well as their several physical conditions ; and thus will he be qualified to enter intelligently on the execu- tion of any scheme relating to their improvement. If a careful observer, he will early make the impor- tant discoveries, 1. That an excess of siliceous or calcareous substances, by rendering the soil too porous, occa* sions the speedy disappearance of his manures, exposes his crops to suffer from droughts, and frequently disappoints his hopes of a harvest, and frustrates all his efforts at successful cultivation. 2. That an excess of argillaceous matter, by ren- dering his soil too compact, obstructs the passage of the surface waters that rest upon it in spring, refuses admittance through its indurated surface to 318 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the fertilizing dews of summer, excludes the health- ful influences of the sun and air from the roots of his plants at every period, receives with indifference whatever manures he applies, and renders all his labours upon it, to a great extent, abortive. 3. That a certain admixture of the different earths composes a soil sufficiently light and waim, meeting, without detriment, the ever varying states of the atmosphere, affording a ready passage to the rains in wet weather, and to the dews in dry, ap- propriating largely to his crops the beneficial influ- ences of the sun and air, making the most of every particle of manure received, and amply compensating him for all the labour he expends upon it. Soils too Compact or Porous, improved by Admixture. Having made the above discoveries, the resolute improver of the soil will come at once to the conclu- sion, that what the hand of nature has left unfin- ished, it is for his to complete ; and setting himself at work, in imitation of the pattern she has furnished him, will, by a due adjustment of the different ingredients of his several soils, bring up, at length, the poorest of his lands quite to the standard of the best. He will not, however, find it advisable, in most instances, to effect this adjustment directly, that is, by carting soil from one field to another, for the purpose of admixture ; but, rather, to cart it first to the cattle-yard, to be blended with a por- tion of solid and liquid manure, and thence convey it to the localities selected for improvement. This practice has been followed, to some extent, by the writer, and with the most distinguished success. Indeed, so marked have been the benefi- cial results of this system, as to leave upon his mind the full impression, that for a light, siliceous soil, two loads of agillaceous earth, well mixed in the cattle-yard with one of manure, are of more actual value than would be three equal loads of clear stable manure. For a heavy, aluminous soil, a similar treatment with gravelly or sandy loam, combined with manure, will prove equally beneficial. Soils improved by Draining. On wet lands manure should never be applied at all. Let such lands be thoroughly drained, and in most cases it will be found that no manure is needed ; the soil being already supplied with a sufficiency of vegetable matter, which, having been kept in an insoluble state by an excess of moisture, will, under more favourable circumstances, become decomposed, and furnish abundant support to vege- tation. But when it is needful that manure should be applied to lands of this description, thorough draining should, in every case, precede the applica- tion, and then the expense mil be remunerated. A Fundamental Principle. "What has now been advanced will make appa- rent, if the writer has not failed of his object, the importance of what he deems a very fundamental principle in the application of manures, namely, that not only in the quantity and kind, but in the mode of their application also, manures should always be adapted to the peculiar character and con- dition of the soil. This general principle, in its relation to the nutritive manures, may be reduced, by way of detail, to a number of highly practical rules, the most important of which are the follow- ing :— Rules for the Application of Manures. 1. The smaller the quantity of organic matter in the soil, the greater should be the quantity of manure applied, and vice versa. A light dressing of manure on an exhausted soil, and a heavy one on a soil already stored with nutri- tive matter, woidd be alike injudicious ; the former being insufficient, not only to give a permanent fertility to the soil, but even to make the present crop a remunerating one; and the latter having no immediate office to perform, the crop to which it is given being already supplied with appropriate food. 2. The heavier, moister, and colder the soil, the lighter, drier, and warmer should be the manures applied ; as horse and sheep dung in an unfer- mented state. "Animal manures develop more or less heat, according to their nature, and their state of fermen- tation; those which have not been decomposed excite more heat, and maintain it for a longer time than others. The excrements of the sheep and horse aie more heating in their action than those of the cow ; the black or brown manures warm the soil more than marl or chalk." [Chaptal, p. 37.] 3. The lighter, drier, and warmer the soil, the heavier, moister, and less heating may be the manures applied ; as cattle and hog dung, and com- post manures. The liability of light soils to suffer from drought, should lead the fanner, not only to exercise great care in selecting the most suitable manures, but to see that they are thoroughly incorporated with the soil, and not left in masses, to increase the evil. Moderate quantities of either animal or vegetable matter, if properly blended with the soil, will promote its moisture, by increasing its power of absorption ; but if applied in excess, or left in considerable masses, the opposite effect will be produced. The same considerations should have their weight in relation to the kind or quantity of manure used (if any) in the hill, for hoed crops. 4. The more porous the soil, having a loose subsoil, the nearer the surface should the manures be deposited, to avoid infiltration. "We must beware, however, that while we draw one foot from the water, we do not thrust the other into the fire. If, on the one hand, by placing our manures too deep in the soil, we suffer loss from infiltration, so, on the other, by leaving them upon the surface, we shall find ourselves losers by evapo- ration, though, perhaps, to a less extent. The true practice would be, to give them just that covering which, while it would protect them from the more direct action of the atmosphere, would, at the same time, keep them longest within reach of the roots of the plants. 5. The more impervious the soil, having a com- pact subsoil, the deeper and more intimately should the manures be incorporated, to promote the freer action of the sun and air upon the soil, to render it easier of cultivation, to secure a wider range for the roots of the plants, and to prevent excessive mois- ture in wet, and drought in dry weather. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 319 The common air, which is, to a great extent, excluded from soils of the kind now under conside- ration, exerts a most powerful agency in promoting vegetation, and that in various ways: 1. By im- parting to the soil the temperature of the atmos- phere. 2. By furnishing nutritive principles from the decomposition of its own constituents. 3. By serving as a medium for the introduction into the organs of plants, of their appropriate aliments; and, 4. By conveying to the roots of the plants, the various fertilizing matters contained in the dews which it deposits on the surface of the earth. Says Chaptal, (p. 33,) " That earth which is most easily affected by the dews, yields most readily to the action of the roots, whether it be to fix the plants firmly by their extension, or to draw from the soil its nutritive properties. 6. On soils disproportionately siliceous or cal- careous, manures should be applied in combination with clay, or argillaceous loam, to increase the retentiveness of the soil, by giving it a stronger texture. The presence of a certain degree of moisture, which is not always possessed by soils of this de- scription, is necessary, 1, to excite, by the oxygen which it contains, the vital energies of the plant ; 2, by its solvent properties, to aid in decomposing the vegetable matters in the soil; and, 3, to dilute, to the requisite degree, the food thus prepared for the plants, and help to convey it into their delicate organs. " It is generally considered," says John- ston, {Agricultural Chemistry, p. 78,) " that solid svibstances, of every kind, are unfit for being taken up by the organs of plants, and that only such as are in the liquid or gaseous state can be absorbed by the minute vessels of which the cellular sub- stances of the roots and leaves of the plant are composed. 7. On soils disproportionately argillaceous, ma- nure should be applied in combination with siliceous or calcareous matter, to increase its permeability, and thus make it more friable, raise its temperature, and secure, to a greater degree, the beneficial influ- ences of the atmosphere. To be convinced of the importance of permea- bility, or looseness of texture to the soil, we need but reflect for a moment, that plants are not per- mitted, like animals, to roam about in quest of their food, the invariable limits of their pasturage being the extremities of their roots. How obviously necessary, then, that they should be enabled to extend their roots with the utmost freedom, and lay under contribution, without impediment, what- ever elements can yield them sustenance. 8. On positively wet soils the application of manure should, in every case, be preceded by tho- rough draining. " Whenever water is converted into steam, the ascending vapour carries oflf much heat along with it. Let two adjoining fields be wet or moist in different degrees, that which is wettest will almost at all times give off the largest quantity of vapour, and will therefore be the coldest. "What is the remedy ? A removal of the excess of water. And how ? By effectual draining. The first effect upon the soil is the same as if you were to place it in a warmer climate, and under a milder sky, where it could bring to maturity other fruits, and yield more certain crops." [Johnston, p. 54.] " If the water is withdrawn from a marsh, free access is given to the air, and the marsh is changed into a fruitful meadow." [Liebig, p. 116.] To the elevating of the temperature of cold, wet soils, too much importance can hardly be attached. " The solvent power of water over solid substances is increased by an elevation of temperature. To this fact is ascribed, among other causes, the pecu- liar character of the vegetable productions, as well as their extraordinary luxuriance, in tropical coun- tries." [Johnston, p. 48.] " Warmth renders the sap fluid, and quickens its circulation ; cold thick- ens it, and renders it stagnant. It is heat alone, that, by animating the vegetable organs, enables the plant to elaborate within itself the nourishment which it receives." [Chaptal, 36 and 102.] Additional Rules. The relations of manure to the roots of plants, and the peculiar action of manures on different plants and on different classes of crops, give rise to the following additional rules. 9. The deeper the roots of any plant penetrate the earth, the deeper should the manures be de- posited ; and the more superficial the roots of any plant, the nearer the surface should they be lodged. The mouths of plants being uniformly placed at the extremities of their roots, the necessity is obvi- ous, that, in order to derive from them the benefit intended, the substances employed as manures should be distributed in the soil, with some regard, at least, to the extension and position of these roots. That system which should lead the farmer to pre- pare in the same manner a patch of ground for strawberry plants, whose creeping roots scarce penetrate beneath the surface, and another for pars- nips, which have been known to strike their roots to the perpendicular depth of six feet, would be indeed ridiculous. 10. The quantity and quality of manures should be carefully adapted to the character of the plant cultivated, as being a great or small consumer, and as having a special partiality for a particular con- stitution of soil, or for a particular kind of nutritive principles. Some species of plants, as Indian corn, for in- stance, are well known to demand a supply of food which would surfeit and destroy the more delicate grains; some thrive luxuriantly in cold and wet, and others in warm and dry soils, to which an exchange of locality would prove fatal ; and some, again, evince a natural appetite for the rank exhala- tions of fermenting manures, as those, in general, which have long, tap roots, and large, fleshy stalks, while others prefer ammonia, as red and white clover ; others lime, as potatoes and wheat ; others common salt, as the asparagus plant, &c. 11. Whenever manure is furnished to the soil, the quantity supplied should be amply sufficient to secure the fullest development and most vigorous growth of the plants intended to be cultivated. It is a most interesting and important discovery of modern science, that plants, through the agency of their leaves, derive no small proportion of their elementary substances from the atmosphere ; and Y 320 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that this proportion is graduated, to a greater or less extent, by the quantity, strength, and vigour of their foliage. " Hence, the proportion of organic matter derived frem the air, in any crop we reap, must always be the greater, the more rapid its general vegetation has been." [Johnston, p. 146.] In illustration of the extent to which the atmos- phere is drawn upon by plants for their nourish- ment, as well as the agency which manures exert in the operation, "Sprengel states, that it has been very frequently observed in Holstein, that if, on an extent of level ground sown with corn, some fields be marled, and others left unmarled, the corn on the latter portions grows less luxuriantly and will yield a poorer crop than if the whole had been un- marled. [lb.] 12. Unfermented manures should be appro- priated, in general, to the use of hoed crops; fer- mented manures and composts alone, to the finer grains and grasses. The reasons for this rule (which have been, in a measure, already anticipated,) are, that while Indian corn, potatoes, and most tap-rooted plants are benefited, in the highest degree, by the powerful gases thrown off from manures undergoing fermen- tation, their effect upon the finer grains is, to hasten unduly the growth of the straw, and thus to expose the crop to the very serious evils of lodging, blast- ing, &c. "The plant," in this case, "absorbs more nourishment than it can readily digest, and becomes affected by a kind of obesity; the texture of its organs is rendered soft, loose" and spongy, and unable to give their products the due degree of consistency.'? [Chaptal, p. 70.] Fermentation of Manures. That manure should never be suffered to undergo fermentation any where else than in the soil, or In well-protected compost-beds, may be argued from the facts, 1st, That even an incipient fermentation cannot take place without the evolution and escape of some portion of its volatile products, such as carbonic acid and ammonia, to the latter of which all nutritive manures are indebted for their princi- pal efficacy ; 2, That, during fennentation (in the open air) it is constantly exposed to further loss by infiltration and drainage; and, 3, That the finer grains do not require this process to be undergone in the barn-yard, since, coming as they mostly do, and as perhaps they always should, after hoed crops, they find the manure employed for the previous crop in just the requisite state of decomposition ; a clear gain of the entire advantage secured in the previous harvest. It maybe objected to this view of the subject, that fermented manure is in particular cases indis- pensable far forcing vegetation— that is, for hasten- ing the growth and maturity of certain plants. Let this be admitted ; still the admission does not establish the necessity of that waste against which we are protesting. Let the manure to be fermented be carefully collected in compost-heaps, and we are satisfied. Applying Manures to the Surface. Whether putrescent manures should ever be ap- plied to the surface of the soil, is a question on which the opinions of distinguished agriculturists are far from being unanimous. The right decision of the question depends, in our view, upon the fol- lowing circumstances : 1. The condition of the manure to be applied; 2. The character of the soil for which it is intended ; 3. The nature of the crop to be benefited by it ; and, 4. The time of the year when the manure is to be carried out. 1. If the manure to be applied has been com- posted, or if the process of fermentation has already spent its force upon it, there can be no serious ob- jection to its being spread upon the surface; since, the gaseous exhalations having already escaped, it is chiefly secured from the ravages of the atmos- phere; and from infiltration there is nothing to fear, as that is the very process best adapted to bring the decomposed particles in contact with the mouths of the plants which are to feed upon it. 2. If the soil for which the manure is intended be very porous to a considerable depth, the nearer the surface it can be deposited, without too much exposure to the atmosphere, the better, it being evi- dent that the nutritive juices will soon descend be- yond the reach of the plants, if it be in the first place buried too deep. 3. If the crop to be benefited consist of any of the finer grains or grasses, the application of the manure to the surface (harrowed in, in the case of grain), will have a greater present effect than any other mode of application, as the roots, that is, the mouths of the plants, lying close to the surface, will have the readier access to their food. That natural meadow-land can thus be made to yield a greater burden of grass than by any other means, scarcely admits of a doubt. 4. If the manure to be applied is suminer-made manure, which must be carted out in the fall, this mode of application will have another argument in its favour. By being spread at this season of the year, after the heats of summer are past, the fer- mentation and evaporation will be but slight, and the rains and snows which may be expected to fall upon it in succeeding months will either wash it into the soil, or so imbed it among the roots of the growing crop, as quite effectually to shield it from the wasting action of the atmosphere the succeeding season. One thought more upon this subject. With the relations of plants to the atmosphere as a source of nutriment, we are as yet much less acquainted than with those which they sustain to the soil ; and ag- ricultural science, in its onward progress, may yet develop the fact, that manures applied to the sur- face, by exerting a direct and powerful agency upon the leaves of plants, and thus promoting an increased absorption of the nutritive particles of the atmos- phere, may prove more beneficial, especially in the case of grasses and the finer grains, notwithstand- ing the losses they sustain from evaporation, than they would if buried beneath any portion of the soil. Green Crops for Manure. Green crops, ploughed under for the purpose of enriching the soil, have been regarded from very ancient times as valuable aids in agriculture, and are still recommended in no small degree by the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 321 highest agricultural authorities. It is indeed un- questionable, that a crop of clover, for instance, turned under the soil, will afford a sufficient quan- tity of nutriment for a crop of wheat or rye, and also leave the soil (if not cross-ploughed) in a con- dition highly favourable to the growth of such a crop. The great question is, whether it would not be more advantageous to the farmer, first to give his cattle the benefit of the clover, and then turn under the remaining vegetable together with the animal matter distributed over the soil, and thus secure two valuable objects instead of one. That such was the opinion of the late Judge Buel, (a more judicious adviser than whom has never con- tributed to the improvement of American farming), will appear from the following extract from his Cultivator, vol. 2, p. 13 : — "Vegetable matter, when thus covered by the soil in its green and succulent state, readily undergoes decomposition, and forms a very enriching substance. The practice, however, is chiefly suited to warmer countries, where vegeta- tion is very rapid; and even there it argues a some- what low state of the art, and is not the best way of producing decomposing matter. When we are able to raise green food of any kind, it is better that we apply it in the first place to the feeding of animals, for then it not only yields manure, but per- forms another and not less useful purpose." It is a consideration, notwithstanding, of some weight, that in case of feeding off the green crop, the nutritive substances lose somewhat by exposure, and are much less evenly distributed over the soil for the use of the cultivated crop. "When, how- ever," continues the Judge, " the practice is for any reason adopted, the period at which the plants should be ploughed down is just when they are coming in flower, for they then contain the greatest quantity of readily soluble matter, and have the least exhausted the nutritive substance of the soil." In the concluding clause of the extract last quoted, green crops are spoken of as " exhausting the nutritive substance of the soil." We take occasion from this hint, to raise an interesting in- quiry. If the green crop, while growing above ground, exhausts the soil — and this must be admitted — how can it, by being turned under, enrich the soil? Can it give to the soil any thing which it has not first taken away from it ? Science answers in the affirmative. By the aid of her light it has been discovered that plants derive a greater or less pro- portion of their constituent principles from the atmosphere. These principles, by the process of turning under green crops, become a constituent portion of the soil. This, then, is one of the secrets of their utility. It is not, however, the only one. The physical condition of the soil is also improved by their means ; its lightness, warmth, and power of absorption are increased, so that still further draughts are made upon the atmosphere, and thus the soil is permanently benefited. Whether the crop " should be ploughed down justwhen coming in flower," ornottill after maturity, is yet a question of debate. Says Dr. Dana, p. 214, "Powerful as are the effects of green crops ploughed in, it is the experience of some practical men, that one crop allowed to perfect itself and die where it grew, and then turned in dry, is superior to three turned in green. The whole result is explained by the fact, that dry plants give more geine than green. Green plants ferment — dry plants decay. A large portion escapes in fermentation as gas, and more volatile products are formed than during decay." The testimony of Chaptal hangs quite upon the other end of the beam. " It is well known to the farmer," he remarks, " that ploughing in a green crop, of any kind whatever, prepares the soil for producing well without any other manure ; since, by this process, all that the soil has yielded is re- turned to it, with some additions resulting from the decomposed principles of air and water, which are contained in the plants." " In order fully to understand this doctrine, which appears to me of great importance to agri- culture, it is necessary to consider the successive changes which take place in annual plants during their growth ; first, they produce green leaves, which, by coming in contact with the air, receive from it the principles of which I have spoken ; sub- sequently the stalks increase in size and number, and are covered with numerous leaves, which absorb from the atmosphere a degree of nourishment suited to the increased wants of the plants. This state continues till after the period of flowering, when a change worthy of note takes place; the roots dry up, the stalks wither and change their colour ; and when fructification is at length completed, both roots and stalks have become mere skeletons, which answer but little purpose either for nourish- ing animals or manuring earth." p. 94. But whether turned in green or dry, the plough- ing should not be so deep as wholly to exclude the action of the sun and air (for acids will then be formed in the soil); neither should cross-ploughing ever succeed, as this would defeat the object in- tended, by feeding the atmosphere instead of the soil, upon the -virtues of the crop. Manufactured Manures. Certain manufactued substances, as bone-dust, urate, poudrette, &c, might here receive a passing notice ; but as they are not likely, at present, to se- cure much patronage among us, and certainly should not be employed, expensive as they are, until we have learned to save the half of our home-made manures which are now suffered to be lost for want of a little attention, it is not deemed important to enter on any discussion of their merits, especially as these, together with the proper modes of applying them, are fully set forth in all our agricultural journals. We proceed, therefore, to our second division, viz : Stimulative Manures. The value of this class of manures depends, not so much on any direct impartation of food to plants, as on their agency in exciting their or- gans to greater activity, in appropriating to their benefit the influences of the atmosphere, in com- bating their insect enemies, and in dissolving the salts, neutralizing the acids, and improving the tex- ture of the soil — as lime, marl, gypsum, ashes, saltpetre, common salt, charcoal, soot, sand, clay, &c. Lime. Lime has been long and extensively employed in Y 2 322 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Europe as a fertilizer of the soil, and with such success as to induce an English writer of note (Morton on Soils) to assert, that " the majority of soils cannot be cultivated to advantage till they are dressed with lime; and whether considered as an alterative, as a stimulant, or as a manure, it will be found to be the basis of good husbandry, and of mpre use than all other manures put together. Wherever lime has been properly applied, it has been constantly found to prove as much superior to dung, as dung is to the rakings of the roads, or the produce of a peat mire." And, says M. Puvis, a distinguished French author, " In limed earth, weeds and insects disappear. The earth, if too light, acquires stiffness, and is light- ened if too- clayey. In the same soils, with the same manure and the same tillage, by the addition to the ploughed layer of only one-thousandth part of lime, the products, whether volatile or fixed, are increased in a wonderful manner ; the soil of the lowest quality reaches the product of the second — the second rises one half or more — and that of the best soil increases a fourth." Yet, strange as it may seem, there exists even among English agri- culturists the greatest diversity of opinion in regard to the propriety and mode of its application on different soils, and the admission is heard on ever}' hand that extensive tracts of British soil have been rendered infertile by its use. "Were we to hazard an opinion on a subject re- garding which not only learned farmers but '"'learned doctors disagree," we should say that the truth in the case was something like the following. Vege- table matter becomes the food of plants only in a state of decomposition ; of this process lime is a powerful promoter; when, therefore, lime is incor- porated with a soil containing much undecomposed vegetable matter, it rapidly prepares this matter for the use of plants ; the immediate consequence is, a great increase of vegetable products. But just in proportion to the crop produced, is the greatness of the draught upon the soil. Persisting, therefore, in the application alone of this mere excitant, stimu- lating his soil to an unnatural activity, without supplying those nutritive substances which alone can sustain its strength, the farmer finds ere long, to his cost, that he has "over-driven his beast," that he has tasked his soil beyond its capabilities, and is fast reducing it to a state of exhaustion. During the early period of his experiments while reaping his un- wonted harvests, he could not sufficiently extol — now that he has closed theseries, and looks upon his jaded lands, he cannot enough decry the use of lime. Such is, we apprehend, the origin, to a great ex- tent, of that diversity of opinion which exists in re- gard to the utility of lime. Were its application always judicious, and accompanied, when necessary, with an adequate supply of nutritive matters, the probability is that no such disagreement would ex- ist. Without, however, attempting to reconcile the multifarious and conflicting theories in relation to the use of this substance, we will proceed to notice some of the most obvious modes of its action, and leave the intelligent farmer to deduce from his own experiments (for here experiments are quite indis- pensable) the practice adapted to his particular soil. We observe, then, 1. Lime acts as a specific food for certain plants ; that is, it enters as a natural element into the com- position of their substance, so that without its pre- sence they cannot be grown to perfection. For the production, therefore, of these plants (as potatoes and wheat, for instance), the existence of lime in the soil is absolutely necessary. Whether any given portion of soil is destitute of this earth or not — and upon that question depends entirely the pro- priety of its application as a nutritive substance — can only be determined by analysis. 2. Lime acts ■with great efficiency in hastening the decay of animal and vegetable matters. This is the secret of its efficacy when applied to old, matted turfs, to all peaty soils, and to such lands, of what- ever description, as abound in undecomposed vege- table matter. To vegetable matter in a soluble state, and to animal matters in general, being easy of decomposition, it is not deemed proper to apply this substance, its tendency being, according to Chaptal, to form insoluble compounds with almost all animal and vegetable substances that are soft, and thus to destroy their fermentative properties. Loudon also maintains, that "lime should never be applied with animal manures, unless they be too rich [?], or for the purpose of preventing noxious effluvia; and that it is injurious when mixed with any common dung, and tends to render the extrac- tive matter insoluble." 3. Lime has the property of neutralizing any noxious vegetable acids, or metallic salts, existing in the soil ; which properly indicates the fitness of its application on fields infested with sorrel, on sour, marshy lands (previously drained), and on soils impregnated with the oxide of iron, or copperas. 4. Lime acts as an alterative, on both siliceous and argillaceous soils, by the effect it has of giving greater adhesiveness to the particles of the former, and of diminishing the tenacity and compactness of the latter. To sandy lands, however, it should not be applied too liberally, as, if dealt out in too large quantities, it will have the effect to form a kind of mortar with the soil, and thus prove detrimental both to tillage and to vegetation. " Clay land bears this species of amelioration better than lighter soils. It powerfully assists all adhesive soils, and, when laid on hot from the kiln upon deep clay, has been known to occasion a very great increase in the for- mer crops." — British Husbandry. 5. From its caustic properties, lime is a valuable assistant to the farmer in combating those numerous insect enemies which so often ruin his hopes by de- predating upon his fruit-trees, his grasses, and his cultivated crops. How far he may be able to avail himself of its aid in this respect, is only to be de- termined by a careful series of experiments. Finally, in the language of the work last quoted, "It is much to be regretted that some more definite judgement has not been framed regarding the pro- perties of lime, the effects of which are exposed to the most contradictory results :" and some caution will be necessary in whatever trials may be made of it as a manure. It would be better that experi- ments on a small scale should precede the applica- tion of it on lands where its efficacy has not yet been proved. The quantity applied, in general practice, to the acre, varies from 20 or 30 to 100 bushels, or THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 323 even more, according to the character and circum- stances of the soil (the lighter and poorer the soil, and the more it has been limed, the less the quan- tity) ; and this dressing is repeated once in four or five years, care being taken to recruit occasionally the nutritive matters in the soil, without the co- operation of which, by unanimous consent, the former substance would be worse than useless. When employed without regard to its caustic properties, it should first be slacked, and then spread evenly over the surface, and if the ground be intended for cul- tivation, it should be exposed for several months before it is ploughed under. The effect will not commonly manifest itself before the second or third year. Marl. Marl being but a modification of lime combined with variable proportions of divers other substances, it may be observed, in general, that whatever prin- ciples are applicable to lime (after having been de- prived of its causticity) are applicable also to the use of marl, so far as its nature only is regarded. We shall, therefore, treat but very briefly of this substance. Suffice it to say, that its value has been highly appreciated in Europe, and in those portions of our own country where it has been most exten- sively employed, and that, wherever it is practica- ble, (and it is highly so in many parts of Berkshire county), the strong probability is, that the farmer will find his interest in making a thorough trial of it. The most common locality of marl is low, wet swamps. It is readily distinguished from other soils by its light-gray colour when wet, and its white chalky appearance when dry. Its whiteness, indeed, will commonly indicate pretty nearly its compara- tive value, since both depend on the amount of lime it contains. A surer test, however, of the amount of lime present will be, to apply to it a few drops of sharp vinegar. If the marl be worth employing as a manure, it will effervesce ; that is, small bubbles will appear, occasioned by the escape of gas. In applying marl to different kinds of soil, par- ticular reference should behadto two circumstances; 1st. The amount of its calcareous matter. 2nd. Its texture. If the proportion of its calcareous matter be large, the smaller will be the cpiantity proper to be applied, and vice versa. Again, if the marl be of a strong, adhesive texture, containing a large amount of clay, its application will be most profit- able on loose, siliceous soils ; if, on the other hand, it be of a sandy or shelly character, strong loams and clays will be most benefited by its reception. The common mode of its application is to spread it evenly over the surface, and, in case of cultivated crops, never to turn it under till it has been tho- roughly crumbled down by the action of the atmos- phere. The reason of this practice is thus stated by Chaptal : " It is necessary for earths, in order to possess great fertilizing powers, to be saturated with all the principles which they can imbibe from the atmosphere. Thus those which, by the depth of their beds, have been constantly secluded from the action of the air, will require to be exposed to it a longer time before becoming fertile. The lime con- tained in marl, as it is taken from the bed, is never saturated with carbonic acid ; but after being ex- posed to the air, it becomes at length saturated with the acid it receives from it, crumbles and effloresces. The decomposition of marl may be hastened by frequently turning it, so as to allow the air free access to the lime ; and this method is generally practiced by those who employ marl as a manure." (Page 44.) The quantity of marl applied per acre may vaiy, according to circumstances, from five to twenty- five or thirty waggon loads. For a full discussion of this subject, see Hitchcock's Geology of Massa- chusetts, a copy of which has been lodged with the town clerk of every town in the commonwealth. Gypsum or Plaster. Plaster, first introduced into the United States from Paris by Dr. Franklin, has effected the most important improvement in agriculture, perhaps, that has ever been made. Extensive districts in this and other countries, have been benefited by its in- troduction to an extent which, considering the com- paratively small amount of the substance employed is truly astonishing. "In Germany," says Lampadius, one of her own agricultural writers, " it may with certainty be stated that by the use of gypsum the produce of clover and the consequent amount of live stock have been increased at least one-third." "There are, however, some tracts of country where the use of plaster has been attempted without suc- cess. But this arose from its being one of the ori- ginal constituents of the soil, which derived no ad- vantage from the addition of a new quantity. The existence of this salt naturally, in those lands upon which plaster produced little or no effect, has been proved by analysis." — Chaptal, p. 73. Much mystery has heretofore enveloped the modus operandi fmode of acting) of this manure ; but before the light of science the cloud is vanishing away. Many have supposed its efficacy to arise from the specific food which it furnished to certain plants, as to clover, for instance, which seems to be especially benefited by its application. But when we consider that by the employing of a handful, as it were, of this manure, upon an acre of ground, the product is increased from a few hundreds to tons of grass, it is at once apparent that, on such a sup- position, the cause is wholly inadequate to the effect. It was reserved for the gifted and honoured Liebig to lift the veil, and to produce a theory, not only plausible in itself, but fully sustained in all its parts by the experience of practical men. His theory is this — that the efficacy of plaster consists in its arresting, as it rises in exhalations from the soil, or descends in rain, dew, and snow from the atmosphere, the ammonia which is gene- rated by the decay of animal and vegetable matter, and appropriating it to the use of the growing crop. We will permit him to present his own views, however, in a few extracts from his " Organic Chemistry." "Nitrogen exists in every part of the vegetable structure" (page 88). " Allanimal " (and vegetable) " bodies, during their decay, yield the nitrogen which they contain, to the atmosphere, in the form of am- monia" (-page 72). " The evident influence of gyp- sum depends only upon its fixing in the soil the ammonia of the atmosphere, which would otherwise 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. be volatilized, with the water which evaporates" I (p. 85.) "In order to form a conception of the effect of gypsum, it may be sufficient to remark, that 100 lbs. of burned gypsum fixes as much ammonia in the soil as 6250 Ibs.of horse urine would yield to it" (p. 98). "If a field be strewed with gypsum, and then with putrefied urine, or the drainings of dunghills, all the carbonate of ammonia will be converted into the sulphate, which will remain in the soil" (p. 184.) " If we strew the floors of our stables, from time to time, with common gypsum, they will lose all their offensive smell, and none of the ammonia which forms can be lost, but will be retained in a condi- tion serviceable as a manure" (p. 185). But this is not all. " When we give a plant nitrogen in con- siderable quantity, we enable it to attract with greater energy from the atmosphere the carbon which is necessary for its nutrition" (p. 188). Now " Carbon enters into the composition of all plants" (p. 3). So that, by strewing a field with gypsum, we enable plants to supply themselves from the atmosphere, not only with nitrogen, on which their most nutritious principles depend, but also with carbon, the chief constituent of all their frame- work. This theory is confirmed by several circum- stances which have long attracted the attention of observing farmers. 1. It has been observed that plaster acts with increased efficiency when applied in connection with manures or recently manured lands. The so- lution of the phenomenon, by our theory, is easy and satisfactory. The ammonia, which would otherwise escape from the decomposing manure into the atmosphere, is seized upon by the plaster, detained in the soil, and wholly converted to the use of the growing crop. 2. It has been observed that plaster acts with greater power on soils which have been recently stirred than on those which have lain for a long time unmoved. Solution : By stirring the soil its porosity is increased ; consequently, it absorbs more freely the dews that fall upon it, from which the plaster separates and hoards up in the soil the rich deposits of the atmosphere. In proof of the extent to which the atmosphere is charged with fertilizing matters, which the rains and dews are constantly depositing upon the surface of the earth, we will here introduce the substance of a statement made to the American editor of Liebig by Mr. E. Tufts, of Charlestown : — " Eight years since, about three-quarters of an acre of land, situated on one side of a lane, and on a declivity, were 'broken up.' About the same time, the proprietor of a field on the opposite side of the lane, and above the land of Mr. T., com- menced gardening on a large scale, and formed an ' immense bed' of compost in the lane. This heap was made up of animal and vegetable matters, and from receiving constant additions is continually undergoing fermentation, and the gases and va- pours emanating from it are always perceptible. Four years ago Mr. T. observed that, in some in- explicable way, his land had become so fertile as to induce him to dispense with the use of manure. He has not used it since, and is now ' fully per- suaded that its fertility is owing to certain vapours arising from the heap, and then descending on his land.5 None of the soluble matters of the heap are carried to Mr. T.'s field, no manure has been applied, and its fertility continues unimpaired." — Appendix to Liebig, p. 366. 3. Plaster has been observed to produce but slight effects upon old, dry, and hide-bound mea- dows. Says liebig (p. 87), "Water is absolutely necessary to effect the decomposition of the gyp- sum, and also to assist in the absorption of the sulphate of ammonia by the plants : hence it hap- pens that the influence of gypsum is not observable on dry fields and meadows." To which it may be added, that, but a small quantity of putrescent matter existing in such cases, the exhalations are inconsiderable ; and what is deposited from the at- mosphere by the dews cannot be absorbed by the soil, in consequence of its compact, impenetrable surface. On old, and even dry, pasture lands, the effect of plaster is much greater, there being ever present on their surface a portion of manure, to serve as a basis for its action. 4. It has been universally observed that the most striking effect of plaster is on the clover crop. Reason : " Red clover contains double the quantity of nitrogen that common hay does." — Gray, p. 158. 5. It has occurred, in the experience of different farmers, that where one part of a field is sown with plaster immediately before a thunder-shower, and another directly after the same shower, the portion sown first was benefited in a far higher degree than the other. Reason: " Rain-water must, at all times, contain ammonia, though not always in equal quantity. It must be greater in summer than in spiing or winter, because the intervals of time between the showers are greater. The rain of a thunder-storm, after a long protracted drought, contains the greatest quantity which is conveyed to the earth at any one time." — Liebig, p. 73. 6. Considering the beneficial effects of plaster, at large, it has been observed that they depend, in general, not so much on any peculiarity in the lo- cation or composition of soils as on those physical conditions which render the surface of the soil an easy medium for the transmission of soluble matter ; all which, it is thought, must go to corro- borate the theory in question. From the views thus presented we are led to infer — 1. That the atmosphere is an inexhaustible source of food for plants. 2. That the most available agent for securing the benefit of this food to plants is plaster. 3. That, viewed in this light, the value of plaster in agriculture can hardly be overrated. 4. That it may be safely recommended for general use on all soils containing a portion of fermentative matters, and not so compact or wet as to prevent the processes of exhalation and absorp- tion. 5. That it should always be applied to the surface of the soil, or at least within the influence of the atmosphere. 6. That it should be sown at an early date in the season, before the period of the most abundant dews and exhalations has com- menced. 7. That it should always accompany manures used as a top-dressing, or only slightly buried in the ground. And S. That it should be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 325 liberally employed about our barn-yards, stables, vaults, manure-heaps, compost-beds, &e. ; not, however, in composts, under the supposition that it will hasten the fermentation of the mass. "Davy has refuted this opinion by direct experiment, placing it beyond a doubt that the mixture of plaster with manures, whether animal or vegetable, does not facilitate decomposition." — Chaptal, p. 74. The proper quantity to be used, when sown broadcast upon the field, has been decided by ex- perience, as also by chemical science, to be from one to one-and-a-half bushels per acre. Wood Ashes. Ashes, whether " live," or leached, considering the certainty, uniformity, and power with which they act, as well as the permanency of their action upon vegetation, may well be ranked among the very best manures. The fact of this superi- ority over the other manures is very generally un- derstood ; the reason of this superiority also ap- pears quite obvious when we reflect that they are composed entirely of organized matter, reduced to the most consolidated form, and when, further, we learn from chemistry that their chief bulk consists of the very materials which enter most largely into the finer grains and grasses. Yet, strange as it may seem, no inconsiderable portion of this price- less article is suffered to be lost to all the purposes of cultivation, being permitted to lie waste about our dwellings, and to disappear as useless rubbish. To this remark, however, we find (by going, to be sure, " a great way off" for it) one very striking ex- ception. Even leached ashes, transported thither from every State in New England, and all the way from the Canadas, " are bought up" on Long Island " at an expense of from 35 to 50 cents a bushel, and considered a profitable investment at that."— Cult., vol. 6, p. 42. The most profitable use of this manure, when applied directly to crops, is probably on light, silice- ous soils, ashes being admirably calculated, not only to improve the texture of such soils, but to furnish to them just that kind of organic matter in which they are most liable to be deficient. They may be applied, however, with certain benefit to any soil, and that either by spreading them on the surface of grass or grain lands, or by applying them to the hill or drills in the case of hoed crops. The practice of dropping a handful in the hill, at the time of planting, has been practised by many farmers, and with excellent results. But perhaps their highest value will be found in the compost- bed, since, being capable of liberating a large amount of nitrogen, they will greatly promote the process of fermentation. " One bushel of ashes contains 5£ lbs. of potash, a quantity sufficient to decompose 200 lbs. of peat earth."— Gray's Ele- ments, p. 31S. Saltpetre. Saltpetre, as a manure, has been employed in the way of experiment, by several of our enterprising farmers, and, in some instances, with signal bene- fit to the crops to which it has been applied ; its use, however, has been abandoned by the most judicious, as being more expensive than profitable. That a solution of this substance may be serviceable for soaking seed corn, has been established by the experience of many of our farmers. That it may also be employed effectually to banish the canker- worm from our apple orchards, appears from an ex- periment made by O. M. Whipple, Esq., of Lowell, an account of which may be found in Coleman's Fourth report, p. 335. Considerable quantities of this substance fre- quently accumulate in combination with earth under old buildings, particularly barns and horse-sheds ; when available, in this form, the expense of saving and applying it will always be exceeded by the profit. Common Snlf. Common salt, " highly recommended as a ma- nure by some, has been as much depreciated by others, and hence, when directly applied, is con- sidered as a doubtful fertilizer by almost all. The obscurity in regard to its use, however, rests chiefly on the quantity which ought to be employed. The result of comparative experiments made in Germany showed that a very few pounds per acre were sufficient to produce a largely increased return of grass, while in England it has been beneficially applied within the wide limits of from 5 to 20 bushels per acre, and when used for cleaning the land in autumn, of 30 bushels an acre. — Appendix to Johnston, p. 5. Employed in moderate quantities in composts, salt is highly promotive of fermentation ; applied liberally late in the fall, or early in the spring, it is very destructive to worms and insects ; used in the form of a brine for soaking seed-wheat, it prevents the smut ; and it otherwise acts beneficially, by stimulating the absorbent vessels of plants, or im- parting to them direct food, by preventing injury from sudden transitions of temperature, and by in- ci'easing the moisture of dry, hot soils. It has a specific effect upon "all plants of the cabbage and onion tribe ; nothing is more beneficial to an aspa- ragus bed ; and it is suggested to those, who con- sult their interests by rearing the most valuable kinds of fruits, to try the experiment, cautiously, of applying salt or brine in moderate quantities, about the roots of their trees." (Farmer's Cabinet.) Whether, however, it will be expedient for the farmers to introduce this manure in general prac- tice, even if it suit his particular soil, is wholly to be decided by a reference to its comparative ex- pensiveness. Charcoal. " Charcoal," says Liebig, " surpasses all other substances in the power which it possesses of con- densing ammonia within its pores, particularly when it has been previously heated to redness. It absorbs 90 times its volume of ammoniacal gas, which may be again separated by simply moisten- ing it with water" (p. 89.) "It is by virtue of this power that the roots of plants are supplied in char- coal exactly as in humus, with an atmosphere of carbonic acid and air, which is renewed as quickly as it is abstracted" (p. 61.) Being at the same time "the most unchangeable sub- stance known," it is not surprising that it should constitute, not only one of the most powerful, but quite the most durable manure in existence. 326 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In the language of J. Hepburn, Esq., of Lycom- ing, Pa. [Cult., vol. 9, p. 106), "As charcoal is almost indestructible, and its effects remain as long as it exists in the soil, it is possible that it may be found one of the cheapest as well as most efficient manures for some crops, and on some soils. It appears evident from the manner of its action, that plants requiring the greatest supply of nitrogen would be the most benefited by its application, and hence its efficacy when given to wheat." Again, '"charcoal has a physical as well as a chemical effect on soils, decidedly useful. It ren- ders them, as far as it is present, light and friable ; and gives additional warmth to them by its colour, which absorbs and retains readily the rays of the sun during the day." Mr. Hepburn also states the important fact, that " wherever charcoal has been applied rust never affects the growing crop of wheat." Its use may also be recommended, on trustworthy authorities, as an excellent means of curing diseased trees and unhealthy plants. In the neighbourhood of forges, furnances, smithies, and coalpits, con- siderable quantities of this manure can be obtained at a trifling cost, and it becomes the vigilant farmer to see that none of it is suffered to be lost. Soot. This substance, consisting chiefly of geine, ni- trogen, and the salts of lime, potash, soda, and am- monia, is ranked by Dr. Dana " among the most powerful of manures in the class consisting of geine and salts." He observes, " On the principles adopted for determining the value of manures, the salts in 100 lbs. of soot are equal to one ton of cow- dung. Its nitrogen gives in a value, compared with cow-dung, as 40 to 1." Manual, p. 161. A most satisfactory experiment with this sub- stance has been tried by the writer, the present year. From 2 to 3 quarts of soot, which had been collected from a fire-place the last autumn, and lain exposed to the weather through the winter, was, some time in April, carefully incorporated with the soil about the roots of an egg plumtree, which, though it had borne fruit repeatedly, had attained but a very small size, and had not in the last seven years put out so many inches of new u-ood. The re- sult has been, that, by actual measurement, it has sent forth numerous shoots, the past season, from two to three feet long, and one to the length of 4 feet and a half. Sand, Gravel, and Clay. Pure sand and gravel, from the obvious tendency they have to separate the particles, and thus in- crease the porosity of a tenacious and compact soil, may readily be supposed to possess no inconsider- able influence in improving such lands, as, by re- taining too much water on their surface, are ren- dered unpleasant and difficult of cultivation, and to a greater or less degree unfruitful. It might also be taken for granted that pure clay would be alike beneficial when employed to give solidity to such light and porous soils as are incapable of retaining manures, and exposed to suffer severely from drought. " On sandy soils "a load of clay, properly incor- porated, will produce a greater, because a more lasting effect, than a load of manure. Of this the fine farm formerly owned by Judge Buel is an ex- ample. This was originally a hungry, porous sand. To give it tenacity, and a proper retentiveness of moisture, Judge Buel covered his fields with clay from the Albany clay-banks, at the rate of from 2U to 30 loads per acre, and his experience convinced him that a load of such clay (it contained from 20 to 30 per cent, of lime) was of more benefit than a load of barn-yard manure. He distributed his clay as fast as drawn, upon the sward surface, where it was decomposed by the rains and frosts, when it was pulverized by the roller, and further distributed by the harrow." Cult., vol. 9, p. 45. " Even sand upon clay, or clay upon sand, are beneficial applications to improve the soil ; the only question being, how far the benefits will repay the expense of application. The earthy materials are to plants, what the stomach is to animals — the re- cipient of food, and the laboratory of the main pro- cess of nutrition. The presence of clay, lime, and sand, are all essential in the soil, to enable it to perform its healthful functions. Where either of these is naturally deficient, it may be artificially supplied with manifest advantage. Cult., vol. 3. p. CO. Composts. The absolute value of a compost depends on the amount of food it is capable of furnishing to plants. Its value in relation to a particular soil, will depend also, in a measure, on the effecc it is calculated to have on the texture of that soil. The question of profit in making composts at all depends upon whether by their means the farmer can incorporate with his soil any valuable animal vegetable, or mine- ral substances, which he might not otherwise ap- propriate to his crops with equal benefit, and at an equal expense. One thing is certain ; " nothing can be added to the elements of fertility by mixing animal, vege- table, or mineral matters in a compost-heap." The only questions then to be decided are, 1 . Can any fertilizing matters within the farmer's reach be bet- ter saved — that is, more profitably saved, by the employment of compost-heaps ? and, 2. Can any such matters be more cheaply brought into a fitter state for the use of plants by their means? The first of these questions, it is believed, will not, as a general thing, admit of an affirmative answer; for by following the directions already laid down for the preservation of manures, the object will be nearly, if not quite as effectually, and far more cheaply, accomplished than by resorting to com- posts. The only consideration, then, if " we have thus far trod on solid ground," which can render the system of composting highly advantageous to the farmer, will be the circumstance of his having on hand such animal or vegetable matters as cannot properly, or to a sufficient amount, be decomposed in his barn-yard. Such exigency will not be un- frequent. The farmer may have the misfortune, by accident or disease, to lose a horse, a cow, or a score of sheep. These are all appropriate subjects for the compost-bed, and should never be suffered to decompose in the open air, so long as earth of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 327 any kind can be obtained to cover tbem, and to absorb the nitrogen which will escape during the process of putrefaction. Again, peat-earth, swamp- muck, and similar substances, in which there exists a large amount of coarse woody fibre, may be the most conveniently and most effectually reduced to a proper condition for the use of plants, in com- post-beds— especially in case a large amount of these matters is required in the operations of the farm. How, then, the question now arises, shall we most readily, and at the least expense, effect the decomposition of these vegetable matters ? or in other words, how shall we convert their insoluble into soluble geine — the direct food of plants ? " Every azotized constituent of animal or vege- table organism enters spontaneously into putre- faction, when exposed to moisture and a high temperature. Accordingly, azotized matters (that is, matters containing nitrogen in any of its forms), are the only causes of fermentation and putrefac- tion in vegetable substances," Liebig, p. 230. " It is a well established fact, that the production of nitre is not necessarily dependent on the pre- sence of animal matter; but that, under the in- fluence of porous materials, aided by alkalies or lime, the elements of air combine and from nitric acid and nitrates." Dana, p. 135. Form all which it appears that three conditions are necessary for the decomposition of vegetable fibre ; namely, 1. A sufficient degree of moisture ; 2. A proper ele- vation of temperature; and, 3. The presence of some substance containing nitrogen ; which may be either pure animal matter, animal manure, lime (the principal alkaline earth), ammonia, potash, or soda (the most important alkalies), saltpetre (ni- trate of potash), ashes (consisting of potash, soda, and lime), common salt (chloride of sodium). The efficiency of these substances as decomposers will probably be found to correspond somewhat with the order in which they stand ; but in making from them a selection for his particular purpose the farmer must of course be guided by circumstances. Whether his interest will be subserved at all by making composts, will depend on his facilities for accumulating undecomposed vegetable matter. Whether it will quit cost to employ his stable ma- nures in composts, will depend upon the extent to which he can secure them (solid and liquid) in his cattle-yard or in his soil, and upon the cheapness with which he can procure other decomposers ; and whether he shall make use of lime, or of any one of the alkalies, or alkaline compounds, in preference to another, he will decide with reference to the com- parative expense of these articles, and the idea he has of their comparative value. If animal manure be decided upon as the de- composer, it should be employed in as green a state as possible, its decomposing power depending en- tirely on its nitrogen, which even an incipient fermentation will diminish. The proportion in which the manure is to enter into the compost should be determined by the species of the ma- nure— it being recollected that urine, night-soil, hog-dung, sheep-dung, horse-dung, and cow-dung, contain different amounts of the decomposing prin- ciple (nitrogen), corresponding with the order in which they are here arranged. The common pi'actice has been, to allow one load of manure for 2 or 3 of vegetable matter ; but it has been shown that this must depend on the quality of the manure. It is equally evident, that the proportion of vege- table matter should be regulated by the ease or difficulty with which it is likely to be decomposed ; or in other words, by the amount of labour it will require the manm*e to perform. If the vegetable matter to be decomposed to peat-earth or swamp- muck, it should have a previous opportunity of parting with its tannin, acids, and excessive moist- ure, by exposure for some length of time to the at- mosphere. The ingredients being in the requisite state, and the proportions of their admixture determined on, the pile may be constructed as follows : First, lay the foundation (of the form, size, and depth desired) with vegetable matter — cover this to the proper thickness with the manure; and thus proceed with al- ternate layers of vegetable matter and manure, till the pilehas acquired a sufficient height, when it should be finished (in a somewhat conical form) with a thick layer of earth, to prevent the escape of such volatile products as will be formed during the subsequent fermentation. If it be wished to hasten the pro- cess, lime, ashes, or salt may be added for this purpose; and, in any case, a small addition of plaster will be useful from its tendency to preserve the salts of the pile. At the end of six or eight weeks the whole mass should be shoveled over, broken down, and care- fully blended together ; and in case fermentation is still proceeding, a quantity of the finer earthy ma- terials may be added. As soon as the work of de- composition is done, it should be removed immedi- ately to the place of its destination. " Weeds, leaves of trees, and all the succulent plants which grow so abundantly in ditches and waste lands, under hedges, and by the road-sides, if cut or pulled when in fiower, and slightly fer- mented, furnish from 20 to 25 times more manure than straw does. These plants, carefully collected, furnish to the agriculturist an immense resource for enriching his lands. The turf that borders fields and highways may be made to answer the same purpose by cutting it up, with all the roots and the earth adhering to them, rotting the whole in a heap, and afterwards carrying the mass upon the fields." [Chaptal, p. 03.] To form a compost with lime, our late Agricul- tural Commissioner (Rev. H. Colman) directs to " raise a platform of earth on the headland of a field, eight feet wide, one foot high, and of any length according to the quantity wanted. On the first stratum of earth lay a thin stratum of lime fresh from the kiln ; dissolve or slack this with salt brine from the nose of a watering-pot ; add imme- diately another layer of earth; then lime and brine as before, carrying it to any convenient height. In a week it should be turned over, carefully broken and mixed, so that the mass may be thoroughly incorporated. This was applied in the hill to corn. The crop was equal to that obtained by barn ma- nure on parts of the field immediately contiguous.— Fourth Report, p. 347. In forming a compost of peat and lime, Dr. Dana 328 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. recommends to slack a cask of lime with so much brine as will be saturated with a bushel of salt, and after ten days blend it thoroughly with three cords of peat, shovel it over occasionally for six weeks, and apply it directly to the soil. — p. 197. Of the use of clear lime in forming composts, there seems tobe,amongstourmostintelligentfarmers a considerable shyness. The result of Mr. Colman's observation on this subject was, that, in its appli- cation to peat composts, it assists in their decompo- sition ; but its tendency is to expel their ammonia, to drive off the enriching parts of the manure, and to reduce much of the remainder to an insoluble state. Here, however, its pernicious effects may be counteracted (in part?) "where there is a suffi- cient covering of mould to absorb the gases, which would otherwise be dissipated in the air. Under such circumstances, its use may sometimes be ad- vised."— Fourth Report, p. 349. Mr. Timothy Benedict, of Pittsfield, in the fall of 1841, prepared a compost heat of swamp-muck and lime, by mixing one bushel of the latter with a common load of the former, taken fresh from the bed. The last spring he applied this to a portion of his corn-field, a shovel-full to the hill, treating the remainder of the field in a similar way with common stable manure. When examined by the Agricultural Committee in September, it appeared that the compost had been equally efficacious as the manure. The crop was a luxuriant one, and received the second premium of the Society. The writer's experiments with muck and lime, however, both on gravelly and clayey soils, have proved entirely unsatisfactory; while from the use of the same quality of muck in combination with ashes, he has derived the most signal benefit. Ashes and muck, in the proportions of four or five bushels of the former to a common load of the latter, form a very valuable compost. If the muck be in a fine powdered state, the materials may be thoroughly blended together, and applied at once to the soil. But if the muck be of a strong texture, and contain much vegetable fibre, some time will be necessary for its decomposition. Leached ashes will answer the purpose equally as well as live, if a somewhat larger proportion be employed. To this compost too high a value can hardly be attached. A series of experiments (amounting to twenty-nine in number), instituted, the past season, by the Editor of the New England Fanner, has resulted in showing it to be second in the scale of composts only to one " composed of both the dung and urine of cattle, horses, hogs, and human beings, mixed with straw and muck," in a barn cellar. See the Farmer, vol. 21, p. 157. Finally, it may be remarked in relation to com- post-heaps, that the more heterogeneous their mate- rials, the more rapid and perfect will be their de- composition— since, the greater the number of affinities brought into play, the greater will be the struggle between the particles of the mass to indulge their " likings and antipathies" in making election of their future (though it may be very tem- porary) associates. Let not the manufacturer of composts, then, be afraid of laying under contribu- tion too many of the sources of animal, vegetable, and mineral substances capable of being made to fatten his plants, and to " gladden the soil." Occasion will be taken, in concluding, simply to express the sentiment, that, would the present race of cultivators of the soil but " come to the light" which science is shedding upon their profession, and, in accordance with its teachings, put in full requisition the resources of fertility which every where abound around them, another generation would inherit from their hands a land of garden- spots, and " shout the merry harvest home " on fields where now is only heard the sad, monotonous complaint of "hard, hard times." DRAINAGE OF ENTAILED ESTATES. The report of the Lords' Committee, appointed on the motion of the Duke of Richmond, and of which His Grace was chairman, to inquire into the expediency of a legislative enactment being introduced to enable pos- sessors of entailed estates to charge their estates with the expenses of draining and otherwise permanently im- proving the same, has been printed. The Committee expresses an opinion that " the operation of draining, properly conducted, not only tends by its immediate effect to increase the produce of the soil and to facilitate its cultivation, but also permanently enhances the value of the inheritance to all future proprietors. The com- mittee are further of opinion, that in some cases (brought before them in the course of the evidence they have taken) the full advantage to be derived from thorough draining cannot be obtained without the erection of farm buildings suitable to the improved state of the land drained. The Committee also wish to add their con- viction that a more general extension of good drainage throughout the country is highly important, as calcu- lated to prevent disease and improve the general health of the community. It is certain, however, that the attainment of these benefits is in many instances pre- vented, in England and Ireland, by the natural reluc- tance of proprietors to expend capital upon the perma- nent improvement of land in which they have only a limited or partial interest." The Committee proceed to state that the legislature had already recognised the pro- priety and importance of enabling parties with limited estates to charge the inheritance under certain regulations with money expended on permanent improvement by drainage, but that the apprehension of great delay and expense, consequent on proceedings under the 3rd and 4 th Victoria, c. 55, had deterred persons from taking advantage of the enactment. They then propose a mode of carrying out the object at a small expense. One of the witnesses examined by the Committee was Sir C. M. Burrell, Bart., M.P., whose evidence we sub- join : — Die Veneris, 16° Maii 1845. The Duke of Richmond in the chair. Sir Charles Merrik Burrell, Baronet, a Member of the House of Commons, examined as follows : — 1413. You reside in the County of Sussex, in the neighbourhood of Horsham ? THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 329 At Knepp Castle, where I have a large farm of nearly 1,200 acres, in the parishes of Shipley and West Grin- stead, in my hands. 1414. You have been in the habit of using Pearson's draining plough ? For several years. 1415. Will you state to the committee the particulars of your practice as regards that plough ? I have put it down on paper. The same is delivered in, and read as follows : — Pearson drainage, suitable only to pure clay not in- fested with surface stone. Tiled drains and outfalls ^ thus used, instead of the common practice — , are laid by hand thirty inches deep, with good fall into the open ditches, above which the plough drains go twenty-four inches deep at three cuts. The mains on an average from twenty to thirty rods apart, at nearly right angles to the plough drains in- tended to be made with Pearson's plough, the distance varying according to the evenness or unevenness of sur- face mains being requisite in such parts as are lowest. The plough drains are best and truest made down the furrows at half rod or eight and a half feet distances apart, and greater depth is thus obtained than if made in any other direction. Before commencing making the drains and outfalls, the open ditches should be perfected to a depth, and with such a fall as to ensure the passage of the accumu- lated waters from the under drains ; and this is to be looked to at the commencement of every winter, for if choked by leaves, or parts of the banks be scratched down by rabbits, the water in the under drains will be forced back, and find vent at the surface, like springs ; and thus opportunity offers for directing the water for the supply of ponds very usefully, by means of an under drain from the open ditch to the pond, stopping the open (or carrier) ditch temporarily. For pasture land the plough drains are usually made ten feet apart and eighteen inches deep, done at two cuts by varying the irons which succeed the use of the horn share ; and the mains and outfalls should be made twenty-four inches deep. Little, if any, manure escapes through the land in either case, as evidenced by the purity of the water flow- ing (even full tile) into the open ditches from the out- falls, clear as if filtered, thus proving the vast supe- riority of under draining over surface draining. By this economical system of drainage (to be done preferably before the frosts commence) top water is rapidly removed, the land becomes capable of being much earlier worked in spring, the fertility is increased, and, being well farmed, it very much improves in colour and friability after the first four years cropping, subse- quent to which the Deanston plough has been safely worked across the drains, and the increase in produce of all kinds after the Pearson-plough drainage has invaria- bly become very remunerative, and as regards wheat especially. On my farm the produce, on the average (according to the nature of the land), has (since I com- menced, about twelve years since) increased from two to three sacks per acre, viz., from an average of five sacks, preceding the drainage, to seven and eight sacks per acre, and in some instances to even nine sacks per acre ; and in 1843 one field produced three well-loaded waggon- loads of red clover per acre ; and I have succeeded in obtaining not only very fine crops of white Belgian cattle-carrots, but very good Swede turnips also, and this in a district where, when I first took land in hand in 1803 and 1804, no farmers in the neighbourhood at- tempted to sow turnips of any kind, except in their gardens for domestic use. Of the permanence of Pearson's plough drains (made on suitable clay soils) I entertain the most favourable opinion, as does Mr. Thomas Law Hodges, formerly M.P. for West Kent, through whose friendly aid and advice I adopted the Pearson system, as may be seen in a small pamphlet he wrote, and may be had of Mr. Ridgway, Piccadilly. In proof of the soundness of that persuasion, I, by the advice of my bailiff, caused more mains to be added on a field of eleven acres of arable, of which, being one of the first done, the mains had been made forty rods apart, which practice proved to be too wide from each other to ease the plough drains, which, from thus being overcharged, broke up in spots during heavy rains like springs, which inconvenience was effectually cured by making more drains, in the construction of which, when the plough drains were intersected after ten years' use, they were all found as perfect as when first made. Of the pastures (inclusive of West Grinstead Park, naturally very wet, though drained by hand with frith or bushes several years since, at much expense), their soundness generally remarked by foxhunters, has been greatly improved, and likewise the herbage stock, in- cluding deer and sheep, doing well, and scarcely ever being liable to the rot, which was a very common occur- rence previous to the Pearson drainage ; and from its extent the health of my farmers and cottagers, with their families, has been much improved, so that agues, which had been common, no longer prevailed, and low fevers also have greatly diminished ; and as regards stock they can beneficially be earlier turned out in the spring, and remain several weeks longer out in the autumn on the pastures, than previously. The calculation of the average cost of the Pearson drainage, according to my bailiff's full consideration, amounts to 21. 10s. per acre. 1. Amount of arable land £ s. d. so drained 600 acres cost 1 ,500 0 0 2. Amount of pasture land drained, at £1 15s. per acre 250 acres cost 437 10 0 Acres 850 total cost 1,937 10 0 1416. The country you live in is a clayey wet soil ? It is a very yellow clay ; the subsoil is a very good brick earth. I have in the centre of my property a tile and brick yard, in which I make very good bricks and very good tiles of all kinds. 1417. Do you consider it a permanent improvement to farms to have good roads and access to them ? No doubt. 1418. Do you think it is a permanent improvement to have good buildings upon farms ? No doubt ; in proof of that I have laid out a very large sum of money upon my estate, and I believe I may venture to say, without presumption, that no estate in the county of Sussex is in better order than mine, with regard to buildings of all descriptions ; it has been my pride as well as my satisfaction to do it. I wish to make the cottages and farm-houses as convenient and as comfortable as they ought to be, in a reasonable way. I have adopted a plan with regard to the drainage of cot- tages, which I find very beneficial indeed. Whenever I have to build a new cottage, or to take up the floor of an old cottage, I use broken stone and broken bricks, and make a drain from the fireplace directly through the room, and also across any room adjoining, to an outfall where the drain runs into it ; and we find the cottages are made very dry by it, and very much more healthy. It is a thing of very trifling expense. I have mentioned it to architects two or three times, who have all thought 300 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. it a very good thing, observing that they had never heard of it before, but should recommend it in future. Alluding to the question of the committee relative to good farm buildings and other permanent improvements, I beg leave to offer to the consideration of the committee, that no greater improvement of entailed property would be attained than by the passing of an Act of Parliament for the purpose of enabling persons having life interests in entailed estates (with the consent in writing of their trustees or the majority of them) to convert timber (al- lowed by the testators to be cut for the purposes of the repairs of such estates) by sale into more substantial materials, as stone, brick, slates, tiles, iron, lead, ce- ment, &c, instead of their being, by the stringency of legal and literal construction, forced to apply the timber itself in necessary repairs, an absurdity self-evident, when, as on most estates prevailing, houses and cottages, barns, cart stables, and other farm buildings, originally built of stone or brick, require solid repairs by appro- priate materials. Contrary, however, to common sense, and contrary to the benefit of entailed estates, and the essential interests of the heir more especially than the owner for life, such are the prejudicial opinions of per- sons learned in the law. So that without some Act of Parliament giving a wider latitude, and at the same time a latitude of construction favourable to all parties in- terested in such entailed estates, no trustees will run the risk of sanctioning such conversion of timber, even with the consent of the next heir ; for were he to die, the fu- ture heir might call their decision in question. In stat- ing this I disclaim any interest for myself, while I add that I have been subject to the hardship of this legal construction (though my son was consenting to the pro- posed conversion of timber) ; but having lived to put my wishes of permanent repairs, even to rebuilding or adding to farm-houses, into general execution, what I now say is for the benefit of other estate holders simi- larly situated ; and I earnestly hope it will be deemed worthy of the consideration of the noble lords now sit- ting in committee, and may by their means lead to some beneficial enactment. 1419. Do you think the tenantry generally are aware of the great importance of draining ? They are beginning to be aware of the superiority of the Pearson plough drainage in our district, compared with the old bad practice (as I presume to call it), ac- cording to my views and practical experience, the mole plough ; for I am confident that when you squeeze na- ture out of its position, nature has thepower, by means of the frost and wet that passes into the land, of squeezing it back again into its original position, and that the mole plough drainage never can answer for any length of time on plough land ; but the tenants cannot be expected to drain land in so permanent a manner as the Pearson drainage, unless their landlords allow them a valuation for it, should they quit their holdings during from four- teen to twenty- one years, when they have no leases, or the landlords give tiles and put in the mains and outfalls for them. 1420. Are you acquainted with many entailed estates in this country, that would be the better for being properly drained ? Mine is an entailed estate ; but I have done it out of my own pocket, considering it more advantageous for my son to succeed to property in thorough good order, rather than to extend the acreage. 1421. Do you pay the whole expense of the draining yourself, or do you pay a part only, and the tenant the other part ? I have been speaking of my own farm. With regard to my tenants, I made an offer to them to give tiles to all that would adopt the Pearson plough drainage for the drains and outfalls ; and now that I ana making pipe tiles, I shall very likely extend that gift to them wherever they will do it in an efficient manner. 1422. Can you account for the fact of entailed estates in England not being thoroughly drained ? Because in my opinion people have not the money to spare, or they have not the disposition to spare it. 1423. Or is it that they do not estimate draining , quite so highly as you do ? Every man of common sense that sees anything and knows anything of country affairs in wet districts, cannot fail to acknowledge the great advantage of drainage. I am satisfied that the corn grown in the country may be increased three-eighths by good drainage. 1424. And that in stiff heavy soils ? Yes. I have stated that where I used to grow upon the average five sacks of wheat an acre in the clay district of the Weald of Sussex, I have been growing, according to the nature of the land, from seven to eight, and in a few instances nine sacks an acre : in one case, I believe, there was a field which produced a full load of ten sacks. 1425. You have employed a very large number of people in this draining ? Yes ; that has been a very great inducement to me to do it, because it has kept the poor off the parish. I have employed sometimes two ploughs going ; and the work that each Pearson plough will do at a fair morn- ing's work, will require twenty-two hands to fill it up by night. 1426. How many horses do you put to this plough ? I should say that six horses would do it with ease ; but they tread the land much deeper when they strain hard, and I generally put eight horses, because they go lightly over it, doing the work with greater ease, and in consequence not treading deep or injuring the land. I always recommend, if it can be done, to have the plough drainage completed before the frost sets in, and the doing it upon old clover leys, so that the treading may signify as little as possible, the frost taking it out after- wards very much ; and then I usually give the land a summer fallow, thus doing away with any ill effect by treading. . 1427. Is it not one of the objections the people gene- rally have to draining ploughs, that it poaches the land very much, and therefore hurts a great deal of land by puddling it ? The farmers thought it would at first, and that the surface water would not find its way to the under drain ; but they were surprised to see that where the drain ran, and where the horses had trodden on each side thereof, it generally was soonest dry on the surface, proving that the water found its way to the drain laterally and per- pendicularly also. 1428. Do you think, from what you know of the owners of entailed property, that if they were enabled to charge their estates for the expenses of draining and other permanent improvements, to be paid off in a cer- tain number of years by annual instalments, they would avail themselves of an Act of Parliament giving them that power ? I think some would ; but I think they ought to have the approbation of the next heir, if of age, for I consi- der it would not otherwise be quite just, because it might involve him in pecuniary difficulty, for he might be a man with a large family, and might find himself in very straitened circumstances for a few years, in the first instance. I think it is a matter for consideration whether there should not be some check upon it. I think it is a very advisable measure, provided it is pro- perly guarded. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 331 WAKEFIELD FARMERS' CLUB. At a meeting of this club, which took place on Friday the 18th Aug., Mr. Heanley read the following paper : " Steam power is one of the mighty agents which has advanced the manufacturing, the mining, and the mari- time interest of our country to its present proud posi- tion. Why is not the same powerful assistant applied to agriculture ? The use of machinery in agriculture is to produce a cheaper description of labour, with the advantage of enabling the farmer to expedite all his operations by a cheaper management than can be effec- ted by manure or horse power. To show the necessity of that principle, look at the advantage the farmer de- rives in erecting a threshing-machine to work by horses ; but now let us look at steam power, and you will find a great saving can be effected by using steam for threshing, grinding, chopping hay or straw, and steaming food for cattle : — 1st, On thrashing corn by steam power, the saving is 2d. per load, for if wheat costs 5d. per load by horse power, it can be thrashed for 3d. per load by steam ; a fact I am enabled to speak to from experience the last two years. Another advantage is, a portion of the crop might be threshed out immediately as it is carried from the field. The ancient practice was to thresh out the whole of the grain before it was removed from the field, and this custom would probably have still remained had it been practicable. In the present state of harvest-work such an operation is altogether impossible, because your horses are otherwise engaged, and manual labour could not do it, however great the advantage might be. It would lessen the amount of loss of corn, for loss must necessarily be incurred in building stacks and taking them down. It would lessen the amount of labour in carrying the corn, for it would be taken from the field to the threshing-mill, and would enable the farmer to bring a large portion of his new corn earlier into the market ; and it would be also when it contained the greatest quantity of nutritious matter. It has been ascertained by numerous experiments that wheat carried immediately from the field is of greater bulk, or measures better than at any other time, and in this respect is in the most profitable state for selling upon the general average of years. It appears, from the experience of practical farmers, that corn when kept in stack for several months loses a great deal, and the quantity of meal or flour is seriously diminished. This is a fact with which every thinking farmer is ac- quainted, and, however strange it may appear, is almost totally overlooked or neglected; and the common excuse practical men make is, that the value of straw would be deteriorated if not given to the cattle as it is threshed ; but the excuse is inadmissible, for the straw being made into large stacks immediately it is threshed out, it would keep as well when built into stacks with the corn in it unthreshed. I am aware there is a tenacity to old customs, and also a feeling of pride in the show of having an old corn stack or two left over-year. By the application of steam thrashing the farmer would have it in his power to sell his corn at the time it fetches the highest pi'ice, and this could only be partially done by the application of horse-power. The advantages are as follows : — 1st. The cost by steam-power being much cheaper than by horse-power, in some cases nearly half. 2nd. You can always have a supply of meal without being dependent on the miller. 3rd. I grind all the small corn and seeds of weeds, which is of little value unground, but when ground makes good flour for pigs. 4th. I have always less loss in waste of grinding, for when sent to a mill the waste is about 21bs. per bushel. 5th. The engine and works are so easily managed, that any farm man or labourer can superintend the work, and the cost of dressing and keeping in order the mill-stones is very trifling, say about 6s. per year. 6th. By chopping the hay and straw you give to the stock kept in the yard, a great saving is effected : many are of opinion that straw for bedding is better cut, of course into longer lengths than for fodder, as the manure is fit for use much sooner than it could if not cut. 7th. Another great advantage aris- ing from steam is, that the spare steam, after working the engine, may be easily applied to the steaming of food for cattle. I make the difference in cost of steam thrashing and that done by horses as follows : — By Steam-power, say s. 3 men at 2s. per day 6 2 women at Is. ditto 2 2 lads at 6d. and 8d. ditto 1 Oil for machine and engine 0 Coals and slack for engine fire 1 Allow for wear and tear 3 cl. 0 0 2 10 6 io 0 Thrashing 60 loads per day would be 3d. per load. By Horse-power : s. d. 3 men at 3s. per day 6 0 2 women at Is. per ditto 2 0 2 lads at 6d. and 8d. ditto 1 2 Oil 0 4 8 horses at 2s. ditto 16 0 £\ 5 6 Which makes it cost a fraction more than 5d. per load for 60 loads of 3 bushels. The cost of an engine and thrashing- £. s. d. machine, fixed ready for work is.. 123 0 0 The cost of horse thrashing-machine, &c, about 90 0 0 Extra cost of engine 35 0 0 Mr. C. H. Johnson expressed great pleasure in having had the privilege of listening to a subject so highly interesting ; and more particularly its having been so clearly stated rendered it practically useful, and coinciding with his own views, he having paid some attention and spent a little thought upon it. Mr. Jno. Dawson thought, if steam could be ap- plied to farming purposes in this way, it would be highly advantageous. He could easily conceive that corn thrashed as it comes in from the field would be more in quantity, because it contains more moisture than when it has been in the stack for a length of time. He also noticed the advantages of steaming food for cattle, as dry food is apt to disturb the stomach, and by grinding the corn for horses and cows, they would de- rive more sustenance from it. Mr. Andrews, of Kirbam Lodge, said — I feel much pleased in having heard the remarks which have been made by the preceding speakers ; it really appears to me that the advantages of using steam in farming are very great. I calculate a horse cannot last on an ave- rage above fifteen years, whilst an engine with moderate care will last one hundred years. Horses, whether working or not, are expensive in their keeping ; but when an engine stands still, it is costing nothing. The small boilers you have named I have no doubt would do the quantity of work you state, but it is best to have your boiler large enough, there being then less risk. A four-horse engine will do more work than eight horses — I mean yoked at the same time — for they never are all of one mind for pulling together, whereas an engine is steady in its work, and its whole energies are ap- plied at once. I recollect once employing eighteen horses 332 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ^0 do some work ; that is, six at a time, in three sets, relieving each other as they required; but it proved tiriug work. I put up a six-horse engine, and it did the same work well. Ten per cent, upon the first cost will keep an engine in repair, which works every- day for twenty years ; but the cost of those used for farming purposes, as has been stated, may be about seven per cent. — say five per cent, for the outlay of capital, and two per cent, for wear and tear. Another point worthy of remark is, that where steam power is used for thrashing, should corn be required for market, it need not stop the regular operations in the farm, as the horses need not be taken off their work. At some periods of the year this must be highly valuable, as your other works are proceeding, and you may thrash corn to a very large extent in a short time. In whatever way you employ steam power, it is the cheapest and best way of getting work done, and done well ; but I believe a locomotive engine may be made to do all that has been said of the stationary one, and will no doubt be the best for farmers. It could be applied in various places. Take it into the field when the corn is ready, and thrash it out. Use it for irrigation, by having a supply-pipe that could be lengthened as wanted, and work it in a semicircular manner until a field is well watered ; or apply liquid manure in the same way. May I now be permitted to make a remark ar two, which may justly be deemed a digression from steam ? I was very glad to hear of the efforts you are making to get the meeting for 1846 of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society to Wake- field. This is decidedly the best way to raise farming in this neighbourhood, as very small farmers would be able to benefit by the exhibition, and to them it would be a stimulus to exertion so much wanted. Although this is wandering from steam, I could not help expressing my great pleasure. Mr. Whittakbb, of Osset, said he could not help concurring in the views already expressed, but thought the advantages would be to parties who occupied not less than 150 acres of land. Mr. Greaves, Solicitor, fully concurred in the ob- servations of the gentlemen who introduced, and also those who had siuce spoken on this subject. His atten- tion had been for some time devoted to the application of steam for such purposes as splitting beans, and grind- ing and cutting corn for their colliery horses. Mr. Jxo. Moore, of Moorhouse, said he was of opinion that farmers of smaller quantities that 150 acres might apply advantageously steam power, employing an engine of two horse power. He so fully approved ot steam, that he was now erecting an engine and thrash- ing machine of an improved kind, and would continue to make such improvements as circumstances and observa- tions might dictate. Mr. Wm. Barratt, of St. John's, said— to me this has been a rich treat, to hear a subject so ably treated which promises fairly to aid the farmers of Britain so much as the [application of steam power is very likely to do in many ways. What has contributed so much to England's present elevated position as a commercial country as the application of steam to manufactures ? Her sea-girt island — a mere speck in creation — could soon manufacture enough of goods to supply the world ; and I say success to the manufactures of England ! be- cause, amongst other benefits to be derived from them, an extensive trade is sure to benefit farmers in the prices and demand for their produce ; and, again, we want all the auxiliaries we can for the farmers, to help them to contend with foreign countries in the raising of grain. I do not wish it to be understood that I think steam power can do proportionately as much for the farmer as it has done and is capable of doing for the manufacturer and the traveller ; but that, if connected with other im- provements, it will enable the farmer to triumph over the threatening aspects from free trade in corn. Let, I say, the dormant energies of the country be roused on this point, and, I repeat, farmers have nothing to fear. I am not an enthusiast on steam farming, but just con- template steam thrashing, grinding, crushing corn and malt, and cutting straw and hay for cattle, saving at least 15 per cent. ; keeping horses and cows, and feed- ing cattle, and steaming fodder, say 10 per cent. more. Causing less horses to be needed is another saving, as well as cutting turnips for cattle and sheep. Steaming food for cattle is yet but very partially practised, but is highly deserving of universal application. The mouldy hay, or weather-injured straw, by steaming, have the deleterious properties quite removed, rendering the food more easy to digest, removing all the danger arising from giving dry or even wetted chop to cattle. I have no doubt steam will, ere long, be generally applied, and I think the sooner the better. The following resolution was then put from the chair and carried unanimously — " That in the opinion of this meeting Mr. Heanley'has treated this subject in a very lucid manner, practically illustrated its uses, and clearly shown its advantages to the farmer, and that a vote of thanks be given him for introducing a subject which has so highly interested the meeting." LINCOLNSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The meeting of this society was held at Sleaford on Thursday the 28th Aug. The following is a list of the premiums : — HORSES. To the owner of the best stallion for getting hunters, 10/. ; Mr. Henry Marfleet, of Boothby, for his hunting stallion " Plantagenet." Two other competitors. For the best hunting mare and foal, 5/. ; Rev. Basil Beridge, of Algarkirke. Six other competitors. For the best three years' old hunting colt or filly, 3/. ; Rev. Basil Beridge, of Algarkirke. Five other com- petitors. To the owner of the best stallion for getting draught horses, or horses for farming purposes, 10/. ; Mr. Joseph Eno, of Long Sutton, for his black stallion " Competitor." Seven other competitors. For the best cart mare and foal, 5/. ; Mr. Robert Graves, of Bloxholme. Two other competitors. For the best two years' old cart colt or filly, 3/. ; Mr. Israel Brice, of Risby. No other competitors. A sweepstakes of one sovereign each for the best two- year-old hunting colt ; Charles Allix, Esq. Two other competitors. CATTLE. For the best bull of any age, 10/. ; William Hutton, Esq., of Gate Burton. For the second best bull of any age, o/. ; Mr. Fras. lies, of Barnoldby-le-Beck. Five other competitors. For the best bull under two years old, 5/. ; Mr. Paul Francis Pell, of Tupholme. For the second best ditto, 21. ; Mr. Paul Francis Pell, of Tupholme. Four other competitors. For the best bull calf under one year old, 3/. ; Mr. Joseph Brothwell, of Braceby. Four other competitors. For the best milcb cow, having produced a live calf in the year 1845, 5/. ; J. B. Stanhope, Esq., of Revesby. For the second best ditto, 21. ; Mr. Richard Dudding, of Panton. Four other competitors. For the best milch heifer under three years and six THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 333 months old, having produced a live calf in the year 1815, bl. ; Mr. Thomas Moses, of Stenigot. For the second best ditto, 21. ; J. B. Stanhope, Esq., of Revesby. One other competitor. For the best heifer under two years old, 5/. ; Mr. Chas. Marfleet, of Bassingham. For the second best ditto, 21.; J. B. Stanhope, Esq., Revesby. One other competitor. SHEEP. For the best ram of any age, 10/. ; Mr. W. Abraham, of Barnetby-le-Wold. 12 other competitors. For the best shearling ram, 5/. ; Mr. W. Abraham, of Barnetby-le-Wold. For the second best ditto, 31. ; Mr. W. Abraham, of Barnetby-le-Wold. 5 other competitors. For the best two-shear ram, bl. ; Mr. W. Abraham, of Barnetby-le-Wold. For the second best ditto, 31. ; Mr. Edw. Clarke, of Canwick. Five other competitors. For the best three-shear or aged ram, 5/. ; Mr. Edw. Clarke, of Canwick. Four other competitors. For the best pen of six ewes that have reared lambs and given suck until the 10th day of July, 5/. ; Mr. Bryan Millington, of Asgarby. 1 other competitor. For the second best ditto, 21. No competitor. For the best pen of six gimmers, bl. ; Mr. W. Abra- ham, of Barnetby-le-Wold. One other competitor. For the second best ditto, 21. No competitor. PIGS. For the best boar, large breed, 3/. ; Mr. John Frudd, of Bloxholme. For the second best ditto, 21. , Kev. Basil Beridge, of Algarkirke. For the best boar, small breed, 3/. ; Mr. C. Fountain, of Carrington. For the second best ditto, 21. ; Mr. B. Millington, of Asgarby. Six other competitors. For the best sow, large breed, 3/. ; Mr. John Frudd, of Bloxholme. For the second best ditto, 21. ; Mr. R. M. Lunn, of Lincoln. Three other competitors. For the best sow, small breed, 3/. ; Mr. Anthony White, of Sleaford. For the second best ditto, 21. ; Mr. Chas. Fountain, of Carrington. Six other competitors. For the best litter of sacking pigs, quantity and quality considered, 2i. ; Mr. T. B. Shelcock, of Hose, for seven sucking pigs, aged seven weeks. Two other competitors. To the owner of any extra stock of great merit, a sum not exceeding bl. J. B. Stanhope, Esq., of Revesby, 10s., for his roan Cow, "Adelaide," aged three years and five months ; 10s. to ditto, for a red- and-white Heifer Calf, " Adeliza," aged nine months ; 10s., to ditto, for a roan Heifer Calf, " Beauty," aged seven months.— Mr. Thomas Moses, of Stenigot, 10s., for his Heifer Calf, aged ten months. Mr. Thorpe Smith, of Barkston, 1/., for his five-shear barren Ewe ; 10s. to ditto, for a three-shear Ram.— Mr. Edward Dawson, of Great Hale, 10s., for his Heifer in milk, aged five years. — Mr. Edward Newbett, of Sleaford, 10s., for his roan Heifer, aged three years and nine months. — Mr. Bryan Millington, of Asgarby, 10s., for his Shearling Ram. Six other competitors. For the Labourer in Husbandry, who has brought up the largest family without parochial relief, 8/. The premium to Samuel Evison, servant to Mr. W. Cropper, of Minting, with whom he has lived thirty years, and brought up and placed out thirteen children. For the Waggoner who has lived the longest time with one family, and who has never returned home in- toxicated with his horses, bl. The premium to Henry Skakleton, servant to Mr. J. Greenwood, of Blankney, with whom he has lived eighteen years, seventeen of which he has been waggoner. Two other competitors. For the Servant in Husbandry, being a single man, who has lived the longest time in the service of one family, not less than five years, 4/. The first pre- mium to William Bell, aged forty-three, has lived in the service of Mrs. Evens, of Lincoln, for eighteen years. For the second premium, 21., to James Methe- ringham, aged thirty-five, has lived with Mr. Thomas Lee, of Barkstone, eleven years. One other competitor. For the Servant in Husbandry, being a single woman, who has lived the longest time in the service of one family, not less than five years, 3/. The premium to Elizabeth Brackenbury, has lived with the late Mr. R. Smith, of Wigtoft Asperton, 29 years. The premium of 10s., with excellent character, to Elizabeth Donson, has lived with James Kerchivall, of Wellingore, 13 years, having previously lived nine years with the Dean of Lincoln. For the Shepherd who has reared, during the present year, the greatest proportionate number of lambs from any number of ewes, not less than 200, bl. The like, where the number of ewes shall be under 200 and not less than 80, 31. No competitors. For the best new invented or improved Implement or Implements, for the pupose of agriculture, simplicity and cheapness considered, to be given in two or more prizes, at the discretion of the judges, Ibl. The show of implements was the best ever seen in Lincolnshire, and the judges regretted they had not more money to distribute. The judges divided the 15/., amongst the implements, asfollows: — 21. 10s. to Mr. R.Hornsby, of Grantham, for his improved ridge manure drill, and 1/. 10s. for his improved corn dressing machine : 31. to Messrs. Cross- kill, for their clod- crusher and improved one-horse carts ; 3/. to Messrs. Barrett and Ashton for their im- proved iron ploughs and harrows; 21. to Mr. Grant, for his horse-rake and his improved plough and paring plough ; 1/. 10s. to Messrs. Smith and Co., for their chaff-cutter and horse-rake; 1/. 10s. to Mr. Revill, for his cake-breaker and bean-mill, and also for his corn- dressing machine; and 1/. to Mr. Anthony White, for his large assortment of agricultural implements. CURE FOR POTATO ROT. TO THE EDITOR OF THE EXETER FLYING-POST. Sir, — The great importance of this root, one acre of which will feed more people than three of wheat, makes the present blight a matter of national interest. It seems, from the reports, to be not merely an aggravation of the old potato disease ; but a peculiar rot, occasioned by the extraordinary wetness of the season. The old disease has engaged much of the attention of agricultural chemists : and I may have something to say about it, when satisfied with the information collected : but this rot is advancing with such alarming rapidity, that no time is to be lost in attempting to arrest its ravages ; leaving the experimental confirmations and im- provements to be going on in many places at once. Amongst the most effectual preventives and correctives of putrefaction, are chloride of lime, and salt; both quite wholesome, and consisting of elements suitable for manure. For arresting the decay in the ground, a mixture of these — say 1 cwt. chloride of lime and 3 cwt. salt per acre, may be strewed around the plant, and im- mediately covered in (for daylight kills the chloride of lime). Or if the weather should happily become dry, 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. it may be applied liquid, at the rate of 1 gallon of water to lib. of the mixture, upon soil so wet as the present. Potatoes dug apparently sound, and subject to rot afterwards, may be first washed in water, and then steeped in the above solution twelve hours (perhaps less time will be found to do). The same liquid will do for many quantities of potatoes, by adding more of the mixed salt and chloride, as they absorb it out : for which the taste may be a sufficient guide. The salt should be clean, such as is sold about Is. 6d. per cwt., for agricultural purposes: foul salt would exhaust the purifying quality of the chloride. The chloride of lime (bleaching powder) should be of the very best quality, which is the cheapest for use, as it is a perishable article. The salt should be well mixed with the chloride first, as the latter is apt to curdle in water alone : and no iron or metal of any kind should touch it, either in mixing or in solution, as metals quickly exhaust its qualities. Yours, Sir, &c. Plymouth, Aug. 26lh, 1845. J. Prideaux. IMPEDIMENTS TO GOOD FARMING. TO THE EDITOR OF THE NORTHAMPTON MERCURY. Sir, — Your late correspondent (Amicus) has expressed his opinion on the present mode of cultivating the soil, and has made some very pertinent remarks on the advan- tages of what is generally called " good farming." Now there can be but one opinion as to the benefits to be derived by the community in general from the adop- tion of the best modes of cultivation, in order that we may be liberally supplied with all the numerous produc- tions of our native soil ; and nearly every one who writes on the subject, and also those who publicly ex- press their opinions at the various agricultural meetings, seem to have come to the conclusion, that the only secu- rity to the farmer is to be found in the increased produc- tion of the land he occupies. Permit me, sir, through the medium of your columns, to state some few of the barriers which have a tendency to prevent the adoption of the best modes of cultivation. 1st. — The great want of good homesteads attached to the locality of the farm. No person can carry out the system of soiling and stall-feeding cattle, in order to increase the quantity and quality of the manure, unless he has convenient premises for the purpose ; good sheltered yards and stalls for beasts are indispensable requisites for the profitable wintering of cattle ; but we find very few farms with these advantages. Let any one ride through some parts of this county, and he will find that it is absolutely im- possible for farmers to make the best of their cattle with their present badly-situated yards and scanty means of wintering cattle. Many a man cultivating two or three hundred acres of good land is obliged to put up with the daily inconvenience of a homestead probably not more than sufficient for half the land he occupies. 2nd. — The great want of draining the land, still evi- dent in many parts of the country. It is admitted by every one who has cultivated strong wet land, that before any permanent improvement can take place in the land, it must be well drained ; and it is in vain to expect any profitable occupation from this de- scription of land until the water has been drained out of it. This is a very expensive process, and requires con- siderable capital to be expended on the land, and the re- turn is not immediate, but must be refunded in future years. This, therefore, is a question in which the land- lord and tenant should mutually unite. Both parties would be greatly benefited ; the former in the increased value of the freehold, and the tenant in the propor- tionate value of the land for occupation. There are thou- sands of acres of land, which are yielding but little rent to the proprietors and less profit to the occupier, which would, if well drained, probably be very useful corn- growing land. 3rd. — The prejudice that exists among many pro- prietors against the ploughing up of inferior grass land. The present production of this description of land is very small indeed, and is only in many cases useful for occupation seven or eight months in the year, and then yielding but little return in the shape of cattle or sheep ; as such alone it is scarcely worth cultivation, and I have no doubt would, if drained and ploughed up, give an increased rental, a much more profitable occupation, and cause a threefold greater demand for la- bour. But I find I shall get beyond the limits of a letter for your columns, and shall defer any more remarks to some future time. I believe that, let the farmers of the pre- sent day have fair play, give them good homestalls, let the landlord assist them in well draining the land that may require it, let them have liberty to stick the plough in that land which is suitable for corn, and produces now little else but thistles, water grasses, and moss, and I have no doubt that in despite of all legislative enact- ments, corn laws or no corn laws, there remains still in the sons of the soil a spirit of enterprise, blended with activity and steady perseverance, that would cause " the earth to bring forth its increase." I remain, sir, yours truly, A Member of the Northamptonshire Agricultural Book Club. August 20, 1845. FARMERS' CLUB HOUSE. At the monthly meeting of the committee, held on Monday the 4th of August, present : (Committee of Ma- nagement) W. Shaw, T. Knight, W. F. Hobbs, R. Baker in the chair, the following gentlemen were elected members : — Colville, C. R., M.P., Duffield Hall, Derby. Gedney, J., Redenhall, Norfolk. Hall, Richard, Cirencester. Knott, John M., Madge-hill, Worcester. Mew,- W., jun., Rochford. Neame, Frederick, Canterbury, Kent. Rainbow, J. R., Guildford Lodge, Surrey. Simmons, James, Haslemere, Surrey. Skerratt, G., Sandbach. Spottiswoode, Andrew, Broom Hall, Surrey. Symons, Henry, Whipperton, Devon. Wakeling, George, Chelmsford. Wood, Charles, Longford, near Maldon. The following subjects were selected for discussion at the monthly meetings of the club : — Oct. 6. Upon the best method of Storing and Pre- serving root crops, by Mr. R. Baker. Nov. 3. Tenants Rights, as between Landlord and Tenant, by Mr. W. Shaw. Dec. 8. Geology, as connected with Agriculture (con- tinued from June 2. 1844), by Mr. R. Baker. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 335 ON MANURES. from lav\*s translation of boussingault's work on "rural economy," published by h. bailliere, 219, regent street, london. Animal Excrements. Horse-dung. — The composition of horse-dung would lead us to infer that its action must be more energetic than that of cow-dung. Nevertheless, agriculturists frequently consider it as of inferior quality. This opinion is, even to a certain extent, well founded. Thus, although it he acknowledged that horse-dung covered in before it has fermented yields a very powerful manure, it is known that in general the same substance, after its decomposition, affords a manure that is really less useful than that of the cow-house. This comes entirely from the fact, that the droppings of the stable, by reason of the small quantity of moisture they contain, pre- sent greater difficulties in the way of proper treat- ment than those from the cow-house. Mixed with litter, and thrown loosely upon the dunghill, horse- dung heats rapidly, dries, and perishes : unless the mass be supplied with a sufficient quantity of water to keep down the fermentation, and the access of the air be prevented by proper treading, there is always, without the least doubt, a consider- able loss of principles which it is of the highest importance to preserve. I can give a striking in- stance of this fact, in the changes that happen in the conversion of horse-dung into manure in the last stage of decomposition. Fresh horse-dung, in the dry state, contains 2"7 per cent, of azote : the same dung laid in a thick stratum, and left to undergo entire decomposition, gave a humus or mould from which, reduced to dryness, no more than 1 per cent, of azote was obtained. I add, that by this fermentation or decomposition the dung had lost 9-10ths of its weight. From these num- bers every one may judge how great had been the loss of azotised principles. In practice, however, little care is bestowed on the preparation of horse- dung : the fermentation is rarely, if ever, pushed to this extreme point indeed; but it is not the less true, that it is constantly approached in a greater or less degree, and that the consequences, although not altogether so unfavourable as those which I have particularly signalized, are nevertheless ex- tremely destructive. All enlightened agriculturists have, therefore, long been aware of the attention necessary to the management of horse-dung, which requires a degree of care that may be perfectly well dispensed with when the business is to convert the dejections of horned cattle into manure. To ob- tain the best results in the management of horse- dung, it appears to be absolutely necessary to give it a much larger quantity of moisture than it can ever receive from the urine of the animal : if it be not watered, it necessarily heats, dries, and loses both in weight and quality ; whilst by being kept properly moist, it produces a manure which, half- rotted, is of quality superior, or at all events equal to the same weight of cow-dung. M. Schattenmann, who has the produce of stables containing two hundred horses to manage, follows a process of the most commendable des- cription in the preparation of his manure, and which is attended with the Arery best results. His dung- hill stance, of no great depth, is about 440 yards square in superficies, and divided into two equal portions. The bottom of this stance is so arranged as to present two inclined planes, which bring all the liquids that drain from it to the middle, where there is an ample tank for their reception, furnished with a pump for their re-distribution to the dung- hill. There is also another spring-water pump, destined to supply the water that is necessary to preserve the dungheap in an adequate state of moistness. The latter auxiliary is quite indis- pensable ; the quantity of water necessary is so considerable when masses of such magnitude are to be treated, that we cannot trust to any casual source of supply. The two portions of the area are alternately piled with the dung as it comes from the stables : it is heaped to the height of 10, 12, or 14 feet; it is trodden down carefully as it is evenly spread, and plentifully watered from the spring- water pump. Due consolidation, and a state of constant humidity, are the two conditions that are the most indispensable to the successful prepara- tion of horse-dung. M. Schattenmann is in the habit of adding to the liquid, saturated with the soluble matters of the dunghill, a quantity of sul- phate of iron in solution, or of sulphate of lime (gypsum) in powder ; he also throws the same salts upon the surface of his heap ; the object of this is evidently to transform into sulphate the volatile carbonate of ammonia formed in the course of the decomposition, and so to prevent its escape and loss. By these means a pasty manure, as rich as that which is yielded by horned cattle, and of a quality the excellence of which is proclaimed by the remarkable crops that cover the lands which receive it, is produced in the course of two or three months.* It is almost useless to add, that great care must be taken not to introduce too large a quantity of sulphate of iron, which might have a prejudicial influence upon vegetation, into the dung- hill, or the drainings from it. In making use of sulphate of lime, there is nothing to fear on this score ; this salt in excess would be rather favour- able than hurtful : in general, gypsum is certainly the preferable substance, both on account of its never doing mischief, and of its greatly inferior price, f Farmers generally advise horse-dung to be re- served for argillaceous, deep, and moist soils : this recommendation is given in connection with the manure that is obtained by the usual imperfect pro- cess of preparation. With regard to the horse- dung prepared in the manner which I have just described, and as practised by M. Schattenmann, it is adapted to soils of all kinds ; and if it differs from the dung of the cow-house, it is only by its superior quality. This last fact is at once explained * Schattenmann, Annales de Chimie, 3e serie, vol. iv., p. 117. f Every farmer who should have something like a cart or waggon-load of gypsum brought to the farm every year, would find his profit from the practice. — Eng. Ed. Z 336 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by the elementary analyses of the excrements of a horse fed upon hay and oats. _ 100 parts of the urine of the animal so fed yielded 12 '4 of dry extract, the composition of which was as follows : In the In the state of liquid extract. state. Carbon 36-0 4'46 Hydrogen .... 3'S 0'47 Oxygen 11*3 T40 Azote 12*5 1*55 Salts 36-4 4-51 Water — S/"6l 100-0 lOO'OO The droppings of the same horse, after drying, gave 24 "7 of fixed matter, the analysis of which in- dicated : Dry Moist Excrement. Excrement. Carbon 387 9*56 Hydrogen .... 5-l T26 Oxygen 37*7 9-31 Azote 2-2 0-o4 Salts ■> 16*3 4-02 Water — 75-31 100-0 100-00 The dung of horned cattle is often extremely watery ; it is especially so when furnished by ani- mals kept upon green food : this extreme humidity renders its preparation easy. Its equivalent num- ber is higher than that of horse-dung ; it is, in fact, less highly azotised, and consequently less active. If the food have a great effect upon the quality of the manure, it is quite certain that the circumstances or states of the cattle have an effect which is scarcely less remarkable. Milch cows, and cows in calf, always furnish a manure that is less highly azotised than stall-fed and labouring oxen ; and this is readily understood : the azotised principles of the food are diverted to secretions, which concur in the development of a new being in the one case, in the production of milk in the other ; for the same reason, the dejections of young animals, all things else being equal, furnish a ma- nure of less power and value than those of adult animals. I shall have occasion to recur to this important subject, which has never yet been suffi- ciently studied. The urine and excrements of a milch-cow, which is giving about twelve pints of milk per diem, have shown upon analysis the following quantities of elements — 100 of the urine contained 117 of dry extract, and had this composition : Urine Urine dry. liquid. Carbon 27*2 3'18 Hydrogen .... 2"6 030 Oxygen 26'4 3-09 Azote 3'8 0-44 Salts 40-0 4-68 Water — 88-31 100-0 100-00 100 of fresh excrement left, on drying, 9*4 of dry substance, and in each state contained : Excrement Excrement dry. moist. Carbon 42'8 4"02 Hydrogen .... 5'2 0'49 Oxygen 377 3-54 Azote 2'3 0*22 Salts 12*0 1-13 Water — 90-60 100-0 100-00 Hog's-dung. — From all I have seen, I conclude that hogs, well kept and put up to fatten, yield de- jections which are highly azotised, and which must consequently furnish a manure of excellent quality. Schwertz has, indeed, ascertained that this manure acts more powerfully than cow-dung. Sheep-dung is one of the most active of ma- nures, a fact which is confirmed by analysis ; for it is by no means water)', and in the usual state contains upwards of 1 per cent, of azote. The mode of managing sheep generally implies that they manure the gro\md immediately. Schwertz calculates, that in the course of a night a sheep will manure something more than a square yard of sur- face : at Bechelbronn, we have found the quantity manured to be about 4 square feet. The follow- are the details of one experiment : Two hundred sheep were folded for a fortnight upon a rye-stubble, of an extent which gave as nearly as possible four square feet of surface per sheep. The manuring thus effected was found to produce a maximum effect upon the crop of turnips which followed the rye. Pigeon s-dung is known as a hot manure, and of such activity that it must be used with discre- tion. Pigeon's-dung is available for crops of every description : Schwertz has made use of it for a long time, and always with the greatest success, mixed with coal ashes upon clover. The Flemish farmers procure pigeon's-dung from the department of the Pas de Calais, where there are a great number of dovecotes, one of which, containing from six hun- dred to six hundred and fifty pigeons, will let for the sum of about £4 per annum, merely for the sake of the dung ; the quantity yielded in this time may be about a waggon-load. In the neighbourhood of Lisle, tins manure is applied particularly in the cultivation of flax and tobacco. According to M. Cordier, the dung of between seven hundred and eight hundred pigeons is sufficient to manure nearly 2\ acres of ground, The. dung of three hundred and twelve pigeons, therefore, would suffice for an acre. The value of pigeon's-dung may be estimated from the large proportion of azote which it contains ; that which I analyzed at Bechelbronn gave S^- per cent, of this principle, a result which ought not to excite sur- prise when it is known that the white matter that appears in the excrements of birds consists of nearly pure uric acid. The manure of the hen- house is nearly or quite as good as pigeon's dung. Guano is a manure of the same nature as pigeon's dung, and the use of which, long familiar on the coasts of Peru, has lately extended to these coun- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 337 tries, the article being now imported in large quan- tities both from the South American and African coasts. Guano appears to be the result of the accumulation for ages of the excrements of the sea-fowl which live and nestle in the islets, in the neighbourhood of the great southern continents of the new and old world. The mass in many places forms beds of between 60 and 70 feet in thickness. The principal places whence guano is obtained, are the Chinche Islands, near Pisco ; but other depo- sits of the substance are known to exist more to the south — in the islets of Iza and Ho, at Arica, and in the neighbourhood of Payta, as I had an opportunity of ascertaining during my stay in that port. The inhabitants of Chinche are the principal traders in guano; and a class of small vessels, called guaneros, are constantly engaged in carrying the manure.* Fourcroy and Vanquelin were the first who fixed attention on the nature of guano. The specimen which they examined was brought to Europe by M. de Humboldt, and contained uric acid (0*25), oxalate of ammonia, chlor-hydrate of ammonia, oxalate of potash, phosphates of potash and of lime, chloride of potassium, fatty matter and sand. Since this time Dr. Fownes has again analyzed guano. The sample upon which he operated was of a light brown colour and extremely offensive smell ; it yielded Oxalate of ammonia . . . . "\ Uric acid I Traces of carbonate of ammonia and organic matter .... Phosphates of lime and magnesia . Phosphates and alkaline chlorides 1 and traces of sulphates ... J I 66'2 100-0 Another sample, deeper in colour and without smell, contained — pure oxalate of ammonia, 44*6 ; earthy phosphates, 41 -2; alkaline phosphates, sul- phates, and chlorides, 14'2=100. The composition of guano would confirm, were there any occasion for confirmation, the opinion that has been formed as to its origin. The islets which supply it are still tenanted, especially during the night, by a multitude of sea-fowl. Neverthe- less, from the calculations of M. de Humboldt, the excrements of these birds in the course of three centuries would not form a layer of guano of more than one-third of an inch in thickness. Imagina- tion stops short, startled, in presence of the vast lapse of time which must have been necessary to accumulate such beds of the substance as now exist, or rather, as lately existed in many places ; for it is rapidly disappearing since it has become a subject of the commercial enterprise of mankind.f * Humboldt, Annates de Chimie, vol. lvi. p. 258. t Dr. John Davy, all whose scientific researches equal in accuracy the brilliant investigations of his illustrious brother, has lately turned his attention to this subject. He finds that we have collections of guano in Great Britain that are really not to be despised in some cases. The surface of the ground under old-established rookeries is a true guano- The average composition of guano must by no means be inferred from the preceding analyses of picked samples ; earthy matters are usually present in much larger proportion than they are here stated. The guano generally imported into Eng- land and France yields a proportion of azote very far short of that which the 25 per cent, of uric acid, which has sometimes been stated to exist in this substance, would yield. In three trials the azote found was 0-14, 0-05, and 0'05 ; the mean would therefore be O'OS, which represents the quantity of azote in pigeon's dung. The litter and excrement of the silkworm is used as manure in the south. Analyses indicates 3 per cent, of azote in its constitution. Human Excrements are regarded as one of the most active manures that can be employed. In countries where agriculture has made real progress, this article is highly prized, and no pains are spared to obtain so powerful a manure. In Flan- ders, feculent matters form the staple of an active traffic, and in the neighbourhood of large towns they form an invaluable material for the ameliora- tion of the soil. The Chinese collect human excre- ments with the greatest solicitude, vessels being placed for the purpose at regular distances along the most frequented ways. Old men, women, and children are engaged in mixing them with water which is applied in the neighbourhood of the plants in cultivation.* The fresh excrement is occasionally worked up with clay, and formed into bricks, which are pul- verized when dry, and the powder is applied as a top-dressing. One of the advantages resulting from the almost exclusive use of this manure in China is this, that the fields seem to grow nothing but the plant which is the object of solicitude wit\v the farmer. It is there extremely difficult to mee10 with a weed. The quality of feculent matter as a manure depends much on the nature and abun- dance of the food consumed by those who furnish it. M. d'Arcet relates a curious anecdote in con- nection with this fact : A farmer had purchased the produce of the cabinet of one of the most cele- brated restaurateurs or taverns of the Palais Royal; encouraged by the success he obtained in employ- ing this manure, and desirous of obtaining a larger supply of the article, he rented the produce of several of the barracks of Paris. The manure which he now obtained, however, he found to pro- duce an effect greatly less than he had anticipated, so that he lost money by the bargain. Berzelius found the following substances in hu- man excrements : — Remains of food 7*0 Bile 0-9 Albumen 0'9 A peculiar extractive matter . . 2*7 Indeterminate animal matter, bed, and removed and used as manure in the open field, produces most excellent effects. See Dr. Davy's Paper in Ed. Lond. and Dub. Philos. Mag., Oct. 1, 1844.— Eny. Ed. * Julien, Annales de Chimie, vol. hi. p. 65, 3rd series. z 2 338 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. viscous matter, resin, and an insoluble residuum 14'0 Salts 1«2 Water 73-3 ioo-o The salts had the composition following : — Carbonate of soda 29-4 Chloride of sodium 23*5 Sulphate of soda 1 T8 Ammoniaco-magnesian phos- phate 1T8 Phosphate of lime 23*5 100-0 Human urine is one of the most powerful of all manures. Left to itself it speedily undergoes putrefaction, and devolves an abundance of am- moniacal salts, as all the world knows. Its com- position, according to Berzelius, is the following : — Urea 3-01 Uric acid 0- 10 Indeterminate animal matter, lactic acid, and lactate of ammonia 171 Mucus of the bladder o-03 Sulphate of potash 0-37 Sulphate of soda 0'32 Phosphate of soda 0-29 Chloride of sodium 0-45 Phosphate of ammonia O'l 7 Chlorhydrate of ammonia. ... 0-15 Phosphate of lime and of mag- nesia 0.10 Silica traces. Water 93-30 100-00 The phosphates of lime and magnesia which it contains are extremely insoluble salts, and have been supposed to be held in solution by phos- phoric acid, lactic acid, and, very recently, by Professor Liebig, by hippuric acid, which lie now states to be a regular constituent of healthy human urine. From the interesting inquiries upon urine made byM. Lecanu, it appears that a man passes nearly half-an-ounce of azote with urine in the course of twenty-four hours. A quantity of urine taken from a public urine pail in Paris yielded 7 per 1,000 of azote. The dry extract of the same urine yielded nearly 17 per cent. Human soil, as commonly obtained, consists of a mixture of feculent matters and urine. It may be applied immediately to the ground as it comes from the privy. In some parts of Tuscany it is mixed with three times its bulk of water, and so applied to the surface. I have myself seen night- soil, as it was obtained and without preparation, spread upon a field of wheat without any ill effect : so that the Tuscan preparation may be regarded as a simple means of spreading a limited quantity of manure over a given extent of ground. It is in French Flanders, however, that human soil is collected with especial care ; it ought to be so collected everywhere. The reservoir for its preservation ought to be one of the essential arti- cles in every farming establishment, as it is in Flanders, where there is always a cistern or cess- pool in masonry, with an arch turned over it for the purpose of collecting this invaluable manure. The bottom is cemented and paved. Two openings are left : one in the middle of the turned arch for the introduction of the material ; the other smaller and made on the north side, is for the admission of the air, which is requisite for the fermentation. The Flemish reservoir may be of the dimensions of about 35 cubical yards. Whenever the neces- sary operations of the farm will permit, the carts are sent off to the neighbouring town to purchase night-soil, which is then discharged into the reser- voir, where it usually remains for several months before being carried out upon the land. This favourite Flemish manure is applied in the liquid state (mixed in water) before or after the seed is in the ground, or to transplanted crops after they have been dibbled in. Its action is prompt and energetic. The sowing completed, and the land dressed up with all the pains which the Flemish farmer appears to take a pleasure in bestowing upon it, a charge of the manure is carried out at night in tubs or barrels. At the side or corner of the field there is a vat that will hold from 50 to 60 gallons, into which the load is discharged, and from which a workman, armed with a scoop at the end of a handle a dozen feet in length or more, proceeds to lade it out all around him. The vat emptied in one place is removed further on, and the same process is repeated until the whole field is watered.* The purchase, the carriage, and the application of this Flemish manure cannot be otherwise than costly; we therefore see it given particularly to crops which, when luxuriant and successful, are of the highest market value, such as flax, rape, and tobacco. This manure — the sample of it, at least, which M. Payen and I examined — is of a yellowish-green colour, and with reference to smell cannot be com- pared to anything better than a weak solution of hydro-sulphate of ammonia. This salt is undoubt- edly present, but exposure to the air converts it rapidly into the sulphate of the same base. Ac- cording to M. Kuhlmann, the quality of the liquid Flemish manure is to be judged of by its smell, its vicidity, and its saline and sharp taste. By the fermentation which takes place in the cess-pools, which are never emptied completely, the feculent matter kept for some time there does, in fact, ac- quire a slight vicidity. "When solid excrementitious matter predominates in the fermented mass, its effect upon vegetation is of longer continuance; but when it is derived entirely from urine, it acts almost immediately after its application. In either case, the effect of Flemish manure does not extend beyond the season : like all the other organic sub- stances which have undergone complete putrid fermentation, it is a true annual manure. Occasionally, a quantity of powdered oil-cake is 240. Cordier, Agriculture of French Flanders, p. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 339 thrown into the reservoir. This is either when the manure is supposed to be too dilute, or when there is little night-soil at command. The follow- ing, according to Professor Kuhlmann, is an ex- ample of the employment of the Flemish manure in a rotation which is common in the neighbour- hood of Lisle, and in the course of which the crops are colza or colewort, wheat and oats. First Year. — In October or November, the land is manured with farm-dung, which is ploughed in in the usual way. At this time a dose of the liquid manure, amounting to about 5,000 gallons per acre, is apphed, a second ploughing is given, and the colewort is planted. Second Year. — The colza is gathered, the ground is ploughed for autumn sowing, from 1,000 to 1,300 gallons, or so, of liquid manure are distributed, and the wheat is sown. Third Year.— The wheat-stubble is ploughed down at the end of the autumn, and about 1,000 or 1,100 gallons of the liquid manure per acre are distributed ; the oats are sown in the spring. If circumstances should prevent the application of the liquid manure in autumn, it is laid on in March, and then it has been found that one-fifth less will suffice ; but its application at this season is avoided as much as possible on account of the havoc that is made by the passage of horses, carts, and men over the surface of the soft ploughed land. It is with a view to avoid this disturbance of the surface that in many places oil-cake in powder is applied to the fields under colza, when the manuring has to be performed after the crop is in the ground. For beet, the dose of Flemish manure is carried the length of from 1,300 to 1,400 gallons per acre; but when the root is intended for the manufacture of sugar, liquid manure is sedulously avoided, ex- perience having shown that it has the very worst effect iq)on the production of sugar — a circum- stance which is very easily explained upon grounds that have already been given. The price of Flemish manure at Lisle is 2id. for a measure containing 22 gallons. In Flanders it is held that this quantity, which will weigh hard upon 2 cwt.j is equal to about 5 cwt. of farm-yard dung. The liquid manure which I analyzed yielded 2 per 1,000 of azote. Farm-yard dung, in its usual state, contains as much as 4 per 1,000 ; it follows, therefore, that the real equivalent num- ber of Flemish manure is 182, that of farm-dung being 100; in other words, it would require 182 of Flemish manure to replace 100 of farm-yard manure — a conclusion that differs widely from that which is usually acted upon. But it must be observed that from its nature the Flemish manure produces its maximum influence in the course of the season in which it is applied. It seems to have no effect on the crop of the succeeding year. Farm-yard dung, on the contrary, only exerts a portion of the whole amount of its beneficial in- fluence in the course of the year, in which it is laid on ; it has still something, often much, in reserve for succeeding years. To compare liquid manure with farm-yard dung, with reference to an annual crop, is to compare this manure to the unknown fraction of the farm-yard dung, which comes into play in the course of the first year, and from such a contrast no possible inference can be drawn in regard to the relative value of the two kinds of dung. I have insisted upon this circumstance because it is often involved in the estimates that are made of the relative values of the different species of manure ; and because, from losing sight of it, unfavourable conclusions are frequently come to, in regard to manures that undergo decomposi- tion very slowly; these manures, nevertheless, acting for a great length of time, produce both a greater amount, and a more durable kind of ame- lioration of the soil. Rapidity of action in a ma- nure is undoubtedly a quality that is highly valu- able in many cases ; and Flemish manure possesses this quality in the highest degree. Nevertheless, it is also an advantage to possess a manure which elaborates gradually, and accordingly to the exi- gencies of vegetables, those principles that con- tribute to their growth, and which suspend, in a great measure, this elaboration in the course of the winter ; which remain during the cold and rainy season in an almost inert condition, when any fecundating matter produced would merely be washed away and lost. These advantages, to which must be added that of breaking up and lightening the soil, are all possessed by good farm- yard manure. They are such, in fact, that this manure, even in Flanders, is still indispensable; the liquid manures of that country are nothing more than annual auxiliaries. The method followed in Flanders of using night- soil is certainly highly rational. It is the same as that which is adopted in Alsace, in the neighbour- hood of towns, with this difference, that our far- mers collect no store of the material ; they go in quest of it at the moment it is wanted. It is ap- plied as in Flanders, or it is incorporated with absorbent substances, such as straw, or with other more consistent manures. The night-sod of Paris, which in the course of the year amounts to an immense quantity, is treated in a totally different manner, which appears to be in opposition to the simplest notions of science, of economy, and of all that is conducive to health. I allude to the mode of preparing poudrette. In the neighbourhood of Paris there are places appropriated to the reception of the night-soil : it is thrown into reservoirs of no great depth in com- parison with their superficial extent, and of an aggregate capacity which is such that they will contain the whole of the products collected by the nightman in the course of six months. These reservoirs are arranged in stages, one above another. Into the upper one are discharged the matters collected in the course of the night. The upper reservoir full, a sluice is opened by being pushed partially down, which allows the more liquid matters to escape into the second reservoir placed under it. Repeated drainings are effected in this way, and when the second basin is also full, there is a deposition of solid matter as in the first ; the more liquid particles are then let off from the second into the third reservoir, and so on in suc- cession until the last and lowest is attained, from which the liquid used to be turned into a water- course; but of late these contaminated liquids have been got rid of by means of what may be 340 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. called absorbing artesian shafts — deep holes pierced in a dry and porous soil. When the deposit in the first reservoir is held to be sufficiently consistent, it is drained by lowering the sluice more and more ; no fresh matter is added, the new charges being deposited in another system of reservoirs. The deposit once drained is in the pasty condition ; it is then taken out with the spade, and spread upon an earthen floor, which slopes ofF on either side, and the mass is turned from time to time, to favour the drying. This pro- cess, in fact, is continued until the material has become pulverulent. It is then stored under sheds, or thrown up into pyramidal heaps, the sides of which are well beaten, in order to enable them to throw off the wet. Poudrette is of a brown colour, and weighs nearly 150 lbs. per sack. Put into a retort, and i distilled with a heat of from 424° to 930° Fahren- j heit.it yields 52-6 of ammoniacal fluid, and 47'3 of dry matter, in which we encounter fixed ammo- ! niacal salts, such as the sulphates, phosphates, hydrcchlorates, &c. M. Jacquemart finds that in 100 parts of poudrette there is T26 of ammonia, the greater part in the state of carbonate ; but it contains a quantity of animal matter besides, which by dry distillation yields a nearly equal amount of the same substance ; whence it follows that pou- drette contains nearly 2* per cent, of volatile alkali, or two of azote. By direct analysis I obtained 1*6 of azote. Poudrette is spread upon the land at the time of ploughing, from 26 to 34 bushels per acre being allowed. On meadow lands it produces very good effects in the dose of about 25 bushels per acre. The disgusting smell of night-soil is to a certain extent an obstacle to its general use. This ob- stacle, however, is only felt in places where agricul- tural industry, and the manufactures connected with it, are still in a backward state. One remark- able circumstance is, that the disgust which natu- rally arises from the manipulation of such articles has been more especially got over in countries that are justly celebrated for their extreme attention to cleanliness, and the easy position of their inhabit- ants. I quote Flanders and Alsace in proof of the fact. It has been said, moreover, that certain articles produced in soils manured with human excrement contract a smell and taste which give rather unpleasant information of the nature of the manure that has been employed to favour their growth. In the limited circle of my own experience on this subject, I can say that I have observed no- thing which favours such a statement. However this may be, Mr. Salmon has succeeded in dis- infecting night-soil completely by mixing it with a kind of animal charcoal obtained by calcining in close vessels a porous earth, impregnated with organic substances. This is the article which is sold under the name of animalized black. Its qua- lity as a manure must depend especially, I might even say entirely, on the quantity of azotised or- ganic matter which enters into its composition. , Composts. — A great deal has been written and much has been said on the advantages of composts or mixtures contrived with a view to the ameliora- tion of the soil. The receipts for these composts are very numerous ; they prove that the discovery of a compost is an easy matter, and requires but a | small amount of ingenuity. To unite different matters in such a way as to obtain a compound that shall act advantageously, it is only necessary to make it up of substances which of themselves and isolatedly are good manures. But that it is possible to supply the scarcity of manure, to create it in some sort by means of composts, is a subject of dispute. In fact, when we look attentively at the numerous mixtures which have been indicated as leading to this end, we always perceive that the proposal amounts to an extension or dilution of some powerful manure with a substance that is either inert or has little activity. This mode of proceeding may have its advantages ; it enables us to make a more equal distribution of the manure we have at our disposal, but it actually supplies us with none. Earthy substances almost always figure in com- posts. Turf, wood-ashes, ashes, marl, and par- ticularly lime, are constant ingredients. Marl may suit certain soils : lime is a substance of great activity, and which, for this reason, must be ad- mitted into composts with caution : it may act in the disintegration of woody parts, of stalks and stems and leaves ; but we must be very careful not to follow the recommendation of Schwertz, who would have us throw quicklime into our privies with a view to bringing the matters there contained into a consistent and readily pulverisable state. By doing so we should infallibly lose the greater part of the principles that are truly useful in the soil. Much mischief and great destruction of ma- nure, indeed, have been the consequence of the insensate and indiscriminate use of quicklime under all circumstances; the business is much rather to preserve than to destroy the substances that are used as manures ; the purpose is 1 1 fix, not to dissipate the volatile elements which they contain. One great objection to the extensive em- ployment of composts is the amount of labour they require in the repeated turnings which are held necessary in their preparation, and in the large quantity of matter which has to be transported. THE APIARY.— By many it is feared that the present will prove an indifferent honey year, in consequence of the marked absence of heat early in the season, when our floral treasures of every description should be most brimful of saccharine mat- ter. In Borcjue, which has been justly called the Hybla of Scot- land, the white clovers suffered so often from Hashing rains that they withered early, greatly to the detriment of the indus- trious insects who feed on their petals. In some cases that fell under our own observation, the hive inmates perished, either from cold or inanition, if not a combination of both. In a case lately, where two hives were smoked, the produce in both scarcely exceeded a quarter pint. A correspondent, in speaking of Borgue, says — smoking will be general in a few days, and until the results of bee husbandry are thus tested, I cannot even guess at prices. Scanty as the produce was in 1813-4, 1 fear it will be still smaller in 1845. Some persons maintain that the bees gathered more honey from the 26th ultimo to the 8th instant than they did during the preceding summer by name, but not so in reality. When a labourer had three pints of honey to dispose of for 30s., as was often enough the case, he u^ed to say—" I may thank the bees for buying mony wee odd things for "the family." Within the last few years I knew a working-man who made 3/. by one season's honey, and at the same time retained a stole for breeding for the following. — Scotch Paper. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 341 ON REAPING AND HARVESTING GRAIN CROPS. By Thomas Sullivan. (Concluded.) Although corn of every description may be cut down by the scythe, yet the practice of mowing is undoubtedly better adapted to some species than to others. The oat crop is certainly the most easily reaped by the scythe, and is,in everyrespect, the most pleasant to harvest, especially in favourable weather : owing partly to the comparative softness and pli- ancy of the stems, and partly to the circumstance of oat straw, in general, not being too long ; oats are therefore more easily cut, bound into sheaves, and set up in stooks, than any other kind of corn, whether the sickle or the scythe be the instrument employed in reaping, and are, accordingly, more frequently cut down by the scythe than either bar- ley or wheat. The stems of barley are not difficult to cut, but the ears are somewhat apt to be broken off during the operation of mowing, especially when the crop is allowed (as is most generally the case) to become thoroughly matured. There is, also, a gummy matter in barley straw, that lubri- cates the scythe with a viscid coating, and renders the frequent application of the sharpening stone indispensably necessary in mowing this crop. Owing to the brittleness of the straw, the binders are always kept actively employed among barley; and for this and other reasons, the reaping cannot be so expeditiously performed as in the case of oats. Wheat is almost universally cut down by the sickle, many farmers being of opinion that the scythe is altogether an unsuitable instrument for reaping this crop ; but there can be no doubt that wheat may be reaped in as efficient a manner with the scythe as any other sort of white corn, provided proper attention be bestowed on the different parts of the process; and the great advantages of mowing, viz., dispatch, economy, short stubble, and speedy winning, are of unquestionable utility in the harvest- ing of so extensive and important a crop as wheat. The mowing of wheat is, undoubtedly, severe work, and requires the most experienced and powerful scythesman to continue any length of time at it ; but the reaping of it with the sickle is likewise both a tedious and fatiguing operation ; and certainly the former method possesses a great advantage over the latter in being much more expeditious and eco- nomical ; in short, no farmer, so far as I am aware of, that has fairly tried the mowing of wheat for a whole harvest, has afterwards deemed it advisable to relinquish the practice. A good scythesman will cut down in ten hours from one to one and a-half imperial acres of wheat, according to the luxuri- ance and condition of the crop; and the same number of attendants are required as in the case of mowing oats, detailed at length in a previous part of this article. Having adverted, in a preceding paper, to the most approved mode of cutting down grain crops with the scythe, it will now be necessary to offer a few ob- servations on the method of conducting the opera- tion of reaping when the sickle is employed, as the latter instrument still continues to be by far the most generally used throughout the kingdom. My remarks upon this branch of the subject will, I think, be most likely to serve a practical purpose, by being restricted chiefly to details of the course of procedure adopted in the best corn-growing dis- tricts, in which the sickle is at present most com- monly employed in reaping grain of every descrip- tion. The first point that demands consideration is the proper arrangement of the reapers in the corn- field, so as to prevent confusion or interruption at a time when every moment is precious to the in- dustrious farmer, and this, when the number of per- sons employed at the work is considerable, requires no small degree of attention and study on the part of the master or overseer. When the ridges, or " lands," as they are also termed in certain parts of England, are not above twenty feet in breadth, no more than three reapers can work with freedom on one ridge ; and when only a small band reap in company, two persons may be found quite suffi- cient for each ridge when they are less than IS feet wide. In Berwickshire, the Lothians, and other counties in the south of Scotland, where reaping with the smooth-edged sickle, or scythe-hook, aa it is likewise called, is most generally practised, the reapers are arranged in what are there termed band-icons, each band-won consisting of six per- sons, attended by one man, denominated a " band- ster," whose duty is to bind the cut corn into sheaves, and also to set them up in stooks or shocks. Each band-won thus occupies two adjoining ridges when not more than eighteen or twenty feet in breadth ; but on light dry land, in the districts referred to, ridges are not unfrequently either al- together omitted, as being quite unnecessary, if not prejudicial, on such soils, or made from thirty to forty feet in breadth, nearly level on the surface, and without any open furrow, properly so called, a light rut formed at seed-time with the plough, serving as a guide to the sower ; and these marks, though somewhat obliterated by the subsequent harrowing, sufficiently indicate the position of the ridges to regulate the reapers at harvest : such ridges areof the greatest convenience in cutting down the crop, especially when the scythe is employed for that purpose ; and for this, among many other reasons, to which it would be irrelevant to advert in this place, they should invariably be adopted in all cases of naturally dry or thoroughly drained land. In some localities, again, it is not an uncommon ar- rangement to place as many as four reapers on ridges of from eighteeen to twenty-two feet wide ; but it is obvious that this number of persons can hardly have sufficient room to work with any de- gree of freedom on a ridge under twenty-four feet wide, a breadth of six feet being little enough for each reaper. In general, the most convenient and advantageous arrangement, in my opinion, is that of placing three persons on each ridge, one binder being allowed for every two adjoining ridges, or six reapers. As a considerable number of females are em- ployed in reaping, in the localities referred to, the usual custom is to place one man on each ridge, supported by two women, one on each side : the 342 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. man takes the middle of the ridge, as the corn is j generally heaviest there, and also because the duty ; of forming the bands by which the sheaves are bound usually devolves on him, the longest straw for which grows on the crown of the ridge. In reaping, the ploughmen and other servants con- j stantly employed on the farm are placed foremost | in the band, as most confidence can be reposed by '\ the farmer on their steadiness and constancy ; and then follow, in regular order, all the reapers that are engaged by the week. This arrangement must, J however, be departed from when the carrying of the first cut portion of the crop is commenced, as the ploughmen are then withdrawn from the reaping, for the purposes of carting, stacking, &c. Very frequently the first or leading ridge is reaped by a man and two active women, though several of the other ridges in the band may have three men on each. When women have been inured from an early age to harvest work, as is the case in all parts of Scotland, few men can excel them either in despatch or neatness of reaping. It is rarely, how- ever, that females become very expert at the pecu- liar mode of reaping known by the several names of " bagging," " slashing," &c, to which allusion has been made in a preceding page ; but in the case of the ordinary system of reaping, by which the corn is cut in single handfuls, and in the per- formance of which, dexterity in using the instru- ment is more essential to despatch than great mus- cular strength, it is found that young active women are able to do quite as much as men ; in proof of which statement I may observe that, in the many competitions which I have witnessed between dif- ferent band-wons (and such trials frequently take place, despite every exertion of the farmer to pre- vent them), the women in very many, if not in the majority of cases, come off victorious It is not considered advisable, in an economical point of view, to have more than from fifty to sixty persons in one band or company, whatever may be the extent of the farm. When a greater number is requisite in order to cut down the crop in the most proper state of ripeness, they should be divided into two or more bands, and placed in separate fields, or in different parts of the same field. About sixty per- sons will suffice to reap sixteen ridges together, of eighteen feet wide, allowing three reapers to each ridge : and this is as many as one man can proper- ly superintend ; besides, a considerable loss of time in unavoidably occasioned at the ends of the field before the whole of a long string of reapers are enabled to commence cutting in regular succes- sion, especially if the ridges happen to be of un- equal length, or to run in an oblique direction from the headlands. The inconvenience and loss of time occasioned in this way, furnish a strong in- ducement to the farmer to endeavour to secure the important advantages resulting from regular boundaries to his fields, and from having all his enclosures as nearly in the form of a square, or of a rectangle, as circumstances will allow. It is al- most needless to observe that the loss of even a few minutes' work of a large band of reapers, ever)' time they return to the headland, must amount to a very considerable loss during harvest, and materially augment the gross expense of reap- ing the crop: but this, though by no means a matter of trivial moment, is not all "the injury sus- tained by the farmer from crooked fences and ir- regular enclosures, as it is obvious that much valu- able time is also uselessly wasted in ploughing, and in performing other tillage operations. This is a branch, or rather a criterion, of good husbandry to which no inconsiderable importance is attached in those parts of the kingdom in which economy of time and of labour receives adequate attention ; indeed, the many and important advantages accru- ing from regular enclosures and uniform fences are so very apparent, that it would seem altogether superfluous to advert to the subject in this place, were it not that the error or evils, to which this passing remark refers, are so prevalent as they are in many parts of the United Kingdom. We hope, however, shortly to see more attention directed to this all-important branch of farm management, and there is, unquestionably, very ample room for amendment, in this respect, in all parts of the country. But to return to our subject : the pro- cess of reaping with the sickle divides itself into three distinct branches or operations, namely — cut- ting, binding, and stooking ; on each of which it will be necessary to offer a few observations, before proceeding to the details of securing the. crop in the stack-yard, or other suitable place for the purpose. Cutting. — The comparative merits of the serrated and the smooth-edged sickles having been already adverted to, it now only remains, under this head, to describe very briefly the method of using them. In using the serrated sickle, the reaper seizes the stems of corn, by small portions, with his left hand, and, holding the instrument in his right, he cuts them horizontally within a few inches of the ground, by drawing the sickle towards him ; in this manner the corn is reaped in small handfuls, held firmly in the left hand, and when as much has been collected as the reaper can conveniently sup- port, it is deposited upon a band formed of the stalks of corn, and laid upon the ground behind him : several such handfuls, reaped in close suc- cession, make a sheaf, which, when of sufficient size, is tightly bound up by another person who follows for that purpose. When the ground hap- pens to be somewhat soft upon the surface, as is generally the case after much rain has fallen, con- siderable care is requisite on the part of the reap- ers, in order to avoid uprooting part of the straw ; indeed, the liability of inexperienced persons to this defect is often urged as an objection against the use of the serrated sickle. After what has al- ready been said on the advantages of low reaping, it is hardly necessary to mention, in this place, that too much pains cannot be taken to cut the corn as close to the surface of the ground as pos- sible, in order to secure the whole of the straw for the twofold purpose of provender and manure. It is also to be observed that the nearer the ground the easier is the straw cut by the sickle. In using the smooth-edged hook, the body of the reaper is brought somewhat lower than is neces- sary in cutting with the serrated sickle, in order to enable the operator to draw the instrument hori- zontally and close to the ground ; but, in either THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 case, it is obviously of much importance, towards insuring short stubble, to bring the body as low as can conveniently be done, so as to enable the reaper with the greatest facility to draw the hook close to and parallel with the surface of the ground, by which alone low reaping can be accom- plished. In cutting, small portions of the stems of corn are grasped with the left hand, whilst the right arm, which wields the instrument, is stretched amongst the standing grain, and in the act of drawing it towards the reaper, the stalks are cut horizontally and close to the ground. In this way several cuts are made in quick succession with the sickle, until the reaper has collected as much as he ean easily retain in his left hand, when he lifts the whole up by the aid of the sickle, and places it upon the band previously formed and laid upon the ridge behind him. Two or three such hand- fuls generally make a sheaf of the ordinary size. The mode of reaping now described is that which is most preferred by correct farmers, and though not quite so expeditious as the system called " bag- ging," it is, upon the whole, in my opinion, much more advantageous at the end. Binding. — In the northern districts, corn of every description is invariably bound into sheaves immediately after it has been cut down ; but in many of the English counties, where the climate is much less humid and variable than in the north, this operation is frequently dispensed with, at least in the harvesting of oats and barley. Wheat is, I believe, in almost every instance, bound up into sheaves in all parts of the kingdom, in order to fa- cilitate its removal to the stack-yard and its forma- tion into stacks, as well as to guard against the loss which would otherwise arise from the shed- ding of the grain : but in the case of barley and oats many intelligent agriculturists deem the ope- ration of sheaving and stooking altogether unne- cessary in harvesting the crop, the usual practice, in certain parts of England, being to cut down the corn with the scythe, or otherwise, and treat it like hay in the winning. There can be no doubt that, in dry seasons, and when the fields are free from weeds or grass, the English mode of harvesting barley and oats may be advantageously adopted in other places ; but, in most parts of the kingdom, we cannot cal- culate on three successive days of fine weather, and hence this system would be extremely hazard- ous in Scotland and Ireland; even in England it- self, the practice referred to is now undergoing modifications, and farmers, who had previously ad- hered to it in every case, are at length beginning to see and acknowledge the greater safety and ad- vantages of the northern mode of harvesting. It is admitted by all, that the soil, climate and local circumstances of particular districts, necessarily give rise to peculiarities in their husbandry ; but, in regard to the sheaving and stacking of corn, it may justly be said to be common to all parts of the kingdom, and should invariably be adopted by every judicious cultivator in the harvesting of his crops. According to the practice of the northern counties, the sheaves are firmly tied by bands formed by twisting together a few of the stalks of corn at the ends next the ears. It commonly re- quires two lengths of the straw to make a band; but, in the case of wheat and other long corn, it has been recommended to form the sheaves so small as to be bound by bands the length of the straw, rather than so large as to require two lengths to be connected together. Though, admitting the ob- vious advantages of small-sized sheaves, especially in damp harvests, I cannot see any propriety in tying them with single bands ; on the contrary, the practice appears to me to be injudicious, inasmuch as the grain at one end of the, band is almost cer- tain to be lost in the binding, or materially da- maged by exposure to the action of the weather ; whereas, when the ears are twisted together in forming the band, and turned inwards in setting up the stooks, none of the grain can be either lost or injured in this way. It is a point of much im- portance, particularly in moist seasons, and in na- turally humid climates, to make the sheaves of a small and uniform size, especially if the com has been cut in rather a greenish state, as the straw and grain become ready for the stack much sooner than if made up in large-sized sheaves ; and, be- sides, the latter are of no slight inconvenience to the different parties engaged in carting, fork- ing, and stacking the crop : it is likewise to be ob- served that the bands should, in all cases, be of sufficient length and strength for the purpose, otherwise the sheaves are apt to loosen in perform- ing the subsequent operations, causing thereby a considerable loss of time in re-binding them ; but the bands should not, however, be any thicker than is necessary to keep the sheaf together until the corn comes to be thrashed; sheaves should also be tightly bound, in order to prevent their subsequent loosening, and the band should be passed round the sheaf at such a distance from the stubble end as to balance equally on each side. Stooking. — After a sufficient number of sheaves have been bound, they are set up into shocks or stooks, which are generally placed upon every al- ternate ridge ; but when the crop does not happen to be heavy, two neighbouring binders stook to- gether on the same ridge, the corn being then set up on every fourth ridge. In stooking, the sheaves are set on end in pairs, leaning against one another in such a manner as to be in contact at the ear ends, but a little apart on the ground, in order that they may stand more firmly on their bases, and also to admit a free circulation of air through them. The number of sheaves put together in a stook, and even the form in which they are set up, vary ac- cording to the particular kind of corn and the cus- tom of different localities ; but stoolrs should al- ways be set up on the crown or middle of the ridge, and nearly in a direction from north to south, that both sides may derive equal benefit from the sun. In the case of wheat, six pairs of sheaves are usually placed together in a stook ; but when the crop is oats or barley, five pairs are the common allowance ; and these are sometimes covered by other two sheaves, the butt-ends of which are in contact on the top of the stook, while the ear-ends are divided so far as the band, and pulled down on each side, so as to cover and defend the upright sheaves : these last are called head or hood sheaves, and are used merely for the purpose of protecting the corn from the effects of inclement weather, but su THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. they are often altogether omitted, and are, in fact, quite unnecessary in dry harvests. In some parts of the country it is not uncommon, even in the case of wheat, to cover the stooks in this way with hood sheaves ; but this precaution can hardly be re- quisite in the harvesting of this crop, the stems of which are hard and dry, and which requires to stand only a few days in the field before it is ready for the stack : hood sheaves should, therefore, in almost every instance, be omitted in the stooking of wheat; but, in the case of oats and barley, which, on account of the greater softness and suc- culency of their stems, require to remain a longer time in the field to become sufficiently dry for stacking, they may be of some use in defending the upright ones against rain. The corn, however, dries more quickly after being wetted, when the top sheaves are entirely omitted ; and so little import- ance is attached to them, in most parts of Scotland, that they are now, generally speaking, altogether dispensed with in the harvesting of every descrip- tion of grain crops. As the great object of setting up corn into stooks is to dry and prepare it in the shortest pos- sible period for the stack-yard, it ought, obviously, to be the aim of the stooker to set up the sheaves in such a manner as will best withstand the action of the wind, and most effectually throw off the rain. In order, in some degree, to insure these desirable objects, the bvitt-ends of the sheaves must be placed firmly upon the ground in the most advantageous position for standing, and the ear-ends must be sloped up in a narrow tapering form, like a wedge, in order that the rain-water may be compelled to run off on the outside of the sheaves : these pre- cautions are more especially necessary in the case of oats and barley, which, on account of the soft- ness of their stems, require to stand a considerably longer time in the field than wheat. There are different forms of stooks besides that whiefa has now been described : instead of putting five or six pairs of sheaves together in opposite rows, with or without hood -sheaves, as above referred to, it is not an uncommon practice, in some districts, to set up only four sheaves, leaning against one another, with the ears of the corn sloped up so as to be close and compact together; sometimes a fifth sheaf, tied near the butt-end, is placed upon the top of the others, which is intended as a protection to the corn in the stook against rain. The hood-sheaf being opened up to the band, and spread over the upright sheaves with the ears inclining downwards, the rain is enabled to run off without entering the stook. This method of setting up corn has been very advantageously resorted to in damp harvests, and when the stooks are properly set up in this way they withstand a good blast of wind. Another mode of setting up corn, which is known in the northern counties by the name of y ailing, is frequently adopted with advantage in moist weather. Although it is obvious that reap- ing should, if possible, be carried on only in dry weather, and when the straw is free from all ex- traneous moisture, yet in humid climates, and during unpropitious harvests, it often becomes un- avoidably necessary to cut down a portion of the grain in a damp state, and in all such cases, gaiting is found to be of considerable advantage in facilitat- ing the subsequent drying of the corn. This mode of binding is confined almost exclusively to the oat-crop, wheat and barley being rarely or never subjected to this treatment. In the case of wheat, the system of gaiting is obviously impracticable in most instances, on account of the length of the straw; and it has likewise been found from ex- perience that when wheat gets dry, after being cut in a wet state, a considerable quantity of the grain is apt to shake out in binding the gaits preparatory to their removal to the stack-yard. Again, in re- gard to the gaiting of barley, it is found that in the rough handling of the crop necessarily attending this mode of binding, many of the ears are apt to be broken off the stalks ; and besides, it is well known that much exposure to the weather in gaits or otherwise would materially injure the colour of the grain, and render it less valuable to the malt- ster. Oats, on the other hand, are protected by a thick husk, and when reaped at the proper period, the grain is not very apt to shake out in handling. When corn is wet, either with rain or heavy dew at the time of reaping, it might be unsafe to bind the sheaves tightly at once ; as, by preventing the ad- mission of air, the straw may be very long in be- coming dry, and may also be rendered com- paratively worthless as an article of food for live- stock, by getting mouldy in the sheaf; the grain likewise runs the risk of sprouting, by which, of course, its quality as a sample would be materially deteriorated. In gaiting corn, the band of the sheaf is tied loosely round the stems, near the ear-ends, and the bottom is then spread out in a circular form, each sheaf being made to stand singly upon its own base. Gaited sheaves, though less protected against the effects of the weather, are nevertheless so loose and open that the straw is quite pervious to the air, on which account the winning process is materially accelerated on the approach of dry wea- ther. Another important advantage attending the practice of gaiting in wet weather is, that the rain cannot lodge upon the straw, unless the band has been too tightly bound. As gaited sheaves are somewhat easilyblown down by a high wind, three of them are sometimes set up together, which, by affording support to each other, are better enabled to withstand the force of the wind. When the gaits become sufficiently dry for the stack, they are tightly bound in the usual manner preparatory to their removal from the field, and they may be either carried at once to the stack-yard, or set up in regular stooks until it may be found convenient to remove them. Although this method of binding and setting up corn is of unquestionable utility in wet weather, yet, as it is attended with a great deal of after-labour in rehinding the sheaves, it should obviously be resorted to but as little as possible. It may be proper to observe in this place, that oats reaped with the scythe are seldom or never gaited, as the cutting is rarely proceeded with except in dry weather and when the straw is free from extraneous moisture ; but in the case of reaping with the nickle, it often happens, even in favourable weather, that it would be highly injudicious to bind and stook the corn, though it might be quite proper, at the «ame THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 345 time, to cut it clown. Cases of this kind occur when there are heavy dews in the mornings, by which the corn is considerably wetted; but the moisture entirely disappears as the day advances. Gaiting is often resorted to in such cases ; but this expedient does not seem to be altogether necessary, as by spreading the corn thinly upon the band, in- stead of tying it up, it will be ready in a short time for binding in the usual manner. This latter method is of considerable advantage even in diy weather, when the corn is mixed with a proportion of grass or weeds. Before concluding this branch of our subject, it may be useful at this season to advert to some of the means whereby the winning process can in some degree be accelerated, as it is obviously of the utmost importance in our variable climate to get the corn secured in the stack-yard or barn as qtiickly as practicable after it has been cut down. Although I certainly consider it less hazardous in all cases to bind up wheat and other grain crops into sheaves simultaneously with the reaping, yet in continued dry weather, when no danger need be apprehended of the immediate occurrence of rain, the corn may with advantage be left spread out upon the bands with which the sheaves are after- wards to be bound, at least until the evening, when it should be tied and set up into stooks. In this way, any grass or weeds that may be amongst the straw are somewhat withered by the action of the sun and wind, and therefore become dry much more quickly than if the sheaves had been immediately bound up in the usual manner ; and besides, the na- tural or superabundant juices of the stems are thus considerably evaporated. This mode of exposing the corn in a loose state to the sun and air before binding it, is often resorted to with advantage in the harvest- ing of barley on young grass, in order that the clover plant which is cut along with the straw may be somewhat withered and dried. It is almost need- less to observe that one day's hot sunshine has more effect in winning corn thus spread out to the influence of the weather, than four days when it is bound up and stooked in the usual manner ; but it is obvious that this practice would be exceedingly dangerous, especially in the northern counties, in any except very propitious weather. In some seasons, however, we have seen oats and barley lie unbound for several successive days without sus- taining the least injury. In moist harvests, on the other hand, it has been found a useful practice in binding barley or oats on young grass to draw out the clover from amongst the stems of corn at the butt-ends of the sheaves. This, no doubt, imposes some additional labour on the binder, but it evi- dently accelerates the winning of the crop by several days, which, it will be admitted, is of the utmost importance in damp harvest. In reaping with the scythe, the rank grass may readily be shaken out by the gatherer in lifting the corn from the swathe, so that it would not be in any degree troublesome to the binder, and it is obvious that this expedient is more essential in the case of mowing than reap- ing, inasmuch as the corn is cut closer to the ground by the scythe, and consequently more clo- ver is taken up in the operation. In fact, the scythe has been often objected to on this account, as an unsuitable instrument for cutting down corn on land that has been sown out to grass. Corn of every description must remain in the field for some time after being cut, in order that the natural moisture of the stems, and of other vege- table matters amongst them, may be evaporated, before it can with safety be put together in any considerable quantity, either in the barn or stack- yard; for unless the crop be perfectly free from dampness before storing it, fermentation would quickly ensue in the mass, which would of course prove destructive to the quality of the grain and straw. The length of time required in the field de- pends so much upon circumstances that no precise rule can be laid down on the subject, to which it would be proper in all cases to adhere. Experi- ence and a careful examination of the sheaves afford the only criterion by which to judge when corn is sufficiently dry for removal to the stack-yard. A good deal will, however, obviously depend on the state of the weather, the species of grain, and the method of reaping, as well as the manner of form- ing the stacks. (Should the weather happen to be dry and windy at the time of reaping, and to con- tinue so, only a comparatively short period is re- quired to dry the corn in a sufficient manner to be removed from the field to the barn or stack-yard ; whilst in close, damp weather, on the other hand, the necessary winning of the crop is rendered somewhat precarious and protracted. On an aver- age, a week suffices for the drying of wheat, which, owing to its hard, strait stems, is more easily dried than any other grain; and in general cases, oats and barley become sufficiently won in from ten days to a fortnight, ac:ording to the weather. In regard to the influence of the mode of reaping on the period of winning, it has been stated in a pre- ceding part of this article, that not the least import- ant of the many advantages resulting from the practice of mowing grain crops arises from the circumstance that the corn in this case becomes ready for the stack much sooner than if it had been reaped with the sickle. Mown wheat, for instance, in most cases becomes sufficiently dry in four or five days after being cut down, and oats and barley in eight or ten days, according to the state of the weather. Towards the latter end of last year's har- vest, the writer witnessed the stacking of a consider- able quantity of oats on the third day after it had been mown. There is thus an important difference in regard to the period required for winning corn reaped with the sickle and that cut down with the scythe, arising principally from the loose and open state in which the straw is placed in mown sheaves. It is proper to observe that the mode of forming the stacks has likewise some effect in determining the necessary degree of dryness in corn, and con- sequently the length of time it should remain in the field ; for when corn is to be put up into stacks built on stands or stages raised a little above the ground, as in the case of the corn-stands to be im- mediately described, it is not essential that it be quite so perfectly won as is necessary when they are built upon the ground. The same remark also applies to stacks furnished with funnels or chim- neys through their centre, which, by admitting a free circulation of air into their interior, prevent, in a 340 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. great degree, the Keating or fermentation which might otherwise arise among the corn. The ad- vantages in this and other respects of improved corn-stands, shall be more particularly adverted to in a subsequent part of this paper. It has been already remarked that the time re- quisite for corn to remain in the field after cutting is not determinable by any precise rides, as so much depends on circumstances which the hus- bandman can neither foresee nor prevent : but although the practical farmer is unable to command propitious weather for harvesting his crops, yet he can hardly err in judging when corn is sufficiently dry for preserving in the stack. It is almost un- necessary to observe that it is of the utmost im- portance in this changeable climate to secure the crop as speedily as possible after it has attained proper maturity and has been cut down ; but at the same time it must be remembered that the value and subsequent safety of the grain, whether stored up in the barn or stack-yard, would be eminently endangered by precipitation in removing it from the field. The proper time for doing so is to be learned only by experience and a careful ex- amination of the state of the straw in the sheaf. Even in the finest weather, a certain exhaustion of the natural juices is necessary; otherwise the corn, when col- lected together in any quantity, would ferment. When ready for removal to the stack-yard, the sheaves will feel light when lifted up by the band, and the natural juices of the stems will have evaporated, not only from the outside, but also from the interior. The sheaves must not merely be free from moisture on the outside, but it is also requisite that no particular sensation of cold or damp should be experienced in thrusting the hand into their interior; for it often happens that the outside of the sheaf may feel sufficiently dry, whilst the middle may still be so damp as to render its removal to the stack improper in that state. Hence the necessity of discriminating between mere ex- ternal dryness, and that thorough dryness of the whole sheaf which must be attained in order to insure the subsequent safety of the corn. If the sheaf feel light when lifted off the ground, and quite dry both inside and outside, it may be con- sidered as sufficiently won, and no time should be lost in removing it to the stack-yard. As has been already remarked, the winning of corn is attended with comparatively little difficulty, delay, or risk, when the weather continues dry for some time after reaping ; but when it happens to be damp or showery, without wind or sun to evapo- rate the moisture, the process will be considerably retarded, and still more so, should much rain with high winds occur. In calm, damp, and warm weather, the ears of every species of grain are al- most certain to sprout in the stook, and the straw to become damaged as an article of provender, and a long period must necessarily intervene before the crop becomes ready for the stack. But the win- ning process may be materially facilitated in such cases, by loosening out the sheaves and spreading the corn thinly upon the bands to dry in the wind and sun when favourable opportunities occur, as in the intervals of sunshine. In windy weather also the stooks are apt to be blown down and the sheaves scattered about over the ground, and un- less set up again as soon as it becomes calm, the grain in contact with the damp ground is sure to sprout, whde, by setting up the fallen sheaves as soon as possible, they receive the benefit of any drying wind that may subsequently arise. It may further be observed in this place, that while the dry portion of the crop is in the course of being removed to the stack-yard, every opportunity should be taken advantage of to secure and accelerate the proper winning of the remainder. Thus, in dewy or rainy mornings, and other periods when the carry- ing and stacking are necessarily suspended, some of the men engaged in driving horses may be use- fully employed in setting up fallen stooks in the field, while others of them may be engaged in forming straw ropes, drawing straw into bunches for thatch- ing newly-erected stacks, and preparing foundations, funnels, &c, for others. No time is thus lost, and when favourable weather arrives for the carrying- being resumed, all parties are prepared to take ad- vantage of it. Although in England it may not often be necessary to resort to such expedients during harvest as those now adverted to, yet, in Scotland, where the climate is much more humid and capricious, and the harvests in consequence more precarious and protracted, farmers are fre- quently obliged to try various methods of securing and preserving their crops, which are unknown, and perhaps unnecessary in most cases, in the more southern parts of the kingdom; whilst, on the other hand, the mode of harvesting which is prac- tised in certain districts in England is totally un- suited to the more variable climate of either Ireland or Scotland. But though the difference of climate necessarily gives rise to, and justifies a different course of procedure in this as well as in other de- partments of farm management, yet there, can be no doubt that there are many points in the practice of each country which might be successfully in- troduced and adopted in the others. "When the corn which was first reaped becomes sufficiently dry, its removal to the stack-yard is commenced, and the other portions are carried in succession as they attain the necessary degree of dryness. Corn stacks are usually built in an en- closed piece of ground near the barn ; but it is customary, I believe, in many parts of England, to secure almost the whole of the grain-crops in large houses or barns erected for the purpose. Though not sufficiently acquainted with this practice to be able to say what particular effect it may have on the quality of the grain, I am decidedly of opinion that corn may be preserved during winter as se- curely in well-built and properly thatched stacks, as it is jjossible for it to be in a house, and evi- dently much more so if it be in any degree damp at the time of storing, as the external air is ex- cluded from it in the house. It is obvious also that the straw is much more palatable and nutri- tious as an article of food for live stock, when threshed from the stack as it is required, than in the case of house storing, while the grain is more subject to the depredation of vermin in the barn than in stacks built upon raised stands of an im- proved construction. In those districts in which it is customary to store the whole or greater portion of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 347 the corn in houses ; it is also common, I under- stand, not to bind it up into sheaves, but, when sufficiently dry, to cany it loosely like hay to the barn ; and, in order to occupy as little house-room as possible, the fanners in the localities referred to do not scruple to leave a pretty long stubble on the ground. But with every effort to economise space, it must still require a very extensive building to contain the whole of the crop on even a moderate 6ized farm, which of course materially increases the cost of erecting farm- steadings where this practice prevails, the barn alone forming a considerable item of the expense. I do not hesitate, however, to say (and the statement is borne out by experience) that corn put up into well-built stacks, and secured both at top and bottom in the manner to be presently described, will be as safe as it could possibly be in any barn, however commodious ; besides, when the crop is to be housed, it requires to remain longer in the field before it can safely be stored, as it may be stacked with a degree of dampness, which would prove destructive to both grain and straw in the case of housing, in consequence of being put to- gether in large quantity and excluded from the external air ; the whole being apt to heat, and fer- mentation is, of course, most destructive to the quality of the grain. In the northern counties, where the winters are much more severe than in the districts in which this practice prevails, no far- mer ever thinks of storing his corn elsewhere than in a stack-yard enclosed for the purpose, and cer- tainly there can be no reason why the same method may not be adopted with equal advantage in other quarters. Another very reprehensible practice is sometimes resoi'ted to in certain localities, which is, hurriedly stacking the corn in the field, until time admits of its being removed at leisure to the stack-yard. This is by no means an uncommon practice in many parts of the kingdom, and it is obviously both injudicious and expensive, for although the stacks formed hastily in the field are seldom either very neat or Arery large, yet they require almost as much time to put them up as would be sufficient to secure the corn in a proper manner in the place expressly set apart for the purpose. The small saving of time arising from the shorter distance to which the corn is required to be carried in the first instance, is greatly over-balanced by the additional labour occasioned by its subsequent removal ; but in fact it often happens that the stacks thus hastily and imperfectly put up in the field, with a view of securing as much as possible of the crop in a dry day, or when rain is apprehended, are suffered to remain where first erected until it becomes neces- sary to thrash them out. Decidedly the most judicious and profitable mode of storing grain- crops then, in my opinion, is in stacks of a con- venient size, built in an enclosed piece of ground, of sufficient area for the purpose, and situated con- tiguous to the barn. As the first-reaped portion of the crop generally becomes thoroughly dry before the whole has been cut down, the several operations of reaping, cany- ing, and stacking are proceeded with simultaneously for some time. To insure despatch at this busy period, it would be of great advantage to every farmer to have a sufficient number of carts ex- pressly adapted for harvest-work, or which might easily be made to answer the same purpose ; and these are to be put in requisition when the carrying of the crop is begun. Corn-carts of a very im- proved construction are in general use in the Lo- thians and other parts of Scotland, and are drawn by one or two horses according to circumstances. The most common sort consists of a sparred frame- work, with the bottom and a few inches of the sides boarded, in order to prevent any of the grain from being lost, and is used almost exclusively for the purpose of carting corn in the sheaf, hay, and sim- ilar matters. Its first cost is inconsiderable, and when not in use, it can easily be dismounted and laid up till again required. When about to be employed it may be mounted on the wheels and axle of any common cart of equal breadth, which renders a separate pair of wheels unnecessary. Xo farm vehicle seems better adapted to the purpose for which it is intended than this ; and no other cart admits of a larger load with as little trouble to the workman, or labour to the horse. English far- mers who have given a trial to carts of this description for one harvest, have found them so much superior in every respect to the cumbrous waggons generally used in some quarters, that few have been disposed again to return to the latter. Light convenient corn-carts possess so many obvi- ous advantages over waggons at the period of harvest, when despatch is of so much importance, that it is needless to advert further to the subject in this place. Before proceeding to describe the formation of the stacks themselves, in will be necessary to ad- vert briefly to the proper arrangement of the stack- yard, and the preparation of sites or stands on which the corn is to be built. It must have oc- curred to every person engaged in agricultural pursuits, that a very considerable quantity of grain is materially damaged, even after having been stacked in a thoroughly dry state, in consequence of the wretchedly imperfect manner in which stack- yards are generally arranged, as well as from want of raised-stands for the stacks. The most con- venient situation for the stack-yard is exterior to that part of the homestead which contains the barn, in order to economise time in the removal of the corn to be threshed. It should be sufficiently spacious and airy, besides possessing a firm, dry surface ; and to secure the latter requisite, it will be necessary, if the ground be not naturally dry and porous, to have it thoroughly drained, and disposed into wide ridges somewhat raised in the middle to prevent the accumulation of surface-water, every tnird ridge being reserved as a road to the stacks, and covered with broken stones, gravel, or other material. The stacks are thus arranged in regular equidistant lines, with a road for carts on every side of two adjoining rows, so that any stack may be reached and removed at pleasure; besides, there is no confusion or loss of time in harvest, whatever number of men and horses may be employed; and it is obvious that such a uniform arrangement of the stacks insures of itself a considerable degree of ventilation. The stack-yard should always be en- closed, but not, however, by a high wall or hedge, 348 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which would prevent a free circulation of air ; a sort of sunk fence or a strong iron-railing would perhaps answer the purpose better. But however well-drained and judiciously ar- ranged the stack-yard may he, the corn should not be stacked immediately upon the ground. Some recommend covering the spaces on which the stacks are to be built, either with rough stones, with a mixture of gravel, or with common pavement, in order to prevent the corn receiving any injury from the natural dampness of the soil. A much better method, however, is to have the stacks raised considerably above the surface, by means of a frame-work of timber, supported by low pillars of stone, wood, or cast-iron. Such stands are not only advantageous in preserving the bottom of the stacks from the effects of dampness, but when pro- perly constructed they also prevent the depredations of vermin. Corn-stands are sometimes circular or oblong basements of masonry, with a projecting coping of flat stones to prevent the entrance of rats and mice into the stacks ; but though such fixtures may answer the double pur- pose of keeping the lower part of the stack dry, and of excluding vermin, they are still inferior to the improved corn stands which are supported by pillars, inasmuch as the latter admit of a free cir- culation of air from underneath, besides possessing all the advantages of the other kind, and this ad- ditional property admits of the corn being carried several days earlier than could safely be attempted when the stacks are to be built immediately upon the ground. Raised corn-stands are constructed in different ways. The most simple consists of seven stones placed upright in a circular position, on which are laid spars of wood to keep the corn off the ground ; but this temporary sort of stand is useful only in preventing injury from damp to the bottom of the stack, as it will not exclude vermin. In order to answer the purposes for which corn-stands are in- tended, the stone pillars that support the frame- work should be at least two feet high, and have projecting caps of flat stones, to prevent the ascent of rats and mice to the stack, another stone of equal height being set up in the centre to support the middle of the frame. "When suitable stones cannot be procured for this purpose, pillars of timber may be substituted, the same precautions as before being taken to guard against the introduction of vermin. Stands supported by cast-iron pillars are now, however, very common in some districts, iron being preferable to either wood or stone, except where the latter materials are more than usually convenient and accessible. These pillars are ge- nerally two feet high, with a projecting cap of the same material at the upper extremity to prevent the ascent of vermin ; the pillars and caps are connected together as one piece, and there are horizontal wings at the bottom, by means of which the pillars are fastened with small screws and lead to stones inserted in the ground for the purpose. Seven or eight pillars are required for each frame, according as it is heptagonal or octagonal in form, besides one of stone or wood to support the middle. Corn-stands of this description become rather ex- pensive at first, but when the frame-work is com- posed of substantial materials, they last for a long period ; and the advantages accruing from their use will soon and amply repay the expense incurred in their construction. A sort of frame for corn-stands has latterly been recommended, which admits of being taken asunder when not in use, in order to protect the wood from the action of the weather ; but as its replacement occasions some trouble, the moveable stand does not appear to possess much advantage over the well-constructed permanent one; and if the frame be covered in a careful manner with the thatch, immediately after the removal of the corn to be thrashed, it can receive little or no in- jury from the action of the sun or rain during the spring and summer months. As raised stands of this description allow of a considerable circulation of air from underneath, a funnel or chimney in the interior of the stack is unnecessary, unless the corn happen to be more than usually damp at the time of stacking it, in which case these fixtures are of great advantage in preventing injury from fermen- tation to the grain. "When it is considered necessary, from the state of the corn, to erect a conical funnel on the frame- work just described, upright posts are placed at the distance of about two feet from the centre, and in- clining inwards at the top, where they are fastened by a straw rope, or otherwise ; the lower ends of the posts being at the same time stretched out in a cir- cular manner round the centre. A few short spars of light wood may then be nailed to the upright posts, so close as to prevent the sheaves from fall- ing into the hollow space in the centre of the stack. The same object may also be secured by wrapping a straw rope round the posts, at a distance of about one foot apart, which answers the purpose very well. Notwithstanding the manifest advantages of raised stands, and the comparatively trifling expense incurred in their formation, corn is still very gene- rally stacked immediately upon the ground, with no other protection from the dampness of the soil than a thin layer of straw or other dry matters, and the necessary consequence is, that much of the grain is damaged' by the effects of moisture and the depre- dations of vermin. Even when the stack-yard is naturally quite dry, or has been made so by drain- age, stacks should not be built upon the ground, for the reasons already assigned ; but as this practice is still very generally adhered to in all parts of the kingdom, I would strongly recommend, especially in moist harvests, to have the stacks furnished with hollow bosses or chimneys, for the purpose of ventilation. As has been already observed, stacks should, in all cases, be arranged in regular rows in the stack- yard ; in which case those in each row are usually built in succession. The conical funnel which pre- serves the interior hollow is formed in the following manner. After fixing on the site or foundation for the stack about to be built, a short fork is placed upright at the centre, or a stout pin of wood may there be driven into the ground. Three posts, pre- viously prepared for the purpose, and of an equal and suitable length, are then set up in an upright position over the centre ; they are fastened together at the top by a straw rope, or by a wooden pin passed through THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 349 a perforation in each, and are drawn out at the hot- torn in a circular manner at the distance of from two to three feet from the centre, according to the diameter of the stack. A few short spars are then nailed to the posts, or a straw rope wound round them as before, to prevent the sheaves from falling into the open space. In order that the external air may have free access to the interior, it is neces- sary to have a pipe or other opening communi- cating from the funnel to the circumference of the stack at the base. This purpose may be effected by several simple contrivances ; but it would be found of considerable advantage, and would save much valuable time in harvest, to have a number of low tressels, from three to four feet in length, somewhat similar to those employed by masons in supporting scaffolding, one of which may be placed at the bottom of every stack between the funnel and the circumference, in the best position to insure a free circulation of air into the interior ; and as the corn is removed to be threshed, these small tressels are laid up for future use. A layer of dry straw is then spread evenly upon the ground on which the stack is about to be built, and is brought to the circular form by means of a fork-shaft on which the radius of the stack is marked, or a cord attached to the pin previously inserted into the ground to mark the centre. In either case the purpose is effected by walking round, holding the shaft or the string at the specified distance of the radius, and pushing in or pulling out the straw until it be made exactly circular. This sort of stands and tem- porary funnels answer very well, and are of great advantage when the corn is somewhat damp at the time of stacking, and the ground dry; but, although they allow the free admission of air into the interior of the stack, and thereby diminish or prevent the tendency to fermentation, yet there is no preventive against the ascent and depredations of vermin, or the injury arising from the natural dampness of the soil. Raised corn-stands supported by pillars of stone, wood, or cast-iron, are therefore in all cases to be preferred ; and although a considerable ex- pense may be incurred in their construction, yet it will be most amply repaid in a very few years. In short, there are few, if any, fixtures connected with the farm-yard, that appear more useful and indis- pensable, or that more quickly reimburse the money expended in their formation, than improved corn- stands. The loss annually sustained by many farmers in damaged grain, from the want of some such arrangemens for ventilation as those now ad- verted to, not to mention that arising from the de- predations of rats and mice, is, in fact, incalculable Corn-stacks are either circular or oblong ; the latter form does not seem to possess any peculiar advantages over the former, while the circular stack, of a medium size, is obviously more convenient in many respects. In some districts it is usual to put the oats and barley into round stacks of a moderate size, and the wheat into large oblong ricks, as the latter crop is generally in a dryer state than the former ones, and there is consequently less risk of its heating. It is of considerable advantage to have stacks of such a size, whatever their form may be, that the barn will contain one of them at a time, or that one may furnish employment for half a day to the thrashing machine. Oat stacks are usually from twelve to fifteen feet in diameter at the bottom. Barley is generally made up into Bmaller sized stacks, as the straw, on account of its greater softness, is more difficult to get thoroughly dry, and the grain is more easily injured by heating. Wheat stacks, on the other hand, are built of a larger size than those of oats, being usually from fourteen to eigh- teen feet in diameter, and of a proportionate height. "When the carrying of the corn is begun, the corn carts, if any specially adapted for the purpose are available, are put in requisition; and if more than one stacker be employed, each must have an equal number of carts carrying to him : each set of carts is attended, in the field, by an active man or woman to fork or pitch the sheaves into the carts, and to assist in tying the ropes. The sparred corn carts with a projecting frame-work all round, for- merly referred to, are well adapted for this purpose, as enabling the workman to build on large loads in a short time, and thus to proceed with the greatest despatch. When brought to the requisite height, the load is secured by one or two cart-ropes, fastened behind and thrown diagonally across to the front of the cart, where they are tied by the forker. A boy or woman is generally required in the field at the same time, for the purpose of raking together any stalks that may be left on the ground after the stooks are removed; and the corn thus collected is at once bound up and carried to the stack-yard. In general, only one person is engaged in the building of a stack, and this should always be the most careful workman on the farm; but it is occa- sionally necessary to have a boy or a girl to receive the sheaves from the man forking or pitching them up, and to place them in a convenient position for the builder ; this is especially requisite in the case of stacks of large diameter when they attain a certain height, as the forker would be unable to pitch the sheaves within reach of the stacker. It is not con- sidered necessary to describe very minutely, in this place, the method of building corn-stacks, as this is likely to be well known to most agricultural readers ; but as even this, the concluding branch of harvest work, is often executed differently in dif- ferent districts, a few remarks upon the subject will not, it is hoped, prove uninteresting. When the stack is not to be provided with a funnel in the interior, whether it be built on the ground or on a raised stand, the stacker begins by placing a coiqile of sheaves in an upright position in the centre of the intended stack, round which he places other sheaves on their butt-ends, with their top inclining inwards ; and in this way he continues piling sheaves closely together in successive rows round the centre ones, until he nearly reaches the circum- ference of the stand ; he then places a course of sheaves all round the outside, on which other courses are laid in a similar manner, with the butts outwards, until the whole is raised nearly to the same height as the tops of the upright sheaves, ob- serving, as he proceeds, to fill up the interior of the stack where necessary; after which, an inner course is laid all round, with the butts of the sheaves resting on the bands of the outside course; and, if the diameter of the stack be large, or the straw 350 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. short, similar courses are laid, each being a little farther back than the preceding one, until the centre is properly filled up. The -workman proceeds in the same manner, placing alternate courses outside and inside, and carefully preserving the heart, or centre of the stack, the highest part, so as to give the sheaves an inclination downwards towards the circumference until the stem has been brought to the requisite height. It is of great importance to have the stack always well filled up in the centre, as it the inner sheaves which retain the outside ones in their places ; and the slanting position of the sheaves is necessary to prevent the rain finding its way to the interior. When the body of the stack has attained the requisite height, the workman sometimes places a row of sheaves two or three inches farther out than the others, in order to form a sort of projection for the eaves, that the rain- water may be thrown oft' more effectually ; but this is not essential, and the stack may be at once con- tracted, when the proper height has been reached. The roof, or top, is formed by placing every suc- cessive row of sheaves as much farther in than the preceding one, as will afford the requisite slope, the elevation of the centre being, at the same time, not only preserved but increased : when the top has been thus contracted to an area of three or four feet in diameter, according to circumstances, four or five sheaves are placed in an upright posi- tion, with their tops uniting, and their butt-ends spreading out, so as to give a conical form to the top : these upright sheaves are secured in their place by a straw rope wound round them and fastened to the sheaves beneath, while the whole roof is prevented from being blown down by two ropes passing over it, and fixed to opposite sides of the stack ; but these are unnecessary when the stack is thatched immediately. This is the usual mode of building stacks, which are without any arrangement in their interior for ventilation ; but, as funnels formed of upright posts should always be used for this purpose, when it is necessary to stack corn before it is thoroughly dry, it will be proper to advert briefly to the method to be adopted in this case. Instead of commencing by placing upright sheaves in the centre of the stand as above referred to, the workman begins by laying successive courses of sheaves all round the posts, with their tops inclining inwards, until he nearly reaches the outside of the stand, when he proceeds as before, by placing several rows of sheaves round the circumference, to bring the whole almost level. In filling up the inside of the stack, the butts of the sheaves are placed against the upright posts ; but the exterior rows are built precisely in the manner already described. When the stack has reached the height of the posts, and it is desired to extend the open space in the centre for the purpose of further ventilation, a bag compactly stuffed with straw is procured, around which the building is continued as before, the bag being drawn up occasionally as the stack increases in height. An opening is thus secured from the bottom to nearly the middle of the roof, where the stack becomes rather narrow for the purpose ; but at this part a few drain-tiles may be placed from the centre to the outside in different Jirections, so as to communicate with the external air, by which means the most perfect vetdation of the stack is secured from the base to the summit, which must be of incalculable benefit to the grain. Corn cannot be said to be completely or finally secured until the stacks are thatched, as it frequently happens in wet seasons that the top sheaves sustain considerable injury from rain before the thatch is put on. This operation is, however, seldom per- formed until the whole of the corn is in the stack- yard, after which more leisure is afforded for the purpose ; but in some districts in the north, it is not an uncommon practice, especially if the weather be unsettled, to have a few men exclusively em- ployed at this work, who thatch each stack shortly after it is finished, and has subsided a little. As already observed, the most general practice, how- ever, is to defer this part of the work until the corn be all stacked, unless a damp day shoidd occur, when, as the carrying must necessarily be suspended, some of the workmen may be employed in thatching. But before this operation can be commenced, it is necessary that a quantity of straw be prepared for the purpose, and a number of straw-ropes twisted. Both of these preliminaries should be attended to as apportunities of wet weather occur during the harvest and the preceding summer, so that every thing may be in readiness when required. Straw is prepared for thatching by drawing it out by the ends into handfuls, so as to bring the stalks parallel; the successive handfuls being laid together till a thick bunch is formed, when it is tied up. Straw-ropes are twisted with different instruments and in different ways, every district having its own method. The most simple instrument used for this purpose, consists of a handle of from two to three feet in length, bent at one end like a bow, and having at the other a ring and swivel, through which ring is passed a straw-rope or other appendage, by which it is attached to the body of the person who turns it. This instrument may be made of a piece of ash or other tough and flexible young wood. In using it, the first end of the rope that is to be made is fixed to the extremity of the bow, and the man who lets out the straw sits beside a heap from which it is supplied as the rope extends, while the twister, who may be a boy or a woman, walks backwards, turning the instrument rapidly round until the rope is made of the requisite length, when it is coiled up into an oval ball upon the arm of the maker, and reserved for use. Instead of the simple instrument just described, a machine somewhat similar to that used by rope-spinners, is sometimes employed for making straw-ropes, and is of considerable impor- tance in facilitating the process. With this imple- ment four persons only are required to make three ropes, whereas with the former instrument two are necessarily occupied in the making of one rope. Those who supply the straw are stationary, while the machine is moved from them as the ropes in- crease in length. It is mounted on three low wheels, and attached to the body of the workman, who walks backwards and puts it in motion by turning the handle. When the stacks have subsided a little after being built, and a quantity of straw drawn out into regular lengths, with a number of straw- ropes, are prepared, the operation of thatching is commenced. This is THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. calities. The workman stands upon the stack, and the bunches of straw being forked up to him as required, he begins at the eaves or bottom of the roof, beyond which the thatch is made to project a few inches, and deposits the straw in handfuls in regular breadths until he reaches the top, care be- ing taken that the different handfuls overlap each other ; and at the eaves it is necessary that their upper ends be pushed a little into the sheaves. In this manner he proceeds laying successive layers all round until the whole of the roof is covered with thatch. In finishing the top of the roof, it is of im- portance to give it a narrow tapering form, in order to throw off the rain most effectually. The straw is then secured from being blown away by means of straw-ropes, laid over the roof by the thatcher stand- ing upon a ladder so as to be able to reach the sum- mit, assisted by two persons on the ground. The ropes are passed obliquely over the roof in such a manner as to form a sort of net or lozenge work, of from twelve to fifteen inches in width in the meshes, and are fastened either to the stack itself, or, what is more preferable, to a stout rope passed round it, immediately below the eaves. After the stacks have been thus thatched and roped, their outside should be pared down with a hook or the blade of a scythe, by which a good deal of grain will be preserved, besides imparting to them a handsomer appearance ; and this concluding operation is especially necessary when the corn has been cut with the scythe. 35 also performed by different methods in different lo- importations from foreign countries and our own a colonies, during the years 1833, '34, and '35, did not, on the average, exceed more than a pint and a fifth of corn, equal to about fifteen ounces of fine flour, during the year, to each consumer, whilst in England alone we have 3,454,000 acres of land un- cultivated, though capable of cultivation; in Ire- land, 4,900,000 of acres ; in Scotland, 5,950,000 ; in Wales, 530,000; in the British Islands, viz., Sally, Jersey, Guernsey, Orkney, Alderney, Sark, and Man, and in the Shetland Isles, 166,000, mak- ing together 15,000,000, being a little more than one-third of the whole of our land cultivated and capable of cultivation. We know that the earth naturally possesses a certain degree of fertility, and will spontaneously produce plants more or less adapted for the food of man ; but how small in quantity, and how inferior in quality, are such products in this their normal state, to those which can be drawn from the soil by the application of the industry and intelligence of man ! The great advances now making in agriculture, are mainly attributable to the aid of chemistry. The object of chemistry, as applied to vegetable physiology and agriculture, is to examine into the composition of the numerous modifications of matter which occur in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature, and to investigate the laws by which the combination and decomposition of their parts are effected. Thus we learn what are the pro- perties of the soil, and the composition of the at- mosphere, upon which plants in their normal state of growth are mainly dependant for nourishment ; also, the constituents of plants, and what are the essential and peculiar components of the soil adapted for their production, as well as the components of the different substances used as manures, and their influence in imparting to the soil the properties necessary for the nutrition and development of any particular kind of plants — knowledge appearing to me to be absolutely necessary to constitute a rational system of agriculture. The farmers in this country have hitherto been accustomed not only to neglect the acquirement of this theoretical knowledge, but actually to despise it ; whilst it is obvious great loss must have been sustained by attempting to grow plants on soil un- adapted for their production, and by the improper and indiscriminate use of various manures applied in ignorance of their properties. This prejudice is now, however, giving way be- fore the light of science, and a new era in the agri- cultural world appears to have begun. Farming is now becoming the occupation of the learned andthe scientific, who are exerting themselves in developing those natural resources designed from the beginning by an Almighty Power to supply us with the neces- saries of life, every new discovery impressing us with awe at the vastness of the Power which created and governs all things, whilst we are struck with admiration at the adaptation, beauty, and grandeur of the great design, so fully evidencing the wisdom and goodness of God. Being fully imbued with a sense of the importance of agriculture, whether affecting us as individuals or a nation, and having the honour to be a member A A ECCLESFIELD FARMERS' CLUB. At the monthly meeting of the club, held at the Black Bull, Ecclesfield, on Wednesday evening, the 1 3th August, the following paper was read : Ox Guano. — By Mr. Eyre. One of the most remarkable features of modern times is the establishment of the numerous associa- tions at present existing, composed of men meeting for the advancement of science — to learn its pro- gress, and to communicate to each other and the world new discoveries. Amongst the numerous applications of science, none, it appears to me, can be of more importance than science when applied to the production of the first necessaries of life. To every country the condition of its agriculture must be a primary subject for consideration ; and to us in this country (I mean in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland), with a population increasing after a rate of nearly a thousand per diem, it surely cannot fail to be thought by all classes a con- sideration not to be surpassed by any other in im- portance, how this immense increase is to be met and supplied, and how highly essential must it be to the independence of our country, in the which we rejoice and boast so much, that its soil should produce a sufficiency of food for its population. That this can be done we may infer from the fact, that unaided as we have been by those impor- tant auxiliaries to production, which the application of science to agriculture, is daily discovering, our 352 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of this society, established to promote its interests, I have thrown together these few general remarks upon the subject, and I will now, with the chair- man's permission, read a letter on the subject of guano, which I some time ago received from a friend of mine, who has visited the guano islands of South America, to whom I applied for informa- tion respecting this valuable auxiliary to vegetation, with a view of rendering it to the members of this club ; before which, however, it would, perhaps, be as well to give the result of a recent analysis made by the eminent chemist Volckel, who found one hundred parts of guano to contain Urate of Ammonia - Oxalate of Ammonia . - Oxalate of Lime ----- Phosphate of Ammonia - - - - Phosphate of Magnesia and Ammonia - Sulphate of Potash - Sulphate of Soda- ■ - - ■ Sal Ammoniac- - - - - ■ Phosphate of Lime - Clay and Sand- - Organic substances not estimated, contain- taining 12 per cent, of matter insoluble in water — soluble salts of iron in a small quantity — water I 9.0 10.6 7.0 6.0 2.6 5.5 3.8 4.2 14.3 4.7 32.3 100.0 The result of which analysis, says Professor Liebig, proves how admirably guano is fitted for manure, for not only does it contain ammoniacal salts in abundance, but also those inorganic consti- tuents which are indispensable for the development of plants. Mr. Eyre here read a letter from Richard Thirl- wall, Esq., of Richmond, Yorkshire, who, after re- ferring to matters pertaining to the year 1838, says, " Since then I have roamed the wild wastes of New Zealand, the prairies of New South Wales, the forests of Van Dieman's Land, the sunny regions of South America, and its snow-capped Andes; I went out as an agriculturist to New Zealand, but found the Company and their settlements a take in. But to the purport of your letter. The Chinca Islands, on the west coast of South America, in lat. 13 deg. 44 min. south, are those from whence guano is obtained in the greatest purity and abundance. These islands are distant about twelve miles from the small port of Pisco, where they form a scattered group, of various extent and irregular appearance. The one from whence ships load is the farthest sea- ward, and is about three miles in circumference ; its height, on the loftiest point, being upwards of three hundred feet. " The island is formed of granite rocks, sup- posed to have a uniform elevation of about 100 feet ; on this the guano lies piled in a pure solid mass, reaching the above-mentioned height. As might be expected, from the potency of the ammonia, there is neither blade nor speck of vegetation upon it, or even water. The vessels, when loading, he alongside the rocks in a somewhat dangerous posi- tion, and the guano is conveyed on board by means of a badly-contrived canvas shoot ; the only labour required is digging it with mattocks, for it is in a hard, compressed condition ; then throwing it into the mouth of the shoot, which delivers it into the vessel's hold. Only one part of the island has been worked upon. The thousands of tons already conveyed away have made scarcely any impression on the immense bulk, which resembles in magni- tude and appearance the drifted sand-hills of the desert. " It is said that this enormous accumulation is the excrement of a small black gull, about the size of a pigeon. That this is its true origin, the im- mense and almost incalculable quantity seems to deny, for this island is only one of the many scat- tered about equally covered. On the closest cal- culation, even from the beginning until now, tak- ing into account the burning influence of a tropical sun, had they constantly covered the space, I think it would not be offering too decided an opinion to say it is almost impossible. However, it is ne- vertheless singular, that to the lowest part yet reached (100 feet, or more) all throughout, eggs, in a state of putrefaction, feathers, the bones of an animal of the phosa tribe,- and a round stone about three pounds in weight, are occasionally met with. It is formed in layers, of unequal thickness, differing in colour — some light and some dark — and between each a fibrous matter, that I am in- clined to think has been some species of sea-weed, proving the whole has been formed at stated inter- vals. The surface is coated over with a thick in- crustation, of almost pure muriate of ammonia. When the bidk is disturbed, the ammonia given out is so strong as to cause an unpleasant sensation to the eyes, and severely to affect the organs of respira- tion. The labourers working amongst it suffer considerably, causing some to bleed from the nose and ears, others to swell in the extremities, and finally break up their bodily health. " The reputed guano ' gull' at the present day burrows some two or three feet amongst the guano, where it forms its nest, and rears its young ; their number, however, scarcely equals that of an ordi- nary rookery, neither do their holes betoken that at any period have their flocks so darkened the sky as is reported. Pelicans, shugs, penguins, and many others, are in vast flocks hovering round the island ; yet they are never seen upon it, but fre- quent caverns, and roost on isolated rocks ; so .they cannot be said in anywise to have contributed their mite in its formation. It is a mystery, requiring the sapience of a Savan to unravel, and is well worthy the attention of the scientific, which, it may be hoped, will shortly be turned to it. "The beneficial properties of guano, as a manure, have been long understood and applied in that country. On the conquest of Peru by the Spa- niards, the aborigines were at that time (about 1530), it is said, known to use it ; and from them the Spaniards gleaned the knowledge of its benefi- cial properties. At the present time it is extensively used, producing in that, climate, where they entirely depend upon irrigation (rain being unknown), year after year without intermission, from the same land, most luxuriant crops. The soil is a fine rich loam. After being thoroughly cleansed and prepared for the seed, the guano is sown over at the rate of from 300lbs. to 400lbs. per acre, at a rough calculation ; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 it is then lightly turned in, that the soil may per- fectly take up the ammonia, the seed sown, and after-wards the whole laid under water, and repeated as required. " Guano, as applied by many in this climate, is little less than wasted (remember, I confine my re- marks to Peruvian guano, which is dry, and re- sembling Scotch snuff), some sowing it with ' back end' wheat, others applying it in the spring in a liquid state, much diluted, and adopting many other schemes that are decidedly opposed to plain common sense. " The principal points to be considered in the application of this manure are simply these : In guano, you have an article holding in its compo- sition a powerful and volatile quality, which has been determined by chemists to be a valuable acces- sory, nay, I may almost say, the vital principle itself of vegetable life. Then, to combine this with the parent soil, and retain, as much as possible of its powerfid and invigorating properties, is the great desideratum. Instead, therefore, of expos- ing it to the absorbing influence of the sun and at- mosphere, as is the custom of some farmers in this country, it should be amalgamated with the soil, and applied at that season of the year when vegetation commences and is in activity, that the plant may receive, as of course at that period it must, the greatest benefit from it. This is the method pursued by the Peruvians, who, as I said before, have used and known the fertilizing pro- perties of guano for more than three centuries. " On pasture or meadow land, I would most de- cidedly recommend guano to be applied either during a shower of rain, or when the weather-wise are certain of its approach. My reasons for recom- mending this will be obvious from what I have be- fore stated. Should the season be dry, then I would recommend a strong solution, which will be certain to make a handsome recompence ; whilst the niggardly ' two ounces per gallon,' applied by some, is almost useless. " For turnips, after the land is brought into a fine clean condition, let the guano be sown over, at the rate of from two to three hundred weight per acre ; then harrow it over with a stout pair, so as to mix it thoroughly with the soil. This done, the 6oil may be thrown into rows ready for the seed. No other manure need be applied ; and I will under- take to say, there will not be found a grub in the field. " Guano effectually destroys the slug, when slightly sown over the plant affected by them. I have seen the experiment tried in South Ame- rica, and its effects were instant death to the worm. I should always recommend the application of guano to turnips, whenever that plant is affected by the caterpillar or fly. Its application, if unsuccessful, will not be attended with much expense, or the total sacrifice of the article used, as the young plant will be materially benefited and invigorated by it." A discussion upon the paper having taken place, the Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Eyre, for his excellent paper, which he was sure would be received by the members of the club with a deal of pleasure, as it contained some very valu- able information of an original nature, and in a concise form, which could not fail being of great benefit to those who would take the trouble of read- ing it. After the motion was seconded and carried, the Secretary announced that the next meeting would be held on the 10th September, when W. F. DLxon, Esq., of Birley House, had kindly offered to give a paper " On the importance of adopting a regular system, or routine, of cropping."' A vote of thanks to the Chairman was then passed, and the meeting broke up. — Sheffield Mercury, ECONOMICAL MODE OF FEEDING HORSES. By William Dyce Guthrie, Esq. A considerable time has elapsed since the practice of cutting hay and straw and bruising oats was first recommended : but it has never as yet been, in my opinion, sufficiently practised ; and the benefits of it have not been sufficiently appreciated. Some cannot see the advantages to be derived from such a practice ; some will not take trouble ; some find their men will not attend to it ; some think then- horses won't eat it ; some think they won't thrive ; and some are afraid it won't agree with them — that horses will purge and get soft if they are so fed. These, however, are all imaginary evils, which a fair trial would soon dispel. The writer then cites the experience of Mr. Croall, the extensive coach-pro- prietor, which is as follows, and will be found of the most satisfactory description :— Observing the ad- vantages accruing from this practice ; Mr. Croall states that he directed his attention still farther to the subject, gradually reducing the quantity of hay, and adding a quantity of cut straw. He then began to consider the quantities of nutritious matter in, and cost of, the various kinds of grain, and at length changed his system of feeding to the follow- ing. Each horse was given 15 lb. of the following mixture : — 10 bushels cut straw, 90 lb. 6 bushels bruised oats, 174 1 bushel bruised beans, 59 323 lb. Or of Oats, 8 lb. Beans, • . . . . 2 J Straw, 4i 15 lb. to each horsf. And at night, in addition to the above, about 25 lb. of the following mixture : — 1 boll of potatoes, at 7s. 6d. 5 cwt. (steamed), 560lb. Fine barley dust, lOd. per stone, 3(3 Cut straw, at Gd. per stone, 40 Salt, at 3s. per cwt., 6 From this it appears that the ' cost for each horse was about 5d. for supper, and about Is. for daily forage and cookery; in all, about Is. 5Ul." In Mr. Croall's establishment, " a man is constantly em- ployed in preparing the food and serving it out, A A 2 354 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. whose wages and the expense of fire are included in the above expense of feeding. With such feeding most people would have supposed that the horses would have been unable to do fast or severe work. It would have been expected that they would not run a stage without being fatigued; they, how- ever, have kept their condition, and have improved by the feeding ; and although, when Captain Cheyne proposed first to try the experiment, the post-lads insisted the horses would not be able to do their work on such soft feeding, and thought they would purge and become washy, they soon found their fears were imaginary ; and experience has so fully convinced them of the advantage of such feed- ing, that their only anxiety now is to obtain a greater quantity of the mash at night.' ' SUFFOLK FARMERS, and THEIR LEASES. On Thursday, the 11th Sept., the annual dinner of the members of the East Suffolk Agricultural Associa- tion was held in the Assembly Rooms adjoining the Angel Inn, Halesworth. Upwards of 250 of the Suffolk farmers from the surrounding district and county gene- rally sat down to dinner. The Right Hon. the Earl of Stradbroke, President of the Association, in the chair. The noble Earl was supported by the Hon. Captain Rous, M.P. ; Mr. R. N. Shawe, of Kesgrave ; Mr. J. Moseley, of Great Glenhem-hall ; Mr. W. Long, of Herts-hall; and Col. Barne, of Dunwich. The cloth having been removed, and the usual loyal and patriotic toasts disposed of, Mr. R. N. Shawe proposed the health of the Earl of Stradbroke. The noble lord, in rising to acknowledge the compli- ment, was received with enthusiastic applause. When silence was restored his lordship spoke as follows : — Gentlemen, — In returning thanks to my friend on my right for the kind manner in which he has introduced my name as Her Majesty's representative for this county and the president of this society, I cannot do less than acknowledge the enthusiastic manner in which the toast has been received by you. The duties I have to per- form in the first capacity are extremely light, in conse- quence of being surrounded by a body of magistrates as eminent for private character as they are zealous in public duty, and always ready by advice and attention to create and encourage the happiness and prosperity of the people {Hear, hear). As president of this society it now becomes a part of my duty to refer in some mea- sure to the business of the day ; and, first, I must regret that the circumstance of our having changed our place of meeting to this town has not been the means of introducing that increased quantity of stock which many anticipated, and which I should have been gratified to have witnessed, from the gentlemen farmers of this county. However, the stock exhibited, though not very numerous, is good, especially the horses and the Leicester and Southdown sheep, although the younger specimens of the former animals are not quite so good as the averages of former years. There are many subjects which it may be desirable to comment upon on an occa- sion like this, and one I should like to make a few re- marks upon is the subject of leases — a subject which has occupied much public attention of late, and upon which much has been written and spoken (Hear, hear). The object of leases is three-fold — first, to enable and en- courage the tenant to invest his capital, and to give him due and proper time to recover remuneration for that investment (loud cheers) ; secondly, leases are advan* tageous to the landlord, for they give him hope that his land will be better cultivated (cheers) ; and, thirdly, they are beneficial to the poor, because they insure them better and more constant employment than they could otherwise secure (loud cheers). It is my fixed opinion that the landlord does not perform the duty he owes to himself, the duty he owes to his tenant, or to the poor, unless he includes in the leases of his farms a clause to insure a certain portion of labour being continually em- ployed on the land, the effect of which will be that the farms, if, unhappily, not renewed to the same parties, shall be given up in a good state of cultivation ; and in such case the tenant ought to be entitled to adequate re- muneration for the improvements he may have made (cheers). But I submit the practice would have a better effect still — it would encourage a desire to renew leases, and thus cement the affection and reciprocal feeling which are sure to be the result of friendly inter- course (cheers). I am aware there are in this county many energetic and skilful agriculturists who object to the clogging clauses — such as the four-course system. (Hear, hear). But the difficulty the landlord has to solve is this : how is he to distinguish between a skilful farmer and a land-jobber ? It is true the one may cul- tivate a farm without detriment to the land, while the other, resting upon his own judgment, may ruin it in eight years, or injure it so much that a succeeding tenant could not hire it without a great reduction in the rent. (Hear, hear). Gentlemen, I am, then, an advocate for the rotation of crops as being most advantageous (cheers). Some of you present may remember I ven- tured to state that the crop harvested last year would be abundant throughout Great Britain and Ireland. It was abundant, and the effect of it is that you may an- ticipate for the present a low price for grain. The result of my anticipation proves the truth of my assertion, for from the close of the last to the commencement of the present harvest wages were not so low as 7s. a week, as stated in the public prints ; neither were they so high as lis. or 12s., as was boldly asserted by a high authority — Sir J. Graham — in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. You all know the price of wages was about 9s. (Hear, hear). If wheat had fallen, wages would have also fallen ; if it had risen to what you term remunerative prices, they would have been raised (cheers) . I have only to refer to years gone by to prove that such has been invariably the case. In 1793 they were 8s. , in 1S10, 21s. ; in 1834, 8s. ; and in 1S38 and 1839, 12s. ; thus constantly and invariably, as far as my information guides me, wages have been dependent upon the price of wheat (cheers). There can be no doubt that some relief was afforded from the circumstance of the great rapidity with which the railway was constructed from Bishop Stortford through Ely to Norwich, and also by the more sluggish works upon the line between Colchester and Ipswich. These works have been the means of affording much employment, and relieving various parishes from what would have been otherwise deemed a burden. (Hear, hear). There is another subject, upon which I shall only lightly touch, because I believe my worthy friend (the vice-chairman) is prepared to address you upon it : I allude to cottage allotment. (Hear, hear). My opinion is, they are productive of much good (cheers), and I am anxious to see every cottage united to either l-8th or 1 -4th of an acre of land. At the same time I would caution my more enthusiastic friends, and those who have the interest of the poor at heart, and who pursue honestly, but in some degree a mistaken notion, that if the time should come when there will be a great many occupiers of from one to two acres of land, they would see the curse of Ireland illustrated, namely, a vastly increasing population living in beggary and dying amidst THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 355 crime (cheer n) . I therefore caution those who are the advocates of the poor to take heed how they undertake to do that which may be fatal to the interests of the country. (Hear, hear). The next subject which I shall touch upon is one which I think you ought to receive as deserving your best attention ; but whether you agree with me or not, you ought to receive it in the way in which I wish to impart it. It is a well-known fact that the farmers of the present day are superior to those of seventy years ago ; but if it is the desire of the farmers of this generation — as indeed it must be — to witness their sons stand in the honourable position that they themselves hold, it will be necessary for them to pay the utmost attention to their education, and to see that they are not kept behind in the rapid course of civilization. (Hear, hear.) Already there is esta- blished at Cirencester, in Gloucestershire, a college partly endowed, in which men of great science and professional skill have been engaged, and where young men can be boarded and educated for 30/. a year, and instructed in every branch of agricultural knowledge ; where they will be instructed in the difference and variety of the soil, and the effects of different manures ; and where they will be instructed in all the branches of scientific knowledge connected with agricultural pur- suits. Should these studies prove successful, they will produce a set of young men capable of taking their po- sition in society, and entering upon the science of agri- culture as a means of livelihood which cannot fail to have the most beneficial effect upon this kingdom. (Hear.) I shall now conclude, with an anxious wish for the happiness of all present in their private capa- cities, and prosperity in their public stations. The noble Earl sat down amidst loud cheers. To the toast of " The Army and Navy," The Hon. Captain Rous, M.P., responded. He contended that something must be done, if the popula- tion increased in the same ratio that it had of late years, to supply them with food. It was a well-ascertained fact that the inhabitants of this country were annually increasing to the extent of 400,000 ; and it was also well known that the resources of the country, though not developed to the extent to which they might be, never could be adequate to supply the wants of the people multiplying at such a rate. What, then, he asked, would be the case if this state of things existed forty years hence ? The idea was a dreadful one to contem- plate, and he was at a loss to conceive how any minister of this country could lay his head on his pillow and re- gard such a prospect without a feeling of horror. (Hear, hear, and cheers.) This country presented an anomaly to the practice adopted in all other countries similarly situated. He would not contrast it with any European state ; he would compare the practice with the Celestial Empire, and he was cpuite sure that the result would prove that the government of China had far surpassed that of Great Britain in the measures they had taken to ameliorate the condition of the bulk of their people. What was the usual practice adopted in China in reference to the laws that regulated the importation of food ? It must be recollected that in that country there was a population of not less than 300,000,000 souls. To provide that vast population with food, the govern- ment of China not only threw open their ports for the admission of foreign vessels conveying rice and other articles of consumption, but also relieved them from paying harbour dues, or the other ordinary charges con- nected with the admission of those articles. The lion, and gallant captain concluded by expressing a strong opinion in favour of a relaxation, at least, of the duties on colonial produce. Several other toasts of a local tendency having been proposed and responded to, the company separated. THE POTATO CROP. At a meeting of the Hadleigh Farmers' Club on Friday, September 13th, the lamentable failure of the potato crop formed the principal subject of discussion. In the hope of allaying the alarm win A prevails in the neighbourhood respecting the use of potatoes that have become partially injured, and also of suggesting a method by which a large amount of wholesome food may be saved from such as would otherwise be thrown away or given to pigs, it was resolved that a state- ment should be circulated, expressing the opinions of the Club on these subjects. I. It appears to be certain, that the failure is entirely owing to the season having been unsuited to fully per- fecting the tubers of most of the varieties of the potato. II. Wherever the leaves and stems are dead, it is ad- visable to dig up the crop as speedily as possible ; and to select the best tubers (to be kept apart from the rest) for seed-potatoes. It is probable there will be a great scarcity, when sets will be wanted, unless precautions are pretty generally adopted for saving the best. III. The potatoes thus separated for sets should be preserved with more care than usual. They should be kept as dry as possible, and examined at intervals, to see whether any of them are beginning to decay, and all such should be immediately removed. IV. The spotted and decaying potatoes should be carefully picked out from among such as are to be pre- served in store for winter and spring use. V. As there is great danger from a single decaying potato being left in contact with others in the same heap, lest it should tend to rot all around it, care must be taken to stack the store potatoes in layers, with sand or dry earth between them, and so that each potato may be prevented from touching its neighbours. A trench might be advantageously dug around the store ; and if the whole were thatched it would tend to keep them very dry. It will be advisable to delay the operation of clamping as long as possible, to allow the potatoes to dry the more thoroughly. VI. The progress of decay in the spotted potatoes may be stopped (at least for some time) by exposing them in dry situations to the light, but their decay will proceed if they are placed in the dark, or on moist ground. VII. If the decaying parts are pared off, or cut out, the rest of the potato is perfectly wholesome. Many idle rumours have prevailed to the contrary, which are un- worthy of credit. VIII. If the decaying potatoes have not passed to a state of putridity, they may be safely given to pigs : but they wrould be improved by being scalded, with the ad- dition of a little salt. IX. It seems to be a providential arrangement that as yet the really nutritive portion of the potato is very little injured, even in those tubers which have become partially decayed, and appear to be wholly unfit for food. The nutritious portion of the potato consists of delicate white grains of starch-like matter, which are enclosed in little cells. When the cells are broken, the grains fall out, and collecting together form a beautifully white flour. It is very easy to separate this flour from the rest of the substance of the potato ; and if a few persons in different villages would undertake to make the method generally known among the poor, a vast amount of wholesome food may yet be secured to them, which other- wise they will suffer to perish. From an experiment that has been tried during the past week, it appears that where 12 lbs. of flour can be extracted from a bushel of sound potatoes, 8 lbs. can be procured from such as have become so far decayed as to be useless as an article of food. X. To obtain the flour separate from the decaying 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cells, the potatoes should be first very thoroughly washed, so that not a particle of dirt remains upon them : they should then be finely grated with a bread grater into a tub of water, and the pulp well stirred about to separate the particles of starch as much as possible from their cells. The whole should then be left to settle, and the heavier particles of starch will soon fall to the bottom, whilst the lighter skin and cells will continue floating in the water, and may be poured off with it. The mass of flour formed by the settling of the particles should be washed two or three times more, by pouring water upon it and stirring it about, and again leaving it to settle as before. After the flour is considered to be sufficiently washed, it must be spread upon a cloth placed on a board in the sun, or in a warm-room, to dry ; or it may be dried in the oven after the bread has been removed. It may then be kept for any length of time, and when wanted, used like wheat, flour for making puddings, &c. This process will be sufficient for common purposes, but a more perfect method may be described, by which the potato flour can be procured in its purest state, in which it is frequently sold for arrow root, and by a variety of other names as a delicate food for weak digestions, for children, and for the sick. XI. The more perfect process for obtaining the flour in the form of " British arrow root" is as follows : — 1 . Thoroughly wash the potatoes. 2. Peal away the skin, without cutting off much. 3. Grate the pealed potatoes finely into a pulp. 4. Place the pulp on a hair sieve, pour water over it, stirring it about well, till the water ceases to pass through with a milky appearance. 5. The pulp left on the sieve may be thrown away, and the milky water put aside to settle. C. When the particles of starch have all settled, the water should be poured oft*, and fresh water added : the whole stirred up afresh and allowed to settle again. 7. These washings may be repeated four or five times, when the starch will have assumed the character of arrow root, and will have become white as snow, whilst the water will now be perfectly clear. 8. The prepared flour must be thoroughly dried, and may be kept for any length of time in jars or casks. XII. When a dish of potatoes is about to be obtained from the inside parts of such as are only partially de- cayed, instead of pealing them, the decayed parts may be grated, and whatever starch can be extracted from these parts might be added to the boiled potatoes. Thus very little will be lost of the whole amount of nourish- ment which the potatoes would have contained if they had been quite sound. In many cases it may be more convenient to keep such gratings for three or four days, till enough has been collected to make it better worth while to complete the process. XIII. In times of scarcity it may be useful for persons to be made aware of the fact, that excellent starch-like arrow -root may be procured from certain wild plants. In the Isle of Portland, some of the poor are in the habit of preparing it from the tubers of the plant commonly called "lords and ladies" (Arum maculatum). The tubers are well washed and grated, and the pulp treated like that of the potato. The process gets rid of an acrid juice with which the fresh tuber abounds. This sort of arrow root is sold in the neighbourhood of Weymouth for about 8d. the pound. XIV. It was suggested that local companies or so- cieties might be formed, to buy up the decaying potatoes, and to employ some of the poor to prepare the starch, which could be sold at little or no loss. It is the prac- tice in Scotland, when the store potatoes are found to be frozen, to extract the starch from them in the manner described. THE POTATO DISEASE. [FROM THE BRISTOL MERCURY.] Sir, — My attention has been given to the disease which has shown itself so extensively amongst the growing po- tatoes. I find, in almost every instance, that the epi- dermis of the stalk lelow the surface of the ground, is more or less in a state of decay, often disintegrated, and completely rotten; the leaves and branches accord with the state of that part of the'stalk below the ground. The tuber, beneath the cuter skin, is first spotted brown (like a bruised apple) : these spots extend and penetrate towards the centre, quite changing the nature of the potato. Those near the surface are most injured ; in some cases the lowest on the root are not at all affected, while the upper ones are useless. I should therefore expect that the longer the crop remains in the land, the greater the injury will be. It seems, from the microscopic appear- ances, that the starch escapes injury for a long time after the skin and cellular parts are gone ; and as the whole of the nutritive powers of the potato reside in the starch, I should recommend that wherever the disease has shown itself to any extent, the crop should be dug whether ripe or not, and the starch extracted by the following simple process — After washing the roots, let them be rasped fine, and thrown into a large tub or other vessel ; pour a conside- rable quantity of water, and well agitate and rub the pulp with the hands ; all the starch or fecula will, from its great weight, fall to the bottom, while the skin and fibrous matter will be carried away by the water ; wash the starch with one or two more waters, allowing it to fall after each washing ; spread it upon cloths in a warm room, to dry — in this way about 20'or 21 lbs. will be ob- tained from every 104 lbs. of potatoes, and it contains as much nourishment as the original roots ; it will keep any length of time, and might be used with flour to make bread, pies, puddings, &c, as well as farinaceous spoon-meat. Tliis is much better than throwing away the diseased roots, and will furnish food for tens of thousands who miarht otherwise want it. William Heravath. A NEW REASON IN FAVOUR OF LEASES. — At last term, a tenant at will of a few acres on the Panmure property, who is also a deacon of the free church in C'armyle, went to pay his rent to the factor, and the latter in handing him in his receipt, told him that he could not have his place again, and that it had been let to the neighbouring farmer, into whose land it lay. The man expressed his surprise at this, adding " Sir, I asked your advice (two or three years ago) about improving the land, and wished some security for my continuance in it, when you told me the more I improved it the better, and that there was no danger of my being removed. Accordingly, I have expended a great deal in putting the land into order last year." The factor did not attempt to deny the man's statement, but said, " You have left the established church, andadhered to Wilson, and Lord Panmure is determined not to coun- tenance and support any person who does so. You were well warned of this beforehand." It thus appears that the threats which were abundantly uttered by the factor about the time of the disruption are to be executed by the gradual process of removing one or two free churchmen at a time ; and while other proprietors, such as the Duke of Buccleuch and Lord Cawdor, can declare that they have never removed any tenant or servant for adherence to the free church, Lord Panmure is bold enough, or incautious enough, through his factor, to avow his doing so.— Witness. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 357 GUANO. TO THE EDITOR OF THE WAKEFIELD JOURNAL. Sir— As I promised you my observations on the sub- ject of guano, or rather on the meeting at our Farmers' Club to discuss that subject, I very gladly fulfil my en- gagement to you. I must confess I was very agreeably surprised, for I rather expected a desultory, conflicting, and unprofita- ble discussion ; but when the meeting was over, I thought it the best discussed subject we had ever had. The opening speech of Mr. Briggs was a lucid and sci- entific one, giving theoretically and practically too the chemical analysis of guano and other manures, and a striking and clear comparison of the superior fertilizing properties of guano compared with most other manures, demonstrating that it was lasting in its effects also. To that gentleman we are deeply indebted for his research and communicated practice. Mr. Brackenridge's confirmation of Mr. Briggs's re- marks will give additional confidence to the user of guano ; he also threw some useful light on the kind of ground best adapted to suit guano tillage. Mr. Charlesworth's observations on the proper time to apply it, was well timed and of the utmost conse- quence. Mr. Scarth's remarks by no means disproves the utility of guano, but rather says, Beware where you purchase, and how you apply it. Mr. Farrar's various experiments, in detail, are ex- cellent, and well worthy of being carried out — particu- larly the difference in the progress of turnips in the latter end of the season. Mr. Hislop's remarks embrace proofs of its goodness, encouraging to farmers, and capital for cottage gardens. Mr. W. Nicholson reminds one of the lad who said " I will not go," but afterwards excelled the one who said " I will go," but never went. His (Mr. W. N.'s) testimony is fine, and does not contradict Mr. Charles- worth as to the time of applying it ; both the gentle- men's observations are really worthy of adoption, and no doubt will unravel many a disappointment from wrong application. Mr. John Wood. — What a pity such a man, who ex- ercised his good sense and spent his valuable time and money in purchasing and applying guano, should have met with such trash, instead of the genuine article ! But after all, every good thing is liable to bad imitations, as the best coin is to the counterfeit. Mr. John Moore's speech was one which carried con- viction with it of the good resulting from a judicious ap- plication of guano. Mr. Wm. Brown's speech was full of sensible re- marks, very unusually so, and gave a fresh mode of ap- plication, which must be safe, and very probably the most perfect way of supporting and increasing vegetable life. Mr. Bayldon and Mr. Johnson's speeches, though short, nevertheless added weight to the previous testi- monies in favour of guano. To conclude, I consider nearly all that the most fas- tidious could wish for on the subject of guano has been said at that meeting— from the grass in the valley to the oak on the mountain top — from the cabbage in the soli- tary cottage garden, to the staff of life— " bread," or rather wheat on the thousands of acres, both food for man and beast may be increased, and that abundantly and cheaper, by the proper use of guano. Who, then, ought to despise a description of this sort ? The speeches in St. Stephen's — the oratory of the bar — the eloquence of the pulpit, meteor-like, dazzle but do not always profit. Not so the unaspiring farmer, who is now straining every nerve to supply that which sup- ports alike the peasant and the prince. I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, W. Barratt, St. John's, 1st Sept., 1845, ON THE ADVANTAGE OF THICK SOWING. By David Barclay, M.P. The following is the result of some experiments which I made last year, in order to ascertain the relative merits of thin and thick sowing wheat, drilling, dibbling, and by broad-east. They were conducted with great care upon five acres of level land of uniform quality, being a good deep loam on a chalk subsoil, following a clover ley folded by sheep. The land was ploughed about five inches deep, as it was not thought desirable to bury the sheep-dressing below that depth. The seed was put into the ground about the 7th of December, 1843, and the wheat was hoed in the Spring of 1844, except the acre sown by broad-cast, which was harrowed instead of being hoed. The plants in Nos. 2 and 3 (thin sowings) were by much the strongest, and looked the best throughout the season, until the approach of harvest, when it be- came evident that the quality of the grain and straw was inferior, more particularly on No. 2, which ap- peared to have suffered a little from mildew. Samples of the different lots were submitted to an eminent miller, and the value of each determined by him ; the straw was valued at the market price. (See next page.) The results of these experiments are very re- markably in favour of thick sowing, and particu- larly of the old broad-cast system ; and, if not con- clusive against the doctrine of thin sowing, so strongly and, I may add, so ably advocated in the present day, should at least induce caution on the part of farmers before they depart from the practice of their forefathers. Indeed it is difficult to believe that so great an advantage as the saving of a bushel, or a bushel and a half of seed per acre can have been overlooked for so many generations. It seems more reasonable to suppose, that long practical experience has taught the farmer the more prudent course of a liberal supply of seed. It may however be contended, that had the plough- ing been deeper and the seed put earlier into the ground, the result would have been different : this is not improbable, and it is possible the deficiencies in the quality and quantity of thin-sown wheat and straw might have been less observable, but the large differences which my experiment indicates could hardly, I think, have been made up. I have this year rejieated the trial of thin-sowing, having drilled one acre on the 2Gth of October last (the land having been deeply ploughed), with 1 bushel of seed, the rest of the field having 2 bushels per acre. The result I shall be happy to communicate if desired, 358 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. W 3 0 pq a ■a. a? j=j :- u P 50 lM tJ 3 g >, •> O 0 r o o M CO r0 H 0 T3 0 01 S r3 i— i 1-1 1-1 n i-i v Si .,- " o J** 3 S ^ 0 & 0 ^ 0 & 0 £ C_,Ph "3 j3 '2 2 C5:/2 '2 2 '3 2 Sh i3 '3 «s 2 is Oft £ ^y 'd "3 ■d T3 CS cS cS cS rt CS o o O o o f-1 M Si CO Si Si Si o ■»-> •*£ 4J P*- ^ < 0 Si '3 Si O ^^C « ; ° *• . Pi ©"OS O oa -OT3 O Ci cu Ph (M • to ^, o o S "3 t^ ce to 3 rO t5 — - 3 CS ■— < C3 ^h CS -1 cS ^-c ►S'3 EH ^r5 na s> cu rt p £-5 ,_, CO (N Tj< §*i m to t>. CO J/J o c "■* Si £h "aS m"nW hKh cd* be 3 3^ c» CO ^< >n 'SpQ ys (O «o to ft h 1"^ CU Cm CO "aJ ""3 o 00 CO 1 n ■* CO «>. h» CO o O CO 1 c 0 *< P-c ; ' ' ' : ; I I 11 0 . • • . • . • • • . cj Si T3 T3 r^ r3 •■a o cS r-i EH cc! -~i an cS ^ T3 cu CO Si 0 P. CO CO u .s • CO rC o .S • CO CO u .s CO cu r0 cu g C) Si CS CO CS o -a cS o Si s CO 5 | 'Si 1 TJ O-i cu cS 0 O OS C« Q Q Q P «4H CO . ^3 O Ph (U 0 . Si CO cS co CO >S& V M CO 0 rO- Quantit eed use Imp. A co CO CO 0 cu CO 3 11 CO >-< 0 CO H« rC ^2 ^2 -I« Cfi CN M "-, i— i CN 6 rl (M co •* »o fc aa «34 « THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 EXTENSIVE AND IMPORTANT SALES OF SHORTHORNS. FROM THE DOXCASTER GAZETTE. Within the last few days several sales of improved short-horned cattle have taken place in Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire, especially within a few miles of East Retford ; and in consequence of the importance attached to these changes of stock, we have given below, the prizes obtained for each animal, together with the names of the respective purchasers. As a few remarks, by way of preface, may not be deemed out of place, we briefly take the sales in the order in which they have taken place. The Earl of Carlisle's sale was held at the farm, near Castle Howard, and was uncommonly well attended, not only by gentlemen from a considerable distance, but also by the gentry and farmers of the surrounding country. After sufficient time for inspecting the stock about to be offered for public competition, a capital cold collation was served up, and to which (to judge from appearances afterwards) ample justice was done. At two o'clock Mr. Wetherell mounted his rostrum, and commenced opera- tions. The stock offered needs no encomium, suffice it to say that it consisted of some of the best blood in the kingdom ; and when we mention the names of some of the bulls by which the animals Mere got, such as Mow- thorpe, Rockingham, Belshazzar, Bulmer, Lord Marl- bro', and several others, we think our readers will not require much further observations from us to prove its superiority. To the following list therefore we recom- mend them for further information. Mr. Parkinson's sale at South Clifton, in this county, but on the opposite side of the Trent, was held on Thursday, the 11th ; but as it was well known that that gentleman did not intend to offer the whole of his stock, but principally some of his young ones, the attendance was not quite so numerous as we had been led to antici- pate. The gentry from a distance, however, were occupied the greater portion of the morning in examining and inspecting the stock about to be offered ; and although many of them came from a considerable distance, yet they expressed themselves as highly grati- fied with the merits of the respective animals. A capital luncheon was prepared at the farm, to which all persons were invited to partake, and at a little before two o'clock Mr. Wetherell was again employed in the exercise of his vocation. The stock offered was capital, including the blood of Homer, Mowthorpe, Cossack, Sir Thomas Fairfax, Jenner, Hero, Prince, Ernest, &c, and ulti- mately obtained prices which were highly satisfactory to their well respected owner. Mr. Hutton's sale, at Gate Burton, about a mile from Littlebro', was the next in succession, and took place on Friday last. The stock here, although some of it could not boast of lengthy pedigrees, as having descended from some of the first-rate animals which have been bred in this country, was excellent in quality, and in the best possible condition. But what gave an interest to it was that although not well bred, the cows have proved them- selves excellent milkers, which is a desideratum not easily to be obtained with the finest bred animals. After the stock had been inspected in the lawn in front of the owner's mansion, a capital luncheon was partaken of by a large and respectable company. At a little after two o'clock Mr. Wetherell's tongue and glass were in active operation. A deal of the stock was descended from Rockingham, Ganthorpe, Gracchus, Bolsover, Paragon, and Lictor ; and ultimately obtained prices which far exceeded the most sanguine expectations of their much esteemed owner. At the close of the sale some little unpleasantness took place between Mr. Wetherell and Sir William Cooke, relative to the purchaser of Blossom, No. 13. It appears that Mr. Wetherell had bid 60 guineas for the animal, and knocked her down to him- self, without hearing Sir William's bid. At the close of the sale, however, Sir William demanded her, or other- wise that she should again be offered for competition. At first Mr. Wetherell refused to put her up again, but offered to give her up. This Sir William declined. At length she was put up again, when a spirited race ensued between Sir William and Mr. Wetherell, which was ulti- mately decided by Mr. Wetherell again knocking her down to himself at 100 guineas. Earl Spencer's sale was held on the farm premises at Wiseton, near Bawtry, on Saturday last, and was at- tended, as might have been anticipated, by an extremely numerous and respectable company. The acknowledged ability of Lord Spencer in the selection of his cattle for breeding the improved pure short-horns, was a reason alone sufficient to ensure a spirited competition in the sale of any animals from his herd. In consequence, however, of it being the noble lord's intention to dispose only of a part of his herd, the attraction was somewhat diminished, although Lord Spencer had announced that the sale would comprise a selection of his herd in general, and as nearly as possible like those he reserved for future breeding. It is admitted by all breeders that the principal part, if not the whole, of this stock consisted of some of the best and purest herds in this or any other nation. The list below will show that here were the descendants of Monarch, William, Firby, Wiseton, Roman, Ranunculus, Evander, Wizard, See., from which have sprung animals which are now located in most parts of the globe. Few have devoted so great a portion of their time and money in bringing the Durham breed to that state of perfection which it has at the present time attained as Lord Spencer, and no one more deserves the thanks of the public in promoting every measure calcu- lated to advance agriculture both as a science or an art. At great personal attention, and at an immense expense for very many years, his lordship has shewn that he is a true farmers' friend : and it is pleasing to find that his lordship is everywhere held with ^that esteem he so justly deserves. The whole of the stock connected with this extensive establishment were kindly allowed to be inspected by the public, together with such improved agricultural implements as are employed on the farm. The machinery adopted for providing food for so great a number of animals, together with a powerful and ex- cellent peg thrashing-machine, were, apart from the stock, very extensive sources of attraction, and evidently excited great astonishment amongst many who pre- viously had never contemplated finding so complete an establishment for the purposes for which it is intended. The peg thrashing-machine is decidedly the most perfect and complete instrument of its kind we ever either saw or heard of ; it not only thrashes the corn, but separates the chaff from the grain, afterwards screen- ing it, and carrying it into a chamber, from which it is received into sacks placed against a conductor for the purpose. This is performed by steam, and at one operation. Shortly after one o'clock about nine hun- dred of the company present partook of a most princely luncheon, with a bountiful supply of veiy superior wine and malt liquor. About two o'clock Mr. Wetherell commenced the main feature of the day, and after a few words, began with the sale of the stock as will be seen below. Lot 50 — the bull, Wizard — was not sold ; and also lot 29 ; the former being put up at a reserve bid of 100/., and the latter not being in good health was not offered for sale. The cause of Wizard being put up at a reserve bid will be accounted for from the following note attached to the catalogue : — " Wizard was attacked by an inflammation in big hock on the 30th of August, 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which lamed him for a short time. He will therefore be warranted sound, and may be returned if he should fail. But as this circumstance may, notwithstanding the warranty, tend to diminish the competition for him, he will be put up with one reserved bidding, to be de- clared by Mr. Wetherell at the time of the sale, instead of being sold without reserve, as he otherwise would have been." Mr. Henry Watson's sale took place at his farm, at Walkeringham, near Retford, on Monday last, and was equally, if not more numerously, attended than any of the foregoing, in consequence of its being known that the whole of his superior stock was to be disposed of. Towards noon, carriages, horsemen, and pedestrians were seen drawing towards the centre of attraction from every point ; so that by twelve o'clock Walkeringham was completely thronged. The field where the animals were exhibited was moie like a cattle fair than a sale. The whole stock, as was well known, was of a very superior order ; having been selected and bred with the greatest care during several years last past. This gentleman's stock has taken several of the principal and first class prizes on several recent occasions, not only at the prin- cipal provincial agricultural societies, but also at the Royal English Agricultural Society. Several of the herd were descendants of Barningham, Cossack, Blyth, Ben, Comet, Comus, Hubback, and Lord Adolphus Fairfax. This latter animal's name was inserted in the catalogue, and had he been alive, would most probably have fetched a large amount ; but our readers, many of them, will remember that he was found dead in his stall on the 22nd of July last. At one o'clock the company partook of a splendid cold collation, under a capacious tent erected for that purpose ; after which, at a little before two, the sale commenced. Of course it would be impossible to particularize the whole of the companies present at the above sales, but the following may be taken as a few of them : — Earl Ducie, Earl Spencer, the Earl of Carlisle, Viscount Galway, Sir Charles Keightley, Sir Wm. B. Cooke, Sir C. Tempest, Rev. T. H. Shepherd, Rev. W. C. Fenton, Rev. C. Hudson, Rev. J. Cooke, Rev. St. George Kirke, Rev. John Drake Becker, Rev. C. G. Smith, Rev. J. K. Miller, Rev. Thomas Cheedle, — Dilk, Esq. H. B. Simpson, Eaton ; H. B. Hickman, Esq., Tho- nock ; Richard Milward, Esq., Thurgarton Priory; Charles Thorold, Esq., Welham ; Oeorge Chapman, Esq., Welham ; John Parkinson, Esq., Leyfields ; H. Watson, Esq., Walkeringam ; James Cross, Esq., Gringley ; Richard Hodgkinson, Esq., Morton Grange; Monsieur St. Marie, agent to the French government ; Hon. Capt. Spencer ; Wm. Hutton, Esq., Gate Bur- ton; John Beasley, Esq., Northampton; C. Clarke, Esq., Aisthorpe; — Dixon, Caistor ; — Parrott, Esq. agent to Sir T. B. Leonard, Essex; J. Downs, Esq., Essex ; J. Wilkinson, Esq., Lenton ; — Birchall, Esq., Preston; H.T.Turner, Esq., agent to Earl Zetland, Aske Hall, Richmond; T. W. Newstead, Esq., Dun- ham; E. W. Wilmot, Esq., Worksop; Henry Thomp- son, Esq., Kirkley Lodge; John Bradley, Esq., Blyth; J. Rogers, Esq., Ranby; J. Booth, Esq., Killerby ; Messrs. Clover and Sturgeon, London ; Messrs. Slater, Carlton; Mr. Pell, Tupholm ; Mr. Eastwood, Lan- cashire ; Messrs. Smith, Raisen ; Mr. Tucker, Wilts ; Mr. Jonas Webb, Babraham ; Mr. Strafford, artist ; B. B. Colvin, Esq. ; W. R. Baker, Esq., Herts. ; Wil- liam Hutton, Esq., Gate Burton; Robt. Field, Esq.; Mr. Hay; John Crossley, Esq., Lancashire; James Topham, Esq., Lincolnshire; J. Gillott, Esq., Oxford- shire; J. Gambles, Esq., Norfolk; J. Hutchinson, Esq., and J. Wilson, Esq., Banffshire ; H. L. Maw, Esq. Setley; Wm. Bartholomew, Esq., Mr. Pell, and John Skill, Esq., Lincolnshire; Jas, Ladds, Esq., Bed- fordshire; Wm. Torr, Esq., Riby ; Messrs. Duddings, Saxby, and Panton, Lincolnshire ; Mr. Bottomley, and Amos Cruikshanks, Esq., Aberdeenshire; Mr. Bates, Wiltshire; W. Torr, Esq., Riby; Mr. Job and Mr. Short, Martin ; Messrs. Hall, Wiseton ; Jos. Allison, Esq., Bilby; William Hepworth, Esq., Pontefract ; Mr. Tindal, Wheatley ; Mr. Sampson, Scaftworth ; &c, &c. The sales realized as follows, viz. : Guineas. The Earl of Carlisle's 2341 John Parkinson's, Esq 1124 William Hutton's, Esq 1943 Earl Spencer's 2259 Henry Watson's, Esq 3510 Total.... 11177 The following are the particulars : — THE EARL OF CARLISLE'S SALE, CASTLE HOWARD. Tuesday, Sept. 9. COWS AND HEIFERS. Lot. Name. When ealecd. Sire. By whom bought. Os. 1 Vestris 1835 Bright Not sold 2 White Fashion... 1838 Mowthorpe.. Lord Ducie... 35 . 3EffieDeans 1838 Viceroy Mr. Thompson 3G 4 Wasv 1837 Rockingham Mr. Ripley... 30 5 Hecuba 1839 Retriever Mr. Ripley . .. 28 6 Isabel 1S35 Belshazzar.. Mr. Strafford . 3C 7 Lady Graham 1838 Blast Mr. Wood 53 8 Snowdrift 1837 Rockingham Mr. Dennis ... 38 9 Sweetbriar 1833 Snowball Mr. Maw 26 10 Barbara Allen.... 1837 Belshazzar... Mr. Clark.... 47 11 Taney 1837 Mowthorpe.. Mr. Thompson 31 12 Frenzy .... 1837 Rockingham Mr. Sugden .. 30 13 Patch the 4th.... 1840 Arch-Duke.. Mr. Dixon 45 14 Ladv Hovingham 1838 Rockingham Mr. Dennis .. 39 15 Orelia 1839 Harry Lord Ducie.. 50 18 Oyster Girl 1842 Buhner Lord Ducie .. 37 17 Myrtle 1832 Grazier Mr. Allen 37 18 Mary the First ... 1840 Belshazzar.. Lord Ducie .. 115 19 Mary the Second. 1840 ditto Lord Ducie .. 180 20 Mary the Third .. 1840 Bulmer Mr. Mackintosh 59 21 Lady Sprightley.. 1839 Mowthorpe .. Lord Ducie ... . 01 23 Eglantine "... 1840 Bellerophon . Mr. Mackintosh 51 23 Honeysuckle .... 1842 Premier .... Lord Ducie .. 51 24 Fawn 1838 Artificer Mr. Parker .... 24 25 Streamlet 1842 Belshazzar... Mr. Giles...... 45 26 Vesper 1342 ditio Lord Ducie .... 27 '-'7 Sunrise 1841 Burlington .. Not sold 28 Fair Lady 1841 Prince Albert Mr. Dixon 43 29 Fancy 1838 Cramor Mr. Blatter. ... 41 30 Kitchen Maid ... 1842 Posthumous, Mr. Colvin .... 26 31 lied Rose 1836 Benjamin Mr. Allen 20 32 Lilly 1842 Bulmer Mr. Allen 25 33 Daphne 1842 Ditto Lord Ducie .... 88 •■U Fickle 1842 Ditto Mr. Jackson .. 18 35 Bee's Wing 1842 Slygo Mr. Jackson not sold. 36 Ladv Harriet 1842 Bulmer Mr. Giles 41 37 Ladv Howard .... 1842 Ditto Mr. Giles not sold 38 Faith 1842 Ditto Mr. Giles SI 39 Fame 1842 Ditto Mr. Glies 50 40 Seraphina 1813 Ditto Mr. Colvin 40 41 Ophelia 1843 Ditto Mr. Giles 39 42 White Favourite.. 1843 Ditto Mr. Maw 20 43 Monthly Rose ... 1843 Slvgo Mr. Wales 29 44 Patch the 5th 1843 Bulmer .... Mr. Wood 81 45 Lady Marion 2nd. 1843 Ditto Mr. Tucker OS 46 Sunset 1843 Ld. Marlbro'. Lord Ducie.... 40 47 Fair Lass 1848 Landlord Mr. Tucker.. .. 20 48 Lovely 1843 Bulmer .... Mr. Dixon . . . . 22 HEIFER CALVES. 49 Olinda 1844 Bulmer Not sold 50 Sister Margaret .. 1844 Vanwinkle .. Mr. Stafford .. 62 51 Fawnsome 1844 Bulmer Mr. Maw 10 52 Idalia 1844 Ditto .... Not sold 53 Idotliia 1844 Ditto Mr. Tucker 46 54 Jessamine 1844 Art. Stopford. Mr. Tucker.... 22 55 Wanton 1844 Ld. Marlbro'. Mr. Ripley 40 56 Fairmaid 1844 Ditto Mr. Tucker .... 40 57 Lovesome 1844 Sweet Lad .. Mr. Giles 30 58 Lavender 1845 Ld. Marlbro'. Mr. Ripley 20 59 Daydream 1844 Ditto . Sir J. Johnson. 21 60 Dairymaid 1844 Ditto . Mr. Tucker ... 31 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 361 No. Name. When calved. Sire, 61 Mermaid 1844 Ditto 62 Selina 1844 Ditto 63 Hyacinth 1845 Bulmer 64 Sweet Ma v 1845 Vandyke.... 65 Lady Marcia 1845 Ditto .... CO Raspberry 1845 Guardian.... BULLS. 07 Arabo 1541 Fantastical.. 08 Vanwinkle 1841 Valentine ... 69 Sir George 1840 Bulmer 70 Sweet Lad 1841 Belshazzar .. 71 Sir Launcelot ... 1839 Rockingham , 72 Lord Marlbro' ... 1841 Belshazzar .. 73 Fitz Fairfax 1843 Ld. Marlbro' 74 Snyders 1843 Slygo 75 Freebooter 1842 Bulmer , 76 Sir James 1843 St. Martin . 77 Sweet William . .. 1841 Vanwinkle . 78 Ishmael 1843 Bulmer re Gen. Fairfax 1844 Ld. Marlbro' 80 Orpheus 1844 Ditto 81 Anticipation 1S44 Sweet Lad . BULL CALVES. 82 Sir William 1844 Ld. Marlbro'. Not sold 83 Fanatic 1844 Ditto . Mr. Giles 84 St. Martin 1845 Vandyke.... Mr. Clover ... . 85 Swiss Boy 1845 Ld. Marlbro'. Mr. Smith .... 86 Lord George 1845 Ditto . Mr. Gofton .... 87 Senator 1845 Ditto . Mr. Burt 88 Frantic 1845 Ditto . Captain 89 Osiris 1S45 Vandyke ... Mr. Thornton , 90 Lofty 1845 Huntingrield. Mr. Simpson .. 91 Marlborough . . ..out of lot 2 Lord Wenlock . 91 The total amount of the above sale amounts to 2,341 guineas. Owing to our losing the last sheet of this catalogue wj are unable to give the juices of the last few lots, but the aggregate is correct. Ii>) whom bought. Gs. . Mr. Giles 26 . Mr. Bipley 40 .. Mr. Tucker.... 35 Not sold Not sold .. Mr. Tucker.... 26 . . Not sold Not sold . . Not sold . . Not sold Not sold Mr. Tucker.... 44 Mr. Stuart .... Not sold Not sold Mr. Tucker.... Mr. Stafford... Not sold Sir John John- son Mr. Garforth . . Mr. Colrin .... MR. PARKINSON'S SALE, SOUTH CLIFTON Thursdax, Sept. 11. COWS AND HEIFERS. 1 Spangle 1844 Homer Mr. Tucker Lctilia 1841 3 Matilda 1838 4 Kate 1838 6 Kenali 1841 6 Junia 1835 7 Vervain 1837 — Her young Heifer Calf 8 Vetch 1838 Brentwood . . Mr. Forrest Vantel Mr. Col v in Vanish Ditto .. Lord John .. Ditto Darlington Colossus .... Mr. Ladds 34 41 21 41 85 Not sold 21 Mr. Forrest. Mr. Ladds . Norfolk 9 Carmine 1835 Ambo Rev. C.Thomp- son Mowthorpe . . Mr. Ladds .... Nimrod Mr. Gamble... Chorister .... Mr. Colvin .... 1840 1837 1839 10 Carnation 11 Queen of Trumps 12 Dirce — Her voung Heifer Calf 13 Desdemona 1845 14 Moonshine 1831 15 Princetta 1830 16 Jewel 1841 17 Lucretia 1842 18 Lucy 1843 19 Flora 1843 20 Josephine 1S43 21 Jonquille 1843 22 Vidonia 1843 23 Pyrrha 1843 24 Moonbeam ...... 1843 25 Moonlight 1843 26 Chyrstal 1844 27 Vermillion 1844 28 Vesta 1844 29 Myrth 1844 30 Fancy 1844 31 Kerchief 1844 10 36 17 21 21 33 Mr. Stafford... 10 Prince Ernest Not sold Oliver Mr. Hutcheson. 19 Prince Win.. Mr. Ladds 20 Cossack Mr. H. L. Maw 30 Lord John .. Mr. Ladds 25 Austerlitz. . . . Mr. Eastwood . 30 Stirling .... Not sold ( Sir Thomas ( Fairfax. Mr. Colwin. Mr. Wetherell Mr. Forrest... Ditto Ditto Jenner Ditto ... Hero Mr. Colvin . . Ditto Ditto Prince Ernest Mr. Wetherell Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto No. Name. IVhcn calved. Sire. By whom bought. Gs.. 41 Comus 1845 Ditto .. Mr. Gamble ..21 42 Euston 1845 Ditto .. Mr. Hav, N. B. 21 43 Kingston 1845 Ditto .. Mr. Giflott 13 44 Splendour 1845 Ditto .. Mr. Wilson, N.B. 15 45 Manchester 1845 Ditto , .. Withdrawn 40 Cyrus 1845 Crotch Not sold 47 Jurist 184.5 Prince En. est Mr. Minta .... 16 48 Colchester 1845 Dilto .. Not sold 49 Malton 1845 Ditto .. Mr. Hav 23 50 Matadore 1845 Crotch ' Not sold 51 Sultan... 1845 Diamond.... Not sold 52 Keswick 1845 Crotch Not sold The prices for the above, which are held in high estimation, are considered moderate. A yearling heifer, and the heifer calf that gained a prize at Beverley, were afterwards sold by private contract at great prices to Mr. Eastwood. 32 Dowager 1844 Ditto 33 Pastime 1844 Ditto 34 Victorina 1845 Ditto 35 Queen Catherine. 1845 Crotch BULL CALVES. 36 Margate 1844 Prince Ernest 37 Waltham 1844 Ditto Thomas •J 4 30 35 21 2 'J 36 Not sold Mr. Forrest.... 28 Mr. Tucker ... 31 Not sold Rev. C.Thomp- son 18 Mr. Wetherell. 35 Mr. Forrest.... 37 Not sold Not sold Mr. Gillott .... 35 Mr. Balfour ... 16 ( Sir Thomas 1 Earl of Scar- \ Fairfax....) borough.. .. 31 39 Laurel 1845 Crotch Mr. Booth .... 28 40 Morpeth 1845 Prince Ernest Mr. Tucker,,,. 18 38 Pharos 1845 MR. HUTTON'S SALE, GATE BURTON. Fkiday. Sept. 12. COWS AND HEIFERS. 1 Laura 1837 Commodore.. Dead 2 Gentle 1838 Prince Comet Mr.Brantingham27 3 Allenbv's Duchess 1840 Faithful Mr.Bottomby.. 20 1 Conceit 1840 Dulverton .. Mr. Ladds 36 5 Rosebud 1830 Cossack Mr. R. Smith.. 10 6 Fancy 1838 Rockingham. Mr. Torr 28 7 Margaret 1838 Ditto .. Captain Shawe. 11 8 Miui.ic 1*38 Ganthorpe... Mr. Thompson. 20 Bull Calf by ditto Mr. Stephenson 4 9 Spring Flower .. . 1838 Ganthorpe... Mr. Wetherell. . 30 10 Isabella 1838 Ditto ... Mr. Colvin .... 31 11 Gruyere 1839 Ditto ... Mr. Torr 22 Heifer Calf be-) ( Dm ,„ lonung to same) ( 12 Duchess 1889 Ditto Captain Shawe . 25 13 Holyock 1840 Ditto Rev. C. Nevile.. 23 Bull calf belonging to same Mr. Maw 5 14 Lady Anne 1833 Ditto Mr. Maw 10 15 Adelaide 1840 Ditto Mr. Torr 42 10 Cowslip 1840 Ditto Mr. Torr 29 17 Susannah 1840 Ditto Mr. Gillott 23 18 Blossom 1841 Gracchus.... Mr. Wetherell.. 100 1 9 Mermaid 1841 Ditto Mr. Wetherell. . 37 20 Blanche 1841 Ditto Rev. C. Nevile. . 31 21 Laurel 1841 Ditto Mr. Gillott 37 22 Fashion 1842 Ditto Mr. Thompson. 47 23 Claudia 1842 Ditio Rev. C. Nevile . 37 24 Juliet 1844 Ditto Ditto 37 Heifer calf by her Ditto 17 25 Sunflower ...... 1842 Ditto Ditto 39 26 Zenobia 1842 Ditto Captain Shawe. . 38 27 Bracelet 1843 Ditto Mr. Baker S7 28 Madcap .... 1843 Bolsover. ... Mr. Ladds .... 37 29 Purity 1843 Ditto Mr. Colvin 27 30 Parmesan D43 Ditto Mr. Mapletoff. . 32 31 Evelina 1843 Ditto Captain Shawe. . 36 32 Lady Charlotte . . 1843 Proselyte Mr. Ladds 26 83 Crocus Is43 Paragon Mr. Wilson .... 27 34 Rosemary 1844 Ditto Ditto.. 37 35 Raspberry 1844 Ditto Mr. Skipworth . 13 36 Favourite 1844 Ditto Mr. Gillott 27 37 Sarah 1844 Ditto Rev. F. Peel . . . 23 38 Augusta 1844 Lictor Rev. C. Nevile .. 37 39 Empress 1844 Ditto Mr. Hutcheson . 37 40 Auricula 1844 True Blue.., Mr. Ladds 21 41 Cleopatra 1843 Lictor Rev. J. Cooke.. 26 42 Cornelia 1845 Ditto Mr. Mapletoff.. 30 43 Briseis ....* 1845 Ditto Mr. Torr.... ... 27 44 Susan 1845 Ditto Rev. C. Nevile.. 20 45 May Flower .... 1S45 Ditto Ditto 15 BULLS. ,,. -r- . ,m, t. i ( G. Wentworth, ) _,, 46 Lictor ... 1841 Ranunculus . j jjsq... . I "° 47 Emperor 1844 Lictor Mr. Wetherell ..250 48 Agricola 1845 Ditto Mr. Copeland .. 15 49 Senator 1845 Ditto Mr. Wetherell.. 25 50 Consul 1845 Ditto Mr. Wilson .... 80 51 Caesar 1845 Ditto Mr. Tucker 54 52 Woldsman 1845 Ditto Mr. Fenton 22 53 Pompey 1845 Ditto Mr. Wakefield . 13 54 Soldier 1845 Ditto Captain Shawe . 40 The 44 cows and heifers fetched 1,368 guineas, and the 9 bulls 575 guineas ; making a grand total of 2,082/. 8s. EARL SPENCER'S SALE, WISETON. Saturday, Sept. 13. COWS AND HEIFERS. 1 No. 55 1829 Monarch Mr. Topham . 21 2 Cassandra ,.,.,.. 1834 William ...... Mr. Gillott .,28 362 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ko. Name. When Calved. Sire. 3 Fascination 1885 Ditto .. 4 Honeysuckle 1836 5 Heartsease 1837 6 Edith 1837 7 Ultima 1837 8 Desdemona 1837 9 Henrietta 1SS7 10 Nemophylla 1838 11 Sage 1838 12 Quill 1838 13 Gentian 1838 14 Rosemary 1839 15 Isabella 183J 16 Flirt 1839 17 Arethuisa 1839 18 Ophelia 1840 By whom bought. Gs. . . Mr. Lakin ... 22 Ditto Mr. Parkinson 4 1 Ditto Ditio 27 It oinan Mr. Hutton .. 25 Firby Mr. Gillott . . 32 Ditto Mr. Skipworth 27 William Mr. Pa rkinson 28 Wiseton .... Mr. Lakin ... 33 William Mr. Gray 31 Ditto Ditlo 26 Roman Earl of Zetland 63 Ditto Mr Stephenson 2 ! Wiseton Rev. C. Neville 20 William Capt. Shawe.. 43 Roman Mr. Hutton .. 37 Wiseton Mr. Topham 19 Angelica 1840 William LordDucie.. Sweet William 20 Agrippina 1810 21 Aspasia 1840 22 Madalene 1840 23 Utopia 1840 24 Horatio 1840 25 Petunia 1841 26 Misidora 1841 Hecatomb 27 Auricula 1S41 28 Cilt 1841 29 Banksia 1841 30 Cecilia 1842 31 Jewell ..... 1842 83 Emily 1842 33 Genoa .... 1842 34 Tin 1842 35 Tragedy 1842 36 Peach 1842 37 Passion 1842 38 Fragrance 1843 39 Pelisse 1843 40 Bacchante 1843 41 Rebecca 1843 42 Finery 1843 43 Norma 1843 44 Oxygen 1844 45 Clove 1844 Roman Mr. Hutton SirW.E.Wel- ley 27 Roman "Ditto 50 Wiseton Mr. Lakin .. 22 Roman Mr. Wetherell 38 Wiseton Rev. C. Nevile 36 SirW. E. Wel- ley 50 Roman ' Mr. Walker.. 83 Ranunculus... Sir W. Cooke 26 Ditto Not offered (lame) Orontes Mr. Parkinson 80 Wiseton Mr. Thompson 32 Sweet William Mr. Hutton .. 20 Mr. Gray 35 Sir W. Cooke. 49 Rev. C. Nevile 33 Mr. Wetherell 40 Mr. Trinder .. 50 Mr. Wetherell 31 Ditto 53 Mr. Walker.. 26 Lot. Xame. When calved. Sire. By whom hought. Gs. Expectation . . Mar. of Exeter 60 Ranunculus .. Sweet William Zenith Ditto Ranunculus . . . Olympus Wiseton Ranunculus .. Ditto.. Mr. Trinder .. 66 Wizard Mr. Maw 21 Ditto Mr. Forrest.. 43 Ditto Mr. Gillott ... 30 Ditto ; Sir W. E.Wel- [ ley 32 Earl of Zetland 29 Ditto 30 Rev. C. Nevile 2-.' 40 Posthuma 1844 Ranunculus ." 47 Fuchia 1844 Wizard • 48 Scribble 1844 Ditto 4!) Tansy 1845 Ditto Ditto BULLS, lame, but put up and then withd rawn Wizard \ Earl of Bur- "u'uu I lington 200 Ditto Mr. Hutton .. 61 Evander Mr. G.Johnson 33 Wizard Mr. Grav . . . . 130 Ditto Capt. Shawe.. 3.1 Ditto Sir T. Lemard 60 Mr. Walker .. 22 The cows and heifers at this sale realized 1,718 guineas, and the bulls 541 guineas; making a total of 2,37W. 19s. 50 Wizard 1841 51 King Lear 1814 52 Pontifex 1844 53 Arcadian 1844 54 Zadig 1844 55 Nowreddin 1845 56 Mazeppa 1845 57 Another calf 21 Tulip 1842 22 Emerald 1842 21 Nemesis 1842 24 Hoyden 1842 25 Serenade 1812 26 Imogene 1812 27 Briseis .. 1842 28 Miranda 1843 29 Eglantine 1st:} 30 Marion 1813 31 Marcia 1843 32 Venus 1343 33 Statira 1843 84 Roxana 1843 85 Rebecca 1843 30 Sophv 1848 37 Busite 1*43 88 Sylph 1843 39 Jlary Brame 1 843 40 Cherry 1844 41 Cerito'r 1844 42 Countess 1844 43 Yarico 1844 44 Thais 1814 45 Mayflower 1844 46 Cowslip 1844 47 Rustic 1844 48 Syringa 1-44 49 Beauty 1844 50 Anticipation 1844 j 51 Bellona 1844 52 Harvester 1844 53 Britannia 1844 54 Warren Rose .... 1844 55 Bee's-wing 1845 56 Maud Mary 1815 57 Octavia (dead) 58 Stella 1S45 59 Thalia 1845 (i) Howrl 1845 01 Symphony ...... 1845 61 A heifer 1842 RareeShow.. Mr. Maw 25 Bellerophon .. Mr. Bakewell. 34 Bardnev Mr. Johnson . 26 Raree Show. . . Mr. H. Smith. 80 Ditto Mr. Stafford.. 30 Ditto Mr. Stafford.. 40 Bellerophon . . Mar. of Exeter 73 Ditto Mr. Thompson 44 Ditto Mr. Dixon 50 Ditto D.of liuceleuch 34 Ditto Mr. W. SmithlOO Ditto Mr. Wetheell 76 Fndymion .... Rev.J.D.Becher33 Belshazzar < . . . Mr. Thompson 68 Ditio Sir R. Pigott . 51 Ditto Mr. Stafford.. 120 Ditto Sir R. Pigott . 51 Bellerophon .. Mr. Dixon ... 24 Rathreagh . . . . Mr. Bakewell. 24 Ditto Mr. Bakewell. 28 Ditto Mr.Stephenson 27 Ditto Mr. Stafford.. 85 Ditto Mr. Stafford.. 40 Mr. Wetherell. 26 Mr. Crossley.. 27 Rev.J.D.Be'cherl7 Sir R. Pigott . 31 Mr. Skipworth 19 Mr. Stafford.. 45 Ditto Belshazzar .... Endymion .... Rathreagh.... Brigadier .... Lord Adolphus Fairfax .... Ditto ' Mr. Stafford.. 52 Ditto Mr. Eastwood. 60 Ditto Mr. Wetherell 71 Ditto Sir R. Pigoit . 4< Ditto Mr. Stafford 65 Ditto Mr.Stephenson 30 Ditto Mr. Walker.. Ditto Mr. Maw Ditto Mr. Johnson.. Rathreagh .... Mr. Fenton . . „ e. (Mr. Bartho-' Raree Show.. J lomew ..„ BULLS AND BULL CALVES. L rd Adolphus Fairfax 63 Rathreagh (il Fairfax Royal... 65 Rathmoylan .... 66 Van den Bosch . . 1840 Sir Thomas Fairfax (dead) 1841 1844 0"! Collard Mr. Ladds.... Lord Adolphus \ Mr. Cruik- Fairfax ) shanks. ...150 1844 ^Endvmion .... Mr. Gamson.. 41 1844 Rathreagh .... Mr. Watson .. 25 07 67 Robin Hood 1844 j ^St^ffi^ ! Mr' Hay 68 Foig-a-Ballagh .. 1S14 09 iloccaccio 1845 MR. HENRY WATSON'S SALE, WALKERING- HAM. 1 Matilda 2 Ellen 1831 3 Red Rose 1835 4 Barmpton Rose . . 5 Flighty 1836 0 Gohanna 1837 7 Margaret 1838 8 Sylvia . 1838 9 Bessy 1888 10 Ruby 1839 11 Strawberry 1839 12 Princess Royal.... 1889 13 Buttercup 1841 14 Madeline 1841 15 Dorothy 1840 Monday, Sept. 15. COWS AND HEIFE Champagne .. Remus Priam Expectation .. Woodford .... Tartar Ditto Eclipse Thick Hock... Renown Second Comet , Thick Hock... Garrick Raree Show .. Plenipo f Brother to 10 Alice 1840< Waddy's (. bull 17 Thetis 1840 Renown 18 White Lady 1841 Charles XII... 19 Miss Pickwick .. 1840 Pickwick 20 Zitella 1841 Sailor Boy.... R s. .Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. M r. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. lull' Mr. Mr. Mr. Walker.. 26 Gillott... 87 Thompson 32 Smith 82 Stafford.. 30 Skipworth 29 Hutcheson 86 Topham . . 82 Stafford.. 68 Townsend 80 Smith ... 92 1 Ducie . 280 E.'.stwood.l30 Barratt . . 80 Dilk 40 70 Maugrabin 1845 71 Ranger 1845 2 Senator 1815 \ t""J Adolphus ] ( Fairfax ) Ditto ' Mr. Dilk 01 Rathreagh .... Mr. W. BowerlOO 25 Lord Adolphus ] Fairfax ] Rathreagh Mr. Brown Mr. H. Smith. 36 Mr. Bartholo- mew 28 3 Mesmer 1845 Ditto ' Mr. Edgington 53 74 Rubric 1845 Ditto Mr. Wilmot.. 16 75 Terminus 1845 Ditto Lord Galway . 33 The cows and heifers fetched 8,812 guineas, and the bulls and bull calves 698 guineas. Mr. Gamble . . 35 Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Townsend 33 Gillott ... 29 Wilson... 80 Hutton . . 23 THE PROPER DIRECTION OF THE TRACES IN HARNESS. — It is universally admitted that the best way of applj ing the power of horses is by means of shafts or traces, to carriages. The best position of the traces, or shafts, when a horse is made to exert himself to draw in a carriage, is so well known and understood by those who are daily in the habit of " hanging to," that it needs scarcely be noticed. The trace, when a horse leads forward to draw, should become perpendi- cular to the collar, and parallel to the plane of the road on which he is moving. In moving up a hill the trace should be- come parallel to the plane of ascent. When he is standing at ease, the direction of the trace should be a little upwards ; be- cause when urged to draw, he leans forward, and in so doing he lowers the forepart of his body, which will tend to bring the trace parallel to the plane when his power is fully applied. If any deviation from the parallel be admitted, it is desirable sucli THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 363 deviation should incline upwards rather than downwards. If the direction were downwards below the parallel, the power of the animal would have a tendency to increase the friction by pulling the wheels into the cavities of the road. After contem- plating these remarks, the following suggestions present themselves : — The radius of the fore-wheels should be less than the height from the road to the point of draught on the shoul- der of the animal. The shaft or pole should be hung on a le- vel with the centre of the wheel. The least horse, or rather the horse of lowest stature in a team, ought to be selected for the shafts, and he ought not to be so low as to cause them to in- cline downwards towards the road. In selecting a team, the tallest horse should be placed first, and the others ought to be so placed as to descend regularly down to the stature of the shaft-horse, in order to preserve a continued ascent in the line of traction. If a regular line of ascent be not preserved, as it will not, by placing a low horse between two tall ones, it is not dillicult to show that a portion of their power will be lost hi acting against one another, and thus render their united effect not so powerful as it might be by a different and proper ar- rangement. To the individuals acquainted with the elementary principles of mechanics, these suggestions will appear natural and obvious ; but, in practice, it is known that the temper, and steadiness of the animal mostly regulate the situation in which we find him placed in the team; and therefore devia- tions from the rule laid down respecting stature will often be necessary, and perhaps desirable. In teams of perfectly well- trained horses, the rule may be adopted with advantage. — Ele- ments of lluad Engineering, by a Practical Surveyor. SHALLOW CULTIVATION. We copy the following interesting paper, upon a subject on which much misapprehension, not to say- ignorance, exists, from the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. The paper is written by Mr. Henry Parker, of Fairford, Gloucestershire, and is entitled, " On the Advantage of very Shallow Cul- tivation on alight Moory Fannin Gloucestershire." Having had considerable experience in the culti- vation of moory land, and having for several years turned my attention to the best method of procur- ing early spring feed, I proceed to state my mode of management upon a farm of 200 acres of arable land of light, poor, thin moory soil, with a subsoil of either blue or white clay, peat, or white gravel. ROTATION OF CROPS. First year, Early turnips No. 1 Second „ Wheat 2 Third „ Vetches and turnips, or Swedes 3 Fourth „ Barley 4 Fifth „ Meadow grass, Loliumperenne, var 5 Sixth „ Meadow grass, second year . 6 FIRST YEAR, CULTIVATION FOR TURNIPS. No. 1. This portion being always the second year's seeds of No. 6, I breast-plough and burn, throw the ashes equally over the land ; breast- plough again rather deeper than before, harrow and drill with the turnip seed (sufficiently wide to ad- mit of the horse-hoe) sixty bushels of artificial ma- nure, consisting of lime, wood, and turf-ashes, in equal quantities, leaving it lightly rolled ; and when the plant is high enough, I commence using the horse and hand hoes, which I continue to do very frequently throughout the summer, thereby en- couraging the growth of the turnips, and enabling me to begin feeding them off in the month of August. SECOND YEAR, CULTIVATION FOR WHEAT. No. 2. The turnips of No. 1 being consumed, I breast-plough to mix the sheep manure with the soil, horse-plough very lightly, drill 2\ bushels of red Lammas wheat per acre, leave it till the spring fol- lowing, and before the horse-roll can be used, send women to tread it, and, if occasion requires, tread it again ; after which 1 have it twice hoed. I have found more benefit from this mode of pressing than any other, being done at a time when wheat, on this description of soil, requires assistance. THIRD YEAR, CULTIVATION FOR TURNIPS. No. 3. The stubble of the wheat-crop of No. 2 being cleared, I breast-plough, plant two bushels of winter vetches per acre, hoe them the spring fol- lowing ; when fit, feed them with sheep. Breast- plough, rake up, and burn everything that would be in the way of the drill or horse-hoe ; drill in, with the turnip seed, ten bushels of bones per acre, lightly roll it, and adopt the same management with regard to hoeing as described in the cultivation of No. 1. After the turnips of this field (No. 3) have been eaten, I again use the breast-plough, and leave it till the time of planting barley, when I — FOURTH YEAR, CULTIVATION FOR BARLEY. No. 4. Breast-plough, harrow, drill four bushels of barley, and sow two bushels of meadow-grass seed, Loliumperenne, var., and four pounds of red or broad clover per acre ; harrow and roll. The meadow-grass being intended for early, and the clover for late food. FIFTH YEAR, MEDOW GRASS. No. 5. The turnip crop of No. 3 being now nearly consumed, and the couples requiring a change of food, I am enabled, by about the 6th of April, to place them on my early spring food; which being eaten, I leave for seed ; and when the latter- math is fit, again hurdle it off with the ewes during the day, removing them every night to the turnips of No. 1, which are now being stocked to plant with wheat. SIXTH YEAR, MEADOW GRASS. No. 6. This being a two-years' ley, I feed it the whole year ; the early part of the season allowing the sheep to remain in the same field; but the lat- ter part, removing them every night as described in No. 5. MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK. I will begin with the month of August, when I have commenced feeding the turnip crop of No. I. The flock would now consist of 1 50 stock ewes, 75 ewe and 75 wether lambs; the stock ewes going during the day to the lattermath of No. 5 or 7, re- turning at night to No. 1, to leave extra manure and firm the land for the succeeding wheat crop ; the lambs remaining wholly in No. 1, eating corn, and having their turnips cut till consumed, when the wheat is planted and the flock removed to the turnips or Swedes of No. 3, where they remain till about the sixth of April. The turnip crop being 364 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. now nearly consumed, the wether tegs are sold to the butcher, the ewe tegs left to finish the few remain- ing turnips of No. 3, and the ewes and lambs re- moved from the pen used for yeaning to the early spring feed of No. 5, now fit to receive them, which, from not having been stocked the preceding year after harvest, but allowed to grow, has been pro- tected from the frost, and is rendered more whole- some by the young and old grass being eaten toge- ther, so that the sheep do not scour. Food of this description at this early period of the season, upon a poor, thin, moory farm, without an acre of meadow land, I find of most essential service, par- ticularly for my ewes and lambs, having always ob- served that, although taken from turnips or Swedes, sainfoin hay, and a well-littered comfortable pen to lodge in at night, they have made a decided im- provement when placed on this food. I would here remark, that on this day, the 24th of February, while moory land generally is wearing a russet wi- thered appearance, this grass of No. 5 looks green and flourishing, and appears in no way to have suf- fered from the inclemency of the weather. I have never been able to obtain keep of any other descrip- tion so early that will not scour, possessing so much nourishment, or capable of yielding the quan- tity of milk, on this description of land. I do not allow my sheep to have their food without being hurdled to them every day, thereby making it go further, and keeping the flock more in the same condition throughout the year ; and that the lambs may go forward, have more liberty, and pick out the shortest and sweetest of the keep, I have "creepers" placed so as to enable them to do so. I have never known this grass killed by the frost, although my wheat in the adjoining field has; neither have I found it possess any evil tendency to draw the soil or deteriorate the succeeding crop. About the 12th of May I remove the sheep from No. 5 to No. 6. I have always considered the crop of seed to be nearly as much, and the quality better, than if it had not been stocked from the manure left, and the land being firmed by the treading of the sheep. Indeed, were this fiel 1, No. 5, to produce nothing more than the early food spoken of, so valuable have I found it, that I be- lieve it already to have nearly paid its rent ; but, in addition to this, it affords me a crop of seed, the straw of which is consumed by the stock ewes during the winter when on turnips ; and from the clover seed sown with the grass, food is obtained the same year after the seed has -been carried ; and again the following year is fit to be stocked after the early spring feed of No. 5 has been consumed, and upon which, No. 6, the sheep are now placed where they remain till the vetches of No. 3 are fit to hurdle : upon which, with the assistance of the lattermaths of Nos. 5 and 6, I am enabled to keep them until the early turnips of No. 1 are again fit to begin. By this mode of management an economical sys- tem is followed up through the whole course, by being nearly all performed by manual labour, by which means a remunerating crop will be produced and the land always kept firm, which is the only difficulty to be overcome on this description of soil. The farm, when first taken by me, was wet, as much out of condition, and as light and weak as it well could be, parts of it being merely held together by the roots of grass and weeds natural to moory land, but which must be veiy prejudicial to the production of those crops that are to benefit the farmer. I commenced by draining, and then pursued the foregoing system of cultivation, by which my most sanguine expectations have been realized, though I was told that the land would be too light and too poor to plant wheat after turnips. I have never found any ill effects from paring and burning, ex- perience having taught me that it produces a ma- nure particularly beneficial to the growth of tur- nips, thereby enabling me to firm the land by sheep ; for were other means used to destroy the turf of the second year's seeds, No. 6, they would seriously injure and weaken the soil, and cause much difficulty in raising the turnip crop, which difficulty I appear now to have overcome, although I plant them twice during the course ; and were the turf not destroyed, the effects would be equally injurious. I rent another farm of 400 acres, half of which is a weak soil upon a subsoil of gravel with veins of clay ; the remaining half is stone brash. Fairford, Gloucestershire, Feb. 24, 1S44. NOTE BY MR. PUSEY. This statement of a practical farmer appears to me very remarkable, as bearing upon the supposed necessity for stirring all soils deeply. So far the other way does Mr. Parker's experience point, that he actually gives his farm only one horse-plough- ing, and that a shallow one, during his six years' rotation. The breast-plough, which he uses at other times, is the same instrument as is figured under the name of a paring spade in another part of this number. The workman forces it forward with his thighs, and turns over no more of the ground than a gardener who is taking off the turf of a pleasure-ground. Yet, excepting one horse- ploughing, this is all the stirring which Mr. Parker gives to his farm for six years. The breast- plough, indeed, is perseveringly used by him — twice in the first year, once in the second, no less than three times in the third year, and once again in the fourth. Instead of loosening the soil, Mr. Par- ker's efforts tend to preserve its firmness, or restore that firmness when lost ; and he states that otherwise he could not secure even a turnip crop. Strange as such doctrine may sound, Mr. Parker does not stand alone in his practice. Another farmer (Mr. Edmunds), whose family long occu- pied such light moory land in the same neighbour- hood, tells me they also found that nothing but the breast-plough would leave the ground firm enough to grow wheat. Occupying similar land, I may add that I never plough it deeply but I repent of so doing, and am falling more and more each year, by the advice of neighbouring farmers, into the use of the breast-plough instead of the horse- plough. This manual labour is quite as cheap ; for a good workman can pare such hollow tender land j at 4s., or even at 3s. an acre. It is possible that j the drought of our climate in Gloucestershire and J Berkshire may be one cause of the success of this THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 365 practice in those counties, and that the same soil, if transferred to Westmoreland, would require deeper working. Therefore, without recommend- ing shallow cultivation in districts where deep ploughing has been hitherto practised, I would merely warn beginners against plunging recklessly into the subsoil. Ph. Pusey. TO AGRICULTURISTS.— HARRISON'S ECO- NOMICAL PLAN FOR THE IMPROVE- MENT OF AGRICULTURE AND THE EMPLOYMENT OF LABOURERS; WHICH HAS BEEN PRESENTED TO THE AGRI- CULTURAL PROTECTION SOCIETY BY HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF RICHMOND, K.G., AND APPROVED BY MANY NOBLEMEN AND EMI- NENT LANDHOLDERS. The public are most respectfully solicited to take a calm, deliberate, and impartial view of the follow- ing address, the general adoption of which would be found to be. a sure remedy for many of the dis- tressing evils. It will form the groundwork for the employment of the poor, will open a wide field for improvements for the benefit of the farmer, will be a lasting advantage to the landholder, and will give to this country a name which it ought to have obtained many years since; viz., the finest agricul- tural country on the face of the globe. Volumes may be written on the subject of agricultural dis- tress ; but improved cultivation will be found to be the only cure — " Omnia diligentia subjiciunter." To Noblemen, Gentlemen, aud Agriculturists of England, Scotland, and Ireland. My Lords and Gentlemen, The great complaint throughout the United Kingdom of the distress and want of employment of agricultural labourers, has prompted me in addressing you on a subject which I am surprised has been suffered to remain so long neglected by the great enlightened agricultural societies of the present day; viz., the management of manure in farm-yards. To grow the greatest quantity of produce at the least possible expense must be viewed as a subject of very great importance, both to the landowner and farmer, which is only to be accom- plished by properly-constructed farm-yards, with tanks, drains, eye. No farm can literally be con- sidered eligible without it. On this subject I have addressed the Royal Agri- cultural Societies of England, Scotland, and Ire- land, and also many noblemen and eminent land- holders. It must be obvious to every thinking mind, that a great increase of the produce of the soil would very much add to the employment of the labourer ; and it may be also viewed as a national benefit. Nothing in agricultural pursuits has been so grossly neglected as the management of manure in farm-yards, eye; the abominable ivaste of which has been a most painful subject to myself for a long time past, and one to which I have given mature consideration. It is this which has prompted me in addressing the leading agricultural societies on the subject. From a calculation lately made, it is proved that for want of manure a loss to the United Kingdom is sustained to the amount of from eleven to twelve millions of pounds annually .' Could this increase of growth be accomplished, or even one half of it, we should hear but little of the complaints of la- bourers or of com bills or com laws ; our country would be amply supplied from our own soil. I am very much inclined to think that this could in a great measure be accomplished by a proper system being adopted in every farm-yard in which the dung is deposited, so that the liquid manure could be saved, and used at discretion. The surface of the farm-yard should be of a concave shape, with a round brick tank in the centre, surrounded by a low dwarf wall, and bounded by a drain for carrying off the surface water which may fall from the surrounding buildings. To this tank a pump should be fixed, elevated five or six feet for the accommodation of the water-cart, a most valuable appendage to every farm. To this tank bring the drainage of your stables, pigsties, cattle-sheds, wash-house, water- closet, &c. Bear in mind, that that which is despised is often the most useful. This liquid you will find invaluable in the manufacturing of manure which is at present suffered to pass off in draining. Instead of allowing the great mass of manure to remain on the surface of the yard, which robs it of many of its valuable properties, have it formed into ricks round your tank, in the inside of the dwarf wall, so that they may be supplied with the liquid during the time of making, and that the tank may receive the drainage. The exposure of manure to the atmosphere, as is the present cus- tom, is a most ruinous practice, and may be truly called one of the agricultural evils. Do away with the detestable practice of burning your couch-grass, SfC. Remember, that what Avill produce a cart-load of manure decomposed, will only produce a wheelbarrow of ashes: bring it home to your bartons, also the cuttings and parings from roads, deposits in your ditches, which are principally vegetable matter, rubbish from your gardens, &c, and let all be deposited in your manure ricks ac- cording to the following directions ; viz., a layer of stable-dung one foot thick, a layer of vegetable matter six inches thick, a layer of lime, grist, and salt two inches thick on the top of this laying; saturate with the liquid from the tank, in a suffi- cient quantity to pass through the whole. Begin again, and repeat the course as before, with the dressings, and make the ricks to any size you may judge proper, the larger the better ; a layer or two of soot near the top of the rick will be desirable. After you have made them to the size you may wish, and thoroughly saturated with the liquid from the tank, cover them close with long dung to keep in the ammonia and prevent the rain from penetrat- ing. The covering should be removed from the centre and the liquid applied once a week, and re- main five or six months before used. In making your manure ricks, introduce a wicker cane-shaped tube in the centre, to receive the sup- ply ; a few layers of draining tiles will be also de- sirable at the bottom, to give the information that 366 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the liquid has passed through the whole body, and to convey the waste to the tank. A large supply of this licpiid will give unbounded scope to the farmer in the manufacturing of manure. The ricks should never be suffered to heat beyond 80° or 90°, otherwise you deteriorate its value con- siderably. This is one of the most important points in the management of manure ; the loss sus- tained by inattention to this subject is incalcu- lable. By this neglect the manure is ruinously degenerated, and great quantities of vermin are generated and taken to the land. I beg to draw particular attention to this remark. Application of the liquid from the tank will at all times check the evil. This liquid, after passing through the manure, may then be considered a valuable liquid manure either for meadow or fallow land. This powerful mixture only requires to be known to be appreciated, and should be applied imme- diately after the crops are taken off the ground. To meadow land it will be best applied in damp weather, and to arable at any time ; the arable land being first dressed with salt and lime, it will not only manure the soil, but will destroy vermin, de- compose the filth left after the crop, clean the land, and prepare it for early cultivation. It will also be found to be a capital manure for gardening purposes, and would, after this effect had been tried, be appreciated and considered the most valuable part of the manure. By a general adoption of this plan it would very soon be the pride of every farmer to see his barton well stocked with manure ricks, and very pleasing to the landholder to see a provision made for his land. A very short period will convince every per- son who may think proper to adopt the plan, that the growth of crops will be very considerably in- creased, and that their expense and trouble have been amply repaid. The Earl Ducie's model farm, in 1S39, let for £200 per annum, and employed five persons ; it now employs twenty, and the produce is increased more than four times, and is valued for the poor- rate at £564 per annum. The farm contains 240 acres; the produce last year (1844) was 120 acres of wheat, 20 acres of carrots, 20 acres of mangel, 20 acres of turnips, 20 acres of potatoes, and 40 acres of clover. The wheat crop is expected to average 40 bushels per acre, 1,200 sacks. The crops this year (1845) are very promising. Self- support and economy of manure are the leading points in the management of this farm. In the manufacturing of liquid manure on the plan I have suggested, no attention whatever is re- quired from the farmer. The tank is supplied im- perceptibly by under-ground drains from the vari- ous resources ; it is at all times ready for use, and without any expense. In applying liquid manure to meadow land no injury is sustained to the plant, its application be- ing instantaneous, and no desight in appearance, which is the case with farm-yard manure. The cattle can also feed from the pasture immediately it is applied. Neither is the application expensive; a tingle horse and boy being all the strength required. Few persons have made the subject of manure a closer study than myself for some years past, having always considered it the mainspring of the agricul- tural profession, and seeing, at the same time, very gross neglect and great scope for improvement. In the present day patronage is a strong stimulus, and without it persons feeling inclined to persevere in any public business have great difficulties to encounter. My experience enables me to say the plan I have suggested is so very plain and simple, as to be in the power of any person to adopt ; and, it will be observed, it gives distinct kinds of manure. From the practice I have had, I am convinced that those who may be inclined to adopt the plan will find their manure considerably more than dou- bled in value. The application of liquid manures is as yet quite in its infancy. A clean farm ought to be the pride of every farmer, and this is not to be obtained without attending to the use of manure properly decomposed, and also to that of liquid manures, as it then takes no filth to the land. A general adoption of collecting and manufactur- ing manure would very much increase labour and prove a decided remuneration to the employer, which is a great object in the present day. The unbounded scope which is given to the cultivators of the soil in collecting everything which is decomposable for manure, has never been pro- perly appreciated ; and it is a mystery that a sub- ject of such vast importance should have remained so long neglected, when it cannot be viewed in any other light than being profitable to the employer. Vegetable matter ought to be more highly valued. The formation of the farm-yard, tank, drains, &c, must be a part and parcel of the farm, and provided at the expense of the landholder, who would ultimately receive a hundred-fold for the outlay. Complicated recommendation for a general plan to be adopted in the manufacturing of farm- yard manures would, I am convinced, from the long experience I have had with agriculturists, have no general effect. In the manufacturing of manure for general purposes, the greater the variety of proper articles combined, the more poicerful the manure will be after decomposition has taken place (see " The Cottagers' Manure Heaps"). One cart load is quite equal to two of farm-yard manure in producing crops. Having taken the opinions of many eminent land- holders and practical farmers on the subject of my address ; and not one objection having been made against it, convinces me that if properly carried out, the residt would be most satisfactory. It must be acknowledged that this is a very impor- tant subject, and one that cannot be confuted; and if supported by the royal societies, and the leading landholders, it would very shortly become a pro- minent question with agriculturists generally ; and if so, the result must be prodigious. A great change has already taken place in the cultivation of the soil : not one-half the sum has been expended this last year in artificial manures as there was in the year before ; and this evil will in- crease, if not counteracted. It is now very gene- rally acknowledged that the waste of the liquid from manure has. been a long growing evil ; but THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 367 with whom does this evil rest ? Decidedly not with the fanner. If the proper arrangements are provided by the landholder, the evil will be quickly removed. If high cultivation can be obtained at a moderate expense, demand for labour will undoubtedly follow . It may also be considered a great neglect in not erecting lime-kilns on farms. By this omission the farmer sustains a great loss ; in most cases he has to send miles for lime, and pay more than dou- ble the amount the article could be manufactured for on the farm, and does not use a tenth part the quantity he would do if it could be obtained at a lower price; its value for agricultural purposes, when mixed with salt, is inestimable. There cannot be a doubt respecting the prefer- ence which would be given to liming land instead of the present cold system of chalking, if the article could be obtained cheap ; it being so quick and ef- fective in its application ; the bountiful use of which would materially change the system of farming. A drawback of duty on bricks used for erecting tanks, drains, and lime-kilns for agricultural pur- poses, would be most desirable. Avery wide view may be taken of the beneficial effects which would emanate from it by giving employment to labourers. "Would not Government be inclined to grant this boon, if solicited ? Liquid manure tanks would be very valuable appendages to farms in case of fire, the liquid from the mixture being most efficacious in quenching fire. It is truly distressing to see the miserable crops housed by so many fanners, when, at the same time, the means are on the farm for growing a good crop; which the farmer is deprived of for want of the proper arrangements being provided on the farm. It is very questionable if this country could not, in a very short time, be brought into such a state of cultivation as to produce sufficient grain for its consumption. See the Chinese, with their immense population, to be exporters of manure. The use of night-soil as a manure has for a long time been urged by many of the great Professors on practical farmers, but with little effect. The remarks of Professor Liebig alone have been quite sufficient to establish its adoption. False delicacy I think is the principal objection. A most effectual plan is to be found in using ashes for the removal ; this article will secure 'the i ammonia, take up the moisture, and will prove a most excellent mixture — a sufficient quantity should be used, with frequent turning, to produce a drill manure. I particularly solicit the attention of market gardeners and cottagers to this manure, and to the directions for securing it. Their land will be completely renovated by its use, and a large crop of onions, which is designated the poor man's hot dinner, and so frequently a a failure, may be insured the following season. Landlords would find it much to their interest to visit their estates more frequently; they would then have an opportunity of gaining information which would be of mutual advantage both to them- | selves and tenants. Information from practical men cannot be too highly appreciated. The thousands of acres of land about to be ap- propriated to rail-road purposes points out to land- holders the propriety of promoting high cultiva- tion. Improved cultivation will be found to be the most effective remedy for dispersing the great gloom which is now fast gathering over agriculturists. I beg to recommend a preparation of lime and salt, to be prepared in the month of October, for a top dressing for wheat crops in the spring. This mixture will protect the crop from the slug and will also be a protection from game. The pro- portions should be one bushel of salt to two of lime, and before using it in the spring add one cwt. of black sulphur to every forty bushels, to be well mixed before used, and applied at the rate of 14 or 16 bushels to the acre. The same dressing will be found to answer well for the turnip crop, and should be applied immediately after the sowing ; this will be found a most excellent preventive from the fly, and will be very beneficial to the growth of the crops. A general adoption of this plan would remove much anxiety from the farmer. No farmer ought ever to be without a good stock of prepared salt and lime, which should be mixed three or four months before used. "Time will not injure it." With this mixture crops may at all times be greatly improved, at a very small expense, in preparing which the large knobs of lime should be broken, and the heap frequently turned over. Strength and beauty will also be added to the straw by the use of this mixture. I also beg to recommend the use of sawdust in cases of scarcity of straw, for stall-fed cattle, pigs, &c. It will be found a good substitute for straw in keeping the cattle clean, and not a bad mixture with manure. It will also prevent the waste of urine, and will act well with the vegetable matter. It is easily obtained, and very cheaj). Cleanliness is too much neglected in the manage- ment of cattle. Many of the diseases incidental to cattle mav be attributed to this neglect, and also to the feeding of cattle on decomposed vegetable matter. Cleanliness and feeding are veiy im- portant subjects, and ought to claim more par- ticular attention. I beg to solicit a perusal of the following table, which will show the amount of dry organic matter contained in the most usual kinds of food for cattle : Organic Water. Matter. Ashes. lbs. lbs. lbs. lOOlbs. of Peas . contain 16 80^ 3£ — Beans . . 14 80^ 3§ — Lentils . . 16 81 3 — Oats ... 18 79 3 — Oatmeal . 9 89 2 — Barley-meal . 15^ 82 i 2 — Hay 16 76h 7 k — "Wheat-straw .18 79 3 — Turnips . 89 10 1 — Swedish turnips ; 85 14 1 — Mangel wurzel 89 10 1 — White carrot .87 12 1 — Potatoes . 72 27 1 — Red beet . .89 10 1 — Linseed-cake 17 75 £ 7-i — Bran . .14 81 5 B B 368 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. In introducing my address to the public, I have endeavoured to simplify my economical plan as much as possible, " profitable farming being my decided object:" and, to avoid observations of its being complicated, I have introduced the notice at the end, to superintend the arrangement and erec- tion of a limited number myself. My Lords and Gentlemen, I beg most respect- fully to solicit your pardon for the liberty I have taken in addressing you on this subject ; but, being a very warm advocate for improving the long-neg- lected evil by lasting and profitable labour, I do flatter myself you will excuse the liberty I have taken. The remarks I have suggested, I am strongly impressed (if generally adopted), woidd be very effective in producing an increased demand for la- bour, and a general and profitable benefit to the farmer. The improved condition of the soil which must follow would be also an ample remuneration to the landholder for the small outlay required. The re- sult, therefore, can only be viewed as a mutual ad- vantage both to the landholder, tenant, and la- bourer. Profitable employment must predomi- nate. I have the honour to be, My lords and gentlemen, Most respectfully, Your obedient servant, John Harrison. NOTICE. A limited number of farm-yards surveyed and constructed on the plan suggested, and instructions given for manufacturing a very superior and power- ful compost drill manure, which can and ought to be made by every farmer on his own farm, and at a very moderate expense. A sample-box may be seen at the Royal Agri. Society's House, No. 12, Hanover- square, London. A cheaper and finer manure cannot be applied to the soil. Land laid out, and the electrical apparatus for improving the soil constructed and fixed with the required exactness. Applications addressed to Mr. Harrison, sur- veyor, St. John's-street, Devizes, Wiltshire, will meet with prompt attention. AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. BURNING CLAY. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — Being deeply interested in the s\ibject of " burnt clay" as a manure, I should esteem it a favour if through your paper I could get the result of any ex- periments on an extensive scale, where the application of Burnt clay has been fairly tried; what was the mode of preparation ; and also the address of any gentleman who has experimentalized therewith. Your kind assistance, Mr. Editor, will oblige A Practical Farmer. Sir, — In remote times we have accounts of Wheat being stored away for many years, but at the present day a few years' storing is sufficient to destroy the grab, or at least to deteriorate it so much as to render it unfit for the purposes of the miller. Can you or your readers give any satisfactory explanation for this change, or show that the ancients had any particular mode of preparation, or whether their wheat was of a different variety to the present kinds cultivated in Britain ? I am, Sir, yours, &c, A Subscriber. Sir, — I have a liquid manure tank which holds ten thousand gallons. I am sorry to find, amongst all the scientific men I have had an opportunity of consulting, such a diversity of opinion as to the quantity of sul- phuric acid necessary to fix the ammonia in the same. If any gentleman experienced in the matter would in- form me, through the columns of your valuable paper, what is the requisite proportion of this acid, or if there be any more desirable mode of fixing the ammonia, with the proper proportion, cost, &c, he will confer an obligation on your subscriber, Meadow Hall, Sept. 12. C. D. Sir, — Being very desirous to ascertain the best artificial manure for producing a luxuriant crop of tares, I will thank some of your numerous correspondents to inform me, from practical experience, which they would recom- mend, for that purpose, of all the many artificial com- posts now laid before the public. — I remain your obe- dient servant, A Young Farmer. Sir, — Being desirous of learning something of the che- mical nature of the contents of the street sewers of Lon- don, and the probable quantity of city refuse that may be daily draining into the Thames, I should feel obliged if you or your readers could furnish me with any informa- tion respecting the same. — Yours &c, Economist. Sir, — If any of your correspondents have at any time tried the refuse of gas works for manure, particularly gas tar, perhaps they would favour the writer of this, through the medium of your paper, with their expe- rience of the effect of gas tar as a manure, and how they prepared and applied it to the soil. Or perhaps, Mr. Editor, you would yourself throw a little light on the subject of this inquiry. By so doing you would oblige, sir. An Old Subscriber. Sir, — Will any of your numerous readers inform me through your paper, where is the best place to get one and two-horse carts with drags upon them ? I have read of a self-acting drag ; is there such a thing in actual use ? They seem to me to be particularly desirable in hilly counties, and I think it would repay a maker to send one to the Northumberland Agricultural Society's meeting at Alnwick, in October, as it strikes me forcibly he would be sure to dispose of it. Of course I should like to know the cost, &c, of them. — I am, your obe- dient servant, A Farmer. Sir, — Attention has frequently been called to the advantages of furze as a food for cattle ; perhaps some of the readers of your paper could inform me if the Irish furze is considered superior to the common Eng- lish furze for that purpose ; and if so, whether there be any peculiar management necessary in its cultivation .' — Yours, Mr. Editor, A Constant Subscriber. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 369 ANSWERS to AGRICULTURAL QUERIES. ON DESTROYING THISTLES. TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS. Sir, — In reply to your young correspondent, who wishes to be put into the possession of the secret for destroying thistles, I beg to inform him the only way to do so effectually is to eradicate them : but as there is some difficulty in doing this, owing to the nature of the root, I advise him to adopt my plans, with either of which I guarantee him success. As the perfect extrac- tion of the root is next to impossible, I find the only way to deal with them is to be perpetually cutting them down whenever they make their appearance on pasture ground, which eventually so weakens the root, that it dies: or if they appear on arable land, the subsoil plough will do their business for them ; which I can vouch from my own experience of this year. Your young correspondent should pay particular attention to his hedges and dyke banks, at this season especially, to see the thistles there do not ripen and shed their seed, otherwise all his labour to keep them down in his fields will be endless, and produce nothing but mortification and disappointment. This circumstance is not suffi- ciently attended to by farmers in general. I remain, Sir, your obedient servant, Salopiensis. THE HEAT NECESSARY FOR RIPENING WHEAT. In reply to u J. N.'s" inquiry respecting " the heat necessary for ripening wheat, and the amount of time the heat should be applied," it is to be observed that, from the time of the sprouting of a seed to the time when the plant arrives at maturity, must naturally be a vary- ing period, and will accord with the mean temperature of the season, or in other words, if all seasons from the commencement of vegetation to the time of ripeness were of an uniform temperature, the period from one state to the other would in all years be equal ; but as the temperature of a particular season may be above or beneath the average temperature of seasons, so will the period alluded to be longer or shorter, according to that circumstance. With respect to wheat sown the latter end of Oc- tober or beginning of November, it will certainly vegetate before the winter has fairly set in, but vege- tation has no sooner commenced than winter closes upon it, and makes it dormant until the warmth of spring again excites to action the vital principle ; therefore, without any sensible error, it maybe assumed, in regard to wheat, that calculations for computing aggregates of temperature, may date with us from the end of Febru- ary, when the stimulus of spring may be supposed to recall to activity the previous dormant life of the plants. Taking, therefore, the 1st of March as our standard to set off from, and ascertaining the mean temperature of the time from March 1st to when the wheat is fully ripe, and then by multiplying the number of intervening days by the number of degrees of the mean temperature of those days, we arrive at an approximation to the truth, of the amount of the degrees of heat necessary for per- fecting the wheat plant, which amount, experiments show to be somewhere near upon 8000°. F. To corroborate this opinion, the results of the follow- ing experiments are extracted from Law's translation of " Boussingault's Rural Economy :" " At Alsace, in 1835," says Boussingault, " we sowed our wheat on the 1st of November, the cold set in shortly after the plant had sprung, and the harvest took place the 16th of July, 1836." Calculating from the 1st of March, when the frosts are no longer felt, the period of the growth was, therefore, 137 days, the mean temperature was 59Q F., the aggregate, 8083° F. " Tremois wheat, this same year, required 131 days to ripen, under a mean temperature of between 60° and 61° F. (7925° F.). " At Alais, the number of days which it requires to ripen is 146, the mean temperature being between 57* and 58" F. (8322° P.). " In America, at Kingston, New York, vegetation, after being suspended during the winter, resumes its activity in the beginning of April, and the harvest takes place about the 1st of August : the crop is, therefore, growing about 122 days, under the influence of a mean temperature of 63Q F. (76809 F.). " At Cincinnati, the wheat sown in the end of Fe- bruary is harvested in the second week in July, say the 15th day ; the crop is therefore 137 days on the ground, under a mean temperature of between 60° and 61° F. (8288° F.). " At Limijaca, plain of Bogota, wheat was reaped after being 147 days on the ground, the mean tempera- ture being between 58° and 59° F. (8526° P.)." Yours, Mr. Editor, J. S. T. Sir,— In answer to the first letter in your last number from " A Subscriber" respecting storing wheat, he may be informed that in no very remote time, the writer of this has seen Dantzic wheat in bond, which had been stored on a granary in London four years, and was at that time perfectly sweet, and in every other respect in as good preservation as when first laid on ; and on en- quiring how this was effected, the person to whose care it was consigned replied, " The grand secret is to exclude all air, except when the atmosphere is perfectly dry with a north or east wind, and to take advantage of such time by opening all the doors and shutters and screening it." There is certainly much more damage done to grain of any kind by exposure to the air at improper times, than by always excluding it. I have had wheat laid on co a granary in a perfectly dry state in July, six feet deep, excluded as much as possible from all air, and when used in the following January, it was found to be as sweet as (vhen first laid on ; and 1 have had wheat laid dry on to a granary only half that time, and frequently turned over, yet by improper exposure to the air, it has become much deteriorated. I apprehend that the only secret mode practised by the ancients for storing wheat, or any other grain, was first to have it thoroughly dried, either by natural or artificial heat, and then excluded from air as much as possible in a dry room, and that it was not con- fined to any particular variety. Hoping to see the time when by means of free trade (which the signs of the times tell us is near at hand) England will, like the Eygptians of old, store up corn in plentiful years, against a recurrence of years of scarcity, or a failure in the po- tato crops, and we shall then discover the best means for that purpose, and I believe we shall find that it may be done in these our days with as much success as in ancient times. Yours, A Free Trader» " A Subscriber" }n your paper of Sept. 15 asks why wheat at the present day becomes injured and rots quicker than used to be the case in remote times, when it was stored away and kept sound for an indefinite period ? Could the wheats so stored away have been similar to the kinds now cultivated ? he also inquires. Whether the Egyptians and other people in the earlier ages of the world cultivated other than the bearded and many-spiked wheats cannot now be decided, but the B B 2 070 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Romans were acquainted with both winter (or, beard- less) wheats and the true spring wheat, which is termed "tremois," or three months, on the continent, &c, in the present day. The great stores of wheat gathered up with a Government influence and for national purposes at the times "Subscriber" alludes to, will be found to have been chiefly in the South of Europe and the North of Africa ; and as the Wheats of those districts are both harder and tougher in the present day than those of the North of Europe, and also contain less moisture, it is only natural to infer that there was the same coincidence of circumstances in olden times; and as the natural quantity of moisture in wheat will be increased in the North of Europe to perhaps double the quantity it con- tains in the South, so also will the chances against its keeping for any long period be more diminished the further we recede from the tropical portion of the earth. Moisture therefore in wheat must be considered as one of the principles which tend to its decay ; and although artificial means, as kiln drying, may be used for robbing it of a considerable portion of the moisture, yet it does not appear probable that any such process will ever render the soft wheats of the north so well adapted for keeping as the hard and horny wheats of warm countries. — I am, Mr. Editor, yours &c, X. Y. Z. PEAT MANURE. "A. Z.'s" inquiry about peat as a manure, is best an- swered by stating that peat contains the elements neces- sary for the formation of a rich manure, when proper substances, such as lime, marl, &c, are added to it, to decompose the tannic acid, and hasten the decay of the vegetable matter. Alone, and unprepared, peat appears to have no fertilizing property ; but when properly dried and burned, the ashes have been found a good manure for grass lands and turnips : for turnips they are found to answer best in wet [seasons. Quicklime will decom- pose vegetable substances, including peat ; and the fol- lowing will befound good proportions for makingan excel- lent top dressing for clover or grass : — One cart-load of quicklime, the largest lumps to be not larger than the iist, six cart-loads of peat, and a quarter of a ton of salt ; the whole to be mixed together, and to lie in a heap six or seven months, and to be turned over two or three times during that period. Another capital method of converting peat into a manure, is by mixing it with fresh horse-dung, and checking the escape of the am- monia during the process of fermentation, by decompo- sing the carbonate of ammonia, and converting the ammonia into a sulphate by means of sulphuric acid. Prepare your heap thus : — Four loads of peat, to be mixed in layers with two loads of fresh horse-dung, and, if great heat is evolved during the decomposition of the two bodies, cover up the heap with fresh mould, amongst which has been mixed, a portion of sulphuric acid. Sir, — Allow me to suggest to your correspondent, "Francis Kinder,'' a mode for extirpating thistles, with which he seems to be much troubled. Let him under- drain two-and-a-half or three feet deep ; trench the field with spade or plough to a depth of eighteen inches : next spring, after producing a good tilth, drill manure and Swedish turnips in rows of three feet width, which set out at eighteen inches distance, and keep the inter- mediate spaces ploughed with a light plough drawn by one horse, and afterwards levelled by a scarifier suited to the width : repeat this operation at favourable in- tervals of ten or twelve clays, and as many times as may be requisite whenever the thistles appear, not omitting the due application of the hand-hoe between the plants, which must be fed off. In the succeeding year dress high, say thirty to forty tons of good manure per acre, and in the fallow rows of the previous year plant orange globe mangle wurzel, cultivating the land and setting out the plants in the same manner as the Swedes. In the third year lay the field cross-ways, and plant potatoes nine inches distance, in rows of two feet width ; after edge-hoing, let the horse-hoe be used freely before earthing, and never suffer a weed to exist after having been discovered. As soon as the potatoes are taken up, let him plant, drill, or press wheat, which should be properly hoed, and no thistles allowed to blossom in the hedges of his own fields, or those of his neighbour. If this course be adopted, it will not only prove a cure for the complaint which he makes, but likewise lay the foundation for a clean farm and abundant crops. After wheat, let him make an efficient autumnal and spring fallow for Swedes, then take barley, then clover, and conclude his course with wheat ; and, if ever a field should become foul (which I very much doubt) let him take root crops instead of corn. — I am, sir, your obe- dient servant, Renovater. Twickenham, Aug. 30, 1845. Your correspondent, " A Constant Subscriber," in- quires about the best manner of cultivating furze as food for cattle, and also if the Irish furze possesses ad- vantages over the common furze or gorse. The true Irish gorse (it lex stricta), considered to be the most nutritious of the gorses, is said to be found in only one locality in Ireland ; and, as it would be desirable to cultivate this kind in preference to any other, I should recommend those who are desirous of proving it, to obtain from a respectable nursery some plants of the ulex stricta, and propagate from them by layering, which is easily done by burying to the depth of five or six inches the branches around the plants, leaving one or two inches of the tops above the ground. They require very little nicety in the matter of laying the branches in the soil, as they will readily root, whether they be put down in groups or singly. The time for layering is both Spring and Autumn, and the time for transplanting during the month of October. The Irish furze will bear transplanting better than the common kind, as its roots are more numerous, and are much matted together. It will thrive in almost any soil, but a light gravelly kind appears to be its natural soil. The Irish furze may also be propagated by cuttings, but this method is not so sure as layering. The objection to raising the plant from seeds, is, that in procuring seed you may get them from the common gorse grown in Ireland, instead of the seeds of the true ulex stricta. Yours, Mr. Editor, Erin. Young Whip. — For allaying the annoyance of flies to working horses, an infusion of walnut leaves, applied occasionally between the ears and on other of the more sensitive parts of the horse, is used in some parts of the country. Poor-Law Guardian. — Expenses incurred for in- sane paupers may be levied oft* their estates. Y.Z.— According to the Act of 19th of July, 1844, a bank ceasing to issue its notes, cannot resume the same. Some mummy wheat, supposed to be 2,000 years old, sown by Col. North, at Wroxton, has produced upwards of 40 stems from each grain, each stem bearing an cor. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. 1 Thermometer. Wind and State. Atmosphere. Day. 8 a.m.} 10p.m. ■ Min. Max. 10p.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p. m. 10 p. m. Ang. 21 in. cts. 29.90 in. cts. 30.05 4S 62 52 N. West gentle fine sun fine 22 30.18 30.20 43 64 53 S.W.W.byN. gentle fine sun fine 23 30.20 30.05 49 64 55 Westerly variable fine sun fine 24 30.00 30.04 .53 66 56 Westerly gentle fine sun fine 25 30.04 29.90 48 63 59 S. by West brisk fine sun cloudy 26 29-90 30.05 52 66 56 West, by N. brisk fine sun fine 27 30.10 30.20 52 62 56 North brisk fine cloudy fine 28 30.25 30.30 51 64 54 N. East brisk fine sun fine 29 30.33 30.33 49 66 55 N. by East brisk fine sun fine 30 30.32 30.32 49 69 59 N. by East gentle fine sun fine 31 30.34 30.32 51 71 61 N. East brisk fine sun fine Sep. 1 30.34 30.25 55 66 55 N. East lively cloudy cloudy cloudy 2 30.24 30.20 52 62 57 N. East lively cloudy cloudy cloudy 3 30.30 30.20 48 58 54 N. East variable cloudy cloudy cloudy 4 30.20 30.20 47 57 53 N. East variable fine cloudy fine 5 30.19 30.16 46 57 52 E. by North brisk fine cloudy cloudy 6 30.17 30.18 50 60 50 Easterly brisk fine sun fine 7 30.18 30.16 48 65 52 Easterly gentle fine sun fine 8 30.16 30.16 46 65 51 N. East lively haze sun fine 9l 36.15 30.07 42 68 56 W. by North gentle fine sun fine 10; 30.00 30.12 46 65 57 Easterly variable cloudy cloudy \ cloudy ll| 30.12 30.02 52 58 56 Easterly brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 12| 30.00 30.00 53 66 53 Easterly gentle fine sun fine 13| 30.00 29.83 50 64 57 S. East gentle cloudy sun cloudy 14| 29.65 29.56 50 62 48 N. W. West gentle cloudy cloudy fine 15 29.45 29.64 45 55 51 N. West gentle cloudy cloudy fine 16 29.70 29.54 44 59 59 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy 17 29.54 29.46 59 64 59 S. West strong cloudy cloudy fine IS 29.35 29.50 57 62 55 W. W. by N. do. var. cloudy cloudy fine 19 29.70 29-98 48 58 47 W. by North brisk do. fine sun fine 20 29-98 29.70 1 40 58 54 1 Southerly brisk do. fine cloudy cloudy ESTIMATED AVERAGES OF SEPTEMBER. Barometer. Thermometer. North and N. East Winds . High. 1 Low. High. | Low. | Mean. 6 days. 5 30.41 | 29.41 76 | 36 | 57.8 Real Average Temperature of the period. 7 13 High. 1 • 62.77 | Low. Mean. 49.13 | 55.95 Weather amd Phenomena. — August 21st. Fine fleecy cumuli — a little rain. 22nd, 23rd, and 24th. Quite fine — the fine weather established. 25th. Apintof rain in the evening. 26th — 29th. Fine. 30th. Less wind — cirro-stratus — illuminated clouds at sunset. 31st. Month ends splendidly — with also a steady, high barometer. September 1st. Three days of gloom — cold — lively N. E. current. 4th. Evening improves. 5th. Cloudy in evening, and low temperature. 6th. Fine and clear. 7th. Superb, gorgeous sun- set. 8th. Fine — magnificent — highly tinted clouds at sunset, with a red East — sun very hot. 9th. Beautiful. 10th, 11th. Two gloomy days — Easterly current. 13th. Fine. 13th. Barometer falls below 30 in., and a flutter in the weather commences. 1 4th. One "thunder storm — some rain. 15th. Brisk shower. 16th. Rainy day — brisk wind. 17th. Rough wind and much rain. 18th. Wind and showers. 19th. Airy day — calm and clear even- ing. 20th. Beautiful forenoon, with brisk air — cirro-stratus — cloudy and wet evening. Lunations. — Last quarter, August 24th, 6 h. 27 m. evening. New Moon, September, 1st day, 9 h. 35 m. night. First quarter, 9th day, 5 h. 24 m. morning. Full moon, 15th day, 10 h. 13 m. night. Remarks referring to Agriculture. — The high state of the barometer occurring with the change of the 20th of August, continued till the 1 3th, when a change took place. Never was there a more propitious ingathering. At first, farmers 372 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hurried in their wheat in the shock ; hut they soon became more deliberate, and carried wheat, barley, oats in fine condition. The rainy weather returned too soon for the North, and as we close this notice, it appears more and more confirmed — the showers heavy and fre- quent. The Potato disease is extremely arbitrary : two plots are divided as by a fine — one black, the other untouched — and yet the tubers shall be equally good in both. It is an epidemic, and its cause atmos- pheric. Where wet ground the cause, what be- comes of the seasons of 1799 and 1816? — where was disease then? J. Towers. CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE— OCTOBER. Retrospect. — Weather. — September, to the day when we commence this article, has proved a splendid corrector of the mischief which was par- tially effected by the gloom and superfluous moist- ure of the preceding six weeks. Several hazy mornings, and cold, foggy days occurred since the 20th of August, when dry weather was established; but upon the whole there were four weeks of summer, which operated beneficially alike in field and garden, "crowning the labour of the husband- man," and bringing to maturity most of the valu- able fruits. So tardy, however, had been the pre- vious advances, that gooseberries and currants were abundant at the beginning of the month, and would have continued so to the end, had not birds stripped the trees so soon as the unwonted acidity of the berries, occasioned by low temperature and deficiency of sun, had abated ; for in the currants particularly, the saccharine principle was never completely developed. The disease of the Potato, so bruited, and thus rendered a source of panic terror, claims the most marked attention ; and we shall therefore offer our faithful and candid opinion concerning it. The first notice of the malady in the British dominions appeared soon after the extremely cold weather at the early part of August. Our instruments marked no actual frost; in fact it frequently occurs that the points of leaves and of herbage become strongly dewed, and even coated with rime, when the ther- mometer gives no indication of frost. One writer, however, in the Gardeners' Chronicle, of September 6th, observed — " It is somewhat a remarkable cir- cumstance, that on Friday, the 8th of August, we had an unusual quantity of electricity in the at- mosphere, and lightning from all parts of the heavens. We had also three nights' consecutive frost at that time ; and on Saturday, the 9th, the disease was first noticed in this neighbourhood." {Petworth.) We ourselves saw it in Berkshire, one week after that date, and the peculiar discolouration upon the leaves advanced rapidly with the second early sort, then beginning to ripen. The symptoms were these— first a dark spot or two, like the sun- scald through a drop of water ; not only leaflets, but entire leaves became affected, and at length the whole plants appeared as if scalded by hot water, (not burnt), the leaves becoming lax, pendulous, and almost decomposed ; emitting at the same time, a faint, disagreeable, and very diffusive odour of sod- den vegetation. That the cause was atmospheric no one can reasonably doubt j for the potato- plant, in all kinds of soil, from sandy peat to the densest loam, whether wet or dry, laboured or left without hoe or tillage, drained or with an unmoved subsoil — all, wherever the disease prevailed, were more or less affected, or escaped entirely. Soil, as to its abstract condition and temperament, had nothing to do with the at- tack ; though it is by no means improbable, that the long continuance of dark, moist, sunless wea- ther, might have acted most adversely upon the healthy state of the foliage. Be this as it may, our di vest ground offered no ameliorating alternative; though it is a fact, that one might observe a plot blackened in every part, while another, not ten yards remote, presented no appearance whatever of disease. Accounts differ amazingly ; but it is evident that no one can judge from the leaves or stems what may be the quality of the tubers. One communica- tion from Petworth, in the Gardeners' Chronicle, particularise eleven different varieties, and gives the results; they agree with those which have come under our own observation. Thus: "1st. Ash- leaved kidney — haulm entirely gone; tubers sound and in good order. 2nd. A sort called the "July," in three different situations : (a), light soil, verging on hazel mould, situated high and dry, sloping to south, and trenched; subsoil, sand, stone-rock with fissures — leaves partially affected, haulm almost clear, tubers quite sound; (&), thirsty sand — similar result ; (c), moist clay— the same. The other 9 sorts variously affected in the leaf and haulm, but all BOUND ! Of at least 7 varieties we have not found any that are to be complained of. The second early being first attacked, were digged in the 1st week of September, and found good. A winter deep red being threatened, were cut over to within 10 inches, and the haulm removed. Of this sort we have as yet no experience. A third, pink blotched, cut over — one root was tried September 13th, and found perfect. A fourth, champion, quite black, tubers large, sound. Fifth, Lancashire lemon kidney, left to ripen. A long row, front of a S. E. wall — soil, a dry, firm loam — the haulm (September 13th) of some quite gone and brown, but not de- cayed ; and others, leaf and haulm partially affected, the stems in many instances with diseased and sound portions alternating. Here and there a healthy plant stands close to another quite withered, yet the tubers are found good alike in all. In one word, so far as experience goes, it warrants the theory, that the disease has commenced above the surface, but not at the apex of the plants ; that the tubers have been affected in proportion as they have been near to the surface, whether the plant be living or completely dead or dry. One writer, Mr. Errington, of Oulton, pro- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 373 nounces the attack to be that of mildew: we see nothing whatever to lead us to sanction this new of the disease any more than another, which pre- sumes the decay to have its origin in a parasite plant, or "mould" never before observed. The weather throughout the summer has been like the winter which preceded it, of an anomalous cha- racter; it is not surprising, then, that its phenomena should correspond. OPERATIONS IX THE KITCHEN GARDEN. Potatoes. — Attend immediately to take up all the crops of which the haulm is withered. Before storing, select any that are diseased, and in every case avoid pitting if possible. There is nothing like a good thatched potato house, the floor sunk far below the ground level, and so drained that no water can ever stand upon it. The thatch eaves ought to reach and overhang the surface, and their drip should be carried away by proper channels, The door ought to be in a recess, approached by broad steps, guarded also from drip by the pro- jecting thatch, or a broad weather boarding. Po- tato-houses of this description ought to supersede pitting, because they would provide perfect security against dampness and frost, and yet be quite cold; at all events to a degree that would entirely prevent growth. Broccoli. — As the white and purple cape is cut, remove the stems, and when dry, burn them for vegetable ashes. Earth up the winter and spring varieties, or lay the plants sloping to north, as before directed. Beet, carrot, and parsnip, take up a few for tem- porary supply. Beans — the mazagan, and long-pods ; some per- sons sow a few to come in early. Peas also are attempted ; but in five cases of six, little or no time is really gained. Cauliflower in frames — give plenty of air in clear, drying weather; plant out, at the end of the month, the stock to grow under glasses, four plants under a glass. Keep the plants closely covered till they take firm root ; then admit some air by tilting. Cabbage seedlings, or others from intermediate nursery rows, are now finally set out in rich, open beds — the plants according to their size, from 12 inches to one foot and a half apart. Make little drills for the rows, and let these be two feet asunder. Endive — tie up more plants for blanching. Sow lettuce, radish, and salads in frames. Winter Spinach may be pulled, to thin the plants to three or four inches apart. Keep the ground clean. Aromatic herbs — thyme, lemon-thyme, marjoram, &c, &c, are always best in a herb-bed ; keep the spaces hoed, and now sprinkle some light manure over the ground. Asparagus. — The haulm being yellow, cut it down to within three inches; weed the surface; dig a trench 15 inches deep between the rows or beds, so re- mote as to avoid the roots ; bury the haulm, sprinkle it with salt, and tread it down level ; fill up the trenches with the best half-reduced manure that is at command. With the earth from the trenches the beds are covered, reserving a little to serve as an inch or two coating over the manure. This work be- ing done neatly, will leave the asparagus plot in trim condition for the winter. But this is not all, for being done annually, it is plain that the plants must improve by age under a mode of culture so generous. Salt is said to be very useful and con- genial ; but to apply it over the soil in spring is dangerous — buried, however, upon the haulm, as above directed, it will blend with the decaying vegetable matter, and be with it, laid over the sur- face every year. Dig, and ridge-trench vacant plots, incorporat- ing manure. We suggest the following compost for immediate use : — Horse droppings collected from roads, six good barrow loads; bones ground to finest powder, one bushel — about 48 lbs.; coal-soot, half a bushel; incorporate thoroughly, and dig a two-inch layer into soil intended to remain uncropped till Feb- ruary. The chemical elements, beside the organic azotized substances of the fresh droppings, are bone, phosphate of lime, with nearly one-fourth of carbonate of lime, presuming that the bone-dust has been deprived of its fat and gelatine, carbon, oxy- hydro-carbon, sulphate of ammonia, and some soluble bitter extractive from the soot. Soot in- cautiously applied is injurious, but thus intrc* duced becomes a safe appliance. FRUIT DEPARTMENT. Transplant, after the 15th, every kind of fruit- tree. Drainage is the first consideration, especially when a wall border is contemplated, or an orchard prepared ; nothing can prosper where there is stag- nant water, and the first expense is always the best economy. Eighteen inches of fresh, turfy loam are sufficient, and manure is not wanted. But the trees being carefully planted and staked if required, the roots expanded in the soil, and puddled with water, the work may be completed by a surface mulching of long litter, for this will guard the roots from frost, and promote those first developments of new fibres which are so important in securing the growth of the following spring. Without a good start, a tree frequently languishes during two entire seasons. Propagate gooseberries and currants by strong cuttings of the spring wood, taking off all the buds but one at the base, and three or four at the sum- mit of each. Vines. — Prune directly that the fruit is gathered, and secure the future bearing-wood of fig-trees, nailing it close to the wall prior to matting, or interlacing the branches with fir-spray, Gather fruit, and store it carefully. Orchardists are content to place each sort of apple in heaps, covering the whole many inches deep with dry straw, and somehow it happens that they are more successful than other persons, who take in- finite pains, and suffer proportionate disappointment. The vineries, if retaining ripe-fruit, must have day-fires and a current of air by front and back openings, if possible. Leaves should be removed, they being out of office, and harbouring moisture and mould. With drought and dry air, grapes mayjje sound af the end of the year, and certainly richer in flavour beyond compare, than those gathered when first ripe. 874 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR SEPTEMBER. This has, unquestionably, been a month of bustle and exciting interest to the agriculturists of the country. The continuance of fine, dry weather during its first three weeks or thereabouts was productive of the highest advantages to those en- gaged in the cultivation of the soil, not only in our backward but also the most forward districts. The former had the pleasure of beholding their crops rapidly coming to maturity, though not to say under the most favourable auspices, arising from the cold nights, the result of the easterly winds ; while the latter were enabled to clear their fields of the few patches of outstanding corn. As might be expected, therefore, very great progress has been made in harvest-work ; still the whole of the crops cannot be carried north of the Humber for at least ten days to come. The principal matter which we have now to consider, and which is one of the most vital interest both to growers and consumers, is the yield of the present year's wheats. The informa- tion which has been transmitted to us from various localities, and that which we have been enabled to gather from personal observation, is of that decided character as to enable us to form something like an accurate estimate of it. That the past, taken as a whole, has proved an ungenial season for the growth of that description of grain, is placed be- yond dispute ; and, further, it must be allowed that the very period, viz., the blooming time, when fine weather was so much required, was an unu- sually wet one. No one practically acquainted with the subject will therefore, it is presumed, at- tempt to deny the truth of our position when we state— and we do so with much regret, looking to ulterior consequences— that a very great falling off is apparant in its yield, compared with that of last year ; whilst, on a comparison with many pre- ceding seasons, it does not amount to an average quantity. We have no desire to create unneces- sary alarm upon so important a subject ; still we feel confident— indeed, these remarks are receiving daily confirmation from all quarters— that what we have here asserted is founded on truth. As might, therefore, be expected, a very important rise lias taken place in the quotations of wheat all over the kingdom, partly the result of home deficiency and the numerous orders received from Holland and Bel- gium for the purchase of foreign wheat under lock, for immediate shipment to those countries, where, it is affirmed, a most alarming deficiency is apparent in the potato crop. Such, also, being unhappily the case here, it behoves us to enter upon the question of the future value of wheat in England It is quite evident that the low-priced period has passed away, and that the quotations for some time to come must rule relatively high ; still we must not forget to bear in mind that both Holland and Belgium will draw the principal supplies of grain required to make good the deficiency in their own growth, IV.mi the Baltic and other foreign ports where they can be purchased on lower terms than with us. The bare fact of a partial demand being continued, however, must enhance the prices of Foreign wheat, and thus have a direct influence upon those of English grain. Notwithstanding the crop of barley this year is large, the quality is by no means first rate ; hence it is not im- probable that really fine malting parcels will com- mand good rates during the winter months. Oats are well spoken of, both as respects quality and quantity ; while the yield of beans and peas is said to be very abundant and good. Still, the prices of the latter, arising from the foreign demand, have risen enormously, or from 7s. to 12s. per quarter. The extent of the damage caused by the potato disease is alarmingly great. Not only is such the case in almost every locality in England, but it has extended itself into parts of Ireland, Scotland, and the Channel Islands. It is impossible to say where it will end ; but we most seriously regret this circumstance, which must affect the poorer classes of society, and entail a vast amount of misery amongst them. Various remedies have been proposed to stop the disease, none of which have, we fear, been found successful. In our various grazing districts, where the supply of pasture-herbage has been very large, depastured stock has fared extremely well, and but few instances of loss from the epidemic have come under ob- servation. The turnip crop is turning out quite equal to the generality of seasons, which must prove a great boon to our graziers and others. During the month the importations of foreign stock have been on an unusually extensive scale, and, generally speaking, of full average quality. Amongst the novelties we may notice the arrival of six oxen, per steamer from St. Petersburg. The freight of these animals, which were in no way calculated for our markets, was £5 per head ; while their utmost value did not exceed £l2. The exer- tions on the part of the Dutch graziers have been met with a corresponding improvement in the de- mand for their stock ; however, prices of both beasts and sheep in Holland have, we understand, risen during the last three months fully 20 per cent., with every prospect of a further improvement in them. The imports into the metropolis, since the date of our last report, have been as under : — Head. Beasts 885 Sheep 1,591 Lambs 20 Calves 75 Total for London. . 2,571 At the outports the arrivals have proved exten- sive, viz. : — 704 oxen and cows, and 200 sheep at Hull from Rotterdam and Hamburgh, together with :?0 beasts at Southampton from Spain. Two vessels have arrived in Scotland with about 70 oxen and cows from Rotterdam, and one at Cork with 30 oxen from Vigo, which have been principally disposed of to graziers. The above, added to the imports pre- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 575 viously this year, give the following totals of beasts and sheep : — Beasts. Sheep. United Kingdom .... 9,429 4,860 In order to show the great increase in this trade, we herewith present our readers with the annexed official return, which embraces the year 1844, ending on the 26th of September of that year : — Oxen and Cows. London 1,462 Liverpool 80 Hull 640 Southampton 200 Devonport 60 Total.. 2,442 From the above, we perceive that the importa- tions have increased this year upwards of four hundred per cent. ! Generally speaking, the beasts and calves have come to hand in good saleable condition, and have carried a full average quantity of internal fat ; but in the sheep very little improve- ment has taken place. The second crop of grass has proved an ex- tensive one, but the weather having been un- favourable, only a small portion of it has been carried in good order. The various markets of consumption have been tolerably well, but not to say heavily, supplied with most articles ; yet, owing to the large consumption going on, the demand has ruled active, and prices have had an upward tendency. Old hay, from its extreme scarcity, has sold readily at from £4 4s. to £5 14s., and old clover £4 10s. to £6 10s. per load. Supplies of new hay and straw have proved liberal, and prices moderate. Our advices from Scotland are to the effect that store stock, as with us, has commanded high rates of currency. The demand for it, however, has ruled dull, and only a moderate business has been transacted. In the southern districts the pro- gress of harvest work has been good ; but in the north it has been interrupted by the changeable weather. The yield of the crops is represented as amounting to nearly, or quite, an average. In the south of Ireland cutting and carrying have been brought to a pretty general conclusion, under favourable auspices. In the other districts the whole of the crops are expected to be carried in a few days. The following is our usual monthly review of the transactions in Smithfield cattle market. The great increase which has taken place in the arrivals of beasts from the northern districts has had the effect of causing the beef trade to rule inactive, at a decline in the quotations of from 2d. to 4d. per 8lbs. The primest sheep, which have continued rather scarce, have mostly sold at full prices ; but other qualities have suffered a depres- sion of 2d. per 8lbs. Lambs, calves, and pigs have moved off steadily, at, in some instances, rather more money for the two latter kinds of stock. For the purpose of enabling our readers to judge of the actual tluctuations which have occurred in supplies and prices during the last three years, we purpose in this report comparing those of Septem- ber, 1843 and 1844, with the past month. SUPPLIES. Sept., 1845. Sept., 1844. Sept., 1843. Beasts 17,904 12,400 11,690 Sheep and Lambs . . 138,776 169,200 160,900 Calves.... 1,870 1,292 1,420 Pigs 2,412 1,884 1,990 The month's receipts of beasts have been derived as follows : Northern districts 4,900 head. Eastern do 2,300 Midland do 2,900 Other parts of England .... 2,900 Scotland 970 Ireland 350 The remainderof the supplies have reached us from abroad and the neighbourhood of the Metropolis. The comparison of prices is as under : — Per 8lbs., to sink the offals. Sept., 1845. Sept., 1844. Sept., 1843. Beef, from 2 4 to 42 24 to 40 2 8 to 4 0 Mutton ..3 4.. 50 26.. 40 30. .44 Lamb ....4 6.. 56 34.. 48 36.. 5 0 Veal 3 10.. 50 34.. 44 36.. 48 Pork 3 0..44 26.. 40 30. .40 On each market-day we have noticed a very great improvement in the quality of both beasts and sheep, but more particularly in the latter. The numbers of sheep not being equal to meet the | wants of the butchers — many of whom are, we | find, purchasing largely in some of the provincial \ markets, such as Bristol, &c. — prices have been supported ; but we doubt much whether such would be the case were there any increase in the arrivals. Up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, the arrivals of slaughtered meat from Scotland and different parts of England have been seasonably large, or as follows : — Arrivals of Carcasses during the month. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. Scotland 92 1,260 .. 950 Yorkshire 102 1,410 .. l,26o Lincolnshire 118 390 Norfolk 30 110 .. 90 Suffolk 27 120 .. 110 Cambridgeshire 80 180 .. 150 Essex 109 320 370 570 Surrey 112 540 490 620 Devonshire . . . . . . 140 Wiltshire 133 370 330 350 Other parts 160 600 1,050 800 Totals.. 963 5,300 2,240 5,040 Notwithstanding the supplies of meat killed in London have been somewhat large, the trade has ruled firm, and prices have been well supported. Beef has sold at from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. ; mutton, 3s. 4d. to 4s. 8d.; lamb, 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d.j veal, 3s. lOd. to 5s.; and pork, 2s. 6d. to 4s. 4d. per 8lbs. by the carcass. 376 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. YORKSHIRE. Almost immediately after our last weekly report of the harvest had left, the barometer began to fall, and continued to do so, with little intermission, until Tues- day night, when it began to rain, and there has been rain, with very slight intermissions of sunny but cool weather since ; and this morning there is a high N.W. by W. wind, accompanied by slight showers. The state of the harvest in the forward districts of the county is briefly this : — Nearly the whole of the wheat and barley is cut ; a few oats, and no beans. One half of the wheat, and one-third of the barley, are carried, and will be found in good, though little in a marketable condition. The injury done to the wheat has been, we are per- suaded, much exaggerated : it is sound — it is a full average produce ; but there is confessedly an inferiority in sample and cpiality, though not to the ridiculous extent prognosticated by some alarmists, who cry out even in the most plentiful years. Barley will certainly be found deficient both in quantity and sample ; but there will be an ample supply, we doubt not, for all wants. There will be bad samples inevitably, for on the best and richest soils it is the worst lodged, and was the eai-liest lodged, and will be the most deficient. We need not say what will be the consequence of having to depend for samples on the worst description of soils. As regards the potato, "murrain," or "epizootic," or ' ' cholera' ' — whatever it may be — we are, so far, strangers to it. We have minutely examined, and have to report, that at least on the old red sandstone formation of this county, and on the light soils, no injury is done. Thousands of acres are quite free, so far. Turnips are not a very heavy crop — their leaves are yellow, and the roots are stunted. — Sept. 18. NEWTON ABBOT FAIR, Sept. 17. — In conse- quence of the very heavy rain that fell this morning, the attendance was not so great as on former years. Most of the native cattle changed hands at from 46s. to 52s. per cwt. There were about a score of French cattle from Brittany, and about the same number from Alderney : several of the former found purchasers, but we believe only one of the latter was sold. The fat French Beasts obtained from 48s. to 50s. per cwt. Sheep were plentiful, and sold well at from 5^d. to Gd. per lb. ; Lamb, 6d. ; Pork carcases, 8s. Gd. to 8s. 9d. per score. Cows and Calves met with a dull sale at from 46s, to 50s. per cwt. Store Pigs were in demand. Suckers, 8s. to lis. each. The show of Horses was unusually small, and but little business was done. ST. JOHN'S MARKET, PERTH. — There were only 130 carts with butter and cheese, being a limited supply compared with former markets. Butter sold readily from 17s. Gd. to 19s., and cheese from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per stone Dutch. There was an average number of horses on the market stance, and dealers seemed anxious to purchase, but at reduced prices. In consequence a few exchanged hands, high rates being demanded for good animals, and the market was con- sidered a dull one. Draught horses from 25/. to 35/., horses for the saddle about 30/. The cattle market was well supplied — from 600 to 700 being on the ground, and the average may be quoted at 7s. per stone. There were several lots of fat cattle — one lot brought 14/. 10s. per head — and another of two-year-old Highlanders 71. Milch Cows, newly calved, brought from 8/. to 11/. MR. TEVERSON'S SHEEP SALE.— The thirty- fourth annual sale of southdown sheep and lambs took place on Monday the 15th inst., at Mr. John Teverson's farm, at Great Wilbraham, by Mr. Martin Nockolds ; and although the company in attendance was not so nu- merous as on some previous years, still a very respect- able and influential number of the gentlemen and far- mers of the neighbourhood were present, and amongst others we noticed J. P. Allix, Esq. M.P., Col. Allix, Gene- ral Grosvenor, A. Cotton, Esq., E. Hicks, Esq., R. T. Eaton, Esq., M.P., Messrs. Batson, Hall, Jonas Webb, Goodchild, Chalk, King, &c, &c. The sheep were in pretty fair condition, but it was the general remark that they were not so fat as on previous years, and the prices were very fair : for the shearling ewes from 34s. to 35s. ; stock ewes about 28s. ; crones 23s. ; shearling wethers 32s.; ewe and wether lambs 21s. each. Of the horses, which were in rather poor condition, not many sold. After the sale, about 60 gentlemen sat down to an excel- lent dinner, which was provided for the occasion, with Mr. Teverson's usual liberality and kindness, in a large barn adjoining his premises, which was fitted up to re- ceive his guests. The chair was occupied by E. Hicks, Esq. The chairman gave as the first toast, " Her most Gracious Majesty, Queen Victoria." " The Queen Dowager," whose amiable qualities endeared her to all. " Prince Albert, Prince of Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family." " Lord Hardwicke, the Lord Lieu- tenant of the county." " The Army and Navy," to which latter toast A. Cotton, Esq., returned thanks. The Chairman then proposed the " health of the Bishop and Clergy of the diocese," and spoke in terms of great respect of their worthy deceased diocesan, as also of the present one and the clergy in general. The Rev. Mr. Watson returned thanks, and trusted they were satisfied with the manner in which his services were performed ; he should always endeavour to perform them as far as his strength permitted, to the satisfaction of all, whether 5,000 or 5 hearers were present ; he also spoke in terms of great respect of their deceased and present diocesan, and trusted that a good feeling would always exist between the people generally and the clergy, and that his labours would be a blessing to themselves and families, and all who were near and dear to them. The Chairman gave " The health of the County Members." Song by Mr. Goodchild, " Hear the last whistle." The Chairman then called upon the gentlemen for a bumper, and pro- posed " The health of their worthy host, Mr. Teverson," which was drunk with the most rapturous applause, the chairman remarking that, whilst they were thus re- galing themselves with the supplies so liberally pro- vided for them by order of Teverson, he had also kindly thought of his labourers, between whom and himself great good feeling existed, and they were then enjoying- themselves in another part of the house with good old English fare ; he remarked that the sale was not much to be complained of, for Mr. Nockolds had informed him that the shearling ewes averaged rather more than last year, and the others were nearly as good. Mr. Teverson returned thanks in very feeling and appropriate terms ; he thanked the company for their attendance, and said although he could not boast much of the sale, still there was not much to complain of, considering the times, and hoped that better times would soon arrive, remarking that if they had a better price for their corn, they wanted no better price for the meat. Mr. Samuel Jonas proposed "The health of the Chairman" in terms of the warmest praise, as a kind landlord, which he was sure British farmers would always duly appreciate. It was drunk with much applause. The Chairman, in re- turning thanks, remarked that it was the second time he had had the honour conferred on him by Mr. Teverson of presiding, and thought it was right that the landlord, farmer, and labourer should so meet, as upon their union and exertions mainly depended the welfare of the nation. After having spent a very pleasant and social evening, the company separated. — Cambridge Adver- tiser. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 377 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER. Though the month of September is fast draw- ing to a close, fully one-third of the produce of grain of Great Britain is still abroad, and in some of the northern parts of the kingdom the corn is yet so green as to render it questionable whether it will ever become perfectly ripe. From the 20th of August up to the llth inst. the weather was as auspicious as could possibly be wished, and great exertions were made to secure as much of the grain as was in a fit state to carry ; owing, how- ever, to the want of genial warmth and the excess of wet throughout the greater part of the summer, the crops ripened very unkindly. September was therefore well advanced before the sickle could be generally employed north of the River H umber ; south of that line there is, comparatively, little re- maining in the fields. We are, nevertheless, in- clined to think that in estimating the proportion saved at two-thirds, we have rated it quite high enough. Under these circumstances it is not to be wondered at that much anxiety should have been caused by the breaking vip of the fine weather on the 13th, and the great quantity of wet which has since fallen. Without this unfavourable occurrence it was but too Pertain that the produce of wheat would have been deficient ; it was, how- ever, confidently expected that spring corn and pulse would have yielded well. Now even this is rendered doubtful, whilst the probability of any- thing like an average return of wheat has been greatly lessened. Independent of the danger to which the crops may still be exposed, positive mis- chief has unquestionably been done to the quality of all the corn not secured previous to the 13th inst., by the drenching rains, the effects of which cannot, at this advanced period of the year, be ex- pected to be remedied. This fact, and the com- plaints of deficiency of the yield from all those dis- tricts where the produce has been put to the test of thrashing, afford too sure a proof that the crop is decidedly short of an average in quantity. Respect- ing the quality of the new wheat, the accounts are even more unfavourable than regards the yield ; the weight per bushel is estimated to be at least 3lbs. less than last year, whilst, from the thickness of the skin, considerably less meal is produced from a given quantity of wheat. The falling off from these causes alone, irrespective of the acreable defi- ciency, must make an immense difference ; and when we add that many farmers consider the latter to be two to three sacks per acre, we think suffi- cient has been said to account for the upward movement which has lately taken place in prices. That the advance in the value of wheat already established will be maintained is tolerably certain ; and unless we experience unusually fine weather for finishing the harvest in the north, a further material enhancement will in all probability occur. Next in importance to the wheat crop is, de- cidedly, that of potatoes. If our prospects in re- gard to the former be discouraging, those relative to the potato crop are of a far more alarming cha- racter. The blight, of which we took notice in our last as having attacked the root in the south of England, has travelled steadily to the northward ; and from the reports it would appear that no part of the kingdom has escaped the infection. The loss is by many estimated at half of the produce ; and, though we trust that it will not be found nearly so serious as represented, still that there will be an enormous deficiency cannot be doubted. Considering how great a proportion of the food of all classes consists of this root, the extensive failure must inevitably cause a material increase in the consumption of bread stuffs, a point which must not be overlooked in considering the future value of wheat. We cannot view this state of affairs otherwise than as a great calamity, particularly as regards the agriculturists of Great Britain ; any apparent bene- fit which the enhancement of the value of their pro- duce may be supposed to give will but ill compen- sate for the deficiency in quantity; whilst the dearness and scarcity of food, caused by circum- stances over which man has no control, will be used as an argument to take from the farmer or diminish that remnant of protection afforded un- der the present corn laws. During the continuance of fine weather in August the price of wheat fell some 5s. to Gs. per qr. from the highest point ; but the depression has since been recovered, and from present appearances we are inclined to think the upward movement will continue. Notwithstand- ing the occupations in the fields, the growers have, till lately, supplied the different markets freely with wheat ; latterly, however, they have displayed less inclination to sell, and within the last week or two the deliveries have fallen off materially. Sup- plies of old have almost wholly ceased ; not, we believe, in consequence of the stocks being ex- hausted, but owing to the conviction that from the superiority of the quality of the produce of 1844 over that of the present year, the former will be much wanted for mixing, and therefore relatively higher than new. Up to a very recent period there was every pros- pect of an abundant crop of barley, though at no time was it expected that the quality would be fine. From the extreme luxuriance of the plant much was lodged by the heavy rain in July, which never regained an upright position; in consequence of which it was naturally concluded that the sample would be coarse. In many districts the cutting of barley was commenced quite as early as that of wheat ; there was, however, less of the former than of the latter grain canned when the fine weather broke up, and all that which has been exposed in the fields to the storms which have prevailed at in- tervals since the 13th inst. must have been con- siderably injured. We are, however, of opinion that if dry weather shoidd succeed, there may still be about an average crop of this grain. So gene- ral has been the belief that the crop would prove large, that until within the last week prices of the 378 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. article remained perfectly stationary, whilst the value of almost all other sorts of agricultural pro- duce rose rapidly. The increasingly unfavourable reports relative to wheat, potatoes, &c, and the fear that the yield of barley will not prove so good as was previously expected, have caused the last named article to excite some attention ; and con- sidering its relative cheapness as compared with Other articles used for feeding, there is certainly room for an advance. In Norfolk and other large barley-growing counties the best malting samples may still be bought at 33s. to 34s. per qr., and other descriptions on equally moderate terms. That portion of the oat crop harvested between the 20th of August and the 13th of September was well got in, and the reports speak favourably of both quantity and quality ; there is, however, still a large quantity abroad, particularly in the nor- thern parts of Scotland and Ireland. Much, therefore, depends on the weather : should the latter prove auspicious, there would probably be above an usual average ; but if what is still in the fields should suffer injury, the excess of produce in the earlier districts would not compensate for the deficiency of the northern crops. That the old stocks have been very nearly exhausted has been plainly proved by the scarcity of the article for months past ; so trifling have been the supplies of late, that, though no fears were until very recently felt as to the probable produce, the value of the article has steadily advanced as well in the agricul- tural markets as at the principal consuming towns. The yield and quality of beans is very variously spoken of. On the whole, we fee] disposed to think that there is not much reason to complain ; but what we have just stated, relative to oats, is equally applicable in regard to beans. So com- pletely have the old stocks been used up, that it has for some time past been rare to meet with a sample, even at those places where large quantities are in usual years brought forward ; extravagant prices have therefore been paid, and, though the duty has receded to Is. per qr., the importations from abroad have hitherto been insignificant, show- ing that our continental neighbours are nearly as bare of the article as ourselves. Judging from the samples of new peas which have come under our own notice, we should be disposed to assert that all the early varieties were secured in capital condition in the southern counties, but those yet out stand in great danger of being injured. The yield is not generally believed to be large. The opening prices of new white boilers were 38s. to 40s. per qr., but latterly a very lively demand has been experienced, and quotations have risen upwards of 10s. per qr. in all parts of the kingdom. The foregoing remarks on the wheat trade apply more to the future than the past ; and to afford our readers a clear idea of the transactions of the month, a retrospect of the course of the trade at Mark Lane may be useful. About the close of August, much of the anima- tion which had characterized business for several succeeding weeks had subsided. A short period of fine weather having led to the expectation that the harvest would be got in under auspicious circum- stances, affairs remained in this state till Monday, the 1 5th instant, when, owing to the return of wet, many parties began to consider that it would not be amiss to increase their stocks ; the rise then established did not, however, exceed Is. to 2s. per qr. on the rates current at the end of the pre- ceding month. Between the 15th and the 22nd only two or three dry days were experienced ; and so much uneasiness was occasioned by the heavy rain which fell about that period, that the utmost anxiety began to be manifested by millers to secure the finer kinds of new and good old wheat. Mean- while the supplies had fallen off materially, and on the 22nd there was, with a brisk demand, only a small show of samples from Essex, Kent, and Suf- folk. In this position of affairs factors naturally raised their pretensions, and an enhancement of 5s. per qr. was realized, making the total rise during the month about "s. per qr. Too short a period has elapsed since then to say what effect this im- portant advance may have on the averages. Many parties think that the inferiority of the quality of much of the new wheat will prevent any great fall occurring in the duty ; but, should the enhance- ment already established be followed by a further rise, we are inclined to believe that foreign wheat will be admissible, before the close of the year, at 12s. per qr., or perhaps at even a lower rate. The chance of such an event has naturally prevented any portion of bonded being released, and the arrivals from abroad have been regularly landed under lock; owing, however, to the exports made to Holland and Belgium, no increase in the quan- tity in warehouse has taken place, whilst the stocks of free foreign (previously very small) have been further diminished by a steady demand for local consumption. Of really fine qualities, such as high-mixed Danzig, Rostock, &c, there is very little remaining, and these sorts have risen in value nearly as much as the best sorts of home-grown wheat. Inferior descriptions have also excited attention of late, and have commanded prices not previously obtainable. In the early part of the month there was no inclination to enter into speculative pur- chases of wheat, but the orders received from Hol- land and Belgium imparted a firm tone to business, and some improvement took place in prices even before the unfavourable change in the weather on the 13th instant. Subsequently large speculative purchases were made, and still more important ope- rations would probably have taken place if holders had been somewhat less extravagant in their preten- sions. For fair qualities of red wheat, which were on the 1st obtainable at 40s. per qr., the price de- manded on the 22nd was 46s. ; and good Danzig, under lock, was on the latter day held at 52s. to 53s. per qr. These high rates have checked the inclination to buy, and during the last eight days comparatively few contracts have been closed. Rather important changes have taken place in the value of Hour. The nominal top quotation was in the beginning of the month 53s. per sack ; for about a week previous to the 15th instant prices were very unsettled ; on that day it was agreed by a majority of the millers to put down the price 4s. per sack, making the highest rate 4 ! '< . The subsequent rapid rise in wheat obliged the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 370 manufacturers again to alter their quotations on the 22nd, and at present the first London marks are held at 56s. per sack. Country flour has also risen materially within the last fortnight ; and good Nor- folk household, which was at one time obtainable rather under 40s., has recently commanded 43s. to 44s. per sack, Of foreign free flour stocks are un- important ; the business done has therefore been circumscribed, but the few lots of sweet Canadian and United States have brought Is. to 2s. per brl. more than could have been previously realized. For Flour in bond an active inquiry has been ex- perienced, partly for shipment to the Netherlands and partly on speculation : the rise from the lowest point in August has amounted to at least 2s. per brl. The total stock under lock in the kingdom consisted, on the 5th of September, of 222,290 cwts. Hitherto very few of the maltsters have com- menced their purchases of barley ; and with scanty arrivals of this grain, business has remained in an inactive state. The receipts coastwise into London during the four weeks ending 27th inst. have amounted to about 1,600 qrs. Of this quantity only a comparatively small proportion has consisted of new; and judging from the sanqfles which have been brought forward of this year's produce, we cannot say much in praise of the quality. The highest price yet paid at Mark Lane has, we be- lieve, been 35s., whilst the common runs of malt- ing have been sold at 32s. to 33s. per qr. Not- withstanding the great demand which has been experienced for all other articles used for feeding, old grinding barley has been comparatively neg- lected. Until almost the close of the month prices remained nearly stationary; latterly, however, an advance of Is. to. 2s. per qr. has been established. Bonded parcels have met with attention for export to Belgium at relatively higher rates than could have been obtained for the article duty-paid ; very little has, consequently, been entered for home consump- tion. The duty on this article fell on the 11th of September to 8s. per qr. ; but this has failed to induce holders of that under lock to liberate any portion. Some activity prevailed in the malt trade in the early part of the month ; latterly, however, busi- ness has relapsed into a very dull state, and the turn has been rather in favour of the buyer. The supplies of oats have fallen short of the quantity required for local consumption; and as the market was previously rather bare, a steady and progressive rise has taken place in quotations. Excepting a sample or two of new, we have re- ceived no English oats since our last report ; and from Scotland the arrivals have been scanty in the extreme. The quantity furnished by Ireland has also fallen short of what was expected ; whilst from abroad, the receipts have been only moderate. In the absence of supplies, it is not easy to give quotations of English and Scotch ; but anything fine would readily have brought 30s. per qr. Irish feed, which at the close of August were worth about 22s. per qr., have latterly been selling freely at 24s. to 25s. per qr.; and Archangel, which were then cur- rently sold at 20s. 6d., have risen to 23s. to 23s. 6d. per qr. As yet the averages have not been much influenced ; but ere long these high rates must have some effect ; and so confident have holders of bonded become'that a fall will hereafter occur in the duty, that they have ceased entering for home consumption. The bulk of the recent fo- reign arrivals have been from Archangel ; the qua- lity of this variety is much liked by our dealer*, and of the 50,000 or 60,000 qrs. which have come to hand, little remains afloat. In bond this descrip- tion has recently been held at 18s. per qr., being within 2s. 6d. per qr. of the price at which the article was currently selling three or four weeks ago. The extravagantly high price demanded for beans has caused a decreased consumption ; the amount of business actually done during the month has therefore been unimportant : needy buyers have, however, had to pay extreme rates, say 36s. to 38s. for old ticks, 38s. to 40s. for harrows, and 42s. to 45s. per qr. for handsome small pigeon beans. The duty on this article fell to the minimum point on the 25th, and Egyptian and other foreign sorts in bond have for some time been held within Is. per qr. of the prices at which the same varieties were offering free. Owing to a brisk export demand for peas, the value of all kinds has risen very rapidly ; indeed, we scarcely recollect so great an advance in so short a period of time on any previous occasion. The fresh arrivals of new white boilers and fine maple sold at 38s. to 40s.; this was before the inquiry for shipment had commenced. On the 18th instant, prices rose fully 3s. to 4s. on these sorts, and 8s. to 10s. on blue ; whilst, on that day week, all the white peas brought forward were eagerly bought up on Dutch account, at from 53s. to 55s. ; maples commanded 45s. to 48s., and blue peas 60s. to 65s. per qr. It cannot be expected that these extraordinary prices will be maintained ; and we should recommend farmers to make hay whilst the sun shines ; for when the Dutch demand is satisfied, quotations will in all probability drop nearly as suddenly as they have recently risen. The bonded peas were all sold be- fore attention was directed to free ; and some of the old stocks were cleared off at prices which holders a short period before little calculated on obtaining. The most important feature in the Foreign corn trade is, that all restrictions on the importations of grain and pulse have been removed by the Belgian Government, in consequence of the failure of the potato crop, and the news from Holland, from which it appears that the Dutch authorities con- templated a similar step ; at least it is confidently expected that the duties in the latter country will be reduced to the minimum point on all descriptions of grain. This step taken by our continental neighbours will naturally cause the shipment of wheat which might otherwise have been made to this country, from those ports in the Baltic where they have any surplus for export, to be directed to the Nether- lands ; and the imports into Great Britain are therefore likely to be smaller than was at one period expected. The Dutch and Belgian demand has had the effect of raising quotations materially at Danzig, as 380 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. well as at the nearer ports : and should we require foreign supplies, we shall have to pay high rates abroad. At Danzig, prices had already risen to 48s. to 50s. per qr., on the 16th September, for really fine qualities ; and a further rise was confidently ex- pected. At Rostock, and Stettin, according to the last accounts, there were no sellers below 40s. per qr. free on board ; and at other places in the Baltic, as well as at Hamburg, equally high prices have been obtained. With the exception of a few favoured districts, the crops of grain and potatoes appear to be short over nearly the whole of Europe. In the Northern ports, as already stated, we shall have to compete with Holland and Belgium, should our own crops be found inadequate to our wants, whilst at Odessa; such large purchases have been making for some time past on Italian account, that the value of the article has been driven up quite as much there as in the Baltic. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. September 22. Wheat, Essex and Kent, new,red 58 GO 03 White 60 62 6G Old, red 60 63 Do. ..62 64 70 Rye, old 34 38 New.... 38 40 Barley, Grinding, SO 32 Malting 32 34 Chevalier 34 So Irish 26 28 Bere... 25 — Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 58 63 Brown.. 5G 60 Kingston and Ware 60 — Chevalier 65 — OATS, Yorksh.& Lincolnshire, feed 24 25 Potato.. 26 27 Youghall and Cork, black.. 22 23 Cork,white23 24 Dublin 22 23 Westport 24 25 Waterford, white ,. 23 24 Black.. 22 23 Kewry 25 — Galway 22 23 Scotch, feed 24 26 Potato.. 25 28 Clonmel 24 25 Limerick 24 27 Londonderry 25 — Sligo .... 24 25 Beaks, Tick, new 40 44 Old, small 4G 47 Peas, Grey 46 — Maple.. 46 — White 48 50 Boilers.. 48 50 FLOUR, Town-made 53 55 Suffolk 44 — per sk. of 280 lbs. Stockton and Norfolk 42 44 Irish 44 45 FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND. Wheat, Dantzic 50 52 fine 48 50 Hamburg 44 46 Rostock 46 47 Barley 23 — Oats, Brew 10 17 Feed ... 17 18 Beans 34 40 Peas 44 46 Flour, American, per brl 24 25 Baltic .. 24 25 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. Peas. Aug. Oth . 16th. 23rd 30th. Sept. 6 th . 13th. Aggregate average of] the six weeks which regulates the duty. Jtuties payable in London till Wed- nesday next inclu- sive, and at the Out- ports till the arrival iif the mail of that day from Londou . . Do. on grain from British possessions cut of Europe .. • 55 3 57 0 57 0 56 6 55 10 ! 64 1 55 11 17 0 i 0 29 7 22 8 ' 33 10 41 0> 39 0 29 4 29 9 30 0 31 8 31 0 22 2 84 4 41 2| 39 7 22 8 22 4 22 10 22 3 4 41 8 38 1 7 42 1 88 14 5 42 2l 36 9 33 2 42 10 80 2 22 6 33 11 41 10 8 0 6 0.96 0 6 12 0 16 38 2 16 4 6 2 0! 3 0 COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GRAIN. WEEKLY AVERAGES by the Imp. Quarter, from the Gazette, of Friday last, Sept. 19th, 1845. s. d. Whbat 54 1 Barley 31 0 Oats 22 3 Rye 33 2 Beans 42 10 Peas 36 5 AVERAGES from the corres- ponding Gazette in the last year, Friday, Sept. 20th, 1844. s. <1. Wheat 45 11 Barley 35 11 Oats 20 1 Ryb 35 9 Beans 87 9 Peas 8 4 6 PRICES OF SEEDS. September 22. Canaryseed was held for more money, but the trans- actions were of so trivial a nature that it is difficult to state the actual advance. Mustardseed was in short supply, and could scarcely be purchased on as easy terms as on Monday last. Winter Tares were scarce, and held firmly at 8s. per bush. Linseed, English, sowing 52 58 crushing 40 45 per qr Carraway 42 44 new .. 46 48 per cwt. Coriander 12 18 per cwt. Mustard, brown, new.... 10 15 white. .12 18 p. bush Rapeseed, English, new . . 26?. — /. per last. Hempseed 85 38 per qr. Trefoil 17 24 . old..— new — Tares, Winter 7s. Od. to 8s. Od. Tares, old ... . — — new— — per qr. Rye Grass, English — — Scotch — — nominal. Canary, 50 52 per qr. fine 55s. PRICES OF HOPS. BOROUGH, Monday, Sept. 22. The market for Hops has undergone no particular alteration, and the duty is called ,£180,000. On the whole the accounts are tolerably good. WORCESTER, Sept. 20.— We have no new Hops at market to-day ; and one pocket only was brought to our fair yesterday, and that was not sold, no price being fixed for it by the grower. Both yesterday and to-day business has been pretty active, the London merchants and factors having made some extensive sales of yearling and old Hops ; but our own growth is nearly extinct, both planters and merchants being out of stock, so that business must remain quiet till the market is supplied with the new growth ; but, picking being unusually late, an abundant supply is not expected before this day fortnight. The duty remains steady at 11,000/. Present rates : — Worcester 1844's .... 122s. to 135s. ,, 1842's and 3's none on sale. „ 1839's .... 65s. to 84s. „ Older Hops . . . 40s. to 70s. HOP INTELLIGENCE.— Towards the end of last week the hops were found to be improving, in conse- quence of the nights being warmer ; but since Sunday morning, rain and wind have prevailed, at some periods very cold, which we fear will prove to have inflicted great damage, and will delay picking. The gales of yesterday blew the poles about very much. General accounts speak of the improved appearances exhibited up to Sunday of the sun's ripening influence, but still that in many places the hops were small. Picking was begun in some districts last Monday, but by next Mon- day will become much more general. The duty is laid from 175,000/. to 180,000/. At a hop dinner at Maid- stone, last week, we see that it advanced to 195,000/., though far from a firm quotation ; the general run being some 10,000/. and 20,000/. below that sum.— Kentish Observer* THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 381 WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH. LEEDS, Sept. 19.— The demand for both combing and clothing wools is steady, and prices are firm at late quotations. YORK, Sept. 18. — There has only been a small supply of wool at this day's market, and very few buyers in attendance. Prices nominal. LIVERPOOL, Sept. 20. Scotch. —The demand for laid Highland Wool con- tinues fair at late rates, the supply by no means large. White Highland is still little inquired for. Good crossed and Cheviot continue in demand at full rates ; inferior is still neglected. Laid Highland Wool, per 241bs White Highland do Laid Crossed Do. Do. Cheviot Do. White Do. 9 12 do., unwashed.... 11 do.. washed 12 do. unwashed .... 11 do. .washed 13 do 24 d. 8. 6 to 10 6 13 Foreign. — There has been a fair demand for all kinds of Wool this week, at fully late rates ; our imports are light, consequently the stocks are getting reduced. The London public sales are announced for the 2nd October, at which there will be about 25,000 bales of fine Wools offered. FOREIGN. The market for wool is rather quiet, as the public sales of colonial will begin next week. We are advised, respecting the market of Buffalo, United States, that " two hundred pounds Western fleece wool of medium quality sold at 26 cents, and a small quantity of a somewhat superior grade brought 27. There is a fair demand for the article to-day ; but of the lost received here, we notice that a great pro- portion are limited above our market, and consequently are obliged to be shipped through to an eastern market. The product of wool, like many other articles of con- sideration in Ohio, is fast increasing. During June nearly 70,000 lbs. were shipped off via the side-cut canal from Columbus, against 35,000 lbs. last season. The State Journal from which we obtain this fact, does not say what direction it took, but we incline to the opinion that it followed the main bulk of the trade toward the lake for a market." The accounts of May 10, from Sydney, state that Wool was rather higher, there being but little in the market. The quantity of tonnage for Wool was larger, and freights, therefore, had declined to l^d. to l|d. per lb. The exchange was at 1§ discount. From Vienna, under date of August 30, we learn that the fair had not turned out so well for Wool as was an- ticipated, though 25,000 cwt. were sold at about pre- vious rates. The rise which some expected did not take place, and those who had purchased since the previous fair at higher quotations had lost by their operations. The accounts from England were not considered favour- able, and these had some effect ; while the manufacturers of Germany would not pay higher prices, because cloth had not risen. Much would depend on the English harvest, the dealers at Vienna considered, in regulating the demand for Wool and its value on the Continent. LEEDS, Sept. 19. — For some descriptions of foreign wools there have been rather more inquiries during the past week ; but, on the whole, transactions have not been entered into with very much animation, or to any great extent, Prices, however, are without variation, RAW HIDES, at per stone of 141bs, s. d. Best steers & heifers 5 4 Middling hides.... 4 8 Inferior ditto .... 4 2 Market calf 6 6 SHEEP & CALF SKINS. Per skin. s. d. s. d. s. d. 5 8 'Polled sheep 2 b- 3 3 5 2 Half-breds 2 4 2 8 4 6 | Downs 10 2 0 8 0 Lamb 2 6 3 6 TIMBER. Baltic Timber, per load of 50 cubic feet . . Yw. Deals, per standard hundred . . Deck Deals, per 40 feet 3 in Pipe Staves, per mille Lathwood, per fin. of 4 feet Petersburgh, Riga, and Archangel .... 1 Yw. Deals, per stand, hundred . . J White Yw. Battens Riga Logs, for 18 feet cube Stettin Staves, per mille of pipe Gothenb. Yw. Deals, per 100 12f. 3in.9in... White ditto Yw. Battens, per hd. 12 ft. 2Jin. 7 in ChristianiaYw.Deals, perhd. 12ft. Sin. 9in. White Quebec and St. John's Spruce Deals. . 1 per 100, 12 ft. 3 in. 9in ) "1st qual. yw. Pine Deals, per st. hd. Second do. do RedPine Deals, per hd. 12ft. 3:n. 9in. Red Pine Timber, per load Yw. ditto .. Birch ditto Elm ditto Oak ditto Standard Staves per mille standard Puncheon ditto • Lathwood, per fin. of 4 feet MAHOGANY, &c. Mahogany, St. Domingo 8d. Cuba 8 Honduras 7 African S Cedar .... Havana 5 New South Wales 4 j £ s. d. £ s. d. 3 17 6 to 4 7 6 16 0 0 .. 19 19 0 1 1 0 .. 1 7 0 95 0 0 ..105 0 0 7 0 0 .. 7 10 0 18 0 0 .. 19 19 0 15 0 0 18 0 0 5 0 0 90 0 0 24 10 0 23 10 0 15 0 0 29 10 0 27 10 0 . 15 10 0 . 19 19 0 . 5 12 6 .110 0 . 27 0 . 25 10 . 17 10 . 30 0 . 23 0 16 0 0.. 19 10 0 14 10 0 11 10 0 22 0 0 3 17 6 3 2 6 3 0 0 4 5 0 5 10 0 50 0 0 14 10 0 5 0 0 17 10 0 12 10 0 27 0 0 4 2 6 3 15 0 4 0 0 4 15 0 6 10 0 60 0 0 18 10 0 COO to Is. 9d. per foot. Rosewood. Rio 15Z. to 901. Bahia 12 15 6 2 7 6 6 0s. per ten. PRICES OF MANURES. Subjoined are the present Manure : — Hunt's Bone-dust, — s. per qr. Hunt's Half-inch Bone, — s. per qr. J. T. Hunt's Artificial Guano, 91. per ton Hunt's Stuff Graves, 3s.6d. cwt. Rape Dust, 61. 6s. per ton Rape Cake, 61. per ton Rags, 41. to 41. 10s. per ton Graves, 61. 10s. per ton Gypsum, at the waterside, 35s. per ton Agricultural Salt, 32s. per ton Carbon, 12s. per qr. Humus, 14s. per qr. Soap Ashes, 10s. per ton Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr. Highly Concentrated Manure, 30s. per qr. Nitrate of Soda, 16s. per cwt. Nitrate Potash (saltpetre), 25s. to 26s. per cwt. Petre Salt, 41. 10s. per ton Willey Dust, 4/. 4s. per ton The Urate of the London Ma- nure Company, 4/.4s. per ton New Bristol Manure, 8s. per qr. Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr. Preparation for Turnip Fly, 10s. 6d. per pakt., sufficient for three acres Chie fou, 21s. per cwt. WolverhamptonCompost(Alex ander's), 12s. per qr., subject prices of several sorts of to carriage to London, or forwarded from Wolver- hampton Guano, Peruvian, 10?. 10s.; Bolivian, 91. ; African, 6/.6s. to 71. 10s. per ton, according to analysis Potter's Guano, 10/. per ton. Muriate of Ammonia, 20s. to 24s. per cwt. Muriate of Lime, 6s. per cwt. Clarke's Compost, 3/. 12s. 6d. per hhd., sufficient for three acres Alkalies, 28s. and 42s. perewt. Soda Ash, 14s. to 16s. perewt. Chloride Lime, 28s. per cwt. Sulphuric Acid, l^d. per lb. Sulphur for Destroying Worm on Turnips, 12s. per cwt. Sulphate Soda, 6s. per cwt. The Liverpool Abattoir Com- pany's Animalized Manuring Powder, 21. 10s. per ton Manure Powder, 1 6s. per qr. Boast and Co.'s (Bow) Inor- ganic Manures, from 6s. to lis. per cwt., according to crop Boast's Guano, 91. 9s. per ton Fothergill's Gypsum, 35s. pel ton. Fothergill's Phosphate of Lime, 14s. per cwt. Superphosphateof Lime. 8«, do. 382 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, PRICES OF SHARES. 21 psh 10s l/8spsl 12s p sli Shares '24,000 9,500 10,000 30,000 9,500 15,000 6,640 86,000 50,COO 42,000 40,01/0 4,800 35,000 10,000 2 1, GOO 19,000 12,800 17,000 144,000 144,000 144,000 4,000 18,000 18,000 26,000 26,000 10.8C0 10,918 Si percl 10,918 5/ perct 10,918 .j( jierct 12,000 20,000 Div. last half year si IZ lOsps Odps 10,000 25,000 25,0(10 37,500 20,000 12,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 15,000 5,000 16,noo 8,000 5,100 7,968 11,475 4125000/ 41,250 04,450 32 p sh RAILWAYS Aberdeen 2£2 pd Armagh, Coleraine.Portrush 25/shl j|/pd Birmingham and GloucesterlOO/ sh pd Do. New, iss. 7 J dis. .. 25/ sh 1762 pd Birmingham Exlension....... ljj/ pd Birminghain&OxfordJunct. 20/sh2Zpd Brighton, Lewes, &Hastings,50/sh20/pd Bristol and Exeter .... 100/ sh 70/ pd Ditto New 2/ pd Bristol and Gloucester ..50/ sh SIM pd Caledonian 50/ sh 5/ pd Do. Extension 50/ sh 2J/ pd Cambridge and Lincoln. . . .25/ 1^/ pd Do New .. 1|2 pd Canterbury and Dover 1 p pd Cheltenham and Oxford 2/ pd Chester and Holyhead. ..50/ sh 15/ pd Chichester and Brighton 20/ pd Clydesdale Junction .£/ pd Cork and Killarney .... 50/ sh 2^Z pd Cork and Waterford 25/ sh 1JZ pd Coventry, Nuneaton, Bir. k. Leicester, 25/ sh l£/ pd Cornwall 50/ sh 3/ pd Direct Northern 50/ sh 2.}/ pd Direct Norwich 20/ sh 1/ pd Direct 51 anchestert' Remington's) 2jjZpd Diss, Becclcs, & Yarmouth. 25/sh IJ/pd Dublin & Belfast Junction. 50'sh 2^/pd Dublin,Belfast,&Coleraine,50'sh2j]-'pd Dublin and Galway 50/ sh 2£< pd Dundalk and Enniskellcn50/sh 2£/pd Eastern Counties .. 25/sh 14/ IRs pd Do. New 25/ sh 4/ 16s pd Do Perpetual, No. 1.. 6/ 13s 4dsh pd Ditto ditto, No. 2 ..6/ 13s 4d 13s 4i! East Dereham and Norwich . ...1/ pd Eastern Union 50/ sh 20/ pd Ditto Extension 25/sh 1^/ pd East Lincolnshire l|/ pd Edinburgh 6c Glasgow .... S02 s:i pd Ditto Quarter Shares 12JZ sh pd Ditto New i Shares 12J/ sh 5/ pd Edinburgh and Northern,25Zsh lJZpd Edinburgh and Perth l|/ pd Ely and Bedford .... 25/ sh 1£/ pd Enniskillcn and Sligo 2£Z pd Exeter, Yeovil, and Dorchester, 2j2 pd Glouc, Aberystwith, and Central of Wales ... ljj/pd Goole and Doncaster 25/ sh lj|Z pd Grand Junction 100/ sh pd Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd Ditto Quarter Shares 25Z sh pd Grand Union (Nottingh.&Lynn)l|Z pd Great Grimsby & Sheffield, ;">o/sh 2f2pd Great Southern & Western (Ireland) 50Z sh 15/ pd Ditto Extension 50Z sh 2$/ pd Great Munster 2£Z pd Great North of England . . . . 100Z sh pd 10s p sh Ditto New 40/ sh 5/ pd Ditto New 30/ sh 2/ pd Great. North of Scotland 2J2 pd Great Western 100/ sh 802 pd 4/ per ct 4/ per ct 12 per ct 1215s p 3s9d p sli tJZpercl 4^/percf ll/perct 52 per ct 5/ per ct )2 per ct Price per Share. 41 a a 3 a i >$ a O.i B5i a 90 10 a 11£ 1° a k H a 4 H aS >f. a 4| a 4 ■a a 4 -"■', n 3 a 4 4i a rs a 3 4J a a Sj a J 204*19$ 64 pin •b Pm pm i?aj <3a I 6J a i 6 a 5 2J a Sg 4J a 4 2* a I a 51 41 a 4 217 a 18 Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh pd Ditto Fifths 202 sh 20/ pd Guildford, Farnham, and Portsmouth, 602eh2£/pd Harwich 20/ sh 12 pd Hull and Gainsborough . .25/sh l|/pd Hull and Selby 50/shpd Do. Quarter Shares 12JZ sh pd Do. Half Shares 25Z sh 2Z pd Inverness and Elgin . . . 20Z sh IZ pd Kendal and Windermere 25Z sh 1 JZ pd Lancaster and Carlisle... 50Z sh 25/ pd Leeds and Bradford ...50/ sh 15/ pci Leeds &; West Riding Junetn., 15/ pd Leicester and Birmingham ....22s pd Leicester and Bedford.. 20/ sh22spd Limerick and Waterford 2J/ pd Lincoln, York, and Leeds 1;;/ pd Liverpool & Manchester. ... 100/ sh pd Ditto Half Shares 50Z sh pd Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25Z sh pd London & Birmingham.. ...... Stock Ditto Thirds 822 sh 10/ pd Ditto Quarter Shares .... 252 sh 2Z pd Ditto Extension IjjZ pd 165$ a 3 96 a 2.1 38 a 7£ 53J pm k I1"' 43,000 36,000 4,500 83,000 85,000 43,077 11,136 46,200 90,000 20,000 10.0-0 10,000 8,000 13,000 13,000 13,000 22,750 80,000 so.ooo 4155000Z 12,500 978500Z 15,000 20,000 20,000 24,000 36,000 10,256 3,136 12,208 19,000 19,000 19,000 2,600 125,000 12,000 26,000 7,000 18,000 22,000 56,000 28,000 42,000 126,000 50,000 45,000 3s 30s p sh SsOd p sh 10s 2/0spsl 9s p sh 2/18s5ps ?5s8dps 2s I / p sh 3/ per ct 46s3dpc 21 p sh I9s6dps 10s p sh 12 10s 22s fid 7., Cd 15s6d p s Islld p s London & Blackwall .. Av. 162 13s 4dU0 a 9| Ditto New l£2pd London and Brighton 502 sli pd 76 a 5| Ditto Consolidated Eighths50Zsh 35/pd| Ditto Sixths |2pd3 London & Croydon .... Av. IS/ 15s 9d|25j ex-d. Do. New ....." 13s 4d pd [&ex-nw Do. Guaranteed 5 per Ct. . 9/ sh 6Z pdl London & Greenwich . . Av. 12Z 15s 4d 10 Preference or Privilege. .Av. 18Z 17s2d London & South West... Av.41Z6sl0d 80 a 1 DittoConsolidatedEighths,40/psh20/pd Ditto New 50/ sh 2JZpd 15J a j Ditto New 4'»Z sh 2Z pd I '-'j London and York 50Z sh 2J/ pd 6J a £- London and Windsor. . . . 25Z sh IZ pd London, Salisbury, and Yeovil.. 2^/p.l 4.} a ■> Londonderry&Coleraine, 50Z sh 2$2 pd;6 Londonderry&Euniskillen'Wsh 2J2pd|8j a \ Lynn and Ely 25Z sh 2;/ pd Lynn and Dereham .... r-5/ sh \%l pd Manchester & Leeds .. 100/ sh 76/ pd 216 ex-d Ditto Half Shares 50/ sh 34/ pd! Ditto Quarter Shares .... 25/ sh 2/ pd;40J- ex-d Ditto Sixteenths 6/ 5s sh 4JZ pi Manchester & Birming.. 40/sh40/pd89 ex-d Do. J Shares 10/ sh 4Z pd 16£al5| Do. New \ Shares 10Z sh 2/ pd 13 a 14$ Manchester, Buxton, and Matlock, Ss\ pm 20/ sh 2,'s pd Midland StocL 171 a 69 Ditto Fifths 802 sh 11 pd Ditto Nesv 402sh 22 pd|25j a a Ditto Birmingham & Derby.... Stockl31 a 3 MidlandC.rt.West.(Irish) S02 sh 2sZ pd \\ Newcastle & Berwick. 25Z sh I / ',0s pd I5jal6j Newcastle and Carlisle.... 100/ sh pd Newcastle, Durham, and Lancashire Junction 1:7 pdtoj} a j Newcstl &Darlingt June... S52sh 252 pd|54 J a 4 Ditto New (Brandling).. 25/-6h 10/pd 41 a 6 Newport and Abergavenny. . . . -2\l pd Newry and Enniskillen, 50/ sh 2|/ pd|2J a 3 Newark, Sbeffield,&Boston25Zsh 2"fz pd6j a 4l North British ex Dalkeith and Hawick 25/ sh 15/ pd -'7 a | Ditto New ex Hawick 1/ pj 7jJ a jj Northern & Eastern .... 50/ sh 45/ pd Do. Scrip . . iss. 5 dis. . .502 sh 35/ pd Do. | Shares 122 10s sh pdl North Kent&DirectDover502 sh 2J2 pdUj a .', North Staffordshire 20Z sh 22s. pd 54 pin North Wales 25Zsh \\l pd if Norwich and Brandon ..202 sh I42pd|22 a 3 Ditto New 10/ sh IZ pd;' Northampton, Banbury, and Chelten- ham 2/ pdl Nottingham, Erewash Valley, & M m- chester 1 j|Z pd Oxford and Worcester .. 2JZ pd 13J a J Perth and Inverness 2.y pd 2| Portsmouth Direct 50/sh2^Z pd5§ a fii Preston & Wy re 602 sh pd 43j a -)£ Richmond 20/ sh 1/ pdjll a J Rugby, Worcester, andTring.'O/shl 2 pd Scottish Central 25/sh 2j2 pd 7J Scottish Midland 25/ sh 1