% K '**> r^^ .♦- ie- -->-■ LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE No._76£)6..____ DATzA~mtt. SOURCE -JJa.'tc-fcL-f ujxd 1637:1 ^ft^f?*" ^.*>>. X h:k's magazine. VOLUME THE ELEVENTH. (third series.) JANUARY TO JULY, MDCCCLVII. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. MAY BE HAD BY ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS. FRINTEO BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. INDEX. A. Agriculture, Calendar of, 79, 181, 267, 358, 452, 548 Agriculture in Canada — Hints to Emigrants, 338 Agricultural Chemistry. By J. C. Nesbit, 17, 199 Agriculture — Commerce between France and England, 439 Agriculture, Development of, 105 Agricultural Education, 248 Agricultural Meetings in 1857, 364 Agricultural Progression, 114 Agricultural Reports, 81, 183, 269, 359, 453, 548 Agriculture, I'ecent Improvements in, 510 Agricultural Servants, System of Yearly Housing, in Lincolnshire, 495 Agricultural Show in Upper Canada, 166 Agricultural Societies — Bath and West of England, 45 Dublin Royal, 376 Gloucester, 47 Loughborough, 410 Rutland, 41 Agricultural Statistics, 77, 141 Artesian Wells, 526 Arts, Society of, 76 Averages, imperial, 87, 189, 274, 367, 460, 555 B. Baker-street, a memoir of the Past revived by a visit to, 124 Bark, Price of, 370, 461 Bakewell's, Mr., Anecdote, 528 Beet-root, Distillation from, 34 1 Birds, Dung of. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 5 Birmingham Cattle Show, Report of the, 34 Bread-making, Stevens' Mode of, 437 Breeding of London Dray-horses, 501 Bull, description of a Short-horn, 278 Bull, description of a Short-horn, 373 Butter, Cheese, &c.. Markets, 88, 190, 275, 369 461, 556 C. Cattle Breeding in France and England, 446 Cattle, Fattening of, 106 Cattle : Fat Show at Poissy, 441 Cattle : new Market, London, 212 Cattle-trade, Review of the, 81, 186, 269, 360, 453, 549 Cheese-making Apparatus, Keevil's Patent, 249 Cheese Market and Manufacture, 347 Cheese-making, 491 Chicago, Commerce of, 479 Chicory, Price of, 190, 276, 369, 461 Christmas Prize Meat, 121 Clay Soils, Draining, 30 Colts, Rearing and Training of, 477 Corn Averages and Gold, 46 Corn grown in England doubly advantageous, 435 Corn, most Economical Mode of Thrashing, 436 Corn Trade, Review of the, 84, 187, 273, 365, 475, 552 Corn Trade, Queries respecting the, 527 Corn, Uniform Sale of, by Weight or Measure, considered with the Decimal System of Coinage, 416 Cottages for the Poor, Mr. Neeld's, 135 Cotton Trade — how to be extended, 470 Covent Garden Market, Prices in, 88, 190, 276, 368,461 Currency per Imp. Measure, 86, 189, 274, 367, 460, 555 D. Dealers, Cattle and Horse — Jobbers, Sheep and Pig, 483 Deep Land Culture, 327 Dibbhng and Dropping Corn, 64 Distilleries, Agricultural — Distilling from Beet, 215 Drainage, ejQFect upon Production by, 197 Drainage of Land at Hinxworth, 386 Drainers' Suppers, 40 Drainage Test, Barometer as a, 486 E. Education of Farmers' Boys and Labourers, 417 Electricity, 208 Emigration to Canada, 321 Emigration, Canada as a Field for, 357 Emigration and Employment by Association, 320 Exposition Universelle de I'lndustrie, 136 F. Fairs, 87, 186, 271, 362, 455, 551 Farmers amongst the Chemists, 202, 326 Farm Buildings, 333 Farmers, Caution to : Cattle poisoned by Spurious Rape-cake, 393 Farmers' Club — London, 65, 112, 253, 294, 419, 513 Farmers, Facts for, 141 Farming— how to do so profitably — Latest Advices, 434 INDEX. Farming, High, and Modern Meat, 490 Farming, Light Land, 126 Farmers' Politics, 339 Farming, Practical good, in South Lincolnshire, 310 Fences, Chapter on, 331 Fish Manure, 129 Flax, best Mode to Grow and Prepare, with com- parison of Natural and Artificial Steeping, 488 Flax and Hemp, Improvement in treating, 384 Flax, Hemp, &c,. Price of, 376, 461 Food Crisis in France, 304 Food, Economy of. By Dr. Letheby, 493 French Cattle Show, International, 63 G. Game Laws and Vermin, 111 Game Laws and Landlords, 110 Grasses. By G. W. Calvert, M.D., 23] Grazing versus Growing Corn, 483 Gooseberry Bushes, 547 Great Britain : Can she, with high, good Farming, grow food enough to keep herself? By Samuel Arnsby, 355 Green Crops, Increased use of, 119 Guano Crisis, 266 Guano Chincha Islands, proposed sale of the, 108 Guano — its Composition and available Sub- stitutes, 446 Guano, Lecture on. By Professor Way, 398 Guano, Manures as Substitutes for, 191 Guano, Price of — Coprolites, 229 Guano, Supply of, 226, 316 H. Hereford Bull, description of a — Napoleon III., 4 Hereford Oxen — what they were nearly half-a- century back, 323 Hop Markets, 87, 189, 275, 368, 460, 555 Horses, Universal Exhibition of, 31 Hops, Average Duty of, 448 Hull General Annual Trade Report, 172 Husbandry, necessity for the Extension of good, 1 1 3 I. Implements, Agricultural — choice and utility suit- able for tillage and stock farms, 451 Improvements and Impedimenta to Agriculture from College Holding, 102 Ireland, Condition and Future Prospects of, 337, 382 Irrigation in Italy, 244, 324 L. Labourers, Claims of, 224 Labourers' Cottage. By Mr. Isaacs, 306 Labourers, Registration of good, 75 Labourers, Underground. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 98 Lambs —why they die when fed upon Cow Milk, 395 Landlord and Tenant Law, 289 Landed Property, Transfer of, 225 Leather Market, 230, 276, 369, 461 Lease, Landlords' Interest in a, and its tendency to promote Cultivation, 210 Leases, Restrictive Covenants in, 222 Lectures on the Production and Maintenance of Organic Life. By Charles Johnson, Esq., 311 Lime, Application of, 209 Linseed Trade, Annual Report of the, 176 M. Machinery for Agricultural uses, 120 Mangold Wurzel Crop, 311 Manures, Artificial, 281 Manure difficulties and its Solutions, 261 Manure, Economy of Farm-yard, 198 Manure, spreading of Farm-yard, 107 Manures, Liquefied, 392 Manures, Prices of, 88, 370, 462, 561 Meat Market, Abuses of the Live and Dead, 484 Memoir of Mr. W. Chamberlain, 371 Monthly Return of Corn, Grain, &c., 275, 368, 460, 555 Memoir of William Mills, Esq., 97 Meteorological Diary, 180, 190, 268 Metropolitan Great Christmas Cattle Market, 60 Mutton, the Supplies of, 62 Murrain, Threatened Approach of the, 293, 399 N. Northumberland, Duke of, and his Tenantry, 164 O. Oil Market, 275, 369, 462 Ox, Short-horn, 463 P. Patent Laws, Abuses of the, 101 Phosphate of Lime, Soluble. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 278 Ploughing by Steam, Possibility of, 158 Plough, Usher's, 135 Ploughing by Steam Power, 500 Poetry — Song of the Spade, 128 Farmers' Boys, 437 Potatoes, Cultivation of, 179 Potato Markets, 87, 189, 275, 368, 460, 556 Practice with Science, 157 Prices, a History of, and the state of the Circu- lation during the nine years 1848 and 1856, 475 R. Ransome, Biography of James Allen, 1 Rape Cake as Food, 32 Reclamation of Waste Lands, 322 INDEX. Ill Reviews— Adulteration in Food and Medicine, 555 Cattle Plague and Diseased Meat, relative to the Public Health and Agricultural Interest. By- Mr. Gamgee, 400 Collections of Customs Tariffs of all Nations. By C. N. Newdegate, M.P„ 401 Post and Paddock, 354 Royal Agricultural Association of England, Pro- ceedings of the, 9, 189, 290, 352, 403, 522, 528 Root Crops, 464 S. Sale of Stock of the late Mr. Chamberlain, Des- ford, Leicestershire, 303 Salting-in Grass — Coprolite — Hair and Blood Manure, 447 Seeds, Prices of, 87, 189, 275, 368, 460, 555 Sheep, Leicester, and Short-horned Cattle, 524 Sheep, Sheltering of, on Turnips, 211 Sewage of Towns — its application to Agricultural Purposes. By Mr. James D. Ferguson, 387 Sewage Question — relation of Town and Country, 430 Sewage — Proposed Plan for using that of New- castle-on-Tyne, 480 Short-horn Stock, Important Sale of, 438, 541 Smithfield Show Week, 8, 49 Society of Arts — Premium Subjects, 353 Soil, Access of Free Air to, 373 Stallion—" Vulcan"— Description of, 277 Stallions for the Season 1857, 348 Stallions, Thorough-bred, 463 Steam Culture, 16, 130 Steam Power, Cultivation by, as now in Practice at Woolston, 428 Stock, Economical Feeding of, 162 Stock, Inducements for Breeding good, 471 T. Tenure of Land, Best, 502 Tenant Right, gradual Extension of English, 159 Testimonial proposed to Mr. Valentine Barford, Foscote, Northamptonshire, 485 Timber, Prices of, 276, 369, 462 Tithe Commutation, 179 Thames — How can it be Purified ? 468 Towers, Memoir of the late John, 447 Turnip Fly, 489 Turnip Crop, Swede, 364 Turnip Disease, Swede, 394 U. Underdrainage of Land — Progress and Results in Great Britain. By Mr. J. Bailey Denton, 145 V. Vested Interests. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 184 Vienna, Great Agricultural Show at, 472 Waste Land, Reclaiming, 487 Wheat Grain : its Composition, and its Products in the Mill and Bread. By J. B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert, 496 Wheat Plant, the Young, 161 Wheat ? what should be a Bushel of, 227 Wheat Trade — Past and Present, 546 Weights and Measures, Adjustment of, 187, 303, 426 Willow, the : who can Cultivate it, and what it may be Used for, 414 Wool Markets, 88, 190, 276, 370, 462, 556 Wool Trade of Danzig, 33, 169 Worms, to Kill, 109 Workpeople of England, Facts concerning the, 242, 317, 396 Y. Year, Close of the, 117 Year, the New, 1C3 Young Farmers entering into Business, 239, 314 THE EMBELLISHMENTS Portrait of J. Allen Ran some A Hereford Bull Portrait of William Miles . Design for Farm Buildings A yearling short-horn Bull , , A Cart Mare and Foal Dray and Go's. Beet-root Distillery . Keevil's Patent Cheese-making Apparatus A thorough-bred StalHon . A short-horn Bull Plan for condensing the Sewage Manure of London A short-horn Bull . . . Portrait of Mr. Henry Chamberlairi . A thorough-bred StaUion . A short-horn Ox ... Plan for a Labourer's Lodging-house 250, 25 Page. 1 1 97 97 182 182 182 1, 252 276 276 309 370 370 462 462 462 THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZINE. JANUARY, 1857 PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF MR. JAMES ALLEN RANSOME. PLATE 11. NAPOLEON THE IIL; A Hereford Bull. JAMES ALLEN RANSOME. Here, reader, is the pleasant countenance of Allen Ransome ! A man born to be meiry and wise, if ever there was one jet — just in the middle of some racy anecdote, that none can tell like himself; and that will bring us to the point a good deal quicker and better than all the learned treatises that ever were written, or ail the long speeches that have to be spoken. Let us show our appreciation of so excellent a model, and go at once to the point of our own story. James Allen Ransome, then, was born at "Yarmouth in July, 1806; he has consequently now jusc rounded the fiftieth year of his age. The county of Norfolk, however, has little claim on him beyond that of mere birth-right. So early as 1809 he removed with his father's family to Ipswich, dating from which town as his home, he completed his education at Colchester in 1820, after having spent four years there. Immediately on his leaving school " for good" he was bound apprentice to his grandfather, father, and uncle, who were then carry- ing on business in Ipswich as Ransome and Sons. He left home again in 182G for Yoxford, whei-e he continued to manage a branch business of the firm up to 1829. This was rather an eventful year for him, as during its course he entered into two dif- OLD SERIES] ferent partnerships. That is to say, he joined the house then trading under the altered title of J. R. and A. Ransome, and he married : two memorable epochs in any man's career. This brought him once more into the immediate neighbourhood of Ipswich; which, however, he again forsook for Yoxford in 1833; ultimately returning in 1839 to Ipswich, where he continues to reside as one of the leading partners of a firm now written as Ransomes and Sims. The energetic character of Mr. Ransome's labours first began to fairly develop itself during his second sojourn in Yoxford. Thoroughly feehng the ad- vantages which should come from such associations, he became mainly instrumental in establishing the Yoxford Farmers' Club. He attempted this on something of a new, or at any rate on a principle very rarely tried up to that time. As secretary he organised the discussion, by the members, of ques- tions of practical agriculture, with the view of pub- lishing reports as to reliable results. The success of such plan is now well known. In his own and the adioining counties it was almost immediate. Closely following his example, and chiefly through his assistance, similar clubs were soon brought into action at Harleston, Beccles, Halesworth, Wren- A [VOL. XL VI .-No. I. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. thara, Framlingham, Yv^ickliam Market, Hadleigh, and Ipswich. The good thus achieved was at once apparent; and similar institutions began to spring up, ail over the county. Amongst the best of these, such clubs as the Harleston, the Hadleigh, and the Halesworth have always held a very high posi- tion. But Mr. Ransome did not stop here. In conjunction with the late lamented Mr. William Shaw, Mr. Robert Baker, and one or two others, he set the London Farmers' Club first going, the main features of which still very much resemble those of the little Yoxford club, as established some ten years earlier — the discussion of practical results, and re- porting the meetings. It was in this district, too, that he was one of the first to introduce the " allot- ment system" for labourers ; a means, which, how- ever coolly received at the outset, has also come to be gradually adopted. Need it to be told that when Mr. Ransome left Yoxford, in 1839, his friends and neighbours — and with Allen Ransome the terms are synonymous — presented him with a handsome and becoming testimonial in plate ? Some few years before this, Mr. Ransome had directly assisted in forming a Society of still greater influence in its effect on the agriculture of this country. He was one of the little knot from which it sprung ; he was one of the very first members enrolled ; and he still continues to take his seat as one of "e Council of the Royal Agricul- tural Society n*" England. There is no frequenter of its meetings )ut must know him. Indeed there have been few of any importance in the three kingdoms but which he has visited, and at which we trust he may be greeted for many years yet to come. Very many who read this will themselves be able to speak to Allen Ransome as a man of business, who by his integrity and ability has justly reached the highest position. Many more will remember him, perhaps, as the most agreeable of companions and the most welcome of friends. Others, again, will associate his presence with those fluent, happy addresses he now and then rattles off; speeches so perfect in their style and delivery as to generally defy the art of the reporter. To appreciate such orations you must hear " Allen's" own musical voice, and watch the lighting up of his pleasant countenance. All, however, may not have enjoyed, as we have, the opportunity of seeing him in his own home, or following him through his own town. The kindly greeting and good word to everybody, and the deeds which carry out all these words imply. We question very much wliether there be such another happy family in England as the thirteen or fourteen hundred men constantly em- ployed in Messrs. Ransomes' works at Ipswich. What a treat it is to go over these— especially if you have the head of the house himself to guide you— and to note not only all the triumphs of art and skill, but to mark also how the heart has its due share in the business. To see, as you do, at every turn and in every face that the profits of the master are nowhere more studied than the comforts of his men ! If we say more, we shall but make our hero mortal, and chronicle him, like most of us, as not proof against some little weakness or other. That of Allen Ransome, if such it be, is a national one— the love of a horse. The neatest hack at the Suffolk shows is almost sure to be " Mr. Ransome's." Kimself a good horseman, and a good judge, no wonder he confessed, in the openness of his heart, as we once heard him, that " much as he loved a steam-engine, he loved a horse still more !" The firm of Ransomes was estabhshed in the last century by Mr. Robert Ransome, the grandfather of the subject of this notice. It was Robert Ransome who took out the first patent for manu- facturing cast-iron chilled ploughshares, and thus by making the under-side much harder than the upper, preserving a sharp cutting edge to the share. The use of this process in turning out plough- shares is now almost universal, both in this country and America. The chief business of the establishment is still the manufacture of agricultural implements and machinery ; although the firm is also extensively recognized in conjunction with railway works and improvements. Upwards of three thousand miles of " line" in the United King- dom, and nearly two thousand more in other parts of the world, are now laid down and maintained on the patent known as Ransome and May's. The success of the house as agricultural implement makers may be tested, in some degree at least, by the high honours taken at the great national meet- ings of both England and France: — At the first meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Oxford, the society's Gold Medal. At the meeting at Liverpool, a high commenda- tion for the introduction of the portable steam- engine in connexion v/itli the thrashing machine. At the meeting at Bristol, the first prize of £30 for the successful accomplishment of the object of thrashing by a steam locomotive engine. At the meeting at Derby, the society's Gold Medal again awarded them : the only instance in which any exhibitors have received this honour a second time. The Irish Society has also awarded their Council Gold Medal. The Grand Gold Medaille d'Honneur was awarded them at Paris in 1856, in addition to many smaller Gold Medals. And the Gold Medal at the Rouen meeting in the present year. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The following is a more general and chronologi- cal list of PRIZES and MEDALS awarded by the great Agricultural Societies to Messrs. Ransomes and Sims, but this must b}' no means be taken as a complete epitome of their success : — Plough Y.L Do. Y.L Do. Y.L Do. Y.L Do. Y.R.C Do. Y.R.C Do. Y.R.C Do. Y.R.C Do. Y.RC Do. V.RL Do. V.R.L Do. V.R.S Do. V.R.S Do. V.R.S Do. Y.U.L Do. L.P Do. L.P Do. L.P Do. L.P Do. L.P Do. Beauclerc's Do. do Trussed Whippletrees Scarifier, Biddeil's No. 1 Do. do. Do. do, Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. Biddell's No. 7 East Anglian Harrow Field Roller, No. 10 Do. No. 20 Do 7 P Portable Steam Engine Do. do. Do. do. 8 P Fixed Steam Engine Do. do Do. do ]Jo. do. Combined Thrashing Machine, No. 1 Rotary Thrashing Machine, No. 2. . Four-horse do. Two-horse do. Two-horse do. Two-horse do. Chaff Engine, No. 2 Do. No. 3 Turnip Cutter, Single Action .... Do. Double Action .... Horse Works . Winnowing Machine Brace's Stable Fittings PRIZES, £10, as the best heavy land plough . . Royal Agricultural Soc. of England, Southampton £10, as the best light land plough. . . . Do. do. do. £10 Do. do. Northampton Council Medal, as made by Busby . . Great Exhibition The Prize „ Royal Agricultural Society of England, Lewes Do. Do. do. Lincoln Do Do. do. Carlisle Divisional Prize Bath and West cf England, Tiverton The Prize for deep ploughing Royal Agricultural Seciety of Ireland, Carlow First Prize for light land Paris Exhibition, 1856 Second Prize for light land Royal Agricultural Soc. of England, Chelmsford The Prize for deep ploughing Do. do. Carlisle The Prize for deep ploughing Bath and West of England, Tiverton First Prize for deep ploughing Paris Exhibition, 1856 Universal plough Do. do. Lowcock's turn-wrest plough Royal Agricultural Soc. of England, Shrewsbury Do. do. Do. do. Exeter Do. do. Do. do. Lewes Do. do. , Do. do. Gloucester Do. do. Da. do. Chc-lE!s.*'ord Subsoil plough ,.,. Do. do. do. Do. Bath and West of England, Tiverton Commended Roval Agricultural Sos. of England, Liacoln The Prize Do. Do Do. Do Do. Do Do. Do Do. Do Do. Do Do. A Prize, medium size Do. Do. do. Do. Do. do Do. The First Prize, £30 Do. A Prize of £10 Do. The Prize Royal Agricultural Society o Do Do. A Prize of £10 Royal Agricultural Society of England, Lewes The First Prize of £20 Do. do. ' Lincoln The First Prize of £20 Do. do. Carlisle The Second Prize Paris Exhibition, 1856 The First Prize Do. do. The Prize of £10 Royal Agricultural Soc. of England, Carlisle The Prize Dx do. Gloucester Do. Do. do. do. Do. Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, Killarney The First Prize Do. do. Carlow The Third Prize of 100 francs Paris Exhibition, 1856 The Prize Bath aud West of England, Tiverton The First Prize Paris Exhibition, 1856 Do. Do. do. The Second Prize Do. do. The First Prize Do. do. Bronze Medal and 50 francs Do. do. do. Liverpool do. NorthamptoH do. York do. Norwich do. Lesves do. Gloucester do. Chelmsford do. do. do. do. do. do. do. ■ , Bristol, 1842 do.' Lincoln ociety o. -eland, 1854 do. 1855 MEDALS. Gold Superior collection of Implements. .. . Royal Agricultural Soc. of Euj Do Superior workmanship Silver Best light land plough . Do Best heavy land plough . Do Patent whippletrees . , . Do Universal plough Do Corn and seed depositor. Do , Lowcock's plough Do XUe machine Do Double mill Do , Indian cultivator Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Jamaica do. do. do. do. do. do. do, do. do. I, Oxford Derby Southampton do. Derby Norwich do. Southampton do. Lewes Bonze Drop drill , Great Exhibition Do Printing press Do. , I^o Water crane, treenails, &c Do. Silver Bean cutter , Royal Agricultural Soc. of Eng'aiid, Gl mrester Do ^ _ , Dn , , Yorkshire Agricultural Society A 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Silver' Bean cutter Do Two-horse thrashing machine Do Horse-power gearing Do Subsoil plough Do Pateut whippletrees Do General assortment of implements. . . . Do , Davy's flax taachinery Council Gold Steam thrashing machine Silver Best plough Do Best seed harrows Do Best crushing mill Do Best 2-horse power thrashing machine Do , Best portable steam engine Do , , Best set of horse power gear Do. Best set of whippletrees Medaille d'Honneur Cullectiou of Implements Silver Cotsreave's plouirh Medaille d'Honneur Collection of Implements Gold Steam thrashing machine Do Plough for light land Do Winnowing machine Do Double action turnip cutter Do Single actiou turnip cutter Silver Fixed steam engine Do Hors8 work Do Plough for general purposes Do , Plough for heavy laud Do Plough Y.U.L Bronze . , Bruce's stable fittings Do No. 2 chaff engine Silver Cotgteave's plough. Gold Best collection of implements Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, Killaraey Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Dublin Spring Cattle Show Royal Agricultural Society of England, Lincoln Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, Armagh Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Do. do. do. Paris Exhibition, 1355 Royal Agricultural Society of England, Carlisle Paris Exhibition, 1853 Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Royal Agricultural Soc. of England, Chelmsford Eouen, France. PLATE II. NAPOLEON THE HI.; A Herkford Bull. BRED BY AND THE PROPERTY OF LORD BERWICK, OF CRONKHILL, NEAR SHREWSBURY. Napoleon III. was bred by, and is still the property of. Lord Berwick ; he was calved 30th January, 1853, and is by Walford (871), dam (Duchess of Norfolk) by Tom Thumb (243), g. d. (Pigeon) by Young Trueboy (82), gr. g. d. (Pigeon) by Ashley Moor White bull (791), gr. gr. g. d. (Damsel) by Cholstrey (868), gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Old Damsel) by Coleman's Bull (purchased from Mr. T. A. Knight), gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Old Daisy) by Chancellor (156) gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Cherry the Second) by Mr. Knight's Bull, winner of the Hereford Cup in 1807, gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Cherry the First) bred by Mr Knight. Napoleon III. is one of the most compactly formed Herefords ever seen. He is not long in frame, but amazingly deep ; his chest, and all along his underneath parts, exceedingly good ; his flank very full, deep, and low; his chine and girth great and good ; but back, perhap.s, a little amiss. His hips are of fair width, and good ; his legs short, which perhaps causes him to look less noble than his general proportions would indicate. The quality of his flesh and softness of skin are excellent. At the Royal Agricultural Society of England's Meeting at Lincoln, 1854, he was highly com- mended. At the Paris Exhibition, June, 1855, he was awarded a Bronze Medal with mention tres honour- able, not being eligible for a prize. His sire, Wal- ford, also the property of Lord Berwick, took the first prize of £40 for Hereford bulls at the same Meeting. At the Royal Agricultural Society of England's Meeting at Chelmsford, July, 1856, he was awarded the first prize of £30 for Hereford bulls under four years old. The above bull's dam took first prizes at the Royal Agricultural Society's Meetings for three successive years, as a yearling, two-year-old in calf, and cow in milk : at Norwich, Exeter, and Wind- sor. Her first calf also took prizes at the same Society's Meetings for three successive years, as yearling, two-year-old in calf, and cow in milk. Napoleon III. is the second calf of his dam. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE DUNG OF BIRDS. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. At this period of the well-established use of guano, it is needless to attempt to prove the value of the excreta of fish-fed birds. The importation of 235,111 tons of Peruvian guano in 1854, and of 305,061 tons in the year 1S55, renders it unne- cessary to prove the value of the dung of birds to the English farmer. Its present price, too (£11 per ton), tells the same truth, that the importance of this manure is no longer a question. The value of the manure from our domestic poultry is less known, because of the limited amount obtainable. But then a useful inquiry arises as to the advan- tages which might be derived from increasing our stock of poultry, and by collecting and keeping their dung under cover, so as to increase the amount collected, and the power of the manure. It is to be remembered that there are two or three condi- tions to be fulfilled in entering upon such an etibrt to prepare British guano ; the food of the birds should contain a large proportion of animal matters ; the dung should be protected from rain (not mixed with any earthy matters), and to render it worthy of the labour of collecting, should be produced in considerable quantities. It is an incorrect conclusion that the dung improves in value by keeping; the opposite result is, in fact, obtained ; the ammonia most probably diminishes in amount by age. The Peruvian farmers much prefer the recent droppings of the sea-birds of the guano islands to that which has lost its white colour by age ; and this, let us remember, is a result obtained in a climate dry and warm, where rain is an unknown phenomenon. The difficulty of collecting it in England, in any considerable quantity, is the great objection ; and as this stands as it were at the very threshold of our inquiry, let us take a glance at what they are doing in foreign poultry yards, and ask ourselves whether we might not, in certain favourable situa- tions, keep poultry to a much more profitable extent than at present. It is certain that in the warm climate of Egypt, ducks, and in China other poultry, are hatched by artificial means in large and remunerative fiocks; the dung of these must be of considerable value. The pigeons' dung has even been imported into this country from Egypt; and in Holland the dung from dove-cotes is of well-known value. But we may omit from our consideration the last-named poultry, since there are, perhaps, few situations in this country where the food of pigeons is not of more value than the birds : let us, rather, confine ourselves to the ordinary poultry of the farm-yard. In this branch of our rural economy, we are, perhaps, much excelled by our continental neighbours. In the last number of the Quarterly Journal of Agri- culture, Mr. P. L. Simmonds, when referring to the rearing of poultry in France, has alluded to more than one fact bearing upon the subject of this paper. He observes (p. 486), that besides lime or powdered oyster shells, sand or ashes, and a copious supply of water, domestic fowls require a large amount of animal food to make them prolific layers. To this great attention is paid in France. M. de Sora, a large fowl-breeder in the neighbourhood of Paris, is reported to buy the used-up hacks of the French metropohs for feeding his hens, and he thus obtains eggs every day in the year. M. de Sora's poultry- yards furnish about 40,000 dozen of eggs a-week, which he sells at the rate of six dozen for three shillings and fourpence, thus yielding to their pro- prietor a very handsome revenue. He employs about a hundred persons, mostly females. He never allows a hen to sit, all his chickens being hatched by steam. The eggs are arranged upon shelves, and covered with blankets, and each morn- ing a swarm of chickens are taken to the nursery. The Chinese, too, have large establishments at Shanghae for the hatching of poultry by artificial heat. The process adopted is a simple but effica- cious one, and the heat employed is seldom more than 93 degrees. At the principal establishment, the proprietor affirmed to Mr. Sirr that he fre- quently hatches 5,000 eggs per day. In England and America, however, hatching machines have not been found to succeed in practical operations. In any case it is useless to anticipate success from such large rural operations without the greatest care and attention. The number of hens which are necessary to produce M.de Sora nearly half a million of eggs per week must be enormous ; the food con- sumed, and the amount of dung produced, must be proportionately large, and, from the large pro- portion of animal food consumed, of a highly nitrogenous quality. That the French have found out a way of profitably keeping poultry in confined spaces, and upon purchased food, is pretty evident to every one who has travelled in France. For, although on the one hand eggs and poultry are found jn profusion on every table, and are bought THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. at a much lower rate than with us, yet it is every person's remark that neither on the roads, nor about the cottages or little farm homesteads, is any amount of poultry to be seen. We have in this country, in the case of the Aylesbury ducks, an instance of the profitable management of poultry on a large scale. Mr. Read, in his prize report upon the farming of Buckinghamshire {Jour. Soy. Ag. Soc, vol. xvi., p. 301), tells us that when these are highly fed, they begin to lay about Christmas ; and as all the eggs are hatched under hens, the old ducks, not being permitted to sit, continue laying during the season. The ducklings are taken from their foster-mother the moment they leave the shell, are kept in lots, warmly housed, and allowed but a limited access to water. They are fed, in addition to corn, with greaves, liver, flesh, and almost every description of animal garbage. In eight or ten weeks the ducks are killed and forwarded to Lon- don, where, in the early season, prices sometimes range as high as I4s. per couple. Of the numbers thus produced (adds Mr. Read) it is impossible to speak with certainty ; but to illustrate the quantity, it may be stated that a little farmer at Bierton had at one time last season nearly 2,C00. He calcu- lates that about 400,000 are annually reared in Buckinghamshire. The dung of poultry has been examined by Girardin. He found it to be composed of: — "Water 16.13 Organic matter 3.74 Ash 2.53 Some analyses made long since by M. Vauquelinj which have never been repeated, would lead to the rather curious conclusion that phosphorus is formed in the bodies of fowls during the process of digestion. He found that a hen devoured in ten days 11,111.813 grains of oats; these contained 126.509 grains of phosphate of lime. During these ten days, she laid four eggs, the shells of which contained 98.779 grains of phosphate of lime. The excrements emitted during these ten days contained 175.529 grains of phosphate of lime, consequently, although she took in only 126.509 grains of phosphate of lime, she gave out 274.308 grains of this salt. The experiment, however, is open to several sources of uncertainty {Thomson, vol. vi., p. 357). I have already referred to the imported pigeons' dung of Egypt ; this was analyzed by the late Pro- fessor Johnston, and I will (after giving the results he obtained) add the comparative trials with pigeons' dung and with hen dung as a manure for carrots and turnips, by an eminent Scotch farmer, and this in the words which I have elsewhere employed. The Professor reported {Trans. High. Soc, 1847, p. 580), that when the Egyptian pigeons' dung was subject to analysis, it was found to consist of 23.9 per cent, of soluble and 76.1 per cent, of insoluble matter. Its more detailed composition was, per cent. : — Water 6.65 Organic matter, containing 3.27 per cent, of nitrogen, equal to 3.96 of ammonia 59.68 Ammonia 1 .50 Alkaline salts 0.42 Phosphates of lime and magnesia 7.96 Carbonate of lime ............ 2.37 Insoluble silicious matter , 21.42 " It will be seen," he adds, " that the sample submitted to examination contained upwards of one-fifth of its weight of sand or mixture, sca,rcely, perhaps, to be avoided in a country like Egypt. As a manure it will be very valuable to the farmer, and if more free from sand, may prove even a pro- fitable article of commerce. It is as rich in ammonia and ammoniacal matter as some of the best Ichaboe guanos. It is only half as rich, how- ever, in bone earth ; but this deficiency, if consi- dered of importance in any particular locality, might be made up by an admixture of bone-dust, or of the waste bone charcoal of the sugar refiners.'' While this indefatigable chemist v/as thus examin- ing the chemical composition of the newly- arrived fertilizer, a Scotch farmer was as busily and as usefully employed in testing the value of the same manure on his fields of carrots and of turnips. His trials, without rivalling those of the analytical che- mist in minute accuracy, were tried on a bolder scale, and in Nature's own great laboratorj'', amid the sunny slopes and the wholesome breezes of Whitehill, in Mid-Lothian. " The object of these experiments," remarks Mr. A. J. Main {ibid., vol. for 1849, p. 503), "was to ascertain the relative value of hens' and pigeons' dung as compared with Peru- vian guano. The pigeons' dung which I employed was in excellent order, and with very little extra- neous matter in it; but I cannot say so much for the hens' dung. In the process of collection it had been mixed with straw and chafF to a large extent, and during winter had not been kept sufficiently dry, so that its quality must have been greatly deteriorated. Another object was to ascertain the value to vegetation of dung alone, and dung with specific manures. The field on v/hich the follow- ing experiments with carrots was made, contains about nine imperial acres ; it consists of a light sandy loam, with a subsoil of the most part of a sand and gravel. In some parts the sand is pure, in others the subsoil is of moss, which is chiefly found in a basin at the north-west portion of the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. field. With the exception of the mossy subsoil, all the rest of the field is perfectly dry. The inclina- tion of the field is from north-east to south-west. The field is sheltered on three sides by plantations, and the carrots were sown on a flat portion towards the south-east boundary. The field was ploughed from old lea, in 1844, and a crop of oats taken in 1845; turnips manured with home dung, guano, &c., in 1846; again oats in 1847, turnips and carrots. The manure applied this year was home dung and various special manures. I first ploughed in the home manure, and previous to harrowing, I had the special manures sown broad-cast and han-owed in. The seed was then sown in ruts 14 inches apart, formed with the head of a large rake, and trodden in. The manures were applied on the 23rd, and the seed sown on the 24th of April. The results of the various applications per acre were as follows : — Produce of carrots. Manure, tons.' cwt. lbs. Home manure 24 tons. ... 12 13 64 Home manure 16 tons, pigeons' dung 4 cwt. .. . 14 5 60 Home manure 16 tons, Pe- ruvian guano 4 cwt 13 IG 48 Home manure 16 tons, hen dung 4 cwt 11 12 96 With white globe turni[)s the following results were obtained per acre : — Bulbs. Shaws. Manure. tons. cwt. tons. cwt. Home manure, 28 tons produced 14 12 6 14 Police manure, 40 yards 14 18 6 18 28 yards \ i •:; s s i Hen dung, 4 cwt. /■••• ^"^ ^ ^ ^ Of the value, then, of the dung of our domestic birds, there appears to be no doubt; its composi- tion is, in a great degree, similar to that of guano, and let us not forget that if poultry were fed with a larger proportion of animal food than at present, the dung would more closely resemble that of the fish-fed birds of the guano islands. It may be true that it is not in every situation that large quantities of poultry could be profitably kept in England, but I feel assured that there are many places where large poultry establishments might be advantageously maintained in connection with the farm-yard. It is true that the jjoultry of France have a higlier mean temperature and a drier climate in their favour than with us ; but then we have cheaper fuel to warm our houses, larger supplies of refuse fish, flesh, and garbage than in France, and an equally large demand for eggs for domestic and manufacturing purposes, and far higher prices both for eggs and poultry than those which rule in the markets of Paris. Some- thing, perhaps, will then be done one day or other in keeping poultry in England on a mudi larger scale than any which has hitherto been attempted. The demand for poultry in common with that of other animal food will probably long continue to adv^ance; this will lead to increased efforts, to more business-like arrangements in poultry keep- ing; the supply of the manure from them will become, from its increased amount, more worthy of the agriculturist's notice. But these things may yet require years to accomplish. The history of the tardy introduction of guano into England, leads us not to be sanguine as to the use of the dung of the birds of our country. It was generally known in our country that guano had for ages been em- ployed by the Peruvian farmers. Sir H. Davy, the earliest of our agricultui'al chemists, in alluding to the masses of it which abound on the Chincha Islands, suggested, in the year 1810, its use as a manure; yet thirty years elapsed before (in 1840) it was first imported, in about 20 casks, into Liver- pool. So from very early ages we find notices of the value of the dung of poultry (2 Kinrjs vi. 25). M. P. Cato, the earliest of the v.Titers upon agri- culture {lib. 86), commends the use of pigeons' dung for meadows, corn lands, or gardens ; and in England, John ¥/orlidge, in 1669, was warm in the praise of the dung of fowls. " Pigeons' or hens' dung," he says {Mysterieof Agric, 7l), "is incom- parable ; one load is worth ten loads of other dung, and is, therefore, usually sown on wheat or barley that lieth far off, and is not easily to be helped." And he adds in another place: " A flock of wild geese had pitched upon a parcel of green wheat, and had eaten it up clean, and sat thereon and dunged it for several nights, that the owner despair-ed of having any crop that year ; but the contrary happened, for he had a far richer stock of wheat there than any of his neighbours had." These facts are worthy of our careful attention, since time — and not, perhaps, a very long time — will exhaust even the Peruviara islands of their guano; and if so, after having experienced its value, the English farmers will hardly part with it without securing a successor : they will not again be wanting in their efforts to keep pace with the demands of an increasing and a far better fed population than any that has before tenanted our islands. NECESSITY OF A SCIENTIFIC AS WELL AS A MECHANICAL KNOWLEDGE OP AGRICULTURE.— Their whole atteutiou appeared to be entirely absorbed in the mechanical, such as hedging, ditching, ploughinsr, sowing, &c, never once dreaming about the scientific part of the businesp, but expecting at the same time their crops to spring forth spontaneously. Most of them were growers of wheat, and they ought to know of what substances it was composed — thst wheat must be the produce of the soil, and if the soil did not contain the sebstauces necessary for its production, it was im- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. possible for them to obtain a perfect crop ; but if attention be paid to the analysis of soils, a crop might then be depended upon with greater certainty — As a doctor, he might say, by way of illustrating the subject, that any of tliem might take a dose of physic which probably would do them good, but if they took a double dose the effects might be serious ; so with regard to soil, if theygave more or less than it required, disappoinment would be the result. Last year he saw many of his friends buying quantities of artificial manures, at a cost of £12 per ton. He took portions of these manures, which upon analysis proved to be worth not more than £5 per ton. These facts did not seem to remove their scepticism ; and although he might bethought rather offensive, he could not help characterising such conduct as beiug immeasureably stupid, as they might have the'r ma- nures analyzed at a trifling cost. In conclusion, he recom- mended a little more attentiou to science, which would be at- tended with beneficial and satisfactory results. — Mr. Wood at the Uuorndeu Agricultural Society. THE SMITHFIELD SHOW WEEK. Of the influence of such societies as the Royal Agri- cultural and the Sraithfield Club we could need no better proof than this year's show of stock in the Baker-stieet Bazaar. To use a favourite phrase of the agricultural connoisseur, it was a remark- ably "even" one — remarkable, that is to say, for the general excellence of the animals entered. There was not a bad beast in the yard. Turn to what class you ■would, and nearly all were found developing the best points of the breed in the highest degree. It was, in- deed, often a nice question as to which was first or second, or what merely commended. The judges reversed some of the Birmingham decisions^ and they did so with but little comment or complaint. So trifling was the actual difference in many instances, that a third set of men might likely enough have picked out a third ox as the best of his entry. The Smithfield Club may be spoken of as a good butcher's market, or an agreeable lounge for the sight-seers of the metropolis; but it is something far more. The annual exhibitions here have taught the breeders and feeders of the whole kingdom to understand what a good animal really is, or should be. And so, instead of the curiosities which stood out in such strong- comparison but a few years since, we have now arrived at an " even show." Men know better by this than to send up stock that have not a chance. They carry away with them in their mind's eye the contour of Mr. Heath's Devon or Mr. Stratton's shorthorcs, and they inwardly ask of themselves whether they have any- thing that ought to be up here ? These shilling lessons at Mr. Boulnois' academy are wonderfully instructive. As we anticipated, the week went well. In fact, we seldom remember one where things passed off more pleasantly, or with abetter promise for the future. The Club was strongly supported by both the exhibitors and the public. Tolerably conclusive evidence, if any were wanting, as to the attendance of the latter, is to be found in the facts, that by mid-day on Friday not a catalogue was to be had for love or money, and that the contractor has "sprung" another two hundred on his rent of the Show. The effect of this will tell all ways. The Club is ennbled to considerably increase its usefulness in the way of additional premiums; and the only doubt is, whether by the end of the five years' agreement the Bazaar will be able to afford sufficient room and accommodation for a meeting, which is very rapidly enlarging its objects and attractions. On the three first days of the exhibition the throng of town and country visitors was perhaps greater than ever. The implement galleries were at times impassa- ble, and the gold medal animals as often invisible. It was only after a struggle that you got a peep at the short-horn cow, or with commendable patience edged your way up to the Duke's Downs, or Mr. Walmsley's wonderful pen of Leicesters. If any of the exhibitors did stand out prominently before their fellows, it was in the sheep classes. These gold medal Leicesters were pronounced by good judges to be about the best ever shown ; while the Duke of Richmond has never sur- passed the strength of his present flock. As specimens of pure-bred sheep of either sort, these two pens de- servedly stand as models of their kind. In the stock classes, on the contrary, there was nothing, as we have already iirtimated, very pre-eminent. The most perfect animal in the yard was, perhaps, Mr. Stratton's shorthorned cow. We would, however, refer to an article especially devoted to this subject, in its proper place, as an appropi'iate introduction to the prize list. We have already intimated that the meetings of the week were full of further promise. The Smithfield Club itself, as will be seen from the report of what oc- curred, has made a very striking advance and improve- ment. Every breed of stock worthy of a distinctive classification will now have it. The routine monotony of the dinner has been thoroughly reformed ; Mr. Brandi'eth Gibbs is about to make us a most suitable new year's offering in a history of the Club; the privi- leges of membership are gradually extending; and the members generally obtaining more voice at their own meetings. " The privacy of the snug little family party has been broken in upon." What the Club has chiefly to fear is this kind of snug privacy ; and he is the best friend to the Society who boldly denounces it. There is a little further enlnrgement still required in the appointment of stewards. We are told there is nothing more difficult than the selection of judges; so few, comparatively, are known to be competent. Now, we must maintain that the best apprenticeship for a judge of stock would be to enter him, in the first place, as a steward. Besides, the more fresh men you can get ■ to take a direct interest in the proceedings, the more new members are you likely to enrol. With every re- spect for gentlemen who have served the office, we say THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 9 it would be better foi* the Club not to fall back iipon thorn. It is not necessary, and it is not politic. The Royal Agricultural Society, again, is moving. The prize list here, too, has just been amended. The premiums for thorough-bred hunter stallions and hunting mares are at length to come immediately from the Society, instead of by a side-wind from any one who was charitable enough to offer them. Then the general annual meeting in the Smithfield show week has a chance of actually becoming what it at present merely professes to be. At this general annual meeting on the Saturday in the week there were present, in addition to a strong array of reporters, some fourteen or fifteen members ! The business, of course, was of the most pro forma character. The only noticeable feature, in fact, was a proposition from Mr. Corbet that this meet- ing be brought forward to some earlier day in the week, when the members will have a better oppor- tunity of attending. The suggestion was at once en- dorsed by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, in a very business-like speech, and tliere is no doubt but that it will be adopted. The reports of the discus'^ion-meeting at the Farmers' Club, of the dinner of the same Society, and of that of the Smithfield Club, will all speak for themselves. These two dinners were both well attended and well served. The post-prandial oratory at either, however, was hardly equal to what we have heard. At the Free- masons', Miss Wells and " Bonnie Dundee" appeared to have by far the best of it. The Farmers' Club dis- cussion, on the contrary, Vvas very ably maintained. It is seldom we have known one of a more practical oi* useful character. The point of it is, that the less you interfere with or hamper the farmer, the better for everybody concerned. The Society of Arts, as usual, adapted one of its sub- jects to the occasion — though rather a stale one by this time — the utilization or value of town sewage. The few agriculturists present appeared to take but little interest in the matter, and not one of them spoke to it. The meeting was chiefly remarkable for some rather sharp cross-firing and amusing personalities ; but it does not appear to have done much towards eluci- dating the difficulties surrounding the question of use and application. We have no room for any report of what was said ; and, indeed, we have some doubt whether so old a story is worth transplanting at all. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday, the 3rd of December. The following Members of Council and Governors of the Society were present : Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., President, in the chair; Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart., M.P. j Sir Archibald Keppel Macdonnald, Bart. ; Mr. Dyke Acland ; Mr. AlcDck, M.P. ; Mr. Raymond Barker ; Mr. Bram- ston, M.P. ; Mr. Cavendish ; Colonel Challoner ; Mr. Brandreth Gibbs ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs ; Mr. Milward ; Mr. Allen Ransome ; Mr. Sillifaut ; Mr. Thompson ; and Mr. Burcli Western. The following new members were elected : — Acltroyd, William, Otley, Yorkshire AUeuby, George, Walhugton, Louth, Liueohishire Baker, Thonns, Staplefurd, Cambridge Bariiett, R , Moprt, Moninnuthshire Buddicomb, WiUiam B., Penbedw Hall, Msc it to the light, He found that the tube at tie 21 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. otiier eiul, wliicli passed through lime-water, gave an abundant precipitate, showing that the leaves had no action on the charcoal gas. He then took off the paper, and exposed the tube and vine-branch to the light of the sun ; and on now sending the stream of air and car- bonic acid through the apparatus, not a trace of carbonic acid was found to pass through at the other end. An- other point which you have to remember is, that plants obtain the largest amount of their nutriment from the air. You shall plant a forest upon land which contains no vegetable matter — I might say, upon Brown Willy or Rough Tod ; you, or some one else coming after you, may, at the end of say fifty years, remove cart-load after cart-load of timber, and yet, at the expiration of the period, the soil shall be richer in vegetable matter than it was when the trees were first planted. Where did all this vegetable matter come from, if not from the air? Again, in the case of a field of turnips, it is the action of the leaves of the turnip upon the air that secures the greatest amount of vegetable matter. Bear in miad, then, that plants are dependent in a far greater degree upon the air than upon the land ; that so far as the land is concerned, you can only, after a due supply of mineral matter, assist the plant in endeavouring to obtain more organic matter by its roots from the land than it could naturally obtain by its leaves from the air ; and in this consists the true principle of manuring. I must now proceed to speak to you about the production of farm- yard dung. That is the sine qua uon of farmers, and I am afraid that some farmers attach too much import- ance to it, regarding it as if nothing else could possibly equal it in value. Now, gentlemen, what is farm-yard dung .' I am not about to speak now of all the various modes of manuring which are adopted, though I have heard it stated that the decomposing vegetable matter differs greatly in different counties. Farm-yard dung is neither more nor less than decomposed vegetable mat- ter, derived from plants v,'hich once had life in the soil, and which, when returned to the land, will furnish the necessary elements for reproducing vegetable life. The manner in which it is decomposed — the mode of reduc- ing it to a proper state for its application to the land — is quite another question. Is what I have heard stated true, that in Devonshire and Cornwall there are parties who are in the habit of strewing their straw on the high-roads and bye-roads ? Is it true that in this county it is the practice to place vegetable matter in a position in which everything in it that is valuable is likely to be washed away ? If that is the mode of making farm-yard manure which is adopted in this district, or in other districts, all I can say with regard to it is, that it is not a mode which I should recommend for imita- tion. Gentlemen, in considering the subject of the de- composition of vegetable matters, you must remember that some elements of vegetables are volatile, and some soluble, and that those which are least volatile and least soluble are also least valuable. The substance in ma- nures which is most volatile is ammonia ; and where there is bad management this will pass away into the air ; while the potash and the soda, and the other soluble materials, will be washed away. As compared with the practice which I have mentioned, would it oot be well to put your straw in the farm-yard sheltered from wet, and place your feeding animals upon it ? because, in that case you would have the dung of the animals upon the straw, and the vegetable matter also. The tiuth is, that every possible precaution ought to be taken against losing anything valuable that is contained in vegetable matter ; and with this view you should seek to have a proper amount of moisture and no more, and endeavour to associate farm-yard manure with materials which will tend to fix the ammonia, and so on, and prevent it from passing away. Now the quality of the manure must de- pend on the quality of the vegetables on which you feed your animals. If you feed them merely upon straw, the value of the dung will be in proportion to that of the straw ; whereas, if you add oilcake, and other substances of a similar nature, there will be a proportionate increase of value. There is no ultimate action in the animal economy — no action, that is, in relation to the food which the animal consumes, that does not take place in ordinary decomposition. If you decomposed a large quantity of vegetable matter, whether it were oilcake or straw, you would have just the same ultimate result as if you passed it through the body of an animal. The animal system does not add anything whatever to its value : the animal only gives forth what it received. Indeed, so far as manuring is concerned, the dung of the animal is always less valuable than would have been the food on which the animal had subsisted. It must, therefore, always be borne in mind by practical farmers that the animal adds nothing to food, but only subtracts from it. Many persons are apt to imagine that the fact is otherwise ; but they are certainly mistaken. If you had more turnips than your sheep required — and I have known such an instance — and were to chop up a field of turnips and plough them in, the result would be that you would afterwards get a far better barley crop than you v.-ould have done had sheep, by eating them, robbed the turnips of a portion of their value. 1 have seen that experiment tried over and over again, and it has always been attended with the same result : therefore theory and practice perfectly coincide in this matter. Well, now, with respect to the making of farm-yard manure, let me impress upon you that, so far as the quality is concerned, that depends on the food of the animal ; and that in order to its conservation you must protect it against water. It is my opinion that, with the view of most effectually preserving the ammonia, you had better make a kind of compost heap, first spreading a quantity of ditch stuff, road scrapings, or other earthy matter, and then putting a layer of dung, then another layer of earth, and so on, alternating the earth with the dung in such a manner as will be most likely to cau^e the earth to absorb the substances which would otherwise pass into the air, and to prevent the wasting away of the soluble materials. You will, I believe, secure a far bet- ter kind of farm-yard dung in that way than by any other mode of proceeding with which I am acquainted. It is the duty, or at least the interest, of every one to try and make the vegetable matters of the farm go as far as he can ; though, however, he may aim at doing this, he will never be able to produce upon the farm all that it actually requires ; and hence he will occasionally be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 25 obliged to resort to extraneous soui'ces to supply the deficieucy. I am afraid I am detaining you, Mr. Chair- man and gentlemen, at too great length. The subject is such an extensive one that there are one or two other points which I desire still to introduce, but it must de- pend upon yourselves whether I shall do so (loud cries of " Go on"). Well, I will first mention the rotation of crops, and afterwards speak for a few moments in reference to artificial manures. With respect to the ro- tation of crops, I wish to point out to you a very clear and simple illustration. Taking the four-course shift as the example — though it may be expanded to six, or eight, or ten, or any number that you please — I will sup- pose that you have turnips and barley and seeds or peas and wheat as your rotation. T am aware that you are in the habit of leaving seeds for two or three years. I do not wish now to express any opinion with regard to that practice ; but I will just state what I consider to be the true theory of crops, taking the four- course system as the rule, and bearing in mind that it may easily be expanded. After draining your land, and getting it into proper condition, you sow it for turnips. Now turnips are plants having a large development of leaves. They send their roots downward in search of nourishment ; they send their large leeives into the air. With every breath of heaven that passes over the plant, the leaves absorb the carbonic acid of which I have been speak- ing ; they give out the oxygen, and retain the carbon ; they absorb the ammonia from the air, and their roots draw up from the soil the mineral matters; and these, uniting together, are the sources of the materials which the turnip stores up in the form of its bulb. The turnip intends, from these accumulated materials, to produce turnip seed. But you, gentlemen, step in and say — " We don't want turnip seed ; we want mutton or beef." And in order that you may have these, the tur- nips are eaten by your sheep or bullocks, and the ma- nure produced is used for obtaining a crop of barley. I know you do not feed sheep here to so great an extent as they are fed in the eastern parts of the kingdom, but the argument is still the same. The matters, therefore, which the turnips obtained from the air are employed in producing more barley than the land would produce naturally. Barley being a narrow-leaved plant, you ob- tain for it, by means of the turnip plant, a large amount of the substance which barley most requires ; this is put into the soil and taken up by the roots, and is assimilated by the barley, the result being that you produce four or five quarters of barley instead of the one or two quarters that you would obtain naturally. So that you employ, in fact, the great absorbing powers of one plant to assist the smaller powers of another. You must recollect, however, that if the relative prices of the productions were different, the whole of your operations would be different, so artificial and relative are the processes of agriculture. Well, with respect to clover, although clover is not a plant with large leaves, it is a plant of great foliage, and every little leaf that it sends into the air sends a rootlet downwards ; so that in exact propor- tion to the amount of foliage above the ground will be the quantity of the roots below. Well, then, supposing it possible that you are constantly feeding off clover in the spring, I would remind you that every time a sheep bites a leaf off, it stops the growth of the rootlet con- nected with that leaf, for each leaf has its corresponding rootlet ; and as it is the roots below that furnish in- creased nutriment for the wheat, so if you do anything whatever to stop the growth of the roots, you to that extent diminish the amount of the wheat crop which you intend afterwards to get from the land. Now if, instead of feeding off the clover, you were to cut it twice, re- moving the hay each time, and were then to plough the roots into the land and well work them, you would, I am sure, get a larger amount of produce from the land than you can possibly obtain under the system of feed- ing off. Gentlemen, this may be new to some of you, but it is not the less true. I will give you an instance — I might give you fifty. A friend of mine in North- amptonshire had a field of twenty acres of clover. It was all cut at Midsummer, and the hay removed; one- half was subsequently fed off, and the other was allowed to grow until September, when it was cut, and a good crop of hay was removed from the land. A portion of each part of the field was then dug up, and the clover roots separately weighed. Where it was cut once and fed once, there were thirty-five hundred-weight of roots per acre ; where it was cut twice, there were seventy-five hundred-weight of roots per acre — being a difTerence of two tons of valuable vegetable matter in the soil in favour of the land where the upper growth had been twice cut and wholly removed away. It is, you perceive, the de- composition of the clover roots in the land which fur- nishes the additional amount of manuring matter neces- sary for the intended increased crop of wheat. Having now said all I intended to say with regard to the rota- tion of crops, I proceed to say a few words with respect to the use of artificial manures. I am persuaded that there is no part of the country which is more likely to derive benefit from the application of artificial manures than Cornwall. Owing to the hilly character of the district, there is great difficulty in carting farmyard ma- nure, even if it could be produced in adequate quanti- ties ; and I need not tell you that, where you have to put ten or fifteen loads per acre, the expense of cartage must be much greater than it would be if you could ob- tain the same result with one load of another manure. What I have now said indicates, in some degree, the position in which you are now placed. I am certain that in the next five years the agriculture of Cornwall will receive an impetus such as it has never experienced hitherto ; because the Cornish farmers will now be en- abled to grow abundant crops, with the aid of artificial manure, in places where manures hitherto have, in con- sequence of their bulk, been practically unattainable. But let me tell you, gentlemen, that you have to guard against adulteration. I have myself spent a great por- tion of my time in exposing the various adulterations of manures. I have, too, recently mot with an instance in which parties, calling themselves a company, have pre- sented themselves before the world as being associated for the special purpose of protecting the interests of that unfortunate being who is supposed not to be capable of protecting himself — the British farmer (laughter) ; and these gentlemen declared that by them, 26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. at least, no adulteration should be sanctioned. Gentle- men, a guano wliich was offered by these parties to the British farmer at about ^"10 per ton — the price of genuine Peruvian guano being, you will observe, £12 per ton— was ascertained by me on analysis to be worth only about £2 10s. per ton ; while a quantity of super- phosphate of lime, which was offered at £7 per ton, was also ascertained to be worth only about ^2 14s. per ton. These analyses were made within the last few weeks. Of course, these adulterated articles were sold to some one, and it is as likely, perhaps, that they will be offered in the West of England as in any other part of this country. (Laughter). All I can do is to recommend you to take proper precautions against imposition. Imitate the conduct of honest manure dealers, who never allow anything to come into their manure works without knowing what it is. Never allow, if you can help it, a single artificial manure to come upon your farm without having ascertained previously of what it consists. The cost of an analysis is very small, compared with the loss which you would sustain by using a spurious manure to assist you in the growth of your crops. If we could only induce the farmers to join us in this work of detection and to have their artificial manures analyzed, the whole tribe of dishonest manure- dealers would vanish from the face cf the earth as quickly as so many mushrooms. Well, now gentlemen, I have put down certain approximative valuations of the principal substances contained in artificial manures, in order to assist you in forming correct notions on this subject. APPROSIIIATIVE ESTIMATION OF THE VALUE OF MANURES. la consequence of the variation ia the composition of manure, and the constant adulterations practised by uuprin- cipled dealers, it is a matter of consilerable importaiice to the farmer to be able in an easy manner to obtain an approximative value of 8uy manure which he may have subjected to analysis; and we subjoin a mode of valuation, the use of which will at least save him from the gross imposition to which he is at present subjected. The substances which analysis and practice have proved to be most eflScient as manuring principles are phosphates, and nitrogen in any of its forma. A few isokted experiments prove potash to be of some value ia one or two crops ; bul, as this substance can readily be bought in a state of "tolerable purity as sulphate or muriate of potash, and as it is not generally found iu compounded manures, v.e shall not give this any agricultural value, further than as comprised under the term of alkaline salts. Silica, under any of its forms, his not yet been proved to have any agricultural value; a:.d carbonate of lime (chalk) is ia moat instances a serious detriment to a manure, tliougu useful on the large scale, when used per acre by tons at a time. From a careful comparison of numerous analyses of manure with the value cf the sub- stances therein contained, we have been led to adopt the fol- luwing prices as giving the nearest approsimative value of the several manuring matters: — MunpLiERS OF Value. Nitrogen £74 per ton. Ammonia 63 „ Phosphate of lime 8 „ Phosphate of lime made soluble .. 2i ,, Organic matter 1 „ Alkaline salts 1 „ Sulphate of lime (gypsum) .... 1 „ Silica No value. Carbonate of lime No value. The following mode of calculation hc3 been aloptcd by me for many years, and ia exceeJiugly simple, as we only require the analysis of the sample to enable U3 to arrive at its worth in a very Lw figures :— RULE FOR CALCULATING THE VALUE OF MANURES. Consider the analysis to represent the components of one hundred tons. Multiply the respective amounts of each ingre- dient by its price per ton in the preceding table, add up the several products, and the sum will represent the value of one hundred tons. Divide this amount by one hundred, and the quotient will be the price per ton. The decimals in the analysis below 0'5 may be disregarded, and those above that amount reckoned as an additional unit. Thus, in the secorid example, the organic matter, instead of 21-68, may be read 22 ; and the phosphate of lime, instead of 44"35, may be called 44. Examples. I. valuation or an average sample of PEllUVIAN GUANO. Value per Ton. Total. Moiatnre 1510 Organic matter 51-27 x £1 = 51 Sihca 2-20 rho?phate of lime 22-13 x £8 -- 17G Phosphoric acid ,.... 3 23 =Pho3phate of lime (made solu- ble) 7.00 X £24 = lo3 Alkaline salts, &c. 607 x £1 = 6 100 00 Nitrogen {equal to) , 13 51 per cent. Ammonia 16-42 x £60 = 930 Value £13 12j. per ton. 1,00)£13,G1 20 1220 II. VALUATION OF A SAMPLE OP BOLIVIAN GUANO. Value per Ton. Total. Moisture 13 85 Organic matter 21-GS x £1 = 22 •Silica 2'70 Phosphate of lime 44 35 x £3 = 352 Phosphoric acid 3 30 =Neutral phosphate (made solu- ble) 715 X £21 = 108 Alkahnesalts 1412 x £1= 14 Ammonia Value £7 19j. per ton. 100-00 4 02 X £60 = 240 ]..00)£7,96 20 19-20 III. VALUATION OF A GOOD SAMPLE OF SUPERPHOS- PHATE OF LIME. Valuo rcr Ton. Total. Moisture 19 32 Organic matter 20 72 x £1 = 21 Silica i.-80 Soluble phosphate 10-25 =Neutral phosphate (made solu- ble) 16-00 X £24 == 384 Insoluble phosphate 16 CO x £3 = 135 Ilydrated sulphate of lime . , 29 81 x £1= 30 100-00 Ammonia . . : 2 00 x £60 = 120 Value £5 18.'. per ton. 1-C0)£6,91 20 18-20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 IV. VALUATION OF A BAU SAMPLE OF SUPBRPHOSPUATE OF LIME. Value per Ton. Total. Moisture 1790 Organic matter 14-00 >-' £1 = 14 Silica 2910 Oxide of iron, &c . . 8'62 Soluble phosphate , < 3"2 1 =Neutral phosphate (made solu- ble) 503 X £24 = 120 Insoluble phosphate 3 85 x £8 = 32 Hydrated sulphate of lime 2329 x £1 = 23 100-00 Ammonia 050 ;< £60 = SO 1,00;£3,19 20 Value £2 4 per ton. 3-80 V. VALUATION OF ADULTEKATED GUANO*. Value per Ton. Total. Moisture 5-40 Organic matter, &c 20-55 x £1 = 21 Sand 4930 Oxide of iron and alumina 5 46 Phosphate of lime 16 25 x £8 = 15S Carbonate of lime, &c 3-04 100 00 Nitrogen {eqtcal to) 465 Ammonia , 5-64 x £60 = 360 Value £3 per ton. £5,09 VI. VALUATION OF A SUBSTANCE LATELY INTRODUCED INTO COMMERCE, CALLED " MEXICAN GUANO." Value per Ton. Totai. Moisture 3-24 Orgauic matter, &c 13 53 x £1= 14 Silica 0-60 Phosphate of lime 25-60 x £S = 208 Carbonate of lime 4614 Sulphate of lime, &c 10 86 x £1= H 100-00 Nitrogen {equal to) 0-21 Ammonia , 0-26 x £60 = 15 1,00)£248 20 Value £2 93. per ton.t 9-60 The foregoing examples show how very closely the rule brings out all the actual value of the various samples. It is neces- sary, however, to remembir that circumatances might possibly arise in the course of time which would render some alleration requisite in the amounts of our multipliers of value. At tlie present period, however, they are sufficiently true for every practical purpose. As to moisture, I need scarcely tell you that that is worth nothing. Let me here remark, in passing, that farm-yard dung generally contains from 80 to 85 per cent, of water, and of course, therefore, the farmer who puts 100 tons of farm-yard dung upon his land does not put upon it more than from 15 to 20 per cent. of solid matter — that is, of the matter in which all • Often sold as Peruvian Guano, a pound or so under the marl.et price, to farmers who are in want of— a baroaik. i This value in, liowever, practically lessoned by the large quantity of carbonate of lime ctntaiued in the sample. Yet this substance has actually been bought by farmers as guano, at from £i to £9 per ton. the virtues of the manures consists. Now, gen- tlemen, as I have before intimated, it is very difficult to compress all the matters which I desired to bring before you within the compass of one brief lecture. I can only say, in conclusion, that I am exceedingly obliged to you for the very kind and attentive manner in which you have received my remarks this evening, and that if after I have sat down, there should be any points on which you wish to obtain from me additional in- formation, I shall be very h;ippy, if possible, to afford it (cheers). The Chairman said he concurred in almost every- thing the lecturer had said. He saw considerable doubt depicted in the countenances of some gentlemen present while Mr. Nesbit was explaining the system of cutting clover twice and relying on the decay of the clover- roots for manure for a wheat-crop ; but he had himself said, in the presence of four or five persons whom he met this morning, and without knowing any opinion of Mr. Nesbit, nearly word for word what they had just heard on that subject. He had found that in other parts of the country clover was the crop that preceded wheat; and any one who would take the trouble to examine carefully when he ploughed up clover, would perceive that the abundance and size of the roots were likely, when in process of decay, to afford to the wheat-crop a large quantity of valuable manure. The only question was, whether the moisture of their climate might not prevent the roots of clover from producing the same effect that they produced in other parts of the country (Hear, hear). Of that he could form nu opinion. Dr. Derry Pearse said he wished to put a question to Mr. Nesbit. He wished to know what was the nature of carbolic-acid — an acid mentioned in a pamphlet which he met with, the other day, "On the preservation of natural manures," by Alexander M'Dougall, who spoke of it as one of two acids, the other being sul- phurous acid, and the bases magnesia and lime. On first seeing the term "carbolic" he was disposed to con- clude that it was a misprint ; but it afterwards appeared that that was not the case. It was stated that by the agency of this compound the noxious principles were removed, and the valuable ones preserved. It was of course very important to obtain a perfect deodorizer, which this agent appeared to be, while its value was alleged to be increased by its not exerting any detri- mental action upon those elements which farmers wished to preserve, lie might thus illustrate the benefit to be derived from a good deodorizer. A stall-fed cow would void 15,0001bs. of urine in a year, which would yield 2401bs. of ammonia, in addition to the phosphates of the urine and alt the other excrements. Of this 2401bs. of ammonia no less than I621bs. were annually lost by the ordinary mode of treatment, or rather neglect, of the urine. Ammonia could not be purchased by the farmer for less than 6d. per lb. 1621bs. of ammonia at 6d. was 81s., the annual value per head for stall-fed cattle of the manure lost from the urine alone. The loss on the other excrements was proportionably great. This Sis. worth of ammonia was dissipated in the air, generating disease and impoverishing the soil. Mr. Nesbit said there certainly was such a substance 28 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, as carbolic acid. His opinion of it was, that however valuable it might prove when used on a small scale, it was utterly impossible to use such a substance or com- bination on a large scale. It might be employed, per- haps, with advantage in a gentleman's stable ; but he would not recommend Cornish farmers to resort to it for the purpose of arresting the ammonia in their dung, for the simple reason that the quantity which would be required could not be produced. Moreover, every farmer had at his own door the most valuable of all deodorizers, in the shape of common earth. When the dead were buried out of their sight, all the products of decomposition were absorbed by the earth ; and when there was such a ready resource at hand for arresting the odours emitted by manures, he could not advise them to have recourse to any expensive means of secur- ing the same object, even if it were available to a suffi- cient extent. Mr. R. Wise was desirous of putting to Mr, Nesbit a question having reference to his remarks on the sub- ject of clover. In that neighbourhood it was the prac- tice to eat down clover ; and there was, he believed, a clause in all the leases prohibiting the cutting of clover twice in succession. He would be glad to hear from Mr. Nesbit whether or not his remarks were applicable to the laying down clover for two years. Mr. Nesbit said he knew that was a question which admitted of a great deal of argument. He was aware of the practice of laying down clover for two years. But they lived in too enlightened limes to follow the practice of their ancestors, merely because it was their practice ; circumstances might have arisen which re- quired that they should deviate from it. For example, their ancestors did not use artificial manures to stimu- late the growth of their crops ; and hence, in their wis- dom, they laid down the ground for a certain number of years, in order that vegetable matter might accumulate there. It was in this way that he accounted for the prevalence in that county of the practice of laying down seeds for two or three years. He thought it would be worth while to ascertain by experiment whether one year would not suffice ; whether, by means of a sort of modi- fication of the four-course rotation, they might, in four years, obtain a better return than they had done under the present system. (Hear, hear.) The Rev. E. Phillpotts observed that the agricul- turists of that neighbourhood were in the habit of seed- ing out, not only with clover, but also with some of the other grasses. He would be glad to know whether or not that practice interfered with the application of the principle laid down by the lecturer. Mr. Nesbit said, the grasses generally did not enter so largely into the question as clover. He had been speaking more particularly of clover. The grasses were not of the same race as clover ; and, not having so large an amount of roots, did not follow exactly the same rule. When they were laying down a regular pasture, of which clover would form only a small portion, the principle which he had laid down was not applicable to quite the same extent that it was in the case which he had supposed ; but still it was applicable to this extent, that it would not answer to feed with clover unless they were laying down the land for a great number of years, and even then it would be better to let the clover grow for a certain time than to let it all be i fed off as it was produced. They could keep a much larger quantity of animals by that means, than by allow- ing the stock unlimited access to the pasture. The Chairman said, a gentleman had remarked that he thought the leases in that neighbourhood contained a clause which prohibited the cutting of clover twice. The gentleman was quite right ; such a clause was always in- serted, and it was important to bear that in mind in discussing this question. The Rev. Mr. May thought it might, in some cases, be desirable to feed sheep on half the crop, and to cut and plough-in the other half. Mr. Nesbit said, what he had been advocating was, the allowing the clover to be fully developed before it was either fed off or cut. To cut it completely, and then allow it (o develop again, would certainly be pre- ferable to continuous feeding ; but by ploughing-in both the top and the bottom growth they would of course obtain the greatest result in the after-crop. The best course to be pursued depended to a great extent on the amount of vegetable matter in the soil. The plan of letting clover acquire very large roots might not always answer on some peculiar descriptions of light land, a certain mechanical compressed condition of the soil being required in exceptional cases. He knew that Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre, found that it would not do for him, in certain cases, to cut clover twice, because his land was too light. Mr. R. Wise said, he had dressed some clover, just after the barley was cut, so that it was protected all through the winter. He grew two tons of hay per acre on very poor land. He laid it down for permanent grasses, and he found it answer very well. The Chairman : There was a top manure after- wards ? Mr. Wise : Yes. Mr. Prout, of Lifton, observed that there was a great prejudice in that neighbourhood against the use of superphosphate of lime instead of bones, it being ima- gined that the quality of the bones was greatly injured by the action of the vitriol. He should like to hear the lecturer's opinion as to the best and most profitable mode of applying bones to the soil. Mr. Nesbit said he considered Liebig's suggestion as to the use of oil of vitriol, in dissolving a portion of the bones, one of the greatest hints ever thrown out to practical agriculturists. It must be remembered that while bones were in their natural state, the plant could not act upon the inside, it could only act upon the outside ; the inside of the bones was of no more use than if that portion were not in the land at all. The more finely bones were powdered the better was likely to be the result. He believed that farmers were fond of half-inch bones, because, not being supplied with micro- scopic eyes, they could not otherwise tell of what the article consisted (laughter) ; but, in whatever form bones might be supposed to be applied, the chemist could tell what they really were, and whether or not there was anything mixed with them. So that the farmers had THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. powerful magicians it their command— magicians of far greater might than the Cornish demons of former times, or even Merlin or King Arthur of the Round Table him- self. Dissolved bones were soluble in water. The first rain that came sent what was soluble to the roots of the plant ; and if there were in the soil a certain proportion of insoluble bones, or bones which had not been dissolved — as ought always to be the case — the soluble part would probably suffice to carry the plant past the fly. He considered it of very great importance to agriculture that a certain proportion of the phosphates should be soluble, whilst another portion should be presented to the plant in a state not quite so soluble. A gentleman wished to know what Mr. Nesbit thought of grinding bones to powder. Mr. Nesbit : It is a very good plan. Dr. Pethick said there were two or three questions which he would take the liberty of putting to the lec- turer. The first question was, whether, in the applica- tion of bone-dust as a manure, it was not better that it should be applied on the surface, and harrowed in, so as to secure the free access of air to favour the decomposi- tion of it, instead of being, according to the prevailing method, turned entirely under the furrow 1 Secondly, he wished to know whether ammonia existed at all as ammonia ? his opinion being that the ammonia which was evolved in the decomposition of organic substances was generated at the time that decomposition was going on ; the nitrogen and hydrogen in the act of flying off" having a strong affinity for each other, and then chemi- cally combining and forming ammonia. Ammonia being nothing more than a compound gas formed of nitrogen and hydrogen, was it requisite that they should apply to the soil artificially that which was so abundantly sup- plied by nature ? Had not plants the means of obtaining from the atmosphere all the nitrogen, and from the water in the soil all the hydrogen, essential to their develop- ment and perfection ? Again, the lecturer stated that land was less injured by a double cropping of clover than by being frequently eaten by sheep and cattle ; since, with the growth of the plant above the soil, there was a corresponding increase of roots beneath, which roots afforded a large supply of manure for the succeeding crop. Was not the effect of carrying off a large amount of alkalies and phosphates in the two crops of clover more than any equivalent afforded by the accumulation of roots? and was the carbonaceous matter produced by the roots at all re- quired by the wheat grown after the clover, seeing that, according to the lecturer's statement, the atmosphere would afford in the form of carbonic gas all the carbon the plant would require ? Mr. Nesbit said the first question was whether it was not desirable that bone-dust, when applied as a manure, should be applied on the surface, and not ploughed in too deeply. His reply was, that it would be the best not to plough in the bones too deeply, be- cause they would not in clay soils of this district decom- pose quickly ; but with decomposed manures the question might be different. The more the bones were exposed to atmospheric action the better, and that was the reason why it should be as finely powdered as possible. The 29 second question was, whether ammonia existed at all as ammonia in farm-yard manure ? Ammonia certainly did not exist as such in a piece of straw ; but as soon as the straw began to decompose, ammonia was produced, a portion of the nitrogen and hydrogen of the straw or other decomposing matter uniting together to form am- monia, while the carbon and a portion of the hydrogen united with the oxygen, producing water and carbonic acid gas. Dr. Pethick : In the act of evolution? Mr. Nesbit : Yes; and if the decomposing and osydising action of the oxygen went sufficiently far, the ultimate result would be nitric acid, eventually produced from the nitrogen of the vegetable matter. Then with regard to the last question, he must remark that he spoke from practice, and not from theory alone, in what he said about clover crops. With respect to the question of whether plants could obtain from the air all their nitrogen, there was no doubt that some plants could obtain all they wanted from the air, but that oihers could not, at least in the quantities essential to produce the abnormal crop required by the farmer to pay his rent and taxes. As to the supposed abstraction of the phosphates by the clover from the soil, it must be recol- lected that what was in the hay was brought back again as manure, and therefore there could not, under proper management, be any robbing of the farm. Had he been speaking of the exportation of farm- yard produce the objection would be applicable ; as it was, it fell, he conceived, to the ground. Mr. Geake would be glad to know whether the Pro- fessor could recommend any simple test by means of which the farmer could ascertain for himself the purity or impurity of manures ? Mr. Nisbet thought it perfectly impossible to do so. The great point for the farmer was to take care that he dealt only with those dealers who had something to lose, that was to say, a character (Hear, hear.) He could give thtm no other test than that. If they wished to go further, they must either learn chemistry themselves, or they must entrust to others the task of analyzing for them. Mr. HuxHAM wished to inquire of Mr. Nesbit whe- ther salt would be a good addition to manure, and whe- ther it were not desirable for farmers to have their soils analyzed before applying artificial manures to them. With regard to the breaking-up of clover for wheat, a friend of his had told him that he had tried the experi- ment, and the result was that for some time the thing answered well, but that after a time the clover died away. Mr. Nesdit said he believed the application of salt to be very useful in increasing the strength of the straw and the delicacy of the grain. There could be no doubt that salt ought to be used for grain crops. Even so near the sea as Launceston was situated, the application of throe or four cwt. of salt per acre for grain crops must prove beneficial, and there should be a smaller quantity for mangold- wurtzel and other root crops. As to the analysis of soils previous to the application of manures, no doubt it would be well to know the nature of the soils in different parts of the kingdom, but at 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. present he thought it was more desirable for them to consider what crops they should grow than the nature of the soil. The analyzation of soils often reminded him of the man who, having a house to sell, came with a brick in his pocket as a sample of the house (laughter). They had to consider what drains there were in the soil, and what was their direction, what subsoiling there had been, and so on. There might be almost fifty kinds of soil in the same field. The question, What was the nature of the soil of any particular farm ? was, in fact, a complicated question ; and, with one exception, he thought the farmers of the present district had better confine their attention to the crops which they had to grow. The exception to which he referred had refer- ence to lime. It was very easy to ascertain whether there was sufficient lime in the soil : if there were not, lime should be supplied ; if there were, it would not be of the slightest use to add more. A Gentleman said, that as it was now generally understood that plaats derived their nourishmeiit partly from the soil and partly from the air, he had often been puzzled at finding that the mangold with a small top was generally the largest. Mr. Nesbit observed that that fact was very easily explained : there was such a thing as over-manuring. This would produce a large amount of foliage and a great development of the cellular tissue of the plant ; and if the season should not be favourable, the plant would not fill up the cells with the proper amount of starch, sugar, or other similar materials. The large amount of foliage would have produced a large root had the circumstances been such as the plant required. Mr. HuxHAM wished to repeat that a friend of his, who sat near him, stated that some wheat which he sowed after clover, in a light soil, did exceedingly well for a time, but that the benefit afterwards died away, and eventually the crop was not half so good as it had been. Mr. Nesbit said it was impossible for him to state exactly what was the cause of that. It might be the wireworm, or some Cornish insect with which he was not acquainted. He could not undertake to give a recipe for every evil in the soil. (Hear, hear.) The Chairman said, the time having come for ter- minating the discussion, he wished to make one or two observations before they separated. With regard to clover — in the management of which he took very great interest — he confessed he still entertained some doubts whether what Mr. Nesbit recommended would answer in the West of England, on account of the moisture of the climate, which was better adapted for grass than for grain ; and whether, in fact, the clover-root manure might not make more straw than grain. The expe- riment has never been fairly tried in the district. It must be borne ia mind that in that part of the country clover was what he might call the last crop. Wheat, barley, turnips, and barley had been taken from the land before they put into it clover. To make the experiment fully, he thought nothing but clover should be sown with the barley, and then some lime or other manure should be given to the land. The lime, acting on the roots of the clover, would contribute to the kerning or forming of the grain, and in that way, perhaps, counteract the tendency of the land to produce straw rather than grain. At all events he hoped the experiment would be fairly tried. There was another poiat which occurred to him. The lecturer recom- mended that, in forming a dung-heap, the dung should be laid several feet thick, and that it should be covered with earth, which he said was the best deo- dorizer they could possibly have. That is, no doubt, true ; but then another question naturally arose, whe- ther there is any occasion for a dung-heap at all. This question might startle the farmer, who prided himself on his duug-heap ; but still he repeated, it was worth while to consider whether it would not be better, after all, to cast the dung direct to the land, and thus pre- vent any escape of what in the discussion they had heard so much about, viz., ammonia. Now, he was sure that all present were very much gratified by the lecture which they had heard that evening ; and he hoped that the Launceston Agricultural Society would be enabled to secure the attendance of Mr. Nesbit on some future occasion, when additional information would, no doubt, be imparted. Such lectures as that to which they had just listened was, at all events, adapted to set agriculturists thinking. And he hoped that many of those present would ponder what they had heard, make experiments, as far as practicable, in connexion with his suggestions, and communicate the results to the Society. In conclusion, he would, on behalf of the audience, thank Mr. Nesbit for his lecture, and express a hope that that was not the last time they would see him amongst them (cheers). The meeting then separated. DRAINING CLAY SOILS. BY CECIL. The active preparations now in progress in various parts of the country for the important operation of draining wet soils are suggestive of a few remarks on the subject. When the highest authorities are at issue upon a prin- ciple, it appears in a majority of examples difficult to determine which party entertains the most correct opinions; and concerning the most effective methods of draining land, much argumentative power has been ex- pended. On the present occasion it is not necessary to investigate all the points upon which these antagonistic views have been established. Many have no doubt founded their opinions upon personal experience — that experience having been confined to soils of similar cha- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 31 racter. My present object is to suggest a remedy app)icable in certain cases, in order to overcome an obstacle which has hitherto imposed many difficulties. I must, however, premise that there is an opinion that the minimum depth at which drains should be laid must not be less than four feet, irrespective of the quality of the land, whether it be an almost impervious clay, or a soil in which the property of percolation is more free. This view has received the sanction of the Inclosure Commissioners in reference to capital borrov/ed for tlie purpose of draining, and charged in perpetuity on the inheritance. It has consequently assumed a character of importance to owners of estates requiring to borrow money for draining, and, I may add, to the public at large. I have seen so many examples of total failures where drains have been laid at this depth in strong clays, that I have been induced to give the subject much consi- deration. It frequently happens that deep drains in clay soils will act for a space of time — that is, so long as the earth with which the drains are filled lies hollow on the tiles, and this period will be governed by the state of the weather. When the land has become satu- rated with rain, and has undergone the changes to which it is subservient under the combined influences of expansion, contraction, and pressure, produced by variations of the atmosphere, the clay resumes its pris- tine impervious consistency, and the drains although they miy emit water are comparatively useless. The kind of soil to which I allude is that which presents a strong tenacious clay on the surface, with a continuation of a similar quality to the depth of several feet, on which the impressions made by the feet of horses and cattle during rainy periods will retain the water like a cup. This kind of land is far more difficult to drain than the strong marl, which is by many denominated clay ; for that kind of surface although resting on clay may be drained with comparative facility, and (he efficiency of the drains will be more permanent. The object to be attained by draining the description of land now under consideration, providing it is not affected by springs, the courses from which are beneath the upper stratum, is to draw ofTthe water which descends in the form of rain, with as much rapidity as possible — a diffi- culty in consequence of the nature of the soil ; but unless this be accomplished the work is not perfect. It affords no proof that the land is effectually drained simply from the fact that water is found to pass off by the drains. The questions to be decided are these ; How long a time docs it occupy for the water to per- colate through the soil into the drains? and does the land become sufficiently dry after rain within a reason- able period ? On clay soils the percolation of water to the drains is extremely slow, and the reasons I have al- ready explained. For the purpose of overcoming this difficulty my attention has been directed to discover some suitable material for filling up the drains as a sub- stitute for the nearly impervious clay which in their formation is removed. This I believe may be effectually accomplished by submitting- that clay to the process of burning, according to the plan for many years adopted in Shropshire and the adjoining counti s for the purpose cf dressing the land and rendering it more friable. A similar system on an extensive scale is likewise practised on railways to produce what is termed "ballast," used as a substitute for gravel. To carry out my plan it will be necessary to lay a foundation at the bottom of the drains of six inches of the burnt clay, and after making it perfectly level with a wooden beater about two feet long end of a proper width to fit the drain, place the tiles thereon and cover them within ten or twelve inches of the surface with the same material, thus forming veins for the free percolation of water. The effect obviously produced will be that of introducing a material capable of very free percolation, as a substitute for a very impervious substance. I have not yet seen the plan tried, nor even heard of its having been adopted ; but as draining operations are now in progress, I lose no time in giving it publicity. My motive for offering the opinion is with a sincere hope that the suggestion will be effective, and that it will be fairly tried in numerous instances, also that the results will be made known, be- cause a few experiments of this nature are not sufficient to decide the question. It may he urged that it will increase the expense, which must be admitted ; but if it renders the drainage cflective, of which I have but little doubt, that is a great point gained. Strong clays cannot be satisfactorily drained at a cheap rate, except in a few cases, upon any system hitherto discovered. The drains must be placed nearer together than in soils which percolate with greater freedom. Providing the plan succeeds where deep draining is insisted upon, it will be equally desirable with soils of the nature now under consideration, where shallow drains or those of medium depth are adopted. In offering the suggestion it is not done with a view to advocate deep draining in strong clays, of which in or- dinary[cases I entertain but one opinion — that according to the common practice it is positively useless, and as it involves a great outlay of money to be buried in per- petuity, few who are in the happy position to defray the charges from their own resource?, and to judge for themselves, will, I should imagine, persevere with the system. The principal difficulty appears in the event of much rain falling at the time the clay is required to be burnt ; but this may be obviated by forming the heaps of greater magnitude ; and with reference to the expense, it is to be remembered the clay will be at hand, and no expense incurred for hauling, with the exception of the faggots and coal required for the purpose. UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION OF HORSES.— The French Government has just decided that prizes shall bo offered for the competition of horses of all countries at the great French Agricultural Exhibition of next year. It will be remembered tliat Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., the President of the Royal Agricultural Societj', in his report on the Exhibition of 1855, and likewise in his speech at the Chelmsford meeting, expressed his regret at the ab- sence of so interesting a department of the show as that of agricultural horses. This decision of the French Govern- ment, and the otlier new features intended to he added to next year's meeting in Paris, will material]}- tend to render that great gathering even more numerous and magnificent than its predecessors. — The Veterinarian, 32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. RAPE-CAKE AS FOOD. Dear Sir, — Having on various occasions appeared as an advocate of rape-cake for food, in the use of which I have had considerable experience, I beg to offer some remarks on Dr. Voelcker's paper on oil-cakes as recently published, I agree with Dr. Voelcker's observations that it is unsafe to at- tach a precise value to different articles of food ; we well know that well-got hay is very different in composition and also in effects from spoiled or inferior hay — a remark equally appli- cable to other materials ; in assigning a value to such sub- stances we include only those of good average quality. It is about sis yeurs since I began the use of rape-cake for food. After various trials for fattening, and also for milk, I gave up the use of linseed-cake altogether, being fully per- suaded that in point of economy for both purposes, rape-cake had the advantage. In regard to milk, I was convinced that rape-cake afforded quite as much in quantity, but had not then observed any difference in the quality. When I first gave an order to the manufacturer with whom I deal for rape-cake for feeding, he required time to prepare it : his object was to enable him to select seed free from mustard or other impurity. On one occasion only have I had from him cake of which I had reason to complain, and on that I sent for a email supply towards the close of the season without previous notice. I now proceed to notice Dr. Voelcker's objections se- riatim : — 1. Before I commenced my present process of steaming the cake together with bean-straw, malt combs, or other substance rich in aroma, I had some difficulty in persuading my cattle to eat rape-cake ; by perseverance, however, I invariably suc- ceeded. In my present practice (by steaming) I find no such difficulty ; I can as readily accustom them to eat rape-cake as I formerly could linseed ; many of my cows have become so partial to it that they sort it out from amongst the materials with which it is blended. 2. I do not at all object to rape-cake when kept for six or twelve months. Before I commenced steaming I found my cows refused cake when quite fresh, whilst when kept a few months, the same cows eat it readily ; it becomes milder and more tender (easier to masticate) by keeping. To preserve it from mould I cover it with rough seeds (shells of oats) which have been kiln-dried ; saw-dust or chopped straw, if dry, will equally answer the purpose. Since I began steaming I find no objection to its being given fresh ; I am led to think that this process affects the essential oil, lenders the taste milder, and the cake easier of mastication, besides which the flavour of the bean-straw or malt combs will in some degree be im- parted to the cake. 3. In regard to the objection of a greater proportion of woody fibre in rape than in linseedcake, it would be of easy remedy to feeders who, like myself, use turnips or other roots in limited quantity (I never give more than 50 to eOlbs. each per day), by allowing 81bs. of turnips per day, or 561bs. per week in addition. If we take 51bs. per day, or SSlbs. per week, which I hold to be the maximum allowance of cake or other food rich in albumen per beast, and reckon 10 per cent, of woody fibre more in the lapecake than in the linseedcake, it will amount to 56 oz. for the week, whilst the 561b3. of turnips supply 82 oz. of sugar, starch, &c. If we assume the price of linseedcake at £4 lOs. per ton higher than that of rapecake, this on 351bs. will be about Is. 5d., whilst the 561b3. of tur- nips at 10s. per ton will only cost 3d. Swede turnips contain also about 15 per cent, (reckoned as dry) of albuminous mat- ter, which is, doubtless, the most valuable component of food, whether we consider it assimilated in fibrine or aa an ingre- dient of manure. A pound of lean beef, say rump-steak, will cost 9d., reckoned as dry, without moisture, equal to Ss. per lb.; a pound of suet at the same time will cost 6d. to 7d. ; suet or other fat is almost free from moisture. Nitrogen is known to be the most valuable ingredient in manure, whilst sugar, starch, &c., have no ascertained value whatever. I would not be understood to adopt the teaching that sub- stances used as food are ellicieat for fattening in proportion to their greater per centage of nitrogenous compound. I hold such doctrine to be untenable. 4. As to the more frequent adulteration of rapecake as com- pared with linseed, this might reasonably be expected so long as it was sold for the purpose of manure only, mustardcake being but slightly inferior to rapecake for this purpose. But at present a higher charge of £1 to £1 lOs. per ton being made for rapecake for feeding as compared with that for ma- nure, I should hold the vendor responsible for supplying me with genuine rapecake. If the experience of the best stock farmers shows that lin- seed is more efficacious for fattening than rapecake, I am in- clined to think this attributable rather to the quality of the oil than to the properties noticed by Dr. Voelcker. In the composition of feeding substances we discover as proximate elements albumen, legumin, gluten, protein com- pounds— all very similar in chemical composition, but diftering somewhat in form and solubility. We find also sugar, starch, gum, dextrine, agreeing with and differing from each other in like manner. We find also oils, a distinct class of substances with peculiar and varied properties ; they consist of two varie- ties, the unctuous represented by rape, and the dry by linseed oil. Hitherto these oils have obtained no distinction in agri- cultural chemistry, but I entertain a strong persuasion that in the animal economy their effect is different. These oils con- sist of proximate elements, oleiu and steariue, or margarine fats; in what proportion I have not been able to ascertain. In a small volume kindly lent to me by Mr. Wilson, the scientific director of Price's Candle Manufactory, I find a popular treatise on the preparation of manufacture of oils by Fonte- nelle, which supplies interesting statistics derived from the re- searches of French chemists, who appear to have given more attention than our own to the properties of oils or fats. The unctuous class of oils — olive, rape, &c. — are found to congeal at a temperature of about 32 degrees (freezing point), some at a little higher, others at a little lower degree. Linseed and other oils of the drying classes require a degree of cold 47 d. 30 m. below freezing point, or 17 d. 30 m. below zero, to effect their congelation. Fortenelle supplies only analyses of a few of the oils, show- ing their composition in olein and steariue — Olive oil is found to contain of olein 72 „ „ of stearine, , ,. 28 100 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, S3 Rape oil is found to contain of olein .... 54 „ ,. of atearine . . 4G 100 Foutenelle does uot supply the composition of linseed oil. An analysis of linseed, cotton, and other oils, which are to may be used for feeding, seems highly desirable. The olein fats require but a low temperature to melt or liquefy them ; whilst the solid fats, margarine and stearine, re- quire a temperature of 120 to 130 degress for the same pur- pose. Linseed contains a great portion of mucilage, and on being dissolved in water forms a stiff jelly. Lehman, in his " Physiological Chemistry " (a translation of which by Dr. J. Day, F.R.S., has been published by the Cavendish Society^, a work displaying great research, a copy of which I have been unable to obtain except for a short time on loan, states that the olein is known to be more easy of consumption, i. e., more available for respiration, than marga- rine, and thus accounts for the fat of animals being more of the solid (margarine and stearine) than the oil of plants, which contains a considerable portion of olein. The practitioners in medicine are now using extensively pure cocoa-nut olein for pulmonary complaints, in lieu of cod- liver oil. I propose shortly to occupy your pages with the treatment of pleuro-pueumonia, in which I have used cocoa olein with apparent advantage. Those of your readers who peruse the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal will have noticed the peculiar results of my dairy practice from cows treated with rape-cake as part of their food, showing a more than ordinary produce of butter in pro- portion to milk, and a still more extraordinary richness of cream. On examining my food I could discern no material so likely to account for this peculiarity as the rape-oil, accom- panied by an adequate supply of albuminous matter. I have from time to time held conversations with stock feeders possessed with information beyond the reach of preju- dice, who state that after comparative trials they had come to the conclusion that linseed-cake was more effective for fatten- ing than rape-cake. These considerations, together with the persuasion that food rich in albumen is, generally speaking too freely given fcr fattening, have led to a change in my mode of feeding. I am now using as extra food, together with straw, and a limited supply of turnips or other green food — 2^" lbs. per day of rape-cake. . "| 1 lb. per day of malt combs. . 1- Steamed with the straw. ^ lb. per day of linseed oil . . J The ^Ib. of linseed-oil represents the quan'ity contained ia 41bs. of cake. The oil alone costs £40 per ton ; whilst in cake, reckoned as oil only, it costs £88 per ton ; the cost of linseed-cake being £11 per ton, having 12| per cent, of oil. The whole of these extra ingredients of food cost 3s. Id. per week each. This practice was begun in the autumn of 1855, on 30 beasts. Their increase was very satisfactory till De^ cember and January, when they were sold off to Mr. Wilson, of Bradford, who reported them of prime quality, with a great deal of loose fat. In the spriijg of this year, I observed the like treatment on 30 heifers, but without any roots or hay from March to July, when they were sold to different parties, who, as far as I have learned, reported favourably of them. The average gain was 141b3. per week each. ( 'ne of the lot gained 24lbs. per week throughout the course of 16 weeks. She cost £11 at the Easter fair, and sold in July for £18 103. In my experience as a feeder, I have uot had an instance of a like gain. It will be observed that these cattle were without a particle of roots or other green food during a part of March, the whole of April, and a part of May. 1 am at present treating 30 for fattening in like manner, with some addition of green fooJ. Their ap- pearance and weighing denote a very satisfactory improve- ment. The readers of your Journal will be pleased to accept some portion of these statements as conjectural rather than ascer- tained. If, in offering them for publication in your pages, I succeed iu engaging the attention of Dr. Voelcker and other teachers of agricultural chemistry, and also of those who, like myself, are seeking to apply the mips of science to economize their practice, I shall attain my object. I am, dear sir, yours truly, Thomas Horsfali/. Burley Hall, Otlcy, Nov. 28, 1856. THE WOOD TRADE OF DANZIG. OrnciAL Report of the Wood Trade of the Portof Danzig for 1855. By Consul General Plaw. The wood trade of Danzig had no rivalship to fear this year from St. Petersburg, Riga, Wiborg, and other Russian ports ; but the contrary was the case with regard to Stveden and Norway. From these causes prices, especially of pine timber, in Enj^land, France, Holland, and Belgium, were not higher than in the year 1854. With the exception of about 30,000 very fine balks from Volhynia, the majority of timber consisted of middling qua- lity, and but short average lengths. MASTS AND SPARS.— About 7,500 were imported, and most part of excellent quality ; a large number of which was Bold for the English and French navy yards. There were shipped — To Britain 5,2-15 pieces-2,900 more than in 185t. To France ,..4,6-22 „ 2,084 „ To other countries . . 565 „ 239 „ Among the spars were some fir, which came from the Eastern Provinces of this country, and went to France. DECK DEALS and deals for the English and French navy, as well as for private trade, were much in request, but the advance of prices was only small. 460,897 pieces were exported: 39,272 more than in 1354. 476,811 SLEEPERS were shipped, the demand larger than could be supplied : this number is 95,740 less than in 1854. OAK PLANK. 40,042 pieces arrived 17,23i less than in 1854. 4y,«8'? „ wore shipped .... 8,458 less „ 57,152 „ were cut here.. . 2,915 more ,, 31,413 ,, in stock remained, 3,158 less ,, OAK, STRAIGHT AND CROOKED TIMBER. 23,019 pieces arrived 4,778 less than iu 1854. 21,472 ,, were sliipped 4,931 more ,, 29,370 „ in stock remained. 4,416 more „ OAK STAVES. 12,189 shocks arrived 12,783 less than in 1854. 11,575 „ were shipped... 1,213 „ about 22,100 „ in stock 2,400 „ WAINSCOT LOGS.— 1,490 pieces received; 62 pieces only shipped. LATIIWOOD. — 5,247 fathoms were shipped: 143 less than in 1854. This article was in great request, uot sufficient quantity having been worked. C 34 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND COUNTIES FAT CATTLE AND POULTRY SHOW, AT BIRxMINGHAM. The Birmiugham Show at any rate deserves success ; not merely for the excellence of the arrangements, or the jutlicious spirit wilh which every feature of the meeting is conceived and carried out; but above all for the readiness with which the management gave way when they found their own plans as origiually deter- mined upon, would interfere with those of a kindred association. The '' Midland Counties" has now for some time had a position sufficiently high to warrant it holding to its own course. Had this still been pur- sued, although not invariably the case, the meeting would again this year have clashed with the Smithfield Club. With a very good grace, however, Birmingham has been the first to avoid so unprofitable a collision; and with an effect that must for ever prevent any such a contretonps again occurring. The Midland Counties' show of this year is generally pronounced to be the best ever seen. In its average strength this is very perceptible, while the advance in some certain classes is altogether extraordinary. It is of course sufficiently manifest that this must in a great measure arise from the alteration in the time of meet- ing, to which we have referred. As we take it, more- over, any such improvement will be by no means confined to Birmingham. We expect to find at the Smithfield Show of this. ensuing week as palpable proof of the mutual advantage following fi-om this due accom- modation of circumstances. For instance, the majority of the prize animals will go direct from one meeting to the other— Mr. Stratton's Shorthorns, Mr. Heath's Herefords, and the Prince's Devons. What the Smith- field Club chiefly requires is these preliminary shows to feed into it. They never could have happened better than they have on this occasion. We have the Gloucester, the Rutland, and above all the Midland Couuties well over by the great Metropolitan Anniver- sary. In these railway times such an arrangement gives everybody the best opportunity of making the most of what he has to do. Buyer, seller, or simply spectator, each of us must profit proportionately. For the breeder or feeder, more particularly, who has any conceit in his stock, there is nothing like these con- secutive entries. Mr. Stratton's first prize ox at Glou- cester was the first prize at Birmingliam. His Short- horn cow again was the first at both these meetings. It only remains now to sec how they rank at the Smithfield Club. Notwithstanding the fact expressed in the Gold Medal award, it is no less certain that of the three long recognized breeds— Shorthorns, Herefords, and Devons— the Shorthorns were, as a class, inferior to •what they have been. Mr. Stratton's are both famous animals— indeed had the white ox filled out a little more levtl^ he would rank with those specimens one can call to mind long after their show-year has passed away. Still the Durhams, generally, scarcely reached that high character now ob- tained for them. It was thought, in Bingley Hall, we had been sending too many of the best out of the coun- try, and that the purest kinds were becoming gradually reduced. For our own part, however, we are the rather inclined to attribute this falling off to some ac- cidental combination of circumstances for which there is no exactly accounting. The breed is too well esta- blished amongst us to sufier long from any occasional run upon it; but it will make one look with additional interest to the way in which the Short-horn is repre- sented at Smithfield. The Birmingham Shows have always been strong in Herefords and weak in Devons. When you could scarcely find the Hereford anywhere else, he always came out in force here. With the Devons it has al- most invariably been the contrary. But at length this is amended. The Herefords were as good as ever. There were whole classes of prize animals. In the first, for exami^le, of the four animals sent, one took the first prize, another the second, and a third was highly commended — this third being bred by Lord Berwick and fed by Mr. Heath. The gold medal Hereford cow, again, was quite a wonder, in her way, as a fat animal; and Lord Hatherton's steer a noble specimen of the breed. It was thought, not long since, that the Herefords were growing out of date, but they appear coming again very fast ; while, if increased entries and remarkable quality be any criterion, the same may be said of the Devonian. We hardly ever remember to have seen so strong a show of Devon cattle as was to be found at Birmiugham this year. Tlie oxen and steers were especially good ; and either the Prince's ox or Lord Leicester's steer might liave put in a claim for the Gold Medal of the show. It is, indeed, remarkable that three animals wei'c "pulled out," as the term is, by the judges, as worthy of this extra distinction— Mr. Stratton's Shorthorn, Lord Hatherton's Hereford, and Lord Leicester's Devon. This is the first time, we believe, a Devon ever came so close on the chief honours at Birmingham. But Lord Leicester's is an admirable animal, most symmeti-ical in form, and fine in quality. He is, too, one of the most evenly-fed beasts ever exhibited ; and with another year's keep, which we are told he is to have^ he will have another good chance for the highest place. As our readers will find a close analysis of the stock shown following the prize list, we shall not here repeat ourselves. We may say, however, that, although the premiums for Long-horns, a breed now peculiar to these shows, have been judiciously curtailed, the whole class was commended. While, we may add, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 35 on the word of a Wai v.'ickshire man, that nearly every Loug-lioru bred finds bis way to these shows. There were five of them here. Of Scotch cattle, the rough Highlanders had it all their own way; and of ^ye]sh, despite the attractions of a separate class, there was but one beast, the property of Colonel Pennant, which, however, very deservedly took the prize. The Colonel had another entry — said to be the finest Welch beast ever put up ; but this, unfortunately, died of inflam- mation, within a few days of the meeting. We should certainly like to see more of these mountaineers, either Welsh or Scotch. In the market, with the salesmen and butchers, they have the call for quality over all other sorts; though it is yet a disputed point as to which is the superior of the two. Of the crosses the most remarkable were those sent by Lord Derby — the Brahmin with the shorthorn, and the Brahmin with the Galloway. The latter, we hardly know why, was commended as good of its kind; while the Brahmin-shorthorn appeared to have attained the great desiderata of extreme narrowness of frame, with extraordinary length of leg. Like the fan- tailed pigeon, or the Cochin-China cock, he took precedence as a curiosity. The sheep show was not a large one, but with some very good pens of Shropshire Downs as usual, and some capital pure Downs from Lord Walsingham's now- famous flock. They were especially noticeable for their uniformity of character. So even were they in excellence, that it would have been difficult from which to pick the best sheep — from a prize, or merely a commended pen. None of his lordship's sheep go from Birmingham to Smithfield, having all been sold and delivered on the spot. Whatever prizes, consequently, may be taken in Baker-street, will be by fresh sheep, and only speak the more to the general goodness of the flock. The show of pigs at Birmingham is always good, but this year it was extraordinary for its excellence. The judges commended whole classes one after another, and almost every breed of swine in the kingdom was well represented ; white or black, large and small, fat or for breeding — in every class the entries were large, and in every one the sample was good. When fat pigs are shown as fat pigs, it is a treat to stir them up ; and the v/ell-fud grunters in Bingley Hall at once suggested that approaching combination with turkeys and chickens, to be found in equal variety and profusion just over the way. There is no denying that the Poultry Show still con- tinues the chief point of attraction liere. It takes more with all classes than a show of simply cattle and sheep can ever hope to attain to. At the private view on Tuesday last we met more well- dressed women, accompanied by more white neckcloths of orthodox tie, than we ever saw at any such meeting before. The fact is, that at best it can be but an ama- teur business after all : and so we have Master Daniel Davics showing against his father, and Master Herbert Davies against his brother ; and Miss Sarah Dixon iavincible with her Polish troops ; sweet Elizabeth Lavender rejoicing with her " Archangels ;" and the Rev. IMr. Ilodson modestly asking a thousand pounds for a lot of Cochin Chinas ! We certainly were shown three white geese, not even commended, which were marked as sold at a hundred pounds ! And the Society, be it remembered, charges ten per cent, on every sale effected. Without going minutely into the matter, we should say that the Dorkings, Spanish, and Game Fowl had the best of the week's business. We can only repeat that in its arrangements the Bir- mingham Show is one of the best we have. As we have said long ere this, its very catalogue is a model of completeness and ready reference ; while Bingley Hall is a long way in advance of any show- yard we ever yet entered. There may, however, be one improvement here, especially when we can say literally there is plenty of room for it. Consider- ing how the visitors crowd to the Poultry Stands, the avenues might be widened with much advantage and convenience. What with an abundance of crinoline and curiosity, the streams of people were last week per- petually coming to a dead lock, when they might easily have gone up one side and down the other. We only regret to see, from what took place at the annual meeting, that the society is hardly as flourishing as it should be. At the same time we feel that it can but require a little well-directed exertion to maintain that deservedly-high character the meeting now enjoys. As for Bingley Hall, its uses surely should be innumerable. It is a circus ready-made to order ; or a raree-show of any kind whatever; a promenade concert; a public meet- ing-room ; and a horticultural society's best friend. If Birmingham cannot do more with Bingley Hall, we do not understand the requirements of the age. AWARD OF PRIZES, FAT CATTLE. JUDGES. Mr. John Booth, Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire. Mr. John Tanner Davy, Ashtown House, South Molton, Devon. Mr. John Williams, Saint Mary'a, Kingsland, near Leo- minster. HEREFORDS. HEREFORD OXEN OR STEERS. First prize, £10— Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardington, Wan- tage. Silver Medal to breeder — Mr. Tliomas Carter, Dod- more, near Ludlow. Second, £5 — Mr. John Naylor, Leighton Hall, Welshpool. Highly commended — Mr. William Heath's; HEREFORD STEERS. First prize, £10 — Lord Hatherton, Teddesley Park. Silver Medal to breeder — Mr. Thomas Carter, Ticklertou Hall, Church Strettou. Second, £5— Mr. Edmund Wright, Halstou Hall, Os- westry. Hiylily commended— "Ria Royal Highness Prince Albert's steer. Commended — Another of Prince Albert's steers. HEREFORD COWS. First prize, £10 — Mr. Edmund Herbert, Powick, Wor- cester. Silver Medal to breeder — Mr. Daniel Burnett, White House, Turnstone, Herefordshire. Second, £5— Mr. Edward Price, Court House, Pembridge, Herefordshire. Commended —Mr. John Stephen's cow, Sheephouse, Hay, Breconshire. e 2 36 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. HEREFORD HEIFERS. First prize, £10, Gold Medal, as best cow or heifer of any breed or age iu the Eshibitiou, and Silver Medal as breeder — Mr. George I'itt, Cliaduoi Court, Dilwyu, near Leominster. Second, £5 — Mr. Richard Thomas, Ryton, Dorriogton, Shropshire. Highly commended— Mr. Joseph Phillips's heifer. Commended — Lord Hatherton's heifer. SHORTHORNS. SHORTHORN OXEN OR STEERS. First prize, £10, Gold Medal, as best ox or steer of any breed or age in the Exhibition, aud Silver Medal as breeder — Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton, near Swindon. Second, £5, Mr. Samuel Wiley, Brandsby, York. Commended— Lord. Leigh's beast, Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenil- worth. SHORTHORN STEERS. First prize, £10, the Duke of Beaufort, Badminton, Glou- cestershire. Silver Medfl to breeder, Mr. George Sainsbury, The Priory, Corsham. Second, £5, the Rev. John Ho'mes, Brook Hall, Norwich. Commended — Mr. Lovell Cowley, Ashby St. J;edger's, Rugby. Competed/or Sweepstakes — Mr. William Hewer, Seveu- hampton, Highworth, Wiltshire, and the Rev. John Holmes. Mr. Holmes declared the winner. SHORTHORN COWS, First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Richard Stratton. Second, £5, Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardington. Ilif/hli/ commended—Mr. William Fletcher, Radmanth- waite, Mansfield, Notts. Competed for Swee})stakes—Ti!,!Lr\ Spsncer, K.G., Althorp Park, near Northampton, and Mr. Richard Stratton. Mr. Stratton declared the winner. SHORTHORN HEIFERS. First prize, £10, Mr. John Armstrong, Palterton, Chester- field, Derbyshire. Silver Medal to breeder, the late Mr. Henry Champion, Rauby House, near Retford, Nottinghamshire. Second, £5, Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardington. Hiylihj commended — Mr. Robert Swinnerton's heifer, Wed- dington, Nuneaton. Commended — Mr. John Stnbb's, Weston Hall, Staffordshire, and Mr. Richard Thomas, Rytou's.near Dorrington, Shropshire. D E VONS. DEVON OXEN OR STEERS. First prize, £10, His Royal Highness Prince Albert; Silver Medal to breeder, Mr. George Turner, Bartoiij Exeter. Second, £5, Mr. William Heatli, Ludham. Jliyldy commended, the Earl of Leicester, Holkham, Nor- folk. Commended, the Earl of Aylesford, Packington, Warwick- shire; and the Earl of Leicester's beasts. DEVON STEERS. First priie, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, the Earl of Leicester. Second, £5, His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Commended, His Royal Highness Prince Albert. DEVON COWS. First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Abra- ham Umbers, Weston Hal), lieamington. Second, £5, Mr. Abraham Umbers. DEVON HEIFERS. First Prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Abraham Umbers. L O N G-H O R N S. LONG-HORN COWS OR HEIFERS. Prize, £5, Mr. D. B. Holborow, Knockdown, near Tetbury, Gloucestershire. T/ic whole class commended. OTHER PURE BREEDS AND CROSS-BRED ANIMALS. FAT OXEN OR STEERS. First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. John Naylor, Leightou Hall. (Cruss bred) Second, £5, Colonel Pennant, Pcuryhn Castle, Bangor. (Cross-bred.) FAT COWS. First prize, £10, Mr. John Faulkner, Bretby Farm, near Burton-upon-Trenfc ; Silver Medal to breeder, Mr. Daniel Earp, Staunton Harrold, near Ashby-de-la-Zouch. (Short- horn, cross.) Second, £5, Mr. W. T. Cox, Spondon Hall, near Derby. (Cross.) FAT HEIFERS. (The first prize withheld.) Second, £5, Mr. Richard Timms, Braunstoue, Northampton- shire. (Cross.) SCOTCH BREEDS. SCOTCH OXEN OR STEER?. First prize £10, the Duke of Beaufort (West Highland). Second, £5, the Duke of Beaufort (West Highland). Commended, Mr. Ralph Sneyd, Keele Hall, Staffordshire, for two West Highland. WELSH BREEDS. WELSH OXEN OR STEERS. First prize, £10, Colonel Pennant, Penrhyu Castle. Silver Medal to Breeder, Mr. William Lewis, Thondeg. [No second prize awarded.] EXTRA CLASSES. (For Animals not qualified to compete in any of the preceding Classes.) OXEN OR STEERS. Silver Medal, Mr. John Carwardine, Stockton Bury, Leo- minster, Herefordshire (Hereford). COWS OR HEIFERS. Silver Medal, Mr. W. T.Cox, Spondon, near Derby (Cross). Additional Silver Medal, Mr. Richard Hill, Golding, near Shrewsbury (Hereford). Commended, Mr. Alexander Campbell, Monzie Castle, Perthshire (West Highland.) Good of its kind, the Earl of Derby (Brahmin and Gallo- way cross). SHEEP. Judges: Mr. Jno. Moon, Hurstbourne Priors, near Whitchurch, Hants. Mr. William Sanday, Holme Pierrepont, Nottingham. Mr. Benjamin Swaffield, Filsbury, near Ashbourne. LEICESTERS. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.) First prize, £10, Silver Medal, as best pen of Loug-woolled Sheep in the Exhibition, Mr. Joseph Smith, Riseborough, near Kirby-moorside, Yorkshire; Silver Medal to Breeder, Mr. John Hopper, Brompton, Scarborough. Second, £5, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, Osbeiton Hall, near Worksop. LEICESTERS. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two but not exceediug thirty-four months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as Breeder, the Marquis of Exeter, K.G., Burghley House, Stamford. [No second prize awarded.] LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP, NOT BEING LEICESTERS. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as Breeder, Mrs. Sarah West, Greenhill Farm, Bletchington, O.xfordshire. Second, £5, Mr. William Slatter, Stratton, Cirencester. LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP, NOT BEING LEICESTERS. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two but not exceeding thirty-four months old.) [No entry.] SOUTH AND OTHER DOWN SHEEP. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.) First prize, £10, Silver Medal, as beat pen of Short- woollcd Sheep in the Exhibition, and Silver Medal as Breeder, Lord Walsiugham, Merlon Hall, Tbetford, Norfolk, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 Second, £5, Lord Walsiugham. Commended, Lord Waisingham. SOUTH AND OTHER DOWN SHEEP. (Peu of three Fat Wethers, exceeding tweuty-two but uot ex- ceeding thirty-four months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder. Lord Wal- siugham. Second, £5, Lord Walsir.gham. SHROPSHIRE AND OTHER BLICK OR GREY- FACED SHORT-WOOLLED SHEEP. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Samuel Craven Pilgrim, Burbage, uear Hinckley, Leicestershire. Second, £5, Mr. Henry Smith, jun,, Sutton Maddock, Shiffnal. IligMy commended, Mr. James Hand, Ludlow. SHROPSHIRE AND OTHER BLACK OR GREY- FACED SHORT-WOOLLED SHEEP. Pen of three Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty -two, but uot ex- ceeding thirty-four months old. First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Henry Smith, Jan., Sutton Maddock. Second, £5, the Earl of Aylesford, Packington. Commended, The Honourable Robert Curzon, Ilagley Hall, Rngeley, and the Earl of Aylesford. CROSS-BRED SHEEP. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Adam Corrie Keep, WoUaston, Northamptonshire. Second, £5, Mr. Adam Corrie Keep. CROSS-BRED SHEEP. (Pen of three Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two but not ex- ceeding thirty-four months old.) First prize, £10, S.lver Medal as breeder, and Silver Medal for best peu of Cross-bred Sheep, Mr. Henry Thornley, Mars- ton Hall, near Birmingham. Second, £5, Mr. Henry Thornley. PIGS. Judges : Mr. William Saxday, Holme Pierrepont, Nottiugham. Mr. Jno. Moon, HurstbournePriors, near Whitchurch, Hants. Mr. Benjamin Swaffield, Pilsbury, near Ashbourne. FAT PIGS. (Pen of three Fat Pigs of one litter, uot exceeding ten months old.) First prize, £10, Mr. George Bowes Moreland, Chilton, Abingdon, Berks ; Silver Medal to breeder, Mr. George Un- derwood, Ashridge Park Farm, Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire. Second, £5, Mr. Richard Benyon, Englefield House, Read- ing, Berkshire. lliflhhj commended, Mr. John Beach, Redmarley Park, near Newent, Gloucestershire. Commended, Mr. Henry Lowe, Comberford Lodge, Tarn- worth. FAT PIGS. (Peu of three Fat Pigs of one litter, not exceeding fifteeu months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as Breeder, His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Second, £5, Mr. Clement Cottrell Dormer, Rousham, Ox- fordshire. Ilif/Jih/ commended, Mr. John Faulkner, Bretby Farm, and Mr. Charles Holland, The Lymes Farm, Seabridge, Newcastle, Staffordshire. The whole class commended. FAT PIGS. (Fat Pig, exceeding fifteen months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Robert Harrison Watson, Boltoa Park, Wigton, Cumberland. Second, £5, Mr. Cliarles Hollaiul, The Lymes Farm. Iligkhj comiiiouhd, Mr. James j\Iarriott,Floore, near Wee- don, Mr. John lloldway, Weston, near Bath, Mr. George Manglea, Gi/endale, Ripon, Yorkshire, and Air. Charles Hol- land, The Lymes. The whole class commended. BREEDING PIGS. PIGS OF A LARGE BREED. (Peu of five Pigs of one litter, exceeding three and not exceed- ing six months old.) First prize, £10, and Sdvcr Medal as breeder, Mr. Joseph Smith, Henley-in-Arden, Warwickshire. Second, £5, Mr. William Endall, HeuIej-in-Arden. Silver Medal, Mr. Edward H. France, Ham Hill, Worcester. Silver Medal, Mr. William Hewer, Sevenhampton, High- worth, Wiltshire. Commended, Mr. William Bradley Wainman, Carhead, near Cross Hills, Yorkshire; and Mr. Thomas Whittington, jun., Woottcn Wawen, Henley-in-Arden, Warwickshire. PIGS OF A SMALL BREED. (Pen of five Pigs of one litter, exceeding three and not exceed- ing six months old.) First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder. His Koyal Highness Prince Albert, Windsor Castle. Second, Mr. Samuel Wiley, Brandsby, uear York. Silver Medal, Mr. George Mangles, Givendale. Silver Medal, Colonel Pennant, Penrhyn Castle. Silver Medal, Mr. George Turner, Barton, near Exeter. Silver Medal, Mr. Robert Harrison Watson, Bolton Park, Wigton, Cumberland. Highly commended, Mr. George Mangles, Givendale; and Mr. Samnel Wiley, Brandsby. Commended, Mr. George Mangle?, Givendale; and Mr Joseph Chinn, Gas-street, Birmingham. REFEREES FOR THE AGES OF PIGS. Professor Simonds, Royal Veterinary College, London. Mr. William Hollingswortii, Bilston. VETERINARY INSPECTOR AND GENERAL REFEREE. Mr. R. L. Hunt, Cannon-street, Birmingham. The following certiiicates were given in reference to the pens of Pigs disqualified : — " December 1st, 1856. " We hereby certify that the state of the dentition of the pigs, pens 180 and 211, shows that the animals are of dif- ferent litters. "Jas. B. Simonds, "Robert L. Hunt, " Wm. Hollingsworth,'' "December Ist, 18.'56. " We hereby certify that the state of the dentition of the pigs, pen 219, indicates that they exceed the age stated iu the owner's certificate. "Jas. B. Simonds. " Robert L. Hunt, "Wm. Hollingsworth." PRIZES FOR ROOTS. Judge. Mr. J. Mathews, Edgbaston-house, Birmingham. For the best Collection of the following varieties, viz. : — LONG MANGOLD WURZEL, GLOBE MANGOLD WURZEL, SWEDES, and CARROTS (Six Roots of each), a Silver Cup, value £10, to Mr, A. H. Johnson, Manor- house, Gunnersburg, Acton, Middlesex. Highly commended, Mr. Richard Benyon, Euglefield-house. Commended, Mr. Samuel Robinson, Shaw-house, Melbourne, Derbyshire. LONG MANGOLD WURZEL. First prize, £2 2s., Mr. A. H. Johnson, Manor-house. Second, £1 Is., Mr. A. H. Johnson, jun.. Hanger-hill, Acton, Middlesex, Gunnersburg. Commended, Mr. Samuel Robinson, Shaw-house, Mel- bourne. GLOBE MANGOLD WURZEL. First prize, £2 2s., Mr. A. H. Johnson, Manor House. Second, £1 Is., Mr. Charles Pratt, Stratford-upon-Avon. Highly commended, Mr. Richard Benyon, Englefield House. Commended, His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Commended, Sir Francis Goodricke, Bart., Studley Castle, uear Bromsgrove ; the Rev. Thomas Stevens, Bradfield Rectory, 38 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Reading; Mr. Samuel Druce, jnn.. Abbey Farm, Eynshani, near Oxford; and Mr. A. H. Johnson, jun., Hanger Hill. SWEDES OF ANY VARIETY. First prize, £2 2s., Mr. T. R. B. Cartwright, Aynho, North- amptonshire. Second, £1 Is., Mr. Robert Fellowes, Bitteswell Hall, Lutterworth. Hi'jldy commended, Messrs. Proctor and Ryland, Great Lister-street Works, Birmingham ; and Mr. William Fletcher, Radraanthwaite, Mansfield. Commended, Mr. George Mangles, Givendale; and Mr. George M'Cann, Graham House, Great Malvern. COMxMON TURNIPS. First prize, £2 2s., Rev. Thomas Stevens, Bradfield. Second, £1 Is., Mr. John Wright, Hulland Hall, Ashbourne, CARROTS OF ANY VARIETY. First prize, £2 Ss., Mr. Joshua Harding, Rosliston, Burton- upon-Trent. Second, £1 la., Mr. G. S. Foljambe, Osberton Hall. Commended, Mr. John Baynton Statky, Spye Park, Chippen- ham; and Mr. Samuel Druce, jun.. Abbey Farm, Eynshara. OX CABBAGE. First prize, £2 23., Mr. Samuel Robinson, Shaw House, Melbourne, Derbyshire. Second, £1 Is., Mr. Robert Fellowes, Bitteswell Hall, Lut- terworth. POTATOES. First prize. £2 23., Mr. W. F. Taylor, Moseley Hall. Second, £1 Is., Lord Leigh, Stoneleigh Abbey. The JUDGES OF POULTRY were Mr. George James Andrews, Dorchester. Mr. John Baily, Mount-street, Grosvenor- square, London. Mr. Thomas Challonek, Burnt Leys, Whitwell, near Worksop. Mr. Edward Hewitt, Eden Cottage, Sparkbrook, near Birmingham. The Rev. Robert Pulleine, the Rectory, Kirby Wiske, near Thirsk. JUDGES OF PIGEONS. Mr. T. J. Cottle, Pulteney Villa, Cheltenham. Mr. Edward Hale, Haudsworth, Bingley Hall, with its vast amount of room for stock, abundant pi-ovision for the display of seedsmen's samples and specimens, long colonnades and tiers of permanently-erected poultry pens, and aiBple space for the comfortable accommodation of an immense con- course of visitors, has undoubtedly held this year the most magnificent collection of fat cattle and splendid poultry ever assembled within its walls. The follow- ing table affords a concise history of the numbers in the various classes at each show; and though a con- siderable decrease is observable in some departments, we shall soon explain that this deficiency in no way detracts from the character and quality of the exhi- bition. 1819. 1850. 117 173 345 505 61 5.56 1851. 138 71 105 314 935 1^0 lO.iS 18J2. 127 83 93 393 1138 85 1233 1853. 129 5U 113 301 1 99-. 280 1854. 119 ei 56 236 1008 137 1745 1855. 88 G4 63 215 142 1607 201 1808 1856. Cittle 81 40 221 31-2 223 20 243 109 46 Pi^s 99 Total .... Boots 254 119 Poultry Pigeons Total .... 1210 205 1415 The number in the classes of Fat Cattle are thus dis- tributed : Herefords, 23; Shorthorn^!, 28; Dcvons, 21 ; Longhorns, 5 ; other pure breeds and cross-bred animals, 1.5; Scotch bi'eeds, 6 ; Welsh breeds, 2; extra classes, 9. Taken as a whole, the cattle classes were all exceedingly good ; very few traces of plainness or de- fective quality being discoverable. The Herefords were never better bred or fed. Mr. Phillips's prize ox is remarkable for his fine symmetry and superior quality of meat : his chine, shoulder, and forequarter exceedingly good. Mr. Naylor's second prize beast is of great size, and extra- ordinarily well fed : back, hip, tut, flank, and other points, more especially fine. The two steers exhibited by His Royal Highness Prince Albert have considerable merit ; but we should say that one is not quite so firm in hand as some. Lord Hatherton's prize steer has a great forequarter, good back, thighs, and flank. Mr. Herbert's prize cow is certainly the best, in the judg- ment of the butcher, being vciy fat, and an uncom- monly fine animal ; however, Mr. Price's second prize cow, for form and quality, was preferred by many. IMr. Hall's cow appeared to us so meritorious for her great depth of forequarter, outspringing chine, and splendid back and flank, that we were surprised to find her not even commended. Mr. Pitt's prize heifer, though somewhat small in frame, is very beautiful in- deed in her compact proportions, fine head and bone, and prime quality of flesh. The Sliorthorns muster fewer noble specimens than on some previous occasions. Mr. Stratton's prize ox has an uncommonly great breadth of chest, straight good back, tail well set on, and his flesh : of remarkably good quality. Mr. Wiley's second piize, and Lord Leigh's commended ox, were both exceedingly 'good ; the former especially for loin and flank ; the latter for his level back and firm meat. The Duke of Beaufort's prize steer is very handsome, and good in several points. We particularly admired Mr. Cowley's steer, com- mended in this class. Mr. Stratton's prize cow is a very extraordinary animal ; her immense capacity of frame, breadth acro.ss the hips, and sui'prising amount of firm flesh, being really wonderful. We would mention also Earl Spencer's beautiful cow, and that of Mr. Fletcher's, highly commended, as very superior animals. We have never witnessed a better show of Devons, which far surpass those exhibited last year. His Royal Highness Prince Albert has carried ofi" the prize with a beautifully-proportioned ox, having a broad and deep forequarter, fine head, very good meat, and a curly coat. We particularly noticed the Earl of Leicester's highly commended ox : his prize steer. Prince Albert's commended steer, and Mr. Heath's superior second- prize animal, are well worthy of the distinction awarded them. Mr. Umber's first and second prize cows are of very beautiful quality, and exceedingly handsome. Among the Long-horned cattle, Mr. Holburrow's prize cow, ten"years and nine months old, has great size, great forequarter, and loin, thigh, andtwistparticularly good. Mr. Cox's long-horned steers show very great size and heavy flesh. His cross-bred cow is of splendid quality, tut and hip extraordinary, and back, chine, and forequarter exceedingly good ; and her head is very THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 39 handsome, with the exception of her horns ciu'ving too much downward, Mr. Faulkner's cow, however, has taken the prize, being certainly a very superior animal. Some of the Scotch cattle are particularly g-ood; as, for instance, one of those shown by the Duke of Beau- fort, remarkable for its depth of foreqiiarter and com- pact proportions. In the extra classes, Mr. Cox's cow took our attention, being very fine in head and bone, and having a very large quantity of good meat. The show of Sheep is much smaller than usual. Of Leicesters there are 6 entries; of Long- wools, 4 ; Southdowns, 9; Shropshires, 16; and Crossbreds, 11. The Leicester wethers are a pretty good class ; and we may observe that in the opinion of many the second prize pen of Mr. Foljambe were preferred to Mr. Smith's lot which took the first prize. Tlie Marquis of Exeter's prize wethers are very compnet in form, with wide forequarters, good ramp, and superior wool. Mr. Slatter's long- wool wethers are of very great size, beautiful form and quality, and only a little infe- rior in hand to Mrs. West's prize jjen. In the Down classes. Lord Walsingham's prize wethers were by far the most meritorious ; for size, breadth, good rumps and legs of mutton, and fine qiiality of meat, they gained general admiration. The Shropshires possess some great frames, and are very high-standing sheep, but their want of breadth and symmetry in some Yteus was not at all in favour of the class. Mr. Pilgrim's prize lot were very superior animals ; and Mr. Smith's 2nd prize wethers are beautiful, being outsprung and well-proportioned — their loins and rumps very good indeed. We especially admired Mr. Smith's prize wethers in the next class, for their splendid quality of meat, broad chines, and full plaits, and wonderfully good loins and rumps. It is a pity that some ex- hibitors of sliort-woolled sheep take so much trouble with the shears'and naphtha-lamp, as however smooth and flowing an outline may attract the eye, the hand is chiefly engaged in ascertaining the merits of form and quality. In the class of cross-bred sheep, Mr. Keep's prize pen and the Earl of Leicester's pen seemed to us most meritorious ; and we could have wished that a commendation had been bestowed upon Mr. John Overman's extraordinarily fine animals. The classes of Pigs were all good. The breeding ])igs, indeed, may be characterized as superior to any before exhibited, and well meriting the large number of silver medals awarded them. The class of •' fat jiigs not exceeding ten months old," had some wonderfully fat and fine animals; and the whole cla^s is very de- servedly commended, Mr. Watson's prize pig, 37 months old, is remarkably well covered with flesh, and of splendid quality. Mr. Hemming's pig, aged 17 months, is immensely fat ; neck, chine, and shoulder tremendous; and though not a large-framed animal, tlic weight is estimated at GOO lbs. Among the breeding pigs, which are all very beautiful, wo would especially mention Mr. Jas. Smith's Perkshires, Mr. Endall's of the Tamwortli breed, tliose of Mr. Mangles, Mr, Wiley, and His Royal Highness Prince Albert. We were pleased to find that the veterinary inspectors have been active in this department of the show, having disqualified two pens on account of the animals being of difierent litters, and another because the pigs exceeded the age stated in the owner's certificate- In the department of Roots, many very splendid specimens competed for the premiums, the size and prime quality of the mangolds, swedes, and ox- cabbages being very truly surprising. The Poultry-classes were never better than on this occasion. The Hamburgh and Polish fowls are extremely beautiful : the Cochin Chinas, and still more the Dorkings, are very fine indeed ; and of the Spanish, the judges properly declare that " they surpass any- thing they ever saw." The game fowls are all of them splendid birds. The ducks are remarkably good; and the turkeys and geese have attained such a colossal size as to be really astonishing. It is impossible to select particular pens for comment without doing in- justice to a vast number of birds nearly equal in merit. The pigeon classes are excellent — some for their ex- traordinary plumage, some for the dimensions to which various varieties have been raised. It will be enough to mention, as an indication of the great superiority of the poultry and pigeon classes this year, that, while 13 silver cups, and 189 money prizes have been awarded them, the judges have given no less than 206 commendations. THE ANNUAL MEETING Was held on Thursday afternoon, at one o'clock, at Dee's Royal Hotel, the Earl of Lichfield, President for the past year, iu the chair. Among others preseut were, the Mayor of Bir- mingham (John Rsdciiff, Esq.), and Messrs. Richard Spooner, M.P., C. N. Newdegate, M.P., C. M. Caldecott, Wm. Ma- thews, Wm. James, Howard Luckcoclf, Baroa D. Webster, Alderman Holliday, G. C. Adltius, T. B. Wright, John Lowe, B. Dain, H. Wiggin, J. Mathews, C. Dain, W. Mathews, juu., and John Harlow. The first business was to elect a president for the ensuing year ; and on the motion of Mr. Jeremiah Mathews, seconded by Mr. Spooner, Lord Ward was selected to fill the office. Two vacancies in the Council — one occasioned by the death of Mr. Samuel Burbery, one of the earliest supporters of the Exhibition, and the other by the resignation of Mr. Edwin Hewitt — were reported. On the motion of Mr. Lurlvcoclc, seconded ijy Mr. Caldecott, Mr. Alderman Hodgson (the ex- Mayor), and Mr, Edward Freer, jun., were elected to supply their places. The Chairman afterwards proceeded to refer to the abo- lition of the annual dinner, which was determined upon at the General Meeting held in December last, and to suggest that the consideration of tliis subject miglit be conveniently revived. He thought they would do well to have a dinner, which should however take place some time, say about six weeks before the Show, and to hold the annual meeting on the same day. Many gcntleinen, like himself, were anxious to have large parties in their houses at the time of the Show, and it was inconvenient for them to remain in Birmingham to •attend either the meeting or tlie dinner, if they were held in the same week as the Show. He entertained a decided opinion that there should be a meeti;:g of some kind during the Show, for lectures or discussions which were calculated to diffuse practical information among the tenant-farmers who attended it. Something of the kind was suggested last year, but difficulties appear to htwe inter- posed to prevent its being carried out. He did not see why they should not endeavour to raiae a fund which would enable them to offer a prize for an essay on some sultject of importance connected with agriculture. He should be glad to subscribe to such a fund. The essay ought to be read at some meeting 40 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to be held for tlie purpose, and thej' might have a discussion ■upon it. The essay, for instance, might be upon the most profitable system of farming on light and on strong land in the Midland Counties. The prize to be offered should not, he considered, be less than £100. The suggestion, however, ■waa one for the consideration of the meet lag. A long and somewhat desultory discussion ensued. Mr. Caldecott thought that a lecture by some man of eminence would prove more attractive than an essay; while the Chair- man observed that the course recommended by Mr. Caldecott would answer the object he (Lord Lichfield) had in view, which was to bring the farmers together. Mr. Wright heartily approved of the proposal for an essay, as it was in accordance with a suggestion made by himielf some years ago, and about which no definite conclusion was arrived at. They might for £20 or £30 obtain an essay on the principal breeds of cattle, which would prove highly interesting and instructive. As to the dinner, he did not quite see that any good could arise from holding it in No- vember, as the entries for the ensuing exhibition were then closed. All they would have to talk about would be the prospects before them, and no change or improvement could be made in their arrangements. Mr. Lowe (of the firm of Mapplebeck and Lowe) spoke in favour of the trial of the essay experiment, and offered, on be- half of himself and partner, a subscription of ten guineas towards it. Mr. W. Matthews said it was found that whilst the show was pending it was not a satisfactory time to meet the sub- scribers. He thought it would be better to meet the first week in February. The question was, whether the dinner and the meeting of subscribers could not be held in February, so that an account could be rendered to the subscribers, who m^ght elect or re-elect, as they pleased, the officers for the ensuing year. The Chairman observed that, as to the arrangements for the dinner in February, there were some objections to the time; for a dinner held a month after the show was not likely to be as successful as one held a month before the show took place, for in the former case people would have ceased to take that interest in a dinner as they would do if it were held a short time previous to the show. Mr. Mathews said they must have a meeting of subscribers in the last week in Jaauarj', or the first week in February. The Chairman said he did not think they could connect the dmiier with the meeting if they held the meeting at such a time as Mr. Mathews mentioned ; and a dinner went far to- wards bringing people together, and causing them to take an interest in such, matters. Mr. Wright observed that what was wanted was a greater addition to their list of permanent subscribers, by which they would obtain a permanent fund ; so that they would not have to be dependent upon tne weather, as was the case at present. Mr. W. Mathews agreed that a good dinner was a very good thing, but the excitement was very temporary; aud if the dinner were to take place long before the show, the steam would evaporate, and much of the benefit would be lost. As to the essay or lecture, it might be read or delivered an hour or two before the dinner took place. It would not be well to begin on too ambitious a scale. A good lecture was better than an indifferent essay, and they could not expect a very good essay on such matters. They ought to be better up in money matters. He thougbt it would be better to give a professor ten guineas for a lecture to be delivered an hour or or two before the dinner, which should not take place very long before the show, and then it would have a very good eflfect. Ultimately, no resolution respecting the dinner was come to ; but a number of gentlemen made a promise to at- tend (d. V.) in October, if a dinner took place at thp.t time. Mr. Si'OOXER said, they ought annually to have a meeting, at which the Council could meet the subscribers, and lay before them an exact statement of their affairs. If they had had such a meeting they would have been spared an attack which had been made upon them by a local journal. The Council were charged with paying £300 per annum for Bingley Hall, while only using it for one week in each year. But it should be remembered that the hall was in their hands for the whole year, and that they had the privilege of letting it. The speculation was expected to turn out an advantage- ous cue, but in this the Council had been disappointed, and they were now about to alter the agreement. Again, they had been charged with making the show a means of creating dividends for the proprietors of Bingley Hall. He (Mr. Spooner) was one of those proprietors, and, with the exception of small dividends in the first and second years, he had had no return upon his investment. He regretted that these state- ments should be made, and he thought the subscribers should be earnestly invited to attend a meeting, at which the Council might state fully what they had done, aud what were their pro- spects lOr the future. Whatever appeared extravagant in the expenditure might then, if necessary, be remedied, aud a pro- per supervision maintained. It had been remarked that out of an income of £3,300 they only gave £1,550 in prizes; but this was nothing extraordinary, considering the vast expense attending the Exhibition. The whole of the subscriptions from Birmingham were under £360, and this the town received back in rates ; while, on the other hand, the West of England and Royal Agricultural Societies were largely supported in the towns they visited. They must remove the impression that there had been a "job" between the Council of the Cattle Show aud the Bingley Hall proprietors. Their expenditure might have been in some mstances too lavish, but it was much more diilicult to establish a society of this kind than to keep it going. If the position of the society were generally known, he believed the amount of their subscriptions would be mate- rially increased. Alderman Holliday said he belonged to a class of persons who might be induced to subscribe much more largely than they at present did to the cattle show if a proper canvass were made, and if the public knew something of the proceedings in connection with the society. In subscribing to the erection of Bingley Hall he had in view the removal of that feeling of an- tagonism between the commercial and agricultural classes which formerly existed, and that object had been to a great ex- tent obtained. While regretting that the Birmingham sub- scriptions were small, he felt that it was in a great measure the fault of the Council. One cause of complaint was that the an- nual accounts published by the Council did not inform the public as to the state of the finances. Had it been known in the town that the Council spent £1,400 or £1,500 a year more than they received, there would have been a large increase in the subscriptions. He had every reason to believe that the canvass had been most incomplete. With the strong feehng that existed in reference to the benefit arising from the show, the subscriptions might, if proper measures were adopted, be increased from £300 to £3,000. Mr. Cai-decott said that of the £800, the rent of Bingley Hall, £375 were paid for ground-rent to the Governors of King Edward's School : the other charges were £180, leaving the rent, supposing it was received at all, little more than £200 per annum. The secretary's salary had been reduced to £100, and the society's offices had been closed. A considerable saving had also been effected in the item of printing. Mr. J. Mathews and Mr. Adkins remarked that during the canvass repeatei calls had been made, even upon gentlemen of high standing in the town, without any subscription what- ever being obtained. The Chairman suggested the appointment of a com- mittee of tradesmen to undertake the task of receiving sub- sciiptions. It was clear that the Council, who had en- deavoured to make their canvass as complete as possible, had not been met as they ought to have been by the town, and the society could not go on unless it met with more liberal sup- port. Some dissatisfaction had been expressed at the prospect of the Exhibition being removed to some other place. From his ex- perience as president of the society, he felt that it would not be in their power to go on without a large increase in the subscrip- tions. Having appointed a Tradesmen's Committee, the close of another year would show what assistance they might ex- pect from the inhabitants of Birmingham. He was glad to hear from Mr. Holliday that the advantages of the show were fully appreciated. Speaking on behalf of the agriculturists of the midland counties, he felt it to be of the highest import- ance to know that there was a strong interest felt in their pro- ceedings in a town like Birmingham. The intercourse of the commercial and agricultural classes on such occasions was pro- ductive of a large amount of good. Birmingham was emi- nently fitted for the holding of a cattle show by its situation and its facilities of intercourse, and he should be extremely sorry to see any alteration made. At the same time it was evidently not a question which the Council could decide, as it THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 (kpenc^ed entirely upon the amount of support accorded them by tlie iuhabilants of the town. Mr. J. Mathews said that tlie farmer, when asked for hi3 guinea, replied, " Yes, it's all very fine; but who reaps the benefit, and what do the tradesmen of Birmingham do for U8 ?" One proof of the apathy that existed on the subject was that, after that meeting had been regularly advertised, the only sub- scriber present who was not a member of the Council was Mr. Alderman HoUiday. Mr. HoLLiDAY thought the subscribers ought to be sum- moned by circular. The Chairman considered the suggestion a good one, as it was mistaken economy to reduce the publicity of their proceedings. He thought the Council had made a mistake in the reduction of their advertisements this year — a step which he considered in no respect advisable. After some further conversation of a desultory character, it was moved by Mr. Caldecott, seconded by Mr. Spooner, and carried unanimously, " That a special meeting of the sub- scribers, convened by circular, be held in the Committee-room of the Town Hall on the last Monday in January next, for the purpose of receiving from the Council a statement of accounts and a Report of the proceedings of the Society during the year," The other questions brought under discussion were left un- decided until the adjourned meeting. The proceedings closed with a vote of thanks to the noble Chairman, who in responding referred to the untiring efforts of Messrs. Luckcock, James, Lowe, Mathews, Wright, Shackel, and others, under whose active superintendence the arrange- ments for the Exhibition had been most effectually carried out. RUTLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The annual exhibition of stock in connexion with this society took place at Oakham on Wednesday, Dec. 3, when the company visiting the Riding House had the pleasure of witnessing one of the best— some said the best — exhibitions of cattle that has been brought toge- ther since the establishment of the association, 26 years ago. Taken collectively, we may venture to affirm that a liner array of animals, in every department, has seldom been seen at any county show; and this fact is additional evidence of the skill in breeding and feeding which has so often been displayed by the farmers of Rutland and the district. The entries in each class were equal in number to those of former years. For oxen or steers, there were ten competitors in the two classes; and although the competition was spirited, the animals in Class I. were, perhaps, not quite so superior in quality as those exhibited last year. The first prize, on this occasion, was carried off by Mr. Twitchell, of Wilby ; and the second by Mr. Lynn, of Stroxton. Both the prize oxen were small, but very compact animals. The ox exhibited by the Marquis of Exeter was a very fine specimen, and, had it had another year's feeding, would, there is little doubt, have carried off the prize. This animal, and an ox shown by Mr. Richard Jones, of Woodstone Lodge, were commended by the Judges. The former animal was exhibited at Leicester on Friday, and will be shown at Smithfield next week. In Class n. there were some fine animals. Two shown by R. W. Baker, Esq., and Mr. C. Chapman, of Exton, were purchased by Messrs. Waterfield and Payne, butchers, of Stamford, for slaughtering at Christmas. The bulls, of which there was an excellent show, were much admired. Of sheep the number exhibited was above the average, there being no less than twenty- three pens. In this department the name of Bradshaw was again prominent, Mr, C. J. Bradshaw, of Burley, carrying off the first prize of 10 sovs. for long-woolled fat mutton in Class 15, and the second prize of 5 sovs. in Class IG. The opinion was, that finer or more per- fect animals could not be produced : parties present estimated the weight of the first prize-sheep at above 401bs. per quarter. These sheep are to be exhibited at the ensuing Smithfield Show : those which obtained the prize in Class 16 were shown at Leicester on Friday. We understand that both the pens which gained the first prizes for wether and ewe lambs were bred from rams hired of Mr. Savile, of Ingthorpe, near Stamford. Some very fine pigs \^&vt exhibited, and attracted con- siderable attention. In extra stock, an in-calf heifer belonging to Mr. Swingler, Langham, was noticed as an extraordinary animal, and was sold for 40 guineas. This beast competed successfully with the heifer which carried off the second prize at Waltham, where the latter had ten competitors to stand against. We must not omit to notice the show of hunting horses, which was also very superior. There were seven competitors, the Marquis of Exeter's prize of 10 sovs. being taken by a horse belonging to Mr. AUsop, of Garthorpe. Some first-rate vegetables were exhibited, including (as extra specimens) turnips sent by R, W. Baker, Esq. 126 of these turnips weighed 10 cwt., being an average of 9Ibs. each. There was a very large attendance of visitors during the morning ; and amongst those present we noticed the Earl and Countess of Gainsborough, Lady Victoria Noel, the Right Hon, Lord Aveland, Geo, Finch, Esq., and Mr. Hy. Finch, the Hon. Colonel Lowther, the Right Hon. Sir John Trollope, M.P., Aug. Stafford, Esq., M.P., the Hon, G. H. Heathcote, M.P., the Hon. G. J. Noel, M.P., the Hon. Hy. Noel, J. M. Wing- field, Esq., R. W. Baker, Esq., H, Lowther, Esq., Colonel Jocelyn, W. H. Baker, Esq., Thos. Syson, Esq., Clark Morris, Esq. (Sheriff), R, L. Bradshaw, Esq., Geo. Saville, Esq., &c. About twenty labourers, who had obtained prizes for good conduct, &c., were provided with a substantial dinner at the Red Lion Inn, and, at the conclusion of the repast, were addressed in appropriate terms by Aug. Stafford, Esq. The following is the Award of Premiums : STOCK. To the feeder of the best fat ox or steer, under five years of age, £15, to Mr. J. B. Twitchell, Wilby; second, £7, to Mr. K. Lynn, Stroxton. Mr. llichard Jones, Woodstone Lodge, and the Marquis of Exeter, commended. — Five competitors. To the feeder of the best fat ox or steer, under four years 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of age, £,1, to Mr. W. De Capell Brooke, Esq , Geddington Grange; second, £4, to the Right Hou. the Earl of Gains- borough, Mr. C. Smith, Burley-on-the-Hill, commended. — Five compiititors. To the feeder of the best cow or heifer, £10, to R. W. Baker, Esq., Cottesmore; second, £5, to W. De Capeil Brooke, Esq. W. R. Morris, Esq., North Luffenham, com- mended.— 3 competitors. To the feeder of the best steer, under three years of age, £7, to Mr. E. Wortley. Ridlington ; second, £3, to Mr. C. Smith, Butley-on-the-IIill. — Three competitors. To the feeder of the best steer, under two years of age, £5, to Mr. T. Swiiigler, Laugham ; second, £3, to R. W. Baker, Esq., Cottesmore. Mr. S. Wallis, Barton Seagrave, com- mended.— Seven competitors. To the owner of the best heifer, £6, to Mr. Swingler, of Langham; second, £3, to Mr. J. Woods, of Langham. — Four competitors. To the owner of the best lieifer, un^er two years of age, £4, to Mr. T. Swingler, of Langham; second, £2, to Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, of Burley-on-the-Hill.— Seven competitors. Offered by Stafford O'Brien, Esq. To the owner of the best cow iu milk, £5, to Mr. R. Lynn, of Stroxtoii ; second, £2, to Mr. E. Worlley, of Ridlington. — Tineecomfctltors. Offered by the Society. To the exhibitor of the best bull, £5, to Mr. T, Suter, of Brook ; second, £3, to Mr. R. Lynn, of Stroxton. No3. 1, 3, and 5 commended. — Five competitors. To the exhibitor of tha best in-foaled mare, £3, to Mr. T. Dorman, of Langham. — Four competitors. To the exhibitor of the best yearling gelding or filly, £3, to Mr, A. Shipmau, of Eaton Lodge. — Ten competitors. Offered by the Right Hon. the Earl of Gainsborough, To the owner (being a tenant occupier of nut more than 30 acres of land in the district) of the best cow in milk, to have calved at her full time, &c , £5, to Mr. W. Hubbard, Lang- ham ; second, £2, to Mr. J. Edgsoii, Langham. — Three com- petitors. To the owner of the beat heifer, under two years as.d six months old at the time of showing, &c., £4, to Mrs. E. Love, Hambletoa ; second, £2, to Mr. F. Wright, Egleton,— Six competitors. To the owner of the best heifer-calf, under six months old at the time of showing, £2, to Mrs. J. Hairis, Langham ; second, £1, to Mr. F. Wright, Egleton. — Two competitors. Offered by the Right Hon. Lord Aveland. To the feeder of the best pen of three long-woolled fat wether sheep, under twenty two months old, £10, to Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, Burley-on-the-Hill ; second (offered by the Society) £5, to Mr. E. Wortley, Ridlington. — Five competitors. To the feeder of the best pen of three !oug-wool!ed fat wether sheep, under 22 months old, £7, to Mr. E. Wortley, of Ridlington ; secoiid, £4, to Mr. C. J, Bradshaw, Burley- o,n-the-Hill. Two competitors. To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best pen of five breeding ewes, &c., £4, to Mr. T. Shipraan, Croxtou Lodge ; second, £3, to Mr. R. L. Bradshaw, jun., of Burley-on-the- Hill. Three competitors. To the exhibitor of the best pen of fivelong-v/oolled theaves, one year old, £4, to the Hon. Col. Lowther, Barlcytliorpe ; se.^ond, £2, ta Mr. R. L. Bradshaw, jun., of Burley-oa-the- Hill. Four competitors. To the exhibitor of the best pen of five long-woolled vrether lambs, £3, to Mr. E. Wortley, Ridlington; second, £2, to Mr, C, J. Bradshaw, Burley-on-the-Hill. Four competitors. To the exhibitor of the best pea of five long-v/oo!led ewe lambs, £3, to Mr. E. Wortley, Ridlington ; second, £2, to the Hon. Col. Lowther, Barleythorpe. Four competitors. To the feeder of the best fat pig, of any breed, £4, to Mr. W. Benskin, Rearsby ; second, £2, to Mr. William Carver, Ingarsby. Six competitors. To the feeder of the best fat pig, of any breed or weight, £3, to Mr. W.Carver, Ingarsby; second, £1, to Mr. Wm. Benskin, Rearsby. Five competitors. Offered by the Right Hon. the Enrl of Gainsborough, To the owner (being a tenant occupier of not more than 30 acres of laud iu the district) of the best fat pig of any weight, £2, to Mr. T. Henfrey, Egleton; second, £1, to Mr. C, Bryan, Ridlington. Four competitors. Offered by the Society, To the exhibitor of the best in-figged or suckling sow or yelt, £2, to Mr. T. Suter, Brooke. Four competitors. Offered by the Most Noble the Marquis of Exeter. To the owner, being a farmer, who shall exhibit the best half-bred four-year-old hunting mare or gelding, £10, to Mr. Wm. Allsop, Garthorpe ; second (offered by gentlemen of the Cottesmore Hunt), £5, to Mr, T. Shipman, Croxtou Lodge. Seven competitors . Offered by his Grace the Duke of Rutland . To the exhibitor of the bast beast shown as Extra Stock, a Silver Medal, value £3, to W. de Capell Brooke, Esq., of Ged- dington Grange. Six competitors, VEGETABLES. Offered by t!ie Right Hon. Viscount Campden. For Swedish turnips, cultivated on any system, £7, to R. W, Baker, Esq., Cottesmore ; second, £3, to Mr. Swingler, Lang- ham. Six competitors. Offered by the Society. For mangold wurzel, cultivated on any system, £2, to Mr. Buliivant, Ashwell. Seven competitors. For cabbages, in quantities not less than one acre, £1, to Mr. Rudkiu, Langham. No other competitor. Offered by R, W, Baker, Esq, For the best specimen of six Swedish turnips, lOs., to R, W, Baker, Esq. — Three competitors. For the best specimen of sis cabbages, lOs,, to Mr, Rudkin, Langham. — One competitor. For the best specimen of six mangel wurzels, lOa., to Mr, Swingler, Langham. — Three competitors. The root-:) generally were commendable, PREMIUMS TO LABOURERS, Offered by Sir Thomas Whichcotc, Bart. To the shepherd v. ho shall have raised the greatest number of lambs in proportion to the number of ewes put to the ram, 30s., to John Gregg, shepherd to the Hon. Col. lowther, Barleythorpe; second, lOs. to John Brown, shepherd to W. Fabling, Esq., Burley. — Four competitors. Offered by the Hon. Viscouut Downe. To the labourer in husbandry who has brought up the greatest number of children, and has never received parochial relief, 21., to John Burton, of Oakham, Offered by George Finch, Esq. Second, 25s., to Wra.Ton.lin, North Lufi'enhani ; third, ISs , to Wm. Selby, Market Overtoil. — Three competitors. Offered by George Finch, Esq. To the farm labourer who is and has been fully employed the longest time with the least intermission on the same farm, or with the same master or mistress, 3Z. lOa., to John Web- ster, Knossington ; second, 21. lOs., to Charles Coulston, Burley; third, \l. lOs, to James Cole, North Luffenham; fourth, lOs., to Richard Thorpe, Langham. — Ten competitors. Offered by the Society. To the married labourer who has lived the longest period on the same farm as a single man and a hired servant, '61., to John Barfield, North Luffenham ; second, 21., and third, \l., divided between John Tyres, Wn'g, and Henry Smith, Whit- well. — Three competitors. To the servant in husbandry who shall have lived the greatest number of years in the fewest servitudes, 3/., to John Rogers, of Mauton; second, 21., to George V/atson; third, \l., no competitor. Offered by the Rev. Edwsrd Brown. To the team man who has lived with his master the greatest number of years, Zl , to IL Warrington; second, 2^., to John Hercock, Offered by the Society. To the servant, being a single woman, who shall Irve lived the longest time in the same service, 21., to Sarah Ilarkett, of Barleythorpe; second, l?.,to Elizabeth Peak. — 7 competitors. Offered by Lord Burghley, M.P. To the widow of a farming labourer who ha3 brought up THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 the largest number of children, 3/., to Elizabeth Towell, of Oakham ; second, 2/,, no coaipstitor. Offered by the late Rev. E. R. Earlc. To the labouier who has attended his parish church most constantly, 21., no competitor. Judges of Stock. — John Manning, Esq., Orlingbury, Northamptonshire; Charles Stokes, Esq., Kiagston, Notting hamshire ; and George Sills, Esq., Hounigtou, Lincolnshire. Judges op Hunting Horses. — The Hon. C.E.Freke, Sir J. TroUope, Bart., M.P., and Samuel Hunt, Es^. Judges of Turnips. — Mr. Burgess, Ridlington; Mr. Hutton, Tixover ; and Mr. Berridge, Barrow. The Dinner took place at three o'clock in the Agri- cultural Hall. Augustus Stafford, Esq., M. P., took the chair, and was supported on the right by the Hon. J. G. Noel, M.P., the Hon. G. H. Heathcote, M.P., the Hon. H. L. Noel, and R, W. Baker, Esq. ; and on the left by Col. the Hon. S. Jocelyn (of the Scots Fusilier Guards), the Rev. Reresford (of Wymondham), the Rev. T. Byers, Mr. Adam, Mr. Hough, &c. The conopany numbered upwards of a hundred. The usual loyal toasts were eloquently given from the chair, and responded to with the utmost enthusiasm. The Chairman then rose to propose the toast of the evening, " Success to the Rutland Agricultural Society." Now (said lie) we really come to business ; and I am going to use the language of the Riding-school of this morning in speaking of the toast. Other toasts were highly commended, but this is the prize-toast — (laughter and cheers) — therefore you must honour it accordingly ; end I must say that there seems to have been hitherto some real practical influence in this toast, for I believe it has been given somewhere about five or six-aud-twenty times, and its efficacy has been so great that the affairs of the society, the show of the society, and, I may ven- ture humbly to say, the company present at this meeting, have never been surpassed (cheers). Tiien, if we find that this toast is so successful, we must be sure that we do it full justice now ; and if I fail in doing it justice — and very likely I shall fail — you must make up my de- ficiency, and drink it with the greater enthusiasm if I make a bad speech about it (laughter and cheers). Now, then, with regard to the Rutland Agricultural Society, we find that it does not confine its operations, it does not stint its benignant influences to the little county, but extends them so far beyond the bounds that it crosses the banks of Ihc Welland, and with such effect, that while a member for Northamptonshire has the honour to preside over this meeting, an ox from Northamptonshire has had the luck to win the first prize (laughter and cheers) ; therefore it becomes us to rejoice as a society, and certainly we have a right to do so. A friend said to me to-day, " The farmers hereabout don't think small beer of themselves" (laughter). And I said, " Of course they don't. Why should they ? (continued laughter.) Have you in your travels found the land so ill-drained, have you found the fields so weedy, do you find the stock so bad, that you should consider that the farmers of this locality would be right in thinking small beer of themselves?" (Hear, hear, and cheers.) And I wonder, if the farmers thought small beer of themselves, what the manufacturers would think of them .' (Renewed laughter and cheers.) We have been so much run down of late years — we have been so violently abused, that we consider it high time to stand up for ourselves; and stand up for cur- selves we will (loud cheers). And in standing up for ourselves we will own that our position was never more satisfactory fhau at present; for while on tho one hand, no class can complain against us, we, on the other hand, have no reason to complain, and are catisficd with the present state of things — with the prices realized by our produce and our stock (Hear, hear). Very well, aa everybody is contented, some one roisht turn round upon me and say, " What have you got to talk about ? Why not drink the toast in silence, and, as 'Benedict' says in the play, Give God thanks and make no Doast?' " (Laughter). And, to a certain extent, I don't know why we should not do so. But if we choose to have two or three words in a colloquial sort of way, I don't know who should forbid us ; and why should we not have a few words socially and pleasantly together ? (Hear, and cheers.) Now, gentlemen, I had intended to say nothing to you on the sub- ject on which I spoke at Northampton, and which was under consideration then, and is under consideration now, among the tenant-farmers of this country, and among the landed proprietors of this country also. But a friend of mine, from Ridlington, said, "You must bring forward the question of agricultural statistics." " Well," I said, " it has been worked very much duiing the whole of this autumn, and, perhaps, the Oakham Agricultural Society might get a little tired of it." " That is not the fact," he said. '■ Besides, if you don't bring it forward at such an important meeting, the enemy will get hold of it and declare that aa the tenant-farmers present were not appealed to on the subject, it might be assumed that they were in favour of the measure proposed by Government." But now I think that the contrary is the fact, and that you do con- sider that, however desirable it might be to have the details of the agriculture of this country presented to the House of Commons in a popular form, that advantage would not, with your approbation, or with your consent, or with your assistance, be bought at the price of an inquisitorial system, to which no other class of her Majesty's subjects is liable (Hear, hear). Now, with regard to the question of agricul- tural statistics, the agriculture of this country rests precisely upon the aaiue footing as every other class of the manufac- turing industry of this country. We know the imports of agricultural produce ; we know the exports of agricultural produce also. They know the import of cotton wool, or they know the export of cotton wool. It is the same with iron ; it is the same with every other article. But what would Mr. Turner, or any other respectable shopkeeper of Oakham say, if a Government inspector stepped in and said, "How many yards of calico," or "how many yards of ribbon have you sold during the last sis months ? Write it down for me, and deliver it, under a penalty ?" Then, if the inha- bitants of towns would not like that inquisitorial process, why should the farmers be subject to it ? for as is the cotton and the ribbons of the haberdasher, as is the iron of the ironmaster, so is the wheat, so is the corn, so is the poultry (and we were to descend even to the ducks and hens) of the farmer. (Hear, hear, and cheers.) And we were to register the results, and have them served up to the Houses of Parlia- ment in a blue-book. Now, I do not wish at all to undervalue the importance of knowing in this great and flourishing com- munity the increase of food raised — the increase, if I may so speak, of agricultural wealth, which is year by year pro- duced in this still more and more fertile island. But as a guide to the agriculturist, as a guide to the corn-merchant, as a guide to the consumer, I believe — so large are our importa- tions of foreign cereal produce — that these agricultural sta- tistics would be of little or no use whatever. (Hear, hear.) As I said before at Northampton I now repeat at Oakham, we have seen practically for several years agricultural statistics collected in Ireland. They are sent over and served up, or rather buried, in a blue-book every year before the House of Commons ; but I never yet met with one farmer, or one corn- merchant, or one consumer in Ireland who ever made the least reference to this blue-book in the carrying on of his business, or in the arrangement of his crops. (Hear.) The agricultural statistics which we want would not be the statistics of the past, but, if I may so speak, of the future, and should not have reference merely to England, but to those enormous tracts of corn-growing countries of which we know nothing, ex- cept when the cargoes arrive at our ports. (Hear, hear, and cheers.) And why the farmers should be subjected to the pro- cess in question, I do not understand, except that there is a class which still cherishes a feeling against us, and which is never happy and never seems to be quite pleased unless it is doing something to tease the agriculturists of this country. (Hear, hear.) Well, if those, or anything like those, are your opinions, it will be your duty to instruct your members on the subject ; and I confess I shall be anxious to hear the two ho- nourable members on my right (the Hon. G. H. Heathcote and the Hon. G, J. Noel) give their opinion on the matter. 44 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. (Cheers.) Now, Mr. Noel aud Mr. Heathcote, you must per- ceive that the company have responded to my challenge : do you ? (Cheers renewed.) Will you, when your turn comes to speak — and I wcfu't much longer trespass between you aud the meeting — will you speak out explicitly and fairly, and accept the challenge which I have giveu ? (Hear, hear, and much chceriug). If we are able, as we have been able hitherto, to resist this particular aud obnoxious scheme, there are soaae things which we have not yet been able to do. We have not yet been'able to deal vrith our own barley as we think proper, because of the exciseman. We have not yet been permitted to grow a particular herb which we might grow, because of the custom-house officer (Hear, hear). I pronounce no opinion on the subjects now ; but we have always to remind our — what shall I call them ? not our friends exactly : I will uot call them our enemies — our critics, that it is not with our consent, it is not in consequence of our wish, that such arrange- ments are at present in existence. But, though we cannot alter these things, though we cannot accomplish thus much, there is much that we can accomplish, there is much that we are ac- complishing ; and there is much that, I think, we still shall be able to accomplish. And it is societies such as this that carry forward the great work of agricultural improvement. It is so- cieties such as this that do more than carry forward the great work of agricultural improvement : they carry forward and they strengthen those feelings, without which the wealth of a country, far from being its strength, from becoming a tempta- tion to the invader, constitute rather its weakness. It is in the power of societies such as this, it is their most benignant effect, to strengthen the union between class and class ; to call forth that love of home and of country which is the strength of every community, and in which every community is strong in proportion aa that feeling exists among them. The object of these societies is to bind class to class with chains whose bondage is happiness, aud whose links are not the less strong because they are imperceptible. And therefore it is that year after j'ear we welcome these anniversaries with a heartier feeling, and we drink this toast with a warmer wish. The toast means really, " God speed the plough." Whether horses draw it, or whether steam propels it, God speed the plough, for its errand is a blessed one ; it has been valued in all ages aud in all coun- tries, and it is the emblem of that which is, perhaps, the most precious aud the most valuable upon earth. Therefore, ge itle- men, may we, aud may those who come after us, while they drink a toast which I trust will long be giveu in the town of Oakham, and long cause the walls of this hall to ring with ac- clamations.however inadequately that toast may be proposed — • may that toast be given, aud may that toast be received by those who in their time and in their generation shall combine the acceptance of every new improvement with the cherishing of every good old English feeling ; and for ourselves, for this little county, though least not last, may it teach to larger counties — some of them I could name that need the lesson — how to develope the gifts of an indulgent and a beneficent Providence, how to be free from crime, how to be industrious ; aud, being free from crime, and being industrious, to be as happy and as pleasant as the little county of Kutland. (The chairman concluded amid vehement plaudits, and the toast was drunk with every demonstration of enthusiasm). Mr. Hough proposed, "The High Sheriff of the County." The Hon. J. G. Noel, M.P., gave " The Marquis of Exeter." The Hon. G. H. Heathcote gave "The Earl of Gains- borough, President of the Society." The Hon. G. J. Noel responded, in the absence of the noble Earl, his father. The hon. member assured the meet- n\2. that their President still totk as much interest in the prosperity of the society as he did some years ago when he occupied the chair at their anniversary dinner (cheeis). Mr. W. 11. Morris briefly proposed " The Members for the County." The Hon. G. J. Noel was first to reply. He was truly glad that he could congratulate them on the success of tliis society — now, he thought, in its twenty-sixth year. He trusted it was still in its youth, and that the youugest person present, if he was fortunate enough to live to four-score, might see it then as prosperous as it was that day (cheers). It was also gratifying to find, that not only liad they a successful meeting in that county, but that the reports of other similar societies showed a healthy state of 'agriculture in the country. Those reports also proved that the interest attached to these meet- ings was in uo way diminished, Aud why should it diminish, when they considered the vast benefit they liad conferred upon agriculture, by bringing together practical aud intelligent men who could thus impart their experience one to another ? He was glad to say that Providence had blessed them with a more than average harvest — a better one than that of last year; and he was giveu to understand that prices were remunerative, and that, generally speaking, agricultural prospects had not been better for many years past. They heard on all sides of the progress of improvements, of vast sums spent upon guano and other manures, and of fresh acres brought under cultiva- tiou. All this, he thought, indicated the healthy state of agri- culture, and gave promise of increased resources and increased wealth to the country. And while they thus congratulated themselves, let them not forget others dependent upon them. Having the interests of all at heart, and especially of the labouring classes, let them indeed rejoice at present circumstances (Hear, hear). The honourable gentleman then alluded to the late war, and concluded as follows : There was another topic deeply interesting to a^^riculturist?, and he had been challenged to speak upon it by the hon. gentleman in the chair. He (Mr. N.) thought he ought to be able to gather pretty well the opinion of gentlemen of that county upon the subject when he remembered the numerously- signed petition which had been brought to him. In the prayer of that petition he most cordially concurred (Hear, hear). He thought that the Agricultural Statistics Bill, as presented to parliament, was an insult to the tenant farmers (cheers), and right glad was heto find that that bill was withdrawn. He thought the agricultural districts had spoken out pretty significantly during the last two months, aud had condemned most strongly such a prying, inquisitorial, and un-English measure as the one which had been projected. He remembered a speech made by Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, a short time ago, in which he ex- plained so clearly and so well what the opinions of the tenant farmers were upon the subject, that he (Mr. Noel) hoped all present had read it. Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer said that, out of 19 gentlemen who were examined before the committee of the House of Lords relative to a matter of such interest to the agriculturist, not more than five could be said practically to understand agriculture, or fairly to represent the opinions of the tenant farmers. Was it likely that a satisfactory measure could result from such an inquiry ? Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer recommended a conciliatory system of procuring agricultural statistics. Those returns must be given voluntarily ; there must be no prying. To a general and proper system, he (the speaker) (rusted they would not object, because he believed that the matter derived from these statistics would be most useful and beneficial. There were other topics which presented themselves for consideration, but>s that was not a political meeting, lie ought not to break the rule. Again thanking his hearers for their kindness, he assured them it would always be his desire to listen to their wishes, aud, when he could consis- tently aud honestly, to act upon those wishes ; and he should always do what lay in his power to promote the success of the Rutland Agricultural Society (cheers). The Hon. G. H. Heathcote also returned thanks for the honour they had done him in drinking his health there for the first time as their representative; and he could assure them that it would always be his endeavour to serve them well and truly, and to promote the success of agriculture. (Cheers.) He must congratulate them on the very excellent show they had had that day : it was a satisfactory indication that the Rutland Agricultural Society was most flourishing. While other societies might have failed, this appeared to him only to have gained strength and vigour from age. In several depart- ments of the show, he thought there was a marked improve- ment, and especially in the class of horses. And he could not imagine why that should not be the case ; because, from the high prices horses were realizing, it would pay them well to turn their attention to that class of animals, and try to breed such as he had seen that day. They had had an abundant har- vest this year, and he therefore thought that was a good oppor- tunity for carrying on all those improvements which he saw in progress. They saw how necessary it was to bring science and machinery to bear upon agricultural labour. Indeed, he did uot know to what length they might go at last : they might perhaps see the steam plough at work in some of their fields by-and-bye. He would now allude to a subject which he felt to be deeply interesting, and upon which he had been asked by the hon, chairman to give his opinion : he alluded to agri. THIC FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 45 ciiUui'al a(atislic3. He had great pleasure in receiving a depu- tation from his coiiatituciits last summer iu Loudon, and iu rcadin:,- the petition they sent up. With that petition he quite agreed, aud had the Government bill as it stood then come to a vote in the House of Commons, it was his full in- tention to have given his opposition to it. (Cheers.) Should any new measure be introduced, he should hope to receive their opinion upon it, aud that opinion he wslS perfectly sure would meet with every attention on his part. He would not, of course — and he thought they could hardly ask it of him — he could not pledge himself to oppose auy bill which might be introduced until he saw it : because, if any good aud compre- hensive measure of this kind could be brought in, he thought it seemed agreed by ail parties, even by those gentlemen whom they had always looked up to as the friends of the farmers — aud Lord Derby, he thought, was in favour of Eomethiug of the kiud — it seemed agreed that it was desirable, and he thought they could hardly expect him to give a pledge to oppose such a measure. (Hear, hear.) After again thanking his audience, the hon. membsr sat down amid applause. Colouel JocELYN gave "The Health of the Chairman," briefly glancing at Mr. Stafford's noble aud disinterested con- duct towards our suffering warriors iu the Crimea during the winter of 1854, and also adverting to his zealous efforts in Parliament to rectify many abuses counecteLl with the medical department of our army. (The toast was received with loud aud long-continued cheering). The Chairman eloquently acknowledged the compliment, remarking that Oakham was the first place iu which he ever opened his lips in public, aud that he was the only native of the county of Eutland in either House of Parliament. (Cheers). Mr. Bradsiiaw proposed " The Vice-Presidents," to which the Hon. G. H. He-A-TIICOTe, as the junior vice-president present, responded. Mr. Baker was entrusted with the next toast — "The Judges of Stock." Upon the whole, he had come to the con- clusion that this had been rather beyond a fair average show, though perhaps there were particular classes which might scarcely come up to what they had witnessed on some former occasions. They had had animals which had become very eminent at the Smithfield Show ; but unless Mr. Bradshaw could do something with his sheep, he thought they could not expect to reap many laurels there on this occasion. With re- gard to the horses, he thought that considering the small pre- mi\im3 offered for yearlings and brood mares for agricultural purposes, the exhibition had been exceedingly good. The pigs were also very good. About 500 people passed through the show-yard ; there had been as many as 800, but they had also sunk down to about 300 ; so that this might be considered a fair average attendance. With respect to the vegetables, he thought they had never seen such good mangold wurzel and turnips, especially the former, as they had had there that day. (Hear, hear). Mr. Baker then referred to extravagant state- ments published in the Mark Lane E.rpress relative to the growth of mangold wurzel and Swedish turnips, it being re- presented that 40 tons per acre of the former and 36 of the latter had been produced upon poor, heathy land in the neigh- bourhood of Coventry ; and iu another district that 32 tons 14 cwt. 1 qr. 241b. of mangold and 41 tons 5 cwt. 2 qra. 241b8. of Snedisli turnips had been grown. He did i;ot believe such statements as these : they were mere calculations upon weigh- ing small quantities, and as in one of the above cases, as small a quantity as one perch. He had upon several occasions weighed an acre, well cleaned and fit for consumption. He had heard it from Lord Spencer and Mr. C. Hdyard, that at no time did they find mangold wurzel to exceed 30 tons and swedes 25 tons per acre. His (Mr. Baker's) prize turnips did not exceed 23 toua. The speaker next alluded to the import- ance of judicious draining, deep ploughing, and the plentiful application of manure. Tliey must have good tillage before they could have good crops. With regard to the alleged abund- ance of the harvest, he could assure the Chairman of that meeting that it was not an evenly-dispensed harvest over that neighbourhood, because there were parts of the county where the crops of wheat were most abundant, aud there were other parts where there was a great deficiency ; and it was very diffi- cult to ascertain whether they had a fair average produce of wheat, taking the whole of the county, or whether they had not. He believed it to be a very difficult point. (Hear, hear). Of barley, there was a very great deficiency in the county. There were not only fewer acres grown, but there was an un- usual quantity of black ears or blight. The root crops might be considered as passable, and they had had a good season for grass ; but he did thiuk they must not say too much upon the abuudance of the harvest. On the whole, however, they were in a prosperous state, and he hoped that all were satisfied and thankful that Providence had placed them upon such a fertile soil. (Cheers). Adverting to the ploughing meetings they had had, he said that having commenced in 1823, up to 1847, they had brought into the field 1,055 ploughs, and distributed in prizes £817 173. Three other meetings had taken place : at Castertonin the year 1850, at Uppingham in 1852, aud lastly at Oakham in 1853. The total number of ploughs competing at all the meetings was 1,387, and the total amount of prizes distributed £1,019 5s. 7d. Uppingham desired to have a ploughing meeting iu their immediate neighbourhood in Oct., 1857. The tradesmen of Uppingham would offer two silver cups to farmers' sons, value £15. (Cheers). A committee was appointed, with Mr. John Law for their Chairman, and by whom would be collected further subscriptions. He (Mr. B.) had promised to do his best, if in health and strength, to carry it out as upon former occasions — and complete 30 years* assistance in promoting good ploughing iu the county of Rut- land. (Cheers). Mr. Baker concluded by proposing the " Judges of Stock." Mr. Manning returned thanks, congratulating the society upon its very good show. He did not know that he ever at- tended a local show where there was greater competition. He should return to Northampton convmced that, though the county of Rutland was small in size, still it was great in spirit and enterprise. (Cheers). The proceedings closed about eight o'clock, and the Chair- man and his friends retired amid general acclamations, several special cheers being given for the gallant Colonel Jocelyu. BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The monthly meeting of the Council of this Society was held on Saturday, tlic iiOtli Nov., at Waghom's Railway Hotel, Taunton; T. Newman, Esq., in the chair. There wcr(; ].rescut— J. T. Davy, 11. G. Moyscy, J. K. Knollys, T. I). Aclaud, W. E. Gillett, R. K. M. Kinrr, W. Porter, 11. L. Bean, J. W. King, G. Poole, G. II. Andrews, U. Dymoud, T. Danger, M. Farrant, W. Wippell, J. ^Vidaicombe, T. Gee, T. B. Morle, T. Ilussey, J. Fry, and S. Pitman. The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. Finance.— Mr. Aclaud brought up the report of the Finance Committee, whicli sliowed that the funds were in a prosperous state, tlierc beiiii;- a good balance in hand. CiiEiMicAi,. — The same gentleman also moved, and it was determined, that Professor Voelckcr, of tlie Rnyal Agri- cultural College, Cirencester, should be invited to deliver lectures on agricultural subjects during the Christmas vaca- tion; and it was referred to the Chemical Committee to arrange tlie towns in which such lectures should be given, and carry out the details. Meeting in South Wales. — The report of the com- mittee specially appointed to consider the expediency of the Society holding a meeting iu Soutli Wales, in Hio8, was then taken into consideration ; when in consequence (if the strong expressions of support, and the importance which numerous influential gentlemen interested iu landed )iro|ierty considered that the visit of the Society would be in South Wales, it was resolved to rcconnncnd to tlie an- imal meeting that the Council consider it to be expedient that the annual meeting of the Society for the year ISjo 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, be held in South Wales ; but that, notwithstanding such meeting, the operations of the Societ}' were not to be consi- dered as permanently embracing the district of South Wales. New Members.— The following new members were elected : W. F. Nosworthj, of Manaton, Moretonhamp- stead; J. Creed, ofWhiddon, Abbotskerswell ; R.Crocker, of Whinipston, Modburj' ; Edward Elliott, of Hollo wcombe, Ernibridge ; S. Widdicombe, of Hay, Ugborough ; Walter Rendell, of Coombuiteighead, Teignmouth; Robert Venn, of Collumpton ; John Oliver, of Manor House, Bridgwater ; F. W. Dj'mond, of Exeter. Adjourned Annu.al Meeting. — This meeting (being a continuation of the annual meeting held at Yeovil in June last) tlien took place. In addition to the members of the Council, there were present C. A. Mood}', Esq., ]\I.P., president, in the chair, Sir John Duntze', Bart., C. J. Helyar, R. M. King, J. R. Allen, J. Batten, T. C. Colt- hurst, J. N. Sealy, J. Hannam, E. Ford, and numerous other members. The report of the special committee on the subject of the proposed meeting in South Wales was then read. The resolution recommended by the Comicil was then moved — " That it is expedient that the annual meet- ing of the Society for the j'ear 1850 be held in South Wales"; and after considerable discussion the motion was carried, there being 28 for, and 4 against it. It was also resolved that the rules of the Society be suspended, so as to carry out the recommendation contained in the report of the committee appointed by the Council to consider the expediency of holding a meeting of this Society in South Wales, and to report thereon to the Council at the October meeting. The proceedings then terminated with a vote of thanks to the chairman. The proceedings of the Council were then resumed ; and a communication from the town-clerk of Barnstaple, accom- iwnied with the copy of a resolution passed at a meeting of the Town Council of that borough, inviting this Society' to visit Barnstaple, was read. Resolved "that the warmest thanks of this Council be presented to the Town Council of the boroug-h, with an expression of the high sense of honour the Council feel to be conferred on the Society by the above invitation." CORN AVERAGES.-GOLD. Sir, — The absence of statistical information, both at home and in foreign countries, as to the result of the last harvest, and the probable demaud that may exist for additional sup- plies to support the population of Westera Europe to tbe har- vest of 1857, may perhaps render a return of the weekly ave- rage prices of wheat, barley, aud oats, for the year ending Michaelmas last, iuterestiug to the agriculturist, as well as useful in arranging corn rents. The average prices for the year ending Michaelmas, 1856, were : — s. d. Wheats 73 2| per imperial quarter. Barley 39 llf Oats 25 10^ While, for the six following weeks, ending 14th November, 1856, the average prices were : — s. d. Wheat 65 6 per imperial quarter. Barley 44 8 „ „ Oats 26 5 „ It appears from the reports this week, from almost all the places of European supply, that prices are rather receding ; aud, as America has still a large surplus to export, we may reasonably expect that the present price of wheat here will not be exceeded, although it must be admitted that in Paris the price of bread is now nearly the same as iu Loudon, and tliat in Spain aud Italy prices range very high in consequence of local deficiency. France and England are both importing countries. According to an account made np annually to Oc- tober, during the last 10 years, the average importation of wheat (including flour) into England approaches four and a half millions of imperial quarters. For the six years to Michaelmas, 1856, the imports of wheat stand as follows : — Average price to Imp. Qrs. Michaelmas. Value. 1851 (i,073,555 .. 393. 5d. .. £11,969,964 1852 3,000,521 .. 393. lOd, .. 7,171,037 1853 6,097,697 .. 453. 7d. .. 13,897.667 1854 5.586,218 .. 723. Id. .. 20,133,660 1855 2,898,876 .. 7l3. lOd. .. 10,411,762 1856 4,337.616 .. 733. 2d. .. 15,868,445 During the last 40 years, France has been, on the average, an importer of wheat, and during the last few years to a large extent, as may be seen by the following return of the esti- mated value in sterling during the years named : — 1851 £60,000 1852 £184,000 1853 £4,348,000 1854 £6,880,000 1855 £4,912,000 The importation of wheat naturally leads to the considera- tion of the subject of gold and silver, as all great importa- tions occasion a drain of bullion. Such importations cannot be liquidated by the usual current of trade. The adoption of a gold standard by England and America has been fortunate and will, I feel no doubt, ultimately lead to its introduction into France aud elsewhere, as the coatiaued drain of silver to the East, for the purpose of commerce, will render such a measure necessary. The following recaptitulation from the Customs department in France will show the progress of the precious metals in that country during the years 1853, 1854, and 1855 : — Iinporied. Exported. Gold.,.. £47,100,000. .£10,500,000 Retained £30,600,030 Silver .. £13,200,000.. £82,300,000 Excessof export £19, 100,000 Gold and silver taken together in the three) «,,. eqa qqq years an excess of impoit of ) '' ' Assumming this statement to be correct, it is quite evident that the withdrawal of so large an amount of silver from circu- lation must interfere with the commercial convenience of the country, and eventually lead to the abandonmeut of a double standard, as no legal restrictions can retain the precious metals against the requirements of commerce. This has been proved iu England during the great war at the commencement of the present century. Gold was not then to be obtained but at a high premium, and only iu small quantities. The present silver coinage of this country is safe from the demands of com- merce un'il the market price of standard silver exceeds 5s. 6d. per ounce. It is contended that the increase made to the total quantity of gold in the commercial world does not add to its real worth, as the greater abundance diminishes its relative value, by en- hancing the prices of every other commodity valued in gold. However true this may be in the result after a number of years, still the countries producing the gold benefit largely by the stimulus it imparts to trade, to manufactures, and to colo- nisation. It would be a matter of curious speculation to con- sider how many years have been anticipated in the progress of Australia. The following abstract of the produce of the gold fields since 1848 may be interesting. More than one hundred milhons have been added to that unknonn quantity of gold previously existing in the world. The annual produce now begins to form a per centage on that unknown amount, and in a ratio to that per centage must be the slow but certain addi- tion to the money value of all commodities : — California. Australia. Total, 184S .. £12,000 .. — .. £12,000 1849 .. 1,600,000 .. — .. 1,600,000 1850 .. 5,000,000 .. — .. 5,000,000 1851 .. 8,000,000 .. £907,113 .. 8,907,113 1852 .. 11,200,000 .. 9,735,903 .. 20,935,903 1853 .. 12,000,000 .. 10,445,700 .. 22,445,700 1854 .. 13,600,000 .. 9,028,759 .. 22,628,759 1855 .. 12,908,000 .. 11,513,230 .. 24,421,230 £64,320,000 .. £41,630,705 .. £105,950,705 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 For the present year there is every probability that the'prodiice will much exceed any former year. I remain, sir, your obedient servant, Charles M. Willicii, Actuary University Life Assurance Society. 25, Suffolk-street, Pall-Mali East, Nov. 27. Weekly Average Prices of Wheat, Barley, and Oats, per Imperial Quarter, in England and Wales, for Fifty-two Weeks, ending Septem- ber 27, 1856. Week ending. Wheat. Barley. Oats. 1855. s. D. s. D. s. D. Oct. 6 76 6716.. 37 0122.. 28 7996 " 13 76 7-S44 .. 38 4 951.. 28 6-585 " 20 76 10 449.. 38 10333.. 27 9 879 " 27 78 4 642.. 38 6'907 .. 28 8836 Nov. 3 -. 80 3555.. 39 0-317.. 2-! 0-933 " 10 80 5-345.. 39 6 016.. 28 4913 " 17.... 80 10-433.. 39 11-070.. 28 0045 " 24 82 1-982.. 40 11-/83.. 28 1-459 Dec. 1 83 1-829.. 42 3 642.. 28 10-824 " 8 81 6-24S .. 42 5 432.. 2S 6854 " 15 79 ll-£85 .. 41 3-]69 .. 27 10 090 " 22 78 9-443.. 40 4-215.. 27 1-718 " 29 77 2171.. 39 4-556.. 26 11803 1856. Jan. 5 76 10135.. 39 0583.. 26 9413 " 12 76 2-765.. 33 3-325.. 25 11910 " 19 76 1-883., 37 8-465.. 26 7178 " 26 76 11-225.. 38 4-949.. 25 8 371 Feb. 2 .,. 75 10.217.. 38 0-285,. 25 5.428 „ 9 73 8-134.. 37 5868,. 24 6-666 „ 16 71 7-836,, 37 2-207,, 23 10-295 „ 23 to 2 728.. 35 8-826,. 23 6 113 Mar. 1 69 7-504.. 35 6-574.. 23 9 504 „ 8 69 11-032., 35 11-618.. 24 MSO „ 15 .,, 07 11-269,, 36 3878,. 23 2641 „ 22 67 5-171.. 37 2-288.. 23 2-637 „ 29 69 10 948,. 38 1-800., 24 0965 April 5 69 5 048., 33 8590,. 23 6-580 „ 12 68 7-721,, 39 0-326.. 23 8 271 „ 19 69 0-936.. 39 2-785.. 23 7777 „ 26 67 11-829.. 39 11-499.. 23 4-329 May 3 66 6.872.. 40 5-224.. 22 9 265 „ 10 67 7-264.. 40 39S2.. 23 10770 „ 17 63 9623.. 40 0793.. 23 5997 „ 24 69 2246.. 39 6405.. 23 10817 „ 31 08 2 443.. 33 11998.. 23 10410 June 7 67 9 8S3.. 38 7-159,. 24 3182 „ 14 68 1-353., 38 6505., 24 3562 „ 21 69 11-032,, 38 4938.. 24 7-390 „ 28 72 6-214., 38 5881 ,, 25 9.270 July 5 74 7-243.. 39 7-282,, 26 1-989 „ 12 76 3-519,, 40 29S5,, 24 11-304 „ 19 76 3-991.. 40 4-871,, 26 ir835 ,, 26 77 5136,. 41 9161,, 27 2-069 Aug, 2 77 10 569.. 42 7680 .. 27 9-847 „ 9 76 0642,, 43 3027.. 27 1-327 „ 16 71 0-223.. 43 7-515., 26 3-171 .. 23 68 9678.. 44 7870,. 27 11-314 „ 30 70 8-411,, 45 1-140.. 27 0-806 Sept. 6 73 2512.. 47 6-161.. 27 4-416 „ 13 69 6-814.. 46 8-980.. 25 10-178 „ 20 64 5-379., 45 10-143,. 27 2-819 ,. 27 64 4-879,. 43 10-193.. 26 7-360 53 weeks 3808 10-849. . 2079 2-306. . 1346 4-345 73 2-977 .. 39 11813 25 10-698 GLOUCESTERSHIRE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. MEETING AT GLOUCESTER, The aecoud annual exhibition of the newly amalgamated Bocieties of Gloucestershire, was held at Gloucester, on Wed- nesday and Thursday. The show this week has been pro- nounced by conspelent judges the best ever hcM in Gloucester, excepting of course that of the Koyal Society iu 1853. The display of cattle was superb, and a vast number of additional sheds had to be erected to provide the requisite accommoda- tion. There was, for Gloucester, an unusually large and fine display of sheep, as well as a very good show of poultry. The following is the award of the judges : — ShoaThorns and other Breeds, except Here- fords and Devons,— -For the best bull, above two yeai-s t id, £10, Mr. Thomas Morris, Maisemore ; for the second best, £5, Mr. J. H. Lacgatone, M.P., Sarsdon ; for tlie beat bull, above one and under two years old, £10, Mr. Kichard Stratton, Broad Hiuton; for the second best, £5, Earl Ducie; for the best bull, co-.v, and offspring, £10, Mr. Eichard Strat- ton J for the second best, £5, Mr. J. 11. Langstone, M.P. : thewhol': of this class ivas JiiyJily commended. For the best cow, in calt or in milk, £6, Mr. J. W. Brown, Liffcote ; for the second best, £3, Mr. R. Stratton. Mr. Langstone's cow was hir/Iily commended; Mr. Morris's commended. For the best pair of heifers, under three years old, bred by the exhibiter, £10, Mr. Richard Stratton; for the second best, £5, Mr. Edward Bowley, Siddington; for the best pair of breeding heifers, under two years old, bred by the exhibiter, £8, Mr. Richard Stratton. Society's Premium. For the second best, £4, Mr. J. W. Brown, Liffcote : tJie whole of this class teas commended. Herefords and Detons.— For the best bull, above two years old 10?., Mr. J. E. L. Hewer, jtiu., Vern House, Hereford; for the second best, 51., Mr. W. Taylor, Shewle- court. For the best bull, cow, and offspring-, 10/., Mr. Edward Price, Pembridge ; for the second best, 51., Mr. W. Taylor, Shewle-co;irt. For the best cow, iu calf or in milk, 61., Mr. James Ackers, Prinknash Park ; for the second best, 3/., Mr. John Smith, Sevenhampton, Andoversford. Mr. Powell's /lif/hly commended; the whole of this class commended. For the best pair of heifers, in calf or in milk, under three years old, lOZ., Mr. Walter Maybery, Brecon; fop the second best, 5Z., Mr. James Ackers, Priuknash Park. For the best pair of breeding heifers, under two years old, 8Z., Mr. Ackers ; for the second best, Al, Mr. W. Percy, Chelstey. Mr. Johu Smith's heifers, Sevenhampton, commended. Fat Cattle.— For the best fat steer, of any breed, 6^., Mr. Richard Stratton ; for the second best, 4Z,, Earl Ducie. Mr. W. Hewer's steers commended. For the best fat cow, having had a calf, Ql, Mr. Richard Stratton; second best, 4Z., Mr. Edffard Price. ^n-E^v.—Lowj-wools. — For the best ten breeding ewes, not more than thircy-flvc months old, lOZ., Mr. William Smith, Bibury ; for the second best, 5/., Mr. Beale Brown, Hanipen. The whole of this class commended. For the best ten hreeding theaves, not more than twenty-three months old, 10/., Mr. W. Smith, Bibury ; for the second best, 41., Mr. W. Slatter, Strat- ton. For the best ten ewe lambs, not more thau eleven months old, 51., Mr. W. Smith. Short Wools. — For the best five breeding ewes, not more than thirty-five months old, £5, the Duke of Beaufort ; for the second-best, £2 10s., Mr. Edward Holland ; for the best five breeding theaves, not more than twenty-three months old, £5, the Duke of Beaufort; for the second best, £2 10s. Mr. Hiomas Pope, Horningham. Cross-breed.— For or the best five breeding ewes, not more than thirty-five mouths old, £5, Mr. Charles Randell, Chadbury; for the best five breeding theaves, Mr. Charles Randell; second best, Mr. S. Davis, Sevenhampton. Fat Sheep.— Long Wool: For the best three-shear hog?, not more than twenty- three months old, £6, Mr. W. Slatter; for the second best, £3, Mr. W. Hewer; for the best three fat ewes, £5, Mr. Slatter : this class hifjhUj eommcnded. Fat Sueep. — CrcssBrced: For the best three-shear hogs, not more thau twenty-three mouths old, £6, Mr. Charles Hobbs, Maiseyhampton ; for the second best, £3, Mr. Samuel Davis, Sevenhampton. Pigs.— For the b-jst three fat pigs, of the same litter, £5, Mr. Jno. Beach, Redmarley ; for the best boar pig under a year old, £4, Mr. Thomas Blandford, Widhill ; for the best boar pig more thau a year old, £4, Mr. Thomas Pope, Hor- 48 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. J^ingham ; for the best three sow pigs, of the same litter, £3, Mr. Edward Drew, Calesti, Kingscote; for the best sow pig, £3, Mr. Edward Bowly. Horses. — For the best mare and foal for agricultural pur- poses, £S, Mr. Samuel Bidmead, Bisley ; for the second-best, £4, Mr. J. G. Attwater, Hallingwood Farm, near Cheltenham. For the best stallion for agricultural purposes, £10, Mr. R. Biddulph, Ledbury. For the best filly for agricultural pur- poses, £5, Mr. Samuel Bidmead ; for the second-best, £3, Edward Holland, M.P. Roots. — For the twelve best awede turnips, £1, Mr. William Surman, Maisemore ; Mr. William Moore, of Hanley Castle, and Richd. Stratton, hiylily commended, and Mr. C. Lawrence, commended. For the twelve best mangel-wurzel. £1, Mr. Richard Stratton. For the twelve best carrots, £1, Mr. Edward Bowley. For the twelve best cabbages, £1, Mr. Charles Lawrence, Cirencester. The carrots shown by Mr. J. C. Hayward, highly commended. Wheat. — For the best sack of white wheat, grown in the year 1856, £2 lOs., Mr. W. Surman. For the best sack of red wheat, ditto, £2 lOs., Mr. Thomas Morris, Maisemore. Cheese. — For the best cwt. of thick cheese, £5, Mr. John Ellis, Longdon; for the second-best ditto, £2 10s., Mr, Martin Neale, Berkeley ; the cheese shown by Mr. E. Leonard, of Dursley, commended. For the best cwt. of thin cheese, £5, Mr. John Harris, Dursley ; for the second-best ditto, £2 10s., Mr. Martin Neale. The cheese shown by Mr. Joah. Bailey, of Berkeley, commended. DRAINERS' SUPPER. Mr. Scott, estate and land agent, of 5, Charing Cross, having lately employed in the drainage of several estates, in the neighbourhood of Crawley, Sussex, a large number of men, gave 150 of them a supper on Saturday evening last, at three different houses, oS of them being presided over by himself at the Tanner's Inn, Staplefield, near Cuckfield. The estates drained by Mr. Scott in that imme- diate neighbourhood are those of D. Drakeford, Esq., G. Harrington, Esq., Capt. Cazelet, and C. Taylor, Esq. ; and the system he pursues is that of deep draining, four feet and upwards, at various distances, according to soil. He de- scribes the geological strata as the Hastings-sand formation, specially requiring deep draining from the prevalence of water resting on the subsoil. The principal obstruction he meets with, i^ from sandstone rocks, that rather inter- fere at times with the course of drains. It is greatly to his credit that he has principally employed local labourers in carrying out his works. In the evening Mr. Scott took the chair, and in his ad- dress said : As they had finished their work, he wished to address a few words to them before they parted. He said he had had 1 00 Sussex labourers employed under him, and highly complimented them for their readiness and skill ex- ercised in the performance of the work. He depended much on the accuracy of his pipelayers, and was pleased to say that one of the men so employed was a local man (Bristow), a trustworthy hand, and one he could depend on. He then went on to describe how, without care, drains in these soils become choked with sand, and showed the superiority of deep draining over shallow in this particular. He was convinced that deep draining was the thing, a fact that could be seen by the most casual observer who visited those estates where it had been done. A Labourer : We have seen enough, sir, to know that deep drainage is the best. Mr. Scott : I thank you for that obserA-ation, and I thank you all for the way in which you have done your work. He wislied the labouring men to think as he thought, and to act strictly up to his instructions, and then they could go on together in unity. He thought he ctiuld depend on "those he now addressed to carry out his work to the letter, for he believed they understood it ; and if they chose to follow him, he would endeavour to find them constant em- ployment. At the present time he had several hundred men and boys under him, and his payments for this week alone in that county amounted to £510. For five months in the year their chance of getting work was uncertain ; but if they came to him they should not want for work, and they knew they could earn good wages (cries of " We know that," " VVe will come^" and cheers). He had drained 100 acres for Mr. Taylor, at Ifield, in sixteen days, and many of them Avere at work there ; and he was much pleased to tell them the observations made by a lady: Mrs. Taylor said — " These labourers of yours act like gentlemen. 1 have watched them from my windows, early and late, and have not seen an improper action or heard an improper word ; not a man behind his time ; they come orderly and leave orderly ; and there is no going to the public-house at night." This was much to their credit, and he was highly gratified to hear it. It is said by some that the foundation of real agriculture is draining ; he was draining on his own account, and knew that it was the foundation of good farm- ing, the means of reclaiming soil so as to secure good crops, and the more corn grow-n the more labour was required on the land. In short, draining was the very beginning of good farming, for few fanners failed to follow it up with other improvements, which they could not have ventured upon with undrained land. Mr. Scott then gave some estimates of expenses, and showed the per-centage gained by a tenant after paying his landlord a per-centage on the outlay. All improving farmers found this payment the cheapest rent ; and they were now few and far between who were unwilling to have the work done for them on reasonable terms. He again promised the men employment if they would go with him, saying he had contracts on which he could employ 500, and wished it was 5,000, and so satisfied was he with their conduct and character that he would not wish to leave them ("Thank you, sir") He then alluded to the state of the land at Aldershot Camp. Twelve months ago he had offered to drain the camp-ground, and had again lately offered to drain 1 ,000 acres at £5 an acre, but no notice was taken of it ; and there have been our brave soldiers who fought at Sebastopol, lying in a quagmire that is undrained, subject to damps and cold, and to miasma. Is it not a shame to treat our brave fellows in this way.* (" It is.") Yes, men, it is; and yet in one week I could put on a thousand men, and lay the swamp dry. (cheers). Last year I drained the estate of the Hon. Mrs. Bathurst, adjoining Chobham Camp (where Lord Seaton, the general then in command, resided), and which is similar in soil to Aldershot ; and I know 1 could do the work for the money I have stated, and at once and for ever put an end to any more " Shivers from the Camp" appearing in the Times (laughter and cheers). The health of Mr. Scott was proposed, and drunk with three times three, some excellent remarks being made by a labourer. Mr. Scott returned thanks, and proposed the health of Mr. Norman, the superintendent, which was received with enthusiasm. Several other healths were drunk with the honours, including " The Press." The reporter, in acknow- ledging the toast, advised the labourers to take Mr. Scott's offer, telling them it was much better than getting back to the parish, as draining not only found them good einploj'- ment, but improved the land so as to insure increased work for all hands, should they wish again to recur to their old system of labour. After doing honour to the health of Mrs, Gard, the landlady, and family, the party broke up in good time and in good order. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49 THE SMITHFIELD CLUB FAT CATTLE SHOW. THE EXHIBITION OF STOCK. It is not our intention this yeai' to enter so much into detail as usual, in giving to our readers a general de- scription of the classes shown in competition for the prizes offered by the Smithfield Club, but we shall con- tent ourselves with a more general outline. We shall, however, endeavour to keep on the same straightfor- ward path we have hitherto trod. Before proceeding further, we may j ust notice the great extension in the operations of the Smithfield Club. In looking over the catalogue, one is struck with the great variety into which the classes have, since its establish- ment in 1798, become divided. This year it numbers 33 classes, besides those of extra stock ; and, as pros- pects of usefulness open out before the Club, the ex- tension is still further widened. Next year it pur- poses forming some additional classes — one for the Sussex breeds, another for the Polled Scots breeds, and some others. It has also been suggested that a separate class should be formed of the bci-t of all breeds. Of this we would merely say that the Club has, by their gold medals, done much to fill up this apparent requirement , and that exhibitors are very chary in their selection of the classes in which they desire to com- pete. The club has done wonders in developing the breeds of cattle, sheep, and pigs. It was not till the year 1803 that Mr. Western took the first prize won by a shorthorn — his black shorthorn cow. What posi- tion do they hold now ? Prior to that year the chief of the show consisted of Herefords and Devons ; and it was only by degrees that such extraordinary fatness has been obtained, particularly at an early stage in the animal's life. In 1800 it is said that his Mtijesty showed two oxen from his farm, which were much admired; but the complaint then was, that " the society pay much attention to an extraor- dinary degree of fatness, or these beasts would have had a good chance of carrying the prize from all com- petitors," his Majesty being too good a judge to throw money away for mere show. It is not mere show— we w^ant early development of every class of animals: the greater their propensity to grow and fatten, the more food they produce. CATTLE. Bevo.n's.— Class 1 : In this class are some beautiful animals, though not large. Mr. Fouracre's steer is very symmetrical, and evenly fed, and the flesh of excellent quality ; chine good, back not quite even, and sides rather flat; frame long and deep; rump long and full, liips too narrow, capital flank and ripping parts, breast-end good, large girth, twist full, and legs short; countenance very pleasing. His Royal Highness Prince Albert's steer is very compact, too small, but of fine quality of meat. Class 2 : In this class Mr. Heath shows a very complete, well-formed animal; his breast-end is not sufficiently prominent; his twist is good, but hips too near. Mr. Coates's steer is a good animal, beautifully fattened. Prince Albert's steer in this class is small, but very full in frame throughout, and of beautiful quality. The Earl of Leicester's steer has a well-lormed chine, good bosom, and full-out shoulder ; capital brisket ; neck rather thin. Mr. Senior's steer is of the good old-fashioned sort, deeply formed in body, but general frame thin, uneven, and bony. Class 3 : Mr. Tucker's heifer is not well-formed, but of excellent quality; her neck is rather too long and thin, breast full, ribs light, hips not full though broad, flank thin, fatted evenly. Mr. Farthing's heifer has a capital hind-quarter, rather light fore-quarter, but the bosom is good. In class 4 his Royal Highness Prince Albert's cow exhibits a very deep frame on short legs ; twist very good, and back well covered ; chine not broad enoiigh ; and girth not sufficiently expanding. Mr. Ford's cow is very com- pact and cylindrical in frame, deep and full; neck thin ; flank light ; her back is very good, hips well out, and good loin ; udder very fat. Herefords. — Class 5: In this class Mr. Heath shows a very complete steer, capable of great expansion in every point : he ought to be kept till next show. Mr. Aldworth's steer has a beautifully-developed frame, good throughout ; he is very handsome, and deeply ribbed, though his flesh is rather loose. In Class 6 Mr. Naylor's ox carries off the prize : he is exceed- ingly well formed, and evenly fed ; has very broad hips ; full purse, not good ; twist not good ; flank slight; imder part deficient; his whole top superb; he is deep through the chine, and has a good bosom ; girth, 8 ft. 7 in. Mr. Heath's ox is very fat, and un- evenly fed, but his flesh is firm ; his frame is deeply formed, with capital breast end ; back fat, with a deep accidental indent upon it; girth, 9 ft. 2 in. ; his purse is very good. Mr. Webster's ox has a well-formed top ; his frame rather deep, and he has a good purse ; but his whole frame is too narrow. Mr. Aldworth's ox deserves mention : his legs are short, but his frame is good, being deeply formed and well fed. Class 7 : Mr. Pleath's heifer is an extraordinary animal ; as- tonishing teats; capital hips, flanks, and thighs, and good level back ; chine and shoulder-top not quite full enough; breast-end good and full: Mr. Pitt's heifer stands on short legs ; her frame is exceedingly good, breast extra good, and twist capital. In Class 8 Mr. Herbert shows a very good cow, which took first prize at Birmingham : she pos- sesses a long frame, of cylindrical form ; extraor- dinary tuts; good round hips, and wide; capital D 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. top tbroiigliout; cliiiie ralher slight comparatively, and ribs rather flat ; brisket somewhat scant, as is also her under-parts; live weight, 1 ton 1|- cwt. ; estimated dead weight, 18 scores per quarter. Mr. Duffield's cow has a nice level frame, and is well fed. Mr. Allington's old cow (13 years 5 months) has made herself fat, particularly on her chine. Shokthorns. — Class 9 : The Duke of Beaufort, as at Birmingham, is again successful with his beau- tiful [steer. He is kindly-looking, with very hand- some frame, but he denotes far greater expansion than he now possesses; he has fatted very evenly; the frame, as a whole, is rather too narrow or light for a first-class animal, and would answer fully "making up"; he should be kept longer. Mr. Duflield's steer is in capital form, and his under- neath part good; as also his flank, tuts, hips, and ribs ; his back fair, but not first-rate. The Marquis of Exeter's steer is a handsome animal, and will come up •well next year ; for which purpose, as we understand, he returns back. The Earl of Radnor's steer is also very handsome, and well " got up." Mr. Hewer's steer is lar^e, but not in good form. Mr. John Over- man's steer has a very deep frame, and is complete in form, but rather short ; he is the model of a capital shorthorn steer. Sir W. Booth's steer possesses great merit, but is not according to modern taste, being too long, high, and narrow in frame. In Class 10, Mr. Stratton shows a very capital ox ; he is quite a first- class animal, but not so handsome as some of former years, with which, from his prominent position, we would compare him ; he has an extraordinary full and promi- nent breast; deep in girth; chine rather plain; shoulders well formed, and thrown admii'ably out ; loin z'ather high ; good full and fat purse ; his girth is 9 ft. 1 in., and estimated weight 22 scores jier quarter. Mr." Betts shows a very handsome ox, of almost perfect symmetry; his head and horns fine, and kindly looking ; general frame truly cylin- drical, of large, deep proportions ; he is rather short and compact, and stands low; he is a beauti- ful roan ; girth, 9 ft. 1 in. ; he has fatted very evenly. Sir John T. Tyrell's ox is a very noble ani- mal, with capital forequarters. The Marquis of Exeter's ox is exceedingly well fed ; flesh admirably firm. ; but he is somewhat out of form in his back. Mr. Thomp- son's ox stands high, has good hips and tuts, and is large for his age, Mr. Gosling's ox is a great beauty, with fine level back, and good frame; he ought to be kept another year. This is a very good class, and worthy of commendation. Class 11 : Mr.. Armstrong's heifer has a very complete full frame, on short legs, and stands wide; flank rather light and thin. His Royal Highness Prince Albert's heifer is exceedingly well and evenly fed, and is true in frame, deep and full throughout ; flank too thin perhaps. Mr. Phillips's heifer has a capital top, good breast, and good hips. Sir Hugh Hoare shows a very small, dwarfish, short- horn heifer (we "were told), very compact : comj^are this little shorthorn with Mi-. Thompson's steer, what a contrast! Class 12 : Mr. Stratton is again success- ful, with a most beautiful cow, both in colour and frame; a deep symmetrical form throughout; head and horns good, with a very handsome countenance ; her chine and neck are both slightly defective, being rather too fine in proportion to her general frame, but in every other respect she is nearly jjerfect; stands wide, and is noble-looking. The Earl Spencer shows a capital cow, with good hips, and large heavy tuts, good chine and back, and she is well fed, but her gene- ral form is not truly good. Mr. Phillips shows a very extraordinary cow, with full well-fed frame, compact and of deep cylindrical form throughout ; her very form denotes great weight and substance ; she possesses great merit, and is of beautiful colour; her width and proportions are truly good. Scotch or Irish. — Class 13 : The Duke of Beau- fort's West Highland ox possesses a very deep and handsome frame. Mr. A. Campbell's ox has a long good frame, and is deep in form. Mr. Stewart's ox is a very large and fine animal. Class 14 : Mr. A. Camp- bell's heifer is a pretty little ci'eature, of first-rate quality. Mr. Knowles shows an inferior animal in this class — a bad animal for any class. Welsh.— Class 15 : Sir R. B. W. Bulkcley shows a very good Welsh ox, but he is narrow in chine and back, deep in rib but not springing, sides flat. Mr. Williams's ox is of similar conformation : the breed, we think, might be greatly improved in frame by a cross from the Highland breed. Class 16 : Mr. B. E. Ben- nett shows a very good Welsh cow, of similar conforma- tion to the Welsh oxen, but better in chine. Other Pore Breeds. — Classl7: Mr.Gurney'sox (Norrolkpo]led)possesses a capital frame. Mr. Ncamcs's ox is a very good specimen of the true Sussex breed, possessing a deep well-formed frame, with quality of flesh equal to the Devon ox. Mr. Cox's ox denotes similar good proportions, as does that of Mr. Bolting's. ClasfslS: In this class Messrs. Gorringe show a first class animal, an extraordinary Sussex cow, deep in frame, compact and symmetrical throughout; h(r twist and tuts good and full. Mr. Cox shows a capital specimen of the old longhorn ; this cow has a good forequartcr, loin and hips slight, but twist and tuts good. Col. Wyndham shows a good Sussex cow; Mr. Cane also shows a good Sussex cow ; both worthy of favourable mention. Cross or Mixed Breeds. — Class 19: Mr. Niblett shows a shorthorn and Hereford steer; a heavy animal, but not true in frame. Mr. Overman's Ayr- shire and shorthorn is of good quality of flesh, but is an ordinary animal. Class 20 : Mr. J. S. Bult's ox in this class is of deep frame, broad and full throughout. Mr. Naylor's is a capital cross of Scotch and Hereford, as is also the animal shown by Col, Pennant — a West ! Highland and shorthorn, Mr. Stewart's shorthorn and > Aberdeen is a happy combination, being very large and | heavy. Class 21 : Mr. Cantrell's cow has a good frame, with firm hand. Extra Stock Class : Mr. Cox shows a good long-horn cow, said to be a cross-bred one. Mr, R. Bunter shows a steer without merit. Why? The stewards should have discretion, and use it in re- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 51 fusing atlmission to common ordinary animals into this splendid annual exhibition, or it may be made an annual market-place. Mr. John Overman shows a very good ox in this class, large and deep in frame ; and the Duke of Beaufort exhibits a beautiful West Highland ox, of deep frame, and excellent quality, well worthy of honourable mention. In our examination of these classes, we came to the conclusion that the Club Show had by no means declined in public estimation, and that the competition in the cattle classes was highly cre- ditable. The Devons are well represented j more substance, perhaps less beauty, than in some years past. Herefords, as a whole, are equal to former years ; but no individual animal stands so prominent as to be put into competition with the best of some bygone year, though still highly commendable, and well worthy the Club's best efforts to sustain the breed in all its valuable qualities. The shorthorns are numerous and very good. Mr. Stratton's comes nearly up to the best of any year; and many other animals in these classes possess extra- ordinary merit. There are also animals in most of these classes we hope to see again : they are not yet fully de- veloped. It is very desirable that they should be ex- hibited at an early age in a matured stage, but it is wrong to destroy them before their time, ere we have an opportunity to adjudge their full merit. We were pleased to find some animals are to be reserved for such purpose, so as to test hereafter their full capabilities. SHEEP. LoNG-WooLLED BREEDS (Pens of Three). — Class •22 . Mr. Walmsley exhibits a pen of very superior animals, equal to our best years; they possess beautiful forms, very full in almost every point, with admirable looks ; their rumps are rather short, but their hips and loins are wide, thighs and legs good, chines broad, plaits remarkably heavj, girtli great, necks good and full, with very ample chest, and deep through from chine, stand wide and well ; they have large frames on fine legs; wool fine, and matches well; loins not deeply covered. Mr. Bradshaw's pen possesses nearly equal quality and symmetry, but are not so large ; their offal rather finer; wool somewhat heavier; they are very handsome. Mr. Williams's pen are the heaviest-woolled Leicestersthat have been shown for some years, and the quality of mutton is good. Mr. Foljambe's three are very complete ; full and handsome in every point, quite jin character with his well-known flock. The Marquis jof Exeter's pen denote much character and profitable hittention. Mr. Twitchel's are good, and deserve notice, lis do several other pens in this class. Class 23 : Mr. Bradshaw's three arc more symmetrical and handsome •than his other lot, with very fine offal. Lord Berners Uhows an excellent pen of sheep in this class, as are those jshown by Mr. Capell Brooke. Some other pens in this plass are very commendable. ■ LoNG-wooLi.ED Sheep, not Leicesters. — plass 24 : Mr, Slatter's sheep are fair specimens of he Cotswold breed, as are those shown by Mr. Ilcwer. Extra Stock : JVothing worthy of extra notice in this class of sheep, though many very good animals were shown, principally by the same breeders as in the for- mer classes. Cross Breeds. — Class 25 : Mr. C. Howard's pen is of extra size, and have good deep frames, with plenty of wool, and fair quality of mutton. Mr. Overman's lot are of superior quality in mutton, and have good frames ; the wool fine : this pen, good as they are, do not quite equal those shown by the same exhibitor in former years. Mr. Twitchel's lot are very large, but not good in hand. Class 26. — Mr. Overman's sheep in this class are very handsome, and good in quality. The Earl of Leicester's pen are very good, and de- serving especial notice. Extra Stock : Mr. Hine's is a good compact sheep, with excellent mutton. Lord Berners also shows a good animal in this class. SiiORT-wooLLED BREEDS. — Class 27 : The Duke of Richmond takes first prize in this class. The pen is a very superior one. The form of the sheep is nearly perfect, but in some respects they have been slightly improved in appearance by judicious management; their frames are deep and well formed, full, and broad throughout, but they are not very large ; tliey denote good condition, and great inclination to fatten ; they have full, broad backs, and loins well covered ; their rumps are rather short ; but have wide hips, and deep, full thighs and flanks, capital plaits, chines, and chest ; necks full and short — this is a decided improvement in his Grace's flock : their looks are very handsome, wool heavy, and of excellent quality, offal fine. They surpass those of former years, from his Grace's well-known flock. The Lord Walsingham takes second prize, and we think for a pen of equally good, and probably more profitable, sheep, being- larger in frame ; they are exceedingly good, and prove well under careful examination ; they are longer in frame than their competitors, stand rather higher, have wider and as good backs, rumps longer and better, and are heavier animals, with equal quality of mutton ; their wool is finer, their necks somewhat too long, and rather thin, looks very handsome and good ; frames, as a whole, perhaps not compact enough ; offal fine. Mr. Rigden's pen are rather smaller, but denote beautiful qualities; their thighs and backs are ex- ceedingly good, and their whole appearance very hand- some. Mr. Hayward's, denoting beautiful quality in every respect, are rather smaller. Mr. Kent's are a superior lot, and possess great symmetry and beauty. Class 28 : The Duke of Richmond is again successful in this class ; the sheep are precisely of the same cha- racter, but rather smaller than those in Class 27. The same remark will apply to the other exhibitors. Lord Walsingham's are rather larger in proportion. Mr. Rigden's and Mr. Hayward's are similar; the latter of greater beauty and symmetry. Mr. Fol- jambe's also deserve especial notice. Class 29 : The Duke is again successful with a pen of very superior animals, of similar contour, but much larger proportions throughout. Lord Walsingham's and Mr. Kent's are also exceedingly good ; and Mr. Rigden's are in character as before. Class 30 : Mr. King's D 2 52 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sheep are very large, but not handsome, heads and oifal coarse and heavy ; their weights alive 3081bs., 2871bs., and 2851bs. respectively. Mr. Canning's pen are very large, of great substance, but not much wool. Extra Stock : Mr. Rigden's ewe is very complete and beautiful. The Duke of Richmond's wether is a first- class animal. Lord Walsingham has another good sheep here ; as has also Mr. Kent. Mr. H. Overman shows a large good ewe in this class. In review, we think the majority of the sheep classes have informer years been better represented, but in one or two of the Down classes they are fully equal to former years. The show of sheep, as a whole, is very superior, and highly creditable to the Club's efforts to improve the breeds of all kinds of sheep likely to produce the greatest amount of food for the community. PIGS. Class 31: In the Pig classes we have not much to notice. Mr. Coate is again a successful exhibitor in two classes. Mr. Williams, Mr. Hall, Mr. Biddel, and the Rev. John Holmes are the other successful ex- hibitors, and, with one or two partial exceptions, the stock shown have been all of the small breed. Mr. Holmes's was the largest pen of three ; their estimated weight 38 stones of 141bs. each. Mr. Crisp also ex- hibited a very fine sow of the small breed, weighing alive 7 cwt. 2 qrs. B^lbs. He was offered, in our hearing, £19 10s. for her by a butcher. His Royal Highness Prince Albert, the Earl of Radnor, Sir John Cathcart, Bart., Lady Pigot, Stewart Marjori- banks, Samuel Druce, and other well-known men, exhibited some very fine animals, which our limited space foi'bids us to notice more at length. The Club is just now much pressed to open classes for other breeds of cattle, and a committee is appointed to take the subject into consideration, and to mature a plan for that purpose. We would also suggest to this committee the necessity of including other breeds of sheep into their consideration. We should like to see the Cheviot, the Exmoor, and the mountain breeds represented here. The Society has long ceased to favour any particular breed of animals ; and we there- fore commend these breeds of sheep to their especial attention, as worthy of that encouragement such an acknowledgment would naturally afford. AWARD OF PRIZES. FAT CATTLE. JUDGES. Mr. J. BoDLEY, Stockley Pomeroy, Crediton, Devon. Mr. W. F. HoBBS, Boxted Lodge, Colchester. Mr. Charles Stokes, Kingstou, Kegworth, Notts. DEVONS. Devon Steers, not exceeding 3 years old. First prize, £25, and Silver Medal as breeder — Mr. Thomas White Fouracre, Durston, Taunton. Purchased by Mr. Bar- ton, Basingstoke. Second, £10 — His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Pur- chased by Mr. Jeffery, Foubert's place, Kegent-street. Highly commended — Mr. William Heath, I,udham Hall, Norwich. Devon Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old. First prize, £25, and the Gold Medal, as the best steer or ox in any of the classes — Mr. William Heatb, Ludham. Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. John Passmore, Bishop's Nympton, South Molton. Purchased by Messrs. C. aud G. Davies, Black Bull, New Cattle Market. Second, £10— Mr. John Coate, Haramoon, Blandford. Pur- chased by Mr. Oxley, Richmond-ro?d, Bays water. Eiglily commended— Uia Royal Highness Prince Albert. Purchased by Mr. Jetfery, Foubert's-place, Regent-street. Commended — Lord Leicester, Holliham, Norfolk. Pur- chased by Mr. Stevens, Oxford. Devon Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old. First prize, £15— Mr. John Tucker, Yard Farm, Staple- grove, Taunton. Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. Thomas Chard, Haydon, Taunton. Purchased by Mr. Stuckey, Not- tinghill. Second, £5— Mr. Robert Farthing, Farriugton Farm, North Pethertou, Bridgewater. Purchased by Mr. W. C. Saunders, Corner of Half Acre, Old Brentford. Devon Cows, above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf. First prize, £20 — Mr. John Ford, Jun., Rushton, Blandford (7 years old, had three calvts). Silver Medal to the breeder — Lord Portman, Bryanstone, Blandford. Second, £10 — His Royal Highness Prince Albert (7 years old, had 4 calves). Purchased by Mr. Charles Framptou, Wimborne, Dorset. Coynmended — Mr. John Dawbiu, Stawell, Bridgewater. Purchased by Mr. J. T. Burge, Bristol. [Only three entries.] HEREFORD S. UjiREFORD Steers, not exceeding 3 years old. First prize, £25— Mr. William Heath, Ludham. Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. Samuel Walker Urwick, Lullow. Second, £10 -Mr. William Aldworth, Frilford, Abiugdon. Purchased by Mr. Robert Greening, Oxford. llirjhly commended — Mr. Isaac Niblelt, Brood Street, Bristol. Purchased by Mr. J. T. Burge, Bristol. The whole class commended. Hereford Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old. First prize, £25 — Mr. John Naylor, Leighton Hal), Welsh- pool. Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. Walter Maybery, Brtcou. Second, £10 — Mr. William Heath, Ludham. Purchased by Mr. S. Munn, Croydon, Surrey. Highly commended — Mr. AVilliam Aldworth, Frilford, Ab- iugdon. Purchased by Mr. Robert Greeniujf, Oxford. Commended — Mr. James Webster, Peakirk, Market Deeping. Purchased by Mr. Blishen, Kingston, Surrey. Hereford Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old. First prize, £13— Mr. William Heath, Ludham. Silver Medal to the breeder — Jvlr. William Tudge, Ashford, Ludlow. Second, £5 — Mr. George Pitt, Chadnoi Court, Leominster. Purchased by Mr. J. M. Smith, Westbury, Wilts. Hereford Cows, above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf. First prize, £20— Mr. Edmund Herbert, Powick, Worcea^ ter (6 years old, had four calves). Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. Daniel Burnett, White House, Turnastou, Hereford Purchased by Mrs. Patrick, Worcester. Second, £10— Mr. Charles DufReld, Marcham Park, Abing. don (4 years old, had one calf). Purchased by Mr. Copeland Abingdou, Commended — Mr. Henry Abingdon, Little Barford, St, Neots. [Only three entries.] SHORT- HORNS. Short-horned Steers, not exceeding 3 years old. First prize, £25 — The Duke of Beaufort, Badminton. Silver M';dal to the breeder — Mr. George Sainsbury, The Priory, Corsham. Second, £10— Mr. Charles DufSeld, Marcham. Highly commended — The Earl of Radnor, Coleshill House, Highworth. Commended — Mr. John Overman, Burnham Sutton, Burn- ham Market. Purchased by Mr. Isaac Suape, Three Colt- street, Limehouse, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 53 Short-horned Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old. First prize, £25, aud Silver Med.il ag breeder — Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton, Swindou. Second, £10 -Mr. E. L. Belts, Preston Hall, Maidstone. Purchased by Messrs. Dear and Burkett, West-street, Maid- stone. Highly commended— Mr. John B. Twitchell, Wilby, North- ampton. Purchased by Mr. Death, Victoria-road, Pimlico. Commended— Mr. Robert Lynn, Stroxton, Grantham. Pur- chased by Mr. Blaukley, Brampton, Hunts. Short-iiorned Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old. First prize, £15— Mr. John Armstrong, Palterton, Chester- field, Derby. Silver Medal to the breeder— Executor of the late H. Champion, Ranbey House, Retford, Notts. Second, £5 — His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Pur- chased by Mr. Lawrance, Windsor. JJigJdy commended— Mr. Charles Duffield, Marcham. Commended — Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardington, Wantage. Short- horned Cows, above 4 years old, that must have had at least one live calf. First prize, £20, Silver Medal as breeder, and Gold Me- dal as the best heifer or cow in any of the classes — Mr. Richard Stratton, Hinton (5 years old, had two calves). Second, £10— The Eatl Spencer, Althorp Park, Northamp- ton (6 years old, had one calf). Purchased by Mr. Francis Spiucer, Southampton. Highly commended— Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardington, Scotch or Irish Steers or Oxen, of any age. First prize, £20 — The Duke of Beaufort, Badmington. Second, £5 — Rev. Joseph Arkwright, Mark Hall, Harlot, Essex. Purchased by Mr. Ferris, Bath. Highly commended— Mr. Alexander Campbell. Purchased by Mr. John Gibbs, Leamington Spa. Scotch or Irish Heifers or Cows, of any age. The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — Mr. Alexan- der Campbell, Monzie Castle, Crieff, Perth. Purchased by Mr. John Gibbs, Leamington Spa. Welsh Steers or Oxen (Runts), of any age. First prize, £20— Sir R. B. W. Bulkeley, Bart., Baron Hill. Beaumaris. Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. Hugh Jones, Bodfeirig, AberlTraw, Anglesey. Purchased by Mr. Smith, King's-road, Chelsea. Second, £5 — Mr. William Williams, Plasgwju, Pentraeth, Anglesey. Purchased by Mr. T. B. Gardener, West Brompton. Welsh Heifers or Cows, of any age. The prize, £10— Mr. B. E. Bennett, Marston Trussell Hall, Theddingworth, Northampton. Silver Medal to the breeder-— 0«'en Owens, Briant, Menai Bridge, Anglesey. Purchased by Mr. Thomas Johnson, Bermondaey. Steers or Oxen, of any pure breed (except Devons, Here- fords, Short-horns, and Scotch, Welsh, or Irish), of any age. The prize, £10 — Mr. Robert Neame, Hernhill, Feversham, Kent. Silver Medal to the breeders — Messrs. Charles Neame and Sons (Sussex), Purchased by Mr. Alfred Curling, Fever- sham, Kent. Highly commended — Mr. Thomas Barton, Bexhill, Battle (Sussex). Purchased by Mr. G. Wellard, Hastings. Commended — Mr. William Thomas Cox, Spondon Hal), Derby (Long-horn) ; purcliased by Mr. George Page, Cross- street, Hoxton New Town. Mr. William Botting, of West- mestou Place, near Hurstperpoint (Sussex) ; purchased by Mr. H. Tupper, Brighton. Heifers or Cows, of any pure breed (except Devons, Here- fords, Short-horns, and Scotch, Welsh, or Irish), of any age. The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeders — Messrs. J. and P. Gorringe, Tilton, Selmeston, Jjcwes (Sussex). Pur- chased by Mr. Sharp, Western-road, Brighton. Highly commended — Mr. Edward Cane, Berwick Court, Lewes (Sussex). Purchased by Mr. Whittakcr, York. Commended — Mr. Josiah Pitcher, Westham, Eastbourne (Sussex). Cross or Mixed-bred Steers, not exceeding 3 years old. The prize, £15— Mr. Isaac Niblett, Bristol. Silver Medal to the breeder — Mr. Thomas Lockley Meire, Cound Harbour, Shrewsbury (Short-horn aud Hereford). Purchased by Mr. Banks, St. Neots. Commended — Mr. John Overman, Burnham (Short-horu and Ayrshire). Purchased by Mr. W. Lawrance, Isleworth. Cross or Mixed-bred Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old. The prize, £15— Mr. J. S. Bult, Dodhill House, Taunton. Silver Medal to the breeder. Rev. W, Bernard, Clatworthy, Wiveliscombe (Shorthorn and Devon). Purchased by Mr, Wm. Smith, 85, Southernhay, Exeter. Highly commended — Mr. John Naylor, Leighton (Scot and Hereford). Purchased by Mr, Wm. Buukall, Downham, Norfolk. Commended — Honourable Colonel Pennant, Penrhyn Castle, Carnarvon (West Highland and Shorthorn). Purchased by Mr. CoUings, Devizes. Cross or Mixed-Bred Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old. The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder— Mr. C. S. Cantrell, jun.. Riding Court, Datchet, Bucks (.Shorthorn and Hereford). Purchased by Mr. Whittaker, York. SHEEP, LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS. Judges. Mr. J. Bodley, Stockley Pomeroy, Crediton, Devon. Mr. W. F. HoBBS, Boxted Lodge, Colchester. Mr. Charles Stokes, Kingston, Kegworth, Notts. Fat Wether Sheep, of any Long-woolled breed, 1 year old (under 22 months). First prize, £20, Silver Medal as breeder, and Gold Medal for best pen of Long-woolled Sheep in any of the classes— Mr. George Walrasley, Rudston, Bridlington, York. Purchased by Mr. J. Saunders, 11, Adam-row, Hampstead-road. Second, £10— Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, Burley-on-the-Hill, Oakham, Rutland. Purchased by Messrs. Wellbeloved, Kelly, and Dartnell, Welworth. Third, £5— Mr. G. S. Foljambe, Osberton Hall, Worksop, Nottingham. Purchased by Mr. J. Saunders, New-street, Brompton. Fat Wether Sheep, of any Long-woolled breed, 1 year old (under 22 months). Each Sheep not to exceed 220 lbs. live weight. First prize, £20— Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, Burley. Silver medal to the breeder — Mr. R. L. Bradshaw, Tinwell, Stam- ford. Purchased by Mr. Wm. Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Regent- street. Second, £10— Lord Berners. Purchased by Mr. Oxley, Richmond-road, Bayswater. Third, £5— Mr. William de Capell Brooke, Geddington Grange, Northampton. Purchased by Mr. S. Lane, Luton, Beds. Fat Wether Sheep, of any Long-woolled breed (not Lei- cesters), 1 year old (under 22 months). The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder— Mr. William Slatter, Stratton, Cirencester, Gloucester (Cotswold). Pur- chased by Mr. Greenwood, Bagnigge Wells-road. Long and Short-woolled Cross-bred Fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old (under 22 months). First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder— Mr. Charles Howard, Biddenham (Down and Cotswold). Purchased by Mr, John Stevens, Oxford. Second, £5— Mr. John Overman, Burnham. Purchased by Mr. King, Western-road, Brighton. Highly commended— Mr. John B. Twitchell, Wilby (Down, Cotswold, aud Leicester). Purchased by Mr. J. Crook, High- street, Hoxton. Commended— Mr. Thomas Barton, Threxton, Watton, Nor- folk (Southdown and Leicester). Purchased by Mr. Edward Bassett, Crown-court, St. James'. Long and Short-woolled Cross-bred Fat Wether Sheep, 1 year old (under 22 months). Each Sheep not to exceed 220 lbs. live weight. The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder— Mr. John Overman, Burnham (Southdown and Leicester), Purchased by Mr. Wm, Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Regent-street. 64 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Higlily commencled — Ths Earl of Leicester (Southdown and Leicester). Purchased by Messrs. C. & G. Davis, Black Bull, New Cattle Market. SHORT-WOOLLED BREEDS. Judges. Mr. A. Denman, Stoneham, Lewes. Mr. W. Symonds, Milborne St. Andrews, Blandford. Mr. R. Woodman, Glynde, Lewes. (These gentlemen also oflSciated as Judges of Cross-bred Sheep.) Fat Wether Sheep, of any Short-wooUed breed, 1 year old (under 22 months). First prize, £20, Silver Medal as breeder, and Gold Medal for the best pen of one year old short-wooUed sheep — The Duke of Richmond, Goodwood, Chichester. Purchased by Mr. King, 12, Paddington-street. Second, £10— Lord Walsingham, Merton Hall, Thetford. Purchased by Mr. Wm. Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Regeut- Strect. Commended — Mr. John Kent, Goodwood, Sussex. Pur- chased by Mr. Turpin, Uxb ridge. Fat Wether Sheep, of any Short-wooUed breed, 1 year old (under 22 months). Each Sheep not to exceed 200 lbs. live weight. The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — The Duke of Richmond. Purchased by Mr. King, Paddington-street. HigJily commended — Lord Walsingham. Purchased by Messrs. Comfort and Son, 77, Farringdon-street. Fat Wether Sheep, of any Short-wooUed breed, 2 years old (above 22 and under 34 months). First prize, £20, and Silver Medal as breeder— The Duke cf Richmond. Purchased by Mr. King, 12, Paddington-street. Second prize, £10 — Mr. Wm. Rigden, Hove, Brighton. Purchased by Mr. Davy, Brighton. Higlily commended — Lord Walsingham. Purchased by Mr. Alfred Gorton, Great Wmdmill-street, Haymarket. Commended — Mr. John Kent. Purchased by Mr. John Stephens, Oxford. Fat Wether Sheep, of any Short-wooUed breed (not South- downs), 1 year old (under 22 months). The prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — Mr. William King, New Hayward Farm, Hungerford, Berks (West Country Downs). Purchased by Mr. Wm. Jefl'ery, Foubert's-place, Regent- street. Highly commended — Mr. W. Brown Conning, Chisledon, Swindon (West Country Downs). Purchased by Mr. Wra. Botterill, Rochester-iow, Westminster. PIGS. Judges. Mr. A. Denman, Stoneham, Lewea. Mr. W. Symonds, Milborne St. Andrews, Blandford. Mr. R. Woodman, Glynde, Lewes. Pigs of any breed, above 13 and not exceeding 26 weeks old. First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — Mr. J. V. Williams, Haygrove Farm, Bridgewater, Somerset (Improved Leicester.) Purchased by Mr. John Lewis, Bristol. Second, £3 — Mr. Richard Hall, Kingsbury Green, The Hyde, Middlesex (Kingsbury Small). Purchased by Mr. Bonny, Camberwell Gate. Highly commended — His Royal Hischness Prince Albert (Windsor). Purchased by Mr. Game, Canuon-street, City. Pigs of any breed, above 28 and not exceeding 52 weeks old. First prize, £10 — Mr. John Coate, Hammoon, Blandford (Tnproved Dorset). Silver Medal to the breeder, Mr. James j iilcher, Jun, Fovaat, Salisbury, Wilts. Purchased by Mr. John Lewis, Bristol. Second, £5— Mr. Manfred Biddell, Playford, Ipswich (Suf- folk).- Purchased by Mr. Garland, O.vford Market. Highly commended — Mr. Samuel Druce, Eynsham, Oxon (Improved Oxford). Purchased by Mr. H. Castle, 5, Wellis- row. West Brompton. Pigs of any breed, above 12 and under 18 mouths old. Firit prize, £10, Silver Medal ai breeder, and Gold Medal for the best pen of Pigs in any of the classes— Mr J. Coate, Hammoou (Improved Dorset). Pnrchased by Mr. Hodges, High-street, Netting Hill. Second, £S — Rev. John Holmes, Brooke Hall, Norwich (Berkshire and Norfolk). Purchased by Mr. Wm. Gough, 22, Harrow-road, Paddington. Highly commended — Mr. Thomas de la Rue, Drayton Hall, West Drayton (Essex), purchased, by Mr. Meidner, 2, Duke- street, Chelsea; and Mr. Stewart Marjoribanks, Buahey Grove, Watford (Improved Bushey), purchased by Mr. George Wood, 24, Clipatone-street, Fitzroy-squars. EXTRA STOCK. Silver Medal, for the best Beast in extra stock — The Duke of Beaufort (West Highland), Purchased by Mr. Thomas Pawsey, Bath. Silver Medal, for the best Long-wooUed Wether Sheep in extra stock — Mr. George Walmsley, Rudstone, Bridlington (Leicester). Purchased by Mr. F. W. Wood, Notting Hill Gate. Silver Medal, for the best Long-wooUed Ewe in extra stock — Mr. George Walmsley. Purchased by Mr, H. Parker, Great Suffolk-street, Borough. Silver Medal, for the best Cross-bred Sheep in extra stock — Mr. George Hine, jun., Oakley, Bedford (Leicester and Down). Purchased by Mr. T. Eggar, Erith, Kent. Silver Medal, for the best Short-woolled Wether Sheep in extra stock— The Duke of Richmond. Purchased by Mr, King, 12, Paddington-street. Silver Medal, for the best Short-woolled Ewe in extra stock — Mr. William Rigden. Purchased by Mr. King, Brighton. Silver Medal, for the best Pig in extra stock — Mr. John Holdway, Weston, Somerset (Essex). Highly commended in extra stock — Lord Berners' Leicester Ewe, purchased by Mr, F. Langford, 21, James-street, Oxford-street ; Mr. J. Overman's cross-bred Wether, pur- chased by Mr. Sherley, Queen's-terrace, St. John's Wood; and Mr. Marjoribanks' improved Bushey Pig, purchased by Mr. George Stone, Watford, Herts. Specially commended — Lord Walsingham's Southdown Wether. Purchased by Mr. Wm. Stimpson, Wandsworth. Commended — Lord Berner's Down and Leicester Wether, and Mr. Cookes' Improved Dorset Pig. Purchased by Mr, Reed, 19, Marchmont-street, Brunswick- square. THE ANNUAL DINNER Of the Smithfield Club took place on Wednesday evening, at the Freemasons' Tavern, Great Queen-street — the Duke of Richmond, President of Club, ia the chair, supported by, amongst others. Vice- Chancellor Kindersley and Messrs. C. Barnett, R. Milward, H. Wilson, H. Brandreth, R. W. Baker, Professor Simonds, Brandreth Gibbs (Hon. Secretary), Jonas Webb, J. S. Turner, Fisher Hobbs, T. Greetham, B. E. Ben- nett, W. Sauday, W. Hole, E. Pope, W. Torr, J. Hudson (Castleacre), J. Wood (Chairman of the Central Farmers' Club), W. Baker (Cbristchurch), W. Rigden, H. Fookes, J. Druce, C. Honard, G.P.Tuxford, H. Corbet, R. Stratton, Wil- more, Heath, Coate, Phillips, &c., &c. Grace having been sung by the professional singers engaged. The Chairman said he had to express his deep regret that on this occasion her Majesty and her illustrious Consort had been unable to attend their show-yard as usual. He W8s sure that her Majesty took the same lively interest as ever in the success of the Club ; and it was only in consequence of the death of a near and dear relative, which prevented her Majesty from at present appearing in public, that they had been deprived of her Majesty's presence iu their show-yard From the day that her Majesty came to the throne of her an- cestors, she had shown how deeply she sympathised with all classes of her subjects. She had not been satisfied with re- ports that the welfare of the soldiers who had returned from the Crimea was properly attended to, but she had visited the men in hospital — she had soothed the suffering, and taken every opportunity to show how deeply she had their welfare at THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 55 heart. Might God long preserve the life of Queen Victoria he was sure was the prayer of every gentleman present. He begged to give them " The Queeu " (cheers). The Chairman said, the next toast he had to propose was "The Health of H.R.H. Prince Albert, Albert Prince of Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family." They were all aware that his Royal Highness had for many years been in the hahit of sending stock to their show. This year he had not been quite so successful as usual, but he was sure that the support which be had given this and similar institutions was of the greatest value. The Chairman : I now rise to propose "The Army and Navy of England," and I am quite sure you will receive that toast in the manner which it deserves. We are all aware of the deeds of heroism which our armies have per- formed when called upon to risk their lives in the service of their country; but m no instance has their bravery been more conspicuous than during the late war in the Crimea. Exposed to privations of the severest kind — and privations a soldier must expect to undergo when he takes the " Queen's ghilliug " — in that war our troops behaved themselves in a truly coble and heroic manner. I admit that in the last day or two of the siege, when they were called upon to storm the Redau, they did not succeed in gettiug into the works ; but I myself am an old soldier, and have had some little experience in storming parties, and when I consider the diflScuIty and danger attendant upon bricging formed bodies up to works which have cot been entirely destroyed, my surprise is that they ever succeeded at all. They did their best, however ; and hundreds of them fell where British soldiers ought to fall — in the advance, and close to the guns of the enemy. The navy has not, perhaps, received the meed of approbation which is its due ; but when I consider that large ships were navigated in the Baltic and Euxine Seas in bad weather with imperfect soundings, I hold that the oflScers and men of our navy proved in the moat convincing manner that they were good seamen ; whilst we all know that the gallant and heroic naval brigade fully earned the credit which was awarded to them by their comrades in red. I hope that another war is far distant ; but if it does occur, I feel satisfied that the soldiers and sailors of England will willingly risk the sacrifice of their lives for the honour and glory of their country, and the welfare and happiness of man- kind (loud cheers). I now call upon you to drink, with three times three, " The Array and Navy of England," including in the toast those brave and honourable men who are serving un- der the East India Company in the East Indies (cheers). The Chairman : The next toast I have to propose to yon is "Success to the Smithfield Cattle Club;" and I am sure that in such a company as this it is unnecessary for me to state the reasons why 1 think that club has proved itself of great importance to the agriculture of our country. You are better judges than I of the stock of sheep and pigs that were shown in your yard during the present week, but perhaps I may be permitted to eay that the exhibition is a credit to the farmers of England, and that we have much excellent stock, and less bad than usual. The test of the utility of this and of kindred institutions is to be found not alone in our show yards, but in the market towns on market days. The Smith&eld Club is, I am happy to add, in a most pros- perous aud flourishing condition. It is supported by the tenant farmers of England, and if they do not withdraw their support — and I know they will not — it will continue to flourish with renewed and iucreasing vigour year by year. Yes -terday, in consequence of the prosperous state of our funds, it w^s resolved by the club to increase the amount of premiums to the extent of from £200 to £300 a-year, aud that sum is to be appropriated to the augmentation not only of the existing premiums, but the number of classes, by including breeds of stock which do not now occupy a place in the show. How the amount will be appropriated is to be decided at our meeting to-morrow, when the committee to which the matter has been referred will make their report. The fact, however, that the club can safely recommend such an expenditure must be satis- factory evidence of the soundness of its finances. I am happy, also, to inform you that we have entered into a very advan- tageous arrangement with the proprietor of the Bazaar, by which he gives the club £700, and takes the admission fees— the amount being sufficient to show yo\i the great interest which is taken in the show by all classes of society. It shows you also that the club is not of a selfish iiature ; for Mr. Buluois would not give the club £700 without he found the exhibi- tion pay him, through the visits of their London and country friends. I now give you "Success to the Smithfield Club," and I hope and trust it may long continue to prosper. (Cheers). The Chairman said it had been hitherto their practice to read the list of prizes, but it had been determined, as they were all published in the newspapers, not to do so in future ; an arrangement which he hoped would meet with their appro- bation, as they would thereby be the better enabled to devote the short time they were together to social enjoyment. They would, however, present the gold medals as usual. The gold medals were here distributed, and the healths of the winners (Messrs. Heath, Strattou, Walmsley, and Coate) given from the chair, and duly acknowledged. Mr. ToRR (of Aylesby, Liucoln) proposed "The Successful Competitors in Short-woolled Siieep," and he begged to couple that toast with the name of His Grace the Uuke of Richmond, who had so signally and deservedly won so many prizes. As a breeder of Leicester or long-woolled sheep he (Mr. Terr) might fairly say without prejudice, that the Southdown sheep were an extremely valuable breed, and had perhaps made greater improvement than any other class of animals at the show. It appeared to him that the Southdown was best adapted to the South of England, whilst the long-woolled sheep were best worth breeding in the North ; and in his opinion this was the only f?.ir view to take of these respective breeds. His advice was, " Let every one, in breeding, endeavour to improve nature, but not to alter it." Mr. Terr now had an important addition to make to the toast, which was, to drink the health of the Noble Duke as their President. He could have wished this had fallen into more able hands, but no one could feel more zeal in the attempt to give the health of so good and so great a name. For if they looked back on the Noble Duke, when, as the youthful Earl of March, he followed the great captain of the age through the Peiiiusula and to Waterloo; or whether they considered him as the fa;thful councillor of his Sove- reigns ; or, further, if they thought of him nearer to them- selves, as the long-tried friend of the agriculturist— in all these great fields of action they must award him the highest praise, and it might be doubted in which he had gained the greatest renown. But there was no doubt that what- ever laurels the Noble Duke had won at Waterloo, or what- ever honours he had had bestowed on him by his Sovereigns —as a Lennox in England, or a Gordon in Scotland — none of these would be more la--ting than the gratitude of the honest hearts of the British farmers— and for time long to come the household word of " Richmond " would cheer the hearth-stone and roof-tree of many a happy home in England (Cheers). The Noble Duke had long cared- for and fostered the Smith- field Club ; aud the beat evidence of this fostering care was THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the present prosperity of the club. He proposed, with all cheers, the happiness and health of the President. The Duke of Richmond, in returning thanks, said that he was always deeply gratified when he gained premiums and medals at this club ; but, as the company could bear him wit- ness, he was never depressed when he was beaten. As a landed proprietor, he had felt it bis duty to turn his attention to agri- cultural matters, and to the last breath of his life he could never forget the marks of friendship and esteem which he had received from the club, and from the tenant farmers of this country. The gentleman who had proposed his health had alluded to his services in the field under the Duke of Welling- ton. He felt, on leaving school, that young men of his station were called upon to serve their country. Instead of indulging in the luxuries of London or the sports of the field, he felt he was bound to do his best to promote the comfort of their soldiers, and he trusted that his services had been of some effect. At the close of the war he settled down on his estates, and turned his attention to the study of agriculture. It was most satisfactory to him to preside over the Smithfield Cattle Ckib, and he rejoiced at the opportunity of meeting them that evening. He had always felt a great desire to take every opportunity of meeting the tenant farmers of England ; and he thought that those landowners— if there were any such— who did not mix with the tenantry of the country lost some of the greatest advantages which belonged to the station which they occupied, and the most mighty of kings could not raise their heads with greater pride than might the tenant farmers of England (cheers). The Chairman said the nest toast he had to propose was the health of the Vice-President and the Trustees. He deeply regretted that Lord Portman was prevented being amongst them that evening by the severe illness of a near relative j and Lord Berners was also uafortunately prevented attending, though that they took the deepest interest in the club there could be no doubt. The only trustee he saw present was Mr. Gibbs, their Honorary Secretary, who had done more to promote the interests of the dub than any other man. He was a most active, intelligent gentleman, and had the in- terests of the club mainly at heart. He was happy to have the opportunity thus publicly of doing justice to one to whom agriculturists owed so much ; and he therefore asked them to join him in drinking the health of the Vice-President, Trustees, and Honorary Secretary. (Cheers ) Mr. Gibbs (of Half-moon-street) would be ungrateful in- deed if he did not tender them his warmest thanks for the very flattering terms in which his health had been proposed, and the cordial manner it hadbeen responded to. He could assure them also, for the other trustees and the vice-presidents, that they al- ^vays had the greatest gratification in serving the club to the ut- most of their power. He might mention that it was his intention to search over the earlier records of the club, and present the result of his researches in the shape of a pamphlet to each member of the club, believing that it would be most useful as a work of reference. He was glad to see the contmued pros- perity of the club, which could only be attributed to the great support which they received from the breeders of stock throughout the country. It was gratifying to know also that now the members of the club had free access to the show-yard a privilege accorded to them this year for the first time. If the club did not make such great strides as the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, it was because it was not so com- prehensive in its objects, but only attended to one de- partment of agriculture ; a department, however, which he •considered to be of the greatest importance — the breeding of cattle. Their show was improving year by year ; and the Emperor of the French, and other foreign sovereigns, seeing the usefulness of such societies as the Smithfield Club and the Royal Agricultural Society, were endeavouring to establish similar societies ; though he was sure they would never be enabled to show such excellent stock as was produced by the farmers of England (cheers). Mr. C. Barnett (of Stratton, Biggleswade) proposed " The health of the Judges, and Mr. Fisher Hobbs." Mr. Fisher Hobbs (ot'Bosted, Essex) returned thanks, and said that, on entering the show-yard on Monday morning, he and his colleagues at once felt that more than the usual amount of criticism would be brought to bear upon their deci- sions, inasmuch as during the previous week many of the animals had stood together side by side at the Birming- ham Show (Hear, hear). They, therefore, entered upon their duties with the determination not to know any of the animals, and solely with the desire of acquitting them- selves to the best of their ability. Consequently the expres- sions of approval which they had heard that night were, as might be supposed, highly gratifying to them (Hear, hear). He felt that the Smithfield Club was now becoming of such national importance that it would be a serious loss, not only to the agriculture of the country, but to the whole consu- ming populations, if these annual meetings ceased to be held (cheers). Mr. Wilson (of Sherwood, Mansfield) stated there was another body of men to whom the Smithfield Club owed a debt of gratitude. He was aware of the onerous duties of the judges, but he felt that they were not more so than those of the stewards of the show-yard, who did so much to promote the comfort of every one visiting it. He would give them " The health of the Stewards, and Mr. Greetham." Mr. Greetham (of Stainfield, Lincoln) could assure them that the stewards felt deeply the compliment paid them ; and for his colleagues he could state that a more zealous body of gentlemen, or men more deeply anxious to perform their duty, could not he found (cheers). Vice-Chancellor Kindersley, in proposing " Prosperity to the Royal Agricultural Society of England," said that he would at once candidly avow that he did not belong to the landlord class, for he did not possess nor ever had possessed a single acre of land ; nor was he a tenant-farmer, for he had never even mown a blade of grass from any land which he occupied. The interests of agriculture were, however, of a kind which came home to the bosoms of all classes. The foundation of the prosperity of the country must repose upon the agricultural industry and operations of the people of the country. That opinion was not, he was convinced, confined to his own breast, but was universal through the country ; and a more striking instance of the existence of such a feeling could not be found than in the fact that the proprietor of the bazaar where the show was now held found it to be to his in- terest to give so large a sum as £700 a-year in the view of the profit he would derive from the multitudes which would go to the show. The labours of the agriculturists of this country were not confined to the narrow canton of their own soil ; but their labours were admired, and were now imitated, by the agriculturists of other countries (cheers). Mr. Brandreth (of Houghton, Dunstable) briefly ac- knowledged the compliment. Mr. Jeffreys, of Regent- street, was here announced as the winner of the Butcher's Medal. The Chairman said there was no toast of greater import- ance than that he was then about to give them. They must all feel that they were chiefly indebted to the positions they held through being surrounded by an honest and industrious THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 57 population. He felt it was the duty of every man connected with agriculture to endeavour to promote the prosperity of their labourers. To the labouring agriculturists the world owed much ; aud he had therefore great pleasure in asking them to drink, with three times three, to " The prosperity of the labouring classes" (cheers). The Noble Duke then quitted the chair amidst loud applause, and the company shortly afterwards separated. The musical arrangements were under the direction of Mr. Genge, assisted by the Misses Wells, Mr. Perren, and Mr. Smythson. GENERAL MEETINGS OF THE MEMBERS OF THE SMITHFIELD CLUB IN THE SHOW- YARD. At a meeting of the members of the club, on Tuesday, the Duke of Richmond in the chair, his Grace was re-elected presi- dent, aud the Marquis of Huntley, the Earl of Hardwicke, Earl Spencer, the Earl of yarborough, and Lord Berners, as vice-presidents for the ensuing year. Mr. W. Torr, of Aylesby Manor, near Grimsby, was chosen steward of cattle and long- woolled sheep, in the room of Mr. Greetham, and Mr. Jonas Webb as steward of short-wooUed sheep, cross-bred sheep, and pigs, in the room of Mr. J. S. Turner. On the motion of Mr. Chamberlain, it was resolved — "That, as the annual income of the club has very much increased, tbe amount offered in prizes be also increased ; and that a committee be appointed to confer with the hon. secre- tary to ascerta'u the amount which may safely be offered in prizes, revise the prize-sheet, and report the opinion of the committee to the meeting, at one o'clock, on Thursday, the 11th Deceniber, 1856, when the meeting shall decide as to the number aud amount of the prizes which shall be ofTered, and make such alterations iu the prize-sheet as may be thought proper." Resolutions, of which notice had been given by Mr. Beazley : " That another class be added for crossed or mixed breeils, to be called — ' Class 22, for cross or mi\ed-bred cows above four years old, a prize of £10; to the breeder of the same, a silver medal.' That the rules of the club shall define what is or what is not a pure-bred animal, or how many crosses constitute a pure-bred beast or sheep, and what qualifies it to be shown in the pure-bred and what in the mixed classes." By Mr. Rigden : "That a premium should in future be given for the Sussex breed of cattle" ; and by Mr. A. Campbell : "That there be distinct classes for the polled and horned Scotch cattle," were referred to Mr. Chamberlain's com- mittee. The three following were at once agreed to : " That in future the award of prizes, &c., shall cease to be read at tlie annual dinner of the club, and that, with the ex- ception of the gold medals, no prizes or medals shall be dis- tributed at the club's dinner." Moved by Mr. Brandreth. " That in future the prize-sheet, with rules, &c., be pub- lished in the form of a pamphlet, the detailed accounts of re- ceipts and expenditure added, after the plan of the Royal Agricultural Society; and also that in the next publication there be given a list of present members of the club, and statement of each year's account since the show has been held in King-street." Moved by Mr. Moore. And " That, in order to prevent disappointment to intend- ing exhibitors, the day for receiving entries be fixed to the same date every year, instead of varying as at present ; and that the 1st of November be the day, excepting in any year when the Ist of November shall fall on a Sunday, iu which case the entries shall close on tho day after. Moved by Mr. Brandreth Gibbs. At another meeting, on Thursday, the committee appointed to revise the prize sheet, with a view to increasing the pre- miums and creating new classes, presented their report, which was received, and the recommendations contained in it' adopted. In future, therefore, a third prize of 5/. will be given for Devon steers not exceeding 3 years old ; a third prize of 51. for Devon steers or oxen above 3 years old ; a third prize of 5Z. to Devon cows above 4 years old ; a third prize of 51. to Hereford steers not e.xceeding 3 years old ; a third prize of 51. to Hereford steers or oxen above 3 years old ; a third prize of 5?. to Hereford cows above 4 years eld; a third prize of 51. to shorthorn steers not exceeding 3 years old ; a third prize of 51. to shorthorn steers or oxen above 3 years old ; and a third prize of 51. to shorthorn cows above 4 years old. The following new classification of cattle of other breeds than those above enumerated will hereafter be also adopted : Sussex Breed. Class 13. — Sussex steers or oxen, of any age. — The beat steer or ox, first prize, 201. ; silver medal to the breeder : of the second-best, second prize, 10^ Class 14.— Sussex heifers or cows, of any age. — The best heifer or cow, first prize, 10/.; silver medal to the breeder : the second-best, second prize, 5/. Norfolk or Suffolk Polled Breed. Class 15. — Norfolk or Suffolk polled steers or oxen, of any age. — The best steer or ox, first prize, lOZ ; silver medal to the breeder : the second-best, second prize, 51. Class 16. — Norfolk or Suffolk polled heifers or cows, of any age. — The best heifer or cow, first prize, lOL ; silver medal to the breeder : the second-best, second prize, 51. Long-horned Breed. Class 17. — Long-horned steers or oxen, of any age. — The beat steer or ox, first prize, 10^; silver medal to the breeder: the second-best, second prize, 51. Class 18. — Long-horned heifers or cows, of any age. — The beat heifer or cow, first prize, lOl. ; silver medal to the breeder : the second-best, second prize, 51. The foregoing six classes had previously been included in two, under the general denomination of " other pure breeds." Scotch Horned Breed. Class 19. — Scotch horned steers or oxeu, of any age. — The best steer or ox, first prize, 201. ; silver medal to the breeder : the second-best, second prize, 10?. Class 20. — Scotch horned heifers or cowa, of any age. — The best heifer or cow, first prize, 101. ; silver medal to the breeder the second-best, second prize, 5/. Scotch Polled Breed. Class 21. — Scotch polled steers or oxen, of any age. — The best steer or ox, first prize, 201. ; silver medal to the breeder : the secand-beat, second prize, 101. Class 22. — Scotch polled heifers or cows, of any age. — The best heifer or cow, first prize, 101. ; silver medal to the breeder : the second-best, second prize, 5/. Irish Breed. Class 23. — Irish steers or oxen, of any age. — The best steer or ox, first prize, lOZ. ; silver medal to the breeder. The second-best, second prize, 5?. Class 24. — Irish heifers or cows, of any age. — The best heifer or cow, first prize, 10/.; silver medal to the breeder. The second-best, second prize, 51. The last-mentioned six classes were, under the old regula- tions of the club, included in two classes only, which erabr»ced both Scotch and Irish breeds. 58 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. No alteration is to take place in the prize sheet for Welsh stock; but for cross or mixed breeds a second prize of lOl. is to be given for steers not exceeding 3 years old, and a second prize of 51. for steers or oxen above 3 years old. In the sheep classes, the second prize for fat wethers of *any long-woolled breed, 1 year and under 22 months old, is to be increased from 10/. to 15Z., and the like increase will be made iu the premiums for the second-best wethers of any long- woolled breed 1 year and under 22 months old, each sheep not exceeding 2201bs. live weight. For long-woolled wethers, not Leicesters, 1 year and under 22 months old, there will be a second prize of lOZ., and a third prize of 5?., the first being increased to 15Z. ; long and short-woolled cross-bred wethers, 1 year and under 22 mouths old, the first prize is increased to 15/., the second to lOZ., a third prize of 51. added. For long and short-woolled cross-bred v/ethers, 1 year and under 22 months old, each sheep not to exceed 2201bs. live weight, a second prize of 5?. is added. In the short-woolled classes, a third prize of 51. will be offered for wethers of any breed, 1 year and under 22 months old ; a second prize of 5?. for those under 22 months old, each sheep not to exceed 2201bs. live weight ; and a third prize of 51. for fat wethers of any breed, 2 years old («. e. above 22 and under 34 months). The premium of lOZ., which has here- tofore been given to short-woolled wethers not being South- downs, is now converted into a first prize of 151.; and a second prize of lOl. and a third of 51. are added. The changes to be made with reference to the premiums for pigs are as follows :— > Class 39 will compriae pigs of any breed " not exceeding 4 months old." Class 40, any breed " above 4 and not exceed- ing 8 months old." A new class, 41, will consist of " pigs of any breed above 8 and not exceeding 12 months old — the pre- miums to be a first prize of lOZ. and a second of 51." And a 4th class, 42, will comprise pigs of any breed "above 12 and under 18 months old," with two similar premiums. The total increase in the prize list is just under 340Z., and the total amount about 1,200?., offered by the club in pre- miums. This will include some new medals. Amongst the other business transacted was the leasing of the Show for a renewed term of five years, to Mr. Boulnois, the proprietor of the Bazaar, at an increased rental of £200 per annum. THE IMPLEMENT DEPARTMENT OF THE SMITHFIELD CLUB SHOW. Judging from the number of farmers and others who always crowd the long- galleries set apart for the display of agi'icultural machinery, and from the amount of business transacted on these occasions, alike by our great firms and humbler exhibitors, every one must conclude that the implement department is of great importance, and so valuable an accessory to the fat stock exhibition, that, if no catalogue can bo issued of the contents of the stands and stalls, at any rate the Press should publish to the absent portion of the public what was most worthy of note in so large a collection. The steam-engines and thvashing-machincs attracted more than usual attention, ranged in their accustomed corridor below-sfairs. BuRRELL, of Thetford, showed a portable engine, fitted with a hot-water cistern and registered apparatus for pumping hot and cold water, by which an alleged saving of 20 per cent, in fuel is cflfected. Also a com- bined thrashing-machine, which obtained a silver medal of the Royal Agricultural Society. Garrett and Sons — a portable engine fitted with Horton and Kendrick's patented fire-box, which, being of a corrugated form, has a greater amount of heating-surface than the plain fire-box, and is also much stronger. A combined thrashing-machine, having an intermediate shaft which receives the power from the engine, and by the necessary riggers and belts drives the drum and other working parts ; thus relieving the drum-bearings, &c., from undue wear, and giving a great degree of steadiness to the entire machine. A superiority in this machine is the revolving screen having an Archimidean screv/ within it, which forms a very simple and easy separator. Wedlake and Dendy — a portable engine and combined thrashing-machine. HoRNSBY & Son — a portable engine, with cylinder inside the boiler above the fire-box, causing a great saving of fuel ; and a combined thrashing-machine, remarkable for the regularity of its winnowing, obtained by means of a screw or worm feeding the riddles, and also for its steadiness, owing to the absence of all rock- ing motion. Wm. Cambridge — a portable engine and combined thrashing-machine. The engine-pump is fixed to the chimney, so as to be kept quite hot, and thus insure its working in frosty weather. The machine is remark- ably compact iu form, and not overloaded with sheaves, spindles, and bearings, as we find to be the case iu those of some makers. Tdxford and Sons — an eight-horse prize port- able engine, constructed with upright cylinder, the working parts covered in an iron house, and thus pro- tected against the dirt of a farm-yard. The boiler is made with flues and tubes combined, for security against leakage and other contingencies. A combined thrashing-machine with finishing dressing-machine, also effective shaker, simple form of riddle, winnower, and small number of running bearings. Barrett and Exall— a portable engine, a fixed engine, and combined thrashing-machine. Ransomes and Sims — a portable engine; and combined thrashing-machine, in which most of the motions are rotary, at once reducing the friction, and greatly lessening the amount of wear and tear, gene- rally found so heavy an item in the economy of such machines. Brown and May, of Devizes — a portable engine, and thrashing-machine. Clayton and Shuttleworth — a portable steam-engine, of their noted first-class construction and workmanship ; and a combined thrashing-machine, with finishing apparatus, the riddles and shaker dis- i playing great ingenuity, with the view of overcoming ^ the difficulties besetting the perfect separation of such heterogeneous and unmanageable matter as corn, chaff, ears, short straws, whiteheads, &c. Holmes and Son, of Norwich — a portable engine and cloverseed drawing and dressing machine. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 59 RoBEY AXD Scott, of Lincola— a portable engine and combined thrashing-machine. Let us now advert to the upstairs exhibition. First we come to Barton's excellent stable fittings; then to Whit- mee's flour-mills, corn-crushers, &c. Inskip, of Potten, showed a " sheep-dressing fork," for securing a sheep by the neck, the iron shaft of the fork being driven like a stake into the ground. CoTTAJi ANB Hallen, of Oxford-street — stable- fittings, pumps, &c. Clyburn, of 31, Lombard-street— a model of a churn that brings butter in nine minutes, and gathers into a single mass. Coleman — his well-known cultivator; and a novelty in the form of Hansom's patent potato-digger. With this simple and not-inconvenicntly heavy ma- chine, two horses can take up three acres of potatoes in a day. A share cuts underneath the ridge or row, and then a set of eight forks, made to revolve trans- versely behind the machine, tears the ridge to pieces, tossing the tubers, with some earth, fibrous roots and stems, &e., upon a net, which i^erfectly separates the potatoes, leaving them on the su.rface of the land. The price is £17. Burgess and Key — an assortment of chaff- cutters, churns, forks, &c., and their prize reaping- machine, with screw-roller platform, for effecting a side-delivery without manual assistance. Hunt, of Earl's Colne — his excellent eloverseed- drawing and dressing-machine. Ciiivas, of Chester — a stall of roots and seeds, including specimens of his orange-jelly turnips. BoBY, of Bury St. Edmunds — a corn-screen of very ingenious construction, perfectly self-cleaning j and a winnowing-raachine. James, of Cheltenham — a good and very simple liquid-man ui'e distributor. Thompson, of Lewes — his Paris prize haymarket, with double-pointed teeth. Barnard and Bishop, of Norwich — a mill, and specimens of pulped i-oots produced by their efficient pulping-machines. CoMiNS, of South Molton — turnwrest-ploughs, and other implements. Samuelson — a variety of chaff-cutters, mills, crushers, and his unrivalled I'oot-slicer. Sutton, of Reading — a stall of remarkably fine roots, grown from seed supplied by this firm. Williams, of Bedford — his well-known superior iron-harrows. Laavson and Sons, of Edinburgh — splendid spe- cimens of corn, grass, roots, seeds, &c., and an appara- tus for detei'mining the quality of turnips, by their specific gravity. Stanley, of Peterborough — steam cooking-appara- tus for cattle-food. Uncommonly simple, economical, and strongly constructed. Bentall — self-cleaning pulpers, plouglis, and various forms of his inimitable bi'oadshare scarifier and subsoiler. Fisher, of Thrapston— chaff-cutters, &c., and a model of a novel clod-crusher, consisting mainly of a barrel, or cylindrical cage, of 4 feet diameter, carrying a great number of small discs, which are rendered perfectly self-cleaning by being turned partially round as they rise behind the machine. Stacy, of Uxbridge — chaff-cutters. The Dublin Agricultural Society — a col- lection of Irish-grown produce, comprising some very interesting specimens of corn, roots, flax, &c., &c. Fry, of Bristol — a number of Bushe and Barter's excellent root-graters. Smyth and Sons, of Peascnhall — different de- scriptions of drills, for corn, seed, and manure. Ball, of Rothwell — his prize ploughs. Sawney, of Beverley — his well-known hariff- screen, attached to a corn-dressing machine. Richmond and Chandler — superior chaff- cutters. Reeves, of Bratton — Chandler's admirable liquid- manure or water drill, that has been very extensively used in all parts of the kingdom, and on all soils, with marked advantage. W. Cambridge — his excellent wheel-presser roller. Patterson, of Beverley— compound-action grind- ing and crushing-mills, the rollers being on oblique axes; and a novel rocking-machine, which acts as a potato-washer, churn, ash-riddle, &c., with the greatest ease. Smith and Ashby — their patent safety chaff- cutters, horse-rake, and the haymaking-machine which has taken every prize of the Royal Agricultural Society for the last ten years. Smith, of Kettering — his very simple and effective horse-hoe. Crosskill — cart, Archimedean root-washer, &c., models of portable railway for farms, Avaggon, Nor- wegian harrow, liquid-manure cart ; also his new reaper, a great improvement in this class of machines, the side-delivery by means of belts passing across the front of a slanting table or platform, being exceedingly neat, and the mechanism generally very little compli- cated, and regular in working. Holmes and Son, of Norwich — a variety of drills, &c. Ransomes and Sims— prize ploughs, subsoilers, crushing and grinding mills, chaff-cutters, barley- awner, cake-breaker, &c. Whitehead — tile-making machine. Keevil — the nev/ cheese-making apparatus, won- derfully simple and economical. Carson, of Warminster — chaff-cutter, kc. Grove, of Great Baddow — a show of roots, &c. Barrett, Exall, Sc Co. — their very compact horse-power, thrashing-machine, chaff-cutters, &c. Norwood, of 16, High-street, Finsbury — crushers, chaff-cutters, &c. Woods, of Stowmarket — his excellent pulping- machines, &c. Parkes — steel digging-tools, &c. 60 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Priest and Woolnough — Drills and a lever liorse-hoe. Impey, of Street— an improved winnowing and dressing machine; very easy to turn, with a large area of sieves and screens ; an even feed of corn to the sieves, and drawers underneath to catch the dirt, seeds, &c. Wedlake and Dendy — a number of chaff- cutters, bruisers, &:c., and a fixed steam-engine. Cooper and Co., Ipswich — Smith's self-acting counterbalance* horse-rake, in which each tooth acts in- dependently, with a balance-weight; the lifting leverage very compact and easy ; for some purposes, however, such light teeth would be a disadvantage, instead of an additional facility. Hill and Smith, of Dudley— continuous iron- fencing, chaff- engine, &c. GoDDARD, of Nottingham — a very compact, cheap, and convenient cottage cooking-range; adapted for boiling, baking, roasting, and any kind of culinary preparation, and heating for a great variety of pur- poses. Price, from £5 upwards. Skirving, of Liverpool — some fine specimens of his swedes and other varieties of roots. Clayton — part of his celebrated brick-making machinery. Turner and Co., Ipswich — their superior corn- crushers. HoRNSBY AND Co.— prize drills for all purposes, winnowing-machines, &c. Thomas Gibes and Co. — a fine exhibition of seeds, samples, dried specimens, and particularly of roots, some of tremendous size and admirable quality. Garrett and Co. — Chambers' extraordinarily o-ood manure-distributor, their lever horse-hoe, prize drills, &c., &c. Clayton and Shuttleworth — a fixed steam- engine, saw-bench, pumping-machinery, &c. Howards of Bedford — strong as usual in their har- rows, prize ploughs, iron liarrows, &c. Biggs— a curious apparatus for sheep-dipping, con- sisting of a crane and wicker cradle. Mary Wedlake and Co.— haymaker, oat-bruiser, and other implements. Busby — prize carts, ploughs, &c. Geo. Gibbs and Co. — a magnificent stall of roots, specimens, samples, &c. Dray and Co. — a collection of many different ma- chines and implements, the princiioal object of notice being the prize reaper ; the compactness and lightness of which, compared with tliose having a self-acting de- livery, being a point mucli in its favour. Tiie tipping platform is very ingenious, and amazingly facilitates the delivery of the bunchesof cut corn. The only representative of steam-ploughing ma- chinery, now awakening public expectation, was Mr. Williams's model, exhibited in operation upon a table covered witli loose sand, in a corner of one of the galleries ; and very great interest was excited by the ingenious and sanguine inventor's elucidations of its mode of action. The engine and winding-drums are in one frame ; and the scarifier, or frame of ploughs, is hauled backwards and forwards between this windlass and a pulley-platform anchored at the other end of the work. For common ploughing, Mr. Williams has four plough-bodies arranged in one carriage-frame, while he employs a horse to steer its course, and help to turn round to the other side of the land or stetch at each end of the field. He has already actually ploughed sufficient ground to show that the work costs about the same price as by horse labour. We think that the number of pulleys, guide-rollers, &c., is too great a source of friction in the machine ; whilst the shifting and fixing of tlie hauling-platform take too much labour to be eco- nomical ; and the large and extended experiments of Mr. Fowler tell us that only by a lighter and more self- acting description of macliinery can an ordinary porta- ble engine be made to plough enough land to counter- balance the expense of shifting to the field, &c. Mr, Williams's ploughing-frame displays good contrivances ; and we sincerely trust that he will be able so to modify liis system of hauling as to comi:)ete ably with Mr. Fowler's, and also Messrs. Fisken's more complete in- ventions. Mr. Fowler, we hear, is now ploughing for His Royal Highness Prince Albert, at Chater's Farm, Slough, on heavy land, ten or twelve inches deep, con-i tracted for at fifteen shillings per acre. THE METROPOLITAN GREAT CHRISTMAS CATTLE MARKET. Monday, Dec. 15. — This being the day appointed for holding the Great Christmas market, no little ex- citement was observed here throughout the morning, and, indeed, up to quite the close of business. From nearly all parts of the United Kingdom, as well as from the continent, numerous visitors poured in to witness a sight which is without equal in any part of the world, both as regards the weight and quality of the stock brought together — including, of course, their extraordi- nary number. In the first place, let ua do justice to those to whom the arrangements were entrusted. The great additional space in this market, compared with the area of Smithfield, would appear highly favourable for an improved allotment of the stock — in other words, that each salesman would have ample room afforded him to show his beasts to advantage ; but their enor- mous bulk require more than ordinary space ; and, al- though almost the entire of the " alleys" were filled, no inconvenience was experienced, and the authorities are entitled to great credit for the scrupulous care with which they afforded accommodation to all. In minutely considering the general excellencies of the Beasts shown here to-day, not a few important points suggest them- selves. We have had exhibited animals of a first-class character : we hanre had Devons, Herefords, shorthorns, Welsh, Sussex, and Pembroke runts of enormous weight. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 61 Cross-breeds, too, Lave been numerous, whilst the Scots have been in proper number. Compared with some former shows, we hare observed very great improve- ments in the condition of the stock not to be despised. Some parties have opposed fat stock exhibitions, on the ground that too much unconsumeable meat is produced by them, consequently, that there is a great waste of food. But, if fat stock shows were un- profitable to the grazier, we might venture to assume that these exhibitions would speedily cease, and that their opponents would ere long cry out for " more fat" upon their sirloins. The character of great stock shows is, in a general way, misunderstood by the public. The feeders produce splendid animals frequently at a consi- derable loss to themselves ; but they have ulterior objects in view. How frequently do we find them com- peting in the exhibition in Baker-street year after year, at an enormous outlay of capital, and how many seasons have they made their appearance there unsuccessfully I But success at length attends them, and, the moment they have gained a prize position, they then look to a certain pecuniary return : that is to say, their stock, for breeding and other purposes, is sought after at a high — certainly an enhanced — price, and thus the consumers have every year had an important addition fo the supply of food. In confirmation of this view, we might refer to the high position — gained chiefly through the instru- mentality of the Smithfield and other stock shows — of the great breeders of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, Devonshire, &c. Well, then, as these exhibitions are highly important in more than one point of view, and as every effort should be made to bring into play every breed of stock in the country, it would appear surprising that any descrip- tion should have ever received less favour at the hands of the Smithfield Club than any other ; but every one must feel gratified in learning that very important changes have been made in the rules of that club — that in future Scotch cattle is to be classed separately, and that Sussex stock is to have a similar position. These changes, whilst they will no doubt increase the interest in the show in future years, cannot fail to improve the number and quality of our breeds, and thereby increase the amount of food for general consumption. The annexed return shows the number of Beasts exhi- bited on the great days, and the prices obtained for them, in the last sixteen years : — Year. Beasts Shown. Prices. s. d. s. d. 1840 3,528 .... 4 4 to 5 8 1841 4,500 .... 3 8 5 0 1842 4,541 3 4 4 8 1843 4,510 .... 2 8 4 4 1844 5,713 4 0 4 6 1845 5,320 .... 3 6 4 8 1816 5,470 .... 4 0 5 8 1847 4,282 .... 3 4 4 8 1848 5,912 .... 3 4 4 8 1849 5,705 .... 3 4 4 6 1850 6,341 .... 3 0 3 10 1851 6,103 .... 2 8 4 2 1852 6,271 .... 2 8 4 0 1853 7,037 .... 3 2 4 10 1854 6,181 .... 3 6 5 4 1855 7,000 .... 3 8 5 2 YEARLY COMPARISON OF WEEKLY IMPORTS. BEASTS. SHEEP. CALVES. PIGS. 1855 859 3555 238 — 1854 1130 2593 269 7 1853 1136 4698 462 20 1852 235 3782 419 — 1851 607 3155 363 152 The latest advices from Spain and Portugal state that the value of live stock is still on the advance. In the Dutch markets only limited purchases con- tinue to be made, for France ; yet, compared with last year, prices continue high. Even for a great market, we had a very large show of Beasts; and, taking their number and quality col- lectively, we may affirm that it was never excelled, much less equalled. From the West Country we re- ceived 700 Devons ; from Scotland, 600 Scots ; from Ireland, 2O0 Oxen ; from Norfolk and Suffolk, 800 Scots, Shorthorns, &c. ; and from Lincolnshire, Leices- tershire, and Northamptonshire, 3,000 Shorthorns. The Beef trade was by no means brisk ; and, compared with Monday last, very little change took place in prices. With very few exceptions, the highest quotation for Beef was 5s. per 81bs. Amongst the wonders of the Bullock-show we may notice the following : Mr. D. Maidwell had on sale 40 wonderfully prime Scots, fed by Mr. M'Combie, of Tillyfour, N.B. ; Mr. Robert Morgan's stand exhibited a remarkably fine number of Beasts, fed by W. Thomas, Esq., of Holbeach; R. Cook, Esq., of Rostiands ; L. Bird, Esq., of Peterborough; J. Allday, Esq., of Solehill ; C. Farrer, Esq., of Spank ; Robt. Gillett, Esq., Halowgate, Norfolk; Messrs. Martin, Knowles, Cooper, Phillips. Mitchell, Stoddart, Kidd, and other large graziers in Scotland. Mr, Collins had a very fine show of Ilerefords and other breeds. Mr. Vorley's stand was filled with good stock, fed by Mr. Beatle, of Hunt- ley, Mr. Walker, of Westerfonray, and other graziers. Mr. Fairbrother exhibited some fine Hereford?, the property of Mr. Rowland, of Creslow. The other por- tions of the supply were very fine, including the stock sent by Prince Albert. W^e had a limited supply of Sheep in the market, hence the Mutton trade ruled brisk, at an advance in the quotations of 4d. per 81bs., the primest Downs having sold at 5s. 4d. per 81bs. There were no Irish Sheep in the market. Amongst the wonders were 10 Glouces- ters, fed by Mr. Ewer, of Northleach ; 10 ditto by :Mr. Barton, of Fyfield ; the same number by Mr. Slatter, of Stratton ; and 50 half-breds, by Mr. Langston, of Ox- ford. These Sheep were exhibited by Mr. Gurrier. Mr. Weal had 123 Gloucesters, from Mr. Rowland, of Creslow, 23 Downs from Mr. Oakley, of Luton, and other fine lots from various other graziers. Mr. Gland showed some remarkably fine Sheep, fed by Mr. Hen- ley, of Croft, Mr. Chatterton, of Wigtoft, and Messrs. Morley, of Donnington. Some of these Sheep weighed 26 stones each, and realized considerably above £b each. We had only a limited supply of Calves in the market. The primest Veal sold briskly, at an advance of 4d. per 81bs. ; otherwise the Veal trade was in a sluggish state, at last week's prices. The show of Pigs was very moderate. On the whole the Pork trade ruled firm, at very full prices. 62 THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE. THE SUPPLIES OF MUTTON. Althougb beef furnishes the standing dish at our Christmas dinners, j'et the prize Southdowns that were exhibited at the great Sinithfield market suggest the expediency of a few facts respecting the condition of our mutton. Leaving out of con- sideration at the present period of the year the fleece, we will confine ourselves exclusively to the car- case. It is remarkable how uniform is the supply of sheep shown at the Smithfield Christmas market. The average of the past seven years has been 23,724 head, and the past two years were nearly equal — 22,870. Of about 4,000,000 sheep required annually for the metro- politan supply, more than one-half would seem to be sent up to market slaughtered. It is not a little remarkable that while the sale of cattle at Smithfield market has steadily increased from 184,524 head in 1844 to 263,008 head in 1854, that of sheep has remained almost stationary. In 1844, 1,609,130 head were sold, in 1854 but 1,539,380. In- deed if we refer back a quarter of a century, we shall find that nearly as many sheep were sold at Smithfield in 1829 as in 1854. Mr. Dodd, in his recent work on the " Food Supply of London," attributes this to an increased supply of country-killed mutton, while the increased supply of beef is in the form of live cattle im- ported from abroad, and mainly sold at Smithfield. Twenty years ago the sheep were eightfold the number of cattle ; now they are less than sevenfold. Scotland had this year, by the agricultural returns, nearly six million sheep (5,822,478). In Ireland, there were in 1855,3,598,471, the number then having increased nearly 1,500,000 in four years. England and Wales have probably about 28,500,000 sheep, which would bring the total number in the United Kingdom up to 38,000,000 ; but we may safely take the whole number at 40,000,000. Average these at 30s. per head, we have an aggregate value of £60,000,000 for the sheep stock of the British Isles. Assuming one-fourth of these to be slaughtered annu- ally, and the average weight to be 801bs., we have 800,000,0001bs. of mutton supplied to our population annually, worth at the set price about £20,000,000 sterling. Large quantities of sheep and Iambs reach Liverpool from Ireland, the numbers being about 200,000 head per annum, and nearly all these are slaughtered for the consumption of that town : in the Newcastle market the number slaughtered is about 800,000. About 6,000,000 head of sheep are now transported annually from their pasture grounds to the large markets for town consumption. We only commenced to import sheep in July, 1842, upon the repeal of the prohibi- tion, when 650 head came in j but the numbers re- ceived from the Continent, it will be seen from the following figures, averages about 200,000 head; although the imports of sheep are on the decline, while those of cattle are increasing. The imports in the last six years were — in Sheep and Lambs. 1850 143,498 1851 ...: 201,859 1852 230,476 1853 259,420 1854 183,436 1855 162,642 Our neighbour France had in 1840 32,151,431 sheep, and killed of these in the year 5,804,700 head ; but while the number has not very greatly increased, standing at about 36,000,000, the proportion slaugh- tered annually appears to have risen to about 8,000,000. In France, however, sheep husbandry is directed more to the production of wool than flesh ; hence the return of meat is scarcely half that of our well-fed sheep. If France feeds less sheep than we do, she pastures more cattle. The agriculturists of France have, however, wisely come to the determination that their breed of sheep would be much improved for food by a cross with the English races ; and their breeders and graziers have been largo purchasers of stock for breeding. During the nineteenth century France has made rapid strides in wool production, and there is little doubt that breeders will now combine the two requisites of flesh and fleece. Owing to the increase of population in the Australian settlements, the demand for meat necessitates more at- tention to the flesh as well as to the wool. The recent discovery of several million acres of verj' fine pasturage in Northern Australia, near the Clarence River, by Mr. Gregory and liis exploring party, will have a very beneficial eSect, in increasing sheep stock and extend- ing the production of wool, especially to the owners of sheep at Moreton Bay. The Americans are not fond of fat mutton ; a carcase of 50 to 60 pounds is just fat enough to suit the American taste. Of the varieties of domestic animals, the flesh of sheep is that least used in the States, except in a few cities, in proportion to the quantity that might be profitably provided. And yet mutton is perhaps the best kind of meat that can be consumed by a civil- ized people. New York is beginning to consume largo quantities ox mutton, 600,000 to 700,000 head, or about one sheep per annum to each of the population, being now the ratio of consumption, Philadelphia slaughters about 100,000 head. In Ohio four or five million sheep are now owned. Considerable attention is now paid to the rearing of sheep in the United States. The merino crossed with the common breeds is the stock of which the flocks are composed. The high price of wool and mutton has given increased impetus to sheep husbandry in the States ; and they have even begun to export sheep and wool to a small extent. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 63 INTERNATIONAL CATTLE SHOW IN FRANCE. Amidst tlio absorbing speculations of political in- terests, the momentous crisis of the money market, the vicissitudes of Bourse gamblings, the questions of European alliances and American elections, it is pleas- ing and refreshing to the mind to contemplate the steady, peaceful, and persevering efforts of a neigh- bouring community, with whom a close alliance after centuries of warfare and enmity has so happily joined us, to profit by what good examples we are enabled to exhibit to them, in order to improve their long- neglected agriculture. It is only a few months since that we witnessed in Paris a Universal Exhibition of breeding stock, the like of which had never been seen before. This was a rare opportunity given to English breeders to establish by a gigantic comparison the super-excellence of their breeds, and this was accomplished in a manner which not only bore immediate fruit by the ready disposal of nearly all the animals exhibited, but which dispersed broadcast all over the world the fruitful germs of a demand which in a few years will not fail to raise stock-breeding in this country to a status of prosperity still unknown in our agricultural annals. We can assure our readers that this is no idle pre- diction of ours. We are in a position to know as a certain fact that in the same ratio as the agricultural interest of other nations will develop itself, so will the demand for English breeds increase, because they realize in a greater degree than any other all the re- ceived ideas of perfection ; and no one can gainsay us when we advance that the principal characteristic of our age — the great fact, which for posterity will stamp it with originality and distinguish it from others, is the recognition by all economists of the pai'amount— nay, vital importance of agricultui'al prosperity, and the general efforts of Governments to foster the speedy im- provement of that weighty interest, and secure its success. But, notwithstanding the high position which Eng_ lish breeders have undoubtedly attained at the late Paris Exhibition in the opinion of continental agi'icul- turists, it v/ould be folly to conceal from ourselves that in one respect wo have incuiTcd their censure — unde- servedly, we have maintained, and still maintain ; but nevertheless it is a matter with which we must deal, not by words alone, but by facts, and the French Govern- ment is now giving us an opportunity which we hope will not bo neglected, to put ourselves right in that re- spect also with our neighbours. Almost every writer in the continental papers and periodicals on the late Paris Exhibition, after dwelling at great length upon the excellence of our cattle, hits at last and stumbles at the high condition of our breeding stock. So great an objection is entertained against it abroad, that even the French Government made it a cause of exclusion. This, we feel convinced, is a mistake. Our neighbours, not having had any opportunities of at- tending our fat stock exhibitions, evidently can have no idea of what we consider a/a^ condition ; and more- over we apprehend that in many cases they are too apt to mistake flesh for fat, and this we saw was the case in several instances of exclusions at the last Paris Exhi- bition, -when several first-class animals, remarkable for their fleshy qualities, were condemned and rejected as being too fat. We consider it, indeed, one of the most commendable points of excellence in our show animals that they can breed, notwithstanding a state of fleshy obesity which, whatever may l)e said to the contrary, is pleasing to the eye and commending to the animal. Continental breeders, accustomed to lean beef, long carcasses and rugged surfaces, leggy, unsightly beasts, are naturally shocked by the condition of our neat cattle ; and they are wont significantly to point to the portly sides of our Shorthorns and Herefords, and ex- claim, "Smithfield! Smithfield!" with the indispen- sable shaking of the head and shrugging of tlie shoul- ders. Now, what we must do is, to show them what Smithfield means witli us : then will they stare indeed ! Let us send to their Poissy Exhibition a few of ouj. stall-fed oxen. Really, the inducements they hold out to us are magnificent enough : sixty pounds for the first prize, forty- eight for the second, and forty for the third, iu nearly every class ; besides this, we have gold and silver medals. And in addition to all this, we aie especially authorized to announce that a silver vase of the intrinsic value of one hundred guineas, and as a work of art worth one hundred and thirty guineas, will be given for the best English animal exhibited ; and another one, worth sixty guineas, to the best lot of English sheep in the yard. Surely, with such immediate inducements, wc hope our feeders will stir themselves in a manner commen- surate with the richness of the prizes held out to their ambition. But, besides these immediate advantages, they must not lose sight of the all-important object of dispelling ffom our neighbours' minds a jirojudice which, if not immediately dealt with, may greatly interfere with the foreign demand of our breeds. This observation we principally address to our Hereford friends. We earnestly asked them, after the Pans Exhibition, what they had been about ? They most fitly replied by pointing to the exclusions thoy had been made victims of the year before. Now a golden oppor- tunity is offered them to take a noble revenge, and show the admirable capabilities of their breed for flesh and quality : whilst our Shorthorn men, as aa'cU as our breeders of Devons, will vie with each other in tlie laudable effort of teaching Frenchmen what we really call a Smithfield ox. It is with regret that we perceive that there are no prizes offered for fat cows and heifers. This arises, no doubt, from the unaccountable prejudice of our neigh- 64 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. boui'S against cow beef. Ou the Paris marlcet it is ranked in the same category as bull beef; whereas it is well known that a fat heifer yields the most tender as well as the most savoury meat. The result of this strange classification is, that fat cows and heifers fetch a much lower price in France than steers and oxen ; so that an old bony ox, fifteen or more years old, har- dened by many years of field toil, and when no longer fit for working, half-fed a few months before he is slaughtered, fetches a higher price than a three-year- old heifer, fat, fresh, and healthy. Such anomalies are certainly most strange, but with these we have nothing to do : it is the French people's business, and not ours. All that we have to do now is, since they seem curious to know what we call beef, by the powers ! let them be gratified, T. DIBBLING AND DROPPING CORN. Allow us to propouud our remarks, connected with a con- temporary's obsetvatious, on the inapplicability cf dibbling and dropping of corn. It is our own opinion, however, that no method will ever supersede the practice of dibbling, provided it can be dropped properly in equidistant rows. It appears that a newly invented implement, in the shape of a hand- dibbler and dropper — an improvement on Dr. Newington's patented dibble— is about to be introduced and exhibited at the next Grand Smithfield Cattle Show, which will facilitate the dibbling and droppmg of wheat in particular, to a very great nicety, at equal distances, varying from one peck to one bushel per acre, according to the will of the operator, or the master who employs him. We are just presented with one of those machines by the inventor, for the express purpose of our testing its merits, or demerits, and reporting upon it, which we hope to be able to do shortly by describing, or showing an uniform plant of wheat produced by it from nearly every perfect grain. It is said to be very ditHcult to plant as much as one bushel per acre, with one of those efhcient implements, though it be set to dib and drop it much closer, from one grain to another, than is thought necessary even by extreme thick seeders. One of the great recommendations of this machine is, that with it the work cannot be slurred over, however awkward and careless the labourer may he who uses it, and cannot avoid depositing the seed at equal distances and at uniform depths, if he works according to the directions. A man, or strong lad, is said to be able to perform one acre a day with more pleasure, comparatively speaking, than he can half an acre with the old-fashioned pair of dibbles, without taking into consideration the trouble and expense of his droppers. The necessary slowness of the operation of dibbling, and the number of hands required to deposit all the seed on a laro-e farm, have hitherto militated agaiast the more general adoption of this much-tc-be-approved-of practice. The machines that have been invented to facilitate the process of dibbling, do not appear to have taken with the farmer, or at least to have succeeded so well as might have been expected. It is scarcely within our province to enlarge on this point, but whether it is that the instruments in question cannot accomplish the work they are designed for, or that the labourers cannot be taught or induced to use them properly, does not appear ; but we expect the fact is as we have stated. We believe, however, the present practice of a man making the holes, followed by four seed-droppers, to be a most bungling process, and, at all events, a most unsatisfactory mode of proceeding ; besides that, little ground is got over in a day, and the work that is done is found, on the seed coming up, to have been executed in a most irregular and slovenly manner. Ou makitig en- quiries of many intellgent farmers in Esses, we were given to understand that the number of grains dropped in each hole by the existing method, varied from nil up to thirty. Thia, Heaven knows, is a wide range enough — far too much to be creditable. Yet it is what we might naturally expect. The persons employed in dropping the grain are poor women and children, and as the wages are very trifling', they are obliged to work fast, being commonly paid according to what quantity of ground they get over without regard to the manner in which the work is done ; their hands likewise get benumbed with cold, and occasionally some getting behind the rest they are obliged to hurry on ; all this is calculated to render the mode of dibbling a very bungling operation. Provided the poor people cin get over sufficient ground to enable them to earn their wages, they are, for the most part, extremely indifferent as to how the w work is accomplished. In some places, on the seed coming m up, large tufts will be presented to the eye, while in others, no seed at all appears to have been deposited. The consequence of this is deplorable. If so many as thirty seeds be huddled together beneath the surface, the roots becoming matted to- together, will either all perish from fermentation, or otherwise a iine tuft will in due time make its appearance. Now, the farmer is far from feeling thankful for either of these catas- trophes— he has almost equal objection to either of them. Take the latter case, which is the worst. In what does this tuft eventuate? For a time they certainly look green and flourishing, and bid fair to become a promising family ; but like many other precocious geniuses, whether of the animal or vegetable world, they do not realize the expectations formed of them. Unless this happy family can get food. Death will knock at the door 1 They, however, run a race for it, and do the best they can on what they can get; by degrees they he- come more and more puny and unhealthy ; at length they turn yellow, and then drop off like rotten sheep ! After this hard fight for existence, two or three solitary things are found only to remain ! These under favourable circumstajces, after a time, contrive to acquire a little strength, and send forth a shoot or too, but owing to their having been starved in their youth, they never really thrive — they never assume the fine healthy appearance they would have done had they started singly, or by twin, or at most three plants, from the begin- ning. They never, indeeed, arrive at maturity; and they certainly do not win in a canter. We have heard people com- plain of their seeding being apt to produce an uneven sample. We should say that the example given above is more likely to do so. Hardy and Son, Maldon, Essex. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Co THE LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. DISCUSSION MEETING. The usual Monthly Meeting of the Club was held on Monday evening, December 8, in the large room of the Club-house, Blackfriars, and very numerously attended. Mr. J. Wood, of Ockley, Sussex, presided, as the Chair- man of the year, and amongst others present v^ere : — Lord Berners, Messrs. R. Baker, Jonas Webb, James Thomas, W. Bennett, Owen Wallis, B. P. Shearer, J. Paine (Beds), T, W. Granger, T. Owen, L. A. Cous- maker, T. E. Pawlett, J. Howard, C. Howard, T. Twit- chell, J. C. Nesbit, J. E. Spearing, W. Spearing, W. Pile, H. Trethewy, N. G. Barthropp, C. W. Johnson, T. Congreve, J. A. Nockolds, W. Walton, John Thomas, J. Bradshaw, the Rev. T. C. James, W. Cheffins, J. Cressingham, J. Cutts, E. Purser, P. J. Page, C. Stokes, T. Heard, J. Wells, C. Watts, J. Kemp (Lincoln), J, Marshall (Lincoln), B. Smithies, J. Tyler, G. Wilsher, M. Reynolds, G, Rock, T. Chandler, R. T. Deere, Dr. Ellis, W. Beam, &c., &c. The Chairman briefly stated that the subject for dis- cussion was " On the Rotation of Crops, more espe- cially as to how far the Four-course System is suscep- tible of Improvement." Its introduction to the meet- ing had been entrusted by the committee to Mr. Thomas, of Lidlington Park, Woburn, who no doubt would treat it in the manner that its importance deserved, and he now called upon that gentleman to commence the dis- cussion accordingly. Mr. Thomas then proceeded to read the following paper : — When, at our committee meeting last Christmas, I ventured to suggest that the subject of this evening's discussion, viz., " On the Rotation of Crops, more espe- cially as to how far the Four-course System is susceptible of Improvement," was well worthy of the consideration of our club, I did so from a conviction that it was not only a practical subject, but that it was one which hitherto had not received sufficient of our attention, and that the time had now fully arrived when it should be seriously considered how far those stringent agreements, coupled with severe penalties, which are the usual accompani- ments to every lease, may now be relaxed with justice to the owner, and advantage alike to the public and pro- ducer. We are, I hope, as a nation, making rapid strides towards the true principles of cultivation; and I would faia indulge a hope that the discussions which have been carried on within these walls among prac- tical men may, perhaps, have been one of the no mean causes of this most desirable march. Unlike a neigh- bouring nation, the agriculture of Great Britain receives from Government no fostering care. It has no Minister devoted to such a department ; it has no public fund set apart for its encouragement. But the energy and per- severance of the British farmer compensate for all, and exhibit him to tlie world the foremost in his class. Perhaps it may be well now to consider how and why restrictive covenants came to be inserted in agreements, and a positive and unchangeable course of cropping and cultivation insisted on. We will further examine the principles upon which they were founded, the certain advantages which they at first produced, and the serious obstacles which they must present to progressive im- provement, should they now, under such altered cir- cumstances, be persevered with. We cannot in this country date any improved agriculture from a much earlier period than tlie close of the last century. During the reign of George II. the major part of England was in an open field state, the agriculture was barbarous, the crops scanty, and the stock unimproved. The joint cultivators of these open fields, when perhaps a farm of 100 acres lay in fifty different spots, were no doubt anxious to make the most of the land which the circum- stances aftbrded and their limited agricultural knowledge permitted ; they appear then to have been unanimous in agreeing to a rotation of two crops anda fallow. No doubt this was decided upon, partly because they expected in the fallow season to destroy some of the filth with which their undrained land was infested, but chiefly in the delusive hope that fertility might be again restored by the disintegration of the soil, and enable them again to persevere in their unsound course. Disappointment, however, was the result. They had to learn that how- ever well fallowed a field might be, the atmospheie could not return to it, in a single year, a sufficient amount of nitrogen to enable it to produce uridiminishing crops for the following two. Probably the farmers of that day were unacquainted with ancient literature, or they might have known that the same principles had proved a perfect failure near 2,000 years ago. It was the invariable custom of Roman agriculture, during its zenith, to take a crop but every other year ; the alter- nate one was devoted to making a clean fallow. And we have no reason to doubt, after reading the masterly directions for such work as have been left by Cato, Pliny, Varro, and other Roman patricians, that it was performed in an inferior manner to what it is with us at the present time, and yet we find them constantly com- plaining of their diminishing produce, and the cause of this puzzled them sorely. But this at least they have left to us — that under this course of cropping the pro- duce of their wheat crop diminished between the time of Varro and that of Columella from 23 bushels per acre to about 12. If such, then, w^- the result of alter- nate husbandry, what could be that which adopted two crops and a fallow ? The inference is, that at the time of the vast enclosures of Great Britain most of the common fields had arrived at a degree of poverty which could not be exceeded, and produced crops which, under that system, could not be decreased. A change became indispensable. In the reign of George II., or less than 66 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 100 years from this time, we read of whole communities in a state of absolute starvation, and, in their anguish and despair, attacking and plundering alike the stores both of millers and farmers; and committees of both houses of the Legislature were frequently appointed to inquire into the cause of the scarcity. One would have thought that, with such a state of agriculture as I have described existing, it would have required no gifted sage to have explained the cause ; but at all events it was re- served for the British farmer to provide the remedy. I believe I am only doing justice to our friends north of the Tweed, if I state that it was the agriculturists of that country who, at the close of the last century, took the lead in those vast improvements which began to dis- tinguish our husbandry. They observed that the same crops, repeated consecutively, became smaller and smaller in their produce ; whilst with intervening crops of clover or roots, they became increasing ; and this led them to the conviction which the science of chemistry has now elucidated, that cereals and bulbs each ex- tracted a different substance from the soil, and that this extracted matter, whatever it was, was in time restored, either by the effect of the atmosphere, or the agency of manure. The researches of the agricultural chemist were then unknown, but the idea was correct in the main ; and thus first arose the famous agricultural system of alternate corn and green crops, which has now so long maintained its ascendency. The rotation of cropping which on strong lands in Scotland fir^^t obtained, and still retains the greatest favour, is the six course — always pre- mising that the land must be first made dry by draining — usually commencing with fallow, or fallow crops, such as tares or coleseed, wheat, beans, barley, clover, and wheat. It is sometimes altered to fallow, wheat, clover, oats, beans, wheat ; but by some there is an objection to this course, from the bean crop being so late in the rota- tion as to cause more difficulty in keeping it clean. But, if a landlord will insist that his tenant shall be bound down to one course of cropping, perhaps none better than one of these two could be found. The cultivation of the turnip soils of Scotland may be included with those of England. Whilst this energy was being displayed by our northern friends, enterprise and experiments were not wanting in England. J. W. Coke, afterwards Earl of Leicester, had succeeded to his vast estates in Norfolk, where a soil naturally poor only produced the poorest crops when their cultivation was attempted, but the greater part presented only sterile sheep-walks, or were devoted to the purposes of the warren. His active and energetic mind deplored such a state of things, and he resolved upon improvement. He saw that the soil wanted solidity before it would yield productive crops of corn, and the turnip and clover crop seemed to afford a remedy. And hence sprung the famous rotation of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, which appeared for many years to pro- mise unparalleled and permanent ^success. The Swedish turnips, then called ruta-baga, were then first intro- duced to this country. Red clover had been but little cul- tivated ; and the invariable luxuriance of these two crops, and also of the corn crops which succeeded them, seemed to point out the Norfolk system as one without a rival. Was it to be wondered at, then, when landlords beheld the gigantic improvements which were here displayed, that they were anxious to introduce the like into their respective estates ; and when they found persuasion un- availing, to compel their tenantry to improve by coercion ? There can be no doubt but that when the stringent cove- nants and restrictions to which I have bad so often to allude were first introduced, both their object and their tendency were to introduce an improved system of agri- culture ; but it has at last broken down, after holding its supremacy over half a century ; and, indeed, that it contained the germs of its own dissolution was clearly seen many years back by the late Sir J. Sinclair, and many other eminent agriculturists. I know not how the case may be in Norfolk ; but this I do know, that in every part of England with which I am intimately ac- quainted there is one universal lamentation over the difficulties which the system now presents. The swedes, though more certain of obtainment than they once were, through the agency of peculiar manures, are yet subject to strange and inexplicable diseases ; sometimes result- ing, as was the case last year, in the total ruin of the crop. The barley, where the crop of swedes had proved large, and had been fed on the ground with the addition of cake or corn, we find in fruitful seasons laid flat on the ground ; and when a period of wet takes place at the time of harvest, seriously sprouted, even before touched with the scythe ; the grain unfit for the maltster, and the straw valueless as fodder. The fa* mer then finds that his young clovers have been killed by the lodgment of the barley crop ; the next year produces him either an inferior crop of hay or a scanty run for his flock ; and the succeeding one yields him but an inferior crop of wheat, for every practical man knows how much the pro- duce of this crop, when it succeeds clover, is influenced by the degree of fertility in its predecessor — occasioned, no doubt, by the amount of roots left in the ground, as has been so accurately pointed out in morethan one lec- ture of our friend Mr. Nesbit. Let us endeavour now to ascertain the cause of this disease among the swedes (the cause of the frequent failure of the remaining three crops I have already alluded to), and then see if we can throw out some hints for an improvement of the rota- tion. That when a longer period than four years elapses between the crop of swedes the crop is usually found to be heavier, and success more certain, is well known. A remarkable instance of this I may quote, as taking place in a parish adjoining the one in which I re- side. At the close of last year, my neighbour, Mr. A. W. Crouch, in common with the rest of MB, lost almost the entire crop of a fine piece of swedes in a certain large field, by some inexplicable dis- ease ; but across this large field was a broad belt of mag- nificent swedes totally uninjured by disease, and pre- senting a marvellous contrast to their decayed and offen- sive neighbours. What was tlie cause ? Each part of the field had been manured alike, and each acre had re- ceived the like attention. The secret was this — four years previously this belt of sound bulbs had been pre- ceded by mangold wurtzel ; the remainder of the field had at the same period been cropped with swedes. Our friend Mr. Joseph Paine has told me that the same phe- nomenon occurred on the occupation of a near relative THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. C7 of his, and I Lave witnessed it ia other places as well. Let us, at least, gather soaiething from these remarka- ble facts. Now, sir, whilst I am going to propose to your notice alterations which I believe would prove very beneficial, I am not going to assert that they arc correct. Were T to do so, I should be running into the very error which I am so anxious to correct. My great object in introducing this subject is, as I have already said, not to lay down a rale, but to inquire whether a freer exercise of his judgment should not be allowed to a diligent and intelligent occupier. The fixed routine which many are compelled to adhere to is often pointed at with a sneer by the mechanic and manufac- turer ; and they inquire, " Who among us would found their practice upon the custom of fifty years since?" The market-gardeners, too, of Fulham and Battersea well know how necessary it is to grow that for which they have the best sale ; and maintaia that; whilst they can command an unlimited supply of manure, a peculiar rotation would be no better than sheer nonsense. Let us now suppose that we change the rotation from the four to a five course; and that it be turnip?, wheat, barley, clover, and wheat. Its advantages would be these : in the course of twenty years it would be found that the four crops of swedes, each at five years' dis- tance from each other, v/ould have produced a greater aggregate amount of food than five crops would have done, each four years distant from the other, and that the bulbs would be much freer from either disease or failure. I then propose to take a crop of wheat as our Scotch brethren almost invariably do ; we know by practice that our ordinary wheats succeed remarkably well when sown after turnips up to the middle of February. We have, then, the Ta- lavera, and other more prolific Spanish wheats, to fall back on; and, lastly, the April wheat, which maybe sown wit' security up to the 1st of May. I may here mention in parenthesis that a remarkably good farmer (now I am sorry to say no longer a member of this club), and who adopts the rotation we are discussing — I mean Mr. Shaw, of Cotton End — sows much of the wheat drilled after turnips with Italian ryegrass, for the keep of his couples during the month of March, and, ploughing this land about the 1st of April, sows it with barley and the ordhiary clover seeds. It is, however, very doubtful whether the Italian ryegrass could be in- troduced in this manner to any large extent. Next, then, in order to the wheat, comes the barley — the proscribed act — two white straw crops together. The experience of every one who has tried this tells him that this is the very mode to obtain a fine sample of malting barley ; and, as there appears to be no prospect of a remission of the malt tax, this, to those who cultivate the grain, is a great object indeed. But I do not propose to sow this second white straw crop without bestowing upon the land some nitrogenous manure. I should do it in the form of guano. Our friend Mr. Mechi would, no doubt, do it with liquid manure. Perhaps either means would answer the purpose, but I agree with the late Mr. Pusey, f( that liquid manure is a pretty toy, but solid dung is for farming in earnest." By guano I of course mean genviine Peruvian, and not the worthless trash which is, under that name, vended by hosts of unprincipled dealers, whose advertisements crowd the columns of our agri- cultural periodicals. I read in the report for East Lothian, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, " It is now found that guano, at the rate of two cwt. to the acre, can always be applied with profit to the oat crop, however high the condition the land may be in ;" and if this applies to the oat crop (barley is but little grown in Scotland), I imagine it must apply to the barley also. The idea of growing barley after wheat, or two crops of barley consecutively, is not new. In Batchelor's report of Bedfordshire, 1807, he says, "Barley is a favourite crop tov/ards Biggleswade, and is frequently sown after wheat;" and speaking of another part of the county, he says — '"'The large quan- tity of Loudon and other manure, which is here used, causes the barley to grow too luxuriantly to make it prudent to venture the clover to be sown, in the first season. The barley is therefore repeated for that pur- pose, and with better success." But in much more re- cent times, we find the same course much recom- mended. In the report for Dorsetshire, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, it is men- tioned as becoming universal. In Mr. Caird's report, too, of the farming of Lancashire, he is loud in the praise of a Mr. Longton, of Rain Hill, and adds (p. 268) : — " Mr. Longton is decidedly of opinion that barley after wheat is the best management with which he is acquainted." With such antecedents, there would be no doubt about the success of the clover crop, and after a luxuriant crop of clover but little of that of the wheat. 1 have thus endeavoured to sketch out what I believe would be found, upon trial, to be a great im- provement on the Norfolk four-course system. I could not have ventured upon recommending such a rotation to your notice, did I not recognize the powerful assist- ance which agricultural chemistry has brought to our aid] and, although I agree with the remark " that it is a great mistake to suppose that men can be made farmers by teaching them doubtful chemistry," yet I do think that our best thanks are due to those gentlemen who have given up their time to its study ; and to those who have kindly initiated us into its principles, and made us fa- miliar with its deductions, something more substantial than empty thanks can be offered without ofi^nce. I have not, as yet, alluded to the covenants which should ensure a landlord from the results of an impoverishing and faulty management. To avoid this, much depends on the judicious choice of a tenant ; but, to make "as- surance doubly sure," I should recommend an agree- ment, relinquishing into the incoming tenant's hands, one year before the expiration of an agreement not re- newed, a proportion of the holding— say one-fifth— and a further covenant that in the last year not more than three-fifths of the entire occupation should be under white straw cropping. I conceive that some such arrangement would unfetter the hands of a tenant very much during the major part of his lease, and could not, by anylpossi- bility, result in injury to the landlord. That some such ideas were held in remote days, we may learn from a lease granted by the demos or townspeople of Aexone, in the 108th Olympiad; or, 345 years before E 2 ra THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the Chiistlan era. The inscription, on stone, was brought with several others from Greece many years ago. It is now in the University of Leyden, and is be- lieved to be of unquestionable authority. Mr. Thomas here read the lease as follows : — " The demos of Aexone let on lease the Philais to Antocles, the son of Anteas, and to Anteas, the son of Antocles, for forty years, for 152 drachmas a-year ; the said land to be farmed by them, or planted with trees, as they please ; the rent to be paid in the month of Hecatombseon. If they do not pay it, they forfeit their security, and as much of the produce as they stand in arrear. The Aexonians not to sell nor to let the said land to anyone else, until the 40 years have elapsed. In case of a loss on the part of the tenants by hostile inviision, i,no rent to be paid, but the produce of the land to be divided between the Aexonians and the tenants. The tenants are to deliver up half the land fallow, and all the trees upon the land : for the last five years the Aexonians may appoint a vine dresser. The lease to begin, with respect to the corn land, with Eubulus'the Archon entering into office ; but with re- spect to the wood, not before Eubulusgoes out of office. The lease to be cut upon stone to be set up by the ma- gistrates, one copy in the temple of Hebe, the other in the Lesche ; the boundary stones to be set up upon the land, not less than two tripods on each side. And if a tax should be paid for the land to government, the said tax to be paid by the] Aexonians, or if paid by the tenants, to be deducted from the rent. No soil to be carried away by digging of the ground, except from one part of the land to another. If any person makes a motion in contravention of this contract, or puts it to the vote, he shall be answerable to the tenants for the damage." Mr. Caird here most properly remarks, that "in this short lease there is much of that plain common sense, which fairly recog- nises the duties and interests of both parties, and which is so often lost sight of, in the perplexing labyrinths of modern legal phraseology." Let us contrast these plain but efficient agreements with those impracticable and absurd covenants in the agreements which are forced upon the tenantry of the Duke of Northumberland, and which, although they have been much commented upon, have as yet scarcely been sufficiently canvassed by the farmers of Great Britain. I will read to you a few of the clauses, in order to give you an idea of the nature of these extraordinary documents : — "3. The further rent of 5^ an acre for every acre of the arable land when in fallow, that shall not be manured with at least 20 tons of well-rotted dung or manure to an acre on that part intended for turnips, and 12 tons of manure, or 8 fothers of clod lime to an acre on that part which is made a bare fallow. " 4. The further rent of 51. an acre for every acre of arable land on which more than two crops of corn shall be taken to one following, and which shall not be cultivated in the four- course system of husbandry, by a regular rotation of crops according to good management and the custom of the coun- try, but a deviation from this system may be made on the tenants receiving a license in writing, from the landlord or his agent. "5. The further rent of 10?, for every acre exceeding the quantity of acres, which shall in any one year be planted with potatoes, to be manured with at least 12 tons of manure to an qcre, over and above what is before men- tioned to be laid upon the fallow land, and no hemp, rape, turnip, or tlax, to he suffered to stand as a seed crop. " 8. The further rent of 5/. an acre for every acre of old grass land, which shall be mown without having been dressed the previous autumn with not less than 12 tons of good (inn?. " 15. No greater stock of sheep, horses, or cattle to be kept upon the premises in the last year than has usually been kept thereon. " 23. The tenant shall accept, immediately preceding har- vest time, his predecessor's away-going crop of corn, at a price to be fixed as follows, viz.: The away-going tenant and the entering tenant shall each appoint an arbitrator, and in case of their not agreeing, then the landlord's agent, or whom he may appoint, shall act as umpire, and his decision to be final ; but in case either the away-going or entering tenant shall fail to appoint an arbitrator within tbree days after notice from the landlord or his agent, then the landlord or his agent shall ap- point for such tenant an arbitrator, who shall have power to act precisely as if he had been appointed by the tenant so failing. The tenant, just previous to the harvest succeeding the expiration of his term, shall offer to his successor his away- going crop in the mode and on the conditions above specified. The tenant so accepting the crop shall be prepared to pay the amount, or to offer security to the satisfaction of the arbitra- tors or umpire for the payment of the sum awarded for said crops. " 2i. Whatever sum of money shall be awarded to the out- going tenant for away-going crops, shall be paid to the landlord or his agent, who shall apply the same to the liquidation of any arrears of rent, contingent rents, or ff>r any dilapidations or reparations required by building, watei-courses, fences, and premises, and pay the surplus (if any) to the out-going tenant. " 27. Provided always, and it is hereby agreed that, upon six months' previous notice being given in writing by either party to the other, before the expiration of any one year after the first year, the tenant is to quit the possession of the premises at then next following after such notice given as aforesaid." [The reading of these precious articles of agreement was interrupted by frequent cries of " Oh !" and followed by loud and general laughter]. Now, sir, I feel confident that no document, contain- ing at one and the same time so much coxcombical igno- rance and overbearing tyranny, was ever presented to the public since Cadmus first gave letters to Europe, Sir, I hope that I have already said enough to call your attention, and that of the meeting, to the important subject which I have thus introduced, and although it would be easy to amplify upon so fertile a subject, I will add but little more, because I am much more anxious to hear the opinions of others, than to extend my own remarks, I cannot, however, sit down without quoting a passage I lately met with, by an author in great re- pute among those who style themselves friends of pro- gress— and I hope that we all here actually are animated with that very sentiment — I mean Mr, Caird, who says, " In truth, each year's experience is adding to our knowledge, and extending the means at our disposal for improving the culture of the soil ; and the landlord who continues to bind his tenant down to a prescribed routine, from which he must not, under a penalty, de- viate, inflicts upon him a very serious injury, without any corresponding advantage." Mr. Thomas resumed his seat amidst much applause. Mr. J. Paine (of Felmersham, Bedfordshire) was sure that the club must feel greatly indebted to Mr. Thomas for his very able and interesting paper, and that the suggestion it contained would receive their most serious attention and consideration. He (Mr. Paine) was one who had long recognised the difficulty of getting his turnips erery fourth year; and the subject con- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 09 nected with his name, which Mr. Thomas had mentioned, came under his notice about two years ago. It happened that on a thirty-acre piece, well cultivated for turnips, and with a good plant, the greater part of the field became blighted during the summer ; the only exception being about seven acres, which had borne a crop of peas during the routine of the previous four years, and which was consequently eight years from the swede crops, and about an acre and a-half of which had been well limed. Here the produce was very good ; but these portions were all that was worth a farthing, though the entire field had been sown with the same seed, under precisely similar circum- stances. When the process of hoeing was performed, a more luxuriant crop could not be seen ; yet within six weeks from that time, saving the two portions referred to, the roots were not worth picking up. What was the conclusion to which he naturally came ? Why, that the fault lay in sowing the tur- nips too frequently (Hear, hear). For his own part he was in- clined to think that, through the agency of artificial manures, the farmer might iu some districts cultivate his land even upon a six course (Hear, hear). There was one ingredient in the question, however, which should never be lost sight of. Mr. Thomas bad alluded to the Duke of Northumberland's agree- ments. Now, if they had none but such men as the Duke of Bedford to deal with as landlords, there would be liltle need of requiring what was called fixity of tenure. The farmer would feel himself tolerably safe and quiet without it. But, unfortunately, that was not the case, and there would, he pre- sumed, be always some black sheep in the flock (Hear, and laughter). Before, then, a tenant invested his capital in artifi- cial manures and the improvement of the soil, he ought, in jus- tice, to have a guarantee that he would be enabled to reap the benefit of his outlay (cheers). Liud was not all fitted for tur- nips ; but where it was so, he thought that if they commenced one course of four or five years with mangel wurzel, and the next course with turnips, they would not experience much diffi- culty in getting a good turnip crop. Moreover, upon strong lands they would never do better than raise a crop of wheat, but they could not get two crops of wheat in five years with- out incurring the cost of two or three cwt. of guano per acre in one of those years. The absence of the security to which he had alluded was the only obstacle in the way of the im- provements recommended by Mr. Thomas, though this might be easily remedied by the establishment of a good understand- ing between landlord and tenant. Let it uot be supposed that they were aiming to benefit themselves at the expense of the landlords of the kingdom. On the contrary, they had no wish to extend their cropping without at the same time extending their improvements iu cultivation ; but to do this they must have security of tenure (Hear, hear). Were the English tur- nip introduced in one course, and the swede in another, he be- ieved it would also be found greatly to aid the growth and fertility of the latter. Certainly a plan similar to that which he had adopted with clover was attended with much advantage. That plan was to sow mixed clovers (white clover grasses and ao on — not broad clover) iu one course, and then broad clover in the following course. If the seeds of turnips were " coursed" in the same way, he saw no reason why equal benefit should not arise from pursuing that system (Hear, hear). Mr. R. Baker (of Writtle, Essex) was satisfied that Mr. Thomas's excellent paper would be nttonded with beneficial results. The true principle in the rotation of crops appeared to him (Mr. Baker) to be, not to brint,' inrotation in successive years such crops as drew from the land the same description of support, but rather tliat one crop should so alternate with another as to supply its successor with food, or at all events not to be injurious to it. On lands well managed the fallowing would admit of a green crop of rye or tares, or other vegetable, to conclude with turnips. On his light land he always took rye before turnips, then turnips, barley, and clover. The turnips furnished abundant food for the barley, and the harlej' was a good preparation for the clover. To the clover succeeded wheat ; then lie followed with an autumnal fallow, manured slightly, and took barley again. But of course the rotation must vary according as the description of soil va- ried or changed; therefore the farmer should have the privi- lege of selecting that mode of rotation which was best adapted to the soil. Upon his light land, also, and many gen- tlemen jiresent had seen the experiment, he had adopted the system of taking oats after turnips and wheat after oats, and he found that he could grow better wheat in this order than by any other process he had ever tried. In fact, the crop was a most productive one, his last yielding, upon being thrashed out, five quarters an acre ; and whenever he could. get that quantity he was fully satisfied (Hear, and laughter). The time had now arrived when the old idea about the ex- haustion of the soil ought to be entirely abandoned (Hear, hear). There was no such thing as exhaustion of the soil. Only give hira an opportunity of clearing the crops as they came in rotation, and an ample supply of manure of an or- ganic character, and he could go on producing crops year by year for ever ; in other words carry out what had been iro- nically termed the " everlasting shift" (laughter). But, unfortunately, leases were too restrictive on the tenants, and tied them down too stringently to a particular system of cultivation, whilst it was difficult to induce the landlord to alter that system even in the present day. In the cases, however, of some farms which he had let since Michaelmas, he had been able to introduce a clause to the effect that two white straw crops should not be taken in succession, unless the tenant first manured the land upon which such crop was so intended to be taken with guano or other manure of like nature, not the production of the farm, of the value of 30s. per acre at the least. So long as the tenant did that — so long as he put into the land that which was necessai'y to support the crop he took out, if he took it in rotation, he would do injury neither to the landlord nor himself. Indeed, whenever a second straw crop was introduced in that waj', by artificial manure, all the straw being returned to the land, the tenant might go on pro- ducing and reproducing to the advantage of both. The cir- cumstances of the times demanded that the farming capa- bilities of the country should be developed. We had a limited area upon which to maintain a rapidly-increasing population; and if the support of the people was to be derived from the soil of the country, there must be more liberal covenants in leases to enable occupiers to raise the largest amoimt of pro- duce. It was advisable that the " customs" of the country relative to the letting of land should also be changed, for some of them were most obnoxious. Thus, where there happened to be no lease, and the tenancy was from year to year, the landlord could remove his tenant on the 25th of March by giving him a six months' notice, after he had incurred a large expenditure for producing crops, and the tenant was unable, by the laws of the land, to recover one farthing upon a valua- tion. Another pernicious custom was, that where there was not a sufficiency of farm buildings, and the tenant was obliged to erect them, he must leave them all at the expiration of his term for the use of his successor, and in a perfect state of repair. Instead of such bad customs as these, surely it was prcferabh at oucc to have a wcl'.-dcfined p.jrecuicnt (Hear, 70 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hear). We were now iu a trangiiion state, progressing to a far better syatera of cultivation than had ever been kuown be- fore, and when the minds of the public should be brought to bear upon the questiou, and the tenants pointed out to the landlords what they conceived to be best for the interests of both, he doubted not that the latter would be ready to accede to their wishes with respect to that which was clearly for the benefit of the nation at large (Hear, hear). Mr. Owen Wallis (Overstone, Northampton) quite concurred in Mr. Thomas's proposition, with regard to the description of laud he farmed — namely, the sandy soils — inasmuch as it would give greater opportunities for clearing or eradicating any couch grass that might present itself in the wheat crop before the barley was required to be sown. Besides which, they would get more barley than if they sowed after turnipj. With liberal dressing for the turnip crop, and liberal feeding for the sheep upon the turnips, a barley crop was so heavy as to destroy the seeds, or so to weaken them as to render them of little worth for the first year. In Northamptonshire and some other districts there were other descriptions of soil not so liable to run into couch ; for instance, the limestone and ironstone soils, and there the six -course system hadbeen adopted with very^great advantage. The rotation of that course was — first turnips, then barley, two years seeds, wheat, and then barley again. And, as far as his experience went, he was satisfied that more stock was kept and more corn grown, at a less cost, upon that system than upon any other. Mr. W. Bennett (of Cambridge) in rising to address the numerous and respectable agriculturists he saw before him, on the important subject of the eveniug's discussion, did so not without considerable trepidation. He felt equally obliged to Mr. Thomas, with gentlemen who had spoken, for his able and excellent address ; indeed, all who knew that gentleman felt quite assured that in his hands the subject would be treated with ability (cheers). He (Mr. Bennett) went also a long way with Mr. Thomas in acknowledging the desirabihty of re- moving the restrictions which in many cases fettered good farmers in developing the resources of the land — and he doubted not on much good land of the country an extra white straw crop might be produced under cleanly farming, and an outlay for artificial manure, to the benefit of the farmer and without iujury to the land (cheers). At the same time he felt bound to say that it would be useless for that Club to argue this point unless they could take pretty largely the landowners with them in the views they entertained. For it must be admitted there were, as in all other cases, two sides to this question — before they could change very largely the system of farming from four to the five course, they who let the land would require some security that such privilege should not be abused (cheers). With spirited and good farmers (and more especially where land was unkind for turnips) — he repeated under good cultivation it would be a great improvement. The five or even the six course system might be followed to ad- vantage by a judicious arrangement of crops, and a liberal appliance of manure. But it must ever be borne in mind that a bad instead of a good farmer, with such latitude given him, might beggar the land, and that laws are not made for the good, but for the disobedient. In self-defence, there- fore, rather than to cramp the efforts of enterprising good farmers, somewhat stringent covenants were in- troduced into leases and agreements for land — and some- times (he would admit) very vexatious and frivolous ones (cheers). It would be idle, however, not to admit that this subject was surrounded with difficulty. The great desi- deratum was how to give full scope to an enterpri'ing gc-n-head farmer, who would keep his land clean, and in these days of arti- ficial manure keep it up to the mark — and the careless sloveu, on the other hand, who would only abuse any extent of privi- lege of this sort. The time allotted for this discussion would not allow him to go at all at large into this matter, although, with all due deference to the chair, he thought it of far more importance than the examination of fat stock at the Cattle Show that evening (cheers and laughter). Perhaps the grant- ing of a lease with general covenants to keep the farm in good heart and plight, without restrictions as to cropping (except for the last four years, when, to save any retrograde move- ment in farming on the one hand, or claim for unexhausted im- provements on the other, the lease should be renewed) would best obviate the difficulty (cheers). His friend, Mr. Thomas, must excuse him, however, if he said that he thought he had rather overdrawn the case in pointing out the evils of the four-course system. That gentleman said "to feed on the land the whole turnip crop, and often with corn or cake, only threw down the barley, damaged the quality, and often spoiled the young seeds," which was all very true ; but he (Mr. Bennett) very much questioned the policy of such a course. On good well-farmed land he thought at least one-third of the turnips should be consumed in making the manure at the farm home- stall (cheers). Mr. Thomas further stated that the too frequent repetition of Swedish turnips caused their failure, which was another serious evil. He (Mr. Bennett), however, thought that might be largely obviatedby the substitution of mangold,thecom. monturnip, or even kohlrabi, alternately. He hadfoundit answer himself, more especially in transplanting the kohl rabi on a ■ portion of his fallows. The difficulty of getting seeds so often " as once in four years had also (and very properly) been pointed out. That evil, by all judicious farmers, was avoided as far as possible by the substitution of the different varieties of clover alternately with peas or beans on a portion of the clover season ; and the landlord who debarred his tenant against the latter acted most injudiciously. While, therefore, they were seeking some amelioration in farm covenants, and he thought properly so, the purposes for which the four- course system was adopted, and the astonishing advancement of agriculture within the last fifty years, must never be lost sight of (cheers). Mr. J. C. Nesbit (of Kennington) looked upon the four- course system of cropping merely as the germ of a more li- beral and extended system. The four-course shift was first, turnips; then barley; next clover; and, lastly, wheat. His own opinion was, without reference to the mineral theory of Liebig and others, that the chief use of the intermediate ve- getable crops— the turnip and clover — was to collect a cer- tain quantity of organic matter from the air for the produc- tion of the other (the paying) crops. The four-course, then, might be expanded to a six, an eight, or even a twelve-coui-se, and that in fact without deviating from the principle. Sup- posing, by way of illustration, he wanted to convert the four- course into a six-course, the crops could be taken thus — turnips, barley, clover, wheat, mangel or beet, and wheat or barley again. He agreed with Mr. Thomas that in many districts it was best to take barley after wheat, because tlie wheat having had the first demand upon the accumu. lated organic matter in the soil, a far better malting barley was produced afterwards. Any lease or agreement which prevented the free action of the fanner in changing the crops was most detrimental to the general agriculture of the kingdom, and the sooner it was put an end to the better. He really did not think the landlords themselves knew much about the forms of agreements. These rested too much with their friends the lawyers, who were generally THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 71 content to take as a model something which might have done duty since the early days referred to by Mr. Thomas. Mr. Granger (of Stretham, Ely) was of opinion that the rotation of crops suggested by Mr. Thomas on barley land was the best that could possibly be adopted ; but there must be good farming, and the land should be manured at least three times in the five years. In his (Mr. Granger's) neighbourhood the five-course system was universallj' prac- tised, but there the land was not barley land. The rota- tion was roots, oats, wheat, seeds, and wheat, and wherever that course was adopted the land was certainly in the best condition, and made beneficial both to the occupier and landlord (Hear, hear). Lord Berners (of Keythorpe, Leicester), though agreeing with the observations of Mr. Bennett and Mr. Paine, in many respects, would not, as a practical agriculturist, dare venture to lay down a stringent rule for any positive rotation of crops. At the same time his opinion was, that the four-course system was the best in principle, inasmuch as it commenced with a root crop, and the more roots they grew the more stock they kept, and the more corn would eventually be produced. But whilst he regarded the four-course system as an excellent basis, he thought it should be varied as much as possible, in order to keep the land in proper condition. In the remark that a well- considered agreement was best for both farmer and landlord, he perfectly agreed. He would add that there should be mutual confidence between the two, for unless they could say that their interests were reciprocal, they could neither of them hope to succeed. Mr. Pile (of Tupton, Hants) concurred with Lord Berners that if a basis were necessary, the four-conrse was the best ; but he did not himself believe that it was desirable for the farmer to be bound down to any particular system ; on the contrary, it would be to the benefit of all parties that the farmer should have the freest scope for the exercise of his capital, skill, and industry, at the same time that the landlord was ensured against injury at the expiration of the tenancy, and the delivering up of the farm. His own impression, so far as the land of Hampshire was concerned, was that if the tenant kept one sheep to an acre he could not injure his landlord, let him farm the land how he might. In the part of that county where he (Mr- Pile) resided, the four-course system was generally followed ; but a friend of his who occupied and farmed his own land had told him that it would ruin any man in England to be bound down irrevocably to that system (Hear, hear). The plan adopted by his friend was simple, being merely to sow half his barley crop after wheat, and half after turnips or swedes. Now the best malting barley grew after wheat ; and if he were bound to the four-course system, he could not do this. His experience taught him that where confidence prevailed between landlord and tenant there was no need of any cove- nants at all, and he hoped the day was at hand when the two classes would better understand their respective interests, and the landlord agree in the justice of paying the tenant for unexhausted improvements at the end of his term (Hear, hear). Mr. Smithies (of Marlow, Leintwardine) said his ex- perience, like that of many others, led him to the conclusion that the four-course system might be very much improved upon, not by merely varying it, however, but rather by doing away with it altogether, and adopting another course instead. Mr. Bennett seemed to think that the landlords might be afraid of introducing any other system ; and also that with good farming the four-course might bo greatly improved. Surely it must be the landlord's object to encourage the tenantry in farming as well as possible, for it was only by good farming that they could ever hope to grow two white crops in succession ; and they all knew that where the farm- ing was good, upon good land, if the farmer fed his sheep off the turnip crop with a liberal amount of calve and so forth, he would get his land in too high condition for the growth of barlej' ; consequently he might have two white crops in suc- cession after turnips — first wheat, and then barley. A sys- tem like that, he thought, could not fail to meet the approval of the landlords, if they were once made to understand it. He believed that, generally speaking, landlordsknewnothing about leases and covenants, but had a notion in their heads, which it was diflicult to remove, that what was termed the four-course shift was the best. Let it be shown them, that if they insisted upon that system they prevented good farming, and it would go far to induce them to give more liberty to their tenants. So far as the rotation of crops was concerned, he (Mr. Smithies) had derived much more advantage from sowing white clover in one course, and red clover or rye grass in the following course, than from sowing white clover every fourth year. Mr. Walton (of Godsfield, Hants) was inclined to think that the four-course system was a first-rate one. In Hampshire, where he had resided for twenty years, the five-course prevailed, which included two years' seeds, and that did great injury to the land, and filled it with rubbish. His great object and desire had always been, therefore, to induce his landlord to permit the adoption of the four-course system. After a few words from Mr.NocKOLDS (of Stansted, Essex), as to the custom of country, The Chairman said, he quite concurred in the propriety of not binding down the tenant too stringently to any par- ticular system. Not having land of the description to grow barley to the extent spoken of this evening, the course he adopted was to sow with wheat not oftenev than every other year; and as long as prices ranged as high as they had done for the last few years, and he manured accord- ingly, he considered that he was not acting unfiiirly by the land ; and that he avoided taking a crop of clover more often than once in twelve years, and keeping within these bounds he thoght he farmed in a proper manner. Mr. Thomas having made a few observations of a general nature in reply. Mr. Owen Wallis proposed the following resolution • — " Resolved, — That it is the opinion of this meeting that the landlord who binds his tenantry down to a prescribed routine, from which they must not, under a penalty, deviate, inflicts both upon them and the public a very serious injury, without conferring any corresponding ad- vantage." Mr. Smithies seconded the motion, which was put and carried unanimously. The proceedings closed with a vote of thanks to Mr, Thomas for his paper, and to Mr. Wood for his conduct in the chair. THE ANNUAL DINNER Took place on the Tuesday, in the large room at Kadiey's Hotel, nearly opposite the Club House. Mr. James Wood, of Ockley, Sussex, concluded his duties as Chairman for the year by presiding on this occasion. He was supported by upwards of eighty members of the Club and their friends. Amongst others were Messrs. R. Baker, C. Stokes, W. Bennett, Jonas Webb, B. P. Shearer, H. Trethewy, James Thomas, T. Owen, T. W. Granger, C. W. Johnson, C. Howard, W. Spearing, S. Druce, J. Druce, T. Twitchell, W. BuUock Webster, R. de THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Trehonnais, G. P. Tuxford, Greenhow Relph, J. C. Nesbit, the Kev. C. T. James, H. Cheffins, E. Smithies, J. Parsons, J. Marshall, W. P. M. Ousely, Ibbot Mason, F. Withes, C. M. Bidwell, John Thomas, J. G. King, J. F. Baiues, E. Purser, J. A. Nockolds, J. A. Williams, J. Girdwood, J. Cressiugham, G. Wihher, G. Hilton, &c., &c. Mr. Owen Wallia, of Over- atone, Northampton, occupied the Vice-chair, as Chairman-elect for the ensuing year. After the customary loyal toasts had been duly given and responded to. The Chairman proceeded to propose " Success to the Farmers' Club." This was, he need scarcely remark, the chief toast on his list. Among the three great sister agri- cultural societies, the Farmers' Club was not, in his judg- ment, the least interesting; and he thought that if it con- tinued to progress as it had done of late, its importance would be recognised bj' all who were in any waj' connected with agriculture. He entertained very great hopes that the club would take a high position among the leading agricul- tural societies of the kingdom ; and he saw no reason why it should not overtake the Smithfield Club, or even the Royal Agricultural Society (cheers). Indeed, looking to the ex- tent and importance of the class to which its members be- longed, he must say it appeared to him rather astounding that it had not gone ahead faster than it had done. Were • all the farmers of England of his own way of thinking on that subject, this club would soon become one of the most powerful associations in the kingdom. If farmers generally, instead of always remainingat home and preserving their own actions with jealousy, would come to London occasionally to meet members of their own fraternity, and get their old musty ideas well ventilated (laughter), he ventured to say they would not lose anything by such contact and inter- course (Hear, hear). Were they even to come to town seven or eight times a year, thej' would in the end sustain no loss, he believed, in a pecuniary point of view (Hear, hear). However satisfied many might feel that they knew better than any one else — and he believed that that kind of feeling prevailed to a very great extent among farmers — he for one was confident that there was no farmer who might not learn something from persons who belonged to the same class as himself. If there were a great number of persons living a great distance apart, each of whom was in posses- sion of a certain amount of agricultural knowledge, what could be more likely to make such knowledge of general utility than for those who possessed it to meet occasionally for discussion and interchange of ideas? (Hear, hear.) Such was, in fact, the object of this club. The Farmers' Club was established to fill up a vacuum which was left by two other societies. In the Royal Agricultural Society they saw breeding stock and implements ; in the Smithfield Club they saw fat stock and implements ; in this club they rnet to discuss the merits of all, and to arrive at sound con- clusions with regard to the best mode of cultivation and production. In this association, moreover, they became acquainted with each other ; and viewing it as a whole, he thought it was the best complement to the othertwothat could possibly exist. There was, indeed, one obstacle to its advance- ment. This society stood upon its own bottom ; it had no patronage or extraneous aid to push it forward : but though, in consequence of this, its progress might be rather slow, it was also sure— and it was, in fact, advancing as certainly as any society in the country. He repeated his conviction, that in a few years the Farmers' Club of England and Wales would be universally admitted to be one of the most im- portant societies in the land ; and mih this impression with regard to its future prosperity, he begged noAV to propose " Success to the Farmers' Club." _j The toast was drunk with three times three. Mr. R. Baker (of Writtle) had been requested to return thanks for the toast which had just been given, and he assurred them that, as one of the oldest mem- bers and one of the founders of the club (Hear, hear), he felt very great pleasure in complying with that request (cheers). Their excellent Chairman, whose zeal on behalf of the club carried him to the utmost extent in advocating its claims to support, had proposed the toast in a manner which made it difficult for him to replj' in adequate terms. This, however, he would say, that whether as regarded its object, or whether as regarded the probability of its exten- sion, he thought it hardly possible to say too much. What position it was to occupy in relation to kindred societies time alone would show ; but, as representing especially the practical department of agriculture, it always had been, and he believed it always would be, the first society in this coun- try ; and if the first in this country, it was in fact the first society of this kind in the world (cheers). It had been said by those who were not perhaps so congenial with prac- tical men as they might be, who set up a theory against their practice, and did not appear to recognize the fact that theory and i^ractice ought as far as possible to be blended together — it was said by such persons in the present day, when the most rapid strides had been made in agriculture, and when science had been brought to bear upon its deve- lopment, that agriculture was, after all, yet in its infancy. If this were true, he must say it was not a very precocious child (laughter). History informed them that as far back as 4,000 years ago corn was grown very extensively in Egypt, not merely for consumption within the countrj', but also for the supply of other parts of the world ; and if, therefore, agriculture, with all its recent improvements, had not yet left off its swaddling clothes, there seemed little probability that it would ever do so (cheers). But, putting all meta- phor aside, he came at once to the grand object of the for- mation of this club, namely, the combining the best practical men engaged in agricultm'e in one society, and the bringing a number of them together periodically, for the purpose of discussing subjects of the greatest interest to them as far- mers ; and he must say that if that course of proceeding did not tend to advance agriculture, he was at a loss to con- ceive in what way it could be advanced (Hear, hear). It had always been held that when men of any class combined together for some common purpose, they were more likely to effect their object than if they acted only individually. If more of those farmers who lived at a distance were mem- bers of the club, they might inspire others with new notions ; they might hear something which they had not heard be- fore ; they might return home less self-sufficient than they were preNiously ; and a society, which by bringing men to- gether, helped to disabuse theirmindsof false ideas, to place them on a proper footing of intercourse with members of their body, and to diffuse general information in reference to fiir- ming operations, could not do otherwise than conduce to the general advancement of agriculture. He need not take up any more of their time, but would conclude by expressing a hope that the club would always merit the approbation of the comnninity at large ; that it would go hand in hand with tjie Royal Agricultural Society and the Smithfield Club ; and that, like them, it would derive and enjoy the respect of other nations besides our own for its services to the cause of practical agriculture (cheers). Mr. Owen Wallis (of Overstonc) proposed " The Royal THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 73 Agricultural Societies of England, Scotland, and Ireland." After observing that it was the beneficial working of the Highland Society of Scotland which no doubt first suggested to Lord Spencer and others the formation of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, he said that, as one of the judges in the Implement Department of the latter Society, he had had better opportunities than most per- sons of watching the progress which the Society had made, and of appreciating the service which it had rendered to agri- culture. By the attention which it had paid to the breeding and rearing of stock, in connection with its shows, the Royal Agricultural Society had created a great demand for English breeding stock in Erjuce and other continental countries ; and it was only on Saturday last that he was told by a horse- dealer that he was at that time commissioned to buy 150 en- tire horses for exportation to France. But, whatever good the institution in question might have done in relation to stock, it was, he believed, for the good it had effected in regard to the implements and machinery used in farming operations that the farmers of this country were chiefly indebted to it (Hear, hear). It must be recollected that the machinery employed by farmers had been wonderfully improved of late years. At the time of the formation of the Royal Agricultural Society, any- thing like a steam-engine had never been seen upon a farm ; and the excellent portable thrashing machines which were now in such common use were then almost as little dreamt of as steam ploughing (Hear, hear). Steam was already extensively used in the farm-yard and the homestead, and he believed that at no distant period it would prove a most important auxiliary in the cultivation of the soil (Hear, hear). Those who wit- nessed the performance of the steara-plough at Chelmsford must, he thought, be convinced that its ultimate success was not far distant. Every successive year tended to render the assistance of steam in the harvest- field a more indispensable necessity ; and he hoped that in a very short time reaping machines would be generally found to render very great aid in gathering crops. Mr. Smithies (of Marlow, Leintwardine), in acknow- ing the toast, said that he had attended every meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England since its first formation, and that he could consequently speak of the great good it had accomplished. He concurred with Mr. Wallis that great improvements in agriculture were due to the Society, both as regarded stock and implements. One great source of improvement was the assembling of farmers together for purposes in which they had a common in- terest. He fully agreed with the worthy Chairman as to the advantages [of frequent intercourse between practical farmers. It was often the case that a farmer was placed in the midst of a number of men who were not his equals in intelligence or scientific knowledge ; and in such in- stances, however great might be the desire to advance with the times, the tendency of surrounding influences was to make the mind rusty (Hear, hear). If, however, farmers met together in that club, every one found some one who was equally intelligent and equally desirous of improvement ■with himself, and the eftect of intercourse was very benefi- cial to them all. As regarded the Royal Agricultural Society, let it be recollected that those who subscribed to it, if they could not attend its meetings, would at all events receive a copy of the society's Journal ; and the perusal of the admirable papers contained in that publication would be far more than an equivalent for the small sum which they paid (Hoar, hear). Mr. Stokes (of Kingston, Kegworth) had a most pleas- ing duty to perform, and one in the discharge of which he felt certain he would meet with the support of all present; it was that of proposing the healtli of the Chairman (loud cheers). The discussions which had taken place recently at the Central Farmers' Club had been most interesting and instructive, and of great benefit to the country at large. They could not have been carried on properly without an efiicient chairman ; and their present chairman, who was also the chairman of the club for the past year, so presided over the meetings as to command the respect and esteem of all who attended them. No one who knew Mr. Wood could be insensible to the fact that he had the kindest heart and the best intentions; and he trusted that he would long live to set an example of good farming and of zeal in the advance- ment of agriculture. The toast was most cordially received. The Chairman, in reply, after expressing his deep sense of the kindness which had just been manifested towards him, said he felt that many men in the club were better adapted for the duty of presiding than he himself was ; and that the selection of himself was owing to the necessity of choosing those who would devote time to the work, and of affording an opportunity to the willing as well as the talented. It was on that account that he had consented to fill the office ; and he assured them that he had felt it a very high honour to be the president of a society which was composed of four hundred as intelligent men probably as could be found in the country — a body of gentlemen who comprised many of the foremost members of the class to which he belonged. He should always look back with great gratification to that period of his life. In his retire- ment in the Weald of Sussex, he should consider that a great compliment was paid to him when he was elected chairman of that institution ; and he earnestly hoped that the club would increasingly prosper (cheers). Mr. Jonas Webb (of Babraham, Cambridge) said a toast had been placed in his hands which he felt great pleasure in rising to bring before their notice ; it was " Success to the Agriculture of France." He should have felt more hesita- tion in proposing that toast had he not seen in the room a very influential French gentleman, whom he should very shortly call upon to respond. He alluded to M. Trehonnais, who was very well kno^^m to many present, and he could promise those who had not heard that gentleman speak on an occasion of that kind, a very great treat. M. Trehonnais was known to many persons in this countrj'' as an extensive commission agent for the Government of France, and for enterprising private individuals of his nation, who employed him to select the best stock that he could find in this country ; and he need not say that if he had not been a man of good standing m his own country, he was not likely to have had so much confidence reposed in him. He there- fore felt very great pleasure in asking him to acknowledge the toast. He wished to make one or two more observations before he resumed his seat. Gentlemen who had not the good fortune to attend the Great Paris Exhibition must nevertheless have heard that Englishmen were being well received. For his own part he coidd testify that he was not only taken in and done for, but done well for (cheers and laughter). He looked upon their French neighbours as companions in arts and companions in arms, and he now called upon them to drink their health as companions in agriculture (cheers). M. Trehonnais (of Falmouth), who, on rising was re- ceived with loud cheers, said — This is not the first time, gentlemen, that I have been honoured in the company of English agriculturists with the pleasing duty of acknow- 74 ^KE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 1 edging a graceful compliment paid to the agricultural in- terest of my country. But I must own that I rise this evening to accomplish this task with murh more confidence and pride, nay boldness and assurance, than I felt justified to assume on former occasions. And this for two reasons ; first, because you, my friends, and I myself, have formed a somewhat inti- mate acquaintance (Hear, hear). I am certainly no stranger to you, and some of my friends even go so far as to say that I have ceased to be a foreigner. However this may be, you have taught me to place upon your kindness and goodwill the most implicit reliance (cheers) ; and from every one of you wilh whom matters of business or other causes have brought me into contact, I have ever experienced, not only that courtesy which the genuine spirit of hospitality, so characteristic of the English farmer, prompted you to proffer to a stranger, whom a calling kindred to your own brought under your roofs ; but what I value infinitely more, the unmistakeable tone and de- meanour of sincere well-wishers and friends (loud cheers). But, gentlemen, this is a merely personal matter, and with ■whatever amount of confidence it may inspire me — however proud I may feel from the consciousness of so much interest and goodwill towards me, yet were I to derive inspiration from that . cause alone, my address would, I fear, fall short of your expectations, for it would naturally lack that warmth, that glow, that enthusiasm of thought and expressiou which is only to be derived from the intrinsic merits of a subject such as the one which has been entrusted to my humble powers — a subject possessing an infinitely wider range, bearing as it does on the more weighty questions of political and social economy. I have then another and a far more powerful cause of exultation and confidence, and that is, that French agriculture, to which you have been pleased to pay the compliment of a toast, now possesses some new titles to your esteem and regard — titles which at last rank among those great institutious of the world upon which the mighty spirit of progress has breathed, and in which that life-giving breath has instilled fresh vigour and vitality, raising it, as it were, into an energetic existence out of that musty grave in which ages of ignorance and neglect, exhaustion and collapse, had mournfully laid it (Hear, hear). Yet with all her short- coraicgs, with all those shackles of routine v.'hich still hang about her robust frame and impede the full development of her action, French agriculture exhibits at last symptoms of life and energy which bid fair to effect her complete and speedy emancipation from that tntelage and nursery guidance which the government of France have found it their unavoidable duty to assume, in order to rescue her from that almost hopeless state of decrepitude and de- generacy into which she had gradually sunk under con- spiring circumstances ever since the palmy days of Sully and Oliver de Serres (cheers). But, gentlemen, besides the manifestation of tliis energetic revival, French agricul- ture possesses another title to your cousiderrition. She is uo longer a stranger to your own ; other ties than those which bind the pupil to the teacher— the benefited to the bene- factor— may now be said to exist, and to form a connection which, I trust, will ripen into that happy completion when a reciprocity of advantages, a mutual exchange of elements of progress and prosperity, may spring up between them and cement their union (loud cheers). They have met, gentlemen. The English Cluecn, with her ponderous train of machinery, the peaceful instruments of her creative achievements — with her lowing herds, the flower of her breeds, the piide of her pastures— and attended as a body-guard by an imposing array of her stout yeomen, gathered from all parts of her realm — has crossed that Channel which, narrow though it be. had heretofore divided two great coramunities as effectually as if it had possessed the wide expanse of ocean (Hear, hear, J and cheers). She did this, gentlemen, in gracious acceptance M of a magnificent invitation from her humble sibter of France, who, to receive her in a manner worthy of both, had opened to the riches she came to display a gorgeous palace, which the hands of fairies seemed to have vied to adorn (cheers). Gen- tlemen, something more than a mere exchange of courtesies must and will, I trust, arise from this important event. Al- though English agriculture may derive uo immediate gain from theae international exhibitions, yet, as the natural law of everything that is luminous and warm, glorious and beneficial, is to expand and diffuse itself abroad, scattering wherever it can reach beams of joy and plenty, progress, knowledge, free- dom, and morality (cheers), so, in the fulfilment of that mis- sion, in obedience to that law, English agriculture, out of the superabundance of her vitality, must necessarily diffuse throughout the world the treasures of her breeds, her imple- ments, and her systems of husbandry, and kindle, wherever these can reach, the living spark of civilization and prosperity (loud cheers). Von will allow with me, gentlemen, that if your agriculturists reaped no other advantage but the con- sciousness that through the skill, industry, perseverance, and indomitable energy of her sous, she has become the spring from which flov.'s agricultural improvement in never-failing streams all over the world, this alone would appear to the eyes cf the living generation, as it must undoubtedly appear to those of posterity, a glorious position worthy her ambition, and a goal of sufficient magnitude to enlist for its conquest the mighty efforts cf her genius (cheers). And it is even so, gentlemen ; go wherever you will, in whatever clime or country, in old or new worlds, in frigid, temperate, or torrid zones, wherever agricultural progress is perceptible, its origin is in- variably traced to the introduction of some English elements of improvement, such as breeding stock and implements, the effects of which proclaim at once, in aiiuumistakeable manner, both the effective results of their application, and the glory of the country from which they came. This is a proud position, gentlemen — one which is not only calculated to gratify your feelings as Englishmen, but one \\hich opens to the prcdijce of your skill and industry a boundless and insatiable market, which cannot fail to elevate still higher the already-lofty station of your agriculture (continued cheering). As to myself, gentlemen, whose humble name you Lave so kindly and flatteringly associated with the diffusion of agri- cultural progress in France, lit me conclude this address with the expression of a sentiment, the realization of which is the greatest ambition of my desires ; and that is, that French agriculture may long continue in close alliance with your own, and so profit by this advantageous union as to be enabled at no distant period to reciprocate in a manner worthy of that al- liance the priceless advantages she has herself received (cheers). Mr. W. Spearing (of Chilbolton, Hants) proposed "The Smithfield Club," and dwelt upon the great benefit which it had rendered to farmers in the impetus which it had given to the improvement cf the various breeds of sbesp and cattle. Mr. CiiAELES Howard (of Biddcnham, Bcds),in respond- ing to the toast of the " Smithfield Club," thanked the meeting most cordially for their kind notice of that institution ; but he felt that the task of responding to the toast was placed in wrong hands, for he would much rather that it should have been re- sponded to by some older member of the club, and one who had received more of its honours ; and also by one who had been a successful exhibitor in a class where there was uo invidious distinction in the amount of its prizes. In this sense it was hia misfortune to be a successful exhibitor in a class of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 75 skeep whose qualifications were not deemed worthy of the same prize as ia another class, the object of whose breeders is to keep the tallow market well supplied; but he was almost wicked enough to say, he was happy to find that the privacy of that nice little snug family party, that had so long had the management of the club, had been broken in upon, and no doubt some of the members of that exclusive body had been Bomewhat scared by the appearance of that intruder the "march of progress" having taken its seat amongst them; for, from the pressure without, it was in contemplation to ex- tend the classes very considerably, and in some cases to give far more liberal prizes. If this were carried out, it must tend much to increase the usefulness of the club (cheers). The Chairman theu gave the health of the Vice-Chairman, Mr. Owen Wallis, who he was Lappy to say would succeed himself as Chairman of the Club. The toast was very cordially received, and duly acknowledged by|Mr Wallis. Mr. CuTiiBERT Johnson (of Croydon) proposed "The Local Farmers' Clubs," and in doing so alluded to the com- bined efforts which were beiug made by the farmers of many districts to collect the chief facts connected with local farming operations, and to the service which was thus being rendered to the causejof agriculture generally. The Kev. C. T. James (of Ermington, Devon) returned thanks, and in doing so, gave it as his opinion that the one great want of the Central Club was the patronage of the noblemen and landlords, by which means it would of course gain additional strength aud influence. Mr. Greenhow Kelph (of Usk) proceeded to give " The Committee of Management." In the course of his observations he combated the opinion advanced by the last speaker, as to the patronage of the nobility being necessary to the success of this Club. He thought rather, oa the other hand, that its inde- pendence and true character would be much better maintained by its ranks, as at present, being chiefly composed of practicail agriculturists. Mr. Shearer (of Swaumore, Hants) replied for the Com- mittee, and gave " The Visitors," coupling with the toast the name of Mr. Jonathan Gray, a well-known member of the West of England Society. The compliment having been suitably acknowledged by Mr Gray, The Chairman gave the health of the Secretary, Mr. Corbet, who was very flatteringly received, and who responded with customary brevity. The Chairman next proposed " The Press," with which he associated the name of Mr. G. P. Tusford, of the Mark Lane Express, who replied at some length. Mr. Granger (ofStretham) gave "The Ladies," as the concluding toast of the evening, and the company broke up. It is only Justice to Mr. Holt, the proprietor of Kadley's Hotel, to say that the dinner was pronounced oae of the best ever served. THE REGISTRATION OF GOOD LABOURERS. [The following letter and plan ably explain the object contemplated. With the short trial so for afforded, the idea appears to have worked most successfully, and we Lave much pleasure in directing the attention of our readers to its consideration]. Sir, — The present unsatisfactory state of the agricultural labouring classes as regards both their moral and social condition, particularly the young and unmarried portion, has for a considerable time awakened the serious attention of everj'- well-thinking mind ; and urgently calls forth the necessity of providing some measures of a remedial tendency. The rapid progress, too, which chemical and mechanical science is making in the cultivation of the soil and its products, the great value of agricultural implements and machincr3', the variety of purposes to which steam is now being applied in the operations of the tillage of the land, clearly show, as was observed by Lord Stanley at the North Lancashire Agricultural Meeting, that while "a less demand will be made upon the muscles, a greater demand will be made upon the brains of the labouring class." The dull routine, however, which the agricultural labouring class at present daily pass through, totally unfits them to meet this demand. The intelligent agriculturist is neither unobservant of these evils, nor unconcerned for their removal ; he considers it absolutely necessary that his labourers should be better educated and possess greater skill, if he is successfully to carry out the improvements of the land, in order to meet the exigencies of the times, and the universal and un- limited competition to which he is now exposed. The exertions which the labouring classes arc making to im- prove themselves, also show that their present state is not ■what it might be, what it owjU to be, and what it is the interest of all it shotdd be. Immediate steps must there- fore be taken to remove every hindrance, and every legi- timate means used that will promote morality, intelligence, skill, industry, and emulation among them. The only means that now presents itself for carrying these objects into effect is through the various agricultural and ploughing societies. Hitherto these societies have confined themselves to merely bringing into more pro- minent notice the feiu individuals who have gained the premiums, leaving unnoticed the man?/ deserving whom chance or accident, and not the lack of desire to improve themselves, have deprived of success. A lower standard is hereby created, a feeling of jealousy engendered, and a carelessness in the execution of their master's work. To obviate these evils, I have, at the suggestion of some friends, undertaken to bring forward a plan, which I have carried out with marked success in the Tetney Agi-icultural Society, viz , a Public Registry, not only of the feiu who gain, and that deservedly, the premiimis, but of every in- dividual tvJto actually comiKles ioY a premium, distinguishing the successful from the unsuccessful, and truthfully and faithfully noticing each competitor's service, and the per- formance of the work. By a unity of action throughout all the agricultural societies in the county in carrying out this plan, and with the Divine blessing upon the work, not only w^ould a higher standard be created, greater skill, greater emulation pro- moted; but it being considered a fundamental principle of each society, that a general good character must be produc cd before being allowed to compete, the moral and social con- dition would be elevated, and many others stimulated to enter on and persevere in a course of patient labour, self- improvement, and self-regard. Annexed is a plan of the proposed registry, stating its 76 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. objects and the mode of carrying it out, together with a declaration signed by the secretaries of the agricultural societies in the Lindsey division, and other influential gen- tlemen and agriculturists, and I trust I may secure your co-operation and support. In bringing to j'our notice this plan of a public registry', I am encouraged by the assurance that T possess the appro- bation and support of many valued friends, and a great number of the most intelligent agriculturists of this large important county, vrho, feeling the deep responsibility which attaches to them as employers of labour, are desirous of adopting some means as a remedy for, if not the removal of, the great evils so much complained of. I will only fur- ther add, in the words of an eloquent writer upon the claims of the labouring classes, that " almost every human being has at one time or other of his life a portion of the happiness of those around him in his power, which might make him tremble if he did but see it in all its fulness. But at any rate, the relation of master and man is a matter of manifest and large importance. It pervades all societies, and affects the growth and security of States in the most remarkable and pregnant manner ; it requires the nicest care ; gives exercise to the highest moral qualities ; has a large part in civil life, a larger part in domestic life ; and our conduct in it will surely be no mean portion of the account which we shall have to render in the life that is to come." I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant, Tetney Viaurage, Great Grimshy. Axdre^v Veitch. THE OBJECTS OF THE REGISTRY ARE— By offering through the agricultural and ploughing societies premiums larger in amount, greater in number and variety', and publishing every competitor, successful and unsuccessful — To raise a higher standard of morality and skill among the agricultural labourers and servants. To become a substitute for tJie demoralizing statute and hiring market. To protect the employer from imposture, and the em- ployed from selfishness and caprice. To be a guide to employers and heads of families in the selection of their servants. To enable labourers and servants of both sexes upon the register, and none other, to refer to it as a true and faithful certificate of their moral characters as men and women — their honesty, industry, faithfulness— and skill as work- men and servants. And lastly, by God's blessing, to maintain mutual con- fidence and good- will between the employer and the em- ployed; to promote the personal comfort and personal interest of both. The fundamental principle of each society being that no person be allowed to compete for any premium without producing from the employer a certificate of general good character. THE MODE OF CARRYING OUT THE REGISTRY. That the secretary of each society- shall in the end of November, every year, forward to the person appointed to conduct the registr_v a copy of all the competitors for the premiums, certified by himself, the president, and treasurer of the society. That all the members and competitors in the different societies shall be presented with a copy, the expense to be borne in equal proportions by each society, or as shall otherwise be agreed upon. That the registry should be published by the authority . and recommendation of the North Lincolnshire Society. DECLARATION. We, the undersigned, having considered the plan of a public registry of agricultural labourers and servants, as proposed by the Rev. Andrew Veitch, and carried out by him in the Tetney Agricultural Society, do hereby declare that we desire to promote the success of the said plan, as being beneficial to the master, and just and encouraging to the servant ; and are prepared to regard such public register as a testimonial worthy of credit, and a guaranteed certificate of the moral character as well as skill. &c., of all whose names appear on the register. Signed by — Charles North, Treasurer to Alford Agr. Society John Higgius, jun., Sec. do. George Grifliii, Sec. Plorn- castle ditto F. Wilson, Pres. Hainton Agr. Society Robert Cole, Sec. Society Henry Smyth, Pres. Louth Agr. Society J. Wm. Wilson, Hon. Sec. Louth ditto F.C. Massingberd,S. Ormsby Francis lies, Barnoldby-le- Beck Henry A. Pye, Louth. George AUington, Swinhope J. W. Smyth, S. Elkington J. Browne, Limber W. M. Pierce, West Ashby J. AUington, Candlesby James Robson, Brackenbro.' Wm. Raithby, Grainthorpe Hy. Freshney, S. Somercotes John Cocking, Fulstow Elymas Hcwson, Tetney W.Seaton, N.Thoresbv Brge G.Holland, Strubby,Wragby G. R. Willoughby, Louth T. Lvall, Gayton-le-Wold W. B. Hewson, Tetney A. Gedge, Ludborough J. Grimoldb}', Tetney W. Scorer, Burwell G. Cox, Burwell Luke Borman, Irby J. W. Foster, Ludborough J. Winter, Covenham Hainton ' H. Lloyd, Yarborough 1 J. Parkei, Ludborough W. M. Bond, Yarborough Henry Empson, Ravendale F. Sowerby, Aylesby T. Borman, Swallow Chr. Coates, Ashby-cum- Fenby The Bishop of the Diocese The Hon. Sir Hy. Dymoke, Bart., Pres. Horncastle Agr. Society Ayscough Boncherett John Marshall John lies Henry Skipworth T. Kirby Rev. H.' Philpott T. Randell W. Torr The North Lincolnshire Agr. Society Henry Empson M. Wm. Hoy. THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.— Iq accordance with a Bye- law, the Council of this Society have appointed several Com- mittees of Reference from the members of their own body, "to whom they may refer for examination, advice, and reports such discoveries, inventions, improvements, and novelties, as shall from time to time be brought under notice." Amongst others they have selected a Committee of Agriculture, which is thus made up — Thomas Dyke Acland. Robert Baker. James Beadel. Sir John P. Boileau, Bart., F.RS. James Caird. Colonel Challoner. . John Glutton. John Evelyn Denison, M.P. Francis Fuller. John Girdwood. Chandos Wren Hoskyns. Rev. Anthony Huxtable. John Bennet Lawes, F.R.S. John Joseph Mechi. Philip W. S. Miles. John C. Morton. Sir Joseph Paxton, M.P. Lord Portman. Thomas Scott. Bettesworth Pitt Shearer. Prof. John Wilson, F.R.S THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 77 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS AND IMPORTS OF FOREIGN CORN. Sir,— The collection of these returns will no doubt be forced upon agriculturists ; and the question is how this can be obtained with the least objectionable provisions, and the extent for which they may be desirable for the main objects of the inquiry. The returns of the present year from Ire- land and Scotland, made up to the 1st of September, include the acreage of the difterent crops and the number of cattle in each country. This, in our opinion, contains all that at present is required, and that can be depended upon for any approach to accuracy, elucidating the important question of tlie increase of different crops and that of cattle. The Irish returns show the increase of the acreage of wheat for the present year to be 20 per cent., and that of Scotland 36 per cent. This increase unquestionably arises from the high remunerating prices of the two past years, and we may fairl}- suppose there have been similar results in England. But assuming that the general increased growth in theem- piie has been to the extent of 10 per cent., and the product of the crop of wheat in the years 1854-5 to have been 14,000,000 quarters, such additional growth would be 1 ,400,000 quarters, if 20 per cent. 2,800,000 quarters, a quan- tity equal to the whole of our foreign imports during the ce- real year of 1854. It is thus seen that the question of the increase or dimi- nution of the acreage of wheat grown in Great Britain is one of the most important elements of the utility of agri- cultural statistics, and similar results would be shown by tlie returns of cattle. The necessity of compulsory returns is evident, from the hostilitv of many of the countj' members ; but their objec- tions might probablj', in a considerable degree, be overcome by the government only requiring the acreage of land under cultivation, and the number of cattle. The mode of collecting these returns is the great point in dispute. They should be made as little objectionable to the agriculturist as possible, and no unnecessary minutiae should be required ; but a simple return of the acreage in occupation, and the number of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, of all ages and descriptions, included in each return, without specifying the diflerent classes of animals or their age. To avoid unnecessary trouble and the prolixity of the returns, they should be confined to the occupations of the farmers and holders above ten acres ; this would greatly lessen the number of returns that would otherwise be re- quired from the small occupiers, as the publicans, butchers, gardeners, nurserymen, and private individuals. There is another important item that it would be desira- ble to obtain, that is the quantity of old wheat left in the hands of the farmer on the 1st of September in each year. This return would not generally be objected to, as most holders are proud of their ability to hold stocks of old wheat, and it would in some degree put an end to the wild estimates that have been occasionally made as to the quan- tity of old wheat remaining in the i'urmers' hands at harvest time. In the year 1853, from the low prices that had pre- vailed during that year, our farmers held back a large quan- tity, and the amouut was estimated by Messrs. Sturge of Birmingham as five million quarters, whilst our estimate was two millions. In that year, in the parish in which we reside, there were 2G holders of 850 quarters ; in 1854, from the high prices of that year, there were only two holders of about 200 quarters, and the probability was that the total quantity in the farmers' hands was only some 500,000 quar- ters, and we are inclined to think there has been a similar quantity in September for the last two years. The collection of the returns should be through the me- dium of the collectors of poor rates, returnable to one or more county inspectors ; and thus would be avoided the pro- posed interference of the Poor Law Board, and the employ- ment of their official machinery. The question of fines for non-returns should be made as simple as possible. Each defaulter should be summoned before the magistrates of the district by instructions from the county inspector to the collecting officers, and no at- tempt be made to fill up any non-return by calling in sur- veyors ; the fact of the fines being regularly enforced and the simplicity of the nature of the returns would in a short period overcome the objections of the defaulters. The returns of the supposed yield of the different crops of grain should not be required generally of the farmer, as 500,000 different opinions could not be reduced to anything like correctness, and manj' of the occupiers might not give a fair estimate of their crops when the yield was in excess of an average crop. This information would better be ob- tained by the inspector of the county in the month of No- vember, by requesting two of the most intelligent and re- spectable occupiers in each hundred of the county to fiivour him with their opinion of tlie general products of the year in their immediate districts. Notwithstanding the dictum of the special commissioner of the Times, who, in his estimate of the required imports for the year 1855, after surveying the crops from the South Foreland to John O'Groat's, assumed it would be one mil- lion quarters of wheat— the actual imports for the cereal year, that is from the 1st of September, 1855, to the 31st of August, 1856, have been 3,949,440 quarters, and this quan- tity has been barely sufficient to meet the requirements of the country from the deficient crop of that year. The last four months' importations of foreign corn have been as follows : — Wheat— July ...652,194 qrs.'\ Other Grain— 418,971 qrs. „ August.641,117 „ I „ 34.3,414 „ „ Sept 504,045 „ ( „ 249,233 „ „ Oct 474,752 „ ; „ 421,807 „ 2,332,108 qrs, -' 1,433,425 qrs. A total of 3,765,533 qrs. May not this enormous import of foreign corn in some degree account for the drain of gold from the Bank of England, as estimating its cost on the average at 40s. per quarter, it would amount to £7,531,066 sterling .'^ S. Sandars. Hemel Hempslead, November I7t7t, 1856. The imports of foreign wheat in 1850 were 4,8.S0,263 qrs. Our average price 40s. 3d. per qr. 1851 „ 5,330,412 „ „ 38s. Cd. „ 1852 „ 4,164,602 „ „ 40s. 9d. ,. These unremunerating prices to the British agriculturists reduced the cultivation of wheat in Ireland from 678,646 acres in 1849 to 326,89() acres in 1853, a difference of 53 per cent. Nutwilhstaiidiiig these low price.<, the oxpurts from 78 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Odessa M-ere gradually increasing to an enormous extent, as follows : — 1851 800000 quarters. 1852 1,400,000 quarters. 1853 3,160,507 quarters. Showing that such prices were highly- remunerative to the Ruisian cultivators, though destructive to the British. Our impression is that the required imports of foreign wheat for the cereal j'ear will be to the extent of some H to 2 million quarters, a large proportion of which has or will come to hand hy the 1st of January — any further im- ports will tend to depress our home market, but to what ex- tent is to be seen. America alone may send us some 3 mil- lions of quarters. EGYPT.— THE TRADE OF ALEXANDRIA. OFFICIAL REPORT ON THE TRADE OF ALEXANDRIA DURING THE YEAR 1855. BY MR. CONSUL GREEN. lu my commercial report last year I stated the annual arrivals and departures of British and foreign merchant vessels at Alexandria, from 1843 to 1854 inclusive. The shipping returns for 1855 show that 673 British vessels, of which the aggregate tonnage was 239,654, arrived here during the year 1855, which, compared with 428 vessels measuring 170,137 tons in 1854, shows an in- crease of 245 vessels, and 69,517 tons. The arrivals during the four previous years were — In Vessels measuring. Tons. 1850 371 111,128 1851 424 130,533 1852 307 95,154 1853 218 98,050 The departures of British vessels from this port, during the year 1855, were 634 vessels, measuring 198,849 tons, showing, compared with 402 vessels, measuring 163,914 tons, in 1854, an increase of 232 vessels, and 34,935 tons. The departures during the four previous years were — In Vessels measuring Tons. 1850 372 110,207 1851 364 113,793 1852 380 116,951 1853 213 95,822 The great increase of British shipping employed in this trade must be principally attributed to the rapid develop- ment of the corn trade of Egypt, and experience alone can decide whether this increase is the result of events con- nected with the war, or whether it will be permanent. The value of the imports from Great Britain to this port was, in 1855, £904,289, against £728,437 in 1854 ; show- ing an increase of £175,852. The value of imports was— From Gi-eat Britain. From all places. In £ £ 1850 727,805 1,839,099 1851 883,781 2,1(;4,265 1852 623,713 2,420,805 1853 1,153,326 2,666,890 1854 728,437 1,905,858 1855 904,280 2,141,233 The value of the exports to Great Britain from this port was, in 1855, £2,560,651 against £1,517,744 in 1854; showing an increase of £1,042,907. The value of the exports was — To Great Britain. To all places. In £ £ 1850 1,465,001 3,153,378 1851 1,641,933 3,258,042 1852 1,956,064 3,736,330 1853 1,787,546 3,472,830 1854 1,517,744 3,028,219 1855 2,560,651 4,590,804 The quantity of wheat exported ditring the last six years has been as follows : — To Great Britain. To all places. In Qrs. Qrs. 1850 383,206 818,572 . 1851 669,935 884,286 1852 333,604 540,994 1853 405,120 706,086 1854 368,000 632,,309 1855 696,634 1,046,782 The highest price for wheat (free on board) during the year 1855, was 48s. per quarter, on and about the 30th November; the lowest price, free on board, having been 35s. per quarter, on the 5th August. The quantity of cotton exported during the last six years has been as follows : — To Great Britain, To all places. In Cwt. Cwt. . 1850 243,876 385.817 1851 144,481 254,180 1852 353,830 595,030 1853 203,044 375,535 1854 241,291 430,110 1855 243,553 468,797 The rate of exchange upon London, for bills at three months' date within the year, has fluctuated from p. 97 h per £ (on the 20th October, when it was at its lowest) to p. 99r, per £ (on the 20th of May, on which day it was at the highest rate during the year) ; the sovereign passing for piastres 101. The opening of the railway between Alexandria and Cairo has conferred great benefit on all branches of com- mercial industry in this countrj', but especially in facilitating the transit of British passengers, mails, mer- chandise, and specie, through Egypt, to and from India. The railway from Cairo to Suez is also rapidly advancing ; a considerable portion of the rails having already arrived, and the entire quantity having been ordered in England. The engineer in charge of this work asserts that he will be ready to open the railwaj- for traffic within a year, but this can hardly be expected. The total number of passengers that passed through Egypt on their waj^ to India during the year 1855 was 2,458, being an increase of 282 on the previous j'ear. The number of packages of merchandise and specie for India was 45,339, showing an increase of 11,478 on the previous year. The number of passengers homewards were 2,571, showing a decrease of 42 passengers. The number of packages of merchandise and specie from India was 16,827, being a decrease of 22:^ on previous year. The value of the specie forwarded to India from Europe b}' this route during 1855 was about nine millions sterling. The entrance to the harbour of Alexandria is being marked off bj^ beacons and buoys, under the direction of an officer of the French navy, by means of Mitchell's patent ron screw piles. This undertaking was commenced just as the stormy season set in, so that but little progress has been made with the work, and it will only be during the summer months that this invaluable boon to navigation can be completed. mil March, 1856. TRADE OF SWEDEN— STOCKHOLM. Extract from Official Despatch from Her Ma- jesty's Minister (Mr. A. C. Magenis) at Stock- holm WITH respect to THE TrADE OF SWEDEN FOR THE YEAR 1854, AND DATED 26tH FEBRUARY, 1856. The export of grain from Sweden in 1854 exceeded that in 1853 by an amount of 724,331 barrels ; and the whole value of the grain exported in 1854, deducting the value of grain imported during the same year, may be reckoned at about 8,000,000 rix-doUars banco, about £666,000 sterling. As regards the effect of the war upon the trade between Sweden and Finland, as shown by these returns, I may mention that, iu 1854, there were imported from Finland 65,364 bar- rels of tar, 44,698 dispunda of pitch (the diapuud is 20 lbs.), THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 79 aud 195,350 lbs. of hemp aud swtet oil, none of which articles are to be found among the imports of previous years. And there was exported to Finland, iu 1854, 597,563 lbs. refined sugar,instead of 10,8391b3. the previous year; 779,215 lbs. of cotton, 1,016,296 lbs. coffee, and 96,939 barrels of salt, none of which articles appear iu the exports of former years. During the same year there arrived iu Sweden 1,256 Finnish vessels and boats with cargoes, whilst in 1853 there were only 217. The Custom dues levied upon imports at Haparanda, in 1854, amounted to 77,318 rix-dollars banco, while in 1853 they were only 13,245. At Umea they amonnted, in 1854, to 62,141 rix-dollars banco, and in 1853 to only 5,135 rix- dollars banco, and this increase is to be attributed to the blockade of the Finnish ports in the Gulf of Bothnia. As regards direct trade with Russia, the value of the im- ports thence in 1854 amounted only to 315,000 rix-dollars banco, or 2,869,000 ris-doUars less than in 1853. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. In fresh weather plough stubbles for green crops and bare fallows, and open all cross cuts to convey the water to the side ditches. If the weather be very favourable, pull and store turnips for a su])ply during storms ; thatch the heaps lightly with straw, or lay the turnips under cover, not exceeding four feet in height. Collect manures of all kinds about the farm-yards. In frosty weather deliver grain, carry fuel, and do other necessary carting ; carry out dung from the cattle yards to the fallow fields ; lay the heap in a convenient corner, and make it square and sloping at the ends, that the carts may pass over it ; spread thinly and mix evenly the rough and finer materials, and the dung of the different ani- mals, to have the heap of equal quality; when finished, dress the heap neatly, and lay earth upon the edges. Clean water-courses and scour ditches, and carry the materials to a heap for lime compost. Prepare artificial manures for top-dressings ; cut under- wood, hedges, and copses. Sow common and spring wheats on lands cleared of turnips, and on fallows where stopped in autumn. Continue the cutting of drains in fresh weather to half the depth, the other half to be taken out when filled. The depth should be a yard, with 18 inches of broken stones, and eighteen inches of turf and earth over them. Tiles are placed with a covering over them of broken stones or gravel. Float water-meadows, and lay dry occasionally. During this month, live stock of all kinds will require the most earnest and constant attention of the farmer, and that care must be his own. Milch cows must have cleanlmess and comfort, regular feeding with steamed chaflF, dry hay, steamed roots, cabbages, turnips, and beet ; ample littering must be provided. Suckle both veal and weaning calves : no substitute yet found can supply the want of the natural provision in milk. Have the calf-pens opening into the cow-shed by a door, for the convenience of sucklings, each calf in a single apartment of four feet by six or eight, bottom raised and boarded, latticed or bored with auger holes, to carry off the water, and procure a dry bed. Change the litter frequently. Feeding bullocks in the yards, or tied to stakes, require a regular supply of roots from the store- pits — in hard weather as much as they can eat, and not to waste, and the cribs cleared out at night. Cribs closely latticed or bored suit best in letting off the water. Litter the yards often and thinly, keep them level, spread over the surface all sub- stances equally, the dung from the stable very espe- cially, and no heating or burning will happen. It is most essential that all animals lie dry. Arrange the sheep flocks in proper lots of age and quality in the fields, and give keeping ewes a feed of turnips carted to a grass or stubble field ; the feeding flock a full allowance, being confined on the ground, or canted to an adjoining field if the land be wet ; the last year's lambs a full allowance, easy treatment, and a dry lair : a gorging with food will not compensate the neglect in treatment. Early ewes will begin to drop lamb : a master of his business will have provided good shelter both for day and night in a paddock or small field, with a covered shed standing dry, and an ample supply in juicy food in turnips, beet, and cabbages. One thing in superfluity or abundance is lost without the necessary adjuncts. Attend to the feeding of hogs with ample food of steamed roots mixed with the meals of light grains, and towards finishing give one meal a-day of hand corn — thought waste- ful, but is gainful in producing solid bacon. The food of brood sows may be made thinner and more mashy. Feed store pigs with raw and steamed roots occasionally : a dry bed and warmth are essential to the thri\ang of pigs, and cooked food has been found more useful to them than raw, in a much greater proportion than to other animals. Feed poultry with light grains, and with steamed potatoes mixed with meals, placed in troughs for them under a shed or cover. Have a hatching- house separate from the roosting-house, and both heated, by pipes below the floor, from fire or hot water. Bacon hogs and good store pigs will sell well during this month, and the fattening bullocks fore- most in condition, when put up in the end of autumn, will come out for the butcher ; such arti- cles being often scarce at this early period, a higher price is obtained. Feed work horses with cut chafF of clover hay and straw, steamed and mixed with potatoes, or both singly. Give a hot meal in the evening, when the horses return from work. F 2 80 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer. 1856. Nov.22 23 24 25 20 2 2 29 30 Dec. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 a.m. in. cts. 30.26 30.14 29.83 29.95 29.66 29.64 29.75 29.65 29.69 29.91 29.90 29.80 30.02 29.64 29.50 29.54 29.56 29.55 29.34 29.49 29.32 29.94 29.42 29.90 30.50 30.41 29.90 30.31 30.41 30.44 lOp.m ill. cts. 30.20 30.01 29.83 30.03 29.63 29.68 29.65 29.66 29.87 29.90 29.90 29.90 29.90 29.46 29.50 29.60 29-46 29.38 29.38 29.38 29.00 29.10 29.90 30.42 30.50 30 29 30.06 30.39 30.61 30.33 Thermometer. Min. Max. 46 47 47 37 35 38 32 25 23 22 21 30 26 36 48 54 53 51 51 45 45 40 39 33 26 25 37 36 38 42 54 55 54 39 39.5 48 38 36 33 33 33 36 38 52 53 57 55 57 53 50 51 47 44 39 36 40 47 43 47 45 10p.m. 48 51 48 37 39.5 36 32 29 29 29 32 29 38 52 55 55 55 54 52 46 45 43 43 32 31 42 45 40 46 43 Wind. Direction. W. N. W. W. by S. N. West N. West S. and N.W. W. by N. W.byN. N. West N. West N. West Westerly E, by N. S. Westerly South S. West s.s.w. s.s.w. s.s.w. s.s.w. W. by N. Variable W, by N, North North Variable W. by N. W. by N. VV. by S. West W. s. w. Force . airy lively lively variab. variab. gentle gentle gentle brisk gentle gentle gentle gentle strong strong strong brisk brisk lively gentle gusty gentle gentle gentle calm gentle brisk gentle gentle fresh Atmosphere. 8 a.m. 2 p.m. cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy fine cloudy fine fine fine fine cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy fine fine cloudy cloudy fine fine fine cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy fine cloudy fine cloudy sun sun fine lOp.m, cloudy cloudy fine cloudy cloudy fine cloudy fine fine cloudy sun cloudy cloudy !fine cloudy ifine cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy fine Weath. cloudy cloudy cloudy fine cloudy fine cloudy fine sun fine cloudy cloudy cloudy fine fine cloudy fine fine cloudy fine fine cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy cloudy [cloudy dry dry dry dry snw.&rn. dry dry dry dry snow dry rain dry rain rain dry rain rain rain rain rain dry dry dry dry dry rain dry dry dry Estimated Averages of December, Barometer. Highest. I Lowest. 30.320 29.120 Thermometer. High, j Low. I Mean. 56 17 39.3 Real Average Temperature of the Period. Highest. 45.05 Lowest. 37.75 Mean. 41.415 Weather and Phenomena. November 22. Changeable. — 23 to 25. Re- mained dry ; but on 26, snow first fell, followed by the greatest rain-fall of November, 0.585 in. Frost took up on the 28th, and the weather re- mained fine and drying. Rain-fall of November, 1.152, Lunation. — New moon 27th, 4h. 1 m. afternoon. Decemljer 1. Hint of snow. — 2. Sunny. — 3. Snow and rain. — 4 and 5, Rain and storm. — 6. Fierce wind, — 7. Gradual clearing; small dark clouds. — 8 to 11. Very rainy period; rain, 1 in. 433 cts. — 13, Much white cirrus, — 14. Two series of clouds. — 15 and 16, Cool and bracing. — 17. Thaw, after a morning hoar-frost. — 18. Overcast. — 19. Superb red sunset. — 20 and 21. Gloomy day. Lunations. — First quarter 5th, 3h. 26m. morn. Full moon 11th, 8 h. 13 m. afternoon. Last quarter 19th, 6h. 44 m. morn. Remarks connected with Agriculture. The reader, by attending to the items of this Diary, can scarcely fail to see that the weather of the period has been very singular. The sudden transitions of the temperature, and those of the barometer, from great depressions to unwonted elevations, have been nearly unprecedented of late years. Agriculture, however, is in a fine position, as to the crops in the ground. John Towers, Croydon, Dec. 22. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 81 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR DECEMBER. Notwithstanding that the deliveries of home-grown wheat have been only moderate for the time of year, the demand for that article during the whole of the month has been in a most depressed state, and prices have continued to give way. In the general condition of the samples no improve- ment has taken place ; and a large admixture of dry foreign has been found necessary to make anything approaching good saleable flour. Much has been said of late as to the policy of forwarding wheats for sale in wretched condition, and disposing of them at a considerable sacrifice. A much longer period, it has been argued, should have been suft'ered to elapse ere the stacks were disturbed, in order to allow a dry atmosphere to have its accustomed influence upon them. Were all our farmers wealthy growers we might well admit the soundness of the argument; and we might ex- press our astonishment that they should feel disposed to sell in the face of drooping markets. But the agricultural body have numerous claims to meet, and are compelled to sell their produce at periods most convenient to themselves. The future state of the trade is forming the subject of much discussion amongst producers as well as consumers ; and numerous calculations have been made, chiefly on a false basis, to prove tiiat future supplies from abroad are likely to depress prices to some extent. In reality, however, fine wheats, both English and foreign, have given way but little, and this is a strong proof of the great consuming powers of the country. The stock of foreign grain in the United Kingdom is by no means heavy for the time of year, and an active demand is likely to be experienced for a considerable period both for Spain and Portugal. We maintain, therefore, that good and useful wheats will con- tinue to command a good price, and that the farmers' interests would be best served by moderate thrashings, especially at the present period, when millers contract their liabilities as much as possible. The produce of the barley crop is turning out well in quantity, but deficient in colour. This article continues high in price, and in extensive demand. That its use is rapidl}' on the increase must be apparent from the enormous quantities now used in distilleries above any corresponding period ; and the new trade which has sprung up on the continent for British-made spirit, caused b}' the failure of the vintage, demands special consideration, from the eft'ect it is likely to have upon the corn trade. Until within the last two or three years scarcely any English spirit was consumed on the continent, the total export in 1852 being only about 220,000 gallons. This year, however, the ship- ment has amounted to 4,000,000 gallons, and it is likely to be equally extensive in 1857. The spirit is principally shipped for the purpose of "making up" the low wines of the continent, and it is now much preferred to that formerly received from Holland. The trade is certainly a most profit- able one, and this must be obvious when we state that from a quarter of barley — costing, say, 40s. pi'r qr. — from 20 to 21 gallons of proof spirit is distilled, and which is worth 3s. Id. to 33. 3d. per gallon free on board. We understand that about 600,000 quarters of grain, chiefly barley, have been consumed in this way by distillers since the first of January last; hence we cannot feel surprised that the article should have commanded good prices. Oats, beans, and peas have thrashed out well, and quotations have given way under the pressure of foreign supplies. The weathe has been very changeable in most parts of the United Kingdom, and possibly too mild for the young wheats in some localities ; they are, however, looking re- markably well. The potato crop is turning out very indif- ferent as to quality in Scotland, as well as in some parts of England. The markets have for the most part been very moderately supplied, and prices, although the demand has been far from active, have had an upward tendency — good sound qualities having realized 120s. per ton. The imports of foreign potatoes into London in the course of the month have about 600 tons. Somewhat increased supplies of grain, especially wheat, have been on ofl'er in the P'rench markets, whilst in the northern ports of Europe the receipts have not been exten- sive. The trade generally has ruled inactive, and the quo- tations have been in favour of buyers. The fact, however, that our money market has become much easier — a reduc- tion of one per cent, having taken place in the value of dis- counts—has induced the holders abroad to be ratlier firm in their demands, as there is now less difficulty in disposing of good corn bills. From the United States large quantities of produce continue to be shipped both to England candthe continent, and we learn that the quotations at New York favour a large export trade. The various cattle markets have been extremely well sup- plied with beasts for Christmas consumption, and prices have ruled tolerably high. In Ireland and Scotland the corn trade has been heavy, and quotations almost generally have given way. The ship- ments of produce to England have been on a very moderate scale. Hops have been in steady re([uest,and fine qualities have commanded rather more money. The quantity still remain- ing in the hands of the growers is large. A few parcels have come in from Germany, and which have been offered in bond at from £1 5s. to £1 15s. per cwt. The wool trade has been extremely healthy, and both English and colonial qualities have sold on rather higher terms. The total imports of foreign and colonial wool this year, to the end of November, were 354,212 bales, against 302,297 bales in the corresponding period of 1855. In the manufacturing districts great activity is observed in the woollen trade, and there is every possibility of even higher quotations. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The principal feature of the month has been the holding of ar ious great cattle shows. With very few exceptions they iiave exhibited unusually fine supplies of beasts, both as to number and quality, and they have passed off remarkably well. But the chang s in some of the rules of the Smith field Club are regarded by not a few of our 82 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. leading graziers as of an highl}' important character, espe- cially those having reference to the new classes for Scots and Sussex beasts. It would be quite superfluous for us to dwell upon the excellencies of those breeds, because they are too well-known to require comment ; but the wonder now expressed is that they should not have been regarded in so favourable a light by the supporters of the Club as the Devons, Herefords, or shorthorns. However, a great point Las been gained, and we have no hesitation in saying that it will materially add to the attractions of the Show in fu- ture years, and greatly enhance the position of Scotch and Sussex breeds in the estimation of the general consumer. As a whole, the exhibition, both in Baker-street and the Great Metropolitan Market, has seldom been equalled ; but the aggregate returns to the graziers, though large, have not been in excess of former years. The trade, taken as a whole, has been remarkably steady, and the limited receipts of sheep have had the effect of enhancing the value of mut- ton fully 4d. per 81bs. We have now an-ived at the close of the bullock season from Lincolnshire, and the adjacent counties. It has certainly failed to produce an amount of meat for metropolitan consumption, which might have been anticipated under the influence of a fine season; still we are of opinion that the stock has turned out heavier, and of more even quality than in 1855. We shall now shortly receive the first droves from Norfolk, and, if our accounts are to be relied upon, an immense number of prime beasts will come to hand during the next six months. Although there has been a large consumption of cake and linseed, those articles, owing to increased supplies from abroad, have somewhat declined in value. Possibly, the great abundance of natural, or winter, food has had some effiect upon the markets. The boisterous state of the ■weather has prevented the arrival of the usual supplies of stock both from Ireland and the continent ; but this feature has had very little influence upon the trade, from the large receipts of home-fed beasts. The annexed return shows the total supplies exhibited in the metropolitan market : Beasts 23,995 head. Cows 475 „ Sheep 73,200 „ Calves 1,526 „ Pigs 2,380 „ Comparison of Supplies. Dec. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs 1855.... 22,412 590 94,030 1,376 3,184 1854.... 20,298 120 88,880 1,573 2,746 1853.... 23,314 484 88,480 1,143 2,403 From the above comparison, it will be seen that an un- usually small number of sheep has been shown this month. Beef has sold at from 3s. lOd. to 5s. ; mutton, 4s. to 5s. 6d. ; veal, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 6d.; and pork, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 4d. per 8 lbs., to sink the offal. Comparative Prices. Dec, 1855. s. d, s. d. Beef, from ...3 4 to 5 4 Mutton 3 4 — 5 0 Veal 310— 6 0 Pork 3 6—50 Dec., 1854. Dec, 1853. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 3 4 to 5 4 3 2 to 410 36—54 30—52 40—58 31—50 32—48 34 — 4 10 The annexed returns show the imports of foreign stock into the metropolis : — Beasts 2,496 head. Sheep 7,778 „ Calves 793 „ Pigs 12 „ Total 11,079 In the corresponding month in 1 855, the arrivals from the continent were 19,515 ; in 1854, 18,349 ; in 1853, 21,918 ; in 1852, 17,870; in 1851,21.594; and in 1850, 20,435 head. The dead markets have exhibited unusuallj' large sup- plies of meat from the coimtry, as well as from Scotland , and a very active business has been transacted, at high quotations, beef having sold at from 'Is. lOd. to 4s. 8d. ; mutton, 3s. 6d. to 4s. lOd. ; veal, 3s. 8d. to 4s. lOd. ; pork, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 4d. per 8 lbs., by the carcase. The month's supply of beasts from Lincolnshire, Leices- tershire, and Northamptonshire has amounted to about 12,000 shorthorns ; from other parts of England, 4,000 Scots, Herefords, Devons, &c. ; from Ireland, 760 oxen ; and from Scotland, 1,220 Scots. In France meat is still scarce, and selling at very high prices ; whilst in Spain and Portugal the quotations have not advanced in comparison with the value of other kinds of food. It is stated that a large amount of stock will be available for shipment from Holland during the coming spring. WEST GLOUCESTERSHIRE. Another year has nearly run its course, when the social intercourse of Christmas, and the cold though seasonable state of the atmosphere, suspend all active operations in the field ; it is an appropriate time, there- fore, for taking a brief review of past events. Happily the grievous predictions so liberally indulged in by alarmists at the close of the year 1855 — that there would not be a sufficient quantity of wheat, the staflT of life, to meet consumption — were vain delusions. Terms of peace having been determined at an earlier period than was anticipated, foreign supplies came to our shores not only sooner, but in greater abundance than the best- informed expected, and the harvest of 1855 more than realized estimates. The last harvest was an unfortunate one, and has sadly disappointed the anticipations that were formed a few weeks previous to its commencement, at which time crops of all kinds exhibited a most luxu- riant appearance. The excessive dryness of the earth, and the heat of the atmosphere, at the important crisis just as the grain was coming to maturity, materially in- fluenced the bulk, and the rain which followed when a great quantity was cut, and just in order to be carried, produced a most prejudicial eflTect upon the quality. There is not so much sprouted as might have been sup- posed, but it went into stack nnhardened, and the wea- ther subsequently has not been of that temperature cal- culated to improve it. The frost (which commenced in this neighbourhood on the 29th of November, and which continued till the 4th of December) was succeeded by a very damp atmosphere. 1 he bulk being aff'ected, sam- ples were deteriorated rather than improved, and the weather since that time has not promoted any amend- j ment ; it still C(mtinues cold and damp. The importa- ■ tions of foreign corn since harvest have been extensive. 1 This, conjoined with the inferior condition of English grain, keeps down prices, and we can foresee very little prospect of amendment. That they will fluctuate from J temporary causes, is most probable ; but the high prices I which have prevailed during the last two years will not be repeated without some very unforeseen events, which cannot be desired. The breadth of land planted with wheat this year is about an average. This refers to the autumn-sown crop : that which will be planted in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 83 spring must of necessity become an item in a future re- port; but, from the information we are in possession of, it will not equal that of the two last years. The land is already thrown a good deal out of course, and practice does not confirm the theory that crops of the same kind can be grown in succession, whatever may be the quality of manure that is applied. That which is sown looks promising, but it is premature to anticipate the result, as so much must depend upon the elements. After- grass has continued to afford abundance of keep for stores till within the last fortnight ; the demands on the hay-ricks have therefore been very trifling ; and yet, with a great supply of hay, according to the reports from all quarters, that article maintains a price higher than could have been expected. The price of stock of all kinds keeps up to former quotations. The Christmas markets have been abundantly supplied, and the shows of fat beef and mutton in the butchers' shops have never been exceeded, either in quality or quantity. The de- mand has been quite on a ratio with the supplies. Trade in all its departments is flourishing, and therefore the consumption of meat is considerable. While that con- tinues farmers have no reason to fear an unprofitable re- duction in the value of their produce, so intimately is the welfare of the commercial and agricultural interest blended. It is gratifying to mention the benevolent provisions made for the poor in this district by those who have the power of dispensing their liberality, and thus cheering many a desponding heart. This also sug- gests some remarks on the Poor Laws, which stand much in need of amendment. The season of the year likewise presents a fitting opportunity, while enjoying the festivities of Christmas, for considering the claims of the pauper community. One of the weakest points in our Poor Law administration is the absence of distinction between those who are unhappily driven to seek relief from adverse circumstances, Ftid those who by a vicious line of conduct throw themselves without resource on the Union to which they belong. The worthless vaga- bond who, by a life of drunkenness, depredation, and indolence, seeks his own destitution, is treated in every respect the same as those poor creatures whose course of life has been untarnished with reproach — who have at some period enjoyed, perchance, the blessings of com- petency, but who have lost their all by adversity. The feeling heart mourns for their condition, but towards the drunken reprobate commiseration is but an apology for false principles. As the law now stands, no premium is offered for good conduct ; but, on the other hand, the idle, abandoned vagrant is encouraged by the conviction that when premature old age and inability, conjoined with disinclination to earn his own livelihood, overtake him, he will be provided for. Without leaving the latter to abs ilute want, a distinction should be made, against which there are not insurmountable impediments, and the social condition of the country requires it. — Dec. 26. NORTH NORTHUMBERLAND. During the past months of the year, which will shortly be numbered with " things that have been," it has been our lot to revert frequently to the sudden changes and vicis- situdes of our climate ; indeed, during the entire twelve months atmospheric changes have been equally trying to vegetable and animal constitution. Without recapitulation, we shall merely revert to rural aspects subsequent to our last letter (Nov. 14), from which day the weather was moderate up to the ^Sth, when a snow-storm put a stop to all field operations, and which continued with frost of intense severity for ten succeeding days; after which a fresh westerly breeze melted snow and ice like magic, low grounds were in a few hours deluged, and much damage sustained by flooding where the outlet was flat or confined. Since about the 8th inst., the plough has been again at work on favourable situations. All damp or tenacious subsoils are yet too much saturated with wet to carry the team without abadfinish. On the ISth, 18th, and 23rd, sudden changes, with copious falls of rain ; iith, cold bitter wind from the north-west, all the hill country under a covering of snow ; mercury (or barometer) falls to a low mark, with every ap- pearance of a coming storm. Such rerial phenomena cannot be favourable to the grazing of out-door live stock, and great loss from poaching and shifting sheep from the turnip-break, prejudicial to their feeding, and also to the resources of the border farmer. Not- withstanding such checks to the omvard movement, our district presented a most creditable exhibition of fat beeves at our great Christmas mart, held at Newcastle on the 16th. Several remarkable specimens of shorthorns and cross-bred bullocks and heifers were presented for sale, computed to weigh from 12 to 14 cwt. dead weight, exclusive of loose fat and offal ; and nearly every beast was eagerly bought up by the fleshers in and around that thriving, enterprising town. The show was, taken as a whole, a grand display, compri- sing over eleven hundred well-finished animals ; and it may be worthy of remark that wo have just heard the authenti- cated weight of three oxen sold in the said market, from the stud of one breeder near our county town, which weighed (stripped) 118, 110, and 98 stone of 141bs., all home-bred short-horns, 3 years 5 months to 3 years 9 months old ; quantity of loose fat we have not ascertained. The sheep show at the market not so numerous as hereto- fore, and nothing extra as to condition. The season, so far, has been unfavourable for sheep-grazing, and real well-finished mutton scarce and in request, commanding extreme prices; nor, with a continu- ance of such unfavourable weather, do we see any chance for augmented supplies. Turnips are seldom stored for sheep-feeding at this period of the season, generallj'- netted or folded on the break, or spread out daily on a piece of dry turf; the former plan generally preferred, and in dry weather sheep graze better, while the soiling from the lair of the flock materially improves a light soil for the ensuing crop. As it is, the season has been unpropitious, and so far very little wheat has been sown on such clear- ances, In our last we noted that turnips had made great improvement, and some very excellent crops of swedes were to be seen. _ I>y the courtesy of a gentleman farming his own land in a central;part of our district, we were indulged with a walk over his fields about the last week in October. A ten-acre breadth of swedes was then ready for lifting, the crop a full plant, which were all cleared from the field by the second week in November, and realized rather over 335 tons per acre, topped and tailed, which, with all refuse, were consumed in adjoining pastures by sheep and cattle — the bulbs safely stored. It would be needless to add, that tillage, cleaning, and manuring had been liberal ; we only digress so far to impress on all jjractical agriculturists the imperative necessity of early storing swedes and other bulbs. Were it not that we studiously avoid personalities, many specimens of excellent management might be quoted, and, as will be found in all localities, many exceptions. Statis- tical calculations of the result and yield from the cereal crops of our late disastrous harvest we still must approach with caution. Few practical men can recollect such a wide ditference in value, nor such deterioration in quality'. We can only refer to the reports and returns from our local markets. Fine wheats for seed, or even consumption, com- mand extreme prices, while fully three-fourths of the entire growth sells at ruinous prices down to 20s., or even Jess, per qr. Oats and Barley in proportion. Beans and Peas better, and more even in quality. Potatoes from one-third to one-half spoiled. Witli such aspects, it is not the less true that competition for farms out of lease continues keen. Demand for drain material and labour exceeds supply ; and with a continued excess of consumption of every article wholesome for food, wc may augur that " a better time is coming." Yet let not man forget that the seasons arc at the disposal of a gracious Providence. Neither high farm- ing, improved machinery, or humbug kilns for drying corn in the sneaf will save a large crop ; a good season, or short dry intervals, must be studied or worked at, when they occur, with vigilance. Very stormy, sleet and snow ; wind north-east. — Dec. 25. 84 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE. DURING THE PAST MONTH. The past month commenced with a frost of extra- ordinary intensity, calculated to check the over- luxuriance of some of the early-sown wheat, and greatly to improve the condition of all that was stacked or in the barn. These effects were par- tially produced, and many samples were sent to market in much improved condition, to the sellers' advantage in the readiness of sales, as well as an improvement in price; but a complete thaw ensuing before an entire week had passed, trade has fallen into the same dull state complained of in the pre- vious month ; and without oppressive quantities of English produce in any markets, the failure of the condition has brought a further reduction in price of about 3s. per qr. This, however, would not have occurred but for the continued influx of fo- reign arrivals, principally Russian, with a fair por- tion of the new crop of the United States, in fine condition, so that millers have been at no loss to keep up the quality of their flour ; while the lower descriptions, as well as most of the hard wheat, have found a ready vent for Spain and Portugal at full rates, the deficiencies of those countries greatly exceeding the first calculations, and pro- mising to last till their next harvest. The sudden frost influenced the markets in the North of Europe and Baltic considerably down- wards, as all chance of further business seemed gone, and holders were left to speculation among themselves, or to orders for spring delivery ; and the superiority of American samples, at compara- tively easy rates, placed them in a discouraging position. The thaw having re-opened Hambro' and some other ports, with the help of artificial means, many of the liberated vessels have since arrived ; but a large fleet still remains between Cronstadt and St. Petersburg, with very little pros- pect of an early release. The near ports of Holland and Belgium have all been declining, and France has found but a very languid demand for her gene- rally inferior crop, excepting the Southern ports bordering on the provinces where there is an acknowledged deficiency ; but even these have only been sustained by the inquiries for Spain, which have had the same effect on some Italian ports that were becoming depressed. At Madrid as high as £5 10s. has been realized for wheat, and there were fears for a time as to a sufficient provision for the city, high prices being universal throughout the country. Low rates still obtain in the Two Sicilies and Roman States, but they are produced by the prohibition to export, and not from an abundance, which this season is only found in available quali- ties in America and Russia. To these countries, therefore, we must chiefly look to help off our own damp produce, as that sent from Egypt is too low for the English market. If in the South com- plaints are general, in the North they are still more serious, the late returns of the produce of Scotland exhibiting a serious deficiency in the yield of pota- toes—viz., 43 per cent.; and though the acreable increase of the growth of wheat is not much below this, the yield per acre is so short, and the whole crop of cereals so damaged by wet, that it is computed that no such injury has occurred since 1816, Prices may nevertheless again droop for a time, especially if samples unfit for the miller are pressed on the market ; but we cannot help thinking that towards the close of the season there will be some rail)', if not before then, and that the growth of corn in 1856 throughout the world, especially of wheat, will do very little more than meet the demands of a year. Canal navigation having closed in the Northern States of America and Canada, our sup- plies for a time must be drawn from the South, which will doubtless be suflacient till spring, when the greater facilities afforded by new lines of rail must occasion a renewal of very free shipments. The last quotations at New York were, for the best red wheat, 53s. per qr., and the best white 57s. 6d. For spring shipment in the Baltic they were, at Rostock, 52s. to 53s. for 60lbs. wheat; at Copen- hagen, for dried 60lbs. wheat, 50s.; 6llbs., 51s. 6d. The best home-grown French was about 6js. per qr. In the Danube — Galatz wheat was worth 46s., and best Kalafat 53s. ; while at Odessa prices ranged from 55s. 6d. to 63s. 6d. per qr. free on board, showing that the late large arrivals from this port must occasion a heavy loss to im- porters. The first Monday in London opened with the advantage of a smart frost, though on good arri- vals of foreign wheat, the morning's supply from the near counties being scanty. Sales of English, as well as foreign, were then made at firm prices, but without any advance on the previous rates. Most of the country markets followed London, and only noted dulness at previous rates ; but some were lower, Bristol, Norwich, and Newcastle being Is. to 2s. down. Liverpool also receded 2d. to 3d. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 85 per 70lbs. on the first market, and on Friday there was a further decline of id. to 2d. The second Monday was well supplied with English and abundantly with foreign Wheat, in which there were 7.000 qrs. from America and 14,000 from Russia. The weather then had completely changed to mild and damp, the condition of the samples being correspondingly deteriorated, which deterred millers from buying, though ihe rates were nominally as before; most of the English supply was therefore left unsold. Many of the country markets exactly agreed with London ; but some places of importance were lower Is. to 2s., as Hull, Manchester, and Bristol, while both the markets at Liverpool successively described lower prices, Tuesday being 2d. to 3d. per 70 lbs. cheaper, and Friday id. to 2d. further down. The third Monday, without heavy arrivals of English or foreign, was a day of perfect paralysis, the last country markets seeming to influence millers unusually, the condition not being so much worse as to account for their inaction. English factors could scarcely get a bid, and were so deter- mined to sell, if favoured with an opportunity, that they would have accepted 4s. per qr. less money ; this being known only added to the diffi- culty, and the market became nominal, the almost entire bulk being passed over to the next market : the following days settled the decline at fully 2s. to 3s., with some little left over at the week's end. Scarcely any of the country markets exhibited such a state of suspense or decline; but none reported a better state of trade, the general average of the principal places being about Is. to 2s. down, though Sleaford equalled London in the reduction ot prices. The only change at Liver- pool was a fall of 3d. to 4d. on Tuesday, with some recovery as respects the business done on Friday. The fourth Monday exhibited an unusual supply of foreign samples, though the English were only moderate, altogether the show from Kent and Essex being small. Though it was known there would be no market held on Wednesday, buyers seemed ail under the influence of the approach of Christmas, and scarcely any transactions were effected. Some few assembled on Wednesday, who disapproved of the closing of the market, and a small private trade passed between them. On Friday there was a little more tone in business, and the nominal rates of Monday were realized. This week in the country showed some variety, several markets noting lower rates by Is. to 2s., and about an equal number as to their importance reporting as much advance. Hull was so much cheaper, but Lynn was Is. higher, and birmingiiam and Manchester up Is. to 2s. Liverpool also was 2d. per bush, higher, with some speculation. On the last Monday in the month and year the Wheat trade commenced on fair arrivals, both in English and foreign samples ; but the morning's supply from Kent and Essex was unsually scanty. The trade was evidently improved, and in many in- stances needy buyers had to pay Is. per qr. more money, all foreign of good quality being firmly held. The month's supplies have been as follows : In English wheat the receipts have been 44,596, in foreign 128,001 qrs., being a weekly supply of 8,919 Enghsh, and 25,600 foreign, showing a weekly decrease in the former as compared with Novembei-, and an increase in the latter. The total exports during the month have been al- most exclusively to the Peninsula. Though weekly sales have still been less than last year, and the decline in the averages has been 2s. lOd. In the London averages it has been 3s. 4d. per qr. The imports into Great Brilain for five weeks ending I7th December were 558,633 qrs., including flour. The flour trade through the month has been heavy, with but small fluctuations. Town-made samples have not been reduced in price, the millers finding it difficult to keep up the character of their best flour without paying very high rates for the best foreign wheat, as much as 90s. being paid for extra Danzig, and 80s. for fine new American. Norfolks first advanced Is. by the help of frost, and afterwards receded 3s. gradually, from the abundant supplies and return of damp weather. American at first went oflF well ; but the continued supplies, though generally of good quality and varying in value little more than 3s. per brl., being beyond the present consumption, they have receded fully 2s. 6d. per brl., leaving the top price at about 36s. per brl. The arrivals have been as follows, showing a liberal increase as compared with last month both in English and foreign: — Of country sacks there have been received 90,296 English, and 99,643 brls. and 2,458 sacks of foreign, showing a weekly excess over last month of 1,709 sacks of English, and 14,182 brls. with a small deficiency in foreign sacks. The barley trade through the month has been so equal in the several weekly London markets that it is unnecessary to particularize each. Suffice it to say that the demand for fine samples has been so on the increase that some country markets have quoted higher prices, though in town scarcely any change has been made in the quotations ; the se- condary and inferior .sorts occasionally fl:lg^ing, though distillers have been large buyers, and often anticipated foreign arrivals. The supplies during the month have been only moderate ; viz. : 29)590 86 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. qrs. English and 44,621 qrs. foreign, or only about 1,000 qrs. more weekly in foreign than in November. Malt has been equally steady in price ; the cur- rency having little varied, though prices have been firm. In oats, also, there has been very little change. The first Monday had a firm aspect on short sup- plies ; the second was oppressed by the quantity of foreign, but did not give way for fine old samples ; the third, with scanty arrivals, showed no improve- ment, the previous glut not being used up; thefourth, with a moderate supply, found business only dull ; and the fifth Monday still found a steady trade at unaltered rates, the diminished arrivals, as com- pared with the previous month, working off the surplus stock into consumption, and no further heavy supplies from abroad, or even Ireland, being anticipated. The supplies have been 6,294 qrs. English, 3,189 qrs. Scotch, 28,705 qrs. Irish, and 104,24/ qrs. foreign ; showing a total weekly average of 28,487 qrs., or 15,842 qrs. less per week than in November, a falling off to half the quantity being observable in shipments from Ireland, and to two-thirds from foreign ports. Some of the Scotch samples have been excessively damp and scarcely fit for use. As the Baltic is now closed, it seems scarcely probable that lower prices can be expected. Beans and peas have been constantly receding, especially the latter, white boilers having become quite a drug, without any quantity being pressed for sale. Beans through the month have declined about 2s., and soft new samples still more. Hog peas have receded in value to the same extent, but white and blue have reduced in value 5s. per qr., with much difficulty in sales ; as these have now reached a point of depression which has made them on a parity with hog feed, they can scarcely go lower, and should sharp weather return, as may be reasonably expected, we may see a rally in prices. The supplies were during the month— Beans, 4,222 qrs. English, and 8,980 foreign, exhibiting a weekly increase of both English and foreign ; and Peas, 3,198 English and 7,960 foreign, the Enghsh re- ceipts being less, and the foreign arrivals trebled. Linseed has been still forced up by the fact that supplies have been below the demand, the rise in the month being about 3s. per qr., while cakes have found an unusually free sale on full terms, graziers being well satisfied with the prices made of their fat stock. With the projected extension of railroads on the continent, and indeed through- out every civilized part of the world, there seems no prospect of any diminution of the rates till an extended growth and successful crop brings an over-supply. Of linseed during November the re- ceipts were 20,463, or only 4,092 qrs. weekly. The seed trade has been in a dragging state. So small a demand for cloverseed has seldom been experienced, but the reason may be found in the high rates which the growers of red in the South of France have demanded for their samples, on the plea of a defective crop, 68s. being still required for second-rate Bourdeaux ; it being also doubtful how far the English crop may require foreign help, though it is known to be generally damp, and partly damaged. Trefoil has been steady, but is now offered lower in France, from the absence of inquiry. Canaryseed has been a very heavy sale, at rather lower rates. Hempseed, though low- priced, has found but a very hmited demand. Rapeseed has only sold at high rates for seed in retail. Mustardseed has continued quite neg- lected, holders and dealers declining to give way. In coriander, carraway, and other seeds very little alteration has to be noted, either in the state of trade or prices. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillings per Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, uew 54lo65 extra Ditto, red .. „ S3 CO Norfolk, Liuc. and Yorksh., red „ 52 £0 Bakley, new, malting. .36 39 ... . Chevalier. . Distilling 37 38 Grinding , . MALT.Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 67 72 Kingbtou, Ware, and town made. . 69 73 Brown 63 64 Rye — — Oats, English, feed. .24 25 Potato Scotch, feed 26 SO Potato Irish, feed, white 21 26 fine Ditto, black 20 24 „ Beans, Mazagan, new 33 34 Ticks, new Harrow 38 41 Pigeon Peas, white boilers 40 43.. Maple 40 41.. Grey Flouk, per bk. of 280 lbs.. Town, Households 583., fine Country 42 43 Households Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings per Quarter Wheat, Dantzic,mixed. . 75 77 high do. — SOext. — 84 Konigsberg 73 77 „ — 77 — 82 Rostock 72 76 fine. . — 80 — 84 American, white .... 64 70 red . . — — 60 65 Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckermrk.,red 71 75 73 77 Silesian, red 66 71 white — — 71 75 Danish and Holstein 60 65 63 70 St. Petersburg and Riga 55 60fine60 68 Rhine and Belgium — — — — Russian, hard. ... 57 72 French. . . . (none) Barley, grinding 25 32 Distilling. . 34 37 Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 24 30. . Feed 20 25 Danish and Swedish, feed. . 21 26. . Stralsund 25 27 Russian 23 26 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 40 42 Konigiherg . . 37 42 Egyptian 35 36 Peas, feeding 39 40. . fine boilers 40 42 Indian Corn, white 34 36. . yellow . . 32 37 Flour, per sack French 56 — . . Spanish . . — — American, per barrel, sour 30 31. . sweet ... . 33 37 Quarttr -to 72 _ t6 — 66 42 50 31 33 — 77 — 79 38 42 25 32 27 33 26 30 — 26 34 £5 42 43 38 39 59 60 46 48 41 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 87 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. For the last Six Weeks: Nov. 15, 1856 .. Nov. 22, 1856 .. Nov. 29, 1856 .. Dec. 6, 1856 .. Dec. 13, 1856 .. Dec. 20, 1856 ., Aggregate average Same tim e last year Wheat. Barley Oata. Rye. Beaut 8. d. s. d. 8. d. a.'d. 8. d. 64 4 46 7 26 2 41 7 47 3 63 3 45 7 25 7 40 4 46 3 61 11 44 11 24 8 42 0 45 6 60 11 43 10 25 0 38 11 44 5 60 1 43 1 23 5 42 1 43 7 60 5 43 10 25 6 40 2 42 8 61 10 44 8 25 1 40 10 44 11 31 0 41 2 28 1 53 8 51 11 Peas. s. d. 43 2 43 6 ■13 1 41 1 41 10 40 9 42 3 50 8 LONDON AVERAGES. Wheat, qra. 3,078 £355 Barley.... 2,204 2 3 10 Oats .... 248 16 4 Rye..qrs. — Beans.... 481 Peas.... 267 £0 0 0 1 19 7 2 4 4 COMPARATIVE AVERAGES— 1856-55 From last Friday's Ga«. s. d. From Gazette of IS55 108,645 qr3.,60 Wheat . . Barley. . Oats .. Bye.... Beans., Peas . . 105,088 20,440 336 6,710 3,617 43 10 25 40 42 40 Wheat. . . , Barley . . . , 6 I Oats .... 2 Rye 8 Beans . . . , 9 Peas 108,115qr3,,78 130,121 26,528 191 5,213 2,767 40 4 27 1 54 6 50 8 48 11 FLUCTUATIONS intheAVERAGEPRICEofW HEAT. Pkicb. Nov 15. 64s. « n 63s. 3d. 61s. lid. 603. lid. 60s. 5d. 608. Id. Nov. 22. Nov. 29. Dec. 6. — ^"T " ., 1. * ' .. e. Dec. l:l. Dec 20. PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, (per cwt.) , — s. to —s Ditto white „ — s. to — s. Trefoil, (per cwt.) — a. to — s. Tares, winter (per bushel) , 5s.0d. to 6s. Od. Coriander (per cwt.) 20E.to 24i>, Canary (per qr.) 70?. to 78s. Hempseed (none) ^ — s . to — b. Carraway (per cwt.). . . . new — s. to 50a., old — s. to — s, Linseed (p. qr.) sowing — s. to — -s., crushing 65». to 67s. Linseed Cakes (per ton) £10 10s. to £11 Oa Rapeseed (per qr.) new 86s. to 883. Ditto Cake (per ton) £5 Os. to £5 lOs FOREIGN SEEDS, &c. Cloverseed, red, French — s. to — s. Tares, old (per bushel) 5s. OJ. to Ss. 6d. Hempseed, small, (per qr.) — s. 428., Ditto Dutch, 44a. Coriander (per cwt.) 15s. to 208 Carraway 42s. to 468. Linseed (pr qr.) Baltic, 63s. to 653.; Bombay, 648. to 663. Linseed Cake (per ton) £11 Os. to £11 10?. Rapeseed, Dutch 763. to 8O3. Rape Cake (per ton) £5 Os. to £5 lOs. HOP MARKET. LONDON, Monday, Dec. 29. — We have no alteration to note in our market since our last report. The demand for all fine Hops has continued steady, and fully as much money is obtained for such descriptions as durins; the past week. There is also a fair business doing in fine yearl ng3, and the trade on the whole is good for this period of the year. NEW YORK HOP MARKET, Dec. 12.- Only a moderate business has been done the ]iast week. The sales do not amount to over four luuidred bales, the half of which were purchased for filling contracts. We quote 7 to 10 c. for common to good first sorts Eastern and Western ; very choice lots in small parcels would bring He, but the previous are fair quotations of the general market. Old have ruled quiet at 4 to 5 c. ; a small lot sold at the latter price. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. LONDON, Monday, Dec. 29. — During the past week arrivals coastwise and by rail have again been greater than the demand, in consequence of which, a considerable fall in prices has taken place The following are this day's quotatioua : — York Regents 90s. to 1203. Kent and Essex do 903. to I2O3. Lincolnshire do 70s. to lOOs. East Lothian red SOs. to 903. Perth, Forfar, and Fifeshire Regents 853. to 95s. Irish whites 7O3. to 80s. German do 70s. to SOs. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS, LONDON, Mon- day, Dec. 29. — Since our last report, only moderate supplies of home-grown potatoes have come to hand, coastwise and by railway. The imports have amounted to 510 bags 2 baskets from Rotterdam, 280 bags from Schiedam, 8 from Limerick, 560 from Belfast, and 1 box 3 barrels from Jersey. About an average business is doing, as follows : York Regents 953. to 1203. Kent and Essex ditto 903. 1203. Lincolns 75s. 110s. Scotch 95s, 120s. Ditto reds 95s. llOs. Irish Whites 80s. 90s. Dutch ditto 80s. 903. COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— Y'ork, Dec. 20 : A fail- supply of Potatoes, which sold at from 8d. to 9d. per peck and 2s. to 23. 6d. per bush. — Leeds, Dec. 23 : A fair show of Potatoes, which sold at from lO^rl. to lid. wholesale, and lid. to 12d. per 211bs. retail. — Malton, Dec. 20 : A mode- rate supply of Potatoes, sold at 12d. per peck. — Richmond, Dec. 20: Potatoes 49. per bush. FAIRS3 &C. BANBURY FAIR.— A good supply of beef: prices at from 4s. to 43. 8d. per stone. The supply of mutton very small — from 4s. 8d. to 53. per stone. BEDALE FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— We had a poor sup- ply of beasts and sheep, all the Christmas stock being shown the preceding week. A fair show of in-calving cows and lean stock. Business was slow, and the prices of iu-calvers tended downwards. Beef, 6s. 9d. to 73. 6d. per stone ; mutton, 6d. to G^d. per lb. LEDBURY FAIR was tolerably well supplied with fat and store stock. Buyers were numerous, and prices were higher, more especially for fat cattle. Fat cows, 6d. to 7d.; ditto sheep, 5§d. to 6^1. per lb. MONTGOMERY FAIR was rather thinly supplied with stock. There were a few excellent cows, which were readdy sold at 6|d. per lb. Useful store cattle sold well ; cows and calves realized high prices ; fat sheep, 7d. ; pork, 6d. to 6^d. per lb. ; store pigs a shade lower from last fair. SHREWSBURY FORTNIGHTLY FAIR. — The best beef sold well, from 6^d. to 6|d. per lb. ; inferior cows, 6d. ; good C0W3 and calves made great prices, also useful store cattle; fat calves, 6W. ; fat wether sheep, 7|d. ; ewes, 6id. to 7d.; fat pigs, 6d. ; store pigs selling at high prices. TADCASTER FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— We had a fair supply of stock Beef, 73. to 7s. 9d ; pork pigs, 79. 4d. per stone ; mutton, 6M. to 7\d. ; veal, 7d. per lb. YORK FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— Calving and dairy cows met with a check both in demand and prices, they being sold for 20s. to SOs. below former rates, and many remained unsold late in the afternoon. All kinds of grazing beasts were in good supply and demand, at about former rates. A fair amount of business was transacted in them, solely on account of favourable out-door keep. Fat beasts were in limited supply and request, at 7s. to 78. 6d., and very prime ones, at 8s. per 14 lbs. The trade, upon the whole, on account of the high prices, was precarious. There were very few mutton sheep for sale, and they were not sold oif until the afternoon : — Ewes, 6^d, to 7d. ; middle hogs and wethers, 7d. to 7 id. per \h. 8S THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PRICES or BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. BUTTER, per cwt. : s. s. Friesland U6tol20 Kiel 116 124 Dorset 116 126 Carlow 116 120 Waterford -^ — Cork, new 108 116 Limerick 108 110 Sligo 106 117 Fresh, per dozen.. 14s. Od. to IBs. Od. CHEESE, per cwt. : s. s Cheshire 64 74 Cheddar 74 84 Double Gloucester 60 70 HAM.S, YorklOS 112.. iiewl02 104 Westmoreland 104 110 Irish 9fi 100 BACON : Wiltshire, dried 70 76 Irish, CTeen 64 68 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. CITY, Monday, Dec. 29. — With an inactive trade in Butter we are without any alteration in prices except for fresh. Dorset, fine 120s. to 1223. per cwt. Do. middling 108s. to 110s. Fresh 12s. to 16s. perdoz. GLOUCESTER was but scantily supplied, only about fifty tons brought to market, and the quality of which was rather inferior. The following were the prices obtained : Single 58s. to 60a , seconds 48s. to 54s., skim 21s. to 283. There was only one lot of double brought to market, which sold at about the prices quoted last week. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.)— First class new 64s., second 52s.. and skim milk 34s. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter: Shipping price. 104s. tol203.percwt. ; firkins and crocks, ll^d. to 12|d. per lb. ; Bacon, 60s. to 663. ; Hams, prime, BOa. to 86s., second quality 7O3. to 76s. ; prime mess Pork, 95s. to 963. per brl. ; Pork, 56s. to 61s.; Beef, lOOs. to 1203. per tierce; Irish Lard, in bladder, 74s. to 76s. ; kegs or firkins, 683. to 70s. per cwt. AVOOL MARKETS. BRITISH WOOL MARKET. CITY, Monday, Dec. 29. — Since Monday last there has been some disposition to speculate in our market, and some rather large parcels have been taken at extreme quotations. For actual consumption we continue to have a fair demand, and the future prospect of the market is highly favourable. The stock held here is very moderate. LEEDS WOOL MARKET, Dec. 26.— The present being Christmas week, has been partially a holiday ; consequently, the purchases by the manufacturers have, as usunl, been less extensive. Prices are firm at last week's rates, with an upward tendency. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, Dec. 27. Scotch Wool. — There is still an active demand for all kinds of Scotch wool at rather improving rates. s. d. s. d. Laid Hichlai.d Wool, f.er 241bs 14 Oto 15 0 White Highland do 16 0 18 0 Laid Crossed do. .unwashed .... 15 0 18 0 Do. do. .washed 16 0 20 0 Laid Cheviot do.. unwashed 18 0 22 0 Do. do. .washed 22 0 2fi 0 White Cheviot do., do 32 0 36 0 Foreign Wool. — There is an increased inquiry for all kinds of useful long-stapled wools. The stocks, however, are 80 light, there is little to do ; but that little is at improving rates. Public sales are fixed to take place here on the 15th January and following days, when about 11,000 bales of East India and about 4,000 other sorts, including about 2,500 ballots of Peruvian, will be offered. FOREIGN WOOL MARKET. CITY, Monday, Dec. 29. — At Marseilles, the market is described as having been very animated; and owing to the shortness of the supply, prices had a strong upward tendency. The finer kinds of Buenos Ayrean wool had been in demand, at au advauce of 10 per cent. ; while common kiads were at an improvement of 5 per cent. At the public sales full prices were realized. The German markets are firm. LEEDS FOREIGN WOOL MARKET, Dec. 26.-There has been quite an average demand for the close of the year, and prices are fully supported. NEW YORK WOOL MARKET, Dec. l-2.-Native fleece and pulled Wools continue in good demand, but the transactions are .somewhat restricted, owing partly to the meagre stock and the extreme prices asked ; the stock of pulled, especially, is very low. The transactions comprise 100,000 lbs. in lots, at 4.5 to 48 c. for medium and super fleeces ; 50 to 55 c. for super extra ditto ; and some iew choice parcels of Saxony, at from 5fJ to 62| c, six months. Of pulled, some 15,0001bs. have been disposed of at 39 to 40 c. for super, and 45 to 46 c. for extra country. California Wool is in good supply, and we note further sales of 250 to 300 bales unwashed fleeces on private terms. There con- tinues a good inquiry for most kinds of foreign Wools ; but the small stock offering, and the high prices asked, limit transactions to some extent. The sales comprise 150 bales washed Cordova and Persian, at 27 to 28 c. respectively ; and 75 bales unwashed South American and Entre Rios, at 15 c. and 16J c, six months. COVENT GARDEN MARKET. LONDON, Saturday, Dec. 27.— Supplies of most things conlinue to be sufficient for the demand, and trade is tolerably bri.^k. Pine Apples and hothou'e Grapes may still be had at last week's quotations. Pears are dear. Dessert Apples also realize high prices, and good varieties for kitchen use are scarce. There is still a fair demand for Kent Cobs, at UOs. per 100 lbs. ; Barcelona Nuts, 20s. per bushel ; New Spanish and Brazils, 18s. do. Chestnuts are fetching from 14s. to 21s. per bushel. Orariges are tolerably abundant. All kinds of vegetables in season are well supplied. A few samples of French Asparagus have made their appearance. Seakale and Rhubarb may also be obtained. Portugal Onions fetch from Os. to 16s. per 100, or from 23. to 3s. per dozen. Potatoes realize fair prices. Cut flowers consist of Orchids. Heliotropes, Gardenias, Violets, Camellias, Mignonette, Heaths, and Roses. FRUIT. s. d. s. d. s.d. 8. d. Pineapples, per lb 4 Oto 6 0 Pears, per doz 8 OtolO 0 " " "" " Apples, per half sieve... 6 0 8 0 Filberts, per lb 0 10 1 3 Kent Cobs, per lOOlbs. . .110 0 0 0 Almonds, per bushel.. 32 0 0 0 Grapes, per lb 6 Melons, each 0 0 0 0 Oranges, per 100 ? 6 9 0 Lemons, per dozen 10 2 0 VEGETABLES. B. d. s. d. Cabbages, per dozen ... . 0 9to 1 ti Broccoli, per bunch.... 0 9 10 B. Sprouts, p. half sieve 2 0 2 6 Asparaf^us, per bundle .. 6 0 9 C Rhubarb, per bundle ... 1 0 2 0 Seakale per punnet 2 6 3 6 French Beans, per 100... 16 2 0 Potatoes, new, per ton ..60 0 130 0 Do. per busii. Carrots, per bunch 0 5 Turnips, per dozen 2 6 Spinach, per sieve 2 0 Cucumbers, each 0 9 Beet, per dozen 1 0 Celery, per bundle 0 9 Leeks, per bunch 0 IJ 2 9 0 7 s. d. s. d Omons, g:reen, per bush.. 2 6to4 q Capsicums, per 100 1 0 2 q Shallots, per lb 0 689 Garlic, per lb 0 6 8 g Lettuce, Cos., per score .10 ^ 0 Endive, per score 1 6 3 q Radishes, Tur., perdoz. 10 1 Small Salad, per punnet 0 2 0 3 Horseradish, per bundle. 2 0 5 0 Salsify, per Ijuudle 1 0 1 3 Scorzonera, per do 10 13 Mushrooms, per pottle.. 16 13 Parsley, per bunch 0 2 0 4 Marjoram, per bunch ... 0 2 0 0 Savory, per bunch 0 2 0 0 Chilies, per 100 1 0 1 6 MANURES. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO, &c. PERUVIAN GUANO (per ton, for 30 tons) X13 5 0 to jE 0 0 Do. Do (under 30 tons) 14 15 0 15 0 BOLIVIAN GUANO (none) 0 0 0 0 0 ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c. Nitrate Sodal (per ton) ... J Nitrate Potash ") 99 0 0 or Saltpetre J Sulpht. Ammonia 16 0 0 "' iate ditto... 22 0 0 £18 0 OtojCig 0 0 30 0 0 6 0 0 Superphosjiht. 1 of Lime. ... S ' Arkair'.'..?:} « « " Gypsum 2 0 0 Coprolite 3 15 0 Sulph.ofCoppe .d. £ e. d "h^M^^^ 00 to 43 00 steeping J Salt 1 50 2 00 Bones, Dust,perqr. 15 0 16 0 Do. J-inch 14 0 15 0 Oil Vitriol, ) concentrated, J 0 0 1 0 0 0 per lb } 2 10 0 Do. Brown 0 0 03 0 00 4 0 0 I OIL-CAKES. Marseilles £9 lOOtojflO 0 0 English 11 0 0 11 10 0 Rape-cakes,prton 7 0 0 7 10 6 8 0 0 Linseed-cakes, per ton Thin American, > -,, r a /.ii ik o inbrls orba^sl * Oill 15 0 Thick do. round 10 5 0 10 10 0 John Keen, 3-5, Leadenhall-street, (Late Odams, Pickford, and Keen.) Williams & Co., 24, MaritTUme— Azotic. TT. .'. .T.T~ .T7£6 10 0 ManuTiictured by Hodgson & Simpson, Wakefield, and Matthews & Co., Driffield. Ammouia-Phosphate and Nitro-PUosphate per ton £8 0 0 Superphosphate of Lime ,, 700 Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmaiket, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops per Ion jC8 10 0 Prentice's Turnip Manure „ 7 0 0 Prentice's Superjihosphate of Lime ,, 6 10 0 Lancashire Manure Company, Widiies, near Warrington. J. Knight & Co.'s Nitrogenized Bone Manures per ton £S 15 0 Manure Works, <5rovehill, Beverley. Tigar & Co.'s Celebrated Turnip Manures per ton £7 10 '^■■^^■-»' «J — .^— ^— ^— ^— °— ^— ^— ■^M Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London, ■'•^ii "I'iET ■Pir Siilii ^ THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE, EEBRUAEY, 1857. PLATE I. "THE QUEEN OF THE MAYj" A Short-horn Heifer, BRED BY AND THE PROPERTY OF RICHARD BOOTH, ESQ., OF WARLABY, NORTH ALLERTON> Calved November 5th, 1854, and was got by Crown Prince (10087), dam (Red Rose) by Harbinget (10297), g. d. (Medora) by Buckingham (3239), gr. g. d. (Monica) by Raspberry (4875), gr. gr. g. d. (White Strawberry) by Rockingham (2551), Strawberry 2nd — by Young Alexander (2977), — by Pilot (496), — by the Lame Bull (359), — by Easby (232), — by Suworrow (636). See Coates's Herd Book for Red Rose, the dam of the Queen of the Maj^, vol. xi,, p. 660. The Queen of the May, a roan heifer, is in almost every respect the model of what a short-horn cow should be — extraordinary for chine, hip, and tut, with a very good back, beautiful head, and excellent quality. She was only shown three times last year — of course her first season — when she took the first prize as the best yearling at the Royal Agricultural Society's Meeting at Chelmsford ; the first prize at the Yorkshire Society's Meeting at Rotherham j and the first prize at the Durham County Show at Durham. PLATE II. RATAPLAN. Rataplan, bred by Captain Thellusson in 1850, was got by the Baron out of Pocahontas, by Glencoe, her dam Marpessa by Muley — Clare by Marmion — Gohanna. The Baron, bred in Ireland by Mr. Watt in 1842, was got by Birdcatcher, out of Echidna, by Eco- nomist. At the sale following the decease of Mr. Theobald, in 1850, he was knocked down to a French commissioner for 1,010 guineas. His stock, which came out as two-year-olds in 1851, include in the list of winners with us Aitchbone, Benita, Chief Baron Nicholson, and Lady Isabel; the first year of his three-year-olds producing a St. Leger winner in Stockwell, own brother to Rataplan. In France he has also been very successful, and his departure from his country after so brief a trial is looked upon as a national loss. Pocahontas, bred by the late Mr. Forth in 1837, was put to the stud in 1842. Here, up to the Baron cross, she showed with but little success — Cambaules and Dolly Varden being amongst the most remarkable of her produce. The latter was one of the plainest mares we ever saw. Indeed, Pocahontas is not famous for throwing them very handsome. They are, however, often something better, as witness her three celebrated sons, Stockwell, Rataplan, and King Tom. At Mr. Theobald's sale the mare was knocked down to Captain Thellusson for 260 guineas, and she has since been again sold to Lord Exeter. Rataplan is a dark chesnut horse, with white ticks, standing sixteen hands high. He has a rather OLD SERIES.] G [VOL. XLVI.— No, 2. 90 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plain but very expressive head, with a strong neck, shoulder somewhat inclined to be upright, and immense chest. He has a short strong back, powerful quarters also inclining to be short, and arms, gaskins, knees, hocks, and bone quite equal to carrying sixteen stone over a country. He is, in fact, an immensely powerful horse, with something remarkably " prepossessing in his appearance," carrying his bushy tail well away from him, and walking along in the most careless indolent manner. He is a terrible slug in his slow paces, and takes altogether a deal of rousing. Rataplan was sold at the hammer in March last to Mr. Foljambe for 2,000 guineas, and '56 was his hrst season as a stud horse. He is advertised for at Tickhill Castle Farm, with a subscription of 40 mares at 25 guineas each. THE EFFECTS OF THE EXPOSURE OF ANIMALS TO A LOW TEMPERATURE AND TO MOISTURE. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESO., F.R.S. The readers of this magazine will, on many occa- sions, have noticed the effects produced on do- mestic animals from exposure to low and sudden transitions of temperature. The hollow coughs which resound along the London cab-stands re- mind even the citizen of this truth. Does the reader remember any neighbour whose stock is allowed to lie out unsheltered ? or perchance in an ill-enclosed undrained yard ? Does he not notice the staring coats ? the poor, spiritless condition of the animals ? Is not their owner of the class some- times very erroneously called " the unlucky" ? Is he not anxious to get the lives of his poor beasts insured in some defraudable Cattle Insurance ? or, failing that resource, is not a parish subscription attempted ever and anon,|in behalf of the unhappy dispirited owner? It is true these startling in- stances are not usually found amidst the better classes of farmers; and yet amongst these, even with those who have laid all science under contribu- tion, the eflfects of low and changeful temperature may still be studied with advantage ; and at no period more practically so, than in this month of February — one of the worst, perhaps, in the calen- dar, for stock. But in gathering together a few facts on the results of temperature, the farmer must not consider that even the researches of the most profound phi- losophers have nearly made us acquainted with the eflfects of low temperature upon organized matter. Every now and then certain facts present themselves — newreadings in Nature's exhaustless book, which excite in us the just suspicion that our theo- retical explanations are yet far from the real truth — that they will one day have to give way to other perhaps still imperfect theories. Let me give an in- stance of these mysteries : We are all aware that in a temperature at or below the freezing point of water, all decomposition of organic matters ceases. The Russian preserves his meat during his long winters merely packed in snow : during our Eng- lish frosts the same effect of a low temperature is noted. No one, till lately, has even suspected that by exposing the meat to a much lower temperature — that then the meat would begin to putrefy ; yet such are the phenomena which present themselves in the Arctic regions. Dr. Kane thus briefly tells the story, in a work which will be read with deep interest for its many other valuable observations. After stating (vol. ii. p. 51) that on the 23rd of February they had been so fortunate, on their frozen sea, as to kill a deer, he adds in his journal of the next day : " Bitter disappointment ! the flesh of our deer is nearly uneatable from putrefaction. The rapidity of this change in a temperature so low as 35 degrees below Zero seems indeed curious. But the Greenlanders say that extreme cold is rather a promoter than otherwise of the putrefac- tive process. Our buffalo hunters, when they condescend to clean a carcass, do it at once. They have told me that the musk ox is sometimes tainted after five minutes' exposure. The Esquimaux in latitude 73.40, even in the severest weather, are in the habit of withdrawing the viscera of their game immediately after death." Even in such a frozen land of desolation the greater effect of certain kinds of animal food in keeping up the warmth of the living has not escaped the observation of these ice-encircled savages. When speaking of that curious animal, the walrus, the Doctor con- tinues : " Its delicately permeating fat — oh call it not blubber ! — assimilate it rather to the fat of the ox; it is beyond all others, and the very best fuel a man can swallow." That such food enables the natives to withstand their intense frosts is evident, for Dr. Kane tells us in another place that the Esquimaux will sleep in their sledges when the temperature of the atmosphere is 93° below the freezing point of water. Well might he feel convinced that hie gallant and unconquerable THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 91 band of explorers were mere carpet knights beside these indomitable savages ! Such facts will not be unproductive of advantage if, I repeat, they serve to lead us to the conviction that we have yet other things to ascertain with re- gard to the most profitable temperature in which our domestic animals should be placed. I have already alluded to the trying nature of the month at which we have now arrived — the cold wet wea- ther, which at this season mingles with the cold winds ; at a time, too, when the minimum tempe- rature of the year, on an average of our seasons, has only just been passed. That annual minimum, at several places on the Continent of Europe, has been noted by Colonel Sabine ; he records that the lowest temperature of the year on an average oc- curs— At Konigsberg about January 9th — Berlin, . . .between the ]2th and 19th — Prague . . between the 19th and 26th — Paris about the 1 5th — Turin „ 3rd — Padua „ 15th At Toronto, in Upper Canada, the minimum tem- perature is not attained till about the 12th or 14th of February. That exposure to cold renders it necessary for the animal to sustain itself by an increased con- sumption of food, is evident enough from the effect of exposure to a low temperature on even our own appetites. The chemical explanation of this phe- nomenon has been given by Dr. Lyon Playfair. He observes {Jour. R.A.S., vol. iv,, p. 217), after reminding us that the temperature of the bodies of our cattle is about 100 degrees, or more than 40 degrees higher than the ordinary temperature of this climate, and that hence there must be some provision in the animal body to sustain the heat which the colder air constantly withdraws from it — after reminding us of these things, he asks the seldom-considered question, " "Whence, then, comes the fuel for the production of the heat ?" That fuel, he proceeds to inform his readers, consists of those ingredients of food from which nitrogen is absent : these all contain carbon. "We know that oxygen is continually inhaled in the air we breathe, and that it is never again expired as such. Expired air consists of carbonic acid gas—a gas composed entirely of carbon and oxygen : in the body, there- fore, the oxygen has united with carbon ; or, in other words, it has produced the very gas which is obtained by burning a piece of charcoal in the open air. Now, the heat generated by the combustion of the carbon in the body must be exactly equiva- lent to that produced by burning the same amount in the atmosphere. It has been found by experi- ment that the carbon (14 oz") daily consumed on an average by a man is equal to the production of ] 97,477 degrees of heat; a cow consumes about 70 oz. of carbon daily, and this must, according to careful calculation, produce by its combustion 987,385 degrees of heat. Now, it is evident that the lower the temperature to which we expose an animal, the greater will be its demand of carbon or food to retain its natural temperature; or as the Professor puts it — and his observations serve materially to elucidate some of the phenomena on which we have been dwelling — " as the heat of the animal body is the same in all regions, it is obvious that the quantity of fuel (food) necessary to sus- tain the constant temperature of the body must vary according to the nature of the climate. Thus less food is required for this purpose in India, where the temperature of the external air equals that of the body, than in the polar regions, in which it is very many degrees lower. But a beneficent Provi- dence has arranged the produce of diflferent coun- tries so as to meet the exigencies of the climate. The fruits upon which the inhabitants of warm countries love to feed contain only twelve per cent, of carbon, while the train oil enjoyed by the inha- bitants of arctic regions contains about seventy per cent, of the same element. ' Were we,' says Liebig, ' to go naked like certain savage tribes, or if in hunting and fishing we were exposed to the same degree of cold as the Samoyedes, we should be able with ease to consume lOlbs. of flesh, and perhaps a dozen of tallow candles into the bargain, as warmly-clad travellers have related, with astonish- ment, of these people. We should then also be able to take the same quantity of brandy or train oil with- out bad effects, because the carbon and hydrogen of these substances would only suffice to keep up the equilibrium between the temperature of the external air and that of our bodies.' ""We often wonder how the Greenlander or Russian can relish train oil ; we know perfectly that our own organs of digestion would refuse to receive it ; but the cases are very different. In cold countries the air is much condensed, for we are well aware that air expands by heat and contracts by cold. Hence the inhabitant of a cold region re- ceives much more oxygen at each respiration than the inhabitant of a hot country, in which the air is expanded by heat. In a cold country, therefore, more carbon is necessary to combine with the ex- cess of oxygen than in the hot country. As oxygen never escapes from the system, after having entered it, except in union either with carbon or with hy- drogen, anything which tends to increase the amount of oxygen inspired will occasion a greater consumption of food. Thus exercise increases the number of our respirations, and consequent supply of oxygen to the system; and the result is thatj (J 2 9-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. after exercise, we consume more food than we should have done had we not received it. The only use of clothes, in the abstract, is to economise food. They assist in retaining the heat of the body, and render less food or fuel necessary for this purpose. " In herbivorous animals the fuel used in the production of heat consists of sugar, starch, gum, and other ingredients of food which do not contain nitrogen. " In carnivorous animals, or those which live en- tirely upon flesh, the heat of their bodies is sup- ported by the combustion of their own tissues. Hence it is that we see the hyena, pent up in the cage of a menagerie, move continually from one side of the den to the other. These movements do not arise from an impatience of confinement, but from the necessity of sustaining the temperature of its body by the combustion of its tissues. Its con- tinued motions accelerate the waste of its body, and introduce more oxygen into its system by the increased rapidity of its respirations." What, then, are the practical ill results which arise from an inattention to these facts ? — the want of a supply of food adequate to the increased demands of the animals when the temperature of the atmosphere in which it is placed is low, or the warmth of the body diminished by exposure to cold currents of air, or by the effects of the evaporation from a wet skin? Mr. Finlay Dun, an eminent veterinary surgeon, has gone over all these bad results of carelessness with his usual abiUty. He told the stockowner — in a recent volume of the "Transactions of the Highland Society," when speaking of the results of poor diet and alow temperature— truly enough, that animals even before birth are affected by insufh- cient food : insufficient food during pregnancy, besides rendering the young at the time of birth small and weakly, has also the injurious effect of curtailing the provisions necessary for its future sustenance : the milk secreted is small in quantity, or if it be considerable in bulk, is poor in quality ; nor will even the most liberal aliment given after the birth of the young one always remedy the evil. Surely, then, it is false economy to put pregnant cows to an over-restricted diet (see also the experi- ments of Mr. Horsfall, of Burley, in the last volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society). There is no period in the life of an animal in which the effects of insufficient food are more prejudicial than in early years. This is far too often the case with regard to calves. The calf, after a week or ten days, should be liberally supplied with milk, and for six or eight weeks should receive only new milk, from eight to ten pints per day, divided into at least three meals ; then skimmed milk may be gra- dually substituted for a part of the new milk — milk should, during three or four months, form its principal food ; then the calf may be gradually accustomed to other sorts of diet, especially to oil- cake. Calves should be housed at night before the weather becomes cold and inclement, after their first summer's grass. Young cattle are generally placed in sheds or courts, but their feeding often receives too little attention ; the result is unthrifty coats, lank limbs, and potbellies; these again, when they are suddenly put upon a more liberal diet, be- come liable to various casualties, such as purgative, congestive fever, abortion, epilepsy, and various cerebral affections. Then as to exposure to wet : Its most uniform effects are a tendency to diarrhoea and muscular relaxation ; there is a marked ten- dency to anarsaca, and oedamatous swellings ob- served amongst men and animals living in moist localities. Wet weather is apt to induce rheumatic enlargements of the joints, foul in the feet, and quarter-ill. In sheep, the ill effects of exposure to rainy weather are still more decided than in neat cattle : in them it produces diarrhoea, affections of the feet, enlargements of the joints, scab, braxy, and rot. Exposure to a moderate amount of cold, and for a limited time, increases the vital energies, and in- vigorates the organic functions. In excess, it has an exactly opposite effect. It then exercises a sedative or depressing influence, inducing slowness of the circulation, feebleness of the respiratory organs, diminished power of generating heat, coma, and death. These are the symptoms which mani- fest themselves in severe winters, and are seen in all their stages by shepherds whose pasture grounds are unsheltered, and exposed to piercing cold and scourging winds! Want of shelter exposes animals to sudden and excessive changes of temperature, and to the heat-abstracting influence of cold cur- rents : it necessitates the consumption of a very large allowance of food ; and when, as is usually the case with animals badly sheltered, exposure to cold is conjoined with exposure to rain and all kinds of weather, the necessity for an increased supply of food will be still greater. In such cir" cumstances, an unusually large quantity of materials is expended in the maintenance of the animal heat ; and if this extra expenditure be not compensated for by an increased quantity of food, the animal necessarily loses weight. Amongst the other dis- eases produced by exposure to cold, are rheuma- tism, pulmonary consumption, scrofulous tumours, increased loss of ewes and lambs in the lambing season. The experience of the owner of live stock will well accord with these medical observations. They all tend in one direction, that of proving that the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 93 more attention we bestow on the comfort of the animals committed to our care— the oftener we vary with the seasons their food and the ventilation of their houses — the more profitable will be the food they consume, the better will they repay us for our labour and our capital. ARTIFICIAL MANURES, ECONOMY OF FOOD, AND FARM-YARD MANURE. Sir,— There liave been three papers recently published by Dr. Voelcker, the professor of chemistry in the Agricultural College, to which I desire to call the attention of all farmers who may not have had the advantage of a perusal of them. Two of them appeared in the Bath and "West of England Agricultural Journal, the one, " On the Agricul- tural and Commercial Value of Artificial Manures, and on their Adulteration ;" the other, " On the Chemistry of Food." These have been published separately. The third, " On the Composition of Farm-yard Manure," appeared in the last number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. The paper " On the Agricultural and Commercial Value of Artificial Manui-es" describes the most important con- stituents of such manures ; the crops to which they are most beneficially applied ; the real agricultural value of them, as an indication of the price it may be worth our while to give for them ; the adulterations which may prevail; and suggestions for our protection against that iniquity. The paper " On the Chemistry of Food," a title not very inviting to farmers, and which I should rather have entitled " On the Economy of Food," and that " On Farm-yard Manure," I venture to state, after the perusal of nearly all that has been written on agriculture during the last 30 years, are the most practically useful to the ordinary farmer, if not the most important contributions to agricul- tural literature, which have appeared within that peiiod. These essays should be in the hands of every farmer, and be carefully studied. With respect to the paper " On the Chemistry of Food," it is sufticient for the present purpose to state that it ex- plains the principal constituents of the various feeding stuffs used by the farmer, and the different purposes to which these are applicable in the animal economj' ; hence it teaches us the selection of those which will most effectually accomplish the special object of the feeder at the least cost; whether that object be the feeding of young growing stock, the fattening of the mature in growth, the greatest produc- tion of butter or cheese. We are taught how to lay out our money to the greatest advantage— in a word, the economy of food. The management of farmyard manure would, at first sight, seem a very simple affair, and that view of the mat- ter has probably led to the enormous waste of it up to this day. Science has done good service in pointing out to us the elements of which this manure, in its natural state, is compounded, their relative importance in vegetable nutri- tion in distinguishing the soluble from the insoluble, find the losses sustained by exposure to the elements. This essay of Dr. Voelcker's is especially recommended to the farmer's not mere perusal, but attentive stud}', as a record of facts, accompanied by conclusive evidence, as dis- tinguished from communications of a theoretical character and containing the mere opinions of an individual. I would not impose on the mere agriculturist the labour of investi- gation, the numerous analyses, and the pages of figures, the result of many months' severe labour, on which the in- formation given is founded. Only the results which are given necessarily concern them. Those results may be taken as established, the analyses and tables being appended as the evidences on which those results are founded, for the use of those who may be disposed to examine the subject more in detail. As I fear the Journal of our society is never seen by a very large proportion of the agricultural community, I M'ill state very briefly two or three consequences of the every- day treatment of farmyard manure which will surprise many farmers, and which will, I trust, induce those who have not yet read this highly interesting article, to obtain and study it when published separately, for which the consent of the council of the Society is necessary. There can be no doubt that will readily be given in favour of an essay of such practical utility to every occupier of land. Dr. Voelcker selected from a heap of fresh-made manure from horses, cows, and pigs, mixed together, three parcels consisting of two cart-loads each. No. 1 was placed in a heap against a wall, but exposed otherwise to the weather. No. 2 was placed under an open shed. No. 3 was spread in an open yard, about the same thickness as it is usually found in farmyards. No. 4 was a heap of well-rotted dung, placed against a wall under the same circumstances as No, 1. These heaps having been first weighed and analyzed were placed in November, 1854 ; and were again weighed and analyzed every three months up to Nov. 1855. It will be sufticient for ray present purpose to state only the more striking results in the case of the heap No, 3, being the usual mode of treating manure, as developed at the conclu- sion of the experiment. The loss in weight of the dry manure, exclusive of water, was 42 per cent. The soluble ash, containing the most valuable saline matters, was reduced one-half in the first six months. The soluble nitrogenous matter had nearly disap- peared, leaving only a trace behind of nitrogen. The soluble organic matters were reduced from 41 lbs. to 4 lbs., the insoluble organic matters from 25 to 10 per cent. The soluble mineral matters were reduced from 25 lbs. to 5 lbs. Of the nitrogen 59 per cent, was lost. Of the No. 4 heap of well-rotted dung placed against a wall, and exposed to weather for 12 months, out of 59 lbs. of soluble organic matter present at first, only 1 1 remained ; and from 23 lbs. of soluble mineral matter, only 10 remained. A trace only of the free ammonia in thisheap remained at the end of the experiments, and nearly all the ammonia in the form of salts was lost. Dr. Voelcker observes that our farm-yard manure is by far the most valuable of any, as comprising all the elements essential to the successful cultivation of all the crops we produce. In round numbers, two-thirds of the fertilising matters were wasted at the close of the experi- ment. In fine, the real manuring constituents rapidly di- minished, so that a very small proportion of fertilising matter remained. Dr. Voelcker gtates that the trainings from dungheap 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. exposed to rains are actually more valuable than the urine of our animals, as containing a much larger quantity of phos- phate of lime. It is to be hoped we shall see no more of this fine gravy riuining down ditches or permitted to pollute our pools. These experiments show how much truth there was in the observation of the facetious author of the " Chronicles of a Clay Fai-m" on seeing a neighbour carting out his long ex- posed manure : " There goes neighbour Dry-chaff's creaking hearse, conveying away the body from which the soul has departed." I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, Cirencester, Dec. 2G. Charles Lawrenck. BRICK-MAKING MACHINES.-C H ELM S FORD MEETING. WILLIAMS' BRICK AND TILE MACHINE. We believe the statistics of brick and tile machines would show that those of Mr. Williams, of Bedford, have met with more popularity in the brick and tile- yards than many of their rivals. This arises from their simplicity of mechanism, adaptation to the wants of the majority of manufacturers, effectiveness in the produc- tion of a superior article, durability, and low price at which they are sold. They are made of various sizes to suit customers, and on several plans. The one to which we now propose confining our observations (an engraving of which accompanies this) is constructed on a new principle, the pistons being driven by an eccentric instead of a rack and pinion ; and may be worked either by hand, horse, or steam power. The engraving represents a two-chambered hand machine, delivering bricks from the right-hand chamber, and draining-pipes from the left. Between the two is the eccentric, with a piston on each side ; the one ex- pressing the clay, while the other is returning empty from the die to the opposite end of the chamber. One man feeds them, first the one chamber and then the other; and four boys, two at each end, remove the bricks or pipes, as the case may be, and when driven by steam this staff will turn out 10,000 bricks per day of ten hours, or 24,C00 2-inch draining-pipes — or 14,000 of the latter when worked by band, and a corresponding number of the former. The principal novelty is the reciprocating traverse- action of the pistons by means of an eccentric differing in construction from those usually converting rotary into rectilinear motion, In this case the eccentric works like a cam between two friction-rollers in the traverse frame of the pistons, only acting on one friction- roller at one time, the two thus touching each other on but one point, and hence reducing friction to a minimum. The advantages of this over the rack and pinion are these: — Less liability to breakage from over-driving, and a smoother action to the piston and flow of clay through the dies, Burrell's Model of a Brick-kiln. A good brick-kiln, to burn bricks at all seasons of the year, is very much wanted. The subject is now engaging considerable attention, and we should like to see Mr. Burrell's plan reduced to practice on a larger scale, so as to be able to speak from facts. In the absence of such, the following will give a general idea of it. The kiln consists of two long channels running alongside each other on the ground-floor of a large building, in each of which is a railway for receiving iron waggons loaded with bricks. The one channel is for burning, and the other for cooling. At the end of the former the waggon-loads of unburnt bricks are wheeled, and taken out at the opposite end, where the fire is kindled, burnt, when they enter the other channel for cooling. By I the] time the waggons are successively pushed up to the fire, the bricks are presumed to have attained a red heat. Over the kiln drying-sheds are erected for consuming all the waste heat, so as to econo- mise fuel, and prepare the bricks for burning. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 95 A STIFF CLAY FARM. Sir, — A farm of some 500 acres, all very stiff claj', to be managed! I feel inclined from fellow-feeling to exclaim, Thank heaven, I am not the fortunate occupier ! 75 acres of prett}^ good meadow make the matter a little less serious : 425 acres, though, are still left to trudge through, of tliis nice retentive raw material. Of course in these progres- sive times, when clay land is to be turned by mechanical process into turnip and barley soil ; when two horses abreast are able to plough the stiffest soil, even if the season is wet ; when the old long plough, stigmatized as " the in- vention of the enemy," gives way to the PP, LLB, &c., whose wheels never clog, however wet or stiff the ground is ; when the clod-crusher can mould the rawest ploughed clay into a beautifully fine tilth for the seed-barley — when all these wonders are realized, then indeed, on paper, the management of clay farms is fit occupation for novice or amateur. But practice and theory in this, as in many other cases» widely differ. To answer your correspondent M. W.'s questions satisfactorily, it is necessary first to ask, Are these 500 acres of stiff clay to be farmed for profit ? i. e., does the occupier wish to farm the land as well as he possibly can, at the least expense ? I will take it for granted that he does ; that every shilling laid out in its cultivation is expended with a view to a solid return ; and that the system adopted must of necessity be a paying one. I take it that the land is, literally, stiff clay ; and any ob- servations I make are applicable to this description of land alone. " Turnips are tried," M. W. says, "but fail through the attacks of the fly." This must not be laid to the land alone. If genuine new seed is used, and plenty of it, with sufficient manure underneath to force the young plants along, I do not think that the fly would injure the crop more on clay than on any other sort of land. That good crops of roots can be grown on clay land, with careful management and in average seasons, is beyond doubt ; the question is. Are they grown profitably? To get root crops is comparatively easj' ; the difficulty lies in consuming them on the land, or carting off without injury to the succeeding crops. That this can be done in some seasons easily enough is not to be denied ; but a system must hold good for all seasons. Suppose we briefly run through the course man}-- adopt in preparing stiff land for crops of roots, say mangolds : Take a wheat-stubble, moderately clean, but with patches of couch, &c., in places; then with forks, immediately the wheat is carried, set to work and get up every particle of couch visible, and carry it off. If yard manure is used, it should be carted on while the ground is dry. The ploughs then follow, at as great depth as can be safely reached. The land now lies to receive the winter's weather; and with a due proportion of frost a nice friable mould is the result. Any couch or weeds appearing in the spring are removed by hand-labour ; and if necessary some imple- ment, such as skim or cultivator, should be used, which leaves the seed-bed as before. Having got a pulverized surface uppermost, mind and keep it so. The seed may now be drilled, and with it a fair quantity of artificial manure, say superphosphate, 4 cwt. If this, with the dressing of yard manure, does not give a crop, there is something very " rotten in the state of Denmark !" Hoeing, &c., duly executed, and the crop safely stored, its weight and cost of production may be calculated : the amount will perhaps be rather startling ; but never mind ! you have got your crop of roots, which is a triumph over old neighbour " Stick-in-the-mud," who thought you a madman for trying such a thing. Now for the succeeding spring crop ; spring wheat, barley, or oats. This harvested, and, together with the stock of seeds valued, a Dr. and Cr. account of the year's operations can be drawn up, and a comparison made between root-growing on clay land, and any other system adopted by yourself or neighbour aforesaid. Mangolds most likely will show a balance on the right side. Swedes and turnips, I fear, will prove wanting. Experience, in many instances, has proved such to be the case; and, speaking from trials made by others as well as by myself, I am of opinion that root-growing to any large extent on a stiff-clay farm is an improfitable concern, and that beyond say 25 acres to be devoted to mangels, swedes carted off early, or turnips to be cleared off by the end of October, some other system than extensive root-growing must be taken up as the order of the day. From 500 acres deducting 75 acres meadow and 25 acres for root growing each year, it now remains to cultivate the rest in a way most profitable to the occupier. To attain this object green crops of some sort must be introduced to alternate regularly with the corn grown. A rotation often practised on stiff clays is as follows: — 1, wheat; 2, beans or peas, manured; 3, wheat; 4, vetches, manured; 5, wheat ; 6, seeds laid down two years : the cropping being so arranged that equal quantities are grown each year. The seeds, if down two j'ears, are spring-grazed the second year, and broken up early in the season ; the land has then almost the benefit of summer fallow, and large crops of wheat may be grown in this way. Bare fallow, where abso- lutely necessary, may be introduced instead of beans or vetches in the course ; but this should not occur if proper care is taken, and manual labour with the fork not grudged. A bean brush or stubble may often be partially forked over Avhen foul in places, and great expense saved in after opera- tions. This rotation has been practised with advantage ou the poorest of clay lands. Where the quality admits, barley may be substituted after vetches. Oats also would be a change to the land ; and the crop of seeds found more likely to stand than if sown with wheat. By varying the description of seeds used, say broad clover one course, and grazing seeds with rye-grass the next, the land is not so liable to become clover-sick as when no change is given. To stock such a farm, where so little winter-keep except- ing hay or clover can be obtained, is a difficult matter. A moderate number of breeding ewes might be kept through winter, and their lambs fed-off before summer. To stock the vetches and seeds feeding sheep must be bought, and corn or oilcake liberally supplied, in order that they maybe fit for sale before winter. As regards cow stock, a few cows might be kept and their calves reared ; so that if oxen were used on the farm, the teams might be recruited by the steers reared on the land. A large quantity of straw will have to be converted into manure ; for this purpose steers should 96 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. be bought, and if allowed corn or oilcake with their allow- ance of chaff and fodder, they will make the manure good, and, although perhaps not quite fit for the butcher, will fetch a good price for grazing purposes. If the soiling system were adopted, and artificial food given through summer, no doubt good beef would be fed, and the excellent manure made would yield a good profit. All stock on such a farm should be regarded as manufacturers of this indispensable article. All stock bought for feeding purposes should be of the best quality ; inferior land requires to be stocked with animals that have naturally an aptitude for fattening ; these in- variably are the well-bred ones. Middling land with middling stock soon tells a queer tale ; which many know by heart. A sine qua non on the farm is a good road to all parts : without hard roads on a clay farm a man is entirely beaten. With buildings spouted, and convenient yards with tanks for the liquid manure, Go a-head ! must be the word. The hurdles and oilcake will be bound to bring corn; and if it be tound that other portions of the land can be made to grow roots, the scale of operations may gra- dually be extended. But a few acres done well, all strength being concentrated to perform all necessary operations when the weather permits, will be most likely to be attended with profit : at least so thinks your humble servant, who farms with one leg in the stift'est of clays. Yours obedientlj', G. KENNINGTON AGRICULTURAL AND CHEMICAL COLLEGE. J.ECTUKES ON THE GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE EARTH, HAVING REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIC LIFE. BY CnARL^,S JOHNSON, ESQ., PROFESSOR OF BOTANY GUY's HOSPITAL. No. X. The ultimate tendency of all the changes that have taken place upon the earth, and that still succeed each other in appa- rently endless series, seems to have been a preparation for the maintenance of organic life. We have traced these wonderful and varied phenomena as having existed here during eras im- measurable by human computation, and as manifesting, in the remains of its once active forms, phases at once mysterious and indicative of progress towards that highest state of deve- lopment of which we ourselves are the present representBtives. A morbid fancy, seeking the revelation of a secret — one perhaps wisely hidden from us in this early stage of man's career, perhaps hereafter to be solved during the anticipated forward movement of the human mind — has sometimes been led to speculate upon the marked succession of grades in ani- mal forms and attributes, elicited by geological research. It would trace the gradual metamorphoses through which the infusorial atom has passed into the complicated frame, instinct with thought and reason. Is the transition possible ? Because> if 80, the probability that such progressive change has been is not to be despised. But assertion based on speculation is as nought without support from circumstance, from fact ; and facts, as hitherto attained, seem adverse to the mamtenance of a theory so wild at first sight and yet so plausible. The ani- mal kingdom, fossil as well as recent, displays a series of deter- minate rising forms; but the metamorphic passages are wanting that would confirm us in the bold idea that the higher has emanated from the lower. The question is an important one in a philosophical point of view, but it rests not upon a more certain foundation than the assumed phasis of matter by which the alchemists of a past period sought to transmute the baser metals into gold. But what is life ? What is this mysterious principle, that, to become manifest, requires a modification of the elements never induced without its presence — a modification of them heterogenous to all the forms of matter but those of organiza- tion? What is this organization, and whence does it proceed ? Two great systems of existing bodies are included within its limits, and are involved in the query. The animal and vege- table kingdoms st»ud forth apparently as distinct frpm each other in the masses as they are from the third, or mineral kingdom, by which they are mutually supported. Such is, at least, the first impression when our young attention is directed to the observation of natural objects; but when that observa- tion is extended to a comparison between the lower and smaller forms of each, the impression is weakened, and we become undecided as to the line of demarcation that should separate them. Associated by the presence of life, their actual dis- tinctness where that life, and with it organization, commences, is perhaps but ideal ; or, if determinate, only to be appreciated by higher powers of comparison than we at present possess. There was a period in the history of natural science when minuteness and simplicity of organic structure were regarded as synonymous. Human vision has its limits; but now the micro- scope had lent its powerful aid in extending them, and a change of opinion followed. The instrument, dark and imperfect as were at first its revelations, taught us to regard the organic atom, the insect, and the infusorial existence, invisible without such assist- ance, as examples of complicated framework and most skilful adaptations of mechanical powers. The moving points — mere glancing specks of light and shade, that flit across the briUiant field of the modern achromatic— may, as the powers of the latter become increased, show structure as varied, instincts as decided, as those which were before regarded the Ultima Thule of vitality, the simplest molecules of animated being. Such is the uncertainty of our keenest researches into the domains of minor organization. But one great truth has been rendered palpable : it is the realization of the grand and incontrovertible principle that like produces like — the most powerful argument that can be adduced against the advocates of the system which would trace a progressive modification of pre-existent into existing types of organic form. We cannot pursue living structure to its lowest elementary condition, but we may arrest it at some intervening grade of development, and mark the features it presents there, as well as trace its upward tendency, whether in the growth of the individual or the multiplication of its kind. We may compare one being with another during the progress to maturity, and note how, though mutually divergent from one apparently THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 97 common form, the stages to that maturity are few or many, and their results simple or complicated, ever in accordance with the circumstances to be fulfilled, and never surpassing the allotted career of each. The lowest primary form of organization we reach, in such examination, whether of the individual or of its parts, is a cell : a globular or oval body, membranaceous or solid externally, fluid within. The history of such a body, from its earliest formation to its highest and most complicated development, has been frequently and plausibly discussed by physiologists ; indeed, the subject is now so familiar to the philosophical world, that we really seem to understand every phenomenon connected with, not only the growth of such a cell, but even the conditions under which it is launched into existence. Un- fortunately for human speculation, these conditions imply others beyond its reach, and the creative power remains a mystery to man. Wherever the formation of a cell is traceable, it is either in association with others, or there are tokens of previous cell- life in the surrounding elements upon which its birth is de- pendent ; and as Frankenstein made his man, and Van Helmont his serpent, from man and serpent matter, so the modern philosopher is compelled to admit the necessity of organic substance to the production of organic being. A German naturalist, high in reputation, and in many respects deservedly so, claims especially some precedence as regards the study of cell-development : yet, with all due deference to his name and talent, it is scarcely possible for a reader, unbiased by theory, to avoid a smile at the prefatory sentence in which this germ of all living being is ushered into notice, viz., " Ouly in a fluid containing sugar, gum, and mucus can cells bs formed." Let us pause and in- quire into the nature of these three elements, the assemblage of which in the same fluid is so essential to the first step of matter vital existence. Are they not all organic products, proximates only accumulated under the action of the very principle they are here supposed to originate ? Are they not remnants of past, administering to the induction of present life ? In fine, are they not all combinations of the assumed simple elements, which are incapable of taking place when those elements are only regulated by the powers or prop?rties that restrain matter in the mass, whether in rest or motion, whether constituting the framework of a planetary system or that of a grain of sand ? No speculator has ventured to irradiate human know- ledge beyond this point, the formation and multiplication of cells ; and, unable to penetrate the secret of primordial crea- tion, our purpose will be better fulfilled by reference to known facts than by entangling ourselves in mere theoretical discus- sion regarding their origin. The formation of a cell may, ac- cording to Dr. Schleiden, be effected in two modes ; and, though his statement concerning these is open to ftontroversy, and partakes more of the character of affirmation than the de- tail of observed facts, the obscurity of the subject at present is such as to excuse its adoption as a basis for our proposed re- view of the general phenomena of organized being. Life, judging from those forms of it to which our fdmiliarity alone extends, can only exist, actively at least, under the influence of fluidity ; and therefore, in seeking the embodiment of its lowest germs, we must imagine the presence of such a fluid as that referred to above. In this fluid, whether by fermentation — that is, chemical action — or by some yet inexplicable process into which we need not inquire, thej^physiologist informs us : first, that the particles of the mucus are drawn together into a more or less rouudcd body, a cell-kernel, and change the en- tire surface of that part of the fluid which surrounds them into jelly, a relatively insoluble substance. Thus originates a closed gelatinous vesicle, into which the external fluid penetrate* »ud distends it, in such a manner that the first-formed rounded body adheres on one side to the inner wall of the vesicle or cell. In this condition, by a repetition of the previous process, it forms a new layer of gelatinous matter on its free side, and thus be- comes inclosed in a duplicature of the wall ; or, otherwise, it remains free, and is then mostly dissolved, and soon disappears. During the gradual extension of the vesicle, the jelly of the wall becomes consolidated in most instances into cell-aem- brane, and thus the formation of the cell is completed. Under the second mode of cell formation, the collective contents of a cell become divided into two or more parts, and around each part there is immediately formed a tender gelatinous mem- brane. In this way many cells are formed, which fill up the cell in which they originated. Now, this statement, regarded in the aggregate, is not much at variance with circumstances actually traceable by microsco- pical observation during the growth of certain vegetable and animal bodies. Its grand defect consists in the inability of the author to soar beyond the range of human intellect, and ex- plain the law under which organic structure originates. We have, however, the cell, the germ of all living substances, be- fore us, and may trace hence the gradual complication of the frames which it composes ; and, what is of more importance to us here, we have the admitted fact that, to form this cell, the results of a previous organization are essential — a fact accordant with the past history of our globe, and that successional intro- duction of higher forms upon its surface which constitutes the most important feature exposed by geological research, more especially the long-continued series of marine peoductions, merging gradually through the amphibious reptiles into the warm-blooded inhabitants of the land, each series fulfilling its appointed preparation for the existence of a new creation. The earliest groupings of that grand and ever-changing pano- rama of life we are unable to trace ; their forms were probably too minute and perishable to have left perceptible remnants In marine life, we know not which of the two kingdoms had precedence : the lowest frames of both, gelatinous or deli- cately membranaceous, like their existing counterparts, decom- position would speedily remove after death ; but, among the rising grades, the stony case of the animalcules has greater durability than the flimsy fabrics of its parallels of the vegetable race, which, while the latter have been annihilated, has contri- buted to preserve through millennial periods the proofs of its existence. A similar fate has predominated over their more highly organized successors. The marine plant, however con- spicuous and long-lived, a mere mass of half-condensed gela- tine, has dissolved and disappeared where the calcareous shell, the horu-like fish scale, and bony skeleton have retained their living form and texture. That marine plants are rare in the fossil state is no argument against the vegetable claim to priority in creation ; and this is an important point to esta- blish, in studying the relations of the two kingdoms of animated nature, as well as their mutual influences upon each other, and conjointly on the economy of mankind. The amount of vegetation at the bottom of the sea it is not easy to compute any more than the proportion which it bears to the animal inhabitants of its mighty waters ; and, although the greater number of the more specious forms of the latter derives subsistence from animal matter, the proportion may not be much at variance with that which exists between veget- able and animal life upon the land, where the latter is exclu- sively, though in many instances indirectly, supported by feed- ing upon the former : a circumstance so evident, that it has been long an accepted fact among naturalists that vegetation constitutes the transitional grade between mineral and animal substance. It is true, that among the minuter forms of 98 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. aquatic auiuiah a similar tendency exists to that which is almost universally predominant among the fishes, crabs, and most of the mollusca (shell fishes), to feed upon their smaller and weaker brethren ; and witnessing under microscopic en- largement the fierce appetites of most of these mere points in creation, one might be inclined to doubt the vegetable nurture of any. But the forays of the animalcules contained in a drop of water, upon each other, are only repetitions, on a smaller scale, of those which take place among the higher classes of land animals ; of which the carnivorous kinds feed not only on their herbivorous associates, but likewise on the weaker members of their own cast : in neither instance does the act preclude the vegetable element, which is only subjected to a transition more or less before its course is ended. In the same manner the food of the atomic beings that — themselves eaten in turn — support the growth and activity of a water- flea, may be traced through successional stages to the minute vegetable productions which float in the water or clothe the sides or muddy bottom of the ditch or stagnant pool ; and ia admitting the correctness of a remark once made by a whimsi- cal naturalist, that he and his friend had dined on water-fleas from his own fish-pocd — as they had been eaten by the gnats, the gnats by the frogs, while the pike they hsd themselves eaten had swallowed the frogs — we do not interfere with the certain fact that their food had been derived from a veget- able source, any more than if their dinner had consisted of beef and potatoes. Let us examine a few of the lower orders of the vegetable creation, which, among others, serve, or may serve, as a basis for animal — nay, for human subsistence, however far removed from direct contact with the human frame, or any other they ultimately assist in nourishing. The inquiry respecting the primordial or lowest forma of either of the two organic king- doms is necessarily involved in some uncertainty, in conse- quence of the difficulty that exists in distinguishing between them. This will be readily understood when it is considered that the organic tissues of both consist of the same elements, and that both assume one primary form — that of the cell. Ever since the study of natural objects began to assume a scientific character, the naturalists of successive periods have laboured to define their limits, but the difficulty of so doing has always been acknowledged. The definition of Linnasus, the greatest geaeraliEer, if not the most acute observer from the time of Aristotle, was long quoted as a masterpiece ; admired alike for its conciseness and correct appreciation of properties, by the allotment of which Nature had distinctly severed the three great classes of terrestrial existences : " Stones grow !" (a belief current even at a much later period). " Vegetables groTV and live ! Animals grow, live, and feel !" As obser- vation extended, and knowledge became less superficial, this dogma of a comparatively ignorant age lost its previous plausibility ; the division of the bodies around us into organic, and inorganic or mineral, usurped the old authority, and the " three kingdoms of Nature " remained only as one of the in- ventions of antiquity. Growth, in its proper acceptation, was no longer a mineral attribute ; sensation, not ia all instances demonstrative of animal, nor its apparent absence of vegetable life. But while the individuals of the two classes correspond in certain points, a marked difference characterizes those of each on a broad scale ; and the desire of separating them by a definition still exists, as a fulfilment necessary to their perfect classification, and to that division of study which has created the botanist and the zoologist. To this end general structural features and physiological and chemical diff'erences are resorted to in turn, yet without avail, leaving the domains of the parties who divide the observation of the organic world between them open to the alternate claims of either, aud a perpetual border warfare. How is this? An elephant and an oak, a sea- anemone and a sunflower, a sea-weed and a coralline, are re- ferred at a glance to their respective classes; why not a fragillaria and a conferva, a protococcus and a palmella? Only that the more complicated the structure, the more decided and multiplied are the features ; the more simple, the fewer and more equivocal. The land and the water alike present us grades of organization equally low; but the aquatic forms of such, surrounded by a medium furnishing abundant and con- tinuous nourishment, are the most conspicuously varied ; aud the collector of marine species especially may trace their diver- sification, from plants consisting of a single microscopic cell to those of almost woody texture and gigantic length. But ex- amples of the lower grades of structure are so universally dis- tributed as to be everywhere obtainable for observation by those who seek them. When we have only been accustomed to notice the larger species — to amuse ourselves by gathering at leisure weeds upon the sea-shore, attracted by their beauty or singularity; or when, in addition to this, our eye has dwelt, during an autumnal woodland walk, upon the varied forms and often-brilliant hues of the Agarici, Boleti, and other tribes of fungus, we are likely to entertain but a very confined idea of the extent of these and other vast natural groups belonging to the inferior orders of the vegetable world. A large proportion of their numbers is overlooked, owing to the extreme minuteness of the objects; a still larger, perhaps, owing to the equivocal appearance of the in- dividuals, is liable to be confounded, by an inexperienced observer, with casual depositions of dust, settlements of sand or mud, or regarded only as disintegrated or decomposed fragments of the substance upon which they grow. And yet, while the more remarkable and particular species of these cellular plants are scattered abroad, clothing the rocks with a thousand various hues, enamelling the falling foliage of the woods, or glowing with tints of richest dye amidst the waters of the ocean— ill fulfilling some grand ofllice in the vast economy of Nature ; others, of less complicated structure, less imposing aspect, but of equal importance in the scale of being, intrude even within our domestic circle, and affect our com- fort and convenience, in many instances, unknown and un- suspected. Wherever a moist atmosphere can penetrate, or a drop of water lie for a short time unevaporated, there these vegetable atoms fix, and propagate their kind, and often with a rapidity that induces the cursory observer to imagine their appearance the result of spontaneous generation. Such, among others, are the substances termed collectively " mould" and " mildew" — general expressions, in which are included a little myriad of species, and not a few families, of vegetables, whose actual features are known only to a small number of the more ardent labourers in the field of science, and even to them but very imperfectly. Who, uninformed of the varying habits of these humbler productions of all-enlivening Nature, would ever suspect a vegetable to be present in — nay, sometimes to be the sole cause of— that thin, hazy film, which, accumulating on the glass of our windows, renders an often-renewed cleansing ne- cessary to comfort ? Yet a species of fungus — Byssocladium fenestralis, or window byssocladium — is not at all unfrequent even in the heart of the crowded city. Such species, how- ever, as this, and mould and mildew, are far from being the lowest or meanest of vegetables. We are, it would seem, yet unacquainted with the simplest forms of this class of beings, quite as much so as we are in regard to the animal creation; but many of the known species referred by botanists to the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 99 group called Algacese, or cellular aquatics, appear to our limited faculties to constitute but a slight remove from the point whence vitality first radiates. We have already spoken of the form of the cell, and the circumstances under which it comes into existence. There is a seeming inclination manifested by some modern writers, especially of the German school, to seek the incipient rise of organization in the operation of the chemical and mechanical laws which disturb and regulate the inorganic atom. Of the varied modificatious of this powerful and mysterious agency we know little beyond a few general facts, upon which are based all our calculations of cause and effect ; and the dis- coveries required to lessen the wide gulf that appears at pre- sent to separate hfe and matter, are still in abeyance. That such operations fulfil a necessary part of the phenomena of the former, is a circumstance too evident to be contradicted ; and the history of cell-formation presents indications of their action. As matter, in its primitive or unorganized state, has a constant tendency so to arrange its particles that each shall occupy the nearest possible point to the centre of the mass, owing to the agency of that power we call or miscall gravita- tion, it follows that the globular form should be a natural result of its earliest struggle into organic existence, when the vital energy, from whatever source it may originate, is barely sufficient to effect the inconceivable change that takes place. Accordingly, we find the simplest vegetable, and perhaps animal, bodies emulating in this respect a drop of water or any other fluid — single spheroidal bodies, vesicles, or cells, filled with liquid. Imagine, in fact, a minute drop of water, solidified on its outer surface, fluid within ; and you have, at the first glance, an image of an organic cell in its simplest state, nearer to truth than imagination, perhaps, dare con- ceive. But the cell-fluid, as already stated, is not water alone : that element is simply the solvenc of principles requi- site to the production and nourishment of the living body, necessary to the elaboration of vitality, but of itself inert. The spheroidal outline is not, however, universally charac- teristic of the maturing cell, which often assumes during growth an elongated or ovoid form ; and sometimes many such cells are connected end to end, constituting thread or hair-like bodies. These productions, to the pre- sence of which the colours of damp ground and stagnant, waters are chiefly owing, exhibit, when carefully examined, various gradations in structure, that ascend, by a progressive scale, towards the more imposing and beautiful forms of vege- tation exemplified in the sea-weeds, as they are popularly called. Modern botany has much advanced our knowledge of this formerly-neglected, because obscure, portion of the vegetable dominion ; or rather, the researches of its votaries, aided be the improvement of the microscope and increased acquaintancs with natural science, have Removed many of the previous sources of error which tended to enhance the mystery of such minute productions. We have learned to believe them no ex- ceptions to the assertion of the far-seeing naturalist of a less enlightened age — omnv vivum ex ovo, and to trace their germs of reproduction in many instances, while in others we feel our- selves justified in assuming their existence ; the minuteness of the spomles, as the germs of cellular plants are technically styled, being such as to render it possible they may be carried up with watery vapour into the atmosphere, mingling even with the clouds, and falling with the condensation of rain, dew, &c. Among the most remarkable of the minute organic bodies to which these observations refer, the red snow-plant (Proto- coccus nivalis) may be mentioned ; an object first brought into general notice on the return of Captain Ross from his Polar expedition in 1819, at which period much discussion was ex- cited in the philosophical world regarding its nature. He de- scribed it as covering the surface of the snow over an extent of many miles, and penetrating in some parts to the depth of 12 feet. Snow similarly tinged had already been observed in other parts of the world, and an organic production of like character was met with a few years after, occurring on the borders of lakes in the island of Lismore, Argyleshire, Scotland, "spread- ing abundantly over decayed leaves, reeds, &c„ at the water's edge, and distributed over the calcareous rocks within the reach of occasional inundation." Dr. Greville, to whom speci- mens were forwarded, has described and figured them in his " Scottish Cryptogamic Flora," as consisting of a substratum or layer of gelatinous matter varying in thickness ; upon the colourless surfaces of which rested a vast number of minute spherical, brilliant, garnet-coloured bodies, nearly opaque. The colour is due to an indefinite number of granules, which are eventually scattered by the bursting of the parent cells, gra- dually enlarge, and, bursting in their turn, propagate the species. Each little globular cell may therefore be regarded as an individual organic being, endowed from its birth with a self- maintaining and reproductive power, exercised independently of those around. The apparently confined structure and feeble vital energies characterizing the Protococcua have their paral- lels in numerous other equally minute and equivocal species, that, occupying aa it were the verge of life-creation, seem at present to defy all attempts at classification. So far as the subject before us is concerned we have establiahed a starting poiut : the individual animal or vegetable nature of the ex- istences, clustered around or receding behind it, is an ira ■ portant topic for discussion, small as are the means we possess of determining the question ; but the discussion must now be reserved for the following paragraph of our enquiry. CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. The following subjects have been selected for discussion during the present year : — February 2, — The most judicious Management and Application of Farmyard and Artificial Manures. Proposed by Mr. R, Baker, Writtle, Chelmsford. March 2. — The best means of Improving the Cultivation of Poor and Hilly Lands. By Mr. R. Smith, Emmett's Grange, South Molton, Devon. April 6. — The most convenient and economical Mode of Stacking and Tlirashing Corn. By Mr. W. Bennett, Cambridge. May 4. — The Boarding, Lodging, and Maintaining Yearly Agricultural Servants : the best and cheapest mode of doing so. By Mr. J. IMarshali,, Riseholme, Lincoln. June 1. — The Autumnal Cultivation nf Wheat Stubbles; and the subsequent preparation and growth of a Root Crop, especially onstift", retentive soils. By Mr. R. Bond, Kcntwell, Long Melford, Suffolk. November 2. — That the Improved Education of the La- bourer is essential to the present position of the Farmer. By the Rev. C. T. James, Ermington, Devon. December 7. — The Mechanical and Chemical Principles which should properly regulate the practice of Drainage. By Mr. J. C. Nesbit, 39, Kennington-lane, London. 100 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CROYDON FARMERS' CLUB. The first meeting of this club for the season was held on Saturdaj', Jan. 10, at the King's Arms, Jonah Cressing- HAM, Esq., in the chair. On the motion of Mr. R. W. Fuller, Mr. Russell, of Sanderstead, and Mr. Chown, deodorizer and worker of the sullage of Croydon, were elected members of the club, Mr. Fuller adding that Mr, Cho'sra was about to erect large works in Croydon. DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS. Mr. Wood then read the following paper : — " Mr. Chair- man and gentlemen, — The necessity or importance of lessening the quantity of the growth of weeds must be of benefit to the agricultural interest, and the necessity of it on a great portion of the land in cultivation is too often met with, I therefore intend this evening to give what I think are a few practical modes from my own experience and observation how weeds may bo very much diminished, so as not to injure the crops to the extent they in many instances do. We are all too well aware of the difficulty of keeping crops clean in wet seasons, even at a great expense, but which might be often remedied by beginning with the hoes when the weeds are young ; as,if they are allowed to get strong, it is almost impossible to kill or get rid of them, when they often might have been, and at half the expense, if cut up when young and tender. And it is not only the getting rid of the weeds, but the injury to the crops is often very serious, much more than is generally supposed, which I have several times experienced in the weight of crop, as well as of the land getting very foul at the end of the course. There are many ways of getting land into a foul state. It is often done by seed corn having any particular weed in it, such as kidlock and others ; that, if only a small quantity is sown and left to seed over the field, how soon the field may be covered with a weed it was free from before, and which cannot again be got rid of without great trouble and ex- pense. I cannot help thinking that weeds are increasino- rather than diminishing, and that thistles are much more numerous than they were, and which I believe arises from the plan of successive cropping without clean fallows ; and in many cases they gain strength in not cutting them up when the land is in corn. I cannot alter the opinion that I have before expressed in this room, as to the propriety of having a portion of clean fallow on light lands which is so subject to all sorts of weeds, unless it can be all farmed at a very high rate, and which I believe it to be impossible that manure could be produced to do so, I believe it would be found to be right in many ways ; first, by giving more time to get rid of all kinds of weeds, as I think there is no other way of getting rid of thistles, and many other such weeds, but by continually cutting them off for some length of time, which time cannot be given if you sow all with turnips. How many times, in my opinion, would the thistles on light lands be nearly all killed, if the land could have another ploughing or two, and be left clear until the spring. And I am still more convinced that too large a por- tion of land is sown with turnips, as it is now generally ac- knowledged that land gets turnip sick as well as clover sick if sown too often. And where a whole fallow would be useful, how often could you let your ploughs go into a fallow that has to lie so all the winter ! when you do much more harm than good in a turnip fallow from being too wet, I do not intend to infer that too many turnips can be grown, but that too many acres may be sown ; as a farmer that has a large quantity of land for turnips, by properly working and dressing three-foiu-ths of it for turnips, and leaving the other fourth clear fallow, will oftentimes grow as great a weight of turnips as he would on the whole ; and would certainly be more likely to keep his farm cleaner. And how often good turnip lands may be seen with not half a crop of turnips on them — often from the cause of having so many acres to sow that none are really done well ! And I think that you would, by putting a small quantity of arti- ficial manure on your clean fallow, grow as much barley, and of a better quality, and better clovers, than you would on your land that was dressed for turnips, and fed off with sheep ; and much more likely to be cleaner from weeds There is another point as regards fallowing, and that is the ploughing land too deep the first time when foul. I have seen several instances lately that convince me that it is wrong, as there has been so much labour bestowed on it, and not got anything like clean after all. I would rather see it rafted or ploughed just to go under the couch, if any, as I see that it is cleaned at so much less expense, and much more effectually. Another bad plan I have seen practised, in fallowing on lands that are subject to seed weeds ; that is, by the ploughings being too closely followed, and not giving the seeds of weeds time to vegetate ;. and many fields would often be cleaner if one ploughing was dispensed with ; and where land is very subject to kidlock or many other seed weeds, if time will allow, where Lent corn is to be sown, to harrow the land down, and let it lie until the seeds vegetate, and then, instead of ploughing again, which would bring up more seed, to strike for the crop ; and I am convinced from experience that on all light lands more corn and less weeds would be grown. Striking I believe to be much better than drilling ; and I think, if more practised, would be found of benefit to light-land farmers. I know many find fault of the time and expense, but I do all with a single horse to a plough ; and, if so done, it cannot be a very expensive plan. The effect of striking on the corn crop is, that it seems to enjoy itself better, and to get a- head of the weeds, and not to lose plant so much as in most other modes, or to require quite so much seed, I have before this spoken in» favour of transplanting a portion of mangel wurzel and swedes, and have seen nothing to alter my opinion. It may be done with advantage if your land is not clean and ready in proper time to put in the seed. I know from experience that both swedes and mangel wurzel, of the globe sorts, will, if planted out in reasonable time, say the last week in June, have a good chance of suc- cess ; and that the globe wurzel may be mended in the rows with advantage if done when they are young. I have brought some yellow globe that were transplanted to mend tlie rows of long red, and they were, I believe, on the ave- rage as heavy as the long red that grew from the seed, which speaks in favour of the yellow globe, which I cer- tainly prefer. They were not transplanted until the last week in June, on land that was not used so well as it should have been for wurzel, They were planted about 30in. by THE FARMER* S MAGAZINE. 101 18in., and the land very clean. If the land is not very clean, and much subject to weeds, I should prefer giving them more room between the rows, and less in tb* row •, I think that 3ft. by 16in. isa preferable distance, as there would be the same quantity per acre, viz., 10,890, which, if of the weight of 51bs. each, would be upwards of 24 tons per acre. I should therefore sa}^ from what I have seen of my own, that bj' putting the rows three feet apart you can grow as great a weight, and a much better chance to clean j'our crop from weeds, than when planted closer. And I think it would be well worth the trial to put the rows of swedes 3ft. by 1ft., which would produce 13,C00 per acre. I feel no doubt but that you would get nearly or quite as great a weight, with so much better chance of getting rid of weeds, by being able to keep on with the horse-hoe so much longer. I know many object to putting them so far apart, but I feel confident it would be right, and that there would be more corn produced, and less weeds. There is another thing why we should endeavour to keep the weeds under, that is, the increasing value of artificial manures, which must tend to make all other manures of more value ; and it must be clear to all that weeds rob the land very much, as well as the growing crop. I hope we may soon see the steam ploughs going about the country as the steam thrashing machines are now, as on many farms there eare not enough horses kept to keep the work under as it should be ; and we all know that when many things are not done at the time they ought to be done, they are often not done at all. And as some of the sanguine inventors think they shall be able to plough the land at as little or even less cost than the ploughs now in use, it must prove of great benefit to the agricultural interest, as it would enable the farmer to do with less horses, and also to plough his land soon after corn is off, which would do away with many weeds before seeding, and let another crop come away. I feel that I have said many things that some of our best farmers may not approve of; but what I have said on many points does not at all allude to them, but to far too many I fear it does, as it does appear to me that at the present time weeds are certainly one of the greatest enemies the farmer has to contend with, and my object is that as many weeds may be done away with as possible, and that good crops of corn and roots may grow in their places. Mr. Farley : Your observations apply generally to light land ? Mr. Wood : Well, I don't say much about stiff land. I\Ir. Farley: The thistles, however, are there, and nothing will get them out but continual ploughing. Mr. Stenning : And by the turnwrcst plough.' Mr. Wood : Yes. Mr. Stknning : 1 think you don't cut them asunder by the turnwrest, as you do by the round plough. Mr. Wood, being asked what was the manure used for three splendid specimens of the yellow-globe mangold he had placed on the table, replied that the ground was sown with 8 cwt. of salt, after potatoes, wheat, and oats. A discussion on salt ensued. Mr. Farley said, it closed the land. As to fallows, the market-gardeners in hia neighbourhood never thought of them. Gardening was farming on a small scale ; but the gardener considered fallows the greatest of absurdities and, instead of fallowing, actually raised two crops from the same land. Did they, then, wear out the land by over-cultivation ? So far from it, that the longer they cul- tivated the land, the more it grew. Mr. Wood : It will wear out in time. Mr. Farley : Not a bit of it. The longer they kept on, the more it grew. A Member : You don't mean the same thing. Mr. Farley : You have said very little of the common hoe. The hoe is the only means of keeping weeds down on our light land. Mr, Stenning said : You could not get the weeds out thoroughly with it. Mr. Farley said, a near neighbour of his sowed his oats on a good piece of land, sowing small seeds at the same time ; but the weeds came up in such quantities, that they completely overpowered the clover, and the oats too. He quite agreed as to using the hoe as soon as possible. The sooner turnips were hoed, the better. Mr. Wood : Yes— as soon as you can see the rows, the horse-hoe should go in. Mr. Stenning should differ with Mr. Wood as to fal- lowing light land the whole year, because they had the whole autumn before to prepare the land for a crop. He would not say, take it all with swedes for early planting ; but take some that came later. If they got a green crop, they could leave something behind from sheep. They could put on oilcake, or anything else they pleased. Mr. Wood : Well, I know, where there is such a large quantity of turnips, there is often not half a crop got. Mr. Stenning: Your argument is really this— you are accusing us of farming too much land with too little capital ; but, in discussing practical questions, we must assume that we have capital enough to farm with. If a man chooses to take more land than he can manage, I quite agree with you. With heavy land, he might have, out of 60 acres, 40 acres of turnips, and 20 of tares. Where a man was overburdened with land, in proportion to capital, Mr. Wood's advice might be very good ; but as a general prin- ciple, in the present day, when we can have more manure than we know what to do with, I don't agree with it. Mr. Wood said, they could not always get manure. Mr. Stenning said, he had been offered 500 tons of dung that day ; and he knew a man not far from there, that had bought 500 tons of the same individual. The nature of the farm was such, that they would not doubt it required it. Mr. Farley recommended the scarifier immediately after the crop was up. Nothing did more good than doing it in the hot weather. Look at wheat-stubbles : if they were allowed to remain till this time of year, they were all weeds. Mr. R. W. Fuller had listened with great interest to the conversation, and wished to draw from it a practical inference as to the mode of conducting the business of the club. This, he thought, he should be allowed to do, as the meeting was avowedly of a twofold character. As soon as the subject was introduced, the inclination was, to full into a conversation.al discussion. No one got up to go into the whole subject, but each adverted to some branch of it, by which many valuable truths were elicited ; and he believed the object would be still further attained, if each gentleman would rise when making bis remarks. But, whether that were so or not, he believed more good would be done by conversational meetings than in any other way. As to the question itself, the destruction of weeds, they were all perfectlj' agreed, w.as the first thing a man had to do. Before you sowed your corn, you must kill your weeds ; and after sowing, whatever annuals came must be got rid of by the horse and hand-hoe, which their fore- fathers knew nothing about. With reference to leaving 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. one-fourth of the land fallow, which they usually devoted to turnips, he did not, on light land, see the necessity of it. They might get their land clean without that, and get a green crop nearly as well. Where was the difficulty of doing this, on land you could get at, all the year round ? As Mr. Stenning had said, if you had iiot stock enough for your acreage, leave it to some one that had, and take a less farm. In realitj', there was very little land that was not moved four or five times after the crop was sown. Mr. Wood thought sufficient manure could not be got. That was a difficulty he (Mr. Fuller) had not experienced. They had now manures running into a list of names they had not heard at school, in the old times, when they de- pended on dung and lime. As Mr. Stenning properly re- marked, they might have any quantity of a very excellent manure, the value of which was not merely theoretical ; for he (Mr. Fuller) had tried it, and could grow turnips with it as well as anything else ; and while it could be purchased at the reasonable rate it could, he should con- tinue to use it. He had put two tons of the Croydon sullage manure — for it was that he alluded to — with one qr. bones, on his turnips ; and the result had been a most satisfactory crop. Mr. Stenning : I can speak very highly as to the Croy- don sewage manure. It is a fact that my turnips which got the prize had no other. Mr. Fuller said that he had also been very successfi;l in growing swedes with it, but that was not yet sufficient proof to go to any great extent. To get additional proof, he tried several acres without anything but that manure. Of course they were not so large as where the bones were used, be- cause it cost only 5s. per ton — two tons to the acre. This was in its raw state, and he thought the trial veiy satisfac- tory. Mr. Wood had alluded to salt. He had mixed some salt with the rnanui'e, and there they were nearly or quite as large as with bones, and at greatly less expense. To re- turn to fallows, the presumption was that they had got capital enough, and if so, they could supply manure enough for their land. He felt particularly grateful to Mr. Wood for bringing the question forward, because they had had great difficulty in persuading any gentleman to come for- ward, and it was imagined by many they were getting to a low ebb. That was really not the case. He had had great pleasure in proposing three new members for that evening. There was no lack of vitality in a club which had seventy members, plenty of funds, an increasing librarj', and gen- tlemen joining them up to that moment. With proper ar- rangements they might have a capital party, and he hoped most earnestly gentlemen would come forward to give them papers and take part in the discussions. Mr. Churcher fully agreed with Mr. Fuller in the pro- priety of getting rid of young and annual weeds as soon as possible. As to fallows, they should only fallow for turnips, and not have a whole summer fallow ; but where they had heavy land, he would fallow on to October, particularly where it was thistley land. When they ploughed them up late in autumn, they got rid of them a great deal better than in July. If they ploughed the thistles up well and deeply directly after harvest, it would check them better than any other way, and then fallow afterwards. He agreed as to " striking" with the ploughs, particularly for wheat. Clover, however, took much better Avith a clear summer fal- low from Midsummer to Michaelmas. As to transplanting, the specimens placed before them by Mr. Wood showed what might be done by a little perseverance. Mr. Farley thought they should be very careful in trans- planting not to double up the root, but to let it go its full depth. Mr. WfiOD reminded them that he did not advocate fal- lows against turnips, but only that one-fourth of the land usually given to the latter should be fallowed ; and he did so because he believed that, in the majority of cases, they would get as great a weight of roots on the three-fourths as on the whole. He wanted to see the land clean, and he did not see it so in many places where there was plenty of strength. Mr. Stenning would be very sorry to see out of GO acres of turnip land 15 lying idle. Mr. Fuller thought if a man could only manage to clean 30 acres out of 40, he should take a 300 acre farm instead of 400. A man could get manure, he could get horses, and he could cultivate 400 acres as well as 300. Mr. Wood said that land got turnip-sick, and the fixllow would on an average of years be advantageous in that way. If a man missed his crop once from growing too often, he would lose more in one year than from all his fallows. Mr. Fuller thought the error was gi-o-iving too little green crops, and not too much. As to manure, green crops gave stock, and stock gave manure. Mr. Stenning said the only question Mr. Wood really raised was, had they capital enough ? Mr. Wood said the land was very often sown with tur- nips, and had no dressing. Mr. Stenning thought if they did keep 10 acres out of a 40-acre fallow, they might take tares on it. Mr. Farley thought a fallow was a return to an old ex- ploded system. Mr. CiiowN advised a liberal use of the horse-hoe and other implements, as the more the land was disturbed the greater the amount of ammonia it derived from the atmos- phere. Theoretically manure might be supplied to replace anything taken from their land, so that their [crops might be grown consecutively ; it was for them to carry this out in practice. Mr. Castledine bore testimony to the good effects of a crop he had grown last year with manure from the Croydon Works. Mr. Stenning felt that the gentlemen in the neighbour- hood of Croydon would make a great mistakeif they did not use it. Mr. Fuller, in the warmest terms, moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Wood for his very interesting paper. Camed unanimously. The Chairman expressed the obligations of the meeting to Mr. Wood, and traced the character of the discussion it had elicited, which had been most gratifying to them all. HOG'S HAIR.— Farmers who slaughter their own hogs generally allow this article to go to waste. In the large butcheries in the cities it is carefully saved for use in the arts, and forms a considerable item in the profits of the business. It would not pay, perhaps, for those who have but a few pigs to kill, to send the hair to a distant market ; But still it should not be left to waste. It is a very power- ful fertilizer, and if saved and put into the vegetable fodder next spring, it will give a good account of itself. It is par- ticularly valuable for celery trenches, giving a large growth of tender juicy stalks. Save all the waste of the scalding- tubs for the garden. — American Agriculturist. THE FAKMfiR*S MAGAZINE. 103 THE DRAINAGE OF THE M ET ROTOLIS. - W H AT DONE WITH THE SEVv^AGE? SHALL BE Sir, — There is no single subject that occupies the minds of thinking and reflecting men, of greater im- portance than the drainage of London, and, therewith connected, the proper disposal of the sewage. Without depreciating the Board of Works, or calling in question their united ability to grapple with this giant project, I am bound to say that the plan proposed by them was open to one insurmountable objection, that, if attempted to be carried out, would be a continued annoyance to thousands, and a disgrace to the engineering ability of the first nation of the world. I need not here point out the gross injustice and studied insult offered to the inhabitants on the river Thames, by taking the sewage, and emptying its pol- luted contents into this " highway of nations," at Erith or elsewhere; but to every person floating upon its surface, whether he comes from the sunny skies of Italy, or the frozen steppes of Siberia, each and all would have to float through the slough of filth and pol- lution, to reach the capital and home of the world. " O dirty London, I smell thee now ! " would become the byword of nations. Besides, in time, it would form a complete barrier to navigation ; and every inhabitant would fly from its pestilent banks. The great question which arises is this : Is the sewage of London of value as a commercial commodity ? and, if so, can it be turned to a profitable account ? I main- tain that it is of great national import that this sewage should be made available, and placed at the disposal of the improved agriculturist of the day, as a most valuable and fertilizing agent. The hungry and over-cropped lands of our corn-growing districts require that this manure should be sent back to them in a liquid state, free from any depreciation by any system of deodoriza- tion or chemical contrivance. It has been proved from the most undeniable evidence, both in England and agricultural Scotland, that liquid manures are far su- perior to any other; and chemists have proved, and common sense bears out the fact, that it is in a liquid state that it enters into the composition of a plant. How very important, then, it is that this highly valu- able agent should be collected, and sent into our corn- growing districts, to supply and support the annual de- preciation occasioned by the constant cropping of such lands ! I shall therefore, without further preface, point out the means by which the whole of the sewage of London can be sent into the country to the extent of ten, twenty, thirty, forty, or fifty miles from the bounds of the me- tropolis, and that to the great advantage of the vendor, and much more so to the purchaser, of this valuable commodity. First, I propose to divide the river frontage into seve- ral parts, agreeable to the principal sewage outlets — such as the Tower, Fleet Ditch, Ranelagh Sewer, &c. ; at each of those sewage outlets to erect two large reser- voirs, each capable of containing the sewage of twelve hours' supply; these reservoirs to form the Thames wall on the front, and to be carried into the bank as far as practicable, the vi^hole to be covered in ; machinery and apparatus (not pumps) of sufficient power and quality to raise the liquid manure to the height of 50 feet, as may be required, and from this height to continue its course under ground to the boundaries of London in two or more iron pipes of proportionate dimensions. Taking the Fleet Ditch as an example, and to cairy out the whole of my views, the first object would be to separate the great quantity of water which finds its way into this sewer foreign to sewer water, and which pro- ceed from springs in its course through Clerlien-tveU, SdLdlers-well, &c., &c. This water would be made available as a power, separated from the sewage : I allow the latter to find its way into the reservoirs of large dimensions. These reservoirs and machinery (not pumps) could, in this particular case, be placed below Smithfield, and near to the Samaritan Hospital — on the new line of street from Farringdon-street — of power sufficient to raise the sewage to the height of fifty feet. This done, the pipe or pipes of large dimensions would continue under ground through Smithfield, Long-lane^, Chiswell-street, Finsbury, and on to the boundaries of London ; from thence — if two pipes diverging to a distance of one mile apart, and continuing at this parallel distance — twenty miles from London. Epping Forest is now about to be enclosed, and, being crown lands, and open to improvement, I direct this supply of aqua impura to that locality, whose hungry and thirsty soil would devour all that could be put upon it for years to come, and raise its acreage value from 20s. to 100s. per acre ; continuing the pipes in the most approved direction to an extent of 20 miles, I make them available, with short branches and hose, to irri- gate an area equal to 25,600 acres. I now propose to show the probable cost, and the returns likely to be made, from this one portion or out- let of London sewage now under consideration. Outlay on the Fleet-Ditch Sewer in Conve'ving Contents of same to the extent of from One TO Twenty Miles from the Boundaries of London. £ s. d To separating the springs and other waters from the sewage water 5,000 0 0 Building two large reservoirs and covering same, for the reception of sewage, and building thereon engine house, and other sheds, with all necessary sluices, pipe?, &c. 15,000 0 0 Purchase and erection of engines and machi- nery for raising the sewage to the height of 60 ft. in a liquid state 15,000 0 0 Purchase of land, and sundry prehminary expenses 10,000 0 0 Laying down two iron pipes of proper dimen- sions, capable of conveying the sewage to the distance of 20 miles from the boundary of the metropohs 200,000 0 0 Hose and Taps and implements for distribu- ting liquid manure over an area of 25,600 acres, being 20 miles by 2 miles. 5,000 0 0 Total outlay. . £250,000 0 0 104 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Annual Expenditure, £ 8. d. Annual payment on outlay, at 4 per cent. interest, £250,000 10,000 0 0 Annual sum to repay the outlay in 30 years 8,333 0 0 Management and office expenses, rates and taxes, &c 5,000 0 0 Working expenses of engines, labour and repairs, wear and tear, &c 4,000 0 0 Collection and purchase of street manures, sweepings, lime, soot, manures from slaughter houses, garbage from flesh markets, fish, cowsheds, stables, mud deposit of Thames, &c.... , 3,500 0 0 Distribution of manures on lands by hose and pipes and manual labour, manufacturing manures for districts beyond the pipe supply 5,000 0 0 Total annual expenditure. . £35,833 0 0 Annual Income, £ 8. d. Derivable from the manuring of 25,600 acres of land (being a length of 20 miles by a breadth of 2 miles), at £3 per acre 76,800 0 0 Sale of manures beyond the line and district of pipe supply 2,000 0 0 Total income £78,800 0 0 Annual expenditure 35,833 0 0 Anuualprofit 42,967 0 0 Taking these figures as an approximation to what may be expected to be derived from this one outlet of London sewage, an annual profit is obtained of £42,967, and the land increased in value to the extent of at least £2 per acre, or ^,"51,200 per annum; making a total benefit to both parties of £93,368, Shall we, then, in the face of such facts, continue to waste this great and fertilizing agent in the waters of the Thames or the German ocean ? In addition to all this benefit, we shall provide a cheaper means of transport and a sure sale for our street sweepings, manures from slaughter-houses, knackers' yards, garbage from Smith- field and other markets, cow-sheds, stables, fish markets, vegetables, and breweries ; and I look forward to the day when we shall send by the same means of transport the pollutions of ages, now lying stinking and infesting the banks of the Thames at low water, and which only wants this easy means to make it a fertilizing and valu- able commodity on the lands of our corn-producing districts of the home counties ; and its removal would add so much to the health, so much to the pleasure, and so much to the honour of the metropolitan population and its rulers. It is related of a Norfolk farmer, who visited the Great Exhibition of 1851, that of all the splendid sights he saw, he really longed for but one thing, and that was " a gro.at heap of muck" near the Eastern Counties Railway. We need not go farther than Tlptree Heath, in Essex, to witness the beneficial effects of this article in a liquid state, and at the same time its dispersion upon lands by means of pipe and hose at all times available, either at seed time or when the crop is growing. Is it possible, then, that the rulers of our country will, in defiance of all the agricultural statistics in favour of liquid manures, be so blind as to allow this great amount of valuable matter to be lost, and become a nuisance, when, by its proper application by this proper means, it would become a source of wealth and prosperity to thousands ? Is it possible that the eminent engineers called upon to devise means for its transport from Lon- don have heard the good old English proverb, " Waste not, ivant not" ? I am, sir, your obedient servant, London, Jan. 22, George Pratt. THE GREAT CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE DURING THE LAST SEVENTY YEARS. Sir, — I am now in my seventieth year, and beg to say that I have lived to see vast changes and improvements in agriculture ; nay, I have seen the best old farmers beat by young farmers more scientific, with equal vigour, ability, perseverance, and industry. It is plain that agricultural chemistry, which has long been delayed, long checked and obstructed by deeply-rooted prejudice, has nevertheless set in, and now bids fair to enlighten and profit the British farmers and their landlords. In the early part of my life the long-horn or Bakewell cattle stood pre-eminent. As a proof, in the days of Bake- well, Fowler of Rollrright, Prinsept, Astley, and others of high fame, I\Ir. Bakewell let out a long-horned bull, for four months only, at 152 guineas: and I have read in the old " Farmer's Magazines," that in 1794 the Marquis of Donegal fed a long-horned steer, four years old, bred by Mr. Prinsept, that weighed 141 stone, of 14 lbs. to the stone ; and in another old " Farmer's Magazine" is stated that a five-j-ear-old long-hornedox, of Mr. Prinsept 's breed, weighed 1G5 st. .5 lbs., of I41bs. tothestone, tallow upwards of 20 St. of 14 lbs., hide 177 lbs. Now, the long-horned cattle, once so famous and gigantic in weight — their pre- eniinency was of a short duration ; they are now dwindled away and are merely shadows to what they were, and are now looked upon as a by-gone breed. What has become of the substance, and is it lost through affinity, or how is it lost? When the long-horns began to be upon the wane, the far-famed Hereford cattle made their appearance, and stood pre-eminent for years at the Christmas Show in Goswell- street and in Smithfield. Mr. Westcar obtained many prizes for Hereford oxen shown against the best of all kinds of cattle. The North Devons in Mr. Westcar's day were smaller than the Herefords, but considered second to none but the Highland Scots in the quality of flesh, I have lived to read in the " Farmer's Magazine" of April last, that the high-famed Durham bull, Master Butterfly, was sold for 1,200 guineas to go into a far distant clime. In the beginning of my time the Bakewell or Leicester sheep stood pre-eminent. In 1789 Mr. Bakewell made equal to 1,200 guineas of a ram in one season ; two gentlemen sent 80 ewes at 10 guineas each to the said ram, and reckon- ing his own ewes at the same price, he was worth 1,200 gs. to Mr. B., because he was offered ewes at 10 guineas to the full amount. Since Mr. Bakewell's time, Mr. Buckley let a Leicester ram for the season at 1 ,000 guineas — the said ram was used by Mr. Dudding, of Saxby, near Lincoln. Nay, I have lived to see the Duke of Richmond and the high-famed Mr. Jonas Webb show Southdown sheep in the pure Bakewell barrel form, which was said by many to be impossible, unless alloyed with the Bakewell blood ; and for years I have observed the Cotswold gigantic sheep imi- tating the Bakewell cast or mould. And in Lincolnshire I liave seen the Bakewell frame with a heavy Lincolnshire coat of wool on their backs, which is very hard to obtain and to keep when obtained. In my life I have seen land on Lincoln Heath under tcnant-riffht improved 1,200 per cent, per annum. Some of Mr. Chaplain's estates, for instance, let for 3'ears as rabbit warrens at 2s. 6d. per acre, now let at 30s. per acre. I can see plainly that a great revolution in agriculture is .ibout taking place or has taken place ; and the Mark Lane Eipress will prove what I s.iy by only looking at the scien- tific implements in husbandrj^ which strike thousands with admiration and amazement to see the wonderful progress and vast change in a few years. Samuel Arnsby, 18, Norfolk-street, Hyde Park, London, Jan. 12. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 105 RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. No. V. When the War of Independence had been brought to a triumphant terrainatiou, the enterprising citizens of the Republic, eager to utilise the undeveloped resources of the West, as yet uninhabited, meditated a system of canalization by which they could reach the unexplored territory. Washing- ton projected a canal which was to stretch to the West by ascending the Potomac; but the enterprise was premature both capital and engineering skill being wanting. Nothing more was dona with this project than the construction of some sluices at the little and great falls of the river. At the same period the Pennsylvanians uselessly spent considerable sums in vain attempts to canalise the Schuykill and connect it with the Susquehaunah. In a word, the works undertaken at that juncture and during the first Sfteen years of the nineteenth century, were barren of practical results, if we except the Middlesex canal, which, starting from Boston, after a course of some dozen leagues, joined the Merrimack above Lowell. At the close of the war against England in 1812, the United States had neither useful canals nor good roads. The sea, the large bays, and the mighty rivers which flowed into them, were the only chauuels of industrial communication and trans- port, and these the Britiah fleets easily blockaded. Thus their commerce was crushed, and bankruptcy, like the exter- minating angel, smote almost every family. But the Ame- ricans were taught wisdom in the school of adversity ; and, as superior men always appear in nations where liberty exists, there arose a regenerator whose name will ever be honoured in the history of the United States. It was De Witt Clinton, who recommended the construction of the Erie canal, con- necting the lake of that name with the city of New York. He met with serious opposition on account of the vastness cf the undertaking, and President Madison expressed his conviction thit it could not be accomplished even with all the united treasures of the federation. The population of the State of New York did not then exceed 1,300,000 souls, but they had the spirit to commence a work extending to 146j leagues ; in eight years, that is in the year 1825, it was completed, at a cost of £1,875,000 sterling. The success which attended this enterprise led to the gradual canalisation of the whole country, and opened up sources of riches till then deemed fabulous. In due time railways followed, bringing all the great centres of trade into juxta-position. Up to the end of 1855 the number of miles of railway in the United States was 23,242, and the cost of construction has averaged £7,100 per mile. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland there were at the same date only 8,334 miles, reckoning 3,076 miles of double track at 6,152 miles, and the average cost has been £36,000 per mile. In 1844 Congress made a liberal grant to establish the first telegraph line, which ran from Washington to Baltimore; and before seven years had elapsed, the Committee on Post- oflices and Post-roads presented to the] Senate, in 1851, their report on the route which they had selected for a gigantic line of telegraphs, nearly 2,500 miles in length, con- necting San Francisco in California with Natchez on the Mis- sissippi, and thence with the vast net-work of lines that already covered the Atlantic States. The cost of these lines averaged about £35 per mile. In the statistical work of Messrs. Whit- worth and Wallis, compiled from official reports, it appears that the aggregate length of the telegraph lines of the United States exceeded, in 1852, 15,000 miles; but they have been considerably increased since that date. We learn from the same work that the most distant points connected by electric telegraph are Quebec and New Orleans, which are 3,000 miles apart, while the net-work of lines extended westerly as far as Missouri, more than 500 towns and villages beicg provided with stations. There are two separate lines connecting New York and New Orleans, one running along the sea-board, the other by way of the Mississippi, each about 2,000 miles long. Messages have been transmitted from New York to New Or- leans, and answers received in three hours, though they had necessarily to be written several times in the course of trans- mission. When the contemplated lines connecting California with the Atlantic and Newfoundland with the main continent are completed, San Francisco will be in communication with St. John's, Newfoundland, which is distant from Galway, in Ireland, only five days of steam navigation. It is, therefore, estimated that intelligence may be conveyed from the Pacific to Europe, and vice versa, in about six days. It has been stated that when the English blockaded the Americans during the war of 1812, all intercourse by sea be- tween the several States was prevented. Among other com- modities, the peat of Virginia could not be conveyed to Phila- delphia, there being neither roads nor canals. In these cir- cumstances, some manufacturers who were greatly in want of coal, having heard that it was deposited near the sources of the Schuykill, procured some at great expense ; but it wou.d not burn. Mr. J. P. Wetherell told M. Michel Chevalier, the eminent French economist, that ha had made use of a hole iu a field, now covered with streets, to bury all this apparently worthless anthiacite. A person who had bought a portion of it piled it up in a heap near his house as so much lumber, when one night he was awakened by the strong glare of flame and the crackling sound of some substance in a state of ignition ; it was the blazing anthracite. This accident led to experiments, and the proper method of treating it was soon discovered. When this coal was first brought forward into notice in Pennsylvania, its imputed value was treated with contempt. It was jeeringly called "black flint," and reviled as no more inflammable than stone ; but now it has becoxe one of the industrial staples of the state, and in Philadelphia alone millions of tons are annually consumed. The iron product of Pennsylvania is also an enormous source of wealth, Pittsburgh being its centre. In the census of 1850, twenty one States are returned as producing pig iron, and in nineteen wrought iron is made. In 1850, 377 establishments were engaged in the production of pig iron; of these 180 were in Pennsylvania, 35 in Ohio, and 29 in Virginia. In the manufacture of iron castings, 1,391 establishments were era- ployed, but a cousiderable increase has taken place since those returns were made. The progress of the coal trade iu Penn- sylvania has been most remarkable. It commenced in 1812 in a then nameless place,called Centreville, and with only waggons of coal. It was then deemed a total failure. The name of the pioneer of this enterprise deserves to be here recorded. It was George Shoemaker, rauking as a Colonel, but deemed an impostor. The Leleigh coal mines were commenced in 1820 with only a sale of 265 tons, but, in common with all other H 106 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. enterprises iu America, h:ive advanced with magical rapidity. In 1788 the now opulent State of Ohio was an Indian and savage wilderness untrodden by the foot of the white man. Iu 1800 it contained 43,365 inhabitants. It is now covered with cities, towns, villages, roads, canals, railways, telegraphs, uni- versities, schools, colleges, and highly-cultivated farms, while magnificent steamers float upon its rivers. The valley of the Mississippi, containing 1,300,000 square miles of generally luxuriant soil, which fifty years ago were peopled by only a few thousand inhabitants, now contains perhaps more than six millions of inhabitants ; and when this valley shall become to the square mile as populous as the comparatively sterile Mas- sachusetts, it will contain 67,000,000 ; but if as populous to the square mile as England, it would number 179,000,000 souls. la the past the population of the United States has doubled itself in periods of 23 to 25 years. In 1827, the population of New York was only 170,000 ; in 18J7, it amounted to 500,000; and in 1873, some of the American statists compute that it will exceed a million. In 1830, Bos- ton contained 44,000 inhabitants, and in 1847, 120,000 ; an increase of nearly three to one in seventeen years. The rise of Chicago, at the foot of lake Michigan, appears marvellous. Iu 1850, its population was 29,000; in 1856, it had increased to 104,000. There can be no doubt that free institutions have mainly contributed to promote the rapid civilisation of the United States ; and among the most important institutions of liberty may be included educational establishments, untrammelled by a censorship or sectarian restrictions. In the multiplica- tion of books we have the best evidence of intellectual ad- vancement, and they are so numerous and cheap as to enable almost every person to possess a s-nall library, which, some C2nturies ago, none but the wealthy and learned in Europe could command. Throughout the country newspapers abound. In the New England States, according to the census of 1850, there were 424 newspapers ; in the Middle States, 876 ; in the Sout'iern States, 716 ; and in the Western States, 784. The following table shows the aggregate circulation of the press, as given by the authority just cited : — Copies printed Number. Circulation. Annually. Dailies 350 .. 750,000 .. 235,000,000 Tri-Weeklies 150 .. 75,000 .. 11,700,000 Semi- Weeklies". , 125 .. 80,000 .. 8,320,000 Weeklies...... 2,000 .. 2,875,000 .. 149,500,000 Semi-Mouthlies. . 50 .. 300,000 .. 7,200,000 Monthlies 100 .. 900,000 .. 10,800,000 Quarterlies 25 . . 29,000 . . 80,000 2,800 5,000,000 422,600,000 Though the United States are striving to become a manufac- turing country, perhaps in some cases prematurely, the great and expanding sources of its wealth are mainly derived from agriculture. The total arable land under culture is given in the census of 1850 at 113,032,614 acres, of which 51,700,000 acres were producing breadstufifs. But since 1850 a very large amount of arable land has been brought under cultiva- tion, and those most conversant with the West and its in- creased and increasing resources, consider that the augmented product of wheat has been at least 50 per cent, since that date, and of other grain fi om 20 to 25 per cent. Comparing the census returns of 1810 with those of 1850, the aggregate of all kinds of grain in the former period was 615,525,302 bushels, and in the latter period 867,453,907 bushels. On this subject we do not enlarge, as the columns of this Journal always contain every information on American agriculture as soon as it can be transmitted from the States. Some of the most influential of American statesmen hare advocated the principle of protection in opposition to the prin- ciple of free trade, on the broad ground that industry in its cradle cannot compete on equal terms with industry which has attained to the plenitude of its strength; and they have argued that without protection the United States must for an in- definite period remain iu a purely agricultural condition. One of the most complete expositions of the American commercial system is contained in a speech delivered by the celebrated Mr. Clay at Raleigh, in North Carolma, on the 29th April, 1814. As the basis of his argument, he contended that " in time of peace the duties on import should be equal to the ex- penses of an economical government, and that there should be discrimination in the tariff to foster and promote domestic manufactures." He founded this reasoning on the groundj " that a nation should at the earliest period of her history be adequate to the supply of all its own wants from its own in- ternal resources." Mr. Clay predicted " that the Southern States would combine manufacturing with growing cotton ; that the day will come, and it is not far distant, when the South will feel an imperative necessity voluntarily to make such a division of labour, considering its vast water power and other facilities for manufacturing, and its possession at home of the choice of the raw material ; I believe the day will arrive when the cotton region will become the greatest manufacturing region in the world." He sums up his views in the following terms : " The doctrine of free trade is a concession to foreign powers without an equivalent ; not only without an equivalent, but in the face of their high duties, restrictions, and prohi- bitions applied to American products. Concessions to foreign powers are concessions to our rivals jealous of our growth, and anxious to impede our onward progreas. Encouragement to domestic industry is a concession to our fellow-citizens. It is a concession by the whole to the whole ; for every part of the country possesses a capacity to manufacture, and every part of the country does more or less manufacture." These doctrines are still in the ascendant throughout the United States, though since 1844, the date of Mr. Clay's speech, we have opened our ports to American grain. It re- quires time to uproot prej udice, but no wise man despairs of the ultimate triumph of true over false opinion. Xo. VI. It is well known that the industr3'- of the Southern States is executed by slaves, whose numbers are computed at 3,000,000. According to an estimate made in 1856, there were 6,222,418 white inhabitants, of whom the slave- holders and their families did not number more than 1,980,894, or about 32 per cent. ; and these held all the fertile lands, the possession of which confers on them a monopoly of \\ealth and influence. The majority of the whites not having slaves are in a very poor and abject con- dition. In a paper " On the Domestic Manufactures, South and West," published by Mr. Turner, of Missouri, iii 1847, it is stated that the land held bj' the non- slaveholders in the more southern parts of the slave States is " almost universall}- so sterile that a scanty sulisistence is all that can be derived from its cultivation ; and the more fertile soil being in possession of the slaveholders, must ever remain out of the power of those who have none." And he adds that " the acquisition of a respectable position in the scale of wealth appears so difficult that they decline the hopeless pursuit, and many of them settle down into habits of idleness." Cotton, the great staple of Southern culture, is the main source of Southern opulence. The extension of its culture is very remarkable, In the year 1789, the value of all the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 cotton raised in the United States was only 48,285 dollars. In 1800 the yield only amounted to 40,000 bales, worth about 2,500,000 dollars. The crop of 185G was estimated at 3,300,000 bales, valued at 148,000,000 dollars. In the whole history of agriculture throughout the world, this ex- traordiuarj' increase is without a parallel. After careful survey, American statisticians have ascertained that in the south-west there are lands yet untouched by plough or spade capable of producing from four to five million bales, and the whole will be needed as manufacturing industry ad- vances. It has been estimated that the capital invested in the culture of cotton in the United States— including land, labour, tools, &c.— amounts to 800,000,000 dol. ; and by the census of 1850, this industry was spread over 5,000,000 acres. But that statement docs not give the total agricul- tural wealth represented by slave labour. It appears from .the same census that there were in the Southern States 74,031 cotton plantations, 2,681 devoted to sugar, 551 to rice, 15,745 to tobacco, and 8,.327 to hemp. For the year ending the 30th June, 1856, the value of exports, the pro- duce of slave labour, was as follows — Dollars. Exports of cotton 1 26,000,000 Tobacco 1 4,717,468 Rice l,717,.f)53 Naval stores 2,049,077 On examining the marketable distribution of cotton as raw material, it will be found that Great Britain takes more than one-half. The estimate, founded on carefully conipjlcd data, is made up in the following proportions, de- duced from the statistics of the crop of 1855 — Bales. France took 500,000 North of Europe 250,000 Other foreign parts 225,000 Consumed in United States 700,000 1,675,000 Great Britain 1 ,800,000 Total 3,475,000 Mr. Burn, of Manchester, in liis " Statistics of the Cotton Trade," states that the cotton wool imported into England in 1781 only amounted to 14,603 bales ; in 1856 it reached the enormous amount of 1,800,000 bales, a convincing proof of the expanding importance of the trade. Mr. A. Lawrence, vv'hen Americanambassadorat London, forwarded a commu- nication on this subject to Mr. Rives, American ambassador at Paris, in which he shows — quoting from an estimate made by M. P. T. Jackson and Mr. John A. Lowell for the use of the Tariff Convention, held at New York in 1832 — that the home consumption of cotton, prior to the Act of 1816, was only 11,000,000 pounds, while the quan- tit}' spun in Great Britain in 1816 was 88,000,000 pounds. Mr. Lawrence then comes down to the year 1845, the year in which he made his communication to Mr. Rives. In that year he puts the consumption in England at 500,000,000 pounds, against 176,000,000 in the United States, his ob- ject being to prove that the ratio of increase has not been relatively so great in the former as in the latter country. Thus the increase in the United States from 1816 to 1845 extended from 11,000,000 to 176,000,000 pounds in twenty- nine years, being an augmentation of sixteen-fold. The increase in Great Britain during the same period of time wa3 from 88,000,000 to 560,000,000, being an augmenta- tioaofless than seven-fold. Hence he infers, as highly probable, that in course of time the United States will surpass Great Britain in the manufacture of cotton ; for in 1856 the' ratio is 700,000 bales against 1,800,000, so the consumption in Great Britain is less than three-fold the consumption of the L^nited States. As England takes one-half of the cotton crop of the South- ern States, the interests of the two countries are extremely intimate, the manufacturing and agricultural prosperity of each being dependent on the other. This is one of the strongest guarantees against war ; and some of the Ameri- can publicists contend that, in the event of a disruption be- tween the North and the South, England would be com- pelled to support the latter. This opinion is founded on an inquiry into the sources from which Great Britain has re- ceived her supplies of cotton from 1840 to 1855. Confining ourselves to the latter year as a term of comparison, we have the following results — Lbs. From the United States 564,773,440 „ Britisli India 102,833,024 „ Brazil 20,240,528 „ Egypt 26,291,216 To show, in a strong light, how dependent we are for this great staple of our manufactures on the United States, we will take the return for 1851, distinguishing what was obtained from foreign countries and British possessions. Lbs. Lbs. From the United States 596,638,962 „ Brazil 19,.339,104 „ Turkey, Syria, and Egypt.. 15,766,325 „ Other foreign countries .... 2,141,617 633,886,008 „ East Indies 122,626,976 „ British West Indies and British Guiana 446,529 „ Other British possessions .. 420,236 123,493,741 Total of Cotton imported 757,379,749 Our dependence on foreigners for the prime staple of our manufactures is thus made apparent. It is true that we might almost indefinitely increase our supplies from British India; but that wise policy, though urged for many years both on the East India Company and the British Government, has never received the attention it deserves : and we have to deal with facts as they exist. In ancient days, India manufactured for Rome, while in its imperial splendour, those exquisite tissues which deco- rated the beauties of the court of Augustus Caesar. The rarest gifts that Bengal could bestow on its native princes the most beloved, or on its foreign invaders the most dreaded, were the muslins of Dacca, known as " running water" and as "nightly dew," they being, when wet, scarcely distinguishable from either. Cotton abounded in India when the territory now forming the United States was a howling wilderness -, and India may again be restored to its ancient state, through railroads leading from the interior to the coast. The question of slavery is now the leading topic of the day in America, the late Presidential election turning upon that hinge. It has been stated in the first of tliis series ®f articles that the horrible system was introduced by the English ; and though the colonial legislatures frequently voted its abolition, and requested the King in Council to confirm the vote, it was always refused by his Majesty's advisers. On the 10th December, 1770, King George the Third issued an instruction under his own hand, in the form of an order in Council, commanding the Governor of Virginia, "upon pain of his highest displeasure," to as- sent to no law by whicli the importation of slaves should be in any respect prohibited or obstructed. In 1772, Vir- H 2 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ginia made a still more earnest protest ; and Dr. Franklin, througH the Press, called public sympathy to the support of Virginia. Again and again it was pressed on the atten- tion of the British Ministers. " But," says the historian Bancroft, "the Government of that day was less liberal than the tribunals ; and while a question respecting a negro from Virginia led the courts of law to an axiom that, as soon as any slave sets his foot on English ground, he becomes free, the King of England stood in the path ot humanity, and made himself the pillar of the colonial slave-trade. Wherever in the colonies a disposition was shown for its restraint, his servants were peremptorily ordered to maintain it without abatement. But he blushed to reject the solemn appeal of Virginia personally to him- self, and evaded a reply." Let Candour bear these truths in mind, in judging those to whom England bequeathed this sad inheritance. After the constitution of the United States had been founded, George Washington wrote thus to John F. Mercer : " I never mean, unless some particular circumstance should compel me to it, to possess another slave by purchase, it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted by which slavery in this country may be abolished by law." Writing to Sir John Sinclair his reasons for the deprecia- tion of southern lands, he said : " Because there are in Pennsylvania laws for the gradual abolition of slavery, which neither Maryland nor Virginia have at present ; but nothing is more certain than they must have, and at a period not remote." In his last will, Washington emanci- pated all his slaves. Although the North is more populous and more opulent than the South in a high degree, the latter has always maintained political ascendancy. Here are the proofs. Since the foundation of the Federal Government, out of 16 presidents, 11 have been slaveholders ; and out of the remainder, 3 were notoriously elected by southern forbear- ance, as they were pledged to support the domestic insti- tution. Southern influence has also been conspicuous in filling up the other great offices of state ; for, up to 1852, the slaveholders nominated 17 out of 28 judges of the Supreme Court, 14 out of 19 attorneys-general, 61 out of 77 presidents of the Senate, 21 out of 33 speakers of the House of Representatives, and 80 out of 134 foreign mi- nisters. Such returns show that the South has been more active or more earnest, or has displayed more tact or per- severance than the North. How slavery will terminate, it would be hazardous to predict. Some have proposed to buy their manumission from their present owners; others to pass a law emanci- pating all born after a certain date, thus allowing the slaves to die out. Mr. Carej', the American economist, propounds the curious doctrine that the evil will cure itself. " With the increase of production," he observes, "they (the slaves) will obtain the control, for their own use, of a larger proportion of the proceeds of their labour ; and that proportion will steadily increase, until there will be seen to arise a class of free black men, cultivating for their own use their own land, bought from their old masters, who will find in the price of their land a compen- sation for the price of the labourer. Ultimately, and at no distant period, those states will be owned and inhabited by a race of free citizens, diftering in colour, but similar in rights, and equal in capacity to their fellow-citizens of the North." Into the probability of the disruption of the Union, we cannot enter. There may be a northern, a southern, and a western federation ; and it is difficult to believe, when the whole continent is inhabited, it will remain undivided. But we must not indulge in such speculations, as they would lure us into the uncertain and the problematical. THE SUBJECT OF THE ABSORPTION OF AZOTE BY PLANTS. [translated from the FRENCH OF J. A. BARRAL.] We have already published the curious experiments of Boussingault upon the action of saltpetre on vege- tation, a work in which that agriculturist has been pleased to bring forward the importance of our own ob- servations upon the permanence of nitric acid in the pluvial waters. This fact had not been stated before our researches. Some chemists only — whom we have been careful to cite in a complete history, in which we have considered it a duty to do justice to each of our prede- cessors— had recognised the presence of azotes in the waters of a storm. The results that we have obtained have been recorded in three memoirs, addressed to the Academy of Sciences. The first of these memoirs has alone been printed up to the present time, having been inserted in the 30th volume of the collection of learned foreigners, by order of the Academy, upon the report of a committee composed of Messrs. Boussingault, Dumas, De Gasparin, Reynaud, and Arago reporter. Besides chlorides, sulphates, and probably phosphates, we have constantly found, in the collection of pluvial waters collected every month of the year at Paris and at Bruney, nitrates, ammoniacs, and organic azoteous mat- ters. Investigations undertaken in France, Italy, and Germany have verified the generality of the results ob- tained by us. We have particularly insisted upon two points — namely, ammonia and nitric acid— not because we are of opinion that pluvial waters were the only source from whence plants derive what manure the soil does not give them, but simply because the constant presence of these matters in rain must be regarded as the certain indications of their important position in the great natural phenomena. In this respect, we have only sought to bring our stone to the mountain, the basis of which has been established by our illustrious predecessors, and which has risen by degrees, thanks to the labours of such men as Bergman, De Saussure, Boussingault, Liebig, &c. But in order that our de- monstration may be complete, it is necessary to enter into details. One of our readers not having apprehended why we have connected the action of nitrates in the absorption of azote by plants, where they cross each other in a soil destitute of manure, demands of us some explanations. We shall give them so much the more willingly that, for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 some time, the questioa of the absorptiou of azote has seemed to lose its clearness, in spite of the care we have taken to put it explicitly ; and that, without doubt, be- cause many are occupied with it, and amongst them many who very imperfectly comprehend it. Every question of science has its point of setting out, the discovery that has originated it. In the memoirs published in 1837 and 1838, M. Boussingault has de- monstrated that in a completely sterile soil — watered with pure water, and kept in the open air, but sheltered from the rain — plants have, notwithstanding, fixed a weak quantity of azote in their organization. This fact, quite unexpected at that time, was soon after veri- fied in Holland, Belgium, and Germany. In an- nouncing it, M. Boussingault had acknowledged that the chemical analysis was powerless to determine anything if the azote fixed during vegetation has not been taken from the mass of the atmosphere. In fact, this prin- ciple in the gaseous state in the air might have united itself directly on losing its aeriform state ; or, rather, the azote acquired had for its origin either the ammonia contained in the atmosphere in very small proportion, or that dust which is constantly held in suspension by the air, and of which M. Boussingault has said that " its permanence is placed beyond doubt by the sole testi- mony of the senses, when a ray of sunlight penetrates into a darkened room" ; and he adds, that " the imagi- nation may easily paint to itself, but not without a strong feeling of disgust, all the matters which this dust, that we constantly breathe contains, and which Bergman has so well characterized, by naming it the impurities of the atmosj)here." We are of opinion that this dust is azoteous, and that it should act as dung. We find, too, M. Boussingault engaged in determining its action ; and in one of his ex- periments he made cresses vegetate, which fixed a weak portion of azote in an apparatus disposed to e.xclude it. Thus, since 1848, the fact of the assimilation of azote being demonstrated, the question presents itself in this way : The weak proportion of azote assimilated by a plant cultivated in the open air, in a soil denuded of organic azoteous matters — does it proceed from the azote contained in the air, in the gaseous state, or from some other azoteous 2}^inciples, equally assi- milable, and contained in the atmosphere ? If we were agreed on this fact, we were not so as to the mode of the assimilation. Saussure believed that the fixed azote proceeded both from the atmospheric ammonia and from the ammonia that might be engen- dered with the gas-azote of the air by means of fermen- tation— the hydrogen of the organic substance of grain or plants. M. Miilder, of Utrecht, adopted the opinion of Saussure, and sought to corroborate it by experi- ments, in which he added to the calcined soil organic substances not azoteous, the introduction of which had the effect of augmenting the proportion of the azote fixed by the vegetable. We accept the results obtained by ai. Miilder ; but we cannot help remarking how very delicate and liable to illusion are such experiments, in which organic matters are made to intervene that are supposed not to contain azote even accidentally. It is thus that the idea has been held — unhappily, in our opinion — of adding amidon to the soil. According to its chemical form, amidon is composed of carbon, hy- drogen, and oxygen ; but, in fact, it is perhaps impos- sible to find a particle of that substance which contains even 0.002 of azote. By adding, for instance, 100 grammes of amidon to the soil, we should take to it 0.2, and probably more, of azote, acting like that of dung. The opinion of Saussure has had the greater exten- sion, in that it has assumed that the non-azoteous particles of vegetables may still determine a production of nitrate (assimilated by the plant) with the azote of the atmosphere. This idea has been spread everywhere in Holland. This is the cause why we have connected the effects of nitre, which are the same as those of am- monia, upon plants, with the question of the assimilation of azote. The researches of M. Boussingault, which we referred to in this paper, have demonstrated that saltpetre is absorbed directly, without the intervention of substances susceptible of the putrid fermentation ; and that the azote fixed by the plant subject to the rule of that salt represents precisely the total amount of azote found in the nitrate, the vegetable not taking, under the circum- stance, the smallest portion of azote in the atmosphere. The azote of the nitrates is, therefore, assimilable, as we may otherwise infer from the employment of the saltpetre of Peru in large farming (la grande culture) ; but it was useful to prove the direct absorption of this species of salt, which M. Boussingault has been the first to do. If, after the extension taken of the ideas of Saussure, the non-azoteous parts of plants — the cellu- lose, the amidon, the oils — are nitrified, we shall under- stand how the nitre formed will convey the azote of the air into the organization of the vegetable. But it must be acknowledged, this absorption of atmospheric azote, the consequence of a nitrification previously due to vegetable substances, is not yet established upon any given data, but is a simple supposition. Further, in the investigations made three years since by M. Bous- singault, we find an experiment which would tend to make us believe that this nitrification is not realized ; for seeds of lupins, having lost their germinating facul- ties, have remained for five months in sand containing alkaline ashes, the humid mixture being constantly ex- posed to the contact of 100 litres of air, without giving the slightest indication of nitre. In causing plants to grow in a calcined soil watered with clear water, not in the open air, but it may be in an apparatus in which the atmosphere is confined, or under a bell glass, in which the air is continually re- newed, first passing over purified sulphuric acid, to which it gives up the ammonia without being able to derive from it nitrous compounds, we see the vegetable fix caibon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which it first takes up from the air or the water ; but it follows, from nume- rous experiments of M. Boussingault, that the collection obtained under these conditions does not apparently include more azote than was contained in the seed ; from whence he has concluded that the gaseous azote of the air is not directly assimilable. And the proof that no THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the resistance of the gaseous azote of the air to assimi- lation does not depend on any arrangement either of the apparatus or the medium in which the vegetable exists, is that, without changing anything of the general dispo- sitions, if we add to the soil vegetable mould, dead seeds become a true manure, the plant, in developing itself in a limited atmosphere, but which then rests upon a fertile earth, fixing azote as it does when it grows in a manured earth. Thus, a seed deposited in a soil with no trace in it of manure, watered with pure water, will produce a plant which, if raised in the open air, may bear flowers, yield seed, and, after two or three months of vegetation the comparative analysis will imply a gain of azote of some milligrammes (we speak of only one plant), without that we can with any certainty see its origin in the gaseous azote of the air. If that azote intervenes, it is when, quitting the state of gas, it enters into one of those com- binations formed under influences not yet fully deter- mined. These combinations — ammoniacs or nitrates — are, beyond a doubt, the first origin of the azote of plants and animals, as M. Boussinrault has admitted since 1837, when he said: " If we examine what may be the depositary of the azote, we find, leaving out animals, vegetables, or their debris, that there is in truth only one, and that depositary is the atmosphere." It is therefore extremely probable that all organic beings, and consequently plants, have borrowed their azote from the atmosphere, as they have borrowed from it their carbon ! And relying on the one hand on the periodicity of the storms in all the intertropical regions, and on the other, upon the fundamental experiment of Cavendish, showing that the electric spark, produced in a humid air, originates nitric acid and ammonia, M. Boussin- gault arrived at this conclusion : — " That it is an electric force, the thunder, which predisposes the azote of the atmosphere to enter into the composition of living beings." We see now that the question with which wc have been so much occupied is entirely secondary. A fact had been stated ; plants, in the absence of manure and fertilizing principles brought by the pluvial waters, appropriate to themselves azote in very small proportions ; the question was to specify the origin of it, which, in a general way, we now know to be the atmosphere. Besides the pure azote, does not the atmosphere contain it in several states of combination ? In the case of the affirmative, the pluvial waters should contain permanently ammonia, nitrates, and other azoteous substances. This is what we have demonstrated ; but that will not prove, and we have never asserted it, that the azote absorbed by plants, irrespective of the soil and manures, comes from that source alone. Everything demonstrates that the azote of the air is subject to transformations before it becomes the food of vegetables. These transformations take the place in a continuous manner. Ages, in accumu- lating, have thus produced the modern earth, according to the grand philosophic idea, the enunciation of which will be, in future ages, the glory of M. Boussingault. J. A. Barral. THE COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, We resume the consideration of that part of the report of the Committee of the British Association which treats of the latter part of their second head of inquiry. It appears from the preponderating weight of the opinions which they elicited from those best qualified to judge, that the clifFusion of scientific knowledge would be best promoted by the foundation of professor- ships in some of our chief provincial towns, M'hich ex- hibit the greatest interest in the cultivation of science ; and that this would at the same timo be the most eSicient means of encouraging the cultivation of physical science by creating remunerative employment for those V, ho devoted themselves to such studies. The majority of those who were consulted appeared to have considered that this more solid encouragement would have a far greater effect than the granting of honorary distinctions to scientific men. This is another mode in which the Committee consider that the interests of science might be promoted by the Government. The prosecution, they observe, of some branches of scientific discovery, and the reduction of the results obtained in others, involve expenses which are beyond the unaided resources of most of the cultivators of science. From various scientific associations, aid of this kind is at present derived to a limited extent ; but further aid than these bodies can afford is sometimes needed, and would be more needed in proportion to the extended cultivation of science. Such assistance the Committee think might be afforded under certain con- ditions, and that at a very trifling expense compared with the benefits which the community derive from the extension of scientific knowledge, even that which appears at first sight to possess the least practical advantage. The next point considered, is tlie project which has been mooted of late for collecting all the scientific in- stitutions of the metropolis under one roof. Lord Rosse is quoted in favour of it. He observes, that every well-educated man feels a pleasure in attending scientific meetings ; that it is desirable to enlist able men in the cultivation of science, and to induce their attendance at such meetings. Nothing, he con- tends, would promote this more than the juxta- position of the different scientific institutions in a con- venient building in some central situation, where the business of science might be transacted, and where there would be easy access to the best libraries, and to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill that kind of society in which men of science delight. Another argument urged in favour of this arrange- ment is, that men of science are politicians in a very limited degree, and have very limited means of acting on the Government. They comprise men belonging to different classes of society. Most of the great questions of reform or progress are effected by the pressure of public opinion, urged on by agitation. Scientific men are peculiarly unfitted for that process, and therefore the Government might not unreasonably be asked to lend them a helping hand. On this subject the late Professor E. Forbes insists on the necessity of science having a local habitation and a name, to enable it to make a permanent impression on the somewhat material mind of John Bull. As a man, he says, witliout a home — or, if not without a home, without a club — is a doubtful and suspicious character among English householders, so is science a question- able myth in their opinion, whilst without an available habitation. He therefore regards the congregation of the various important scientific societies in a central public building, at the cost of the State, as the first step towards securing for science due and wholesome reve- rence. On the other hand, the Astronomer Royal con- siders that the advantages of this juxtaposition have been over-rated ; though he admits that, under certain conditions hereafter recommended, the propi'iety of such a capital of science would be more evident. The committee remark on the great encouragement which has of late been given to practical science; ob- serving, however, that the genius of this country is so eminently practical, that there is great danger of the less-showy branch being neglected. In that case they add that not only would practical science itself suffer, but this country would lose its position in the scale of nations. They advert to the popular misconception on the subject of scientific research and applied science. It is not uncommon, they say, to hear, and even read, observations in which the practical application of science is lauded at the expense of science itself. Such remarks, however, they add, must be made in igno- rance of the extent to which the most abstruse researches have led to useful industrial results of the greatest im- portance; if not immediately, at any rate after the lapse of time, when they have been submitted to a succession of master-minds. These objectors have forgotten, it is remarked, that the modern art of navigation is an emanation from the purely speculative — and ap- parently merely curious — inquiry made by tlie ma- thematician of Alexandria respecting the properties of three curved lines formed by the intersection of a plane surface and a cone. The steam-engine owes its most important improvement to the researches of Black and others, respecting the nature of heat, rendered available for practical purposes by the genius of Watt. Photo- graphy arose from observations on some curious proper- ties of chemical substances when acted upon by light. Those marvellous properties of light called polarisation have led to the invention of an insti-ument by which sub- marine rocks have been discovered — to new methods of detecting the properties of chemical liquids — and to improvements in the art of refining beet-root sugar. The mariner's compass and the chronometer, without which navigation would be in a rude and barbarous state, arose oiit of observations on the magnetism of iron and the elasticity of steel, aud the relative expan- sion of different metals. The examination of the pro- perties of gases passed through narrow tuljes gave birth to the Davy lamp ; and other chemical investigations, apparently as barren of practical utility, taught how to protect the sheathing of ships from coi'rosion. Ex- periments respecting galvanic action on the leg of a dead frog gave birth to the electric telegraph— electro- plating— the power of producing submarine explosions — and to methods of blasting rocks with greater safety. Among the advantages of geology, the committee only enumerate in their report the aid it affords in avoiding useless expenditure in searching for minerals where tliey cannot be found, and in pointing out where to seek them. There are others more intimately con- nected with agriculture, which they do not notice, but which we have often enumerated. Of botany and me- teorology, they say that the former ministers to our health; and of the latter, that in addition to its other important applications, it will soon be enlisted in the service of navigation. Agriculture has a direct interest in the last three sciences ; from all the others which have been enumerated it has derived, and is deriving, incalculable benefits in common with the other arts. The last head of inquiry to which the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association directed their at- tention was this :— What arrangement can be made to give to the whole body of competent men of science a due influence over the determination of practical questions, dependent for their correct solution on an accurate knowledge of scientific principles ? This pro- position they state elsewhere in another form : How are the proficients in science to make their opinions known and adopted ? The inquiry commences with the admis- sion that late events have shown a disposition on the part of Government to give increased encouragement to science. At the same time, regret and surprise are expressed at the rejection of certain applications for aid, which had emanated from scientific societies and individuals, and which deserved abetter fate. They account for the rejection of those applications by sup- posing that the members of the Administration were either unable to ask for the necessary funds, or were wanting in confidence in the judgment of those by whom the requests were made. Admitting the plea of pecuniary difficulty during an expensive war, the Com- mittee suggest a remedy which they thought would relieve the Government from a difficult and invidious duty, and yet give satisfaction to the cultivators of science. The attention invariably paid by the Government to the Board of Visitors of Greenwich Hospital and the Board of Longitude on scientific questions are ad- verted to. This the Committee attribute to the fact that the Board of Visitors and the Astronomer Royal possess more of the confidence of the Government, from their permanent and qtiasi-officml character, 112 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. than can be expected from the governing bodies of self- supporting societies. The influence which similar in- stitutions possess in France with the Government of that country is also adverted to, and traced to their official character. It is therefore suggested whether a board could not be organized, somewhat after the model of those bodies, which should, distribute Government grants, and pei-form for the whole body of science functions similar to those which the two bodies above-mentioned perform for astronomy and navigation, and act as referees in matters of science brought before the Government. Assuming it to be for the interest of the nation, that there should be a scientific body which should acquire and deserve the confidence of the Government, the next question discussed is. What its constitution should be. On this point the Committee quote the late Professor Forbes, Col. Sabine, Admiral Smyth, Sir P. Egerton, and the Astronomer Royal, as to the necessity of some new Board of Science, though there is, as might be expected, some diflerence of opinion respecting its constitution and functions. Pro- fessor Forbes, of whom the Committee remark that he appears to have reflected much and well on the subject, was opposed to anything like an institute, but was in favour of some board, having at once authority and knowledge, for the regulation and disposal of Govern- ment grants for scientific expeditions, publication of results, &c. ; matters which he considered to be dis- posed of, at present, in a manner often exhibiting caprice, often parsimony, often extravagance, and sometimes penuriousness. For such objects he proposes an un- salaried Scientific Committee, with an endowed stafi", consisting of salai'ied representatives — each a distin- guished man in his peculiar line of research — of the following sciences : Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Physiology, Zoology, Botany, Geology, Chemistry. Admiral Smythe was for the establishment of a proper Board of Longitude, organized on clear prin- ciples, and armed with powers tantamount to its re- sponsibility ; not a board constituted like the last, but a useful institution, composed like the French Bxircau dcs Longitudes — a board managed by unequivocally qualified men, both as regards talent and vocation, with regular salaries, and personally responsible for their public proceedings, whether as regards opinions, I'cwards, or publication. Sir Philip Egerton pointed out the evils resulting from our present want of system in scientific matters. He complained likewise of the proneness of the Govern- ment to give ear, not to propositions having reference to the acquisition and advancement of pure science, hi^t to the application of scientific principles to the im- provement of arts and manufactures. This he admits to be an important matter, very properly confided to the Board of Trade, but which ought not to be con- founded with the more intellectual process of scientific research. The toil and labour of this latter, he says, are too oftp-n ant to be left to the unaided exertions of the scientific drudge ; and the Government steps in and reaps the benefit. He proposes as a remedy the estab- lishment of a Board of Science, to which all questions of a scientific nature might be referred by the Govern- ment for consideration. Certain funds might be placed yearly at the absolute disposal of this board ; but he proposes that all recommendations for the application of large sums should require the sanction of the Govern- ment. The Astronomer Royal was for restricting the functions of the board. He would have it institute propositions, and urge them on the Government; but he objected to its acting as a general referee and arbi- trator, in all matters connected with science. The Committee give it as their opinion that such a Board should consist of a certain number of persons holding high official situations in the State, more or less connected with science and education, together with the most eminent men in every department of science. Whatever determination may be adopted as to details in the consti- tution of such board, the Committee express an anxiety that a principle of stability and permanency should have place. They recommend that a certain portion of the members should be appointed for life, as in the case of the Visitors of Greenwich Hospital, but that some provision should be made for the retirement of a sufficient number to insure the ranks being occasionally recruited with rising men. A paid secretary would be necessary ; but they do not look to salaries in this board as an encouragement to men of science, but rather to those indirect stimulants which have been before alluded to, arising out of an increased demand for scientific teachers, caused by an increased demand for science itself. The Committee conclude their report by summing up, in the following propositions, such of the above suggestions as they consider deserving of the serious attention of Government, the Parliament, and the Universities : — 1. That reforms shall take place gradually in the system of any of our universities which do not at pre- sent exact a certain proficiency in science as a neces- sary condition to the obtaining of a degree. 2. That the addition to tlie number of professors of physical science at the universities shall take place when necessary, but that at all events a redistribution of subjects or other provisions shall be made, for the effectual teaching of the various branches of physical science. 3. The appointment of professors and local teachers in the chief provincial towns. 4. The formation of museums and public libraries in such towns, open to all classes, shall be encouraged and assisted, in the manner aid is now given to instruction in the principles of art, 5. That more encouragement shall be given by fel- lowships, increased salaries to professors, and other rewards as incentives to the study of physical science. 0. That an alteration shall be made in the present system of bestowing pensions; that some annuities should be granted, of the nature of good-service pen- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ]13 sions ; and that additional aid should be given to the prosecution, reduction, and publication of scientific researches. 7. That an appropriate building in some central situation in London shall be provided, at the cost of the nation, in which the principal scientific societies shall be located together. 8. That scientific offices shall be placed uaore nearly on a level, in respect to salary, with such other civil appointments as are objects of ambition with educated men; and that the officers themselves shall be eman- cipated from all such interference as is calculated to obstruct the due performance of their duties, and that new scientific offices shall be created in some cases, where they are required. 9. That facilities shall be given for the transmission and reception of scientific publications, to and from our colonies and foreign parts. 10. That a Board of Science shall be constituted, composed partly of persons holding offices under the Crown, and partly of men of the highest eminence in science, which shall have the control and expenditure, of the greater part at least, of the public funds given lor its advancement. Such board to originate applica- tions for pecuniary or other aid in science, and generally to perform such functions as are above described, toge- ther with such others as Government or the Parliament may think fit to impose upon them. Such are the recommendations of the Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ; and if it be asked how agriculture is interested in them, we reply by referring to the list of sciences in which it was recommended that professors should be appointed in the provinces, and by asking which of them is un- connected with agriculture. Finally, we again remind our readers that the present advanced state of agricul- tural chemistry, and the present magnitude of the guano trade, and manufacture of artificial manures, originated in a suggestion which emanated from the British Association. ORDNANCE CONTOURED MAPS. One of the subjects which occupied the attention of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Ordnance survey of Scotland, to which we formerly re- ferred, was that of contouring or marking on the maps the lines of equal elevation. At the request of the Committee, the process was thus explained by Colonel James — "The datum line is the half-tide level at Liverpool. From that lines of equal elevation have been run round the island to the sanae point. This is called the primary line of levels. Having this primary line, if it is desii'ed to run a contour line at 50 feet, or any other altitude, we merely go upon the side of any hill till the required altitude is reached. The level is then set up, and we have only to ti-ace on the ground, by means of pickets, the line which the required line of level would run. The advantages of these lines of con- tours are stated to be, the forming of the most perfect and accurate basis for sketching in the hills, because it at once brings to the eye the areas of the country, and their altitudes. It is extremely useful for the purpose of mapping the geological structure of a disti'ict, and particularly for showing the distribution of the super- ficial deposits, and the dependence of the distribution of soils upon elevations and forms of surface. Its ad- vocates also contend that it is of great utility to the civil engineer, in deciding the proper course for lines of railways, roads, and canals." On this point there ap- pears, however, to be a difference of opinion, as well as on the advantage of a contoured map to the draining engineer. Mr. Vignoles stated, that in laying out lines of railway in Switzerland and Bavaria, he had found them of the greatest use for the preliminary operations, though he admitted that a contoured map would not obviate the necessity of those more minute and ac- curate levellings which are necessary to fulfil the re- quirements of the Board of Works, or for estimating the contents of cuttings and embankments. From the questions put by Mr. Stephenson, who was on the Com- mittee, it appeared that he did not attach much value to them for these purposes. In a hilly country, where the contour lines come close together, the form of the ground is sufficiently marked to enable the engineer to select his line without their aid ; and in a more level country, where the contour lines are wide apart, he conceded that they tend rather to confuse the engineer than to assist him. There was a similar difference of opinion as to the value of contoured maps to the draming engineer. On the one hand Colonel James stated, that having found a great demand for the Ordnance contoured maps of a part of Yorkshire, he applied to the agent for the sale of them to learn who were the purchasers. It appeared that they had been chiefly purchased by Mr. Parkes, who bore testimony, by letter, to the valuable aid he had derived from them in conducting some ex- tensive draining operations. Colonel Dawson, on the other hand, was not favourable to the present system of contouring. His objections are, that the lines have no place on the ground ; that it is impossible to dis- cover or trace them afterwards without chain measure- ments, which must involve a gi'cat expense. He would give the preference to positive heights applied at dif- ferent elevations, along the course of streams, the water- shed lines, and lines of drainage. Those, combined with the lines of cliff and of the sea-coast, form the natural features of the country ; and the elevation of numerous points along these lines he would record on the maps, with reference to natural and permanent marks readily found. From these the draining en- gineer would be able to construct for himself such con- toured maps as his operation might require. The cost of the system as originally adopted was £4 the square lU THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. mile. With modifications ■which have been introduced in consequence of his suggestions, the estimate was now reduced to £3. On the subject of contouring we confess we in- cline to the opinion of Colonel Dawson — that of giving the levels of permanent and well-defined points along the watei'-sheds and lines of drainage, from which landowners may be enabled to construct, at their own expense, accurate and detailed contoured maps of their own estates. Mr. Sop worth, the celebrated mining engineer, carried these views still further. He was opposed to the construction, and publication by the Government, of any maps on a larger scale than that of one inch to the mile. His ol)jection was the length of time which must elapse before the country could be put in possession of a public map of the northern counties sufficiently detailed for mining purposes. For those purposes he considered even the 25-inch scale too small. Connecting the question of contouring with that of lines of triangulation, which could be performed by none so well as the Goverirment, he proposed that these should be laid down in skeleton, on a much larger scale than that of twenty-five inches to the mile. From these private persons would be able to construct more detailed maps, of estates or parishes. With respect to contoured maps, this witness' declared that they would give a very curious and interesting view of the case, and one which he would be very glad to have, as a matter of general interest ; but he doubted whether such a map could go suflHiciently into detail to be of any practical utility to the mining engineer in forming his water-races or small channels for the conveyance of water along the s-ides of hills. All he would require would be the system of levels advocated by Colonel Dawson — the altitudes of various well-defined points, such as the milestones on roads and doorsills of churches. He further proposed, that the Govern- ment place on record, and render available for general use, either by publication or otherwise, the triangulation, with skeleton maps, of certain areas of from one to ten square miles in extent, including ob- jects forty-four yards on each side of the line ; that these should be laid down on a plan sufficiently large for any purpose connected with the towns or rural districts, as, for example, forty inches to the mile — a larger scale, be it observed, than that of the proposed cadastral survey. These being straight lines of small width, might be registered so as to admit of easy re- ference. Instead of being contour maps, these would be contour points, from which land- owners could at their own expense construct such contoured maps as they might require for mining or draining purposes. This witness strongly complained of the want of an Ordnance map for the northern counties on the scale of one inch to the mile ; and it was chiefly from the delay which would be occasioned by the completion of the twenty-five inch map that he objected to the latter. He admitted, however, that the one-inch map must be reduced from a larger one ; and, therefore, this objec- tion appears untenable. On the whole, while with this witness we lament the length of time which must elapse before the country can be in possession of a twenty-five inch map of England, we consider the construction of such a cadastral map to be highly desirable. Neither can we deem the mining interest of sufficient impor- tance to render necessary the construction of maps on a larger scale for their special benefit. With i-espect to contouring, we confess ourselves ad- vocates of the plan of Colonel Dawson— of giving the elevations of certain fixed and easily ascertained points along the lines of drainage and water-shed, leaving to individuals the competition of the details for themselves of their properties. It may be remembered that in former articles we spoke of the facilities with which copies of maps may be multiplied at a cheap rate by the anastatic process. This process was thus explained by Colonel James : — A tracing from the original manuscript map is simply damped and tui'ned over on a sheet of zinc ; a sponge, containing very dilute nitric acid, is then passed rapidly over the back. The effect of this is, that the zinc eats or corrodes to a certain extent the whole of the zinc, except those parts protected by the oily nature of the ink ; while at the saiue time the ink itself receives a different character from the action of the acid. By this simple process it is possible to print from the zinc im- mediately afterward. The multiplication of plates can thus be carried to an unlimited extent in the shortest time, for from any one imjn'ession it is possible to make another plate. Thousands, or even millions of copies, if required, might be produced in a day. INFLUENCE OF THE PRESENT DEMAND FOR PURE DURHAMS ON THE SMITH- FIELD CLUB SHOW. Sir, — Whilst a well-bred Durham bull-calf at eight or nine months old is worth more than a fat Durham ox at five years old, most of the best-bred Durham male calves will be kept as entire animals, and will find their way nearly from pole to pole — nay, into far distant climes ; so that it will be a great loss to the owners to castrate a well-bred Durham calf — Master Butteifly, for instance, had he been an ox. The great demand for the best-bred Durhams will, of course, make the best-bred Durham steers and oxen scarce, and far and wide apart. The true old English gentleman, for instance — I mean the far-famed Sir Charles Knightley, Bart. — when he began to save all his best calves for bulls, it forthwith spoiled his Christmas show of oxen in Smithfield ; and the pure-bred Durhams are yet in but few hands, and Mr. Strafford's Herd Book will prove my assertion. Therefore, the public may ex- pect to see at the London and Birmingham fat cattle shows less well-bred Durham steers and oxen, and in lieu of them some coarser kind of shorthorns, with httie or no Durham blood in tliem. A Durham is a shorthorn ; but a common shorthorn is not a Durham, because the Durham blood takes its origin from the Collings. SAMtJEL AknesBY. No. 18, Norfolk-street, Hyde Park, 26i?i Dec, 1856. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 115 BAYLDON ON RENTS AND TILLAGES. The laws which aftect the proceedings of agriculture are even now but indefinite and incomplete. Perhaps this is a something of a necessity. At any rate, we still con- tinue, as it were, to legislate in some degree for our- selves. Scarcely expecting, if indeed asking, any grand general enactment at the hands of the Govern- ment, we frame a variety of bye-laws to suit our own special circumstances, and several cases. Custom of country holds good accordingly ; but then this custom varies considerably; and nothing is more diffi- cult at times than to get at " the rights" of it. The learned judge, here by no means learned at all, has to gather up his law as well as he can while the case is proceeding; to compare the affirmative of the plaintiff with the direct negatur of the defendant, and may-be to test either by the garrulous reminiscences of the oldest inhabitant. His great want is something to go on — some precedent and authority from which he may gather with com- parative facility and clearness why any such custom was establislied, and how far it may be equitably enforced. For some years now we have had one such authority, a work well known as " Bayldon on Rents and Tillages." Amongst the chief recommendations of this book is the fact that it has already gone through some half-dozen editions. We men- tion this not merely as a proof of its popularity, but rather as an actual essential to the maintenance of its position and the weight of its dicta. A last year's almanac, Bradshaw's Guide of two or three months since, or the Tunes of the day before yesterday, would be no more out of date and value than the ori- ginal edition of Bayldon would be at this moment. It is a book that must perpetually require revising. Agri- culture has undergone many an alteration since Mr. Bayldon first collated his " Art of Valuing." Many a practice then well enough has long since been held ob- solete. Many an item that would have passed easily enough in the good old times, comes to be something more than queried now. The nicely -recorded little ploughings and half-ploughings — the almost- endless enumeration of hay and straw, and such like allowances, would, as it is, stand a deal of "taxing." The ingenuity of every one then was called on, to make up as long a bill of costs as possible. Wo go more for proof in these days; and, as a principle, pay a man proportionately for the improvement he can show that he has accomplished. Bayldon, on the "Art of Valuing Rents and Til- lages," has the good fortune to be in the hands of the Messrs. Longman. In such keeping it is never likely to depreciate in value or importance. The best assurance for this is the new volume now before us. Bayldon has already gone through six editions, in the course of which the work had been thoroughly revised by Mr. Donald- son. It now appears as a seventh ; and with something even more than a further revision. The volume is, in- deed, to a great extent, re-written, and that by a gen- tleman qualified, perhaps, above all others, for such a duty. We should say, with all due deliberation, there scarcely ever was a man who united so happily the experience and sagacity of the valuer with the innate sympathy and feeling for the farmer, as does Mr. Robert Baker of Writtle. If any one would promise to do justice to either side, to owner or occupier, it would be such a man. If any one could claim a right to correct and amend a book of this kind, it would be such a one; and to him have the publishers most judiciously deputed the task. " Bayldon on Rents and Tillages" is now " enlarged and adapted to the present time, by Robert Baker, of Writtle, Essex, land-agent and valuer." This is, in fact, in many respects a new work. How- ever small an allowance of law we have had compara- tively with other classes, the legislature has of late done something for us. There has been, for example, the enfranchisement of the copyholds taken into account ; the valuation of property for parochial assessment provided for; and the erection of farm buildings put upon something like equal terms with the re- quirements of other pursuits. All these Mr. Baker treats on at considerable length, and with pro- portionate authority. His long and varied experience here, again, have rendered him equally " up" in what might be considered the original intention of the work — the valuation between the in-coming and out-going tenant, or as between the tenant and landlord. In dis- cussing these claims, it is satisfactory to see that, how- ever well he may have been " broke" in the first in- stance to respect ancient usages and rights, Mr. Baker is now quite prepared to go with the times. In equity these valuations should only secure to a man a fair price for improvements of which the expiration of his term had not allowed him to reap the full benefit. The object should be to keep the capital — no matter whose — in continual employment in the cultivation of the soil ; instead of, as was once but too often the case, lock- ing a large proportion of it up, at the commencement of a tenancy, to be returned again at the close without use or interest, like the profitless talent of the scripture parable. There is nothing sounder than the tenant's right when fairly interpreted, and there is nothing has conduced more to develop the resources of the country. On the other hand, there is no custom which has been more abused, nor xmder the cloak of which so many calls have been made upon the means of the tenant farmers. It must remain chiefly with the land- owners and valuers to see this matter properly ad- justed; and in counselling them to do so, we refer them at once for aid and instruction to this new edition 116 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, of Bayldon. They may draw the line very nicely from it. We can only find room here for the following sample of what we speak to, as taken from the opening pages of the work : — " The development of agriculture haa of late obtainsd a very large share of public attention, the iucreasing population of the kingdom demands that the utmost efforts should be made to increase the production also ; and, as the area is limited, this cau only be obtained by increasing the yearly acre- able quantity, and 'which can be effected only by a liberal system of management, aided by a judicious application of capital and skill ; and it therefore becomes daily more and more imperative upon landed proprietors to give due encour- agement to their tenants, by affording them the utmost security for the investment of their capital, not alone by re- moving such absurd restrictions iu leases that hitherto have existed, but by giving security, by valuation, for unexhausted improvements. This can readily be attained whenever leases are entered into, but in cases of yearly tenancy dependent on the custom of the country alone, no such security can be in- sured to the tenant ; and it therefore becomes necessary to point out a mode which can be readily applied in furtherance of that oliject, and which the late reduction in stamp duties tends also equally to facilitate, viz., by abolishing the yearly tenancy altogether, and substituting a lease for a term of one year instead, in which lease the mode of cropping, as well as other stipulations, may be clearly set forth, and the mode of quitting also provided for in every particular, as in a lease for a longer term. In such lease the landlord should undertake for the payment, at quitting, for all permanent improvements, such as draining and manuring, and for inorganic manures, in proportion as, at the determination of the lease, they might be unexpended ; anythitig in such valuation, however, not to extend over a given period, to be therein named. The cove- nants of such a lease as this — although made for a single year — would continue binding upon both parties as long after- wards as the tenant mij(ht continue to occupy, and considera- ble advantages would be derived by both beyond those which are obtained under ordinary yearly tenancies subject alone to the custom of the district, which iu ail cases ij so undefined, that if no other object was attained beyond that of having a well-defined agreement in place of an undefined custom, this of itself would be sufficient to recommend it • and as regards buildings erected by the tenant to enable him the better to carry on his occupation, justice and common sense point out the necessity of such an agreement as would allow him to remove them at the expiration of his occupation, should the landlord refuse to take them by valuation." AN OLD SUBJECT WITH A NEW FACE. The present form of onr bastardy laws is a subject that is now arousing considerable inquiry in several quarters. Some of the unions of England are trying to repeal the law totally, and others to modify and amend its working. It appears that our poor-law fi'om an early date has aiForded a premium to profligacy. While that system of allowing relief in aid of wages was destroying the in- dustry and morality of labourers, the bastardy law was holding out encouragement to female unchastity in the way of a money allowance for each bastard, by which arrangement a mother of several bastards was better off than the mother of as many lawful children. The le- gislation of Elizabeth did not improve the matter, and subsequent provisions have contributed greatly to ag- gravate the demoralizing influences of our poor-laws. Strange to say, the very last Bastardy Act seems to have passed through Parliament against the opinion of almost every one who had given much attention to, and was competent to form a judgment upon the prin- ciple and tendency of the measure. It was said at the time that all the noble lords who were chairmen of boards of guardians were in the minority. And what is the state of the case now ? Why, any woman, even of the most profligate character, can ap- pear before the guardians of the poor, and demand — what they cannot refuse — shelter and food, medical attendance, and nursing. When well, she can leave the bouse, and return to her bad practices, and is able next year to come before them with the same claim. We wish to know whether guardians of the poor are doing their duty when they allow such a premium to be offered to this species of profligacy. There is a grievous blight shed over the delicacies of any land where the shameless prostitute is invested with a right because of the very misdeeds which ought to have hum- bled and iabashed her ; when she can plead her own disgrace as the argument for being listened to, and on the strength of it compel the jurisdictions of the coun- try to do homage to her claim ; when crime is thus made the passport to legal privilege, and the native un- loveliness of vice is somewhat glossed and overborne by the public recognition which has thus been so un- wisely extended to it. Efforts are now being made by the guardians of some districts to bring about a better state of things. Some memorials are being sent to the Board Above, for the purpose of begging that honourable body to put all the punishment on the putative father, some for making the criminal mother the bearer of her own fault, and others for equalizing the effects of their crime upon both ; some, for the purposes of facilitating the process of afhliation, beg that boards of guardians may be em- powered to sit judicially upon these cases, to subpoen a wilnesses, &c., and to grant no relief until the woman has confessed to the paternity of her children. We have seen also advertised, in some of our provincial papers, a resolution proposed at a meeting of guardians, which ignores totally the old method of proceeding, and advocates the adojition of quite a different course. The mover of this resolution conceives "that a great good would ensue, and without any violence done to humanity, icere the admitiistjritors of the laio to be authorized to put a negative on all those demands that have their direct and visible origin in irrojiigacy of character.''^ He goes on to say, " Upon mature consideration, I am convinced that without any outrage to our sym- pathies, the criminal parties may be safely left to the whole weight of a visitation that is at once the con- sequence and the corrective of their own transgression. I know not a more pitiable condition than that of a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 117 female who is at once degraded and deserted ; but many are the reasons why such cases should be alto- gether devolved on the secret and unobserved pity which they are so well fitted to inspire. It is a better state of things when, instead of the loud and impudent demand that is sometimes lifted upon such occasions, the sufferer is left to a dependence upon her own kins- folk and neighbours, and to the strong moral correc- tive that lies in their very kindness to her. Were it understood that every such case lay beyond the pale of pauper administration, and must depend merely on the liberalities of the benevolent, we do con- sider that these liberalities would guarantee a sub- sistence to all concerned ; and at the same time, in a more intense popular odium, there would arise a de- fensive barrier against that licentiousness which the in- stitutions of our country foster and patronize." So here we have a plain, bold proposition to deny relief from the poor's rates to all those women whose distress has " a direct and visible origin in profligacy of character." Well, the boldness and originality of the proposition should not, at any rate, condemn it. We like the prin- ciple, and are greatly in favour of that appeal to pri- vate sympathy. We ai'e no admirers of our poor-law system. We do in no wise extol the extolled act, the 43rd of Eliza- beth, described as " a monument of English feeling and wisdom." That act seems to have been ibunded upon the distrust of national character. It is simply an attempt to supplement, by law, an apprehended deficiency in the personal domestic and social virtues of Englishmen. Poverty, we are well aware, will always be characteristic of some portion of our population ; but pauperism is quite another thing : that is an arti- ficial state, created by a legal provision for the main- tenance of the poor, and need scarce exist at all. But, under the present system, it developes fearfully ; and a people, under the imagination that law will provide for them, will spread and multiply beyond the possi- bility of being ujdield at all. Tliis fact is very evident when we compare the history of English with Scottish pauperism. The Scotch stuck to the voluntary system of supporting the necessitous poor, long after the pa- rochial assessment scheme had confirmed pauperism in England, and increased here its annual expense. We read of the population of a Scottish parish upheld in all pauper expenses for the sum of £20 yearly, while in many a parish in England the pauperism of an equal population cost £1,500. By what strenuous- ness of management, it is asked, can such a marvel be accomplished ? The achievement, we reply, is not due to any particular management, but purely to the manageable nature of the subject, viz., a population whose habits and whose hopes arc accommodated to a state of matters where compulsory provision for the poor is unknown. Dr. Chalmers gives a case in point. The barony of Glasgow is a suburb parish. The history of its pau- perism is instructive. Assessment was first resorted to in 1810. Till that date, the annual expenditure of the parish was £QQQ. In 1817— seven years after the change of system — this annual expenditure was in- creased to five times the former sum ! Do you ask why ? Simply, then, because that principle of self- reliance which must underlie a nation's greatness was sapped. Pauperism, which was to have emancipated man from his distress, has only emancipated him from his d2dij. It discourages the providential habits of the people — the natural kindliness of relatives ; it absolves the wealthy from all sympathy for the poverty-stricken, and the pOor from sympathy for one another. If this is the action of our poor-laws— and who can deny it ? — what reason can we have to wonder at the swelled and swelling ranks of pauperism ? In tills resolution we recognize a bold and hearty determination to return to first natural principles, to meet those instincts with which we were born. Tlie framer of the resolution is aware that the epi- thets "cruel and inhuman" may, by the unthinking, &;c., be applied to his design ; in reply to which, he says, that " the inhumanity lies in 2Jcrpetnati7ig, not in correcting the evil." To some few of the early cases there might attach the appearance of cruelty ; but the sufferings of the one would prove an incalculable blessing to the many : " with the national temptation, the great national crime would disappear." We agree with this ; and, furthermore, we consider it certain that the ministrations of charity would pre- pare and soften the heart of the criminal mother for the reception of the gently-falling rebuke, and would be more likely to reform her than her lodgment in an Union-house, where she jokes, with others like circum- stanced, over " the accident" that brought her there. Private charity always was sufficient for these cases before it was interfered with by the law, which has both augmented human want, and enfeebled human sympathy. Legal relief is accompanied with no counsel, no rebuke, no good teaching ; it quickens not, but deadens, the sensibility of the recipient. The manner in which we scatter thousands of pounds over the population, without imparting one moral influence or arousing one spark of gratitude, is most alarming. "But infanticide!" Eh! infanticide j that is a bugbear those do well to raise who continue a system that perpetuates bastardy ! Besides, it is clearly beg- ging the question to take for granted that infanticide would follow upon a return to a natural state of things. Might we not just as reasonably insist that bastardy would bo diminished, as that infanticide would be aug- mented ? And, viewing the case logically, this is indeed the conclusion to which we should come. Looking over some poor-law documents lately, we found a copy of the disregarded recommendation of the Commissioners of Inquiry appointed in 1833. As it nearly concerns the question we are at present discus- sing, we will here give it. It bears the signatures of C. J. London, J. B. Chester (now Primate of England), Sturges Bourne, Edwin Chadwick, &c., &c. ; and com- mences thus : — " We recommend that the 2nd section of the 18th Eliz, c. iii., and all other acts which punish or charge 118 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the putative father of a bastard, shall, as to all bastards born after the passing of the intended act, be repealed. " Cases will no doubt occur of much hardship and cruelty ; and it will often be regretted that these are not punishable. But the object of the law is not to punish, but to protect ; and if the existing law does not prevent, as is too clear, it must not be maintained against its proper design with a view to punishment ; still less must it be maintained if it acts as an incentive. It must be remembered, too, that we do not deprive either the woman or her parents of their direct means of redress ; she may still bring her action for breach of promise of marriage, &c., and her parents may bring theirs for the loss of their daughter's service. " One objection, however, may be made to our plan, which deserves an answer, in deference not to its force, but the religious and moral feelings in which it origi- nates. It may be said that throwing upon the woman the expense of maintaining the child will promote infan- ticide. It appears from Mr. Walcott's report that in- fanticide, and in one of its worst forms, is promoted by the existing law. But we do not, in fact, believe that we have to choose between the two dangers ; we do not believe that infanticide arises from any calculation as to expense. We believe that in no civihzed country, and scarcely in any barbarous country, has such a thing ever been heard of, as a mother killing her child in order to save the expense of feeding it." Of this recommendation Mr. Pashley, Q.C., says — " I regret that it should have been disregarded, and that our statute book should still be disgraced by pro- visions directly tending to injure both female virtue and public morals." Those who allow that profligacy creates the chief bur- den of pauperism, and that pauperism in its turn creates and perpetuates profligacy, say that a change of system is fraught with difficulty ; and they pronounce this word difficult)/ as though one's mouth must be eternally stopped by it. And because a course that bears upon it the signet of right is difficult to pursue, this is suffi- cient reason to some for not pursuing it. Men who walk in the path of truth and humanity are accustomed to the cry, " There's a lion in the way." These lions, however, are only sham ones : truly they have a loud roar, but they have no power to rend asunder. We do not admit that a principle ought to be abandoned because its re-establishment may present difficulties, and would to a certainty be attended with dangers ; the greatest of dangers — the most inexhaustible source of difficulties, is the misunderstanding of the principle. Everything which is in opposition to the nature of man and to the law of God — everything which is contrary to moral order, is more contrary, more prejudicial to external order, than any reformation which should bring men back to truth, even though it should be by means of a most violent tempest. Now those who talk about the difficulty of arriving at the right to reject all claims presented at the board- room that shall have their direct and visible origin in profligacy of character, are perplexing themselves with the notion of an universal compulsory Act of Parliament. This idea is quite foreign to the design of the framer of the resolution we now discuss. He says expressly — "I do not advise that any universal measure be enacted for this object, but merely that all obstacles to the voluntary adoption of it on the part of parishes may be removed." If a parish desires the benefit of enclosure, application is made to Government for a special act, upon the show- ing that a large majority of the population concur in the plan. So for the purpose in question, what may be termed a per)nisslve legislation might be carried out, under which those parishes that felt disposed could pe- tition for authority to strike out such a line of conduct as is proposed towards this vicious class of females. If parishes were obliged to show a majority of four-fifths of the rate-payers willing to adopt such a course, be- fore permission was granted, this would be, one would imagine, a sufficient guarantee that the experiment would have a fair trial and a successful issue. A population so pledged would produce wonders on this class of crime. Discreet relief, falling together with reproof and wise counsel, at a time when the heart by reason of affliction is most open to good impressions, would go far towards producing the fruits of repentance and reform, and virtue might yet be regarded by the poor of England as an attire without which no one dare appear in public. \ye present these remarks to our readers, upon the several resolutions before us on the subject of the bas- tardy laws, in the sincere hope that they may be as grain cast upon the waters, which shall be seen after many days. Pro Lege et Grege. THE SELECTION OF JUDGES FOR OUR AGRICULTURAL MEETINGS. Day by day are we coming to a more distinct classi- fication as to a more becoming recognition of our several breeds of Stock. Without exactly undertaking to assert whichis really the best, we now give to almost every variety a fair opportunity of disjilaying its merits and attractions. ^Ye have for some time been gradu- ally approaching to this, but never so directly nor so decisively as during the last Smithfield Show week. The admiring public is to be puzzled no longer, but to go methodically through every class or kind of animal it ever heard of. It is no longer Shorthorn, Here- ford, and Devon only; but as equally defined, Su?sex, Welsh, Scotch, and any other high-bred cattle that can prove to a local habitation and a name. All this is very good. We not only encourage our breeders, and enlighten our visitors, but we even ease the duties and lessen the responsibility of our judges. Years back the upright judge went into the yard in- structed to say at once which was the best beast there — to pick him out valiantly from all sorts and sizes, thorough-bred or mongrel, no matter which ! He owned, perhaps, to some little sympathy with the Dur- ham, or to some slight antipathy to the Devon, and he decreed, and got abuf^ed accordingly. Now, however, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 119 he can pronounce on a Shorthorn simply as a Shorthorn, without any of those invidious comparisons which so often ere this have brought him fo grief. To be sure there is the Gold Medal still ; but then a man who takes the first honours of his school, will always look with some little philosophy on any little "mistake" his friends may fall into. The labours, then, of our judges are considerably facilitated ; while their decisions are likely to be freed fi'om much of that angry discussion which has too often attended the publication of the awards. And yet, strange to say, there never was more difficulty in making out an efficient corps for such duties than there is just at present. Crabbe, who whatever his merits as a poet, always wrote with wondrous truth and fidelity, thus describes the man we are looking out for :— " He was of those whose skill assigns the prize For creatures fed in pens, and stalls, and sties; And, who in places where improvers meet To fill the land with fatness, had a seat; Who plans encourage, and who journals keep, And talk with lords about a breed of sheep." We will not venture to say how many years it is since this was penned ; but this we may say, that the lines are far more applicable now than they possibly could have been when originally composed. Where the poet had one or two such models in his eye, we have them in scores and hundreds. He might perhaps have pointed to a Bakewell or an Ellman. We turn at once to the list of the Royal Agricultural Society — some si.v or seven thousand strong — and "tick otF" name after name of men who sit in places where improvers meet, who plans encourage, journals keep, and talk with lords about a breed of sheep, or of horses, or of cattle, or of pigs. The Society, indeed, would seem to have been born to " make " such men ; and as, no doubt, to a great extent, it has done. Yet now it has made tliem it cannot use them. At this moment the Royal Agri- cultural Society has nothing more trying to contend with than tlie appointment of its judges. Exhibitors must not be judges : members of the council have something else to do during this busy week ; and so we return to Mr. A. and Mr. B., who have very often obliged us be- fore, and will probably be kind enough to oblige us again. That a certain sort of exclusiveness has had some- tliing to do in creating this difficulty, there can be but little question. As with the Smithfield Club, gentle- men have duly gone the round of their duties, and then, like Bloomfield, on his visit to Vauxhall, " Why, then they go round them again !" It has been Mr. A. out and Mr. B, in, and Mr. C. re- elected, tmtil at last, should we ever get through our A. B. C, we arc fairly at our wit's end. We don't know what to do. We have been preparing no one else for the place, and now that it is vacant we have nobody ready to take it. The only thing, of course, is an advertisement in the papers, which we insert here, duty free: — " Wanted, a few good judges of stock, kc, &c., for the ensuing meeting of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England. Apply by letter, or in person, at 12, Ilauovcr-square." Once more must we ask, do the members generally of the Society know their own rights and privileges ? Are they aware, that according to the rules and regulations of their own body, they are du-ectly requested to send in the names of any of their acquaintance whom they feel are competent to assist in any way in the proceedings ? Could they tell us the names of a few gentlemen qua- lified to act as judges at the great national meetings, but who never yet have acted in such a capacity ? If, as no doubt very many of them can, let them oblige, not us so much as the Members of Council, and send such names in on their nomination. Never mfnd if they are yet untried in so large a field. We have been working a little too much by line and rule as it is; and if we want a in'ecedent of any kind here, it is that every man must have a beginning. So far we appear to have been selecting men as judges and stewards simply because they have been judges and stewards be'ore. Let us now extend the classes a little, as we do with the stock. Let it no longer be all Shorthorn, Hereford, and Devon ; but let us have grace enough to name a good man for the office, on the very excellent showing, as we take it, that he never held it before. There is pre- cedent even here, if we must have it. One or two of the very best judges ever enlisted — for stock or implements we will not care which — never acted at all until within these last two or three years. The selection, of course, must rest with the Council ; and it is only right they should have something good to select from. However much or little encouraged, so far, it is a duty the members of the Society generally owe to themselves to assist in making this list out. We will not go quite so far as to say that every member reads the Mark Lane Express, If he does not, how- ever, there is the more necessity for his being directly invited to appreciate a little more demonstratively the privileges he enjoys. Why, there is not a man amongst us who does not meet, every day of his life, some capi- tal judge of a horse, or a Down, or an ox. The Coun- cil of the Society require the services of this gentleman. It may be a -gratifying and well-merited distinction to him, and it will be an essential advantage to them. Send up his name, then, by all means. And if you know of another as good, don't hesitate to send his too. It is impossible to have too many to pick from. We have said that this selection is made by the Council J that is, by as many Members of Council as choose to attend any meeting appointed for that pur- pose. It is sometimes asserted that a large meeting cannot get through its business anything like so effi- ciently as some two or three members of it would. But this, on the contrary, is especially the business, if not of a large, of a full meeting of Council. Depute it to the two or three, and you will have the old prejudices and precedents stronger than ever. Go carefully through the list in open Council, and if you want a name here or there, you will be far more likely to get it from the experience of two or three-and-twonty than from two or three only. Let us never forget the united strength of a bundle of sticks. 120 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE PROGRESS OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE DURING THE LAST CENTURY. Tlie progress of agriculture during the last century is an extensive and interesting subject, capable of being viewed under a variety of aspects. In the first place, there is the progress of improvement, which consists in the invention o£ superior modes of cultivation, and the introduction of superior breeds of live-stoclc. Secondly, there is the progress of agriculture in the more general diffusion of those improvements over the country ; so that we may no longer witness the anomaly of one farm and one parish producing the most luxuriant crops, while its neighbour, under the same conditions of soil and climate, produces only luxuriant crops of weeds. Lastly, there are the effects of these improvements on the condition of the agricultural labourer. This is by far the most important view of the case. It has hitherto received too little attention ; it is a subject, however, in favour of which we should not regret to see a suspension of those energies by which the produce of the soil has been so largely increased. It is a sub- ject to which we rejoice to see that attention is now beginning to be directed, as evinced by a recent dis- cussion at the London Farmers' Club, and a paper published by Mr. Chadwick. It is, moreover, a matter to which it is to be hoped the attention of the Royal Agricultural Society will be directed rather more than has hitherto been the case througli their otherwise brilliant career. There is a wide and brilliant career of usefulness before them in that direction, if they will but follow it. The history of agriculture during the past century may be divided into four periods. 1st. From the ac- cession of George III. to the end of the eighteenth century. 2ndly. The period of the wars of the French Revolution. 3rdly. The period of agricultural distress consequent on the peace of 181.5, and of vain attempts to keep up prices by fiscal regulations. 4thly. The period of fi-ee-trade, during which British agriculture has had to endure unrestricted competition with that of the whole world. The stimulus to improvement during the first period was the advance of prices consequent on the increase of commerce and manufactures which took place about the commencement of the reign of George III. It was then that from fluctuating between the exportation and importation of corn, England became a perma- nently importing country. Up to this period East Norfolk was the chief seat of tlic turnip culture, and stood at the head of British agriculture. This was the epoch of the commencement of improvement in West Norfolk under Coke of Holkham ; the epoch of the birth of the Leicesters and shorthorns, under Bakewell and Culling. Then began the rapid enclosure of com- mons and common-fields throughout England, and the reclaiming of large tracts of mooi*-land on both sides of the Scottish border. This was the epoch of drilled turnips and the thrashing-machine in that northern district, wliich only made their way slowly at a much later period in the south. It was during this period that the consolidation of farms commenced, and that the yeomen-cultivators began to sell their paternal acres in order to become large renting farmers. The poor-rates had begun to increase ; but as yet the con- dition of the rural labourer had but little deteriorated. The second period of agricultural progress dates from the commencement of the present century. It was a period of great and rapid progress, but based on an in- secure foundation. The stimulus to improvement during this portion of our agricultural history was the rapid increase of prices, produced by a variety of causes. These were — the extensive failure of the crops during several years ; the impediment caused by the war to the importation of foreign agricultural produce ; the waste of war and its lavish expenditure ,; and lastly, the excessive issues of paper money, and the suspension of cash payments by the Bank of England, producing a depreciation of the currency, but to what extent was, and is yet, a matter of controversy. It was during this period that the ruin of the labouring population was completed; it was during this period that the per- nicious custom was established, and reached its climax, of giving parochial relief in aid of insufficient wages : it was then that the rate of wages was fixed in parish vestry, at the sum sufficient only to support a single man, and that labourers with families received an al- lowance from the poor-box, proportioned to the num- ber of their children. In this way the independent spirit of the English labourer was broken down, and they who had previously considered it a disgrace to re- ceive parochial relief, now learned to regard it as their birthright. There was one part of the country, how- ever, which in a great measure escaped this contami- nation : that consisted of those northern counties where the hind system prevailed — that is to say, the system of hired householders residing on the farm, and paid the greater portion of their wages In kind. Their wages consisted of a quantity of that grain which formed the ordinary food of the district, sufficient for the support of a family, together with a cottage, a small piece of ground to plant with potatoes and flax, and the keep of a cow during summer and winter. By this mode of payment, though the wages of the labourer remained nominally the same, or fluctuated only with the slight fluctuation which took place in that small portion of his wages reserved in money, occasioned by the demand for labour, the married hind, with a family of the average number, received sufficient for their support under the utmost advance of prices ; and if the num- ber of his family was below the average, he had at the year's-end a very respectable sum to take of his em- ployer for that portion of his " conditions," as they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. are called, which he had not drawn. One admirable part of this mode of paying wages was, that the hired labourer, or hind, received a quarter's allowance of corn in advance, and was therefore independent of the village-shop, and had no temptation to spend his money at the ale-house. We come now to the third period in our agi-icultural history, when the bubble of inflated agricultural pros- perity burst with the downfall of the First Napoleon and tlie return of peace. This was the period of agri- cultiu'al distress — a period of low prices combined with high rents and poor's rates. It was the period of vain attempts to keep up prices by restrictions on the impor- tation of foreign agricultural produce. This was the period of which it has been said that the surest way to please a farmer was to tell him that he was utterly and irretrievably ruined. The evils of the previous neglect of tl^e rural labourer now began to manifest tliemselves. The poor's rates, which had increased enormously throughout the whole country, in some districts ex- ceeded the rent. The evil had become of such crying magnitude as to call for legislative interference in the amendment of the poor-laws, by which an effectual bai- was put to the baneful system of relief in aid of wages. Being based on sound principles, the change was calcu- lated for the ultimate benefit of the labouring- classes. It was fraught, however, with hardship to those who had surrounded themselves with large families, on the faith of tlie old system. Subsequent unexpected events, however, contributed greatly to mitigate those hard- ships and to put the labouring population on a more independent footing, with regard to the remuneration for their labour, than they had for a long time enjoyed. But though a period of agricultural distress, it was still a period of agricultural progress; and tliough we often heard of large tracts of land which were to go out of cultivation we never witnessed them. On the contrary, the enlargement of farms continued, as well as .the inclosure of wastes. Towards the close of this period we may date the foundation of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, and the stimulus to improvement communicated by its Journal and its annual itinerant meetings. That important portion of our agricultural history remains to be considered — the progress of British agri- culture since the repeal of the corn laws and the un- restricted importation of all descriptions of agricultural produce. In our review of the progress of British agi-iculture during the last century, we have arrived at that most interesting period of its history during which tlie British farmer has had to contend in his own market with the agriculture of the whole world. It must be admitted that the period which has succeeded the altera- tion of the tariff and the repeal of the corn laws has been a period of gi-eat agricultural prosperity. The fact does not admit of a question, whatever difference of opinion there may be respecting the cause. The most zealous free-trader must also admit that the problem is com- plicated, with many disturbing elements. There is the extensive emigi-ation from Ireland, caused by the potato failure; and from Englatld, by the- Austra- lian gold fields. The gold discoveries, too, have given a great stimulus to industry, though they have not liad as yet any appreciable influence in depreciating the value of gold with respect to commodities, while they have had as little influence in restoring the re- lative values of gold and silver, as they existed before the opening of the silver mines of Potosi. Tlien, again, some influence must be ascribed to the demands of the war, for agricultural produce for the supply of fleets and armies. Something also must be allowed for the waste of war. Of the grain that was burned by our fleet in the Sea of Azoff, a part at least would, in time of peace, have found its way to our markets. Something also must be put down to the in- creased rate of freight caused by the war ; not from risk of capture, for the Allies were in undisputed mastery of the seas, but in consequence of the demand for ship- ping for the conveyance of troops and munition of war to the Crimea. Yet with all this there has not been that collapse of prices on the return of peace which took place on the termination of the war with the first Napoleon. This period of unrestricted competition with the whole world has been an epoch of great, of rapid, and of sound agricultural progress. All the physical sciences have been sedulously cultivated in their con- nection with agriculture. Thousands of tons of ship- ping have been employed in the importation of foreign manure from the guano isles of the Pacific ; while countless manufactories of artificial manures have sprung up, to supply the farmer with substitutes for those foreign supplies of guano whifh the present exten- sive and increasing demand huist exhaust before many years have elapsed. Millions of money have been ex- pended in draining our strong lands, and restoring them to that rank which they held in the estimation of the farmer before the introduction of the turnip husbandry caused the preference to be given to the less fertile light and dry soils, better adapted to stock-keeping on arable land, by which its produce has been so largely increased. Well were the advances of this period described by one who bore so large a share in urging them on — Pusey, of Pusey. The progress in agricultural me- chanics is regarded by him, in that celebrated paper, as that in which scientific knowledge has done most for the farmer. From the diminution of the numbers of horses used in husbandry, as shown by the returns to the Tax Office, amounting to nearly 20 per cent., it is inferred that this diminution has arisen from the substitution of ploughs of better construction, drawn by two horses, for the cumbrous implements of former periods, drawn by three, four, and even six. We cannot, however, assent to the writer's proposition, that this impi-ove- ment has been carried as far as it is capable of, or that there is any land in England which cannot be ploughed as well, or better, with two horses as with more. Then there is the reduction of horse-labour by the substitution of one-horse carts for waggons — a saving estimated by Mr. Pusey (and we think very justly) at I 12-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. one-half. Yet in liow fi*w districts of the south of England has the one-horse cart superseded the wag- gon, Among the imjDroved implements which have become during this period much more common in the hands of farmers 1» the diijll for corn and turnips. At the commencement of fliis period drilled turnips were almost unknown, except in Scotland and the Scottish border. They were decried in the old turnip-growing districts as a waste of land. Now even there they are the rule, and broadcast turnips the exception. The drilling of corn, now so general, was then confined to the northern districts, and to Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and Suffolk. Tlie water-drill is quile a modern invention, enabling the farmer to secure a plant of turnips in dry weather ready for the expected rain, in waiting for which the season was often lost. It possesses other prospective advantages ; but this is a question which we will con- sider more in detail hereafter. Next comes the improvement in implements for cut- ting straw into chaff, as it is called, by which the cost of keeping farm-horses may be decreased at least one- third ] while the condition of the animals is improved. For beasts and sheep, cut chaff, with a little oilcake, or, better still, linseed-meal, is rendered equal to hay. But the most important improvements in agricultural mechanics belong to the close of the present, or fourth, period of the agricultural progress of the past century — the reaping machine and the steam -plough. The for- mer is valuable to the farmer, not so much for the diminution of expense in the cost of harvesting, as for the command it gives him over his crop, and the power of taking advantage of a few fine days in our un- certain climate. And with respect to the steam-plough, thnse who agree with Mr. Pusey that the two-horse plough was beaten on the Essex clays, because the land could not be broken up with them in a dry season im- mediately after harvest, must admit that the steam- plough has obviated that objection. Proceeding from agricultural mechanics to operations for the improvement of the land, we come to land- drainage, which, it must be admitted on all hands, should be the precursor of all other improvements. To the third period of the history of agricultural progress, or the period of low prices, belong our greatest advances both in arterial or trunk drainage and land drainage. In arterial drainage we have the ex- pensive works undertaken by private enterprise for gaining outfall in the Lincolnshire fens. To this period also belong the improvement of outfalls under- taken by the Government in Ireland at the sugges- tion of the landowners, and now so loudly complained of by them ; a fact M'hich places in a strong light the wisdom of abstaining from Government interference in such undertakings — of leaving them to private en- terprise, merely removing by legislative enactments those impediments by which the ignorance and pre- j udice of the few are no5iir too often able to baffle the intelligence and enterprise of the many. To this period and that which preceded it, belong also the successive improvements in the drainage of land, the improve- ments of Smith of Deanston, acd of Parkes ; together with some further which certain people tell us are yet looming in the distance. We should rather say that the extension of land-drainage originated, and was prose- cuted with the most ardour, in the preceding period of agricultural distress, during which it was sought to com- pensate for lowness of price by increased produce, raised at less proportionate cost. It is too true, we fear, and lamentable, that with the return of remunerative prices our energies in the improvement of the soil by drain- ing have abated. Perhaps we may attribute the pre- sent slackness in land-drainage to the growing opinion that we have been proceeding too much on the prin- ciple of bending Nature to our systems, instead of accommodating our systems to Nature. It is in the laying out of our drains, not at regular intervals and uniform depths, but at depths and distances regu- lated by the nature of the soil and subsoil, and jvhat may be called their subterranean conditions, that im- provements are now to be made, by which economy, as well as efficiency, may be secured. In the cheapen- ing of materials for draining, by the substitution of machine-m.ade pipes for tiles and soles or broken stones, we appear to have reached a point not to be surpassed. Resuming our review of the progress of agriculture during the last hundred years, we come to the improve- ments effected by the removal of useless fences. These are an evil which prevails most in those districts that have been the longest under cultivation, and have con- tinued the longest the districts of small farms ; in Devonshu'e for instance, in the clay districts of Norfolk, and in the Weald of Kent. In those quarters it has been proved, by actual measurement of large areas, that the loss of land covered by superfluous fences amounts to more than ten per cpnt., to say nothing of the injury sustained by the land which the trees overshadow, and which their spreading roots im- poverish. Besides these evils there is the loss of time occasioned by small fields, in ploughing and other similar operations, and the mildews and blight which small enclosures engender, as well as the loss of grain from the birds which they harbour. Tlie only set off against these evils is the picturesque e&ect, and the traditional connection between hedgerows and the English landscape. For these I'easons we are sometimes tempted to exclaim, " Woodman, spare that tree," when stern utilitarianism would say, Down with it ! If, however, our agricultural improvers possessed more acquaintance with the principles of landscape garden- ing, the two opposing interests might in some measure be reconciled : the produce of the soil might be in- creased, while the beauty of the landscape might be preserved, if not improved ; for it is in the happy collo- cation of trees, not in their number, that the beauty of scenery consists. To the lover of trees then, and we confess to be among the number, we are happy to be able to hold out this consolation — that it is possible to reconcile agricultural improvement with the preserva- tion, if not the increasing, of the beauties of the country. During the period under consideration a considera- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 123 ble improvement took place in abating tlie nuisance arising- from an excess of game, tliough mucli yet remains to be done in tliat direction for tlie benefit of the farmer, who suffers from its depredations ; of tlie rural labourer with whom the poaching which large preserves engender is the first step in crime ; and lastly of the true sportsman, who likes to work for his sport, and denounces the modern battue as being no better thaii shooting fo.vls in a farm yard. Chalking, claying, marling — and mere chalking in some districts passes under all these names — are local practices of very high antiquity, which during the period in question have been extendetl to districts in which tliey were previously unknown, and might be extended still more. Bones began to be used as a manure during the second period. Towards the close of the third and the commencement of the fourth their use became gi-eatly extended, and their consumption economised 1)y the knowledge of the chemical fact that their manuring powers are derived, not, as was previously supposed, from the. animal matter adhering to them, nor from the fat contained in them, but from their earthy por- tion, or phosphate of lime. Their employment in a state of solution has greatly economised their con- sumption, while it has extended their use ; and farmers cannot be too often reminded that we owe this improvement not to agricultural societies, but to Liebig and the British Association. During the last, or ciiemiial period, great improvements have been made in the management of our manure heaps. To this period belong the introduction of box-feeding, covered farm yards, and the application of manure in tlie liquid form, by the water-drill, and by tlie steam, engine with pipes laid under ground. The former method, as might have been expected from its greater connexion with established agricultural usages, is the fivourite. With respect to the latter there can be little doubt that where there is a steam-engine on a farm, it is desirable to have a portion so irrigated for the purpose of producing Italian rye-grass, though it is doubtful whether the disadvantages attending the conversion of all the solid manure of a farm into the liquid form may not overbalance the advantages. At all events this mode of distiibution must be of great value in reference to the question of utilising the sewage of our towns. We Iiave had writing and arguing on that subject for the last twenty years. The proper coju-sc would have been to have had some experiments on this mode of distributing town sewage, made at the public expense, with the sewage of towns, or of our barracks. We ought to have had long ago numerous analyses of the sewage of towns, and more paiticularly of difierent quarters of London, conducted at the public expense. It would not then be a question, as it is at the pre- sent moment, whether the wealth contained in the sewage of London shall be wasted in the ocean. We thought the analysis of Professor Way had set at rest the question of converting it to the solid form, in order that it may be redissolved for distribution by the iilanure-drill. For those analyses, as far as they haVe gone, have shown that the manuring properties will remain in the liquid after it has been deodorise), and that to precipitate its ammonia and phosphates at a cheap rate, is a task beyond the present resources of chemistry. Had more such analyses been made, we should now be in a position to decide whether, with our present engineering resources, the sewage of towns can or cannot be distributed with a profit, in the liquid form, as Smith of Deanston contended it could be. If it can- not, we fear the late sanitary improvement will have been injurious to the agricultural community, by pro- ducing a waste of that which used formerly to be, to a large extent, returned to the land in the shape of night- soil. The present state of the sewage question is a dis- grace to the 19th century. The recently- appointed commission to inquire into the best mode of utilising town sewage is a step in the right direction, though it should have been made much sooner. One of the greatest improvements in the ordinary routine of agricultural practice is that which is em- ployed by some of the best farmers of a few districts, and which, if generally adopted, would prevent a great expenditure of useless labour — the autumn clean- ing of iallows, and the forking out of couch, docks, and suchlike weeds. This improved practice, if not always allowed by the climate of the northern distiicts, enables the sheep-farmers of our southern counties to take a spring croi> of rye or winter tares for sheep feeding on the land in course for turnips, and thus to add a fifth crop to the ordinary four-course system. No less important than this faving of expense in that heavy item of expenditure, the preparation of the ground for the turnip by the winter cleaning of fallows, is the economy introduced in the expenditure of this crop when raised, by the cutting of it for the stock, and by giving them cut straw for their dry food. The introduction of white carrots, as a forage crop, and the pulling and storing of swedes in the autumn, for consumption in the winter and spring, are valuable additions to our agricultural practice, which were scarcely known in the second and third of our four agricultural periods, and were then decried, in the practice of the few who used them, by those who were deemed at that time some of our best farmers. They have become more common in the fourth period, but are not yet so common as they might be. Tliere is one forage crop, and one indigenous plant yielding a perennial produce, which has long been used with great advantage in some districts not the most celebrated for agricultural i>rogress. The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society has more than one paper bearing testimony to its merits. It has Ion" been in use in North Walesfor feeding horses, and more recently asfood for milch cows ; while in Wexford, land not worth 3s. an acre for other purposes, lets for ^3 an acre as gorse ground, for the rearing of young cattle. We have seen abundance of poor land in some of our soutlieru coun- ties where this plant grows with the utmost luxuiiance, on land of littlo value for other purposes, but on which its cultivation is utterly neglected. We can only I account for the little estimation in which it is held I)y I 2 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the fact that it grows spontaneously, and our farmers cannot get over their repugnance to growing what they consider a weed. Taking a general and retrospective review of the details which have been adduced of the progress of agriculture, by the introduction of improved prac- tices, and the extended diffusion of the best existing practices, we must arrive at the following conclusions— That the soundest and most extensive improvement, by which an increased produce is obtained at a compa- ratively diminished cost, has been effected during the third and fourth periods of the agricultural history of the last hundred years. It began during the third, which was a period of agricultural distress, when our energies were stimulated by low prices, and the necessity of compensating for them by increased produce raised at comparatively less expense. It is still in progress, during the fourth period, when we have had to endure open competition with the agri- culture of the whole world, and when we have had higher prices than at any former period since the termination of the wars of the French Revolution. With respect to the progress of agriculture during those four periods, as regards the condition of the agri- cultural labourer, we have already glanced at the dete- rioration on his position, which commenced in the first, and was completed in the second. We will close this review of the last hundred years, by considering his condition during the third and fourtli periods, and by the discussion of the question how far the system of large farms, and of capital applied to land, which is the inevitable tendency of the present age, can be rendered consistent mth the unimproved condition of the labour- ing population of the rural districts. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. In our former article on this important subject, we took occasion to advert to what may be called the " popular view" of agriculture, and its social and scien- tific status ; and to point out briefly what we considered the causes which lead to this view being so universally held. But whatever may be the opinion which may be maintainei on this point, doubtless a very potent cause is the indifference of agriculturists themselves. A full and candid inquiry into the whole bearings of the ques- tion would, we think, reveal the not very pleasant fact that a large majority of " well-to-do" agriculturists do not realize the essential importance of the question, or seem to think— if, indeed, they think at all— of the claim which the agricultural population under them have upon their attention. When we see a Manchester cotcmporaiy somewhat complacently talk of " social improvements" being "transplanted from these stirring, expanding, and progressive districts to break up the stagnation and illuminate the darkness of the agricultural mind," we not only get a proof of the existence of the "popular view" to which we have already alluded, but we are led, or should be led, to inquire whether this " stag- nation" and " darkness"— which are here taken quite as granted — really existed? and if so, why? and if — which is in no-wise the least important question — the one croi be broken up and the other in anij loay illu- minated ? As to the first of this series of questi.Tns which we have here propounded, we fear that but one answer can in fairness be given. As to the relative extent of the "darkness," or the amount of the "stagnation," there may be various opinions; there can be but one opinion, we think, as to the fact that they do exist to some extent in nearly every district of the kingdom. In some — how many ?— the one may be like the darkness which afflicted Egypt ; the other like the plague of fro-'s which there came up and spread over all the land. It comes not within the scope of our present paper to enter into a detailed proof of the evils of the social condition of agricultural labourers ; not that there is any difficulty to do so. SuSice it to say that much as philanthropists have to deplore in connection with the social condition of the " working classes" of our large towns, about which so much has been written and agitated, they may easily meet with as much to rouse their sympathies and awaken their zeal in our agricultu- ral districts. Unfortunately, neglect and indifference can, and do, work their deadly work as easily, and with as lamentable effects, beneath the blue sky and amidst the grain fields of our hamlets, as in the murky air and filthy lanes of our crowded cities. The answer to our second question is not quite so easily given as that to our first, involving as it does the consi- deration of many points, all of great importance. Leaving a few of these to be noted afterwards, we shall attend at present to one — namely, the faults of the system or mode of teaching as commonly carried out in the schools of agricultural districts. This, it will be observed, does not open up the question of how widely extended the system of education is, but refers to the inadequacy of the education, such as it is, to impart the knowledge desiderated. Mr. Evan Davies, at a recent meeting of the Bridgnorth Agricultural Association, puts this matter very forcibly. In eulogising the common educa- tion, as it is termed, at a school in his district as coming " nearer to perfection" than any school with which he was acquainted ; and while feeling assured that in the ex- tent of their geographical and grammatical attainments the male scholars would display a satisfactory condition, still 'such was the meagreness, or, to speak more properly, the utter want of education in points which would possess a inonry value to them in their daily pur- suits, that he much doubted whether any of them cmld tell even the " common things" of agriculture, let alone those having a more important bearing, essential to te known by one who proposes making the most of his business. "I much doubt," heremarked, " ifoneina hundred could explain the germinating process of ihc THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 125 wheat, barley, and oats which it will be their province hereafter to scatter upon the ground" ; or if one " in a thousand of them could describe the nature and habits of those insects and fungi whicli infest and destroy those crops which they will be called upon to cultivate and protect." Again, with regard to the education of the girls, the same meagreness of utilities in their edu- cation is noticeable. Few of tliem leave school with a knowledge of those parts which will be of service to them in their daily duties. The truth, in fact, seems to be that their ordinary school education has 710 reference to what mast in after-time be their daily life. We have, in our former article, alluded to this defect as existing to a great ex- tent also in the routine of education given to tlie higher and middle classes — those who are in after-life to be the farmers who cultivate, and our landlords who own the land. Hence it is that such an absurdity is met with as a farmer persisting in the statement " that ryegrass turns into switch, when they are as distinct as wheat is from barley." Hence, also, do we often witness the anomalous position of '* possessors of large territorial domains" regretting at agricultural meetings " that toasts have been put into their hands, for they know no- thing of agriculture" ; as reasonable an excuse this as would be that of a cotton manufacturer or an iron mer- chant who would tell their clerks and their managers that they know nothing of c.ilton, and were quite igno- rant of iron. Hence, also, do we find the owners of large estates so blinded to their own interests, and hazarding the prosperity of their property, by giving their manage- ment " to the care of some old college companion who has retired from the army or navy, or sometimes to re- ward the faithful services of a groom or a valet, and too often in the case of those who have received their educa- tion at Lincoln's Inn" — as wise a course of procedure as to entrust the management of a ship to a cotton- spinner, or a cotton factory to a sailor. Hence, also, the inauguration and perpetuation of other follies and absurdities too numerous here to mention, and in no way pleasant to reflect upon. No wonder then, seeing all these things, that the " popular idea" of agriculture is by no means a complimentary one to its professors, and that JIanchesler men desire to see its " stagnation" broken in upon and its " darkness" enlightened. And " no wonder," to quote again the words of Mr. Davies, that the science which is " co-existent with man's crea- tion should only be emerging from its dark ages ; no wonder that it is only just now being thought worthy of being placed side by side with those other sciences which have made such rapid strides throughout the world." At the first blush of the matter, it seems no great difficulty to obviate the evils arising from this exciting cause of the darkness of the agricultural mind. Light is not altogether unattainable, much as some may say to the contrary ; neither will its attainment cost much — a.most important point to remember in this our day of utilitari- anism, when the question, "Will it pay?" is more earnestly taken heed to than " Is it right .'" Mr. Davies seeoas to think that much " light" must not be looked for " until the whole class of books in our agricultural schools are forgotten, and a new compilation takes place, not only for labourers, but for farmers, land-agents — aye ! and landlords themselves." Now when people are by no means anxious to perform a duty, or to clear out of hand a task allotted to them, it is marvellous with what ease they persuade themselves that the thing cannot be done at all, or at least such are the difficulties in the way — tools, for instance, bad — or the wants which cannot be supplied — no tools at all, for instance, to be had on any account — that itsdoing or performance must of need be put off till some more convenient time. Differ- ent from the conduct of him who, in spite of all diffi- culties, is determined to do his work, thinking more of the doing than of the difficulties ; such a one, rather than plead a " want" of aid as an excuse for not working, will manufacture his own aids — make or mend his fools. Just so is it possible that many believing, or thinking that they believe, that this supplanting of old and alto- gether effele class-books with others of a life-giving, life- sustaining nature is a huge labour, and one taking up much time, will deem that there is no hurry in looking after education at all. The work, doubtless, they admit, must be, should be, done; but wherein lies the good of bothering ourselves about it now, seeing that we have no tools to do it with .' " Time enough," may be their sage remark, " to prepare the wood when we c;inget the saw." But the case is not quite so bad. True the aids at our disposal are not so complete in number, or so good in quality, as we should desire ; but we have some, and of good every-day working quality, well calculated to do the beginning, if not quite the finishing, of the work. And this beginning is a great matter ; no step in any progress is so important as the first. Some agri- culturists, in no wise to be characterized os of " stag- nant" or of " dark" minds, are quite of this way of thinking. Farmers, emigrants from Scotland, desirous to make the most of the raw materials ready to their hands, are purchasing Stephens' " Catechism of Agri- culturt" (Blackwood) by thousand.^, we are told, to distribute amongst the population of their Irish farms. This is the right way to go to work, and is in every way characterised by true wisdom. It is by no me ms a bad set-off to the universal cry from towns commercial as to the " darkness" of districts agricultural. Egypts enough — where darkness may be felt — and more than enough, have we poor agriculturists ; but have we not also, O men of Manchester ! a few Goshens amongst us, where light dwelleth — Goshens from which a light may go forth, of which even that go-a-head locality may be somewhat the better. " The British labourer," according to a recent writer, " is the best living tool in the world." This is taking the strictest utilitarian view possible of the point, and is indeed the light in which not a few minds, commer- cial as well as agricultural, look upon their assistants, by whose labours they " net their profits." Not now to take a higher view of the matter ; ta ignore, in fact, all considerations of humanity, and to talk political economy merely, the question obtrudes itself very for- cibly whether in process of time it may not be worth the labour of manufacturers of wheat, as well as those V26 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of cotion, to inquirii into the condition of these " tools" of theirs, with a view of ascertaining if possible the manner iu which they operate, and if kept in good repair and in fair working cider. Such an inquiry might pay very well, if well conducted, and the sugges- tions which would be evolved therefrom carried into effect. It is not considered the best evidence of a workman's tact to keep his tools in bad repair, or a master's wisdom to have his implements or his steam- engine in such a condition that time is lost, and profits used up, by repeated attempts at patching and mending. To have matters the converse of all this is, as we all know — or at least profess to kr ow — the best business policy. And it is just possible that some fine, and we hope some early day, masters may wake up to the con- viction that to keep their " living tools," their " flesh- and-blood engines," in good condition, will be a wise and business-like proceeding on their parts. But this good time will, we fear, be somewhat delayed, so long as " relays" of tools are obtained at little cost and less trouble. Albeit it may be worth the thinking about, that bad tools are not worth the having at any price, nay, at " no price ;" in fact, that bad tools cannot, in virtue of being bad, do good work by any possibility. And if the farmers of England are to compete successfully with tho?e of other countries — if, in fact, they are to do the work which is demanded of them, it is imperative that they should have all their mechanism, animate as well as inanimate, in the very best working order ; capable of doing not only good, but the best of work. But it so happens that the task of keeping animate machines in this good working order involves considerations of a somewhat different character from those connected with the inanimate. We have, fortunately or unfortunately (the latter, perhaps, for those stern political economists whose pet projects are sometimes "unceremoniously set aside through its existence), a double power to deal with — the intellectual, as well as the physical organiza- tion, iu connection with our animate machines. And the fact is, that unless we allow both to have their full, healthy development, we do not attain a perfect, but only a half machine, and of course capable of doing only half work; if, indeed, we obtain so high a ratio there- from. And this fact is by no means a less truthful one, because in e very-day life we find many who ignore its existence, and seem to think that uot only is mind not desiderated in their labourers, but a sound healthy body alsu. These men are, to be sure, of the " Squeers' mixture," and " pinch-of-curry powder" order ; whom, for the honour of our kind, we presume to be in a de- caying and by no means popular condition ; but who exist nevertheless, and are not very difficult to meet with. Hence it comes to pass, that if the mind acts upon the body, and the body acts upon the mind, and that no " good health," in the fullest acceptation of the term, can be maintained without the wants and necessi- ties of both being equally well attended to — edbca- tion involves other considerations than that merely of making provision for the supply of intellectual food; and that so far as the labourers of our rural districts are concerned, two processes must, from the necessity of the thing, go hand in hand, if full satisfaciion is desired — while the mind is cared for, the state of the body and its physical demands must not be unprovided. The former point involves one weighty consideration, namely, that time be allotted to those requiring education, that this educationraay begiven to them. To provide the best possible system, and yet to give no time to those to attend to it for whose benefit it is instituted, conveys on the face of it an absurdity. At first sight the diffi- culty here pointed out appeal's an easy one to be got over; it nevertheless has associated with it points which, if attempted to be carried out universally, will rouse the opposition of not a few, and give rise to a great amount of acrimony and ill feeling. In the great cotton dis- tricts what is called the "half-time" system is in force, "under which it is illegal to employ children of a certain age unless a portion of their time daily is spent in school. ' ' It is quite obvious that if we begin to carry out aa improved and useful agricultural education amongst the labouring classes, we must begin with the young. It is an almost hopeless task to think of working up the "stagnation" audenlightening the "darkness" of the adult mind. A little, perhaps a good deal, may be imparted to them, but all we require cannot. We shall have difficulties with the old which we shall not meet with in the young. Some plan, then, to obtain time for the young must be carried out ; and we are glad to see the "half-time" system, as applicable to agriculture, mooted in influential quarters. At a recent meeting of the Hants and Wilts Education Society, the Dean of Hereford, well known for his successful efforts in the cause of popular education, thus spoke of it : — "The system had worked so admirably in cities and large towns, and was now in such favour, not only with the operative classes, but also with the great employers of labour, that it had occurred to hiai to inquire whether it might not be possible to establish something of the same kind in the agricultural districts. * * * If the child of an operative needed protection as regarded his education, and if the Legislature interfered to insure him a certain amount of schooling, why should not a similar privilege be conferred upon the ploughboy, and on the child who was sent into a field to watch the crows ? A half-time system, which would contemplate that on every alternate day such young persons should be with- drawn from their occupation for the purpose of attending school, might perhaps be feasible. At all events, the question was well deserving of attentive consideration." Surely this will be given to it ; the subject is one of para- mount importance, not only to the labourers, but to their employers. If it does not now bulk largely in the agri- cultural mind, the time will come when it will do so in its full importance. Difficulties are certainly in the way, and various adjustments of polity and interest will require to be attended to ; but it will be in every way the wisest course for the parties directly interested — the agricultural employers — to overcome those difficulties and make those adjustments themselves. Better that they should do it voluntarily, than be compelled to doit, a compulsion which will afford them neither the dignity of a refusal nor the grace of a ready compliance. In- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 127 deed some are of opinion that this compulsion is not far distant. At the above meeting Mr. Cole remarked — " Come what might, the people muft be educated. It was all nonsense for the farmers to say they would not stand it. Whether they liked it or not, they would have to stand it. And why not they, as well as the manu- facturers ? If the Legislature were to say to the farmers, * We are resolved that you shall stand it ; and ycu are to understand that, if you have in your employment young persons of a certain age who are not educated up to a certain point, you shall be subjected to a penalty,' the farmers would soon come to their senses, and appreciate the force of such an argument. This was a drastic mode of treatment that would not fail to carry con- viction." To this complexion must it come at last .-' Certainly it will be a difficult matter to prove why farmers should possess an immunity from Legislative interference, which the manufacturers did not, or at least could not, claim. If the "drastic mode" of treatment is to be carried out, would it not be better for the agriculturists to have it self-administered ? The medicine may be bitter, but its effects will be sweet. We have observed that in the education of our agri- cultural labouring population, two things must go hand in hand — care of the mind and provision for our body. Not quite in the literal sense of the term " provision " do we wish it understood, although doubtless it may be said that he who works well is entitled to feed well, and has a plain right to that same ; of which it is robbery, to speak frankly, to deprive him. Although we do not here say how many labourers are thus subjected to theft in this enlightened land of ours, but in a wider sense do we wish it rather. Provision, that is, not what to eat, not that which is eaten — may its shadow never prove less in the homes of the poor ! — may it have fair-play given to it ; that it may nourish healthy bodies, and rear up good working " tools :" to which end it seems advisable — if we read not physical laws wrongly — that good houses shall be given, and as a matter of course that all huts or hovels or " men's pig-styes" shall, with all con- venient speed, be done away with, not longer to stand as evidences of the utter neglect of the true principles of political economy on the part of their landlords. For can it not be clearly shown that it is at the best but a losing concern, to put valuable animals, as horses or cattle, in badly-constructed, damp, and ill-ventilated stables or cowhouses, where the disease^engendered and promoted thereby causes the total loss of many, and the deterioration of value in all ? And although in the minds of some it may appear doubtful whether the im- portance of human life bulks so largely in their estima- tion as that of a horse or a valuable cow — as a labourer can in this land of liberty be had and obtained without any purchase-money — is it not also evident that to place labourers and their families in huts or hovels, where none of the decencies, let alone the comforts of life, can by any possibility be obtained, is not quite the best way to procure labourers able to give a good day's, or a day's good work , we shall not say for good wages, but for such wages as may then and there be given them ? The healthier and the stronger the labourer is, the better able is he, most undoubtedly, to serve his master. But another point, and possibly not the least impor- tant, remains to be noticed. We have already pointed out the fact too apt to be forgotten by many, that the " best living tool" — the *' British labourer"~is made up of a mental as well as a physical organization ; that there is a close and intimate connexion between the two ; and they mutually act and re-act on each other, a morbid condition of the one bringing often with it a morbid condition of the other. Now, in advocating the necessity of making §ood " provision" for the labourer, as regards house or home accommodation, we are but in another way advocating that which will tend to keep the mental faculties also in a healthy condition. For even at the first view of the matter it seems evident that much of the good done by out-door education will be lost, or at least greatly lessened in beneficial influence, if the home or the hearth education inculcates all that is bad. " The general character of the best of the old- fashioned hinds' cottages in this neighbourhood is bad at the best. They have to bring everything with them : partitions, window-frames, fixtures of all kinds, grates, and a substitute for ceiling, for they are sheds. They have no byre for their cows, no stairs, no pumps or wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or comfort. The averrtge size of these sheds is about 24 by 16 feet; they are dark and unwholesome; the windows do not open, and many of them are not longer than 20 inches by 16 inches ; and into this space are crowded eight, ten, and even twelve persons. How they lie down to rest, how they sleep, how they can preserve common decency, how unutterable horrors are avoided, is beyond concep- tion. The case is aggravated where there is a young woman to be lodged in the same confined space who is not a member of the family, but is hired to do the field work, for which every hind is bound to provide a female. It shocks every feeling of propriety to think that in a room, and within such a space as I have been describing, civilized beings should be herding together, without a decent separation of age and sex." Doubtless it may be said that this is an isolated, an exceptional case ; that such is not the general way in which agricultural labourers live. While gladly admit- ting that much is now being done to ameliorate their condition, very little, we grieve to say, in proportion to what should be done has been done. That this day a counterpart to the condition of affairs we have above described can be easily met with in many of our agricul- tural districts, we have not the least shadow of a doubt. Would that it were otherwise ! We are quite aware that to many there will be a difficulty in tracing the connection that exists between physical and mental de- gradation, and how, or in which way it bears upon the question of education. They are closely connected nevertheless ; so closely that to those who are devoting much of their attention to the social welfare of the working classes the truth is becoming more and more obvious, that in all movements for the improve- ment of their mental condition attentton must be paid to their physical improvement also ; that if the sanitary 128 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. reformer should not precede the teacher, he should at least go hand-and-hand. This is taking high ground ; but it is a positiou borae out by all investigations into the subject. At first sight the conijection between physical and mental degradation is obvious enough ; the proverb " cleanliness is next to godliness," whether right or vyrong, proves that in the popular mind a close con- ue.xion has been observed between them Where human beings congregate together, or are forced to congregate together — a statement of the point nearer the truth — under circumstances akin to that of the brutes, where none of the requirements of decency and morality can be observed ; however long they may fight against the evil, mental degradation invariably ensues, just as closely as effect follows the cause. All experience shows this : proofs innumerable of it in this our enlightened land can be met with in dwellings, " where," says John Kay, " all ages and all sexes, fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, grown-up brothers and sisters, stranger adult males and femaleSj and swarms of children, the sick, the dying, and the dead, are huddled together with a proxi- mity and mutual pressure which brutes would resist ; where it is physically impossible to preserve the ordinary decencies of life, where all sense of propriety and self- respect must be lost, to be replaced by a recklessness of demeanour which necessarily results from vitiated minds." Not here to state whether this horrible condition of affairs can or cannot be met with in agricultural dis- tricts, it is evident thitt all approach to it must of neces- sity be avoided, if the power of education is to have full play. Intellectual and moral elevation cannot result with certainty from any plan of aggressive operations, however well and persistently carried out, when at their homes and around their hearths everything nearly is cal- culated to degrade. As an uneasy condition of mind operates upon and lowers the condition of the body, so in like manner deleterious causes habitually operating on the body depress the mind and lower the moral standard. It is hard to arouse the attention, or awake the sympathies of a man under the influence of an opiate, or sinking under the effects of a slow fit. It is just as difficult and absurd to look for elevating results from education (as a general rule) amongst people who are placed in circumstanc;s which act on them with all the depressing influences of the one, and all the debilitating powers of the other. Certain laws have by a beneficent Providence been instituted, the which, if we respect, we shall maintain a due amount of physical and mental health ; and which fit us better for the reception of important truths than when we have the dulness and disease resulting from breaking these laws. And it ccrtiinly seems the most reasonable plan, if not the clearest duty, to maintain that condition in which we are the best fitted for the reception and consi- deration of important tnitl;s- moral and religious — than to maintain adverse circumstances, lessening their force and obstructing their influence. Now, in advocating the removal of these adverse circumstances from amidst our agricultural labourers, we are aiding the means by which their moral and intellectual elevation is brought about, and without which no system of education, how- ever well adapted to the special wants of the class, can be thoroughly efficient. R. S. B. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID. It has been well remarked that if the common la- bourer in any art cannot be enlightened by abstruse doctrines of philosophy, yet he will not refuse to adopt tiny practice, of the utility of which he is fully convinced, because it has been founded up. in these principles. The mariner can trust to the compass, though he may be wholly unacquainted with the discoveries of Faraday and Tyndall on magnetism ; and the dyer will use his bleaching liquor, even though he is perhaps ignorant n')tonlyof the constitution, but even of the name of the substance on which its powers depend. Yet is it not admitted by all intelligent and thoughtful men that an art progresses in some proportion to the measure of knowledge of its principles difTused among its practi- tioners? And, that agricultural science is at present most in need of, is a general superintendence of field and farm-yard husbandry, by men who can take note of circumstances bearing upon a principle, and who will let no fact escape which is able to throw light upon any mystery in cultivation ? Not that every farmer is to go through a scientific college education, and have liis labourers loiter while he is wasting time over bottles, and souitts ; hut at any rate let him learn somewhat of the great fundamental truths of his art, and the cha- racter of the natural processes at work within his land, his crops, his animals, and his manures. Let him cul- tivate " fields of thought" and habits of reflection. Think, for instance, on some of the wonders of a root crop. You need not nowslaughter and salt your fat sheep in November, as your forefathers did, because these nutritious bulbs are able to withstand the winter : and again — not a vast period from their introduction into this country — you have machinery for rasping or slicing them ; implements for lioeing-out the young plants ; a water- drill for sowing the seed " in a sure and certain hope;" and, most astonishing of all, superphosphate for forcing the first leaflets out of the reach of the fly, and magically stimulating the entircgrowth of the crop. Superphosphate ! to think that a plain English farmer should have come to manure his ground with a powder the name of which implies something about lucifer matches, and an extra strength or quality. And what is the history of superphosphate ? You bought bone-dust and oil of vitriol, and, mixing with a little water, melted down the bones into that sweet- smelling substance which you so carefully cover from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 129 the raiu, and drill cither in water or with ashes. So animals have eaten vegetables, and accumulated phos- phate of lime in their spines, and ribs, and limbs ; and dying, have left us the hard frame-work of their bodies, which we grind by thousands of tons yearly to make turnips of. But perhaps you preferred to purchase bags of the manure ready-made. Then you are daring to manure your fields with the '•' white and wave-swept bones " of not merely the antediluvian, but of the pre- adamite world, which have lain buried and preserved for many thousands of years, to be at last sacrilegiously utilized in this fashion. In mines now being worked, the beds consist of the fractured and rolled bones of sharks, gigantic lizards, and whales, which at a remote period of our earth's history must have existed in myriads. in our seas ; and mingled with these bones are found many lish-teeth and shells of different speciet* and also immense numbei'S of rolled water- worn peb- bles, called coprolites. These " phosphatic deposits '' are found in great quantities on the coasts of Suffolk, Norfolk, and Es.sex ; in Cambridgeshire and Kent : and many thousands of tons, in one form or other, ai-e annually sold as manure. Liebig predicted truly, tliat " in the remains of an extinct animal world England will find the means of increasing her wealth in agricul- tural produce, as she has already found the great sup- port of her manufacturing industry in fos.sil fuel." But whence came .those heavy carboys of sulphuric acid ? and how can we obtain so cheaply such enormous quan- tities of a liquid wliich is so burning in its nature that the workmati's fingers tingle when he thinks of it, and a spoonful will suffice to rinse your teeth out of your mouth ? In the old-fashioned times, this oil of vitriol, as it is also called, used to be made by distilling " green vitriol," or sulphate of iron, which was obtained by exposing the roasted iron pyrites, in small pieces, to the com- bined agency of air and moisture. But ingenious men having taken advantage of the investigations of scien- tific chemists, invented the modern manufacturing pro- cess, which is far more economical and productive. Many of us have held our breath, or gasped and coughed in semi-suffocation, as we passed by one of those large leaden chambers in some manufacturing town, which indicates a place where its preparation is carried on. The process is this : Stdjjhur is burned in air, with the help of a little saltjjctre. The sulphurous-acid gas thus formed is conducted into the spacious leaden chamber, where it meets with nitrous-acid, obtained by the action of starch on nitric acid, and also with the vapour of water, introduced from a boiler. Water is also present on the floor of the chamber. Instead of the simple distillation of one substance — green vitriol — seven different agents or raw materials are employed; the resulting chemical action from thus bringing all of them together being rather complex. First, the sulphurous acid, nitrous or hyponitrous acid, and water, all in a gaseous or vaporous state, meeting together in the chamber, combine to form a compound, which falls down in crystals like a shower of snow. As soon as these crystals touch the water they become decomposed, the sulphurous aiid being oxydized into sulphuric aci'l, and the nitrous or hypo- nitrous acid reduced to deutoxide of nitrogen. The sulphuric acid dissolves in the water, and is so taken care of. The deutoxide of nitrogen rises into the air of the chamber, in which a continual current of atmo- spheric air is kept up, and with the oxygen of this air again forms nitrous acid. This, iiniting with a fresh proportion of the sulphui'ous acid and watery vapour which is continually pouring into the chamber, forms the same crystalline compound as before, which falling, and being decomposed by the water as before, deut- oxide of nitrogen rises, again forms nitrous acid, and again the crystals are formed and decomposed ; and so on continuously, sulphuric acid being added to the water at every decomposition. In this way a compa- ratively small amount of deutoxide of nitrogen, sup- plied at first as nitrous acid, oxydizes an almost unli- mited ([uantity of sulphurous acid, acting as a carrier of oxygen from the air to the sulphurous acid. It is only because a little of the deutoxide is unavoidably lost, being carried away with the current of effluent air, that a little nitrous acid must be added, from time to time, to the original supply. The regular supply of air and of steam is also of course essential. After the process has been continued for some time, the water on the floor of the cliamber is found so strongly charged with acid that it no longer thoroughly decomposes the crystals. It is then withdrawn, and replaced by fret-h water. This acid liquid, which is free from nitrous acid provided an excess of sulphuric acid has been pre- sent before drawing it off, contains only sulphuric acid and water, with perhaps a little sulphurous acid. It is boiled down in vessels of glass or platinum, to expel superfluous water, till acid begins to rise in vapour; and it is now completely manufactured for the farmers' use. If sulphur, in the mere proce.'fs of combustion, would form sulphuric instead of sulphurous acid, all this complicated business would be saved. But one pound weight of sulphur unites in burning with only one pound of oxygen from the atmo-phere, forming sul- phurous acid; and the problem was, how to add an- other half-pound of oxygen, in order to make the product sulphuric, without using any expensive sub- stance for the purpose. The above most ingenious and intei-esting process is the means by which the additional oxygen is abstracted from the cheap inexhaustible at- mosphere, and by the consumption of a very small quantity of starch and nitric acid, conveyed to the sulphurous acid as required. Thus, with the addition also of a little water, a pound of brimstone (from Sicily or elsewhere) is transferred into three pounds of" con • centratcd oil of vitriol." This 211'occss enables us to take advantage of the abundance and cheapness of the raw material — brim- stone— and so obtain the acid at a mere fraction of its former price. This cheap supply of acid amazingly extends the capabilities of the arts, being employed in the manufacture of soda, hleaching-powder, nitric, acetic, and hydrochloric or muriatic acids; ether, alum, Epsom salts ; in charging galvanic batteries for the 130 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. electrotype and telegraph; and in medicine and phar- macy. And through these, it is indispensable to the manufacture of glass, soap, and starch 3 indeed, there is scarcely a branch of industrial pursuit, scarcely a single article or product, which is not in some degree dependent upon it. It is interesting to think that the agi'iculturist should be co-dependeut with the manufac- turer upon the same useful agent — a circumstance which implies that there is in reality no antagonism of interest between the producers of bread and meat and of clothing and furniture ; but, on the contrary, a mu- tual aiid indissoluble bond of interest and similarity of engagement. If the manufacturers of sulphuric acid had been bound to continue the methods of fifty years ago, and acid thus have remained scarce and dear, how many now arts would have been prevented from arising, and J how greatly would the entire community have suflfered ! 1 Think of this, landov>iiers and agents, when you seek to bind down the sulphuric-acid-usiug farmer of the present day with antiquated restrictions and worn-out formulae of former cultivatiou. THE WOOL TRADE.— IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. The knowledge of the homo production of wool, and the relative foi-eign and colonial supplies which reach us, are of importance both to the flockmaster and to the woolstapler. Whether other countries are bidding in the colonial markets against us (and we know France and the United States have lately been endeavouring to induce direct shipments) — whether more is consumed on the continent, or whatever may be the cause, there is cer- tainly a decline in the quantity of wool imported in the last two years as compared with the preceding. The receipts of foreign and colonial wool have been in — 1853 119,396,449 lbs. 1854 106,121,995 „ 1855 = 99,300,446 „ 1856 (first ten months) 95,458,521 „ The exports of raw wool in 1854 and 1855 were, however, very large, more than double those of the present or preceding years, and probably our own home liroduction is greatly on the increase; so that, after all, the discrepancy may not be so gi-eat as would seem, in the quantity worked up. There is one very satisfactory feature to notice, and that is, the rapid increase in our colonial supplies of wool, and the proportionate de- crease in our dependence on foreign countries for this important clement of our clothing trade. The home produce of wool, estimated by competent parties in the trade, and confirmed by the evidence of the most extensive cattle salesmen, was stated at 32,000,000 fleeces, averaging about 41bs. each, some few years ago ; and this is probably still about the quan- tity clipped, althou;;h some parties estimate the average weight of the fleece much higher. At the German Midsummer wool fairs, this year, the supplies of wool do not seem to have been large, and although some was held over in the expectation of still higher prices being obtained, yet the chief quantities were sold at greatly enhanced rates over former sales, showing the activity that prevails in the continental clothing manufactories, and that the Germans will be considerable customers to us for wools, rather than send- ing any quantity to the London market for sale. France, Belgium, and the Provinces of the Rhine, now buy 70,000 or 80,000 bales of our colonial wool yearly. The United States will long continue a large wool-importing country, requiring something like 150,000,0001bs. of wool, while she grows only a third of that amount, and her annual increase of population demands the fleeces of a million of sheep— bearing in mind that the wool of two sheep is required annually to clothe each inhabitant. The number of sheep in the United States is only about 25,000,000 ; and if we compare tlie population with the number of sheep in the principal countries, we shall form a better idea of markets and foreign demand and supply. Population. Sheep. France 36,000,000 .. 40,000,000 Austria 36,000,000 .. 33,000,000 United Kingdom 29,000,000 . . 35,000,000 Russia 60.000,000 . . 39,000,000 Spain 18,000,000 . . 18,000,000 Prussia 17,000,000 .. 16,500,000 Turkey in Europe 15,500,000 . . 14,500,000 Sweden and Denmark 5,500,000 . . 3,000,000 Finland and Norway 3,000,000 . . 2,500,000 Australia 1 ,000,000 . . 1 5,000,000 United States 25,000,000 . . 25,000,000 These figures are about the latest returns, and are sufficiently accurate for all piu'poses of comparison. The entire stock of sheep in the States of the German Zollverein is believed not to exceed 23,000,000. The increase of wool production in the Cape colony is almost incredible, and is perhaps without a parallel in the history of colonial settlements in any part of the world. In 1845 the export of wool from the eastern province of the Cape weighed 728,7G51bs., and was valued at £30,7G2. The total export in 1855 was 34,395 bales, containing 10,165,8701bs., valued at £523,855 ; and for the present year the exports from Algoa Bay will reach about 12,000,0001bs. These figures show an advance in pastoral progress in the last ten years which will almost bear comparison with that experienced in the gold regions ; an advance, too, which has been made so silently, and with so little risk, that one would scarcely hesitate for a moment in choosing between the country in which it is made, and those regions of incident and accident where yet greater gains, and at the same time yet greater losses, fall to the lot of the inhabitants. Through Port Elizabeth and Natal a large quantity of wool, 'raised by the Dutch settlers in the interior THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I3i free States, is now shipped. These States are particularly suited, from the value of the pasturage iu the vast Ileitis of upland park-like downs, covered with nu- merous kinds cf saline plants and rich grass, for pro- ducing large qsiantities of wool — the finest in quality and most remarkable fur length of staple, strength, and elasticity, the truth of which has already been proved by some of the fine clips of the flocks. The wool sheep iu the Orange River Free State number three-quarters of a million; besides which, large and numerous flocks of big-tail Cape sheep are kept by the Boers and the natives, for the sake of the tail-fat and the skin, which is better adapted for making their skin-blankets and karosses, or cloaks, than the skin of the wool-sheep. The Trans Vaal Republic and the Colony of Natal also now support many sheep. We have not yet the complete returns, of course, for the present year, for all these African settlements ; but our receipts of Cape wools iu the first nine months this year were 3-3,779 bales, against 25,071 bales in the coi-responding period last year. Passing on to the Australian settlements — now, and for a long period to come, destined to furnish our main supply of wool — we are struck with the rapidity of the increase of wool. The opening of the interior of the country to the sea by steam navigation — now so successfully prosecuted on the Murray and its tri- butaries, and the further extension of railways, will greatly facilitate the transport of this staple from the rich pastoral districts of the interior sheep stations. For the iirst year or two after the gold discoveries, less attention than usual was paid in Port Phillip to pastoral matters ; and its former chief staple, wool, threatened to decrease in quantity and to degenerate iu quality. Now, however, the squatters are enabled, by the abundance of available labour, to bestow proper consideration and care once more upon their flocks. The increased population, which now numbers about 350,000 souls, finds them a market for their beef and mutton ; and they have no longer to boil down sheep and cattle by thousands, for tallow for export. The sheep in Victoria now number about 6,500,000. The special attention which is about to be given by the colony to immigration- large funds having been voted, and special agents sent home, to keep up a steady tide of emigration — will add still more largely to the pastoral population and the increase of sheep. The steady progress in the shipments of wool from Victoria is shown by the following figures : 1845 6,811,813 lbs. 1850 18,091,207 „ 1855 23,000,000 „ This affords an extraordinary and pleasing proof of the immense pastoral capabilities of this colony. But other southern colonies — New Zealand, Van Die- men's Land, New South Wales, and South Australia — are also doing wonders in wool-production, and the recent discovery by Mr. Gregory's exploring party of ex- tensive new grazing plains in North Australia will greatly extend the capabilities of the Moreton Bay District, and draw thither large flocks for feeding. THEORY AND PRACTICE. When Mr. Cubitt made his statement at the North Walsham Club, to the effect that " there are many farmers ruined by theory, but very few are ruined by practice," he could have little thought such an ob- servation would have elicited so contradictory a com- mentary as that — " if ever a man was ruined at all, it wa% precisely this to which his ruin was to be attri- buted. What is the cause of agricultural failure, if it be not imperfect, ill-judged, careless practice ?" If Mr. Cubitt had stated, when he said practice, that he meant to convey to his hearers the term applied by the commentator in question — that he meant im- perfect, ill-judged, careless practice — then he would have rendered himself 1 able to the remarks above quoted. But we do not concur in the interpretation put upon his words, or with the definition that follows upon the subject, by which the writer transposes theory i'or practice ; for he asks, " What is the theory, to which more thun to any other, agricultural distress has pro- perly been attributable ?" and replies, "There are such theories as that the style of farming by which the former generations prospered will answer not for the present ; that education may be carried too far — to the extent of making farmers' sons and daughters good for nothing ; that the doctrines of the chemist are mere specula- lations; and that an ounce of practice is worth a ton of theory." He only justly states that such theories as these were not those referred to by the speaker, but very unjustly infers that he referred to such speculations as those of Baron Liebig, when he taught us the uses of the am- monia in the air, and rain, and therefore in manures ; of Professor Johnston, who brought extensively to bear the force of chemical analysis on agricul- tural products, and substances of food for jjlants, and animals ; of Professor Way, when he showed the ab- sorptive powers of soil, and the stores of matter that have thus accumulated — and then ho tiiumjjhantly inquires, " Are these the theories that have led so generally to ruin ?" Fuller, in his "Worthies," speaking of the Earl of Essex, observes, " none being better than he at the theory, or worse at the practice of husbandry ;" and so it is of modern professors, who treat agriculture as compounded of theories. We will, however, endeavour to explain the subject in our own way, and as no two words are moi'e frequently misapplied than those of theory and practice, we will try to show what is the distinction in the sense in which we understand their application. Before coming to such distinction, 132 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. we will observe that a theory may be true, or it may be false : it is itself always more or less speculative, inas- much as, although deduced from principles, still in the result it may, when improperly applied, be found im- perfect j or it may, when properly tested, be found per- fect ; and in that case, as a theory it would have been a perfect one. Liebig stated that the dissolving of bones in sulphuric acid would probably render them soluble as food for jjlants. Tlie theory was perfect ; and what was then a theory only became practice, as distin- guished from theory ; being now the application of knowledge coming from experience. It therefore is not so connected with general principles to entitle it with the title oi theory • and thence tlie distinction, as applied to those who tread the fields of science and art, is not a just one ; " for there is no theorist whose know- ledge is all theory, and no practical man whose prac- tice is all derived from experience." It was in this sense that Mr. Cubitt applied his ob- servations as a man who had adopted the improved system of agriculture into his practice, which embraced all that had been registLred as perfect, not only assumed in theory, but proved in practice. Mr. Cubitt might not have known that ammonia existed in atmos- pheric air ; or he might, knowing that fact, not have known in what quantity. But he knew from experience that the continuous exposure of a soil to its action re- stored to it its productiveness dind fertility . He knew also from observation that the fertilizing quality of rain-water became immediately apparent by the in- creased vegetation of plants that followed. He had ex- perienced the most beneficial results by the application of carbonate of lime, either as chalk, marl, chalk- clay, or lime to his land, and he knew that such practice had been established in his district long before Liebig wrote, or even existed. He knew from expe- lience that manures were longer retained, and became more beneficial in their application to clay soils, than to those of a gravelly or silicious character, long antecedent to the discovery of Mr. Way. But it would be useless to pursue these observations further. In its true definition, theory is speculation, deep study or contemplation upon a subject, and in most cases a speculation as to the result ; but it no sooner becomes established as true, and becomes applicable and acted upon, than it is practice, and no longer theory. Practice therefore combines within itself all that which once had been theory; and thus every generation avails itself of the discoveries that have been made by the preceding one. Individually one person may apply them sooner than another, and thus may have availed himself of the benefits that they confer. Such men are the pioneers in practice, which others from direct observation sooner or later avail themselves of ; and thus it is that new dis- coveries always require time to become developed, but when once set going, progress rapidly to ultimate and general adoption. It is too much a fashion as regards agriculture, as it is in religion, for one class to imagine they are more highly gifted than another. The new lights think but little of the old ones their predecessors; and although the introduction of new discoveries in farming have done much, let it be understood that farmers are not so unmindful of their own interests as the iormer are willing to suppose. If we take a retrospective view of the progress of agriculture, we shall find that it has been progressive both in its practical application and de- velopment, and that the direct advantages are not ob- tained by knowing exactly how chemical or atmospheri- cal agencies operate. Nature has so formed the human mind that but few individuals in proportion with the whole number that have existed, have been gifted as Liebig, Davy, Johnston, Farraday, or Way. It is the business of the mass of mankind to practically apply the discoveries of others, and to profit by them. Within a few years it has become the province of theorists to abuse farmers, who in their estimation for- sooth know but little; while the little known is rarely practised. Let any one, however, travel through- out the county of Norfolk, and show the practical, ex- perienced, and intelligent farmers of that county how to improve their system of cultivation. They adopt the four-field system as that best adapted to the soil, and consume their own grain and roots with additional expensive applications of oil-cake, which is never cal- culated upon becoming remunerative, except through the manure heap. They expend annually large sums in guano, superphosphate of lime, and artificial manures, for the production of their root and green crops, and are thereby enabled to apply the whole of their farm- yard manure for the production of their grain crops. And the system is so perfect that the laud becomes clear of weeds to such an extent as to challenge cultivation with the best managed gardens. The number of sheep and cattle that are annually fattened upon the arable farms would astonish even farmers of other districts. To an inquiry put by ourselves to a tenant farmer occu- pying 450 acres, of which upwards of 400 acres were arable, as to the number of sheep he kept, he briefly re- marked forty scores; and in another instance, upon au occupation of 1,000 acres, we found 80 scores, or 1,600 head of sheep, as ewes, hoggetts, and lambs, u])on his occupation. With such an application of skill and ca- pital it will be seen that the ordinary production of the land has been doubled. Yet these are the cul- tivators who without adopting theories have accom- plished such beneficial results ! Let us rather say that they are the men who have profited by experience of all kinds, without attending too much to that class, who '' rarely finish anything but their fortunes, or end anything but their lives." Rugged and care-worn as thou art. Practice, we say to thee. All hail ! Thy early hours of rising, thy days of universal toil and weariness, have all aided in the gi'eat work, and have assisted in converting the rugged mountains, the moory wastes, and the majestic forests oji' England, into one wide expanse of rich verdant meadows and highly cultivated fields ! while, aided by thy sister Science, thou affordest delight and health to those who read thy paths hand in hand together. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 133 AGRICULTURAL NOTIONS IN DORSET. At the Blandfor.i Agricultural Society's meeting, lately held, the chairman, Mr. G. Sturt, M.P., in acknowledging the compliment paid him by the company in drinking his health, referred to the results of his observations on a conti- nental tour from which he had just returned. He said — If ever man felt completely happy, I do at this present raomeut, and I think it is quite worth the while of any of the company to go abroad for some three or four mouths in order to expe- rience, when l;e returns, the comforts and blessings of his native country. Two or three days before I started ^as I am not in the habit of travelling with my eyes closed or my ears shut), I rode through Launceston farm, and I determined to carry it in my mind's eye, to compare it with what I saw abroad, and to aee who had the best of it, and I can safely say my friend Jem Burgess came out triumphant on all occasions. At first I thought I might be a little prejudiced ; but when I find that our average produce of wheat per acre is 4 qrs., whibt that of Germany, France, and Belgium is only 2i, and the value of our return is £3 Ss., whilst theirs is only £1 15s., I cannot doubt that the advantage is on our side. But there are very few countries from which we cannot learn something, and one tiling that we may karn from them is, I think, the construction and shape of their waggons. They appear to me to be all that is required — cheap and light. They cost one- fifth loss, and carry one-third more weight than ours; and yet, with a team of two horses abreast, I saw them carrying posi- tive stacks of corn over roaJs which we, in this country, would call hunting tracks. You have, at all events, an advantage over tbetn. The condition of the Dorsetshire labourer is far superior to that of the German and Belgian peasant. I tan- not conceive cottages worse under the canopy of heaven than what I saw ; and wheu I found that their pay is only lOd. a- day; their food bread and (still worse) lard; that they have no roofs to their houses, and that they work fourteen hours a-day, I could not help thinking. What a fine field for the viva- cious fancy, the fertile imagination, and the ready pen of our excellent neighbour, S. G. O. ! But that must be, after all, matter of coagratulalion. The labourer is not only the bone and muscle, but the very prop and stay of your farms. I do not mean to say the state of the labouring population is per- fect. I should like to see all landholders following the ex- ample of my excellent father, and building good aud roomy cottages for the poor on their estates; and then, just to get their hands in, schools for the education of the poor. I believe, if that principle were more generally carried out, great good would accrue to the community at large. I believe you would see, in a short space of time, a great diminution in the cata- logue of crime, and less call for your reformatories. I am convinced that the labouring man, taken as a class (of course there are blatk sheep in every flock), is honest, industriouF. and sober ; and surely it is but fair to give that man every possible chance. But to live in habitations unfit for animals, and scarcely for beasts, degrades him ; he Cuds his home un- comfortable ; he has recourse to the beer-house— those nests and nurseries of crime ; from thence he gets to gaol : ' evil communications corrupt good manners," and he goes on from bad to worse, until tlie man is lost. Surely it is a noble object to attempt to save one of our fellow-creatures. The same argument may be used with regard to schools. You will al- ways find wh«re ignorance prevails there does crime abound. I am not one of those who think that it is necessary to study political economy, or Herschel on Astronomy, in these schools ; but I do say that every man should be able to read his Bible, and to write to his friends. And I go a little further, and say until this is done, and not until it is done, is it in the power of the tenant farmer to improve the condition of his labourers. And even when it is done the tenant farmer must co-operate heartily with the landowner: without that, schools will become useless, and efforts to raise the condition of the labourer will fail in effect. It is due to the farmers of Dorset to say they will sland comparison with any others in their desire to do all in their power to ameliorate the condition of the labouring classes ; and societies like this prove not only that they are ever jealous to assist their labourers, but that they are ever ready to bear willing evidence to worth and integrity. The pursuit of agriculture can now be said to a certain extent to be remunerative. This could not be said to be the case a few years ago, when I used to sliake hands with the farmers in the hunting fields, and ask them how they liked being ruined. Those days are gone by. Persevering energy, whether sup- ported by the applications of science or the skill of the farmer, is sure to succeed, aud the farmer now gets a fair, and only a fair, return for his labour. This is the present position of affairs, and I hope with all my heart it will continue ; but at the same time you would be blind to all the maxims of pru- dence if you relied on the continuance of present prices, or attempted to conceal the fact that the soil of this country is subjected to unrestricted competition. The second commodity of the farmer is taxed 100 per cent., and his tobacco is stopped at the Custom-house. Therefore it can only be by a continu- ance of your energy that you can hope to overcome your difK- culties. I have no wish to frighten you by saying that corn is likely to go down to £3 a load again, but I am sure I am ex- pressing the opinion of 99 farmers out of 100 v»hen I say they would rather hive corn at £14 or £15, than at o.ne time £30, aud at another time £8. The war is over, aud, as the chair- man of an agricultural meeting, I believe the proper, stereo- typed thing for me to say is, that the sword has been beaten into ploughshares, and the bayonet into harrow spikes. But that is all my eye. There is no man more aware than I am of the advantages of peace ; but the best way to maintain it is to be prepared for war, and I hope that the government will not listen to the Penny-come quick-me papers of Cobden and Bright, but will uphold the army and navy in an elticient state to maintain the dignity of the country throughout the uni- verse. The hon. gentleman concluded by expressing the wish that this being the first year of his attendance at that dinner would not be also his last. lie should now have an annual treat to look forward to, and an excellent opportunity of bid- ding them all— as he did now — a merry Christmas and a happy new year. Mr. Farquharson then gave the healths of the county members. Mr. Ker Seymer, M.P., rose, amid cheers, and, after a few personal references, said — I think we are much indebted to Mr. Danby Seymour for coming forward to give us two lines of railway, the completion of which will be of great value to this county. On this subject of railways I wish to say a few words on behalf of the class to which I belong. I hear it said, the landowners do not give to railways so much support 134 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. as they ought to do. Now the> are pl&ced in a different posi- tion to other people. The tradesman may, if he likes, have the railway made for him without giving it the least assistance ; but I think he'd better not. I thiuk he should put his hand ia bis pocket and take shares; but the case is not so with the landowner. He gets up one fine mcrning to find a gap cut through his hedges. " Hear, hear" — my honourable friend speaks feeHagly. He sees a smart young gentleman, with others of another description, with flag?, poles, theodolites, chains, and other alarming instruments for surveying his land, and all done under the operation of law. Well, of that I don't complain ; in order to have railways you must have the pre- liminary survey. What comes nest ? He receives a circular, in which he finds a variety of schedules, and he has to enter himself either assent, dissent, or neuter; but he is told that he is to be subject to a departure from the ordinary law of pro- perty— a compulsory sale. Persons come to me with a sum of money. If I dou't like that I must go before a jury of ruy country; and a jury of my country, being in favour of rail- ways, don't give me a very high price for my laud. I don't complain of that, but that is a very good answer why land- owners don't do so much for railways as is expected of them. Take my own case. Lord Rivers very properly described these railways as all head and tail, and requiring to be con- nected. Well, if they are connected, the line will go through some land of mine. It does not matter whether I assent, dis- sent, or am neuter, the bill will pass, and the land will be taken ; and I dare aay you have found that when a person is called on to part with land, it is his favouiite land — and although I am a supporter of the line, I'd rather they'd not go through my land ; for I am sure no money that they can give me will compensate me for cutting through a very nice farm. Supposing a person comes to yon, and wishes to purchase your favourite horse. You don't choose to sell it him ; but you must. You do not like the price ; then you must go before a jury, and take whatever they choose to give you. None of you would like it. Now, what is the moral of all this? It ia this : if the landowner, in consequence of these things, is somewhat las in his support of railways, it behoves those who are not affected by like considerations, if they wish a railway, to come forward liberally. I suppose it is now quite loss of time to talk about the advantages of a railway ; but there are one or two points that should be kept in remem- brance. Take the case of the agricultural labourer. Of all the privations he suffers under, there is none like the privation of fuel, and I believe that in this point alone a railway will be of immense benefit. I believe it will also be of great use to the farmer, who, the higher his cultivation is, and the more he employs artificial manures, will find the greater necessity for cheap transit and cheap fuel to keep his steam engine going, I have alluded to the conveyance of co?l by railway, and the keeping of your steam engines and thrashing machines going, but I thiuk there is something beyond that. You are all aware that some of the most energetic men in the country have bten endeavouring to solve the problem of steam cultiva- tion. They have not yet done it, but I know tiie energy of man, and I believe they will overcome it by producing, cot perhaps a steam plough, but a steam cultivator; and should a practical imp'ement be produced, there are many intelligent men in this room who will not be the last to avail themselves of its services. I know some persons view with alarm the in. troduction of this implement as sffectiug the condition of the labourer. I confess I do not ; for the esperience we have had since the introduction of the thrashing machine shows that improved machinery requires a higher class of labour — that the man who employs most machinery employs most labour and a higher class of labour ; and that tteadiness, sobriety, and intelligence (which is what we and this society wish to reward) will receive by the iutroductiou of improved machinery the reward of high wages. We have been so often misled in our anticipations of particular subjects that we are afraid lo prognosticate. When railways were first introduced many sai 1 (I believe I said myself), what is to become of the grower of oats and the breeder of horses? The whole country, except Dorsetshire, is now covered with a net-work of railways, and yet I have not found for many years past either horses or oats too cheap. I think labour will not become too cheap by the introduction of machinery ; but should any temporary incon- venience arise during the change, I am quite sure we all — landlords and tenants — will unite and do our utmost to avert any sufferings which may be caused to the poorer classes. And now I am coming to agricultural statistics (applause). I told you last year I saw no reason for any compulsory measure with reference to this subject. I thiuk the time has been let slip by, for compulsory agricultural statistics. Some years ago, when the legislature, for the benefit of the British agriculturist, imposed a certain duty upon foreign corn — an act which to a certain extent excluded it — it might perhaps have been justified in saying " we have excluded other countries for your benefit, tell us what you are doing at home to feed the people." But now we are told the consumer must look out for the cheapest market. Well, we are not bouad to assist hira. He must look out for himself. I thiuk there was very naturally an ob- jection to the bill of last year, and that a feeling was raised throughout the country, and brought to bear ou the question, by which the cause of agricultural statistics, if a good one, has certainly beeu thrown hack many years. It has been con- nected with all sorts of schedules, poor law machinery, fiues, and a great deal that is very disagreeable to the British far- mer; and let me tell you, Mr. Hall Maxwell stated, in his evi- dence before the House of Lords, that if the Scotch faraiers were subject to any compulsory reeasurc, their backs would be up directly. It appears to me there sre two distinct questions — the one, whether there shall be compulsory statistics ; the other, whether there shall be any statistics at all. I, as your representative, never will force ou you compulsory statistics. Now the Government were rather cunuiog in one respect with regard to this question. They brought it in the House of Lords, being very probably aware that Lord Derby, who is al- lowed to be the leader of the Conservative party, had no ob- jection to it, and did not intend to oppose it. lu fact, he did not oppose it, and they, no doubt, thought the county mem- bers would follow in his wake. But allow me to say the county members are men of independent position, and they arc not prepared to follow Lord Derby, or anybody else, in op- position to the feelings of the gieat agricultural community, and therefore Government, thinking to steal a march upon u», found that they had been mistaken. I consider the less im- portance to attach to the question, for I find that what you can get accurately is so little that it is not worth a compulsory measure. I will not conceal from you that I am one of those who think if you could get from auy machinery of your own accurate returns of the growth of corn immediately after har- vest, it would be valuable ; but I am afraid you can't get it ; and if you think you have got it, aud it turns out to be in- accurate, you are worse off than before. Therefore, I should say, at all events, there is no huiry about this. We have scrambled on for a great number of years. Let us test, if we can, the accuracy of the Scotch returns, which are now very full ; let us test them, and see whether we can attain to that which we thiuk desirable — if we can obtain it. Some think it undesirable, because, as a tenant-farmer said to rae, " Specula- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 135 tion is the soul of business." I coufess I do not agree with this ; I think certainly— if you can get it — is the soul of busi- ness. The Scotch have shown their national character; they entirely avoided all compulsory measures. 1,000 tenant- farmers were engaged in collecting the Scotch statistics, but they took care to get several thousand pounds of our money for it. Now, if we are to do it, I should propose that it should be done — but after full discussion and with the free consent of the agricultural body — by our own machinery, and let Govern- ment pay us for it. The London Farmers' Club met last year, and passed a very judicious resolution in favour of agricultural statistics. lu a general way they thought it a good thing ; and many persons thiuk it so far good, that you may get ac- curate returns of the land uutler crops without much difficulty. That would be an advantage; and, recollect, the fact is, after all, we are always talkhig agricultural statistics without know- ing it. Your chairman told you that we grew 4 quarters an acre, and the Belgians and Germans only 2^ : that's agricul- tural statistics — I don't know whether accurate or not. I quite agree in this — that it is not a question that ought to be forced on us, or in which we ought to have the interference of Government. Some think the Scotch were so ready in this matter because they had got nineteen j ears' leases. All of you may have them if you like — that is to say, you have only to make up your minds not to look at a farm with less than a nineteen years' lease, and you will have it ; but you all know that if any landlord wishes to take an advantage of the tenant, he and the steward will do it in five minutes. Well, gentle- men, I have done. I have not used language as a mode of concealing my thoughts. Depend upon it, you will never be injured by me with regard to agricultural statistics. If you adopt them, I believe you will find at the end of the year you will neither be richer nor poorer than you were before. It has been a 1- ng story, but I promised to have it out. I have now only to thank you for the patience with which you have heard me — to drink all your good healths, and wish you a happy new year. THE SEWAGE OF LONDON. In a recent number of this Journal we endeavoured to urge the claims of agriculture, in the disposal of the sewage of the metropolis and other populous places ; claims which are evidently little regarded by the Com- missioners who usually direct the affairs of our metro- politan sewers. Their ideas, as far as we can decipher them amid the flood of words in which they are over- whelmed, are simply confined to finding an exit for the sewage of London at as short a distance down the Thames as they can be allowed to select. The ludi- crous way in which their puny attempts have been baffled would, in a less serious question, excite our ridicule : driven fiom Deptford down to Woolwich Marshes, ordered by the Government authorities to go still farther from home ; then selecting Evith Marshes ; opposed by the constituted authorities, and condemned by Sir Benjamin Hall in every case; and evidently able to prove to the public only the simple fact of the utter failure of the abortive effort to constitute a work- ing Board out of such absurd materials as now, once or twice a week, are collected in the Council Chamber at Guildhall. Amid the dead lock to which these everlastingly- talking personages have arrived, it was refreshing to notice that one man (not of the Board) was able to grapple with the sewage in which the aforesaid Com- missioners are so hopelessly immersed ; that Sir S. M. Peto — a practical person, and of undoubted ability and means to accomjilish so gigantic a work — not only showed to the wise London Board one way in which at least the sewage of the great northern portion of the metropolis might be conveyed direct into the sea, but he further offered to execute the work. He even — (evidently being aware of the insufferable tedious- ness of those he had to deal with) — he even at his own expense has given the requisite parliamentary notices, so that an act of parliament to authorize the execution of the work may be procured in the ap- proaching session. By this phin the sewage of London would be con- veyed direct from the eastern side of the metropolis into the upper portion of the valley of the river Crouch, a few miles from Brentwood, in Essex, and thence, in an appropriate sewer, down the valley of that little river into the German Ocean. By this plan two vei;y important objects would be attained : no por- tion of the Thames would be polluted by the discharge into it of the London sewage ; and, again, by Sir S. M. Pcto's plan, the great trunk sewer leading to the sea would traverse, for by far the greatest portion of its course, a long extent of meadow-pasture and marsh land, of all others the best adapted to render available in irrigation the huge stream of manure now worse than wasted in the very waters our Londoners aie com- pelled to drink. No farmer who read Sir S. M. Pcto's proposal doubted that the value of the sewage was much too well known to render it at all probable that any of this liquid manure would be allowed by the farmers of the district through which it passed to reach the sea; it would, when employed on their grass lauds, be purified of every noxious matter long before its cleared water finally was allowed to drain away into the river Crouch, We rejieat it was to us, as it was to others, refreshing to read these things. We were anxious to learn what "the Board" would say to it, how they would treat the common-sense request of Sir S. M. Peto to be allowed to wait upon their profound wis- doms, accompanied by Mr. Maclean, his engineer, to ex- plain his plan. Gentle reader, you will pei'hapsdeem that modest request of a kind to which only one reply could be given by anybody of men having any pretensions to common sense, or a love of fair dealing— a request, be it remembered, emanating from a man of acknow- ledged talent, and far belter acquainted with works of 130 THE FAUMER'S MAGAZINE. this description than any member of that Board to whom his application was made. But no; by a very large majority, the Board gravely determined that Sir S. Peto should not be even heard '. Header, as you sit by your own warm fireside, and reflect upon the drainage of the houses inhabited by 3,000,000 of persons now thus wisely superintended! thank God that the affairs of your own rural parishes are not thus regulated, and that in the choice of your public officers it is not yet your custom to select those who can talk, and onJij talk. A FARMER AMONG THE CHEMISTS. Letter I. My dear Berzelius, — You remember how we used to crack retorts and half- ruin the laboratory for glass tube and crucibles ; how we frightened the pro- fessors with explosive mixtures, or stifled them with chlorine and the fragrant sulphuretted ; and how you laughed at my bungling soil-analyses, in which I always got too much lime, and could never separate the iron and alumina. Well, since leaving college I have been busy with quite different pursuits, so that the stoppers are safely tied-down upon all my chemistry. However, your advice to "read" well on the subject has not been neglected ; and your late discussion with old Blowpipe on the nutrition of plants has re-awakened in me a de- termination to know what truths you savans have really discovered that may be of practical use to the farmer — of use, I mean, in developing or revolu- tionizing the present systems of agriculture, and giving us new principles on which to build our entire practice. In the mere " art" of husbandry, as distinguished from its " science," of course I find many pecuniary advan- tages resulting from your labours. You protect me against fraudulent dealers ; instruct me in the value of marls and limes ; advise me as to the best admixtures of feeding-stuffs for c a! tie-fattening or dairying ; direct me how to manage farm-manure most economically ; and in a multitude of other ways render me your debtor. You have introduced more improvements, however, than actually new practices ; and I am afraid that the late Mr. Pusey's celebrated sentence, delivered six years ago, still remains just and undeniable. "Except Liebig's suggestion for dissolving bones with acid, and Sir Robert Kane's for using flax-water as manure, I know of no agricultural process arising out of chemical discovery." But this may be owing to a lack of in- ventive faculty among us farmers ; for it is undoubtedly our business, not yours, to perceive and appropriate anything in your discoveries likely to assist our art. The chemical philosopher, indeed, searching after the natural laws of fertility in soil and the nutrition of vegetables and animals, cares no more for an offshoot suggestion like bone-dissolving than he does (as Dr. Playfair say,-) for " a recipe for Warren's blacking." You will smile when you hear that I am perusing the works of our great agricultural chemists, together with the essays and articles which are periodically served-up as scientific aliment for the farmer's intellectual appetite ; that I am carefully studying both recorded experiments and controversies respecting them, in the hope of learn- ing what are the fundnmeotil pr'i ciples from which may be deduced rules for cultivating and manuring ; because you know that instead of complete satisfactory en- lightenment, I am meeting with too much insufficient proof, irreconcilable discrepancy, flat contradiction, and, in general, either attempts to deal with soils and living organisms by lules obtained from the manipulation of substances in bottles and dishes, or else wholesale generalizations from the few experiments which have been conducted in the natural fields. Do not think for a moment that I would slight the researches that have been made in organic chemistry, or understand me as speaking lightly of the wonderful discoveries you chemists have brought to bear with the greatest success upon some points of husbandry ; but is it not true that, notwithstanding the accumulation of masses of facts ob- tained by the most ingenious and refined methods of analysis, your efforts to get at the sec? ets of fertility are as yet far from attaining tlie success you desire ? You admit that a true " theory of agriculture" can only be established after the farmer's practice- embodying the rough practical conclusions of instinct, experience, and the "rule of thumb" — has been thoroughly investi- gated and explained ; and, as far as I have found at pre- sent, nobody has yet cleared-up the mysteries involved in even the single item of '' rotation of crops.'' Again, as to the food of a plant, you can separate and weigh its component parts, disciuminate and determine the kinds and proportions of its mineral and aerial consti- tuents— and this is a great step made of late years in agricultural science ; but you do not tell me confidently, and with ample proof, how and whence the plant directly obtained the various ingredients. The fact is, you are only just beginning to experiment upon the point in a proper and adequate manner — that is, by first ascertaining what description and amount of the plant- constituents exist in a soil, gauging all that are brought into it from the atmosphere or applied as manure, deli- cately testing all that are lost from the soil by evapora- tion, drainage, &c., and then examining the quantities fixed in the crop. By thus keeping a sort of debtor-and- creditor account, might you not discover what sub- stances crops take directly from the air, what from the soil, what from one through the agency of the other, what they may give to the soil, and what they may dispel from it into the atmosphere ? It appears to me that the most valuable results in the chemistry of culti- vation have been hitherto procured by applying plant- food to the land, measuring the quantities naturally supplied, at the same time accurately allowing for waste ia all forms, and then asceitiuning the effects present in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 137 crop J in short, I am inclined to think that you can best help the farmer by a synthetic rather than an analytic course of experiments. But do not be in a hurry to deduce and infer and generalize, while so many condi- tions and circumstances may be as yet unrecognized and unaccounted for. My next letter shall give you an example of the kind of answer I often get to my inquiries, and of the op- posing statements and confident opinions of scientific instructors upon one of the most momentous points in agricultural chemistry, viz., the sources of nitrogen in plants. But as I purpose to afflict you with a series of epistles, it is advisable for me to set forth their scope and object as far as at present determined upon. Take, first, the Liebig and Lawes discussion, in which voluminous efforts of rhetoric and reasoning have gathered around the nucleus of a few facts. If the facts on both sides are fairly stated, the inference of right con- elusions from them becomes a matter of logic rather than of chemical knowledge ; and I, as a farmer, may be as well able to judge the soundness of the argu- mentative steps when lucidly placed before me as you, a chemist, more deeply conversant with the facts in dis- pute. In truth, I really begin to surmise that both parties have so entangled themselves in technicalities, and confused the world with quotations and misquota- tions of personal opinions, that it is time for some plain common-sense body to come in, and, hearing clear ex- planations from each side, discriminate and sum-up like a lawyer on a scientific case, ' ' according to the evidence. ' ' Then, as to the works and publications with which the agricultural public has been furnished, even my little reading has sufficed to find in them utterly contradictory theories propounded and fortified with facts by different men of eminence, yet each apparently established with- out allowing for the circumstance that the very opposite conclusion has beenarrived at by another mind, and some- times from precisely the same experiments. Now, in such cases, I want one author to allow for the diverse teaching of another ; and I intend to quote to you a number of principles and opinions laid down by different writers, just adding to each a proviso or qualification taken from some other perhaps equally reliable authority. You know what marvellous light Kant let in upon meta- physics by his critical philosophy. Well, in an infinitely humbler degree, but on the same principle of action, may not one, looking at the questions now agitated in the chemical world from a practical business-point of view, introduce a little order ; and by putting a few home questions to any person making assertions inade- quately supported, by demurring to wholesale inferences, confronting assumptions with their contraries, or col- lating one author with another or even with himself, gradually gain some clearer view of the foundation prin- ciples for which we have so long been vainly searching ? My presumption is not bold enough to attempt such a great work of criticism, but still I may exemplify in my letters the kind of treatment I should like to see adopted by some mind more equal to the task. Neither would you suffer me to teach you chemistry, any more than I would accept your views of my turnip-land man- agement at C— , or your advice about my shorthorns and flock bred in-and-in without deterioration, in spite of all the books. But I mean to quarrel with all your favourite authors, if I find them ignoring what has been suggested by one another; and I will ask all manner of questions, and propose solutions of my own for your investigation and study, whenever I am able to do so. And now look for plenty of " nitrogen" in my next. Yours &c., J. A. C. Lettee II. My dear Berzelius, — How does nitrogen get into plants ? If (as Liebig teaches) all vegetables ultimately obtain this constituent from the atmosphere, and if (as Mr. Lawes says) some cultivated crops may be charac- terised as collectors of nitrogen from the air, while others dispel it from the soil, it seems to me highly im- portant for the farmer to know, not only whether this aerial food — either as gas, or in a solution, or in com- bination with other elements — enters into all growing plants, or, if into some only, which these favoured reci- pients are ; but also to know with certainty if it passes in through the leaves or roots, or in what proportions through both these organs in different species of plants. The importance of such a piece of knowledge I may insist on by-and-bye ; at present my object is to show how loose and unsatisfactory, nay even contradictory, is the instruction of our authorities on the subject. It has been triumphantly demonstrated, over and over again, that more nitrogen may be removed from a field in the produce of successive years, than can be accounted for by the amount supplied in manure, or already existing in the soil ; the inevitable inference being, that the sur- plus must have been furnished by the atmosphere. And to guide my system of manuring and rotation of cropping, it is of course a great advantage for me to know that during the growth of at least some crops, this expensive element, in some form or other, is spon- taneously accumulated in my land. But beyond this point, I want to know whether the soil be the caterer that first of all abstracts it from the air, and transmits it to the crop (either by presenting it to the roots, or exhaling it around the stems and leaves), or whether the plants themselves feed directly upon the atmospheric nourishment ; or if I wish to learn to what relative ex- tent both th3se acquisitive functions may be operative in the growth of different vegetables. You tell me that all ordinary plants absorb and inhale nutriment by their roots and leaves ; that therefore my practice should be to enrich and open the soil for the searching of the roots, and provide ample space for the spread of the leaves ; and if I have a plant more or less greedy in the soil, or independent and abstinent of its stores than another, I must regulate my manuring and root or leaf feeding accordingly. But I should like a little informa- tion less general than this : let me know precisely whether my endeavours after better cultivationofanypar- ticular crop ought to be concentrated upon the texture and richness of my soil, or upon the various conditions of growth above-ground, and then I shall the sooner grasp the improvements I am in search of. Nobody has K 138 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, any doubt that all our cultivated plants both absorb by their roots and procure by their leaves nitrogen in some form ; and I have a rough conclusion as to which kind of crop employs its foliage to most advantage : but give me rtliable data as to conditions and quantities before you propound to me a " theory of agriculture," and before my practice can march with wished-for rapidity. 1 have circumstantial evidence that nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, may enter into roots ; for it exists in solution in rain-water, some portion of which (one would think) must reach the spongioles of roots, before coming in contact with any fierce constituent in the soil that might seize all the ammonia, or subject it to che- mical change ; and these spongioles being proved (ac- cording to Dr. Lindley) to be indiscriminate feeders, will imbibe the ammonia as well as other ingredients. However, I would not too hastily conclude that roots take up everything which can be found in rain-water, for the simple reason that, having to filter its way to the roots through a mass of earth alive with chemical agents, the water may just possibly be robbed of its burden before reaching them. I hardly dare apply similar reasoning to the case of leaves, because instead of being omnivorous feeders, there is clear proof that they choose one gas and reject another, and do not in- hale all the constituents of the atmosphere in the pro- portionate quantities which are presented to their sur- face. So that, though leaves abstract carbonic acid from the air, they may not choose to take in volatile ammonia. But ammonia is dissolved in the rain that wets foliage ; and as it is certain that leaves absorb moisture, it is exceedingly likely that ammonia goes in with it. Ex- perimental proof I have none, and turn therefore to the information which, as an unlearned farmer, I find published for my use. Sir Humphrey Davy says : " The effects of azote in vegetation are not distinctly known. As it is found in some of the products of vegetation, it mai/ be absorbed by certain plants from the atmosphere." Dr. Fownes, in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal for 1843, concludes, from the experiment of Boussingault and other considerations, that the excess of nitrogen gained in a course of cropping must have been " taken up from the air;" and, in his '• Actouian Essay" of 1844, he says: " Adult plants get their nitrogen from the little ammoniacal vapour which exists in the air." Does this mean by the agency of their leaves, or by their roots taking advantage of, and promoting, the absorptive faculty of the soil ? Liebig gives very little information on this particular subject; indeed, I am unable to gather (at any rate, from my edition of his work) what his opinion really is. He says that plants obtain am- monia " either by their leaves or roots," sometimes in- sisting on the value of this substance as food for roots, and at other times inclining to regard leaves as its princi- pal appropriators. In one place he computes the quantity of ammonia in the atmosphere, in proportion to carbonic acid, from the relative amounts of carbon and ammonia existing in the plants of a natural, unmanured meadow, obviously assuming that the ammonia is absorbed just as carbonic acid is, and at the same rate ; and this gas, I believe, is known to enter more by the leaves than by the roots. But the subject is passed over as being of comparatively small importance. Our scientific agri- culturist, Mr. Lawes, distinguishes between " nitrogen- consuming" and " nitrogen-collecting" plants ; but only in relation to the necessity for this constituent, or else its superfluity, in manures for difi'erent crops. He brings forward no good evidence to show whether the " collectors" borrow from the atmosphere through the medium of the soil, or draw in the supply directly by the leaf. In the Royal Agricultural Society's Journals, he speaks of a sandy soil acquirin'j; nitrogen " by the free circulation of air through its pores, and by the accumulation from the resources of the atmosphere, through the medium of green crops." Again, for ob- taining ammonia from the air " upon light soilsj no- thing can advantageously substitute the collective powers of the turnip." Again : '* By cultivating turnips and the leguminous plants, a large amount of ammonia is collected by them from the atmosphere." Again: "As the amount of this substance obtained by green crops must depend very much upon their bulk, every attention should be paid to their growth." And again : " Relatively to wheat and many other plants, the turnip exhibits a large surface of succulent leaf, which, it is admitted, indicates a greater reliance in one way or other upon the atmosphere." His opinion would seem to be that leaves as well as roots, at least in some kinds of vegetation, absorb ammonia; but no adequate and substantiating proofs are forthcoming, his great experi- ments having had other objects in contemplation. Professor Johnston, in his " Chemistry of Common Life," says that " ammonia and nitric acid exist and are formed in the soil ; and from the soil these and other substances containing nitrogen are taken up by the roots oi plants;" and he also asserts that " the porea of the leaf absorb carbonic acid and also other gaseous substances in smaller quantity — such as ammonia, when it happens to approach them." But in the " Encyclo- ptedia Britannica" (Art. " Agricultural Chemistry"), I am told that " the absorption of ammonia, so far as we know, takes place entirely by the roots ; and although a quantity of it no doubt exists in the air, which is im- portant to the plant, there is little doubt that even that reaches it through the root, being carried down by the rain, and absorbed in that way. The greater part of the ammonia, being derived from the organic matter of the soil, is undoubtedly absorbed by the roots." And now I must leave a further arraignment of authorities for my next communication. Yours, &c,, J. A. C. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 189 HEXHAM FARMERS' CLU B.-PATTERN FARMING LEASE. A numerously attended meeting of this club took place in the club-room, Hexham, for the purpose of receiving a report from a committee appointed for the purpose of drawing up a pattern farming lease upon the most equitable principles to both landlord and tenant. John Gray, Esq., of Dilston, the president of the club, officiated as chairman. The Secretary said that, at their last meeting, a silver cup or premium of £7 having been offered for the best 20 acres of turnips, he thought the meeting should determine at what time the examination should take place. It v/as finally agreed that the middle of November would be the best time, and that the entries for competitors should close on the first Tuesday of that month. The Chairman then called upon Mr. Dodds to read the report and pattern lease, which had been drawn up. Mr. Dodds said, before proceeding to read the report and lease, he thought it necessary to state that, with regard to one or two clauses, a difference of opinion prevailed among the members of the committee. He then read the report as follows : — "At Hexham, on the 14th day of October, 1850, in a meeting of the committee appointed in leference to leases by the Hexham Farmers' Club, at their meeting on the 29th April, 1856 ; present, Messrs. Mark Spraggon, Joseph Lee, William Trotter, and Thomas P. Dodds ; Mr. Dodds in the chair ; the committee having had several previous meetings in regard to the subject refeired to them, have this day agreed to the following' report : — "Your committee, in performing the duty assigned to them by the club, have thought it better to frame a form of lease rather than of a mere agree- ment, and, in doing so, have borne in mind that, by the terms of their appointment, they were to have regard to the interests of both landlords and tenants. They have endeavoured so to frame the lease tliat while the tenant will be free to keep pace with every improvement in agriculture, he will be prevented, in as far as a lease can do so, from running out or deteriorating the farm. Thus, by the cropping clause, while he is prevented from taking two white crops in succession, or from growing more than a fixed quantity of potatoes, without an outlay in purchased manure, he may by such outlay grow as wide a breadth as he chooses. He will also be at liberty to curtail his grass to a certain extent, so as to take a pulse or other crop in lieu of it, and thus prevent his land becoming ' cloversick.' " Your committee think it right that, in the con- cluding years of a lease, the tenant should confirm for a stipulated rotation, so that he may not have more than a fair share of the fai-m for an away- going crop, and that the incoming tenant may have a fair portion of grass and fallow to enter to ; and for this the committee have provided, that rotation may be either a four, five, or such other course as may be agreed upon by the parties. For good land on Tyneside your committee are unanimously of opinion that a four-course rotation, with liberty to substitute a pulse crop for a portion of the grass when required, is the most profitable ; but many of the farms in this district include poor as well as rich soils, and it is evident that on the lighter por- tions of such farms a less exhausting rotation, such as the five or six course, ought to be followed. What that rotation is to be will be determined according to the nature of the farm, and by the parties interested. '• With these remarks your committee beg to submit the following form of lease, not, indeed, as being either perfect in itself, or applicable in all cases, but as one which, while it gives the tenant security in the outlay of his capital, secures the landlord from having his farm deteriorated. " In name and by authority of the committee, "Thos. p. Dodds, Chairman." This indenture, made the day of one thousand eight hundred and fifty .... between A. B., of . . . . in the county of Northumberland, Esquire (who with his heirs and assigns are com- prised in the expression " the landlord" when the same is hereinafter used), of the one part, and C. D., of in the county of (who with his executors and administrators only are comprised in the expression " the tenant" when the same is hereinafter used), of the other part — witnesseth that in consideration of the rents herein- after reserved, and the covenants hereinafter con- tained on the tenant's part, to be observed and performed, the said A. B. doth demise to said C. D. all that farm called E. F. in the parish of in the county of Northumberland, containing acres or thereabouts. Except all mines, minerals and quarries, in and under the said farm, with liberty to work, win, and carry away the same, and to sink shafts, and erect all buildings necessary thereto, the landlord making K 2 140 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. compensation for all damage to be done by the exercise of such liberties, and the amount of such compensation in case of dispute to be settled by arbitration as hereinafter provided. And also except all woods, underwoods, trees, and planta- tions, upon the said farm, with liberty to prune, cut, bark, and carry away the same, and to form all works necessary thereto ; and also power at any time to take any part of the said farm for roads, the landlord to make compensation for all damage to be done by the exercise of such liberties, and the amount of such compensation, in case of dispute, to be settled by arbitration as hereinafter provided. And also power to strengthen boundary fences with neighbouring proprietors of farms, the tenant receiving such deduction from or paying such addition to his rent as shall be fixed by arbitration as hereinafter provided. And also except liberty for the landlord, or those authorised by him, to enter upon, and hunt and shoot over the said farm, the tenant also having liberty to hunt and shoot over the said demised lands. Note. — If the farm is situated m the vicinity of the landlord's residence, and the game is to be absolutely reserved, the preceding clause will be omitted, and the following substituted instead. And also except the game upon the said farm, with power to the landlord, or those authorised by him, to hunt and shoot over the said farm, the landlord making compensation for all damage to be done either by the said game, or by parties pre- serving or in pursuit of the same, and the amount of such compensation to be fixed by arbitration, as hereinafter provided. To have and to hold the said farm, except as aforesaid, unto the said C. D., his executors and administrators, from the thirteenth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and fifty . . . . , for the term of years, yielding and paying therefore unto the said A. B., his heirs and assigns, the yearly rent of £...., at such place as the landlord or his agent shall from time to time direct, by equal pay- ments, on the eleventh day of November, and thirteenth day of May, in every year, the first payment thereof to be made on the day of , one thousand eight hundred and fifty .... And, also, the further rent of ten pounds for every acre cropped contrary to the course of husbandry hereinafter provided ; and a further rent of five pounds for every ton of turnips, mangold, straw, or hay, which shall be carried away from the said farm, unless purchased manure to the value of one pound for every ton of turnips or mangold, and of two pounds for every ton of straw or hay so carried away [the tenant being bound to give due notice to the landlord or his agent of his intention so to dis- pose of any t urnips, mangold, straw, or hay, and to produce vouchers of the purchase of the said manures] be applied to the said farm within the year immediately following such sale, provided always that the said last-mentioned rents shall be payable only for the year in which they are incurred, and must be claimed within twelve months after the same shall become due. [Excepting the case of penalties incurred for ploughing up old grass lands, when they shall be payable from the time they are incurred, and continue yearly during the term]. And the said C. D. doth, for himself, his executors and administrators, covenant with the said A. B. and his heirs and assigns, in manner following, that is to say, the tenant will, during the said term, pay the rents hereby reserved, at the times and in the manner herein appointed for pay- ment thereof; and will, during the said term, pay all taxes and assessments which shall be payable in respect of the said farm. [The landlord's property tax, rent charge in lieu of tithe, and land tax excepted.] The tenant shall keep and leave in permanent grass the following fields, viz. : And shall, during the said term, cultivate the lemainder of the land according to the rules of good hus- bandry, and, in particular, he shall not at any time take two white crops in succession, nor have less than one-fifth part of the said land in grass, nor more than acres in any one year under potatoes without applying to the said farm within the following year purchased manure to the value of eight pounds for every additional acre under potatoes ; and during the last four years of the term he shall not have more than acres under corn ; or acres under peas, beans, or tares ; nor shall he have less than acres under one-year-old grass ; acres under two or more years-old grass ; and acres of fal- low or fallow crop [without leave in writing from the landlord or his agent for the time.] The tenant shall keep and leave in good and sufficient tenantable condition and repair the whole buildings which are now, or may hereafter during the term be, upon the said farm, with the exception of the main walls, main timbers, and floors. [The tenant shall insure and keep insured, during the term, those parts of the buildings which, by the preceding clause, he is bound to uphold, in the sum of £ in some established insurance office, in the landlord's name, and in the event of his not doing so, the landlord is hereby empowered to insure the same, at the expense of the tenant.] The tenant shall keep and leave in good fencible condition and repair the whole fences, ditches, and gates which are now, or may hereafter during the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 141 term be, upon the said farm, the landlord supplying the wood for the said gates. [And should the tenant at any time neglect to make the repairs which he is hereby required to perform, the land- lord, after one month's notice, is hereby empowered to complete the same, and the amount expended by him in so doing shall be recoverable as rent.J The tenant shall keep trained or uneaten after the first day of October preceding the expiry of the term acres of the best land sown with clover or grass seeds in the last fifteen months of the term, the same to be pointed out by the land- lord or incoming tenant, for which seeds he shall receive payment from the landlord or incoming tenant. And it is further declared and agreed as follows, that is to say : — The tenant shall, before the thirty- first day of December preceding his removal, plough, in a good and workmanlike manner, all the land which falls to be fallow in the following year, for which ploughing he shall be paid by the landlord or incoming tenant, according to a valua- tion made as hereinafter provided. The tenant shall cart out, at proper seasons, into such fields as the landlord or incoming tenant shall direct, the whole dung made on the farm during the last six months of the term, for which labour and one-half the value of which dung the tenant shall be paid by the landlord or incoming tenant, according to a valuation made as hereinafter provided. The tenant shall be allowed an away-going crop from the land, which, according to the course of husbandry hereinbefore provided, shall come in course for corn crop in the last year of the term, which away-going crop he shall be bound to sell, and the landlord or incoming tenant shall be bound to purchase, at a valuation to be made as herein- after provided. The landlord or incoming tenant shall have power to sow with grass seeds such parts of the away-going crop as they shall see fit, and which seeds the tenant shall be bound to harrow or roll in, he being paid for the same according to a valuation made as hereinafter provided. The thrashing and grinding-mills on the farm to be kept in good working order, and so left by the tenant to the landlord or incoming tenant, and to be paid for according to a valuation made as hereinafter provided. The tenant to be paid for the following unex- hausted improvements at the end of the term, viz. For lime applied to the land with the sanction of the landlord within the last year of the term, the whole cost price at the kiln ; in the second year previous to the termination, two-thirds of the said cost price ; and in the third year, one-third of the said cost price. For undissolved bones applied in the last year of the term, one-half of the cost price ; and in the second year previous to the termination, one-quarter of the said cost price. For guano or other approved manure applied to the away-going crop by the out-going tenant, one-third of the cost price. All valuations to be made, and all matters herein directed to be settled by arbitration, to be made and settled by two neutral parties mutually chosen ; and in the event of their differing in opinion, the mat- ters regarding which they so diflJ'er shall be settled by an oversman to be appointed by them, whose decision shall be final. In witness whereof the said parties to these pre- sents have hereunto set their hands and seals the day and year hereinbefore written. Signed, sealed, and delivered, by the within named, in the presence of After the lease had been read, the clauses were discussed separately. On the reading of the clause relative to the right of the tenant to kill game on his own farm, consi- derable discussion ensued. Mr. DoDDS said that the committee thought that the clause which he had read ought to remain in the lease. They had prepared another clause which, if landlords absolutely wished to reserve the game for their own use, ought to be substituted. After reading the other clause, Mr. Dodds said the view which he took of the question was perhaps errO" neous, but they all knew that landlords were very chary of the right of pi-eserving game; but if a lease were introduced to please both parties, they should try to give oflTence to none. The Chairman said, that with reference to cases where a tenant was a sportsman, the landlord would have to bear all the expense of watching, &c., and the tenant, although having a right to shoot, would have nothing to pay. On Earl Grey's extensive estates in that county, the shooting during the first month was reserved, and after the first of Septem- ber the tenants were at hberty to do as they pleased. But it was hardly to be expected that the landlord should preserve the game, and let the tenant have the benefit of it. He quite agreed with the last clause, that where damage had been done by per- sons in persuit of game, compensation was due to the tenant. Mr. Trotter said that Mr. Dodds had proposed to give the tenant compensation for damage done by game, but it was almost impossible to do so; for the seed was no sooner deposited in the ground, than pheasants began to eat it, and when it com- menced to sprout, the hares again attacked it. Besides, farmers were very much exposed to tres- passes. Fences might be broken down by persons 14-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in pursuit of game, and through these broken fences cattle might stray among their corn; yet how could a tenant ask his landlord for damage caused by his own cows getting amongst his own corn? He moved an amendment that the first clause should remain, and the second sliould be withdrawn. Mr. DoDDS deprecated entering into any dis- cussion of the game laws at the present time. They must make the best of the law as it at present stood. He thought the second clause would be beneficial to both landlord and tenant. Mr, Cooke agreed with Mr. Dodds in the pro- priety of taking the law as it stood, but by that law the game was the property of the tenant. Mr. George Lee thought both clauses were of very great advantage to the tenant. The Chairman said he could not agree with Mr. Lee. He had no liking for the game laws, but as a matter of policy they must reconcile them- selves to the present state of the law. If they had a clause in the lease by which tenants were to have the power to destroy game, did they imagine that the landlord would be induced to live in the country and preserve the game, when he was deprived of his sport ? Mr. Trotter said that a great deal of damage was done to the crops by game; but it was kept, not so much to please the landlords, but rather the gamekeepers and the class who ran after them. Where game was preserved, it was more at the mercy of the tenant than of the landlord, because the tenant could easily destroy the eggs of the birds. [A member inquired : Would that be an honest proceeding ?] He thought, however, the matter could be so arranged that the landlord should reserve the right of shooting the birds, and the tenant the right of shooting hares, &c. On Mr. Lee's motion (that both clauses stand in the lease) being put to the meeting, 16 hands were held up. For Mr. Trotter's motion (that the tenant have an equal right with the landlord to kill game), five members voted. The motion that the second clause should stand, and not the first, was lost. The next clause discussed related to the imposi- tion of a penalty of £10 for every acre of land cropped contrary to the covenant, and a further penalty of £5 for every ton of turnips, mangold, hay, or straw carried away from the farm, unless manure in certain proportion was purchased and applied to the land. On this clause being read, Mr. George Lee said the tenant ought to have leave from the landlord to remove hay or straw. The Chairman agreed with Mr. Lee that great injustice might be done by the tenant removing hay or straw without his landlord's knowledge. Notice should be given by the tenant to the land- lord. Mr. Dodds expressed his concurrence with the chairman's remarks. The Chairman said that the landlord should not only know when straw had been sold, but also that manure had been purchased. He also sug- gested that the words " without notice" should be inserted in the first part of the clause. It appearing to be the unanimous opinion of the meeting, that notice should be given to the land- lord, Mr. Dodds was requested to make an insertion in the lease to that effect. On the clause being read relative to the culture of the land, The Chairman said he thought £5 an acre was a very unequal penalty for mismanagement in cei'- tain instances. It might be a full and ample penalty for selling hay and straw without purchas- ing manure with the money received ; but it was very inadequate for miscropping and mismanage- ment. What damage was a landlord to receive for an old grass field being ploughed out ? If a penalty were inflicted at all, it ought to meet the object for which it was intended, or else it would be of no use. If a penalty of £20 or £50 were inflicted, it was of no consequence to the man who did not intend to take any advantage ; but, in other cases, a penalty of £5 was not heavy enough. His experience in that matter had taught him to look for penalties from people who, for instance, thought to grow quantities of turnip-seed without leave in writing. That originated from a very wrong-headed tenant of his leaving a crop of turnips to grow to seed at the end of his lease, which ought to have been used by the in-coming tenant. Many years would elapse before that field could be restoi'ed to its original state. From that circumstance a great deal of litigation had ensued, and the man had to pay £300 for his dishonesty. He (Mr, Gray) put a penalty of £30 an acre upon fields miscropped, without the tenant having previously obtained leave in writing. It was quite possible that when tenants came to the end of their leases, if there existed a bad feeling towards their landlords, they might be induced to incur a penalty by miscropping; for they would pay themselves better by so doing for one year than by pursuing the proper course. In such a case a penalty of £5 was far below the mark. The penalty did not apply to men who meant to keep their bargain, but to men who were dishonest and desirous of breaking their covenants. Mr. Dodds agreed with the remarks of the chairman concerning penalties. To honest tenants it was quite immaterial whether it was £5 or £500. In ploughing up old grass fields, the harm which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 was (lone extended not only throughout the whole lease, but to a very lengthened period ; and if penal- ties were imposed for such acts, they ought to be so heavy as to discourage the tenant from incurring thera. But with regard to the case of the turnip- seed mentioned by the chairman, he thought that he (Mr. Gray) had been driven to a false conclusion by a wrong-headed man. Mr. Trotter thought cases might occur where it would not do the land much injury, but a cross crop might be beneficial, and the landlord refuse his assent. They had bad landlords as well as bad tenants. He thought £5 an acre sufficient. The Chairman moved that the penalty be £10 at least, instead of £5. If they sent out a lease to the world, they ought to show that the interest of the landlord had been attended to as well as the tenant. The motion having been seconded, it was put to the meeting, and carried by a large majority. A conversation then ensued relative to the taxes which tenants ought to pay. Mr. G. Lee suggested that an agreement should be entered into between the landlord and tenant, relative! to the payment of the land-tax. The tenant was hable to be called upon to pay it, unless he had previously made an agreement with his landlord to that eifect. He had been called upon to pay it ; and having taken legal advice upon the matter, he learned that he, as a tenant, would be obliged to pay it. In Scotland it was a landlord tax entirely. The Chairman thought the tenant should pay all taxes except such as land-tax, tithes, &c. On the clause relative to keeping farming build- ings in repair being read, a long conversation ensued, in the course of which. The Chairman said that it had been remarked that the landlord was bound to keep everything in proper repair; but if a tenant lived 10 or 20 miles distant from his landlord, was he to send a man to request him to get trifling repairs executed, and wait until his return, when, by undertaking to get the work done himself, he would save a great deal of time. He thought it would be much more con- venient that repairs should be done by the tenant, than that men should get into a system of jobbing, which they would have great difficulty in over- coming. The clause relating to insurance having been read, Mr. DoDDS said he thought the tenant should insure to the extent to which he was boimd to keep up the premises. The landlord might, if he pleased, become his own insurer, and risk the main timbers, floors, &c, but the tenant had no interest in whether he did so or not. At the same time, it was better for the landlord that the premises should be insured for the whole amount, the landlord paying the half of the cost. If the tenant did not insure, in case of accident by fire the landlord might refuse to put up his part until the tenant had put up his ; and there had been cases of this kind, in which the tenant was left, during the greater part of his lease, in any kind of hugger-mugger building that he could patch up. The Chairman said he agreed in the propriety of tenants being insured. Poor tenants should insure to the full extent of their liability. After some conversation, Mr. DoDDS moved that a clause concerning insurance should be inserted in the leases, and the motion having been put to the meeting, it was carried. The clause relative to keeping fences, drains, &c., in proper repair having been read. The Chairman said he thought it would be advisable to put a penalty upon tenants who kept drains stopped up. After land had been drained, a great expense was incurred by utter carelessness, in leaving the ends of drains filled up, and stopping the entire drain for ever so far back, when any one with a spade could clear such obstruction in ten minutes. It was a tenant's interest to do so ; but, unfortunately, they did not always do what was for their own interest. Mr. DoDDS thought than when such obstruc- tions were allowed to remain, after notice being given to the tenant, they should be cleared by the landlord at the tenant's expense. On the clause relating to in-coming tenants taking the manure from the out-going tenants being read. The Chairman inquired how that was to be regulated. They proposed to give a benefit to the tenant when he went away, and he received none when he entered. He did not think it was a bad clause, but that it would have a good effect in making the out-going tenant more careful of his manure. Mr. DoDDS said he thought the in- coming tenant might pay dearer for manure brought from a distant place, than for that of the out-going tenant at half the value. After some deliberation, it was decided that the in-coming tenant should purchase the manure of the out-going tenant at one-half its value. The Chairman said it was a very salutary clause, for the out-going tenant would have the opportunity of consuming his turnips, and this manure would be made for the benefit of the in- coming tenant. He had put a clause into recent leases, causing the out-going tenant to keep a full number of cattle to be fed in the courtyard as in former years, in order that as much dung as posi» 144 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ble should be collected. With regard to regulating the matter, the only difficulty he had was that the tenant, when he went away, got a pretty large amount of manure, and when he entered he got none. The Secretary proposed that one-third of the value of the manure applied to the last turnip-crop be paid to the out-going tenant. After some dis- cussion, the motion was agreed to. A conversation then took place between the chairman and secretary relative to the merits of guano. The Secretary said he had known an instance where great damage had been done by the applica- tion of guano to a crop of turnips. The Chairman said he knew of an experiment having been made during the present year. One portion of a field of oats was sown in the ordinary way, and another portion was manured with guano. The latter portion of the field had a decided supe- riority over the other, and was cut ten days before the other part. It was also one-third more pro- ductive. The discussion here terminated, and there being no other business to transact, the meeting sepa- rated. FARMERS AND THE LEASE QUESTION. Sir, — As you take great interest in discussing and exposing individual grievances, I should be glad if you could allow a little space to an individual, and a great national question, viz., renewable leases on equitable terms between the great landed proprietors and their numerous and striving tenantry. After many years of careful observation, I am fully persuaded that, under good, sound, equitable irenewable (say every twenty years) leases, the farmers of England, Ireland, and Scotland would in a short time increase their productions in an almost immeasurable degree, compared with what can possibly be ex- pected under those miserable and precarious annual and ill- contrived leases, subject only to the whim, capriee, or fancy of an ignorant sub-agent, who can in a few months' time deprive a striving, honest, and good farmer of his only possible chance of supporting his family, to make way for another who may be a friend or a partizan of this understrapper. Long experience will amply testify to the soundness of equitable leases ; for it is a remarkable fact that in this county (Yorkshire) wherever good renewable twenty years' leases have been tried the im- proved value of the land and the large increase of production are perfectly astonishing, and far beyond any reasonable calcula- tions. I can instance many cases of double the productiveness and greatly increased value of the land, in less than twenty years' time, under the late Lord Scarborough's lettings. This is a great national question, and it is also a landlord's and a farmer's question. As a national question it bears very largely on our great home productions and our increase in supply, now so much required for our vast and increasing population in Great Britain and Ireland. Good leases would be a mighty stimulus to all branches of agriculture, trade, and commerce ; and if our raw materials could only be kept at reasonable rates, nothing would stimulate production to the extent that equi- table leases on all kinds of holdings would be capable of doing; and hence a great national benefit. Second, as a landlord's question : if equitable leases are granted, the landlord must be a great gainer. He will share largely in the greatly improved value; and he has a right to a share, though not all the im- proved value. Suppose the matter is diviied every twenty years, then both sides benefit as they ought to do, according to their right. Who would not give more for land annually, with a twenty years' renewable lease at half or quarter improved value, than take land at a mere haphazard six months' notice arrangement ? The whole thing is as clear as that two and two are four. Landlords would realize more, farmers would make the laud much more productive, and benefit would result to all British subjects. Third, as a farmer's question : there can be no mistake about it ; and never will the farmer succeed as he has a right to expect, until he has justice done him in his holding. I know there are thousands of farmers very contented under no leases at all, having the best, and perhaps the richest of landlords, and good honest agents. This must be acknowledged on all hands. But the ma- jority, and the great cultivators and improvers of our native land, require and inust have more security and more cer- tainty in their terms, before they can have that confidence which is so essential to their own individual interests, as well as to those of this great and prosperous country. It must be remembered all are not rich nor good landlords, nor honest principal agents. Therefore, in strongly urging all farmers and landlords to make their interests mutual by good, safe, and equitable renewable leases, at moderately improved value, I am only uttering the strong feelings of thousands who would, if they dared, express themselves as one man, for equity for themselves and their families, as well as for their country. Every Englishman is interested in this great question of tenancy ; and, speaking from large connexion with farmers with good leases, with no leases, and with old, miserable, worn-out, unjustifiable annual agreements (that cannot bear the light of reason or political economy), I feel sure that every landlord and tenant in our native land has only to look calmly and dis- interestedly, to see that both have a larger share in mutual and good understandings than either of them have in the old, worn-out covenants now existing, and by meeting each other in a liberal and just spirit, by sound and well-improved equitable leases, this great producing and increasing popida- tion would feel the benefit of supply to an extent incalculable, and just in proportion to our increased knowledge and appli- cation of these artificial and valuable compositions, brought together by scientific discovery, of what is really required ip the land to bring such vastly-increased productions to ma- turity, without exhausting the land for the following crop. Let, then, every farmer and landed proprietor, at the great agricultural meetings, discuss this important question, and, if a combination is really required, assist and strengthen one another. For what more righteous cause could a nation or a people combine ? for it is for the true interest of this great country that equitable leases should be agreed upon, so that every holder of land may go on joyfully to "increase and multiply, and replenish the earth ;" and it is high time those narrow, crude, and obsolete covenants should be swept away THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 145 by au enlightened, reasonable, and good uuderstandiug be- tween both landed proprietors and their best friends — the farmers. Again I say, let all landlords look to their own in- terests, and show their readiness to grant liberal leases ; so that Great Britain may keep the lead in agriculture and in commerce, and make this land one great productive garden, and the model farm of the world. It can, and must eventually, be done. We have the ways and means ; and, therefore, let not the rusty old notions stop the enterprise. Only look at our improved implements. Ah, there was no restriction in the lease about these "great valuables !" Look again to the steam appliances— grinding, thrashing, reaping machines. Luckily, there was no impediment in the lease here. Look, again, at scientific discovery leading in the van of improved tillages, and replacing the exhausted ingredients which, with warmth and the natural elements and influences, brought that great prolific crop of wheat. Yes — sixty bushels an acre, and a second crop of sixty bushels an acre, in succession. Guano — that most useful and invaluable manure, brought thousands of miles— assisted in this second year's wheat crop. Look, again, at artificial guano, which will yet far supersede all the far-fetched. Only let science have its full play, exhaust Peru and you will create an artificial Peru here at home. It is so now, it will be more the case when farmers appreciate quality and concentration instead of bulk. Economy in til- lages is and will be found in their handiness of use ; concentra- tion must take the place of clumsy and heavy inferior manures. It is a great fact that farmers cannot at present appreciate purely concentrated manure. Why ? Firstly, because they cannot properly analyze them ; and secondly, because they have occasionally been imposed upon, which is a grievous thing ; for when a farmer pays a proper price for guano he ought, in justice, to have pure guano, or, if artificial, he ought to have the real concentrated element in the least possible bulk. It is not so yet. No ; thousands of pounds per annum are paid for carriage of the meie vehicle of manure, the earthy or gravelly substance, which only accompanies the real essence, and which could easily be transmitted i:\ l-20th of the bulk and weight, and at an enormous saving. The chemists know it, but they dare not generally express the opinion openly. In answer to my many inquiries, " Cannot you concentrate your manure very much more?" they say — "Yes, we can; but the manure is sold by ton, and we cauneit make the farmer believe that we could give him every particle of value boxed or barrelled up in a cask for the small sum of £3 33. what he now pays £6 63. or £9 93. per ton for." No, no ; the time has not arrived for such economy as this. A manufacturing chemist — of high standing, too — told me the other day that if they could not pay carriage and delivery perhaps 200 to 300 miles for their artificial manure at so much per ton, they coulJ not compete with certain other parties without jeopardising their living and their connexion. I said, " Try concentrated manure, prove its worth, and be the first to eatablish economy in bulk and transit. What is the use," I argued, "for a farmer to pay for carriage in nineteen cwt. at every ton more than he has a right to do?" " Oh !" says the manufacturing chemist, " we are like poor Stephenson, the railway-maker, before the House of Commons committee : we dare not say at what speed we could go, yet if we did it woidd be no go at all." And so it was in the beginning with nearly every new fact, idea, or scientific discovery. The fact is, it is not fashionable yet to believe in discoveries at first. They must wait a little longer for the good time coming, when land- lords, tenants, chemists, and all the people shall rejoice to- gether, and know that they have a common interest in one another, and give up all petty attempts to take undue advan- tage of their separate special trusts and privileges ; for after all, be it remembered, all our undertakings are but as a cobweb compared with the great Infinite, who knows everything and watches over all. His works are marvellous, and man's enter- prises and inventions are prodigious and almost miraculous. Then let equity have its full and bright development ; and what may not England, Ireland, and Bonnie Scotland achieve in the present century ? Believe in right, ye owners of our native laud, and ye shall be blessed with plenty by Providence for time, and trust to eternity for a good satisfaction. In conclu- sion, I may state that I am under a very poor and good land- lord, and experienced agent, who have both outgrown, out- lived, and given up their old and ill-contrived annual agree- ments. I am, yours, &c., A Tenant and Amateur Farmer. Huddersfield Dec. 18, 1856. ON DRAINING CLAY SOILS. Sir, — In a late niimber of the Mark Lam Eccpress, Cecil, a well-known writer on the turf and .sporting subjects, very confidently recommends to us fanners a plan for draining our clay soils. As his theory is directly opposed to the best authorities on draining — and he says, " I have not yet seen the j)lan tried, nor even heard of its being adopted" — his advice might bei-egardod as the haphazard conjecture of one not much acquainted with the subject, and as such not deserving of much notice. Appearing, however, in your pages, it acquires an importance to which its own: merits do not entitle it ; and although I have no serious apprehension that his " hope that it vnW be fairly tried in numerous in- stances" will be realized, I am fully assured that it must be productive of the most disastrous disappointment to any one who may be rash enough to adopt it ; and as it may dis- courage some who are hesitating, I trust you will give me a little space to expose its futility. The substance of Cecil's recommendation is, not to di-ain clay lands deep, not so deep as four feet, and, whatever the depth, to fill the tkains, to within ten or twelve inches of the surface, with some per- fectly porous material, such as burnt clay or ashes. In short, the whole of his argument proceeds from the long- exploded idea, that the object of draining is, as he describes it, " to draw off the w-ater which descends in the form of rain with as much rapidity as possible," whereas it really is, by furnishing overflow pipes to the water rising from below, to lower the water level, and thus to enable the rain water, charged with its own natural fertility and the manure through which it percolates, to descend into the earth as deeply as the roots of plants will penetrate. Singular enough, Cecil may find this, the true theory, most perspicuously ex- plained in the article immediately preceding his o\m, in your last number, ^^z., Mr. Nesbit's lecture at Launceston. It was very clearly set forth, illustrated with plans and dia- grams, in one of the agricultural essays of the late Mr. Gisborne, of Yoxall, jniblished some years ago, having pre- viously appeared in the " Quarterly Review." Mr. Nesbit says, " The water never flows into the drains from the sui'- Hr> THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. face : it sinks througli the land, ami rises to the bottom of the drain ;" and proceeds to show, by a familiar illustration, the impossibility of fietting a steady flow of water from a drain, except by the overflow. Doubtless shallow drains in clay, filled, according to Cecil's suggestion, with ashes to within a few inches of the surface, will, for a short time after heavy rain, carry off a considerable amount of water ; but in grass land, open gutters would perform this very- mischievous process more eflfectually ; and for plough land, fancv ploughing-in twenty tons of dung per acre, to lie im- mediately on these porous drains through the winter ! Mr, Mechi savs that when he pumps liquid manure on his land, the four-feet drains run almost black ; and the experiments of Professor Way, as reported in one of your late numbers, show that drain water, under any circumstances, can-ies off a vast amount of nitrogen in excess of rain water. We may easily, therefore, imagine what would be the effect all through the wet season if these porous, shallow drains lay in immediate contact with the manure. I trust I have now said sufficient to upset the whole theory of Cecil's rash and mischievous advice. I cannot, however, pass over his de- claration, that he has " seen so many examples of total failm-e, where drains have been laid at this (4 feet) depth in stroncf clays," without a few observations. To a general assertion like this, unaccompanied with the circumstances, not even stating in what way the drains failed, I can only oppose my own pretty extensive experience in draining clay lands, which has broixght me to a directly opposite con\-ic- tion. Indeed, if I have rightly explained the principle, that drains act by tapping and drawing off the ascending body of water not by catching it as it trickles from the surface, there can be no reason why deep drains should not have the same advantage over shallow, in stiff soils as in light. I have myself lately drained upwards of one hundi'ed acres of clay land, having had some previous practical experience, and watched the operation of it pretty closely for the last twenty years or more. I began by draining to the depth of three feet, but latterly have always gone four feet, which I find much more effectual. I have invariably found, in clay land drained to this depth, that cold, wet pastures, covered with coarse sour grass, which nothing would eat, have, the first year after draining, been eaten oft' by sheep as closely as they could bite. I have seen this effect produced upon land by four-feet drains, which had been predously di-ained ) 8 inches ■n'ith little or no apparent benefit. Sheep have been healthv upon land on which ixndi-ained I should have been afraid to place them ; and it has been brought into a state for deep ploughing and improved cultivation which could not have been previously attempted. I regard all these as encourat^ing symptoms of success ; but Cecil's sole test of good draining is the dryness of the surface ; and if land is not to be considered thoroughly drained unless it will bear the treading of cattle through our long wet winters with im- punity, I freely admit that draining alone, either deep or shallow will not effect this. The improvement in this re- spect will be immense, much greater from four-feet di-ains than three ; but we may as well expect to make a good road by draining only, as that even well drained land will bear the constant pudtUing and heavy tread of feet through a Ion" coiirse of wet weather. Again, if the land lies in hollows, pools are fonned after heavy rains or snow, which puddle themselves by their deposit, especially if they are much dis- turbed, and will sometimes remain directly over drains for a considerable time. In this case, it stands to reason that ■water has a better chance of getting down to a shallow than a deep di-ain. But I have had some rather remarkable ex- perience on this point, and am led to think that the escape of the water is prevented more by the consistence of the pan or basin of puddled clay immediately below it, than the depth it has to travel to the drain. Some years ago I drained a meadow, tlie lower part of which, by the side of a stream, had a subsoil of blue, sticky clay. There being no fall, I could not lay the di-ains here more than two feet deep. It was flooded, and some time after the water had subsided there remained, to my surprise, a large pool in a hollow which I know was immediately over a drain. I concluded it was stopped, and got a man to dig a hole down to it, which he did till his spade sci-aped along the tiles— horse-shoe tiles on a flat sole. I then said " The drain is evidently stopped) but you shall leave it a little while till there is less water, and then open it." The pool, however, continued with little per- ceptible diminution for some days — two or three at least. I then told him to take up a tile and follow the drain dovra till the water ran off. To our surprise, on taking up the tile, the water ran oft' at once •, the di-ain was perfectly clear, but the adhesive clay on the joints kept it out of the drain, or admitted no more than was supplied to the pool by the surrounding land. This circumstance, I must confess, rather staggered me at the time. Here, I said, is a considerable weight of water trying in vain to force itself perpendicularly domi to this drain ; how then can we expect that the slug- gish under-current oozing through the subsoil should of necessity find its way into it ? But if we reflect for a mo- ment, we cannot but see that the same power which raises the great mass of water in its subterranean reservoirs is as powerful and irresistible, or rather infinitely more so, than that which takes it from the surface down below. Again it rises limpid, subtile, and penetrating, having got rid of the impurities with which it was charged in its descent. I have often dug a hole in an undrained land, and found no water, or even visible moisture ; but returning to it the next day, have found the hole, though there had been no rain, half full of perfectly clear water. We may yet have much to learn as to the rationale of all this ; but I have advanced nothing as a principle which has not been estab- lished as such by the test of experience, and I think few practical men will now be found to dispute the fact of deep ibaining being the most eft'ectual means of getting water out of any kind of soil that has yet been tried. Cecil admits that, as far as his recommendation goes, he is not practical ; he admits, too, that the deep di-ains which he accuses of failing continued " to emit water," so that I suspect they continued to do their duty faithfullj^, and that had all parties concerned done theirs, there would have been little cause for complaint. There are at the present time two grass fields on my farm, separated only by a hedge, both of which were drained four feet deep, rather more than a year ago. One, I am sorry to say, either accidentally or from mismanagement, has been sadly maltreated the last two months, which in my neighbourhood have been very wet. This field is a great thoroughfare : a field of swedes has been carted across it, some thrown do-s^ii for cattle : a road across it in another direction has been stopped, to lay a hollow drain ; hence it has been much trodden and cut b}' heavy carts in various directions. The consequence is that the appearance of this field just now is anything but satisfac- tory. 'Tis very true the cattle do not sink in up to their houghs as they would have done had it not been drained ; but the surface is a good deal poached and trampled in places, and v.-ater has lain in the cart-ruts for daj's, and even weeks, immediately across the drains. A stranger, looking at this field, would very probably think that the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 147 di'aining had completely failed ; but looking over the hedge, ■would say that iu the next it had been completely successful. Nothing has been turned into this since the wet weather set in. Now, I am not less sanguine about one than the other, believing that had they been treated equally well the result would have been the same in each. I know that in each the herbage has already been wonderfully improved ; and in the autumn, when the undrained fields around them v.ere the colour of rusty iron, these were of a healthy green. Deep draining was never intended to supersede good farm- ing. I believe it to be a necessary preliminary to it ; but if we will not follow up the advantages which it puts within oiu- reach, and cultivate our land upon the most approved principles, we have only to blame ourselves if we are dis- appointed. Impressed with these notions, I must have more full particulars, more tangible evidence, before I am con- vinced of the utter failure of four-feet drains even in clay lands. Of this I am satisfied by experience, that if they fail, shallower will not succeed. In the meantime I am content to be regarded as one of those wrong-headed beings, of whose existence Cecil professes himself incredulous, who, being permitted to think and act for themselves, have the hardihood, after the warning he has given them, " to per- severe with the system." I am, Sir, your obedient servant, Bathos. SELECTING CORN AND POTATOES FOR SEED. " Like produces like," is an axiom often quoted in favour of the selection of the best seed for planting. Where a new variety— a new individual is to be produced, nothing can be more true. Every time, for instance, that seed is planted (and by "seed" we mean the ripened grains produced from flowers, as with corn, wheat, and turnips), a new and dis- tinct individual is afforded fi-om every seed planted; and if these seeds are liable to vary in their products (as with the apple), a new variety is produced by each. Some vary much less than others. The different sorts of wheat, for instance, produce the same when sown, for many successive genera- tions, with scarcely a shade of variation. A very slow change, however, does actually take place, and a few rare ])lants may be found, among the millions in a large field, which have vai-ied considerably from the seed sown. By selecting these rare seeds only, planting them, and then ob- ser\nng the same course vnth. their product, new and distinct varieties are obtained. The same result takes jdacc by the careful selection of the seed of corn. By continually selecting the ears soonest ripe, early sorts are procured ; by choosing the largest ears only, large varieties are obtained ; and by taking those ex- clusively where several ears are found on a stalk, prolific sorts become pennanently established. It is much easier to select seed corn, in this way, than seed wheat ; and the practice should be adopted by every fanner. Reasoning from analogy, many suppose it to be equally important to select hn*ge potatoes for " seed." But a great point of distinction is here overlooked. In planting a crop of potatoes, new individuals are not yielded. The tubers, which are only an enlargement of that portion of the stem beneatii the soil, furnish eyes or buds, and the same variety or individual is increased and extended, but no new one is produced. A jiink-eye potato was in the first place obtained from seed tiiken from tlie ripened balls. It thus became a distinct v.ariety or individual. But the operation of cutting and planting the tubers is only an extension or multiplica- tion of the same individual— the result is still pink-eye potatoes, without the slightest shade of variation — no more than if the original plant was allowed to grow without dis- turbance, until it had become a large stool of many plants. An Isabella grape may be multiplied by layers ; but every plant thus produced is only a portion of the parent. It can never, by this process, become a new sort. The same result takes place in budding or grafting. A Baldwin apple ti"ee may bear ten thousand buds. These ten thousand buds may be taken from it, and each inserted into a separate stock or seedling, and thus ten thousand Baldwin trees be obtained. But every one will be only a portion of the same original tree, and no variation whatever will take place in any point of character from the parent. But if seeds from the apples be sown, new individuals, new varieties are at once obtained. For the reasons already given, it is far less important to select large potatoes for planting, than to make selections of the best ears of com. In one point of view, it is of no conseqitence whatever, whether large or small iiotatoes are idanted. We know several skillful cultivators, who have siipplied the market for many years with the largest and finest potatoes, who say there is no difference whatever. We think, however, there may be a difference ; and it some- times becomes of some importance. Small potatoes, for in- stance, under ordinary management, will yield stalks more abundantly from their more numerous eyes; and the product •will consequently be more in number, and smaller in size. Again, when the ground is very dry, large tubers will fur- nish a longer supply of moisture to the young plant, giving it a more vigorous start. A variety likeirise may, by long- continued bad cultivation, become constitutionally enfeebled, just in the same way that a tree may become stunted, and require some years and favourable influence to restore it. We think, however, that the result is very small or very rare, so far as the potato is concerned. tin the whole, therefore, while we would urge, as of great importance, the practice of choosing the largest or earliest ears of corn for seed (and in fact the best of any grain or seed produced from flowers) we are compelled both bytheoiT, and from the practice of many experienced and skilfid cul- tivators, to regard this practice as relates to potatoes as of far less importance ; and by avoiding too thick a growth of stalks, or a dry soil, of very little consequence whatever.— Country Gentleman. 148 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE PRESENT PRICE OF GUANO. Another rise iu prices ! And that worthy man, the British farmer, is pictured tumbling head over heels, standing glasses round to whoever will drink them, buying new bonnets for his wife, a hunter for himself, and committing all sorts of such warrantable extrava- gances. Another rise in prices ! 1 he yield is found to be getting worse, or foreign supplies are not coming in, or war is breaking out, or something or other has hap- pened to give him another turn. A rise in prices may not, perhaps, be all one way. A rise in rent and labour may sooner or later be " the accompaniments." Still, if there be another rise, the world is always ready to make the most of it ; and John Browdie is compli- mented and envied and abused accordingly. It is as- tonishing how willing people are to believe their neigh- bours are making fortunes. Another rise in prices ! Not in wheat, most attentive of readers; nor in barley, not even in beans, that we care to speak of. Another rise, most interested of publics, not in corn, but in that which produces, or multiplies the production of corn. A rise, in fact, against the farmer instead of for him ; and not only against him, but against you and us, one and all, what- ever our lot may be. Despite all heaven-born orators have said, the more this country can find for herself the better will it be for her. Everybody knows this now. The Government and the people — the consumer and the producer— alike admit the force of the argu- ment. In thus increasing our own resources, we have of late years learnt to rely very much upon one especial agency in accomplishing this. The advance of modern agriculture is closely associated with the use of extra- neous, or what are called " artificial" manures. We employ every available means to obtain them. We tax our invention, harass science, test practice, and start more adventurers in life than ever so innocent an occupation could have previously even dreamt of. The encouragement, moi'cover, which we offer is the most sound and substantial. We give a good price and a handsome profit to those who will serve us fairly. There is scarcely any new branch of business on record where money has been made more certainly than in^he manufacture or sale of this extraneous manure. We do not, however, give enough. With one wave of his baton, the mighty Jullien stills his audience, and commands the anxious attention of his hundreds of fidlers. W^ith one dash of the pen do the Messrs. Gibbs achieve as grand an effect. Without even the gradual warning of an overture, we come at once to the crash. It is striking enough. To adopt a somewhat common phrase, "it quite takes the breath out of us." Au- dience or musicians, customers or agents, arc alike aghast. Everybody uses, and everybody in the trade deals in, guano. And hey, Presto ! up goes guano two pounds a-ton in a moment ! It is a very well-recognized principle, in a commer- cial country like ours, that a man should be allowed to make the best of his business ; or, that if he have the game in his own hand, he should be permitted to play it out. More than this, it is known that the Messrs. Gibbs do deliver the genuine article they profess to, and that the excellence of their wares is unquestionable. It is equally palpable, however, that they rule with the iron hand of a monopoly. If twelve pounds a ton was a fair remunerative price for Peruvian guano last sea- son, why should it not be this ? Or, if some other de- posit were discovered, would it not be ? It is, in fact, to this we are coming. This rise to fourteen pounds, as far as we can understand it, means to say that the Peruvian supply is becoming gradually exhausted, and tliat for what there is left we must pay more money. Again we recognize a commercial principle; just as we sliould have to pay more for bread when we were short of it — for wine, wool, coal, or whatever it might happen to be. Peruvian guano, then, will not last for ever. To many of us even before long it promises to be an un- attainable luxury. How then are we to go on ? Can we do without guano, or can we find any more of it ? Let us consider this last point first. From time to time we are continually hearing, by letters and paragraphs in the papers, that new deposits of guano have been discovered. We are assured of something more than there being only a mere hope of such a store. And this is all we do hear, or are assured of. There have been some difficulties to encounter, and these have no been encountered. In a word, we believe the subject has not received half that attention its import- ance deserves. We publish in another column a letter from a firm at Lincoln, pointing to cer- tain other islands having an extensive deposit of good guano, which appears but too likely to be lost to us. We repeat, it is a matter much neglected so far by our own Government—the only quarter, after all, to which we can look for redress and assistance. Con- sidering the important item guano has now become in tlie cultivation of the soil, there should not be a rumour or likelihood of its existence but that should be tho- roughly and determinedly inquired into. Does it stand to reason or sound probable that because there is guano on some of the islands of Peru, there should be none elsewhere ? On the contrary, we believe that time, with a little more energy and activity on the part of our rulers, will prove there is more to be had; and that, as a consequence, this rate of a foui'teen pounds is not exactly a necessity. There are good farmers yet, who will tell us that a farm may still be made self-dependent for its own sup- ply of manure. If a man will only use his " other corn" liberally on liis land, he may grow as great crops, and have the soil to continue in a far better con- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 149 dition than he ever can hope to by the use of artificial stimulants. We need not stay, however, to argue this now. The Messrs. Gibbs will tell us, no doubt, that the farmers must and will have their manure. The only question with us is, whether they must and will have it a# any pricel According to precedent, £14 to ^£"15 a ton looks by no means the ultimatum. Re- versingthe tactics of the pei ipatetic auctioneer we appear to be only and surely reaching a higher and a higher rate. The further we proceed on the ascendant, the more cause shall we have to consider two points that it would be just as well to try and answer at once— Can the farmer do without guano ? or can he, or the Go- vernment, or any one else, get it elsewhere ? We have been pausing too long for a reply. At the first meeting of their new year's session, on the first Monday that is in February, the members of the Central Farmers' Club are again to discuss tills question of manures, both farm-yard and artificial. Mr. Baker, of Writtle, has undei'taken to introduce it, and no doubt he will avail himself of " the oppor- tunity which now occurs." The Royal Agricultural Society, again, though nothing may have come of their thousand pounds reward, may still aid us here. With the return to health of Mr, Way, we trust again this spring to hear one or two more of his able lectures on the subject, and to see them at once distributed throughout the land on which they may do so much good. The more and more the farmer knows about manures — scientifically or practically, artificial or home-made — the better will he be able to deal with guano at foui teen pounds a ton. GUANO.— EXHAUSTION OF THE PERUVIAN DEPOSITS— NEW SUPPLY FROM THE KOORIA MOORIA ISLANDS. Sir, — The recent advances — amounting to £2 per ton — upon the already high price of Peruvian guano, are, we fear, but the forerunners of a further riae. At this moment the agriculturist of this district, requiring less than 30 tons in one lot direct from the importers, cannot obtain his supply at much less than £15 per ton, carriage, &c., included. The reason assigned for these advances is that the supply is very considerably less than the demand. ;The ^monopolists will therefore naturally exact the extreme price, especially as it is now clearly ascertained that the whole quantity of guano re- mainiug in Peru must soon be exhausted at the present rate of consumption. The agriculturisti [are therefore anxious to ascertain what prospects there may be of obtaining a future supply of this valuable tillage; and, from the very numerous inquiries at this institution upon the subject, we have reasons to assert how great was their satisfaction on learning, through the medium of your columns, that her Majesty's Government had obtained the cession, and taken lawful possession of, certain islands known as the Kooria Mooria group, upon which very extensive deposits of guano had been found. We have by accident had the opportunity of knowing the quality of the guano from this new source, and, as practical chemists, wc say, without fear of contradiction, that upon the whole it will amply compensate for an entire cessation of the Peruvian supply, assuming the quantity to be large, and of which we are assured upon undoubted authority ; and more especially could the supply of Peruvian guano be dispensed with, since the latter has reached a price exceeding its agricultural value. General hopes were entertained that ample specimen cargoes would have reached England this season, and numerous have been the inquiries at our several places of business, since the announcement, of the almost improbable cause of delay. The public are now given to understand that the parties duly autho- rised by our Government to bring this guauo from Kooria Mooria were forcibly expelled from thence by an armed band of piratical Arabs, and that the discoverer. Captain Ord, and his people, were thus compelled to return to their ships witli- out a cargo ; and, if we are not misinformed, at the very same time ships under American colours were absolutely loading from these very deposits upon the islands in question. If we remember that these islauds,''although unprotected by any military or naval force, are de facto an integral part of the British Empire, having formally been ceded to her Ma- jesty by the Imaum of Muscat, their former sovereign, the conduct of both the Arabs and the Americans will appear in its true light, viz., as an outrage on our national flag, and a grievous injustice to the discoverer and hia copartners as British subjects. We gather from a notice issued by the authorities to the collectors of customs at the various ports of the United King- dom, that the last- mentioned gentlemen have obtained a lease or grant empowering them to remove the guano from these islands under certain restrictions made by her Majesty's Go. vernment, extremely favourable to the agriculturists of the United Kingdom. We have also ascertamed that in com- phance with these terms vessels have been fitted out, and that great expense has been incurred in completing the arrange- ments to bring home this valuable commodity. If so, surely our Government will never permit such an insult to our flag to go unpunished, A small ship of war detached from the Indian navy, or the grant of a letter of marque to the lessees of the island (who have undertaken to bring home the guano) to arm a vessel for the protection of this valuable property, would effectually pre- vent the recurrence of these piratical " fiUibusterings." Although the casual failure in this important and desirable undertaking is to be regretted, the ultimate success of the whole matter is one involving very considerable interests, and consequently worthy the prompt attention of the authorities. As the matter stands, it involves both public and private loss and injury. It is, however, not too late to do all that is requi- site for the future. Looking at this matter as important to an influential body of shipowners, who can from these islands always insure a valuable return cargo from Bombay, &c., and considering the vast importance this guano will be to the landowner, the tenant farmer, and the country at large, it is to be hoped that prompt and efficient measures will be taken in the premises' with the prosecution of such measures as may be needed. Without wishing to recommend any particular course to be 150 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. pursued, it would not be uuadvisable to give iutimation of the foregoing outrage to our various consuls in America, instruct- ing them to look out for vessels arriving with guano ; and if the parties engaged in removing the guano from the islands should by such means be obtained, we are assured they would be subject to punishment by civil process in America, as in England, if they were not more severely handled by the crimi- nal laws of all civilized nations. We are. Sir, yours very respectfully, FOX & SLATER, Analytical Chemists. Northern Analytical College, Agricnltxiral BrancJi, Corn Exchange, Lincoln, Jan, 6th, 1857. THE METROPOLITAN SEWAGE QUESTION. I had begun to feel some risings of envy in my breast on comparing the happy and enviable position of the farmers along the valiey of the Thames, its marshes, and the other similar districts, for whose more especial profit the London sewage was about to be made available. I was about to estimate the immense advantages that must necessarily accrue to all lands which were to be supplied with the copious fertilizing showers communi- cated through the hydrants of the Metropolitan Board of Works or other sewage commissioners. My specu- lations ran upon the astonishing root and esculent crops to be produced (large they must always be, and know no ending, for this rich flow of liquid manure, so plenti- ful and continuous, would not only keep up, but enhance the fertility of the soil enormously). I sanguinely looked forward to the heaviest and most productive crops ever seen of potatoes, parsnips, carrots, cabbages of every variety, turnips, mangel-wurzel, celery, and all kinds of minor esculents and herbs. Again my mind reverted to those many plants of great marketable value, but re- quiring either more expensive cultivation or greater fer» tility in the soil. This sewage provides abundant food for each and every one of these, i. e., brown mustard, every variety of turnip, mangel-wurzel, cabbage, carrot, or any other vegetable or esculent may be cultivated here for their seeds, and with the most assured prospect of success. In pursuing my theme, I thought again of what immense value these lands might be made to the chemist, the dyer, or the confectioner ; what surprising crops of chicory, woad, madder, liquorice, carraway, coriander, or even roses, lavender, and the like, might be cultivated ! or, again, what abundant and beautiful crops of hemp and flax might be raised for manufacturing purposes ! My mind could not dwell at all upon ordi- nary corn crops ; the soil would be by far too highly fertilized to bring corn crops to perfection : no ; hence- forward all lands, to undergo the periodical besprinkling of this highly-charged sewage, will be too rich for cereal crops, and must be devoted to the more valuable root or esculent crops, so greatly in demand near the metro- polis. Still pursuing the subject, I was led to view as aris- ing in these districts many manufactories for the manufac- ture of beet-root sugar, peppermint, and other distilleries, oil mills, flax retteries, &c., &c., &c. 3 in fact, I could not set bounds to the productive powers of soils ren- dered inexhaustibly fertile by the ad libitum application of town sewage. On the contrary, I looked upon such soils as being constantly in a progressive state, and never likely to require other replenishing ; and such I believe will be the actual accomplishment by the applica- tion of town sewage. 1 had for several weeks been indulging mjself with speculations of this kind, and promising myself, at no distant period, a visit to these favoured dis- tricts, for the purpose of witnessing the wonders wrought by such a wondrous application, and feast- ing my farming appetite upon all the good and great things opening before me ; proposing also to in- troduce into my own practice, as far as possible, what- ever I might be able to make available. Judge, then, of my disappointment upon finding all my fine hopes and long-cherished ideas crushed in the bud by the Metro- politan Board of Works, who have determined to present to the Chief Commissioner of Her Majesty's Works a scheme for discharging the London sewage into the Thames ; and I find, further, that the determination ap- pears to meet with favour, or be sanctioned by the result of the discussion which has so recently taken place by the Society of Arts upon "the utilisation of town sewage," the great tendency of the discussion being to show that deodorization of this sewage was of little value as a manure, and the liquid distribution dangerous to the health of the inhabitants residing near to the places of distribution. I am extremely unwilling to give up to the German Ocean such immense stores of fertilising matter ; surely some talented chemist will be found to discover a method pf fixing the ammonia in some sub- stance of convertible use. To permit three millions of annual value to escape into the Thames without some greater effort to retain its valuable components is deplor- able. I have witnessed the mode of deodorization by milk or cream of lime. The effect is perfect as a deodo- rizer; but I care nothing for deodorization, provided I could have the sewage in a portable convertible state. Who ever objects to Peruvian guano because it is not in- odorous ? The grand desideratum is to fix the ammonia oontained in town sewage in a substance or liquid of ready portable shape. The man who does this will rank with his country's greatest benefactors ; this would en- title the discoverer, I presume, to our Royal Agricultural Society's prize of £\,()QQ, as a substitute for guano. I am sanguine enough to predict that it will, ere long, be done. The subject is of such paramount importance, that I beg to refer to the discussion by the Society of Arts of Dec. 10th last. Mr. Fothergill Cooke read the in- troductory paper, detailing the course pursued in collect- ing and deodorizing the sewage of Leicester, from which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 161 I gather the following facts : that the population of 65,000 yielded 6,000 tons of solid matter between May 1855 and December 1856 from 8,000,000 tons of sewage ; tliat London sewage annually contains about 10,000 tons of ammonia, equal to the requirements of 320,000 acres of land, and the market value of this quantity of ammonia is £600,000 ; that this sewage can be deodorized and converted into matter at 3s. to 4s. per ton ; that this solid sewage " contains the de- bris of every description of animal and vegetable matter mixed with some valuable mineral substances" ; that the deodorization is effected by the aid of cream of lime, " which deprives it of all odour, and precipitates almost all the salts and solid matter to the bottom" ; and that when so deprived of ammoniacal odours, it is, notwith- standing, a chesp and useful manure of the value of £2 to £1 15s. per ton. Dr. Lyon Play fair thought it was not a wise policy to send away all the metropolitan sewage to feed sea-gulls and sea-lions ; that the effete matter of a population was just the manure to be applied for providing food for that population. Mr. J. B. Lawes said this sewage deposit was no longer a valuable artificial manure, but it was to be ranked with lime, chalk, clay, &c., &c. ; that lime would not precipitate ammonia or its salts from the liquid containing it ; that it was impossible to assign any money value to the Leicester solid sewage ; that if no district could be selected for the fluid deposit, he would '' away with it to the German Ocean." Mr. Chadwick spoke of danger in a sanitary point of view. Mr. Mechi advocated the ap- plication of sewage in a liquid state. Other gentlemen spoke upon the subject ; and from the general tenor of their remarks, I gather that the conversion of town liquid sewage into solid sewage is of very little real manure value applied to the soil, owing to its being deprived by the lime of its ammonia. This, then, we repeat, is the grand de- sideratum— a process to fix the ammonia in solid sewage. Are there no earths, no soils, which could be applied to arrest and retain the ammonia ? Could clay, peat, coal ashes, soot, gypsum, or other substances said to be useful in fixing ammonia, be made available ? The imports and exports of any substances for thorough impregna- tion to any works for deodorization of sewage is of com- paratively little moment. Qii ery — What quantity of any of the substances named above would be required to arrest and imbibe the 10,000 tons of ammonia created in the metropolis annually ? December 22, 1856. A VISIT TO THE LOWESTOFT FISH MANURE FACTORY. Dear Sir, — Being on a visit in Suffolk this Christ- mas, and within a few miles of Lowestoft, I availed myself of the opportunity of riding thither, to take a look at the fish manure factory recently established by Messrs. Molon and Thurneysen, the spirited proprietors of similar works at Concarneau, on the west coast of France, and at Newfoundland ; the latter of which is upon a grand scale. I regretted to find, upon inquiry, that neither M. Thurneysen (the managing partner), nor the gentleman who superintended in his absence, was at home ; the former being at Parli; on business, and the latter out for the day. I however found the engineer on the spot, who politely afforded me every opportunity for inspec- ting the different departments of this very simple, but very effective manufactory, which I shall now proceed to describe. The factory itself exhibits on the outside a plain, sub- stantial, but inexpensive building, adapted in every respect to the purpose for which it was intended, but qxiite destitute of those attempts at ornament displayed in too many of our English public buildings, and which are as much out of taste or character in places of business as would be n gay and gilded hearse at a funeral. This will especially apply to our railway termini, on many of which money has been squandered with a pro- fusion that leaves the gulled shareholders nothing but regret at having trusted it to neglectful or dishonest directors : whilst the accommodation to the travellers and supporters of the concern is of the most miserable description. A splendid columnar building to pay your money at, and a cattle-pen to travel in, is the general rule with the railway oligarchy, who, having established a monopoly of the road, treat their customers more like bullocks or pigs than human beings on whose patronage they rest for support. But let that pass. Messrs. Molon and Co. have acted wisely, and set a good example, by expending their money so as to secure perfect efficiency at the smallest expense. On entering the building, the first thing that struck my eye was a revolving boiler, of a cylindrical form, in which the fish are subjected to steam for a sufficient time to decompose them enough to render the separa- tion of the water by pressure more easy. This process is accomplished, by hydraulic presses, in bags made of two flat, circular pieces of mat, apparently of Indian hemp. These mats are sewed together at the edges, the upper one having a hole in the centre to put in the boiled fish. Being filled, they are placed under the press, with a plate of zinc, the same size with the bags, between each. When the requisite number are placed on the table of the press, it is set to work ; and in a short time, by repeated squeezes, the greater part of the moisture is expressed from the mass. In the mean- while, the liquid which flows from the press runs, by pipes, into cisterns placed in the basement. Tliese have steam-pipes laid on at the bottom, in order to preserve heat, which facilitates the separation of the oil from the water. Two qualities of oil only are at pre- sent made, the best of which is very pure, and sells readily. The inferior consists of the dregs, with a portion of the best oil, and, I apprehend, might be purified by a proper apparatus, so as to render the whole available, except the solid matter, which would 153 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. still be valuable to the soap-makers. When the oil has all risen in the t*nks, it is drawn off, and put into casks. The pressed fish, which are converted into a hard cake, are thrown out of the bags and broken up. They are then subjected to heat in the stove, in order to divest them of the remaining moisture. The stove is a long square structure, divided into compartments, and heated by steam pipes ; they are fitted from the top to the bottom, with ledges placed at short intervals on each side, to receive the slides on which the pressed fish is spread ; these slides are not more than two or three inches deep, with a canvas bottom and wide enough to fit exactly the compartment. The mode of charging the stove is simply placing the first on the slide, and then shoving it forward with the second, and that with the third, and so on till the compartment is filled ; the rest being charged in the same manner. When the drying process is completed* which requires some hours to effect, the slides are shoved out at the opposite end from which they are put in, by others containing a fresh charge ; and thus no time is lost in charging and discharging the stove, which con- tains about half a ton of the dried fish. The next process is the reducing the dry matter to a powder, which is effected with a pair of Cologne or English stones (I am not certain which), from which it comes out perfectly pulverized, and is then put into bags holding about half a hundred weight, which is the last and finishing process, it being then ready for sale. The whole of the processes are effected with the aid of one steam boiler of from tsventy-five to thirty-horse power. Nothing can be more simple or more complete than the way in which this manufacture is carried on ; but it is a question with me whether the desiccation could not be effected without the loiling process, by merely passing the fish in the raw state thrsugh the hydraulic press, so as to extract the oil and water, and then drying it in the stove. By this means not only would the oil be better, from being cold-draivn, but the manure itself would be thereby impi-oved by the retention of the grosser parts of oleaginous matter, which is now sepa- rated by the boiling process, in a liquid form, and runs • off with the fine oil. That the retention of any part of the fish, but especially the oil, would improve the manure there cannot be a doubt ; and probably the refuse of the oil, which would alone be retained, would, by saving the boiling process, be sold as profitably in the form of manure as it now is in that of inferior oil. This is a consideration we throw out by way of sugges- tion only, having no other data to go upon than analogy. We know that cold-draivn whale and seal oil is more valuable than that extracted by boiling ; and that rape- cake for manure is prized according to the proportion of oil it contains. It therefore follows that any kind of fish oil must be better cold-drawn than after boiling, and that fish manure would be improved by having the grosser oleaginous matters left in it. I am glad to hear that the London and West of Ire- land Fishing and Fish-manure Company have com- menced working, and heartily wish them all the success they can desire. They had a stormy commencement ; but I do not hear that their shipping has sustained any material damage. They have an experienced man in Captain Symonds at the head, who is too cautious to run unnecessary hazards, but at the same time will keep the concern at work. I am, dear sir, yours truly, An old Norfolk Farmer. London, Jan. 1. SALE OF CORN BY WEIGHT. MEETING AT GLOUCESTER. A public meeting of farmers, merchants, millers, and others interested in the corn trade, was held at the Bell Hotel, Gloucester, on Saturday, Dec. 27, "To consider and recommend such regulations as to the sale by weight at the new corn market as shall appear moat conducive to general convenience." The subject apparently excited a good deal of interest. The chair was taken by J. C. Hayward, Esq. The Chairman, in opening the meeting, stated its object, and pointed out the desirability of coming to a perfect under- standing as to the mode in which corn should be sold for the future, in Gloucester market. Referring to the meeting of millers and others held a fortnight previously, the resolutions of which meeting had been published in the Gloucester papers, the Chairman said, that without saying whether he 'agreed with the resolution adopted at that meeting, he thought it very desirable that the millers and farmers should come to a mutual understanding on the matter. He agreed with those parties that weight was a desirable standard, but that meeting was not in the nature of a public meeting, and there were a great number of buyers and sellers who had not had an oppor- tunity of attending it, and he thought that was not the proper way to settle the question. It would not do for buyers to come to a resolution to sell by one standard and sellers to sell by another. Mr. Hayward pointed out the inconvenience of having different standards of the bushel in various markets of the kingdom, and expressed his opinion that weight was a better standard of value in grain than measure. But they found that Government had adopted a scale of measure : all grain was calculated by the imperial bushel, and the tithe averages were calculated upon it. When this plan was adopted by the Government the object was to get rid of the various local measures in use in the country. He thought they should go as near that as they could, and the best means of doing so was to get at the weight of a bushel of grain as near as they could : this of course would vary in different parts of the country. The farmers of this county considered 62 lbs. was considerably above the average weight of wheat per bushel : it exceeded the average weight in the vale, and greatly exceeded it in the hill district (Hear). He fancied that about 61 Iba. was the average weight of the bushel of wheat iu the vale of Gloucester, and he had the opinion of an experienced miller, which confirmed his own on THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 153 that point. Another miller had put the average weight of the hill wheat at 59 lbs. the bushel : therefore the medium would be 60 lbs. At Bristol market wheat was also sold by the 60 lbs., and he found that the Government stated 60 lbs. as the weight of the bushel in making the tithe averages, &c. He was told that it was a general practice to sell at 62 lb. the bushel. Now if it was the general practice throughout the country he would at once yield, but he did not find that it was anything like universal. At Birmingham wheat was sold by the 62 lbs., but he was told that at Worcester English wheat was sold by the bag of 3 bushels and 9 score and 10 lbs., which was 63Jj lbs. per bushel (A voice: "No, it is 62 lbs.") He (Mr. Hay ward) was told that it was 63Mbs.: they sold by the bushel, and the farmer made up the weight to that. He thought that was a bad practice. The Chairman concluded with some further remarks on his experience of the sale of wheat by weight, and by expressing a hope that every speaker who addressed the meeting would be heard with patience, and would confine himself strictly to the object of the meeting. Mr. D. Long said it would be necessary, in order to under- stand their present position, that he should refer to the forma- tion in Gloucester of a " Society of Millers," and to what steps had been taken by them. He must say that he did not agree with the manner in which they had conducted their recent meeting. At that meeting, to which a few farmers had been invited by circulars, it was resolved that 62 lbs. should be the standard on which they would buy and sell wheat. But he would say that that was not a public meeting — (Hear, hear) — or he would not quarrel with the decision which had been come to. Mr, W. Jones : Query, The farmers did not agree to that resolution. I was there. Mr. Long contiaued : He believed 62 lbs. was beyond the average of the market, and if they adopted that weight they would exclude the Cotswold growers from the market. As a proof that the Government considered 60 lbs. to be the average of a bushel of wheat, he would read a letter which he had re- ceived from Mr. Willich, in reply to an inquiry which he (Mr. Long) had addressed to him. This letter, which was dated " Loudon, Ist Jan., 1857i" contained the following passage: — " In reply to your letter of the 27th, I beg to state that I understand that when wheat is sold at 70 lbs. to the bushel, or 62 lbs., it is reduced to bushels at 60 lbs, for the purpose of the averages." This was not only so, but he (Mr. Long) believed that 60 lbs. was adopted as the weight per bushel in nearly all the ports of this country except Liverpool. That, he thought, was a good reason for establishing it at Gloucester- He believed the Cotswold-hiU district average would not exceed 59 lbs. After some further remarks Mr. Long moved : — " That if weight be substituted for measure in Gloucester, the meeting recommend the scale adopted by the merchants of this and many other ports, viz., wheat 60 lbs., beans 65^ lbs., barley 50 lbs., and oats 39 lbs., as approximating as nearly as possible the average of 8 gallons imperial of different kinds of grain throughout the country." Mr. KiMBERLY suggested that it would be desirable first to settle the question whether they should sell by weight or measure, before deciding upon the actual weight, and pro- posed a resolution to that effect, which was agreed to without discussion. Mr. Long's resolution was then altered by omitting the first nine words, and was seconded by Mr. Stallard. Mr. Eeynolds defended the course adopted at the meeting held a fortnight previously. The gentleman who said the farmers did not agree to the resolution passed at that meeting he believed was one of those who had actually signed the reso- lution. It had been asked of the millers why they wanted weight to be the standard, and he would answer that if farmers would bring their sacks of wheat to market, and let them put their hands into the bulk, he for one would not ask any one's judgment as to the weight of the coin. But they could neither judge of the weight or thQ quality of a bulk of corn from a sample of less than an ounce, and which had been carried in the pocket of a man riding ou horseback to market, and after- wards, perhaps, sitting before the fire, which must cause it to dry. Then as to the reason why they wanted the weight fixed at 621b3., he would answer that all their engagements in re- ference to freight, tonnage, sack hire, and porterage, were cal- culated at so much per bushel, and the difference between fixing it at 621b3. and 601b3. would affect them very materially. Then he maintained that it made no difference to the tithes or rents of the farmers whether they sold by the 601b3. or the 62lbs. As to the custom in other places, in Lincolnshire generally, the weight was 631b3.; at Worcester, Stourbridge, Ross, Here- ford, Birmingham, Tewkesbury, Monmouth, and the South Wales markets, all had 621bs. as the standard ; and he was told that even at Tetbury-on-the-liill district, the average weight was eilbs. (No, no.) After some further remarks, Mr. Rey- nolds wound up by saying that in a meeting like that a show of hands would not represent the arguments of the question, and therefore he did not mean to take one, but he had stated his case, and submitted it to the consideration of the meeting, thanking them for the kind attention which they had given to his remarks. Mr. Fewster and Mr. Friday followed on the same side, expressing themselves favourable to fixing 621bs. The Chairman said it appeared from Mr. Willich's letter that whatever weight wheat was sold at, it would not affect the tithe averages; but some rents were fixed according to the average of the Gloucester market, and not according to the im- perial average, which would be of importance. It was also desirable to influence other markets : it would not be well for Gloucester to take an isolated position. Mr. T. M. Sturgb said the fixing of the general average at 621bs. would be convenient to his firm, because they sold at that weight in many markets. They sold at 621bs, in Glouces- ter, Birmingham, Worcester, Wolverhampton, and other places ; 751b3. at Shrewsbury, SOlbs. in Monmouthshire, 701bs in Liverpool and Hull, and other markets 631bs. He wished it to be understood that he had no bias in favour of the millers on the one side, or of the agriculturists on the other ; but he rejoiced to see that the meeting was in favour of weight over measure, on account of the continual disputes which arose be- tween the agriculturists and the millers when corn was deli- vered by measure, and it proved some pounds per bushel less in weight than the miller supposed he would receive. He thought it would be highly desirable if an uniform weight could be established by the legislature throughout the country, for he considered such a step could hardly be deemed an undue interference with the liberty of the subject. What that uni- form weight should be he would not suggest, but would leave it to the discussion of the legislature. A letter from Mr. Phillpotts was read, expressing an opi- nion that the fixing the weight at 601b3. would prevent millers attending the market. Mr. J. Long arraigned the management of the meeting of millers. He could not as an individual farmer have set himself up as an authority for the whole of the county. He consi- dered GOlbs. would be the fair average of the growth of the county of Gloucester : the weight on the hills did not exceed 581b3. He proposed that if the millers would not buy their L loi THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. wheat at COlbs , they would be pleased to allow them to sell it to others. Mr. S. Sims maintained that the average of wheat brought to Cirencester market was GOlbs. The millers who attended the previous meeting intended to buy wheat at 621b8., what- ever others might do. They might sell it if they liked at GOlbs., and the milkrs would buy it of him at 621bs., and no doubt he would get a good profit by it. Mr. Lloyd Baker said it appeared to him there was very little behoven them now that they had ascertained that the weight would not affect the tithe averages. There was, how- ever, one point brought forward by the millers which he could not hold with • he meant their argument about their arrange- ments with other parties. He would ask them, did not they think that the railway companies, the sack-owners, and the warehousemen would find out whether the bushel was 62 or eOlbs. ? But it was not worth making a great stir about on either side, and he should almost propose to toss up a half- penny and settle the matter that way. But GOlbs. was the I Government weight, and the weight adopted at most of the 1 ports, though there were a great many important towns where 621bs. was the weight. What he hoped was, that the whole country would come to adopt a uniform standard value ; and if so, he thought it most desirable to adopt rather an even number like 60 than r.n odd one like C2Ibs. The Chairman impressed the desirability of having a mutual agreement between the farmers and millers, and asked if any amendment was proposed. No amendment being moved, the Chairman put Mr. D. Long's resolution, which was carried by an overwhelming ma- jority, only three or four hands being held up against it. A vote of thanks was then passed to the Chairman, and the meeting broke up. THE HOME AND FOREIGN SUPPLY OF TALLOW. While purchasers occasionally complain of the ex- treme fatness of the class of domestic animals now raised for the shambles, we nevertheless hear of no suriilusage of tallow. The price of animal fat keeps up ; and the demand is more extensive than ever. The liousewife finds she has to pay a large price for the suet for her Christmas pudding; while the cook obtains a remunerative market for her kitchen-stuff. What the home production of tallow is we cannot tell ; hutj in addition to the fat of the large stock of cattle and sheep slaughtered in the kingdom, we import, on the average, about 50,000 tons per annum. Ingenuity is taxed in various ways to augment the supply of animal fat and oils required for commercial purposes. In Paris, where the recent imposition of a dog tax caused the slaughter of a large number of the canine race, the bodies have been boiled down for fat, which fetches nearly Is, per pound, it being used in the preparation of kid-gloves, especially straw-coloured ones. It is a pity the pariah dogs of Turkey and India could not be converted to a similar useful purpose. In the Argentine Republic, mares by thousands are yearly butchered mei-ely for their grease. The hides are pre- served, and the carcase steamed, to produce oil. Gene- ral Rosas, while in authority as President at Buenos Ayres, prohibited the killing of marcs, in order not to decrease the number of horses, which in that country constitute the right arm of war in the defensive forays against the surrounding Indian tribes of Patagonia, Horses, however, in the Pampas are counted by mil- lions; and until lately, we believe the city of Monte Video was lighted with gas made from mares' grease. In olden times the common tallow-candle was in general use; and one of the indispensable duties of the farmer's wife, in the beginning of the winter, after the ox had been killed and the tallow tried out, was to make up the year's stock of tallow-candles. Oil and gas are now more generally used, and give a much better light. Still many prefer candles ; but these are seldom manufactured now of tallow, nor are many even made of wax ; but palm-oil, coeoanut, and other solid vegeta- ble oils, come largely into consumption for the manu- facture of the hard composite candles, as they are termed ; and also for soap, for which tallow heretofore was chiefly in demand. But there is another large and important use for grease, which is for lubricating machinery and oiling the axletrees of railway carriages and trucks. In Great Britain we have somewhere about 15,000 steam- engines employed. Thei'e are 5,000 locomotives run- ning on our railways, and 150,000 cars and trucks also traversing them. More than 6,000 steamers annually enter and quit our ports, and each of these must use about 251bs. of grease a day, or more, according to tho size of the vessel. Railway-grease in this counti'y is composed chiefly of tallow, palm-oil, soda, and water, in proportions suited to the period of the year. In the United States sperm-oil is chiefly used ; and the cost of the oil used in 1,012 miles of railroad in the State of Massachusetts in 1851 was £15,460. Reckoning the cost of the oil on the 23,342 miles of railway now open in America at the same ratio, of about ^15 per mile for the year, we have the largo sum of £350,130 a year paid for lubri- cating railway- axles, exclusive of fixed machinery and marine engines. If we were to take the same estimate for our 8,000 miles of railway (including sidings and double lines) — although with us the consumption is probably much larger — we have £120,000 paid for railway-grease. The abolition of the duty on soap has led to a more extended manufacture, and a larger home consump- tion and foreign shipments. The quantity now ex- ported is just double what it was six or seven years ago. The foreign shipments in 1855 amounted to 203,503 cwts. What the total home consumption of soap is now it were difficult, in the absence of any data, to determine ; but as the quantity charged with duty in 1851 was nearly 100,000 tons, it maybe fairly esti- mated, taking the consumption at the ratio of 101b. per THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 155 head per anmim^ and adding- the quantity exported, that it is at present 133,500 tons; especially as the con- sumption must have increased, now that it is free of duty. In examining the statistical returns of the last fifteen years, we find that in fish-oils — whale, and spermaceti, &c. — there has been, if anything, a decline, the annual imports having ranged from 24,000 to 16,000 tuns; but in the vegetable oils the increase has been enor- mous. The supply of palm-oil, v/e believe, has doubled j cocoanut-oil has risen from 38,263 cwts. in 1841, to 252,550 cwts. last year ; and our imports of olive-oil have increased sixfold : besides the extra quantities of nut-oil, rape, and other seed-oils. Our foreign supplies of tallow have not, however, in- creased proportionately ; for, instead of one million and a-quai'ter to one million and a-half hundred- weight which we were in the habit of receiving some ten or fifteen years ago, in the last four years the imports havG not averaged a million hundred-weight. The war with Russia had, no doubt, much to do with this deficiency ; but still it is evident that the vegetable solid-oils are taking the place to a considerable extent of the animal fats and fish oils. Tills will be the more apparent by an examination of the following figures, from which it will be seen that, while the supply of vegetable oils has more than doubled in the last ten years, tallow and fish oil arc nearly stationary : — Imports op Oil into the United Kingdom. Eleven months, 1846. 1855. 1856. Cocoa-nut. . cwts. 48,322 .. 252,550 .. 124,877 Palm „ 366,852 .. 810,-394 .. 650,578 Olive ,,..,. tuns. 8,532 . . 25,449 . . 19,069 Seed-oil,... „ — . . 7,365 .. 4,951 Fish-oil.... „ 16,884 .. 17.357 .. 15,064 Tallow ....cwts. 1,111,818 .. 955,224 .. 963,851 The year 1846 being that following the abolition of duty on the oils, forms a fit period for Ci^mparison ; but it is only of late years that palm cultivation for the production of oil has been cai'ried out to any extent on the West Coast of Africa, and in Ceylon and India. It is several years before the tree comes into bearing. A glance at the imports of 1855 will show the countries to which we are chiefly indebted for our sup- plies of foreign tallow. Russia, however, owing to the war, figures very disproportionately to former years ; but the shipments came through Prussia. Imports of Tallow ix 1855. Prussia 644,695 cwts. Buenos Ayrcs 9-3,3.52 „ Australia .52,481 „ Russia 47,214 „ United States 20,401 ,, Uruguay 21,787 „ Ilanso Towns 1 9,453 „ Turkey 17,239 „ British India 11 ,460 „ Austrian Italy 6,071 ,, South Africa 2,798 „ Other parts 15,37 1 „ Total 952,322 To Russia and to South America we must chiefly look for our future supplies of tallow, for Australia is failing us, and she now manufactuies a large propor- tion of her own candles and soap. While wo imported 9,000 tons of tallow from New South Wales in 1850, in 1855 we received but 2,100 tons; and from all the other Australian settlements the quantity shipped scarcely exceeded 500 tons. The decline is shown by the following statement of imports from Australia: — 1850 173,744 cwts. 1851 174,471 „ 1852 159,333 „ 1853 125,180 „ 1854 73,286 „ 1855 52,481 „ The inci-ease of population in New South Wales and Victoria, consequent upon the gold discoveries, has checked the production of tallow for export, it being unnecessary nov/ to boil down cattle and sheep for tal- low alone, the flesh being also in demand for food for the increasing population, while labour is also more readily obtainable for the pastoral districts. In the nine years ending with 1852, 1,787,960 sheep, and 340,353 head of cattle were sent to the melting-pot in New South Wales alone. The numbers slaughtered for tallow in 1852 were 292,000 sheep, and 74,194 head of cattle, which yielded 147,947 cwt. There were then 72 boiling-down establishments in full activity in the colony. In the following year, 1853, the number of boiling-down establishments had duninished to 39, only about 97,000 sheep and 30,000 cattle having been boiled down, producing 64,485 cwt. of tallow. Wc have before us a statement of the averages realized by boiling down at the large establishment of Mr. Fle- miug'sij at Moreton Bay, in 1853. The sheep, 8,863 in number, averaged about 231bs. of tallow; the cattle, 5,551, yielded on the average from 111 lbs. the lowest, to 3375lbs. the highest. These figures are interesting as showing the general condition of the sheep andcattlo boiled down in the district. It is something unusual to cattle breeders and sheep farmers in this country to hear of such large flocks and herds being rendered into tallow, and their flesh wasted, except for the purposes of manure. Now, however, this sacrifice, except as regards a few diseased animals, may be said to be at an end. Our supplies of Russian tallow come chiefly from the northern ports, but even before the late war they were decreasing. In the five years ending with 1840 we received from Russia about 60,000 tons annually. In 1849 we imported from thence but 48,730 tons ; and in 1853, 42,295 tons, out of 50,200 tons, the whole quan- tity exported from Russia. Twenty years ago we only received from the States of the River Plate 210 tons of tallow: of late years Montevideo and Buenos Ayres have sent us on the average 8,500 tons annually. Still the supply from thence is very fluctuating, and evi- dently rises and falls with the ruling quotations of the English market. A consideration of the figures wo have given will prove interesting both to speculator's in tallow, and to cattle breeders at home and abroad. L 2 156 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE CONDITION OF THE LAB OURER— PAST AND PRESENT. The condition of the agricultural labourer, during the first two of the four periods of agricultural progress in the past century, was adverted to on a former occasion, shewing how it began to deteriorate with the consolida- tion of farms, the banishment of the labourer from the farm-houses, and the depriving him of all land. The completion of his ruin during the second period, by the system of relief in aid of wages, was also adverted to, as well as the hardships entailed upon those labourers who had surrounded themselves with families, in re- liance on parochial relief, when that relief was taken away by the amended poor-law, without their being able to obtain an equivalent in wages. Let us now consider the position of the laboiu'er rather more in detail, during the period of low prices and agri- cultural distress. Was he a gainer or a loser by those low prices ? The great argument then urged in favour of protection was, that it was not for the benefit of the landowner or the farmer, but of the labourer. The opinion had become very general, even among the labourers themselves, in some of our rural districts, that high prices were beneficial to them because they got higher wages. The fact, however, was, that though the pay of the labourer might be increased from this cause, in districts where they professed to regulate wages by the price of flour, high prices were only beneficial to the single labourers, or labourers with small families, who were comparatively small consumers of bread. To the married labourers with large families low prices were advantageous. On the whole, therefore, the labourer gained by low prices in those districts where there were farmers of capital ca- pable of employing them. It was in the backward districts, where the farmers possessed neither the ne- cessary means nor energy, that they suffered from low prices. We have adverted, also, on former occasions, to a concurrence of circumstances which have placed the labourer, of late, on a more independent footing, as regards the value of his labour, than he had previously enjoyed — namely, the absence of Irish labour, conse- quent on the emigration produced by the potato blight, and the emigration of English labourers, caused by the discovery of the Australian gold-fields, as well as by the demand for labour of all kinds arising from the prosperous state of trade and manufactures, which resulted from a variety of causes. Among these causes may be enumerated the large exports of produce and manufactures to the gold districts, as well as the large exports consequent on large importations, for it does not admit of a question that the one follows the other as a natural consequence. Upon the whole, therefore, the present may be regarded as the most prosperous condition of the rural labourer, as far as wages are concerned, which he has enjoyed since the commence- ment of the march of agricultural improvement. At the same time it does not admit of a question, and we confess with sorrow, that the moral and social position of the rui'al labourer has deteriorated most lamentably since the disappearance of small farms and the intro- duction of those improvements, with all the increased produce, which have resulted from the application of capital to the cultivation of the soil. There is no longer that community of fteling between the employer and the employed which prevailed when they were more on an equality, lived and worked more together, and were not unfrequently con- nected by ties of consanguinity or alliance. None know better than the clergy the mutual want of confidence which prevails at present between the farmer and those whom he employs. It is admitted, by all who have paid attention to the subject, that one of the greatest evils which the labourer suffers arises from the want of a dwelling, in which a family can be accommodated without violation of the decencies of life. Are any efforts being made to remedy this evil ? We fear it must be confessed they are few. On the contrary, are there not many districts where the clearance of cot- tages is systematically carried on, in order to save those who have benefited by the toil of the labourer when in health, from the burthen of giving him that support in sickness and old age ? A claim which the law ad- mits, but which he ought not to require, imder a proper system of wages and a better system of rela- tionship between the farmer and the labourer, accom- panied by the return of those provident habits, and that feeling of independence and dislike of parochial relief which once distinguished him? Nothing can be more shortsighted policy than the banishment of the labourer's residence from the scene of his labours. It is well known that in many districts they reside in towns, or villages, four or five miles from the farms on which they work. The farmers complain of this with justice, and blame the landlords for it. It is a loss to both parties. The farmers, of course, cannot obtain so much work from a labourer who performs the labour of half a day, at least, in going to his work and return- ing from it, as from him who resides upon the farm. As a matter of policy, therefore, putting higher considera- tions out of the question, cottages of sufficient number to accommodate all the labourers which the particular kind of husbandry pursued in the neighbourhood re- quires, ought to be considered quite as much a portion of the farm-buildings necessary for the proper occupa- tion of the land, as barns, stables, or cattle-sheds. The moral advantages are no less important. What a check it would be on that drunkenness, which is so often denounced and deplored as the besetting sin of our labouring population, if they resided under the im- mediate eye of their employer, always supposing the latter to be — as we are persuaded that he would be, in I the majority of cases-y-a sober man hiraselfl How THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 157 mucli friendly intercourse, how many little good offices must arise out of such contiguity ! Another step, in all attempts to improve the condi- tion of the farm-labourer —scarcely less important than the furnishing of decent and comfortable dwell- ings—is the connexion of good cottage-gardens with those dwellings, and the restoration to the labourer of that interest in the land arising from the posses- sion and cultivation of it on his own account, and of which he was deprived at the commencement of the present century. It was then we saw every cottage- garden thrown relentlessly into the large farm, either to square its boundaries, or because the possession of land was deemed detrimental to the labourer's honesty, by tempting liim to steal his master's produce. This is a prejudice which has not wholly subsided, though it is fast diminishing. The best security for the labourer's honesty would be to teach him the duty of being honest, rather than to deprive him of land in order to keep him so. The modern system, however, of thrash- ing by machinery obviates this objection by the celerity which the operation is performed in public, and the produce secured in the granary. With respect to dwellings for the labourer near his work, and the possession of a small portion of land, the landowners and the farmers are on opposite tacks. The farmers, for their own sakes, wish his dwelling to be near his work, but do not approve of his holding land. On the other hand, the landowner, while he pulls down the labourer's cottage and drives him into the town, denounces the jealousy, entertained by the farmer of the cultivation of even a small portion of land by the labourer. Between the two, and the exertions of the clergy, has arisen the much vaunted allotment system. As a palliative it is admissible ; but it is a very poor substitute for the cottage-garden, with its fruits, its flowers, and its bee-hives, and all their moral influences. It is the want of these, and other innocent recreations for his hours of leisure, which drives the labourer to the beer-shop. FACTS CONCERNING THE WORKPEOPLE OF EUROPE. Much in our day has been, and is, both written and spoken concerning social science. The bearings of the subject seem to be infinite ; and this is so because every progressive movement is attended with new and unfore- seen evils. As we advance in civilization we are again and again reminded that no human state can be a per. feet state. Our very reforms have counter-disadvantages, needing in time to be themselves reformed ; frequently they open up difficulties we never dreamed of. For in- stance, when one looks abstractedly at the Enclosure Act, it appears to be almost an unmixed good ; but, viewed from its actual effects, it is very far from deserv- ing such a character. Farms are larger, and perhaps more productive ; but this doubtful good developes an element of danger amongst us. That gradation of ranks so essential to a thriving community is being done away, and all classes are becoming merged into two great divisions — the few capitalists, immensely rich ; and the many labourers, hopelessly and pitifully poor. Our student of social science has, therefore, to compound an antidote for this new danger to the Commonwealth ; and in dealing with tbis the statesman will probably start a fresh one, so that in truth the pen of the thinker and the tongue of the speaker shall never be able to say, " now is my work completed." What an amount of pamphleteering has tlie labour question given rise to ! Let any one go to the British Museum, and I will venture to say that he will find one- fortieth of the ten miles of book-shelves occupied by works bearing directly or indirectly on that subject. Consult Hansard, and dreary will be the vast wastes of speechification over which you will have to travel. Now, we are of opinion that, in spite of all this written and spoken wisdom, there yet remains much to be said on the conditions and modes of human labour ; and as these must perpetually change with a progressive civilization, the social practician and theorist will never want a subject. It strikes us that some profitable theories might be elucidated from what is known of the industrial facts concerning the workmen of Europe. We imagine an observing man passing from one country to another, acquiring in each an intimate knowledge of the relations masters and servants, capitalists and labourers, hold to one another, and much more information of this sort ; and then founding on these facts, by a species of induc- tion, certain general laws. This process we have never seen ; and we cannot but think that, carefully under- taken, it would go far to assert the truth of certain prin- ciples we are in constant danger of over-riding, to our imminent peril, and would also establish social science more firmly in public estimation. In a brief way, let us just see how this subject might be treated. We observe, in the first place, on the degrees that now exist in the industrial hierarchy, commencing with that of domestic labourer, and ending with that of proprietor. The possible development of each grade is absolutely limited, and examples of all are found in Europe. There seem to be four systems to which the industrial classes belong. First we have Nomades, the primitive form of society, represented by the inhabitants of the Oural Mountains, the plains of Sahara, and the countries of the Caspian. Secondly, we have the adscripti (jlebce, or compulsory engagements : ex. amples of these we find in Russia, in Turkey, and in Hungary. Thirdly, there is the voluntary permanent engagements of Scandanavia and Germany. And, lastly, what may be called the momentary engagement, or com- plete individual liberty, now found in England and France. These systems are all now at work, so that we need 158 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. not go back ia order to ascertain their peculiar advan- tages aud disadvantages; for^ doubtless, they all, in commou with every human arrangement, possess Ihem both. Examples of every grade of labourers are to be found in each system ; and as it is the function of the statesman to discover the principles which tend to ele- vate workmen from the lower to the higher steps of the industrial hierarchy, it is no less his duty, and th« duty of all employers of labour, to examine the diS\;reat changes which the social systems of Europe have Wider- gone, that society may lose nothing of the past whieh is beneficial, but carry through its more advanced ifeiges everything of tradition calculated to promote the well- being of the population. So late as 1788 the tiers ^tat, or common people, of France were in a very depressed and miserable state^ They were liable to be called to work on the high road a certain number of days in the year, and were in different ways subject to the nobles, who continued to hold their ancient manorial or patrimonial jurisdiction. The com- mon people being anciently slaves, had obtained their freedom upon different conditions. In many places they and their posterity remained bound to pay a perpetual tribute to their feudal lords, and such tribute formed a considerable part of the revenue of many of the pro- vincial nobles. And from this Russian system of com- munal labour and permanent contract between the labourers and the lord of the soil, France has not long broken away. A good authority tells us that the com- munity of Jault experienced this system so late as 1840. We add, too, what may be more amazing, thst so re- cently as the latter part of the eighteenth century the colliers of Scotland were bondsmen, their services being bought and sold with the soil they vegetated on. There was at that time even a law current, that dealt with a mere truant as with a common malefactor ! Now the inquiry as to the circumstances or in- fluences carrying England and France away from this species of servitude must be interesting, as well as those which at the same time preserved it in Russia. In other words we cannot fail to derive instruction from observing what principles there are at work forcing society through this cycle. A little thought must convince us that the Nomade tribes belong rather to Asia than to Europe. There arc geographical as well as physical reasons for this. Judging from the similarity that exists between the communal habits of these tribes, and those of the Russian serfs, they are destined to coalesce with that power. The lines of the Russian territory have been extended in conse- quence of a process of absorption that has been vigor- ously going on — a process that reminds us of the force of the attraction of gravitation exerted by a large body over several smaller ones placed within the influence of its power. We can see how extensively Russia has ope- rated on those tribes, when we consider the position of her south-eastern boundary, in comparison with what it was. It is constantly the case that Tartar tribes and distinction of race are being lost along her frontier lines. Over them she extends the ^gis of her laws, aud they gratefully in return own her protection, and to ratify the bargain, perhaps, make her a present of a sheep per family. The Nomades on this side are, therefore, soon likely to be absorbed, and throwing off their vagrant habits, to subside into the one uniform Russian system of compulsory engagement. This appears to be the first step in the process of civilization, and it seems strange that Russia who has done much to uncivilize Europe in certain parts, should be initiating the Tartar tribes into the first forms of it : Ac/grandizement, however, is her motto, not civilization. The Tartars live in considerable bodies, supported by their herds. Y/hen several tribes unite, as is the case when one chief has subdued many others, they often set out with the design of making a great conquest in some empire to the south. It was one of these re- unions and armed descents that formed in old Muscovy the nucleus of the present Russian empire. This northern migra- tion was attended by a necessary process of infudation, growing subsequently to the power to achieve great conquests. The Tartars never conquered as freemen, but as slaves ; for by particular circumstances of life they are involved in a political slavery, common to eastern populations ; and although their habits were gradually mitigated by occasional contact with the generous Goths, they yet retained an inherent love of governing by the cudgel and the whip. This Asiatic spirit of tyranny in the masters and servility in the people is yet very manifest, and is abhorrent to the instincts of Europeans, who regard as outrageous abuses what eastern people term punishment. Land was bestowed upon individuals as a species of benefice for military tenure, and on communities in return for certain manual service. This latter was some- times exacted without the assignment of territory, the allodial proprietor engaging only to provide for the social welfare of his serfs. The great German hordes em- ployed precisely the same means, followed by results differing only by reason of the difference in character between the Tartar and the Goth, and hence the system of compulsory engagements became general over Europe. The advantages and disadvantages of the system are very apparent. The commonalty, while possessing a certain degree of physical comfort, are dead in the eye of the law. The will of their masters in all things is an inexorable law to them. No arrangement, supposing the proprietors to be benevolent and the serfs improvi- dent, could be better; while no worse arrangement could be imagined, supposing the proprietary uncon- scious of responsibility and the serfs self-reliant. The idea is quite antagonistic to Nature. Moreover, where the lord and the serf occupy the relative position we have last supposed, there must exist peculiar danger to the form of government that perpetuates the injustice ; and it is the fear that the principles of liberty aud indepen- dence existing elsewhere may be infused into any large body of the serfs, that renders Russia, &c., so anxious to distance constitutionalism and deter foreign inter- course with its people. Under a system of free labour there is distress enough, we know; but there is an open path to every man desirous to mount to any position in society to which his abilities can convey him. But under the compulsory system of engagement, though distress is modified and pauperism is unknown, men cannot stray out of the orbit in which they are born. Once a slave always a slave, is the common rule, to which there are but few exceptions. F. R. S. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 159 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LINSEED AND OIL-CAKE TRADE. SiKj — The paat year Las been one of such surpassing interest as regards the article of Liuseed and its products, that we feel sure our present annual circular will prove worth jour attentive perusal and consideration ; the trade presenting an enlarged aspect every season, owin<; to the growing mill power, which has quadrupled within the last fourteen years. When wa had this pleasure twelve months since, we were at war with the country usually supplying tbree-fourtha of the entire growth of the world, and to judge from the warlike preparations then making, wevelikely to be dependent on our East Indian posses- sions for our wants until now. The unexpected acceptauce by our enemy of the proposed conditions of pesce staggered us all for a tinis ; and althouf/h wc then hclinied, and named to our friends also, that the disorganizalion of her I'es-jurces must cm tail our chief Russian sup})ly for this season's use, all con- siderations, except that of getting out of stock, seetne'l disre- garded, and the immediate fall in prices, rally, and subse- quent panic which ensued, together with the gradual and permanent return to nearly previous rates, render the year 1856 3 memorable one in ths history of seed-crushing. The losses in the first six months must have been most serious ; but following on prosperous times, and succeeded by a usually profitable working season up to this date, the trade was probably never in a healthier condition. Onr retrospect is interesting, from the various fluctuations which have occurred, and we wish we could add also that the prospect of future supply was a subject for congratulation; but from all we can learu, and which we particularize hereafter, we fear the prospects for 1857-8 are anything but encouraging for the manufacturer. We purpose this year to continue Calcutta seed as the standard of price, and also to subjoin, instead of prefacing, the customary statistics of import", &c., as heretofore; we beg at once, therefore, to call your attention to Linseed. — The year opened with a light stock, and a quiet but firm s\arket, at 76s. ; and but for the perplexity as to poli- tical matters, there was a disposition on the part of crushers to purchase at that rate. Their doubt was of short duration, however, for by the middle of January the important announce- ment had been made, and the prospect of peace sent the mar- ket instantly to 70$., and before the end of the month to 62s. Each succeeding sale marked a lower price, and it was not until we had reached a value similar to that touched in 1855 (when the news of the Czar's death arrived)— namely 563. — that there was any return to confidence. A gradual improve- ment afterwards followed, up to 6O3. per quarter, and for several weeks we had a steady business doing at that figure. Early in April, the serious fall in cakes and oil which had occurred (equal to 25s. per qr. for seeti), together with the unfortunate failure of one of the largest holders of seed, caused a perfect panic in prices, and as low as 47s. was accepted to realize some of the seed upon which advances had been made. This was hardly to be wondered at, as the season might then be consi- dered over, and for the one ensuing contracts were offered, and several entered into, at the same price for autumn arrival. Presently, however, seed on the spot was found very scarce, and an immediate reaction to SOs. followed, and was well sus- tained throughout April, May, and June, with a strong ten- dency to further improvement. In July the anxiety to provide for future wants showed the soundness of the market, and before that month closed we had advanced to 573., which price, with very few fluctuations, was maintained until the middle of October. At this period the decreasing shipments from India, and now apparent short supplies from the south of Russia, caused a very speculative demand, and G3s. was realized on the spot, and 653. to 663. for floating cargoes of Black Sea. The market has scarcely varied since, except prices for arrival, which have been flat at Is. to 2s. decline, whilst seed on hand has been firm at same rates. The depression in oil and cakes has deterred speculators from continuing their operations, and crushers could hardly be expected to compete with them whilst there was a certain loss of Ss. to 43. per qr. at the relative value for crushing. The lowest forward contracts of the year were of Archangel seed, free on board at 343. to 353,; good crushing Eiga, SSs. ; and Morshansky, at oQs. to 403. Black Sea seed has followed the value of Calcutta, and being in car- goes available for outport delivery, it has generally obtained a greference of Is. to Is. 6d. per qr. In East India seed very little has been done until arrival, merchants being most reluc- tant sellers in the face of the heavy loss accruing on all this year's imports from that quarter. AVe have a critical period before us, both in respect of the remainder of this season and of tlie next. We have about 140,000 qrs. in stock here and at Hull, and nearly 150,000 qrs. afloat, to supply the demand until May next. As, however, we have imported above 800,000 qrs. during the last six months, the majority of cruahers are well supplied, and, notwithstanding the great consumption withiu that period, hold above average stocks for the time of year. The very discouraging prospects for 1857-58 must, however, exercise a great influence even on present prices ; for, we regret to say, from no one district in Kussia is the crop well spoken of, but, on the contrary, everywhere are we led to expect short supplies, and, owing to the heavy rains during the late liarvest, indifl'erent quality also. At the East Indies the competition of the Americans for their yearly-increasing wants makea us hope for but little to this country, unless it should happen that the higher foreign values induce the natives to supply their markets more freely again, and that our improving prices, setting off against the decline in America, may divert the shipments to this channel. The export at Calcutta since May last consisted of 160,000 qrs. to America against 20,000 qrs. to England, or eight times as much ; whilst in 1855, during the same period, our supply was nearly double their.», or 200,000 qrs. to 100,000 qrs. So striking a fact requires no comment beyond the simple relation of it, and we leave you to form your own conclusions as to what must be the eventual result. In the autumn profitable transshipments of seed took place from here to New York, and, from the tendency of their markets (according to the latest quotations), it is not impro- bable they may very soon return the compliment. We can scarcely expect to see our home trade remain much longer in its present very anomalous condition, for with the probability of dear seed, speculative sales are making of oil, so that if cakes are to continue at their present value, and that article is not to mend, there will be no choice left to those crushers who are unsupplied with seed but to close their mills, unless they are enabled to purchase it on more favourable terms than at present seems likely to be the case. The quality of the Calcutta seed was a trifle better than that of the previous year. Bombay maintains its high character. Black Sea has been various, the bulk consisting of old seed and being but indifferent. Fine Petersburg has been very good, but the secondary sorts of a most unsatisfactory description. Kiga and Archangel quite up to their former averages. The present stock in public warehouses here consists of 49,500 qrs.— namely, 21,000 Calcutta, 15,000 Bombay, 8,000 Black Sea, 2,500 Archangel, and 3,000 Baltic, &c. At Hull it is said to be 90,000 qrs. Afloat, the quantity already named consists of 100,000 qrs. Black Sea and Mediterranean transshipments, 10,000 qrs. Cal- cutta, 6,000 Bombay, 8,000 Alexandria, and 10,000 Baltic, Archangel and sundries. The import into London is somewhat under that of 1855 — namely, 265,113 qrs. against 306,245 qrs. The aggregate into the United Kingdom amounts to more than 1,100,000 qrs., being almost one-half greater than last year, or the aver- age of the preceding seven years. The comparative official returns are as follow — say, from January to December : — Qrs. Qrs. 1841 ... ... 363,461 1849 626,490 1842 ... ... 367,600 1850 608,984 1843 ... ... 470,539 1851 630,471 1844 ... ... 616,947 1852 799,402 1845 ... ... 656,793 1853 1,035,335 1846 ... ... 506,141 1854 828,513 1847 ... ... 439,512 1855 756,950 1818 ... ... 799,650 1856 about 1,100,000 160 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The season's import — lint ia to say, July to June— was as under, namely — 1848-49") 1850-51 y 700,000 qrs. 1851-52 J 1849-50 600,000 „ 1852-53 825,000 „ 1853-54 1,030,000 „ 1854-55 1,006,000 „ 1855 56 644,000 „ 1856-57 will probably be.. 1,250,000 „ The supply to this port consisted of 162,000 qrs. from Cal- cutta, 55,000 qrs. Bombay, 20,500 qrs. Black Sea and Medi- terranean transshipments (including the early imports of Bessarabia seed by way of the Danube), 3,000 qrs. Alexandria, 8,000 qrs. Archangel, 16,500 qrs. Baltic ports and sundries. The aggregate import to United Kingdom again shows a marked alteration in our sources of supply, the East Indies having fallen off oue-fourth, whilst the Northern Kussian ports have furnished the deficiency, and likewise added a sur- plus, which brings the import 400,000 qrs. in excess of 1855: It was made up of about 225.000 qrs. Calcutta, 85,000 qrs. Bombay, 260,000 qrs. Petersburgh, ;68,000 qrs. Archangel, 125,000 qrs. Riga (15,000 qrs. sowin^r, and 110,000 qrs. crushing), 140,000 qrs. Memel, Konigsberg, and sundry Baltic ports ; 35,000 qrs. from Alexandria, and 184,500 qrs. Black Sea, the latter discharging as follows :— Hull, 50,000 qrs. ; Liverpool, 28,000 qrs. ; London, 20,500 qrs. ; Grimsby, 14,500 qrs. ; Southampton and Ipswich, 13,500 qrs. ; Dover, 12,000 qrs.; Yarmouth, 8,500 qrs. ; Lowestoft, 7,800 qrs. ; Rochester, 5,100 qrs.; Newcastle, 3,800 qrs.; Lynn, 3,000 qrs. ; Gloucester, 2,600 qrs. ; Dublin, 1,700 qrs. Belgium likewise took nearly 30,000 qrs , Holland 10,000 qrs., and France 2,000 qrs. The re-export, which nearly all took place in the early months of the year, amounted to about 45,000 qrs., against 130,000 qrs. in 1855, 70,000 qrs. in 1854, 55,000 qrs. in 1853, and 30,000 qrs. in 1852; St. Petersburg also sent ^direct to the various continental ports 110,000 qrs. : Archangel, 50,000 qrs. ; Riga, 45,000 qrs. of sowing, and 85,004 qrs. of crush- ing seed. The Lower Baltic shipments for the same destina- tions must likewise have been heavy. Linseed Oil has remarkably fulfilled our expectations in the course it has run since our last annual circular was issued, and the causes of the fluctuations have been more definable than for many previous years. Our market in 1855 closed firmly at £42 10s. ; and with so continuous a demand, short stocks, and probable small supply of seed, we considered " an immediate peace icoidd not he likely permanently to depre- ciate its value for some months." The correctness of that view was fully borne out by the end of September, when oil again realized that price ; and it would not surprise us now, owing to the various influences at work, to find it similarly quoted before we again have this pleasure. Directly the year opened, prices advanced to £44 on the spot, with buyers for future delivery .'>t £45 ; but as the then demand was chiefly speculative, the value was hardly maintained after the first few days, and a decline of lOs. to 15s. per ton occurred. The notable announcement of the 17th January upset the market most effectually, and the first transaction was £40, the second at about £37, and the market continued to decline until it touched £33, the middle of February. So sudden a fall of 25 per cent, encouraged purchases, and by this time also a great clearance having been made of the stocks of speculative holders, the price steadied to £36 towards the end of the mouth. The improvement was not maiutaiued, for no one would buy a gallon more than he could help (with forward oil offered at £6 per ton less !) and we relapsed to £34 in the month of March. The demand was all along good, and oil very scarce. Early in April some failures occasioned several parcels to be suddenly thrown upon the market, and a similar panic to that in seed ensued, £29 being a current price at the end of the month. At this period also, several crushers having secured cheap seed, realized their oil at £28 to £30 for autumn delivery, and were followed by speculative sellers at 203. to SOs. per ton less money. When May came, the diminished make of the previous month began to tell, and, with a fair export trade, we iuaproved to £32. During June, the paucity of stock again became more apparent, and we improved a further 403. per ton. In July, although buyers held off until the latest moment, it was scarcer than ever, and the closiuj^of the " Bear" operations for future delivery just alluded to im- proved it to £38, and even £40 for some contracts. August prices were £38 on the spot, £33 last three months, and £31 lOs. for 1857 deliveries, and at each price in great request. In September the continued export and home demand improved the value of £42 lOs., but the market was very un- steady, being much influenced by the speculative account then open ; and the same remarks apply to October, during which month the value fluctuated between £37 lOs. and £41. The forward price had improved by this time to £39 for No- vember and December, and £33 for first three months' deli- very. In November the market was quiet, at about £38 lOs , but oil even then unquestionably scarce; and last mouth, notwithstanding an evident disposition on the part of the trade to go into stock, as low as £37 was accepted. The latter result was occasioned chiefly by large speculative sales for spring delivery, at about the same price ; and it was only natural that consumers should prefer such purchases, and so save the cost of holding. The high value of seed deters crushers from entering into such contracts ; and if the present export holds, we may see as great a reaction when the period for delivery arrives, as we did a few months since. The exportation has been enormous, the bulk of it having gone to Germany, and chiefly in substitution of fish oils and tallow, both for soap-making purposes and burning. As it is still relatively cheaper than either of these articles, as well as rape oil, a continuance of shipments is very probable. The progressive increase is deserving marked attention. In 1848 it was only 11,000 tons; in 1851, 13,500 tons ; and in 1854, 15,500 tons; then 17,500 tons; and last year, the ex- traordinary quantity of nearly 30,000 tons. LiNSEEi) Cakes require but little comment. Prices have been chiefly regulated by the value of seed, and are likely to be so more than ever, we believe, in the ensuing season. The demand hitherto has been very regular, and consumption fully up to any previous season. £13 per ton was the opening price in January, about £12 directly the peace news came, and it afterwards dwindled to £10 in April, and continued so until seed had partly recovered the decline, when it improved to £10 15s. to £11 per ton : since November, however, it has been flat, and above £10 10s. scarcely obtainable. With re- gard to the future course of prices, it is most diflScult to give an opinion. We can only refer back to our concluding remarks on the article of linseed. Of Foreign Cakes the import last year was about on a par with that of the two previous ones. The trade opened in January with a good demand, at £14 per ton for barrel American, £13 10s. bags, and £12 10s. for Marseilles. This continued throughout the month; but early in February prices began to recede, and continued to do so until the end of May, when they touched bottom, the decline then being fully £3 10s. per ton upon the opening rates. About this time, and early in June, the dealers came forward freely to supply future wants, and several large contracts were entered into for shipment to the end of the year. Cargoes, Marseilles, October to January shipment, were done at £8 5s. to £9, cost, freight, and insurance, barrel American £10, coat, freight, and insurance, and bags £9 53., cost, freight, and insurance. At the end of June, the demand con- tinuing, sellers were enabled to advance their prices 20s. per ton, at which a good business was done ; and by the middle of July a further 10s. per ton was obtained. In August, we had a fair demand, at a trifling advance on previous rates, which continued with a steady trade, at same figures, until November. Last month, in consequence of the heavy arrivals and impoiters' desire to realise, a reduction took place of about 15s. per ton, and dealers bought freely thereat. The market shows again signs of increased demand, and prices are to-day a trifle firmer, say, best New York, brls. £11 53., bags £10 59., and Marseilles £9, cost, freight, and insurance. Rapeseed and other oil seeds are again greatly in excess of last or any previous year, being 225,000 qrs. into this port alone, and into the United Kingdom about 260,000 qrs. The re-export, however, amounts to nearly 150,000 qrs., against 96,000 last year, and 17,000 qri. in 1854 ; so that the quan- tity left for home consumption has not varied much. The year opened with a quiet market at 73s., and it very quickly dropped to 65s. on the first announcement of peace. By March it had receded to 60s., and at that time good-con- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 101 ditioued seed waa so scarce, aud so uecessary for working up the immeuse quantity of heated sorts on hand, that it rallied to 643., and was afterwards steady for some time at about 62s. After April it declined very rapidly, and some sales occuried as low as SSs. ; a sharp re-action followed, and it again re- covered to 65s. in July, since when we have had dull markets at 64s. to 623. The value of to-day is 633., with a fair stock, and only moderate demand. In the spring of the year nearly all the Calcutta seed arrived in a heated state, aud the grain, which to outward appearance was sound, was, on breaking, found burnt and discoloured to such an extent as to depreciate the value from 25 to 50 per ceut., aud considerable sales were made at those reductions. Fine Bombay seed has realised Ss. to 53. per qr. more than the best Calcutta, and is still much in favour. Ou arrival, the value has generally been a trifle below that current on the spot. The stock now in warehouse consists of about 30,000 qrs., against 5,000 qrs. in 1855. Ou the other hand, however, the quantity afloat is only 35,030 qrs., whereas then it was 130,000 qrs. Other oil-seeds bear the following quotations : — Sesame, teel, and gingelly, 5S3. to 633.; poppy, 62s.; niger, 463., with moderate stocks on baud. Rapeoil, the import is about the same as during the previous year, and the trade has been unusually steady. The value of English refined at the time our last circular was published, stood at £50 per ton. In common, however, with all articles influenced by the cessation of the war, that quota- tion very rapidly declined to £19. It rallied back to £53, in March, and by May (that is, at the close of the season) had declined again to £45, and even £44. In July it had again run up to £53, and the fluctuations have been but trifling ever since — that price, up to £54, being our quotation to-day. Rape Cakes. — The course of prices has closely followed that of liuseed-cakes, to which article it seems constantly now to bear a relative value. £7 10s. was the value in January, and it receded rapidly to £6 before March. At the close of the season £5 was the price, and even £4 was accepted for indifferent qualities made of heated East India seed. Until October no change took place, but we have since gradually improved, and £6 to £G 10s. is to-day's price for fine green foreign makes. Fish Oils have again experienced considerable fluctuations, and in the case of Sperm Oil a very serious decline. £127 was January's value, and it has declined steadily, month by month, until it now marks only £88 per tun. Pale Seal opened at £57, declined to £48 by July, recovered to £51 in November, and has since barely supported that value. Southern. — The present price is £51, it was the same last January, and has been nearly as dear throughout the year, the exceptive months being March to Jane, when it realized only £46 to £47. Cod Oil also marks the same value as at this period in 1855, namely, £49. In April it was as low as £42, but gradually improved up to November, and was once quoted £5'2, but this figure has been barely maintained since. Spirits of Turpentine was a dragging sale during the past year, at from Sis. 6d. to 35s. 6d., being quoted lowest in May and July, and highest in February. Within the last few days, however, a speculative demand drove it rapidly up to 493. 6d., but this price has not been supported, and the nearest value to-day is 47s. 6d. Tallow. — We need hardly say that tallow, at all times one of the most speculative articles of commerce, has been peculiarly so during the past twelve months. Scarcely a week has elapsed without violent fluctuations ; and even now, when we might have expected them to subside, they are as frequent, although perhaps not so heavy, as when we were iu a state of war. £68 was January's earliest quotation, £56 a few days afterwards, then £60, aud at the close of the month £53 sellers. During February it ranged from £57 to £61 IO3. for P.Y.C. (sorts, however, selling at very disproportion- ate prices). The value of P.Y.C. was kept up by the combi- natiou of a few speculators to take all the tallow previously contracted for ; and as it was known to be a heavily over-sold account, they expected to rua prices to such a pitch as to compensate themselves for the certain decline after the time- bargains were closed. The speculation broke down, however, before March closed ; and there was scarcely an intermediate price between £57 and £47. During April, May, aud June, it declined to £45. In July it was £47 to £53 ; August, £51 to £54; September, £50 to £53 ; October, £51 to £57 lOs. In November it was daily quoted differently, ranging from £55 to £59 10s. ; and last month, the lowest price touched was £57. The market continues in a most feverish condition, £59 having been the quotation on Monday, and to-day's price is £58. The stock is but small ; and, heavy speculative contracts remaining open for spring delivery, we shall pro- bably have very irregular markets for some time to come. London, Jan, 1. Edwards, Eastxy, & Co. TRADE OF THE PORT OF HULL. REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1856. With the issue of the Annual Report it must be remarked that the past year has been characterized by an extraordinary increase of the trade of this port, and founded on such a legitimate basis as to give every prospect of a progressive cou- tinuauce. Articles of aunual produce must naturally be governed by results of harvests, but the consumptive demand of this country is certainly proved to be enormously increased, and must be supplied either by home or foreign produce. The requirements of foreign nations for many articles of the ma- nufactures of this country have likewise shewn themselves beyond any former precedent, and greatly of those articles which this country has the advantage of producing more fa- vourably than any other, and for the export of which this port offers the greatest facilities. The return of peace after the two years' war with Russia has materially led to a great extension of business between this port and that country. Certain of its products, which could bear the charges of transport, such as flax, hemp, and tallow, having been allowed by our government to reach U3 through Prussian ports, may be considered as exceptions, but grain, linseed, iron, deals, tar, and other articles which did not find their way across the frontier, have been largely imported here during the year. The tonnage entering the port during the year amounts to 1,076,787, against 782,411 last year, and 850,229 in 1854. The number of ships and vessels reported inward on foreign voyages is this year 3,157, and tonnage 743,517, whilst last year the number was 2,123, and tonnage 468,047, shewing au in- crease of 1,034 vessels, and 275,470 tons. The tonnage of steam ships in the foreign trade was, in 1855, 14,392, whilst this year it amounts to 28,229, shewing an increase of 13,837 tons, or nearly double the previous year's steam tonnage. The necessity of further dock and shed accommodation has induced the dock company to apply for power to enlarge their works, and it is expected that no time will be lost in entering upon their construction. It may be allowed here to call the attention of our merchants and shipowners, as well as the more important agricultural and manufacturing interests of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the Mid- land Counties, to the reported, aud it is to be feared too suc- cessful, attempts on the part of powerful railway companies to possess themselves of the great inland or canal navigation of these districts. The interests of commerce generally demand that the great carryiug trade of this country should not be placed in the hands of any single body of men, however able aud honest they may prove themselves to be. A monopoly so gigantic in its nature is ominous of fearful consequences, against which it is impossible to be too much upon our guard. With legitimate competition no port can rival this in despatch or moderation of charges on goods in store or in transit, and it remains with our local ra Iways and dock company to provide sufficient room and accommodation for its increasing trade, involving as that does to a certain extent the future prosperity of the port. 162 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. GRAIN. — The favourable change of circumstances above alluded to has had a marked effect on the value of all sorts of cereal produce, and we close this year with prices very mucli iu fivour of the cousumer as compared with last. These would, unquestionably, have been still lower, but for the more ex- tended consumption in this country, and the failure of the crop3 in Soulheru Europe. Wilh regard to WHEAT, not only in this country, but iu France, Holland, Belgium, and the States of the Church, the prices have ruled high throughout the year ; arising in those countries from a deficiency of the crops, and in tbis from a more extensive consumption among the working classes generall}^ whose constant employment and good wages have created a demand which liberal supplies of both home and foreign Wheat have only kept pace with. As soon as hostilities ceased with Russia, large shipments were made from that country, which met the increasing demand, arising from the deficiency in last year's crop. From the other Baltic ports the arrivals were much less than usual, and the Black Sea and Mediterranean supplies were almost entirely swallowed up by the demand for France and the South of Europe. The crop of Wheat in this country would doubtless have been large, and of fine quality, but for the prevalence of heavy rains about harvest. Much was carried in good condition in this quarter, but north of the Humber a large quantity re- maitied in the field exposed for weeks together to the most untoward weather that has been experienced for many years past. The result has undoubtedly been that the last Wheat crop, both as to quantity aud quality, is decidedly under an average. During uegociations for peace some fluctuation iu price was experienced, and when the announcement was made, our market was but slightly affected. At this time the value of fine red English was 673. to TOs. (63 lbs.); Danish and Hambro' about the same ; Konigsberg and Danzig white 783. (601b3.) The arrival in April of several cargoes from the Me- diterranean, combined with the fair deliveries of home-grown, caused a slight depression in prices; they had, however, reached a poiut which induced our farmers to withhold sup- plies, and importers to warehouse, rather than submit lo any further reduction. In Jiuie the Russian Wheat began to make its appearance, value 603. for soft. In the end of tbis month quotations advanced to 65s. for good soft Russian; good mixed Danzig 80s. ; and the market bare of other foreign. During the following month the trade fluctuated with the Tvcathcr, whicli, being variable, prices became more firm. A brilliant sun iu the beginning of August, with fine forcing weather, soon left sellers almost at the mercy of buyers, and a mere hand-to-mouth business ensued at a decline of Gs. to 8s. per qr. on the sales of the previous month, the re- sult of the operations of a few timid holders, who, acting on the semve qui pent principle, detennined to get out at any sacrifice. Harvest commenced in the middle of September in this quarter, interrupted by occai^ional stormy weather, sufiicicnt, however, to create more firmness on the part of our farmers and holders of foreign Wheat, although the import about this time, particularly of Prussian, was liberal. Up to the end of the mouth the weather, which was then very imsettled, interfered to some extent with the progress of the haiTest; snmples of new W'heat, nevertheless, soon made their appearance in our market, the quality of which was generally fine, red bringing 60s. to 65s., and white 70s. ti 72s. per qr. At this time Danish and Hambro' red was worth G6s., Konigsberg and Danzig white 72s. to 75s., and Russian soft 58s. to 60s. By the end of September harvest operations in these dis- tricts were almost completed ; the quality generally nny be said to be fair, the yield rather less than an average, in conseqircnce of a portion having been indift'crently secured. On the whole, we have no reason to complain ; and had the harvest in other parts of the kingdom been equally favour- able, there is little doubt but a good average crop would have been the result. Complaints of the Potato disease made about this time, too general to be ignored, combined with a demand for the continent, had their effect on prices; but as this demand was confined chiefly to hard Wheats, other qualities were little influenced thereby. During the months of November and December the demand was slow, and prices had declined to 56s. to 60s. for new red English, and 65s. for mixed Danzig, whilst new Baltic was quoted 58s. to 60s,, and Russian soft 58s,, hard 68s., at about which rates the year closes. The stocks of Wheat in this country and on the continent at the beginning of last har- vest were under an average; the war had left its effects on Southern Russia and Turkey ; the rains and inundations in France, the failure of the crops in Spain, Portugal, and the Papal dominions, added to the advancing population and greatlj' inci-eased consumptive demand on the part of the working classes of the country, all combine to negative the idea of any decline; whilst, on the other hand, the still comparative!}'' high range of prices all over Europe, which may lead to a greater breadth of land being sown, the splendid seed time which has been experienced in this J country, and the favourable accounts of the crop and large ■ imports from the United States, tend to the expectation i that the staple article of the food of tlie people is not likely to be greatly enhanced above its present value. BARLEY has this year I'egained its wonted important position amongst the chief imports of the port. The sup- plies from abroad have been large, say 159,820 qrs., against 27,009 qrs. only in 1 855 ; but the requirements of the dis- trict have been to a corresponding extent, aud a ready sale throughout the j'car has generally been effected from ship- board ; this at least applies to all good malting and feeding description?, whilst of the latter kind some Mediterranean has been and still remains warehoused. Soon after the turn of the j'ear it became manifest that the inland crop was fast working up, but these shortcomings were for several months made up bj^ adequate importations from Denmark and other countries ; and prices remained about stationary until the middle of the year, when the imports from abroad also fell oft\ and a gradual advance ensued in consequence, which in the month of September amounted to 5s. to 6s. per qr. (being altogether 8s. to 9s. above the lowest period, viz., in March). Since then the good accounts and subsequent large deliveries from Denmark and Northern Gennany have, in spite of a deficient home crop, checked prices, which again have lost the above-mentioned advance, and now range about the same as six months ago — 39s. to 40s. per qr. (541b.) for usual foreign malting, and 34s. to 36s. per qr. (52^1b.) for grinding, against 39s. to 40s. and 37s. to 38s. respectively at this period last year. Fine foreign Chevalier, Saale, and English malting Barley, being unusually scarce, is at present worth 46s. to 48s. per qr. (561b.) It is a feature worthj'ofremark, that this article at the present time is worth as much or more than it was at the end of last year, whilst all other kinds of grain are from 10 to 30 per cent. lower now than then — viz., Wheat about 20s., Oats 3s. to 4s., Beans 10s,, and Peas lis. to 12s. per qr. The stocks are rather large, say 31,500 qrs., against 3,000 qrs. at the end of last year, but mostly Medi- terranean. OATS have shewn bnt little fluctuation during the present year. The supplies have been to a fair extent, amoimtiug in the aggregate to 42,045 qrs. (iu which are iucluded several cargoes from Russia) against 36,059 qra. last year. The deal- ings have been of a purely consumptive character, and prices have barely varied 5s, from the highest to the lowest point throughout the year, and they now leave off at 26s. to 283. per qr. (421b.) against 29s. to Bis. same time last year. The present stocks iu the port are 3,C00 qrs., agaiust 3,600 qrs. iu 1855. BEANS have been imported to a much larger extent than last year, 69,756 qrs. to 42,050 qrs. A drop in the prices took place at the commencement of the year, from which, however, a gradual recovery occurred after Midsummer ; but large supplies from the continent, where the crops have been abundant, have caused prices to recede Ss. to lOs. during the last two months, and they now stand at 403. to 429. per qr. (631b.) for new English, against 493. to 50s. last year at this time. Stocks are at present 9,000 qrs., against 8,500 qrs, in 1855. PEAS have followed Beans in the movements of the market throughout the year. The supplies amount to 4,736 qrs., against 9,018 qrs. in the preceding year, thus showing a con- siderable falling off in the imports of this article. Owiug to a comparatively high range of prices, the trade has been entirely on the hand-to-raouth system, and so remains; the value, however, is now about 12s. less than last year, being at present 403, to 41s, per qr. (631b.) for white boilers, and 363. to 88s. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 363 for grinding. The stocks are 3,000 qrs., agaiaat 2,600 qrs. at the close of 1855. CLOVER AND OTHER SEEDS.— At the close of the Clovcrseed season last spring, the stock of both wliite and red seed left over in this country, as well as on the continent, was unprecedentedly small, and before the result of the new crop was ascertained, what little old seed of good quality could be found was eagerly bought up at gradually advancing prices. The early accounts of the new white seed crop in Germany were very favourable both as to quality and yield, and offers for forward delivery were made at very moderate prices compared with last season. It soon, however, became apparent enough that these coloured reports emanated from certain interested speculators in Hamburg, who, having made large sales on contract for forward delivery, were anxious, irrespective of facts, to depress the market in order to supply their contracts at as large a profit as possible. In spite of these attempt?, supplies came forward very sparingly, and prices continued to advance ; thus, seed sold in August, for delivery in October and November at 6O3. to 63s. per cwt. was at the time of delivery worth 6Ss. to 763. free on board at Hamburg, The white seed now coming in from Germany is of good fair quality, though not equal to what we have had in former years; and those dealers in this country who are waiting to buy fine even quality, will in all probability be dis- appointed. The crop in Germany is represented to be nearly an average one, but there being, as before stated, no overheld stocks, it becomes questionable whether this year's produce will be sufficient for the requirements of the ensuing season, and therefore higher prices may be anticipated. The crop of red seed in France is small in quantity and inferior ia quality in comparisoQ with former years. There are likewise very trifling quantities saved in Belgium and Holland, and that mostly of weathered and inferior quality ; while in this coun- try, the continued wet weather happening just at the critical time when the seed was cut and in the fields, the crop, which at one time promised to be abundant, was almost entirely destroyed, and the trifling quantity saved will be of very inferior quality. The crop in Germany is represented to be about an average, and although the quality will not be equal to what has been produced in some former years, still there will be a fair quantity of good useful growing seed. The crop of Trefoil is reported to be fine in quality in this country, but the acreage and yield are much smaller than usual, while the result of the French crop is tolerably good, both as regards quality and quantity. This has been largely purchased by the trade, and the stocks in France are now materially reduced. ItaUan Eye Grass is certainly a better crop this year than last, but in consequence of the increasing demand for this article, importers have been eager to secure the stocks abroad at an early period ; so that recent reports speak of the sup- plies of this seed as being nearly cleared out, Eib Grass i-3 scarce beyond all former precedent. We may consequently hazard the opinion that prices will be higher when the con- sumptive demand commences. LINSEED. — The transactions in this important article of local consumption have been of a« unprecedented character, both as respects the extent of the import and of the fluctua- tions in value. Our imports in 1853 were 455,000 qrs. ; in 1854, 305,610 qrs.; in 1855, 233,800 qrs. ; and in 1856,'501,021 qrs.— the greatest supply ever received, consisting of 409,940 qrs. from the Baltic a>.'d Archangel, 62,087 qrs. from the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and 29,894 qrs. from the East Indies. If we add thereto the imports into Grimsby, 64,419 qrs., and into Gainsbro', 29,089 qrs., and the transshipments from London (chiefly of East Indian seed), about 15,000 qrs., we arrive at a grand total of 608,949 qrs., into the Humbcr ports in 1856, being more thau one-half of the entire imports of the United Kingdom. At the commencement of the year the stock of Linseed was small (about 30,000 qrs.), and prices extremely high. Black Sea being sold at 78s. per qr., fine Petersburg 74s. to 763., and Riga and Lower Port ordinary 63s. to 653., and the great ma- jority of the mill power idle. The war with Russia appeared likely to continue, and our prospects for supplies were corres- pondingly small. Rumours of the probability of peace negocia- tions, however, soon became current, and the imports being on a liberal scale, a decided and uninterrupted decline in prices ensued, until about the middle of February, whcu seed had given way 10s. to 153. per qr., according to quality. The de- mand for cake tending to increase the consumption, values were maintained with little variation till the commencement of April, when it was computed the entire stock of seed in the port was under 10,000 qrs. ! The successful termination cf the peace negociations, together with more liberal supplies, rendered holders anxious to realize, and the markets continued to decline under forced sales until prices reached their lowest, about the end of May, when Black Sea seed was quoted Sis. perqr.; Petersburg fine, 483. ; ordinary Riga aud Lower Port, 369. to 383. (weighed 51 lbs.) For several weeks prices re- mained stationary, but a large export demand for oil springing up, the consumption of seed was greatly stimulated, and a steady and uninterrupted improvement in prices ensued to nearly the present moment, when Black Sea seed is worth 6I3, to 623. ; fine Petersburg, 58s. to 6O3. ; ordinary Riga and Lower Port, 50s. to 543. The position of the crushing trade during the past month has been unsatisfactory. Notwith- standing the considerable reduction in the value of oil, and the reatricled demand for cake, holders of seed have made little or no concession in their demands, and a natural result is a dimi- nished consumption, several mills being already closed, with every prospect that others will have to follow their example, unless the relative value of seed and its products assimilate more closely. The slocks in warehouse at the end of this year are about 60,000 qts., and from 15,000 to 20.000 qrs. in the hands of crushers. LINSEED OIL.— The fluctuations in the value of this article, as may be surmised from the preceding paragraph, have been severe. A very moderate inquirj- for home con- sumption existed at the beginning of the year at about 43s. per cwt., and a trifling advance thereon demanded for deli- very the first three months ; but prices immediately gave way with much rapidity, and though some export demand showed itself prices had fallen 10s. per cwt. bj- the middle of February, when a slight reaction ensued, which proved of short duration, and values receded until the lowest point was reached, the second week in May, when Oil was ob- tainable for immediate delivery at 293. per cwt. The crushers generally, entertaining the impression that Oil was susceptible of further decline, entered into large contracts (chiefly, as it proved, with export houses) for forward deli- ver}' at prices ranging from 27s. Gd. per cwt. upvwards. To this circumstance, and the speculative operations induced thereby, may be attributed tlie very remarkable movement that took place in this article and in Seed, Stimulated by these low prices, the export of Oil assumed so unprece- dented a character, that, in conjunction with a heavy "bear" account, the utmost exertion on the part of our crushers was barelj' sufficient to supply the demand and provide for the monthly deliveries in fulfilment of con- tracts. Prices rapidlj' advanced to 40s, to 40s. 6d. at the close of September, which value was maintained, with trifling fluctuations, to the close of November. During the present month, owing to the decline in the export — occasioned partly by the interruption to the navigation of the near ports, and curtailment of transactions usual at this season— prices have given way about £4 per ton, the near- est value this day being 3Gs. per cwt. The export from hence to the continent has been enormous, say 12,.540 tons, against 5,C2o tons in 1055 and G,240 tons in 1054, Stocks of Oil here are light, probably not exceeding 500 tons; and as the production has fallen off materiallj-, and the market for seed evinces so much firmness, it is not impro- bable prices will recover shortly. Indeed there are buyers for spring delivery at 37s. to 373. 6d., while the value on the spot is but 3Gs. per cwt. Of LINSEED CAKES the production has necessarily been greatly in excess of any former year; yet their v.alue as a food for cattle is so generally acknowledged and appre- ciated by agriculturists, that there appears little limit to the consumption but that imposed by price and supply; and an active demand, with but little exception, pre- vailed during the year. As might be presumed, stocks were trilling at the commencement of the year ; prices of Hull-made very high— £13 lOs. to £13 15.s. perton: the demand accordingly extremely limited, but still fully equal to the production. A decline, however, of fulU' £2 10s, per ton in February brought them more into consumption, 161 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and prices improved in March to £11 5s. to £11 lOs., but receded again at the end of April to £8 15s. to £9 ; im- proved in Jlay, closing somewhat flatter at the end of the month, when a few contracts for forward deliver.y were made at £13 8s. and upwards. The demand continuing very good, prices improved in June and July, when tlie value was £9 10s. to £10. In August, Oil being in great de- mand, the crushers were consuming large quantities of Seed ; and production of Cake being con-espondingly great, prices again receded, but in September were again £10 5s. to £10 iOs. ; and continued steady thereat until the begin- ning of November, when the demand slackened, and re- mained dull to the present time, when Hull-made are ob- tainable at £9 15s. Foreign Cakes have been in small supply, and command fair sales at prices proportionate, quality considered, with the home-made. RAPESEED.— The imports this year is 1,G00 lasts, against 1,420 last year. Very little of this appeared on our market, the great proportion going direct into the hands of our crushers and those of the West Riding. RAPE OIL.— The import has been verj; trifling this year compared with last, the quantities being 230 casks against 1,190 last year, the article having been dearer on the continent than in this countrj'. Prices, which stood at 58s. per cwt. for brown English in the beginning of the year, gradually receded to 51s., the present value. The business passing throughout the year has been of a merely retail character, and prices at times, from the absence of demand, were quite nominal. RAPE CAKES.— The import has been small compared to last year, and prices generally lower, the demand having been interfered with to some extent by the moderate prices of linseed cake and other articles which have been largely used for feeding purposes, OLIVE OIL.— The import this year has been 4,920 tons, against 4,363 tons last year; which, together, is more than the total importation of the five previous years. The stock at present is about 280 tons, against 775 tons same time last year. If the consumption goes on for the next year as it has done the past two years, it is doubtful whether supplies can be had to meet the increased consumption ; and the probability is that prices will now continue high for some time to come. The stock consists of about 40 tons Gallipoli, GOZante,and 180 other sorts, chiefly Seville. £58 is asked for Seville, and £60 for Gallipoli ; the corres- ponding prices last year being £53 and £55. FISH OILS. — The northern whale and seal fisheries have for some years past had small attention from this port. The import was about 100 tuns seal and 340 whale, great part of the latter having been sold for arrival at £40 to £42 per tun, the price here having ruled from £46 to £48 per tun, all without casks, the market closing about £46 10s. per tun. The Diana having made two successful voyages, is now being fitted with a screw and high-pressure engines; the result of which ia looked for with much interest. FLAX. — The total imports of flax for the 3^ear amounts to 18,941 tons, against 14,909 tons in 1855, 12,271 tons in 1854, 15,895 tons in 1853, and 14,050 tons in 1852. Of the present year's import 9,030 tons are from the Baltic, against 7,465 tons in 1855, 4,331 tons in 1854, 7,832 tons in 1853, and 6,317 tons in 1852 ; the re- maining quantities are divided as follows, viz., 4,228 tons from Holland, 5,164 from Belgium, 321 from France, and 198 from sundries. The expectation of peace in the early months of the year induced great caution on behalf of the spinners, who only took the article to meet their immediate wants, and thus succeeded in depressing the market from £2 to £4 per ton below the quotations at the close of 1855. After this reduction the trade revived, and much business was done in the months of March, April, and May, both in our own and in the Scotch markets, with little variation in prices •, the first qualities realizing more than the usual relative value. The arrivals from Riga were generally de- layed by adverse winds until July, and the spinners becoming bare of stock, prices assumed great firmness. Large supplies came forward in August, but the demand being good the values were fully maintained, fine qualities being still prominently in request. In September and October the market remained steady, but the trade was of a more quiet character; and in some instances a slight re- duction in price was submitted to. During the last two months, the spinning trade being in a lively condition, prices have advanced from 20s. to 30s. per ton, the market closing very firmlj'. The stocks on hand are moderate, and with the prospect of an extensive consumption, and the influence of the advance in cotton, holders look for rather higher values. We quote good WCM at £45 10s., which is about £5 per ton below the rates at the close of last year. HEMP. — The year's import of this article is about the same as in 1855. Prices have varied considerably during the j-ear. Petersburg clean, which ruled at the commence- ment at £44 per ton, fell rapidly until May, when the lowest point was reached ; clean being then worth £31, and Rhine £32 per ton. The Russian dealers at that period advanced their demands, causing a gradual reaction to take place in the English markets, and we quote the price now, at the close of the year, £36 to £36 10s. for clean, without, however, much animation in the trade ; the increasing use among our cordage manufacturers of other fibres doubtless having a considerable influence. We estimate the present stock in Hull at nearly 2,000 tons. TALLOW. — The import has considerably exceeded the last j'ear •, the largest proportion of which has gone into the interior, being for London account, the demand here being limited generally to a retail consumption. Our prices altogether depend upon the London market, at which im- porters are free sellers, there being a slight advantage over the metropolitan market in freight and insurance. The stock at the end of the present year consists of 550 casks, against 508 last year. IRON. — Our imports this year have been to a much larger extent than last, say 32,390 tons, against 22,334 in 1 855 ; the extra supply being composed of shipments of Russian iron, accumulated at Petersburg during the war. A considerable portion of the supplies have passed into consumption, but the tightness of the money market has not been without its usual restrictive influence upon the manufacturing trade, and the year closes with considerable stocks in nierchants' hands. It is, however, not improbable that the home consumption, owing to the extension of rail- ways in our colonies and on the continent, may create an increased demand. HIDES. — The imports during the year have been about equal to last year, with the addition of about 20,000 Peters- burg kips. Prices gererally have been advancing, on some goods as much as 30 per cent. The market is very bare of stock. BONES. — The imports show an excess of 4,042 tons, being 16,200 tons, against 12,158 tons in 1855. The stock is about 3,000 tons, against 1,000 tons same time last year. The consumption has been on the increase, and may be still more so next year, owing to the high price of guano. TAR. — The imports of tar are 22,531 brls., against 18,511 last year, and 11,069 in 1854. In the early part of the season prices ruled high, and comsumers confined their use of this article within the smallest possible compass. Towards the spring, when the prospect of an early termi- nation of the war with Russia became apparent, a consider- able fall in the value of this, as of other Russian produce, took place, and on the conclusion of peace, owing to an ex- pectation of large imports of tar, buyers kept aloof, in the idea of coming in, later on, at low prices. The first direct imports were sold at about 16s., but upon subsequent arrivals the price receded to 14s., and below that figure. Towards the autumn, when it became apparent that the im- port would not reach the extent that had been expected, the price rallied, and gradually rose to 16s. 6d. and 17s., but towards the end of the season the demand almost entirely fell oft', and a portion of the last arrivals has in consequence had to be stored, leaving over a stock in first hands of about 2,500 to 3,000 barrels, though the quantity held by the trade is comparatively small. TURPENTINE has been steady in value throughout the year; but on reports reaching of the exhaustion of stocks in the United States, prices rose form 33s. last Sep- tember to 46s. to 48s. per cwt., at which the year closes. WOOD. — During the last year the imports have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 165 been considerable from the Baltic ports, with a commensu- rate demand from the country dealers. The importation of American produce has been more limited than on any pre- vious year in our recollection, 1855 excepted, and the stocks are consequently only small. Except a few cargoes of Petersburg deals there are no goods in first hands. Taking into consideration that at Grimsby and the other ports on the Humber the stocks are comparatively nominal, those held here are not greater than an average demand will clear off before fresh importations. COAL. — The export of this article is very nearly double that of the year previous, the tonnage being 113,789, against G1,I97 last year, and 55,507 in 1854. This con- stantly recurring increase in the demand proves that the quality of our shipments is satisfactory, and that the traffic arrangements on our railways afford opportunitj' of bringing them here at a much less cost than formerly. SALT. — There has been a slight decrease in the export of salt during the present year, arising partly from the large quantity forwarded to Prussian ports for Russian use last year. Prices remained pretty steady throughout the year, ranging from 16s. to 2Cs. per ton. SHIPPING. — The year opened favourably for the ship- owner—to Quebec freights began at 42s. 6d. per standard hundred of deals, but this rate was not long maintained, and speedily receded to 38s. and 39s., and in some instances even 3Gs. was accepted about the middle of the season. Towards the close of the year, freights recovered to 40s. on this side, and even higher rates were paid at the other side for seeking ships. Low-port freights opened at 100s. for deals, gave way slightly, and then recovered to about the same rate. Baltic freights were in the spring, viz, 17s. Danzig and Memel for timber ; 70s. Riga, deals ; and 5s. Wheat, Cronstadt; 55s. Wyburg, COs. Fredricksham,and 20s, Windau, timber. Cronstadt. Wyburg, and Fredrick- sham rates_ gradually advanced to SOs. to 85s., and consi- derable excitement prevailed in these particular trades, but the others named remained pretty much the same, except Memel, which also advanced to 20s. for timber. Our open- ing rates from Archangel were 105s. deals; 5s. Cd. seed • but during the season business was done as low as 80s. for the former. Gothenburg freights have ruled from 30s. to 35s. for deals. On the whole, freights have been pretty high, and employment abundant; the casualties to shipping, however, have been lamentably frequent towards the close of the season, Inconclusion, it is cheering to remark the unprecedented activity and prosperity which have pervaded the com- mercial, agricultural, and shipping interests of the country ; such having taken place during a long period of high dis- counts for money, exhibics a proof that this unexampled success has been founded on a safe and satisfactory basis. P. Bruce, Secretary to the Hull Chamber of Commerce, ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LIVERPOOL WOOL TRADE. General Remarks. — The wool business during the past twelve mouths has been conducted on a sound footing', and for a great part of that time has presented a cheerful aspect. In the first few months there was considerable activity, owing to the reduced stocks of all descriptions, and particularly of fine colonial aad similar qualities, which realized very extreme prices ; a further stimulus was given to the trade by the alteration in the French tariff at this period, but the advan- tage to the French consumers being for the most part of a differential character and favouring direct imports, the influ- ence was chiefly felt in fine scoured wools, which up to the earlier part of the London May public sales met with eager competition from that quarter ; after these sales had been a fortnight in progress a sudden and somewhat unforeseen change took place, and during the remainder of that series until they closed on the 4th June there was extreme heaviness and a decline upon the opening prices established of nearly l|d. per lb. For more than a month subsequently much inactivity prevailed, and so great was the gloom hanging over the Yorkshire markets, still further increased by the exag- gerated estimate of the quantity to be offered at the next suc- ceeding public sales, that many parties were induced to clear off their stocks at ruinous prices. The next public sales, which had for some time been looked forward to with anxiety and interest, began on the 17th July, and realized prices equivalent to the concluding rates of the previous series, the trade in the meantime presenting no feature of animation. At this period the bulk of the home wools came to market, but under the circumstances they eugaged less than the usual attention, being attended generally with much activity, as it is a rule for growers to give the preference to former purchasers, who from the fact of their knowing the precise yield of the wools from practical experience, would be the more anxious to secure the same clips again; after this demand was satisfied, the trade generally feeling a want of confidence in the opening rates, a period of dulness ensued for some weeks, and prices receded from Id. to Hd. per lb., until the hot and genial harvest weather set in in August, which held out a prospect of abundant crops. This having been happily realized both in this country as well as abroad, all branches of trade have felt the beneficial effects, and perhaps none more decisively than the wool business. Owing to its sound posi- tion, political and monetary arrangements have been regarded as of minor importance in their bearings on trade ; and when the first news of Peace was declared in April, at the time when our public sales were going forward, it had as little influence upon prices as during the subsequent months of the year the advanced and stringent rates of the value of money, the trade being altogether regulated by the prospect of supply and demand. Siuce August there has been a uniform ten- dency to advancing prices, which, as regards combing wools of home-growth, have received a rapid, and to some parties in the trade somewhat unexpected development in the past six weeks; and for all such descriptions, and similar kinds which were in any way affected by their rise, the present range of prices is higher than we have seen them siuce 1834 ! We are by no means prepared to say that this advance is not altogether war- ranted, for it is an undeniable fact that stocks are reduced to such a point as to cause grounds for serious uneasiness to the trade ; and it is very important to bear in mind, that while consumption has been steadily, and even rapidly increasing for some years — amply attested by the number of new mills that have been started — there has been no corresponding addition to the growth, which has been little, if at all augmented. These remarks apply with even greater force to some parts of the Continent, where the power of consumption has been in a much greater ratio ; and, as we have frequently before taken occasion to notice, they are becoming our formidable compe- titors in the markets of the world, even in those departments of trade where formerly British goods stood unrivalled, and it will require all our energy to turn the advantages we possess to the best account, and by putting aside old prejudices even to retain our present position, with the additional prospect of the tariff both in France as well as in America approximating towards sounder principles of free-trade. Home Demand for Woollen Goods. — Notwith- standing the high prices of provisions during the greater part of the year, and the unsettled state of the money market, wilh the anomalous accompaniments of sound and healthy trade abd periods of almost money -panics, business has proceeded unin- terruptedly. The home population has on the whole been well and profitably occupied, and, as usual under the circumstance?, been very large cousumers. Export of Woollen Goods. — The tables of exports to foreign and colonial markets continue to show a large, and dr.ring the latter months a very cousiderable increase as com- pared even with the most favourable returns of any former years, accompanied, we believe, with more satisfactory reauKs to shippers; and, as we do not hear generally of the markets abroad being glutted, there is no reason to look for any dimi- nished outlet for our goods, while the high prices prevailing in 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. this country for nearly all kinds of produce must have a very favourable influence on the markets abroad. Consumers. — Their condition during the greater part of the year has not been unattended with difficulty, prices of wool haviug generally been in advance of yarns and the manu- factured article ; and under the preseat circum3tai;ces, with the certainty of supplies being altogether inadequate to meet the present or even probable rate of couaumption, their posi- tion will become still more trying. If this state of things were induced by speculation in the raw material, there would be a prospect of matters soon settling down to their proper level, but for several years past we have expressed a strong opinion that consumption was overtaking the production, and that sooner or later it would result in extreme prices. In looking forward, we think there is a permanent prospect of a higher range of prices than we have been accustomed to for some years past ; and so far from regarding this as any disadvantage to the trade, although no doubt it will temporarily cause much inconvenier.ee, we think in the end it will be productive of much good by stimulating the growth all over the world. Al- ready several of our leading firms have made arrangements for running .short time, but without being able to carry it out ; we shall not, however, be surprised to see this more generally attempted some mouths later, or otherwise prices of wool must inevitably continue to advance. In our last annual report we alluded to the prospect of an early alteration in the French tariff on wools, which took place in February. As an abrogation of the former protective system it could not fail to be considered as a great measure in advance, but not being found to work well from being too restricted in its operation, we believe there is likely to be soon a further alteration, based upon sounder principles of policy. Wool Trade. — As regards home descriptions, growers have derived the chief advantage from the rise in prices throughout the year, the former esi:)eriencG of consumers and dealers having been unfavourable to holding large stocks ; and on this account many are taken quite by surprise at the sud- denness of the advance during the last sis weeks in combing wools ; and being attended at the same time with larger orders for goods wliich must be supplie.', it seems hopeless to contend against it — at least for the preaeut there is no prospect of abatement; and to those wlio through over-caution are ill supplied with stocks, sooner or later it must cause serious em- barrassments. Colonial wools have, on the average, left fair profits to the importers, but in the general rar;ge of low wools there has been little if any margin, owing to the demand which has existed in other quarters, consequently our market Las been kept bare of stocks throughout the year, which is more to be regretted as at the present time, with the prospect cf an inadequate home-supply, they would prove a very valuable auxiliary. Under ordinary circumstances we are more parti- cular in our classification and estimate of wools than is the case in any other country, and we may here admit that with some of our manufacturers it is carried to an extent bordering on prejudice. This is in some measure to be explained by the abundance of our domestic growth so peculiarly suited to our requirements, but for some years past foreign has been gaining favour, and many descriptions are now eve.T much esteemed and sought after. The present altered state of affairs will tend very much to force these more generally into consumption, and holds out a prospect of importing to advantage even the most defective descriptions, the value of all sorts of wool, both present and prospective, iu this market being higher than in any other. Wool Imports.-— The total receipts show a considerable increase, chiefly from the Cape of Good Hope, East India, South America, and Russia, but not to an extent commen- surate to our wants, as we stated in our last annual report that our supplies were leas at that time than at the same period in the previous year by 21 per cent. This alone is euificient to account for the bare state of this market during this year, in- dependent of the increased demand that has existed for the great part of that tinae. We refer with satisfaction to the large increase at this port, more particularly from Australia, and have confidence in predicting that it will continue to iacrease. Wool Exports. — Here we have to notice a considerable falling off, chiefly in foreign, which xmder the circumstances is «ot at all surprising. We by no means regard this as an \m- favourable feature, as there is abundant evidence that it has been exported under more profitable circumstances as manu- factured goods, or in the partially manufactured state of wool tops, which have greatly increased of Iste. Australia. — This port seerns now in a fair way of becom- ing one of importance, at least for the " import" of wools from the Australian colonics, and although a large quantity continues still to be sent forsvard for sale in London, we regard this as only temporary ; for when ouce the receivers become disposed to make a fair trial cf this market, no further persutision will be required for the future, and the best recommendation we can offer is to refer to our friends who have already made the experiment. During the months from November till April we can sell any quantity, large or small, to the fullest advantage either at auction or by private sale, but at other periods we have always maintained that it woiUd be at least impolitic to attempt public sales here unless we could command a quantity of " sufficient magnitude," v.hile at such times we consider private sales quite out of the question, except under peculiar circumstances sitch ps a decided prospect of drooping prices. We have given ample proof of this in our frequent recom- mendations to send forward wools to London latlicr than in any way endanger their sale here. We have never doubted for a moment that eventually we should have a large portion of the trade, and acting upon this opinion we have always considered it the true maxim never to undertake any business without the prospect cf doing it well, leaving the rest to the course of events, under the full persuasion that shippers are the best jadges of the result. The condition of the clip has been generally favourable this season. The first series of public sales iu London commenced on 14th February and closed on 7th March, comprising 48,900 bales, of which 25,427 bales were Australian and 17,622 bales Cape ! The prospects of a speedy termination of the war, combined with a reduction in the prices of food and an improved demand for manufactures, gave an impetus to prices, and an advance of from 2d. to 4d. per lb. was established. The quantity taken for the continent was estimated at about 12,000 bales, chiefly for France, where a considerable reduction in the tariff had been followed by a {ireatly increased demand. The chief feature cf this series, however, was the large quantity of Cape (almost a twelve- months' supply a few years Lack), and which sold at an average advance of 3d. per lb., on the October-Novemher sales, and the breed and washing having greatly improved, the growers wUl no doubt have been amply recompensed for their outlay. The second eeries lasted from the 8th May to the 4th June, and the total quautity cffertd was 56,200 bales, including 7,950 bales Cape. They opened with an advance of Id. to l^d. owing to the eager competition and large attendance of buyers; but their wants being supplied, prices receded to about the same range as at the close cf the previous sales The third series was the largest on record, comprising 86,600 bales, including 6,350 bales Cape, and lasting from the 17th July to 25th August. The quantity beiug so enor- mous, it was taken for granted that a decline was iiievitable— however, this was only partly realized, for, although prices re- ceded at the commencement Id. to l^d., they soon rallied again, and the residt wss that they closed at fully May sales rates. The fourth and last series took place from the 6th to 29th November, and the total quantity brought forward was 62,000 bales, including 18,200 hales Cape. An unusually long period having elapsed since the previous sales, and with the prospect that thcV.ext series in February will be a very small one, the trade was prepared for an advance, notwithstanding the high rates of discount, and the sales commenced at fully Id., and increased to l^d. to 2d. advance on the August series. Again a large quautityi" say 12,000 bales, was taken for foreign account. There has been a decided falling off in the receipts from the Port Phil ip districts, while from Sou th Australia there has been a considerable increase, but it must not be looked upon as the in- creased yield of the last clip, as it is known that a large quan- tity was left over from the former year, owing to the difl5culty of transport from the shallo^vness cf water in the Murray. The navigation of this important river has been materially extended through the employment of vessels of very light draught, which has thus been rdderod naviga':le to some poitio!i of the neigh- bouring colony of Victoria, and it may be safely assumed that at least a couple of thousand bales from that quarter has this year been shipped through Adelaide. New Zealand has come forward in greatly improved condition, and promises soon to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 167 take a prominent place in the e»timatiou of the trade, fcom its healthy, aouud, and useful properties. Cape of Good Hope. — As a source of supply of wools we consider the prospects of this colony in the highest degree encouraging, and particularly so at the present time, when the growth iu Australia seems to hare received a decided check. Many parties are inclined to look upon this as only temporary, but independent of the attraction of the mineral wealth of those colobies, there ia no douht that the growing of wool has ceaaed to he remunerative, at least that other occupations have been found more profitable, and it is known that some flocks of re- pute have disappeared altogether, the settlers having turned their attention to the reariug of cattle. It seems indeed doubt- ful whether the pasture lands of Australia are capable of much extension, being chiefly confined to the seaboard, whilst at the Cape the area seems almost without limit, and the great in- crease of late years likely to continue, the more so as greater attention is now being paid to sending the wool home in better order, which is so essential to insure a current sale, and to this may be chiefly attributed the growing favour which Cape wools have engaged for some time past. German. — This article is more and more getting out of use, and owing to the limited consumption is now chiefly im- ported for the immediate wants of the trade, consequently there is at times difficulty iu meeting with any particular qualities that may be required. Spanish and Portugal. — There has at times been an enquiry for the better qualities of both descriptions, and at present they would meet with very current sale at remunera- ting prices, but we are quite without any stocks. Long Oporto has during the year met with free sale, generally on arrival, and is at present in very brisk demand. United States. — The states of trade in this country ia of growing and almost of unrivalled prosperity, and with its rapidly increasing population and overflowing treasury it seems in a position to carry out with ease any fiscal changes that may be demanded by the times. Their tariff, while framed with the object of protection, has presented the anomaly of admitting manufactured goods ou more favourable terras than wools ; on both the duties are bo extremely onerous that for some time they have called forth very strong expressions of public opinion. The subject has been engaging serious attention, and may be expected to result in a wiser system of policy. If carried out it -.Till prove an immense boon to their manufacturers, who for many of the descriptions they require are altogether dependent ou foreign supplies. The manufac- ture of wools does not seem to be attended with profit to those directly connected with it ; this may to a great extent be traced to their present restricted policy in regard to raw materials, and it is fresh in our lecoUcction how the trade in our own country expanded with every successive reduction of the duty, until at length the principle was consummated in free trade, admitting the raw material entirely free, since which period the trade has increased to a degree altogether out of proportion to any previous experience. Many of the woollen mills in the United States are of vast extent, admira- bly arrauji-ed, and conducted with very great order and system, but a visitor would be more particularly attracted by the neat and cleanly appearance of the operatives, so much superior to what is usually seen in our own manufacturing districts, and it is ia the highest degree creditable to the American manu- facturers to observe the care they bestow on the morals and comfort of those iu their employ, who are enabled to lay by a considerable portion of tbcir earnings, and after some years are placed in easy circumstances ; and while such considera- tion ia shown for a large and intelligent portion cf the labour- ing population, the parties who are most deeply interested seem,to have at any rate a fair claim to the solicitude of their government for a system which through them reflects credit on the country. Buenos Ayres and River Plate. — While the ship- ments show a considerable increase, the principal part having gone direct to Belgium and France, our receipts have been much less than for some years previous, which is greatly to be regretted, as these wools are now becoraiug appreciated in this country to an extent fully to bear out all the favourable anti- cipations we have so frequently expressed, and the most satis- factory evidence of this has been the very ready sale that has attended all current quaUties immediately on arrival, to the great satisfaction of importers, as high as 28. Id., and even 2s. 2d. per lb. having been paid — rates which had never before been heard of; and it is a very important feature to notice that they have been chiefly taken by the home trade, who have also been large purchasers iu France and Belgium of this de- scription— a proof that this country ofl'ered the best market. It is rather an interesting fact to record that some Entre Rios wool sold by us last spring was manufactured into cloth by the same party who had purchased a prize bale of Cape at Ss. 6d. per lb,, and one of Sydney at 3s. 9d. per lb. ; and it was the opinion of competent judges that that produced from the Entre Rios was superior to either of the others. The vast pampas of the River Plate afford almost boundless scope for the cultivation of wool, and to this quarter and the Cape of Good Hope we must chiefly trust for any material increase in our supplies, which the present and probable high range of ptices for sooje time to come will materially tend to develope. It is no slight advantage that the great bulk of River Plate wools can reach this country at a period of the year when our markets are bare of stock ; and they have thus the prospect both of a ready sale and at more stable prices, which later in the season are liable to be affected by a temporary glut of fine colonial wools. Great as was the increase last year, it is likely to be much larger during the present one, as many ate turning their attention to sheep ia preference to cattle, and this is partly the cause of the extreme prices for hides at present. There has been only a moderate supply from Cor- dova. This article has throughout the year been in good demand ; at present there is a very limited stock, and none in first hands. Scarcely any common Buenos Ayres has reached this country ; there has been a good inquiry, and it would command full prices. Peruvian and Alpaca. — There has been an increased supply of Alpaca, wlrich would have been still further aug- mented but for the loss of the Mary Hartley with 1,700 ballot?, and the Chimborazo with SCO ballots. It has met with very free sale for arrival throughout the whole of the year ; during January aloue the sales amounted to 10,000 ballots, at from 2s. 6d. to 23. G^d. per lb. The prices have since been generally ou the advance, with some slight fluctua- tions. During the latter months some large contracts for arrivals have been made, the last prices paid being 23. 9d. to 23. 9|d. per lb. Almost the whole has been retained for home consumption, although there has been an occasional demand for particular colours for export. Peruvian shows a consi- derable increase ; the finer qualities have met with ready sale at full prices, as have also Lima wools, both cf which are at present in good demand ; but the great bulk beiag of inferior kinds have engaged little attention, as they were held above their market-value until September, when a considerable quantity was purchased on speculation, and there is very little now left in first hands. East India. — We are glad to notice a considerably in- creased import : the trade look for at least a steady augmenta- tion of supply from this quarter ; and if it had been otherwise — not to say had the receipts shown any decline— it woidd have been severely felt. It requires no argument to prove the advantages of this market, as the facts speak for themselves, and shippers are equally alive to them. The total rtceipts have been 47,076 bales ; of which 31,351 baks have reached this port, against 17,999 iu 1853 ! It is much to be regretted that the blanket trade, for which these wools are extensively used, has during the year continued very depressed, and that consequently prices have not participated in the improvement of many other descriptions ; but there is reason to hope that this important branch will soon revive to a corresponding extent with the carpet trade; and as these wools arc uov/ applicable for general purposes, we have every reason to expect that prices will be at least well maintained. There is still much to be desired in the mode of getting up these wools, and it would be very advantageous to shippers if they v>ere classed with raoie care. China. — We have only hud a very limited import, and that chiefly to London. Why it should continue to be sent there, we are quite at a loss to understand. As we have before ob- served, there are properties iu these wools which, with judi- cious management, would make them valuable to the trade, and render them worth attention. Russia,— The opening of the trade has confirmed the opi- ]68 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nion that stocks of wool had been completely cleared out in consequence of a greatly increased internal demand during the war, and the rest had chiefly been sent to Austria and Prussia. Our receipts since have not been to any considerable extent, and the greater part has been of common kinds. It is only within the last two months that Donskoi fleece has been in much demand ; the stocks are reduced to a mere trifle, com- posed of short and inferior parcels held at extreme rates. Of autumn there is also scarcely anything left. Both these kinds, as well as lambs', are in demand, and would command full prices. There is a very scanty supply of the finer descriptions, both of brook-washed and scoured wools, which are of ready sale, with the prospect of realizing higher prices in consequence of the inadequate stocks of fine colonial and other similar kinds. Mediterranean wools generally engaged little attention during the early months of the year, but for some time past have been much sought after, particularly all kinds of long- stapled, such as Bosnia, Servia, Vidiuo, &c., of which scarcely any stock remains, and they would meet with very ready sale at high prices. Smyrna wools, although of less current sale, would find buyers at fair prices, and good qualities at full value, as would also Syria of good quality and long-staple, either washed or in the grease. Egyptian wools of good or even fair character have always found ready buyers, and are at present in eager demand ; but shorter parcels meet less ready sales, and prices are not equal in proportion. The prevalence of a large admixture of Syria and other inferior kinds in Egyptian wools continue to exist to a considerable extent, and has frequently been found a great hindrance to the sale without submitting to a corres- ponding reduction in value. Turkey Goats' Wool or Mohair. — Prices have shown a remarkable degree of uniformity ; but notwithstanding they have ruled so high, the import has fallen considerably short of the former year. A very brisk business has been done of late, and the sales have included a considerable quantity to arrive. Iceland. — This article has engaged more than the usual attention ; and having been prominently brought under the notice of the trade, has been applied to purposes for which it has not hitherto been used, and which is likely to secure for it the same steady demand which it has met with during the past year, when everything was sold at once on arrival or im- mediately afterwards, and In most cases at the full relative value of the day in comparison with'other kinds. MoGADORE AND Barbary. — The total receipts have been to nearly an average extent, but have not embraced many of the inferior descriptions of Barbary which had before been attended with such unfavourable results. Fair, and in par- ticular, good parcels have found very ready sale at full rates, and are at present very much sought after. Domestic Wools. — The course of prices of English wools, and particularly combing kinds, present a great contrast to the previous year, which was characterized by great uni- formity, whereas on the present occasion it has been quite the reverse. The demand has chiefly turned upon the bright- haired descriptions, such as Lincoln and Leicester, the supply of which is now becoming greatly impaired ; and it is owiug to this cause that they have been forced up to prices quite out of proportion to any other kinds, and have drawn other sorts with them. The prevailing high prices have induced parties to some extent to use up their Brokes and to curtail the pro- duction of Noils to the least possible amount, while at the same time they have been led to seek for anything in foreign as a substitute. It is supposed by those most capable of form- ing a correct opinion, that our last home-clip was below an average. In the absence of statistics there is no means of ascertaining this, which, however, if the case, will show itself before the next clip ; and, should it unfortunately be realized, will prove a most grievous evil at the present time. While ad- mitting that the present scale of prices is warranted under the circumstances, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that they are far higher than they have been for a very considerable period, and should the advance continue, unforeseen casualties may occur to render the trade extremely dangerous. Irish has been in good demand, and exporters have taken their usual quantity ; at present prices are rather lower than other descriptions, and very little wool seems left in the country, which is held with great tenacity. Scotch of all kinds is reduced to a lower point in this market than we have ever before known, while the quantity remaining in Scotland is iusufliicient for their own requirements. There is a brisk de- mand for all descriptions at the full quoted rates of the day. Sheep Skins have been in good demand, and all current descriptions readily saleable at constantly advancing rates. At the present time, owing to the excited state of the wool market, they are much sought after, and can be readily dis- posed of at rates proportionate to the value of wool. Our next public sales will commence on the 15th instant. There will be 11,000 bales East India ; and, although the quan- tity is unusually large, we have every reason to expect they will engage considerable attention from the long interval since the last public sales and the trade being low in stocks. There will also be several thousand bales of foreign offered, of which a portion will be PeruYian, and a few hundred bags Egyptian, Liverpool, Jan. 1. Hughes & Ronald, Wool Brokers. TITHE COMMUTATION.— 1857. Sir, — As many of your readers may feel anxious to know the result of the Corn Averages for the seven years to Christ- mas last, published by authority in the London Gazette of this evening, viz.: — Wheat 6s. 11 Jd. per imperial bushel. Barley 3 Hi ditto. Oats 2 9i ditto. I beg to state, for their information, that each £100 of tithe rent-charge will, for the year 1857, amount to £99 133. 7id., which is a little more than 5| per cent, above the last year's value. The following statement from my " Annual Tithe'Commu- tation Tables" will show the worth of £100 of tithe rent- charge for each year since the passing of the Tithe Commuta- tion Act, viz. : — For the year 1837 £98 13 9| 1838 97 7 11 1839 95 7 9 1840 98 15 9i 1841 102 12 5i 1842 105 8 2| 1843 105 12 2i „ 1844 104 3 5A 1845 103 17 114 1846 102 17 8| 1847 99 18 lOi 1848 102 1 0 1849 100 3 7i „ 1850 98 16 10 1851 96 11 4| 1852 93 16 Ui „ 1853 91 13 5$ „ 1854 90 19 5 „ 1855 89 15 8| 185G 93 18 li 1857 99 13 71 21)2,072 6 2| General average for 21 years, £98 13 7 J I am, Sir, your most obedient Servant, Charles M. Willicii, Actuary University Life Assurance Society. 25, Suffolh-street, Pall Mall East, 9th January, 1857. THE AVERAGE PRICE OF CORN, per Quarter (Im- perial Measure), in England and Wales, for the Quarter ending Christmas, 1856. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans. Peas. 633. 4d...448. 7d...258. 6d...403. 9d...453. 2d. ..433. Id Henry Fenton Jadis, Comptroller of Corn Returns. Corn Department, Board of Trade, January 5, 1857. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 169 RETURN, stating what has been, during seven years, ending on the Thursday next before Christmas Day 1856, the Average Price of an Imperial Bushel of BRITISH WHEAT, BARLEY, and OATS, computed from the Weekly Averages of CORN RETURNS. Published pursuant to an Act, passed in the 6th and 7th year of the Reign of King William the Fourth, intituled "An Act for the Commutation of Tithes in England and Wales." Wheat. Barley. Oats. 6s. Hid Ss.llid 2s.9id, Henry Fenton Jadis, Comptroller of Corn Returns. Corn Department, Board of Trade, January 5, 1857. STEAM PLOUGHS AND STEAM PLOUGHING, AND THEIR ULTIMATE EFFECT, Sir, — As there seems every probability of steam being made available for the purpose of ploughing, and perhaps at not a very distant date engines will be seen in our fields for turning up the soil as frequently as in our rick -yards for thrashing the grain, some consequences arising out of such system seem to force themselves to the view of every reflective mind. This subject, to a more ingenious and able pen, might afford matter for an article of considerable lengtli ; but I will thank you to find space for a few brief but practical considerations, from only a disinterested reader and subscriber, on a matter of such deep importance to the producing agricultural as well as the non-producing but consuming community. There seem to be no bounds to the enthusiasm of the occupiers and owners of land; and many there are who have hailed the advent of steam-ploughing as the great de- sideratum to the farm. A great author observes — " Hitherto shall thou come, but no farther." Now this maxim may not apply to the culture of the soil ; at all events, I will speak of the progress of steam, as we now hear, and daily may see, it carried into effect. I have no hesitation in saying that there is no reason why it should not be the general system of ploughing, in three or four years, as much as the com- bined steam-thrasher-shaker-and-winnower is for thrashing and preparing at once the corn for market ; which every- body must admit as a great fact, inasmuch as there is hardly a flail to be heard, and horse-power machines are fast going out of date — their castings may, erelong, become the fire-bars to some locomotive or stationary ploughing- engine. There are few who write on farming subjects without some bias or local prejudice ; and on a topic of this sort it is likely to be more so than ordinary, as the probability is the parties most deeply interested give the most at- tractive complexion to their new schemes. This is natural enough. But there is another characteristic feature of our modern model f^inners (not the clodpole John Bull primitive clowns) ; they, unlike all other professions, are so elated with any discovery they may make of a che- mical or engineering character, that they go to some agri- cultural meeting and proclaim, pro bono publico, their astounding genius. What should we say of a tradesman who went forth in the same public manner, and tell up all his successes or his dexterous methods of doing business ? Would a medical practitioner, who made some extraordi- nary discovery in anatomy or the application of medicine, pronounce to the world gratuitously what was likely to prove of immense personal advantage to himself? He would be " all serene" ; and unlike the spouting farmer, would, without injury to the public, take advantage of his discovery, and bestow at £1 Is. per head his newly disco- yered antidote to the ailments of the human frame. As I could not well treat of steam-engines for ploughing without first saying a word to those most likely to have them in use, I must be excused if I have made too long a preface to these perhaps, after all, imperfect opinions. When railroads were becoming general, loud were the ex- pressions of anger and fears of every character lest the breed- ing of that noble animal, the horse, should become extinct, and growth of oats, so necessary for his sustenance, dis- couraged. Old Time, however, has dissipated all these fears. Horses are dear, and oats are dear ; but " the reason why" is, perhaps, more accurately given in an article on the Howden and other North horse fairs in the Mark-lane Express. But how have the prices been, in the interval ? Cheap — very cheap. Ten years ago a good useful cart-horse could be bought at £20 which now costs £40 ; so that it did have its effect, and with full force too. " What has been will be again," say the knowing ones ; but they do not say when. Neither do I. But be assured, if steam ploughing should become general, that vicissitudes of a still more de- pressing character must certainly arise, though probably the crisis may sooner arrive than when stage-coaches were superseded by railroads and locomotive engines. Farmers ! brother farmers ! I strongly advise you not to be slumbering, in these momentous times. Having animadverted on the effect of steam for ploughing as a draught power, I will now take a further view of my subject, as not only superseding horse labour; for should these engines and ploughs come, as I before ob- served, into general use, there are few who, mthout deep calculation, would be able to say how much horse labour would be suspended. Might I be allowed to say one mil- lion— one million horses less required for working the land.' May it not in a few short years be three millions? ' So much the better," do I hear some one say, of kindly feelings towards this portion of the brute creation .' A member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals would say, " A wonderful intervention of Providence ! poor jaded horses will not be seen going to and fro the fields, with sore shoulders, for at least three hours at a time too long:" so far good and true. But the evil, or if it be a good, does not end here. Now, from my experience (over twenty years) I find that every well-kept (punish the ill-keeper and ill-user) farm-horse consumes two bushels per week— and he cannot be kept in good working-condition with less: this will be 104 bushels yearly, or 13 qrs. of corn per horse. Any farmer using ten horses would therefore consume 1 30 qrs. of oats annually. The price will not be thought too liberal at 20s. per qr. ; total consumption of corn for horses £130; two trusses of hay in winter, and an equivalent in vetches and clover in summer, will be necessary, at 2s. Cd. per truss; 5s. per week for ten horses, 50s. per week, will be £130 per annum for hay and other provender together, making for total keep of M 170 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the ten horses £260 for twelve months. Farms of 300 acres, and mostly arable land, would employ that number of horses. Now, a fann-horse with this allowance of food usually pro- duces manure enough for five acres of land, so that the ten horses would everj' year make manure for fifty acres of this farm. What substitute -svill modern philosophic men use as mamu-e for this land when it is all ploughed by steam ? Will some be bold enough to answer me ? " Why purchase all ? Let it be Peruvian guano with two-thirds of ground loam, blood manure, superphosphate, ashes, lime, &c." But a more intelligent individual answers me, " Yoiican keej) more sheep and bullocks, having no horses to provide for." This is all very well, and might be beneficial for one year ; then the market becomes glutted, and, like in former years of my recollection, beef may be thrown undigested on the dunghill. Copenhagen Market returns shows over 6,000 on Monday, 29th Sept., 1856; and steam ploughs in their infancy ! The same species of argument will apply to the production of mutton. Let farmers throw off the mask, and not be frightened at their own shadows ; at the same time, when embarking on any new system, look forward to consequences : thej' may be the reverse of what I predict, but a consequence must inevitably follow. On a farm there is a deal of draught-work besides the ploughing and the general acts of husbandry, which, we will presume, can as easily bo effected by steam as the ploughing. There is carting-out manure on hilly farms — rather a laborious work, and often requires as many horses as the whole ploughing teams. Often there is liming and chalking, and lastly the carting home the corn. A few fanns may have their tram-roads for bringing the produce of the land to the steading. Others may have their liquid- manure tanks, and the contents like that of Mr. Mechi's, pumped out through hose to the fields. Farmers of Eng- land know, most of them, as well as I do, that there are few homesteads that have a small jterpetital stream just bringing enough — never too much — water for this five, six, or seven- horse power engine to drive off through mains over the soil, after having washed out the bullock pens, piggeries, &C' It must not be supposed that I am one of those primitive individuals who view with a morose suspicion modem in- ventions of mechanical skill as applied to the preparation of crops or culture of the land. I am a firm believer in the progressive principles of agriculture ; and so much so, that if facilities from the "proper quarter'''' were granted, and the waste land brought into cultivation, we might snap our fingers at our continental neighbours, millions of quarters might be added to our stores, and millions of smoke-dried and often half-starved individuals might be employed on the land, to the benefit of both health and morals. In many cases, in many counties, we have acted a niggardly part by the land, its tenantry, its labourers ; and the latter for the last half-century have flocked to om- great towns, from the manufacturers being the best paymasters. Landlords of England, both great and small, arouse from your lethargic indifference ! With us the greatest ban-ier to improvement lies. Feudal obstruction is the great pre- ventive to the progressive inclination of the age. Parochial building clubs could be easily established in every locality. Thousands, spent in waste in ale-houses, will be saved whenever some practical philanthropists come forward from among the landlord class. Properly domicile the poor, and give a fair portion of the waste ; and they would soon make productive gardens of the whole of the waste of this kingdom, without the use of steam-ploughs. They are, I know, only anxiously looking forward to such a state of Elysium in many localities. Could a more ;iseful or interesting picture appear to the eye of all who really have the welfare of our poor fellow-men at heart, than to see and know that 4,000,000 of our labouring people we;-e turning up with spade, some fine week in April, 2,000,000 only of our waste acres, and making gardens of their own, with houses thereon, the former kindly granted by their manorial lord and patron, the latter the fruit of their own industry, aided by a parochial or local building club ? " Where there's a will, there's a way ;" and although a very simple maxim, it seems truly applicable. Sincerely do I hope to see the time when we shall unite real liberality with true feelings of generosity, and concede to our lowlier fellow-man what perhaps ma}', with a bad grace, be wrested from us by an act framed within the walls of the Senate-house. If steam- ploughs to cultivate the remaining 1 3,000,000 acres should be manufactured, then will the highest wishes of a landlord have been attained. D. H. H. Apologising for any digression from my text, Believe me, A Poor Man's Friend, and a Modern Farmer, A Landlord, and a Subscriber. THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN— PAST AND PRESENT. When the Spectator essayed to portray a happy man, he sagely sought his original from those who lead a rural life. He pictured a country gentleman true to his position ; fulfilling the many duties of his station, not so much as a mere matter of duty, but in the sijontaneous goodness of his own heart. He api^eared, as it were, the head of a large family circle, anxiously considering the claims of all around him, and ranking in reality rather as their friend than as their patron. The moral of such a life is evident enough, and Sir Roger dies the happy man he had lived. However close to nature, or improved by the master-hand who drew it, the character is one of the most successful ever conceived. It is imbued, moreover, •with an air of reality than few of us would care to doubt or cjuestion. Surely the good Country Squire, beloved and beloving hia neighbours, is no such impossibility after all. He must have had an identity ere this, and he may have it still. Pie has. Dropping with the pig-tail, long frock, and habitual tops, a few of the peculiarities and pre- judices which distinguished the country gentleman in the days when Addison wrote, could we not even now match his innate goodness and sympathy for those with whom he is associated ? Trying him by the per- haps more practical spirit of our own age, might we THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 171 not discovci" such a type worthy to compare with that the essayist has handed down to us ? Some such a one, who, whatever his abilities or his ambition may have done for him elsewhere, turns to home after all for his character. "Whose best reference shall be his own house- hold, the tenantry on his estates, or the labourer in his parish— the good master, the good landlord, and the good friend, to all. There are few of our readers but who will recognise in Mr. Newdegate, the Member for North Warwickshire, a zealous advocate of the Agricultural interest. With whatever success he may have laboured so far, there is no man in the House who has preserved a higher cha- racter for integrity, and not many who have dis- played as much zeal, ability, and industry on the part of those they have been chosen to represent. However some might be inclined to differ with him as to the maintenance of certain principles, we feel sure that no man has more deservedly the confidence of what is termed the Country party, or of Agriculture generally. His standing in the country gave him a primary right to the position he fills, and his talents have confirmed it. Did we want to illustrate from the strength of the House what an English country gentleman of this pre- sent century is now equal to, we could name none more directly than the Honourable Member for North War- wickshire. We would try him, however, a little further than this; and, admitting his claims as a public man, see how he has comported himself in the meanwhile as a private gentleman. It is not always that the one character assimilates with the other. What may be termed the higher calls on a man's energies have too often caused him to neglect or forget his home duties and enjoy, ments. It has not been so with Mr. Newdegate. We may cite him, aS we do indeed here, as a model for his class, on the gratefiil showing of his own people. It is only within tliis week or two that the tenantry on the estate have presented his mother, Mrs. Newdegate, with a portrait of her son, accompanied by an address, the ai'gument of which fully justifies the compliment they have paid to a good landlord and a good son. In the columns of a paper, one of the avowed principles of which is to maintain that " property has its duties as well as its rights," let such a testimony speak for itself: — " We take this opportunity of expressing how highly we appreciate him as our landlord. " During the long period we have occupied land on this estate, Mr. Newdegate has constantly held out the hand of friendship towards us, and in all times of diflfi- culty lias voluntarily taken a full share of the burden. In addition to which, by the liberal agreements he has given to his tenants, they are amply secured and en- couraged to cultivate their farms advantageouslj'. " Mr. Newdegate 's efforts to serve the agricultural and commercial interest generally arc well known in the county, and his manly and upright conduct in the House of Commons has gained him universal respect. " We arc much indebted to you and Mr. Newdegate for the benefits you have confen-ed on this parish and neighbourhood by extending the means of education to the working classes, and also for your unwearied atten- tion to the wants and comforts of the poor around you." This, be it observed, is no blind homage. As a land- lord Mr. Newdegate has " borne his share of the bur- den ;" " given his tenantry liberal agreements and ample security, " and " encouraged them to cultivate their farms advantageously." We ask no better proof of a good landlord. As a County Member his conduct is well termed "manly and upright;" while mother and son give the finishing touches to a picture that will always rival Mr. Say's, however happy it may be, in " the benefits conferred on the parish and the neigh- bourhood, by extending the means of education," and " unwearied attention to the wants and comforts of the poor." We can hardly go out of our way to honour a man like this. As a public one he has at least our respect, while as a private gentleman we might share with his tenants and neighbours a somewhat warmer feeling. Even they, perhaps, may not be aware of the many arduous duties he has been engaged on, and all with the same end — to have the position of this kingdom as a self-supporting country properly known and under- stood. Despite declining health, it is only within this last year or so that Mr. Newdegate has produced one of the most elaborate and perfect works of its kind ever yet offered us. What the Government was unequal to, Mr. Newdegate has alone effected; and his " Customs AND Tariffs of all Nations" will be the one standard authority, so long as there are customs and tariffs to be taken. Let us complete the sketch. Mr. Newdegate is no mere " Sap," or passive Lord to his good mother's Lady Bountiful. As the Arbury address says, his conduct is everywhere "manly and upright." He fulfils not merely the duties, but shares the pleasui'es of a country life. He can sympathize not only with the cares of his neighbours, but enter as warmly into their pastimes. If Homer of old could immortalize his hero as " a horse-breaker," surely we may be pardoned in chronicling ours as "a horseman." It is a fine point at any time in an Englishman's character, and tliere never was a finer or a better yet over a country than the Squire of Arbury. Imitate him as we may in some of his attributes, it will take a very good man to follow him here. In our obituary we have to record the death of Mr. Chamberlaiu, of Desford, who has for a lengthened period occupied a very prominent positiou in the agricultural world, and who has been for many years in high repute as a breeder of Hereford cattle and Leicester sheep; he was for some years a successful competitor at the Smithfield Club, and gained more prizes than almost any other mau, on two occa- sions receiving a gold medal for his stock. Only as recently as the last show he appeared as an active member, being mainly instrumental in making considerable inprovemeuts in the prize sheet for next year. Mr. Chamberlain was also known as a first-rate judge of cattle, in which capacity he has many times ofliciated at the Royal Agricultural Society's meetings, as well as at the Birmingham, Yorkshire, and other shows. He was a staunch supporter of every improvement in agriculture, and we believe he was as universally respected as he is now deeply regretted. He has died in the midst of his usefulness and activity, full of all the honours a man in his position could obtain. M 2 172 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OUR TRADE WITH THE CONTINENT THROUGH THE PORT OF HULL. We have before us many excellent local summaries and epitomes of the trade of the past year, and we se- lect for more prominent notice that of the port of Hull, from its great importance as indicative of the large im- port trade in agricultural products from the North of Europe, which has been rapidly increasing. The com- mercial progress of the port is shown by the fact that one million tons of shipping entered its docks in 1856, being an increase of twenty-five per cent, in four years. The annual imports of grain and seeds of all kinds into Hull now exceeds one million quarters. About one-half of this is linseed, which is lai'gely taken for home consumption, more being received at Hull than at all the other ports of the kingdom. The imports of this article are given at 501,078 qrs., of rapeseed 17,000 qrs., of linseed oil 12,700 tons, and of oilcakes 10,300 tons. The cereals and pulse were, wheat 205,203 qrs., barley 156,228 qrs., oats 38,500 qrs., beans 71,236 qrs., peas 5,052 qrs., tares 5,235 qrs. These are the chief articles of import; but there are many other agricultural products of prominence, making up the aggregate of the increasing Channel- trade of Hull— 16,439 tons of cattle-bones, 16,000 tons of flax, 5,801 casks of tallow, 8,918 tuns of olive-oil, 16,323 cwts. of turpentine, 22,047 barrels of flour, 42,403 cwts. of clover-seed, 9,228 bales and 8} million pounds of wool. One gi-eat help to the rapid increase in the trade of Hull has been the substitution of steamers for sailing vessels, as many as sixty steamers being now regularly employed in the trade of the port. The old-fashioned Petersburg traders, which used to esteem two voyages to Cronstadt a triumph, are now replaced by splendid steamers; the Rotterdam brigs have been changed into screws; the Hamburg trade is now exclusively one of steam ; and it reaches many of the Baltic ports, and seems likely hereafter to embrace them all. Since 1846 the imports of grain and seeds at the port of Hull have more than doubled. Glancing at the last three or four years, the wheat imports there are tole- rably steady ; barley, which had been declining, in 1855 being only to the amount of 27,089 quarters, has increased nearly six-fold ; oats are rather larger in the imports ; peas have been rapidly declining, the imports of last year being less by one-half than those of several preceding years ; beans show a considerable increase — nearly one-half; the supply of linseed brought in is more than double that imported in 1855. Large as were the arrivals of grain, however, they were as no- thing compared to the enormous quantity of wood re- ceived, amounting to 58,377 pieces of hewn timber, and 24,794 hundred of deals. Hull, therefore, took a largo share of the import ti-ade of last year ; and it is gratifying to find that the local authorities are facilitating the trade and commerce by numerous improvements. A new corn exchange has been erected by the town council at a cost o* i^5,000, and a new market is to be established by the same body ; £3,000 has been expended on a new ship- ping slip ; commodious landing sheds and warehouses have been erected, and already increased dock accom- modation is spoken of as about to be carried out. Of the 3,159 vessels which entered inwards at Hull from foreign voyages last year, at least 1,000, we are told, were steamers, some of which made fifty voyages in the year between Hull and continental ports, and very many others ranging between twenty and thirty. We may incidentally advert to the trade of two other important ports, Glasgow and Liverpool, during the past year. At Glasgow the stock of wheat in granary on Jan. 1 was 175,422 bolls, or nearly the same as it was at the corresponding period last year. In comparing the imports of foreign wheat and barley for 1856 with those of the preceding year, there is a moderate increase in the former. There is also a small increase shown in the imports of beans and peas, nnd sack flour; but there was an increased import of about 160,000 barrels of American flour. The direct arrivals of guano in the Clyde in 1856 comprised 10,190 tons, against 9,360 tons in 1855; but the imports were not adequate to the demand, and the stock is under 1,000 tons. In hides and skins there was an increase of 32,338 over the preceding year. At Liverpool there has been an enormous expansion of trade, both imports and exports; the shipments serve especially to test the industry and accumulating wealth of the kingdom. 4,563 ships, registering 2,315,439 tons, cleared from Liverpool last year with British goods, valued at £54,835,000. This is a remarkable increase in two years ; the value of the exports in 1854 from Liverpool having been £46,719,177. The imports, if we had space to go into them, would tell an equally satisfactory tale; for instance, the one item of cotton shows an increase as follows: — Imports at Liverpool in 1855, 2,140,147 bales; in 1856, 2,308,509 bales; being an increase of 168,362 bales, and as compared with 1854, of 229,622 bales. We have entered upon the present year with many raw materials, such as cotton, wool, silk, hides, oils, and tallow, standing at high relative values, and with the rather discouraging prospect that supplies may scarcely prove equal to our enlarged wants. As, however, is well observed by a leading Liverpool firm, the unfa- vourable inferences which to some extent are insepara- ble from a consideration of these circumstances, are modified by the knowledge that the advance in prices THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 173 is general, and that in the race of production our own manufacturers will be weighted with no greater bur- dens in this respect than their competitors in other countries. The mass of the people have been well employed ; and though food has been dear, the home consumptive demand for produce and manufactures has been very large. The declared net value of the produce and manufac- tures of the United Kingdom, in 1855, was nearly £117,000,000; and the returns, when made up for the year just ended, will certainly show an excess of several millions over that amount. The official value for the eleven months already published amounts to nearly £106,000,000, against £86,600,000 in 1855 ; and this has been shown to be much below the real value as now given by Mr. Fonblanquo, according to current prices, instead of the obsolete official values of a century or two ago. AGRICULTURE IN CONNAUGHT. Queen's College, Galway. On the 18th December, the Agricultural Students of the College attended on the Profeasor'a farm at Lakeview, in this neighbourhood, for the purpose of inspecting and estimating the weight and value of the various green crops raised upon the farm during the past session. Some of the classes had witnessed the entire process of their cultivation from the preparation and manuring of the land, to the sowing of the seed and the after-management of the young crops, and they had now come, full of sanguine expectation, to test the results, and their hopes were not disappointed. After carefully selecting and measuring certam spaces, in order to obtain fair averages, they watched the labourers pull, and accurately weigh the different specimens chosen for trial ; and from the data thus furnished, they calculated the acreable produce of each kmd, and found, by comparison, that their calculations agreed with those of the " Ready Reckoner." The following are the results of their investigations : — ACREABLE PRODUCE. Crops. Swedish turnips Do. do Dale's hybrid do Vellow globe mangold wurtzel Long red do. , White Belgian carrots Red Altringham do. British acre. Reclaimed bog Upland Reclaimed bog Upland Do Do Do tons cwt. qr. 23 0 3 28 1.3 3 29 15 1 tons cwt. qr. 37 6 2 48 9 1 48 4 1 26 0 3 42 3 3 27 16 3 45 2 0 18 9 2 29 18 3 15 9 2 i 25 1 2 These quantities do not enter into competition with the enormous yields said to have been raised in various localities ; but if careful weighing and accurate calculation be deemed sufficient data from which to judge, then must they be re- garded as bo7ia fide realUies; and we think, also, beyond the average yield of the United Kingdom, uotwithatanding they have been grown upon very inferior land (which was valued by Griffith at only 7s. 2d. per statute acre), the farm being uneven and hilly, and consisting of either swampy bog or closely con- solidated granitic gravel, but lightly covered with peat, and plentifully interspersed with sterile rugged rocks ; and in every respect in keeping with the prevaUing inferior sod of the lo- cality. When, four years ago, Professor Skdling got possession of the farm, it was considered only fit for poor pasture for in- ferior stock, and very different indeed were the crops it then produced to those it now yields. Specimens of the green crops above referred to, as those of the past season, may now be seen in the College ; but they are not roots of such extra- ordinary size as those which are bo often exhibited in seed- shops, and ostentatiously trumpeted in the public papers; but they are in uniformity with the general character of the crops raised on the farm — handsome, well-formed, sound roots, and considerably above the average dimensions of those grown in the country around. It frequently occurs that a very large root may be selected from a very inferior crop. The largest Swedish turnip we recollect ever to have been brought under our notice, weighed 25^ lbs., and was grown in a mismanaged field, the general cropping of which was not over ten tons per acre. The laud which has produced the crops in question has been deeply drained, subsoiled, trenched, and cleared ; and all by means of manual labour, with the aid of those best of all implements — steel forks and spades. Professor Skilliug, on this naturally very inferior farm, is successfully endeavouring to carry out and substantiate the views he has so long main- tained and promulgated in his writings and his lectures, viz. : 1. That, agreeably to the old Roman maxim, a small farm well cultivated is better than a large one mismanaged. 2. That there is comparatively little really bad or worthless land in Ireland. 3. That comparatively few farmers know the real value and capabilities of their land. 4. That the best and most profitable mode of managing land in Ireland is by human labour, with the aid of those simple and inexpensive implements, the spade and the fork, (fee, &c., and that by such means the greatest amount of pro- duce will be obtained from any given quantity of land, be its quahty what it may. 5. That low-priced labour is not, in general, cheap labour; that work judiciously and well done will always pay better than work inefficiently performed, how small soever may be the expenditure ; and hence that the employment of manual la- bour on the farm should always, where practicable, be pre- ferred to that which is done by horses, as it is much superior to, and has many advantages over, the latter. 6. That on every well-managed farm on which a sufficient number of cattle are kept and judiciously house-fed, there will always be au abundance of manure for all purposes, annually augmenting, which will not only raise the weight and quality of the crops, but constantly increase the fertilUrj of ihe soil; and, therefore, that the purchase of foreign or extraneous manure* becomes unnecessary. 7. That the common opinion among farmers, that only cer- tain classes of inferior stock are adapted to their laud, is fal- lacious, even mischievous ; and that, as the Professor himself has proved in his own experience, even what is called very bad land may, by proper management, be made to suit the best of stock, and that all kinds of stock may be kept in any part of Ireland, if judicious and careful attention be paid to their feed- ing, sheltering, and general management. In conclusion, we believe we are correct in stating that the foregoing particulars are considered by Professor Skilling as the carduial points in successful, or what may be very appro- priately termed — High Farming. A Student. Queen's College, Galtoay, 22nd Lhcembey, 1S56. 174 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. METEOROLOGICAL DIARY. Barometer, Thermometer. Wind. Atmosphere. Weath. 1856-7 8 a.m 10 p.m. Min. Max. lOp.m. Direction. Force. 8 a.m. 2 p.m. 10 p.m. Dec.22 in. cts. 30.01 in. cts. 29.92 42 46 43 W. by N. gentle cloudy cloudy fine dry 23 30.00 29.91 36 39 34 North airy cloudy cloudy fine dry 24 29.50 29.00 32 44 42 West airy cloudy cloudy fine rain 25 29.88 28.93 27 31.5 29 N. East calm cloudy cloudy fine dry 2t 28.85 28.95 26 32 30 Variable calm cloudy cloudy fine dry 27 29.04 29.18 26 32 27 N. West gentle fine sun fine dry 25 29.46 29.70 18 33 28 N. West gentle fine sun fine dry 29 29.98 30.10 26 38 37 West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 30 30.15 30.20 35 45 45 W. by N. gentle cloudy fine cloudy rain 31 30.22 30.15 42 47 47 W. by S. fresh cloudy cloudy cloudy dry Jan. 1 30.10 29.94 46 52 47 W. by S. brisk fine fine cloudy dry 2 29.74 29.72 42 48 40 W. by S. airy fine sun cloudy rain 3 29.30 29.10 38 49 43 W. by S. variab. cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 4 29.10 29.30 38 41.5 40 W. by S. variab. cloudy cloudy j fine rain 5 29.97 29.97 32 32.5 30 N. East brisk cloudy cloudy fine dry 6 30.09 30.21 28 34 32 N. East brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy dry T 30.27 30.30 27 33 32 N. East gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy snow 8 30.30 30.24 29 40 39 S. by W. airy cloudy cloudy cloudy sleet 9 30.13 29.82 37 47 47 S. by W. variab. cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 10 29.53 29.18 42 49 46 N.W., S.W. gentle cloudy fine cloudy rain 11 28.93 29.26 40 41 40 N. by W. gentle cloudy cloudy cloudy rain 12 29.26 29.10 31 43 32 South gentle fine sun mist dry 13 29.32 29.64 31 36 35 Variable calm hazy cloudy mist dry 14 30.00 30.10 30 37 28 N. West gentle fine sun clear dry 15 30.10 29.95 24 40 37 S.West gentle cloudy cloudy fine rain 16 30.07 30.19 31 45 35 W. by N. gentle fine sun fine dry 17 30.26 30.28 31 43 42 S. Westerly gentle fine cloudy fine dry 18 30.28 30.27 45 49 47 S. West brisk cloudy cloudy cloudy dry 19 30.21 30.24 40 47 36 N. West gentle cloudy cloudy fine rain 20 29.70 30.20 33 43 34 S. West variab. cloudy cloudy fine rain 2ll 29.44 29.64 29 37 32 Westerly calm haze sun cloudy dry Estimated Averages of January. Barometer. Highest. I Lowest. 30.77 28.89 Real Average Temperature op the Period. Highest. 41.3 Lowest. 38.0 Mean. 39.2 Weather and Phenomena. December 22. A warm day. — 23 to 28. Pro- gressive approach of the Christmas frost, which attained its utmost severity on the 28th. Thence to the end the temperature rises rapidly. Lunation.— New moon 27th, 8h,45m. morning. January 1. Airy and sunny.— 2, 3, and 4. Much rain.— 5 and 6. Finer,— 7. Snow and sleet.— 8. Same. — 9. Close rain in evening, yield 0.86 in. — 10. Another great fall, 0.312 in. — 11. Rain, 0.062.— 12, 13, 14. Much finer.— 15. More rain, and frost. — 16, 17, 18. Great increase of tempera- ture.—19 and 20. Rainy, yield 0.275 in., with snov/ water. — 21. Fine, calm day. Lunations. — First quarter 3rd, Oh. 13 m. after- noon. Full moon lOth, 9 h. 8 m. morning. Last quarter 18th, 4h. 50 m. morn. Remarks connected with Agriculture. The period has been marked by great and fre- quent transition. Short periods of frost (sufficient however to produce a moderate check) alternated with equally short periods of warmth, many degrees above a mean average. The late rains have satu- rated the ground, without seriously interrupting farming operations. John Towers. Croydon, Jan. 22. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 176 CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE, This month is generally very favourable for the operation of ploughing, which must be pushed very vigorously in leys and stubbles, and in subsoiling. If the weather be unfavourable, and frosts and snows prevail, continue the operations of carting dung and other articles, as has been directed. Feed all live stock regularly and amply, and thrash regularly, in order to aflford fresh straw. In favourable weather pull and store turnips; use green rounds and swedes. Give oil-cake along with turnips to the cattle, and salt to the sheep. Ewes will now require good shelter and juicy food, as the lambing season will commence. Much and delicate attention must be paid to young animals at this tender season ; feed and shelter the dam, and she will feed the progeny. Lay dung on grass lands. When dry, bush- harrow and roll, and pick off by hand all rubbish. Spread mole-hills and tufts of dung, and put gates and fences in order : float meadows. During the whole month fell timber and cut underwoods ; splash hedges and plant new ones ; plant all kinds of forest trees, and cut-over those planted last year when not thriving, which pro- duces a more vigorous growth in the new saplings from the stem. Open-ditch plantations, and fence them against summer grazing ; fill up the vacancies in last year's planting. Open the hills on hop- grounds, and apply strong manures, as rotten dung, brines, and oleaginous substances ; dress the roots, and plant in beds the shoots that are cut off, to come in for sets : collect and prepare all kinds of artificial manures. In fine seasons the sowing of grains will com- mence in the early districts ; sow beans and peas, oats and barley, and spring wheat ; sow vetches for horses and spring feed. Sow on warm borders of well-prepared grounds cabbage seeds, for plants to be planted in the fields in May and June. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY. During the greater portion of this month, the weather has been unusually changeable. Alternate frosts and rains have been experienced ; yet, as the ground has not hardened to any depth, the progress of out-door farm labours has not suifered any great interruption. The gradual de- cline in the value of wheat has, it has been asserted, deter- mined many of our farmers to sow a much smaller extent of land with that produce than in some former years ; and the high price of barley has induced a much greater attention to that article. We believe, however, that neither state- ment is absolutely correct: because, though our markets are comparatively dull, we see no reason to apprehend a very low range in the quotations, or such a depression in the state of the trade as to warrant such important changes. Besides, it is a vulgar error to suppose that land can be cultivated after any fashion — that farmers have even the power to grow wheat on soils laid down, in the ordinary course of cropping, for spring corn or green crops ; and we believe that there is not that amount of despondency amongst the agricultural classes which some persons would lead us to imagine. At the present moment prices are suf- fering from two causes : viz., 38 5 41 7 39 9 Jan. 17, 1857 .... 59 4 45 7 23 4:40 2 40 5 39 6 Aggregate average .59 5 44 3 23 1040 0 42 0 40 6 Same timelastyear 77 6 39 4 26 1064 0 48 7 47 3 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, per cwt . . . 60s. to 80s. Ditto white „ Trefoil, per cwt . . . 65s. to 84s. to 30s. ... 25s. Takes, per bushel 5s. Dd. to 6s. Od. . . . 20s. to 94«, . . . 70s. to 78s. to— s. to— s. Hempseed (none) . Carraway, per cw t., new — s. to 50s. . . old — s. Linseed, per qr., sowing .... — s. to - -S... crush ing 09s. to 71s. Linseed Cakes, pe Rapeseed, per qr.. Rape Cake, per to . £11 Os. to £11 10s. . .. 86s. to 88s, 65 lOs. n £5 Os. to . POTATO MARKETS, SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, Monbay, Jan. 26.— Duriug the paat week the arrivals coastwise have been mode- rate, but larger by rail, which have been more than equal to the limited demand. The following are this day's quotations : — York Regents . . . , per ton 903. to 1203. Kent and Essex do lOOs. to 130s. Lincolnshire do 80s. to 100s. East Lothian do 100s. to 130s. Do. reds 80s. to 903. Perth, Forfar, & Fifsh. Reg. 903. to 105a. Do. reds 703. to 75s. German whites 50s. to 70s COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, Jan 17 : A fair supply of Potatoes. They sold at from 8d. to 9d. per peck, and from 2s. 8d. to 2s. 9d. per bush. Leeds, Jan. 20: A moderate supply of Potatoes, which sold at from lOd. to lid. wholesale, and lid. tol2d. per 211bs. retail. Rich- mond, Jan. 17: Potatoes 43. per bush. Manchester, Jan. 22 : Potatoes 8s. 6d. to 10s. per 2521bs. ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. Monday, Jan 26. — We note a slow trade in Butter, and nothing but English Fresh maintains its price. Dorset, fine None. Do. middling 1043. to 108a. per cwt. Fresh 12s. to ]6s. perdoz. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH WOOL MARKET. CITl"^, Monday, Jan. 26. — An unusually small supply of English Wool is now ou sale. For all kinds we have nume- rous inquiries, but as most of the holders refuse to sell except at further advanced rates, the business doing is very moderate. The prospect of our market may be considered favourable, both as to demand and value. LEEDS WOOL MARKET, Jan. 23.— There has been a fair e.^tent of business done this week, and prices of both combing and clothing wools are firmly maintained, with an up- ward tendency. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, Jan. 24, Scotch Wool. — There is still a good inquiry for laid Highland wool, but at the advanced rates consumers buy with great caution ; stocks, however, are light, and it being still nearly six months before the new clip can come to market, there seems little chance of any lower rates before then. White Highland is still wanted. The stocks of Cheviots and crossed in first hands are light, and command full rates. FOREIGN WOOL MARKET. CITY, Monday, Jan. 26. — The accounts from the various foreign wool markets report continued firmness, with an active demand. LEEDS FOREIGN WOOL MARKET, Jan. 23.— There is a fair demaud for the various qualities. The supply of Aus- tralian wool being much below an average, prices are very firm. Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London. _Gl' if4 .., At. ?rice has taken place, the question has acquired a very different aspect, and it comes to be a matter of consideration whether the farmer can any longer afford to employ it ; and if not, by what substances it can be most advantageously replaced. In bringing these points 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. under the notice of the society, I shall, even at the risk of repeating matters already familiar to many of our members, commence by a short recapitulation of the mode in which manures act, for the purpose of pointing out what is required both for a general and special manure, and thus laying down some fixed prin- ciples on which we may judge how far guano and similar substances fulfil what is required of them. The great juudamental principle on which a manure is employed depends upon the fact that every plant during its growth accumulates in its system a certain quantity of matter essenlial to its existence, which it derives partly from the soil, and partly from the air. From the former it extracts the fixed mineral matters which exist there, and there only ; while from both it obtains supplies of its organic food, that is of the water, carbonic acid, am- monia, and nitric acid, required to build up that greatly preponderating portion of its mass which is combustible. Plants grow naturally without cultivation, because the soil and the air always contain a certain quantity of the elements they require; and as they either die in the spot where they grew, or are consumed by wild animals, these substances sooner or later find their way back to the soil, there to commence a new cycle of similar changes, so that a certain moderate production continues from year to year. But when agriculture comes into opera- tion these conditions are changed ; the crop is removed from the soil and consumed elsewhere, and though the air will still afford the elements which are derived from it as abundantly as before, the next generation of plants must find in the soil a diminished supply of the sub- stances it obtains from thence. The necessary conse- quence is, that if the cultivation of plants be continued, the quantity of valuable matters in the soil becomes less and less, until at length they are so much reduced as to be no longer sufficient to maintain the growth of plants, and the soil is then said to be exhausted. To restore the fertility of such an exhausted soil, vegetable matters or the dung of animals, which consists to a large extent of psirtially decomposed vegetable matters, must be re- turned to the soil ; and herein lies the simplest, the oldest, and the most generally-employed method of manuring, and the only one possible, so long as the principles on which a manure acts were unknown. But now that the progress of scientific knowledge has enabled us, in place of considering farm-yard manure as a whole, to estimate the advantages derived from each of its numerous constituents, we have come to see that it may not in all cases be an indispensable manure, but may to a certain extent be replaced by other substances. In fact, when we inquire more minutely into the cause of the diminished fertility of a soil from which a succession of crops has been removed, it is found rarely to depend on the general exhaustion of all the requisite elements, but most commonly on the deficiency of one or more substances which have been removed by a certain num- ber of crops, while the others still remain in sufficient abundance. And hence the fertility depends not so much on those substances which are abundant, as in those which are most deficient, and the absence of which ren- ders the others useless, because the plants cannot grow without an adequate supply of all their constituents. A soil in this condition does not absolutely require farm- yard manure, but may be again made to produce abun- dant crops by the application of the one deficient sub- stance, which is then called a special manure. When so treated, a soil will retain this renewed fertility for a certain time, but at length becomes again in- fertile, even under a continued application of this ma- nure, which is then said, in ordinary language, to have lost its effect, although the real reason is that the sup- ply of a second constituent has been exhausted, and it also must be supplied in the form of a manure. In all that precedes, we have supposed it to be required merely to keep up a certain moderate fertility, such as an ordi- nary soil may be supposed to possess in a state of na- ture. But agriculture does a good deal more than this, and seeks to produce a larger amount of vegetation than the natural soil can do, without extraneous aid — an effect which may manifestly be always produced by supplies of farmyard manure, sufficient to afford a superabund- ance of all the different constituents of plants. But it is obvious that we may succeed equally well without it, if, as will frequently happen, some of the constituents be abundant, and their utility be limited by the deficiency of only one or two. Thus, for instance, we may conceive a soil containing a superabundance of all the mineral elements of the plant, but no ammonia or other nitro- genous matter, in which case the produce will be limited by the quantity of ammonia which the plants can obtain from the air during their period of growth, and may be greatly increased by a special manure containing nothing but that substance ; so, likewise, it may happen that even where farm-yard manure has been applied in very large quantity, the addition of a special manure may still be advantageous ; because, as ordinary dung consists of the constituents of plants, minus those substances which have been retained by the animals which fed upon them, it may be desirable to supplement deficiencies so pro- duced ; or if the crop to which it is applied happen to require an unusually large quantity of any particular element, it may be advisable to add' an extra quantity of that substance, so as to bring out the full eft'ect of its other constituents. It cannot fail to be observed that, accord- ing to the definition now given, there is a very important distinction to be drawn between a general and a special manure. When the former is used, all the constituents of plants are added to the soil ; and not only is its fer- tility maintained, but, if they be used with sufficient liberality, its productive capacity may be materially in- creased. Whereas, on the other hand, a special manure adds nothing to the permanent fertility of the soil, but only renders its existing constituents more rapidly avail- able, and hastens rather than defers its exhaus'ion. Such, at least, would be the case if special manures were employed alone, a method rarely practised, and which, in my opinion, should be scrupulously avoided, except under very special circumstances. But if special manures be employed along with iarin-)'ard manure, the result is different. A given quantity of the latter can, of course, produce only a certain amount of crop ; but if mixed with a special manure, it is more rapidly con- verted into vegetable matter, and this is advantageous to the farmer. It may be urged that this is a matter of little moment, and that sooner or later the farmer re- ceives back what he has put into the ground. But this is not the case ; during six months of the year manure lying in the ground is undergoing decomposition, although there are no plants to make use of it, and the constituents then set free are in part at least washed away and lost. Even if none of it were lost, it would not be altogether a matter of indifference ; for, to take an extreme case by way of illustration, if we suppose a part of the manure to remain undecomposed for four- teen years after its application, it will, if only five per cent, interest on its price be reckoned, have cost the farmer twice as much as that which was consumed during the year of its application. While, therefore, I consider the use of special manures alone a most injudicious and short-sighted policy, which can rarely be employed with advantage, there is no question that their proper combination with farmyard manure is really one of the most important improvements ever introduced into the practice of agriculture. If the prin- ciples now laid down be applied to the estimation of special manures, we see that the substances most advau- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 193 tageously applicable are those rich in the constituents in which the soil or farmyard manure are most commonly deficient, or which serve to promote the rapid absorp- tion of those they do contain. Chemistry alone does not enable us to arrive at a certain knowledge of these points, but must be supplemented by the results of field experience ; for the question does not entirely depend upon the proportion in which these substances are present, but to a very great extent also in the degree to which they are immediately available to the plants. The results of analysis, hon'ever, have shown us that there are two substances always existing to a very small extent in the soil, namely, ammonia and phosphoric acid, and a third, viz., potash, which is rarely very abundant*, while all three are most important constituents of plants. The results of precise experiments in the field, as well as everyday practice, show that the two former are also most important and essential constituents of special manures, and invariably remunerate the farmer for the expense of application. In regard to potash our infor- mation is much more limited, but what we do know leads to the conclusion that its salts are very uncertain in their results. Experiments made two years since at the instigation of the Highland Society, showed that sulphate and muriate of potash produced little or no effect on grain crops ; but great anticipations were formed of the advantage of applying them to potatoes, which, however, have not been confirmed during the past season ; and an experiment with carbonate of potash, by the late Mr. Pusey, also proved unfavour- able. A special manure must be valuable, therefore, exactly in proportion as it contains these substances, and especially the two former of them ; and hence it is that guano maintains so high a position among ferti- lizer.--. If, then, it be wished to compare with one another a number of different manures, all that we have to do is to observe the relative quantities of these sub' stances ; and if we wish to calculate its money value, it is only necessary to ascertain the pricrs at which those substancos can be purchased in the market, all of them being obtainable as commercial articles in some form or other. Agricultural chemists have endeavoured, as far as possible, to fix the market value of the different con- stituents of manures, and have arrived at results which differ somewhat from each other. The following table gives the value per ton attached to the principal consti- tuents of such manures by Mr. Way, Dr. Hodges, Mr. Nesbit, and myself : — Hodges. I Nesbit. Anderson. Ammonia Insoluble phos- phates Soluble phosphates Potasht Alkaiine salts .... Grgauic matters . . Way £ 8. 56 0 d. 0 7 0 32 13 30 16 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 £ s. d. £ s. d. 56 0 0 60 0 0 7 0 0 8 0 0 23 0 0 20 c 0 1 0 0 24 0 0 1 'b 0 0 10 0! 1 0 0 £ s. d. 56 0 0 7 0 0 28 0 0 20 0 0 10 0 These are supposed to represent fair average prices, but that of ammonia is rather under the present market ' The quantity of potash is Bometimes not more than twice as large as tlie phosplioric acid : but in other cases it is ten and even twenty times as abundant. t Mr. Way's valuation for potash is certainly much too high, and even that adopted by Mr. Hodges and myself is cousiJerably above tlic price at which it can be obtained from kelp. Cut weed kelp, containing aboiit 18 or 20 per cent, of potash, can be purchased for from £2 lOs. to £3 per ton. At the latter price, even if we put no value on any of the other constitneuts of the kelp, potash costs only about £15 per ton. If we allow the ordinary value of the sulphate of soda, common salt, and phosphates, contained in kelp, the cost of the potash is UDder £13 per ton. price, which is at present from .£00 to as high as £68 per ton. Further, it is to be noticed that though potash is stated, it is very doubtful whether, owing to the uncertainty of its action, it ought to be generally estimated. The same is true of the organic matters, which exist in the soil and the farmyard manure so abundantly that the few pounds added to an acre in the portable manures do not merit notice. For this reason, I do not reckon organic matters or potash, except in a manure which is deliberately used for the purpose of applying it. To come now to the more immediate subject of discussion, we must, before attempting to dis- cover what are the best substitutes for Peruvian guano, endeavour to define its true value, which the preceding table enables us to do. An average Peruvian guano contains : — Wafer 13.73 Organic matter and ammoQiacal salts . . 53.16 Phosphates 23.48 Alkaline salts contain 3.00 of potash ., 7-97 Sand 1.66 100.00 16.5 £1 . . £53 8 . . 188 13 . 39 28 . . 145 68 . . 1120 Ammonia . . . . . . Phosphoric acid in the alkaline salts equal to 5.21 phosphate of lime . ■ 2,50 and calculating from the preceding table, its value per ton is, according to Way, £13 19 0 Hogdes, 13 0 0 Nesbit,* 13 12 0 Anderson, without potash, .. 12 8 0 Do., with potash, 13 0 0 It may be urged against these calculations that the prices assumed are not exactly those which must be paid for the different substances, and that at least ammonia is esti- mated considerably under its present market price. Let us see, therefore, what is the actual cost at which a similar mixture could be produced at the present time, assuming £68 per ton as the price of ammonia, ^£^8 for phosphates (at which high rate Mr. Nesbit reckons thcmj, and £13 for potash, as obtained from kelp; we then find that we have for 100 tons as follows : — • 53 tons organic matter at 23.5 tons phosphates at 3 tor.s potash at 5.21 tons soluble phosphates at 16.5 tons ammonia at . . £1545 Or at the rate of ^£"15 9s. per ton, estimating at the pre- sent high market prices of all its constituents. At the present moment guano is selling in quantities under 30 tons at from £14 15s. to ,£"15 per ton ; and it may there- fore be alleged that this is still under its value. But an extension of the principle of valuation on which we have been proceeding will at once show the fallacy of this. If, for example, we calculate the value of farmyard manure according to the prices assumed for guanos, we find that the organic matter is obtaiied for nothing, and the farmer who is about to use 20 loads of that manure to an acre of his land, may with justice say to the guano merchant, " I am applying to the acre 3 or 4 tons of organic matter, which costs mc nothing, and I cannot therefore be expected to pay at the rate of £1 per ton for the couple of cwts. contained in guano ; neither can I pay for potash, which, so far as we have been able to see, produces comparatively little effect;" and this at • Mr. Nesbit gives no value for potadi in his list, and hence it must be supposed does not estimate it in a guano, a system in which I concur, although I have cilculated the value both with and without. If we exclude potash and organic matter, Mr. Way's valuation would be reduced to £12 lOs. per tou. 194 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. onc8 cuts off 18s. per ton from the value. Moreover, it is to be noticed that all the calculations refer to the value of an average sample ; but the importers give no guarantee that the guano, as delivered by them, shall come up to this ; all that they promise is, that it shall be sound and unadultered ; and should it happen that a cargo contains only one per cent, less of ammonia, phosphates, and alkaline phosphates, its value is di- minished by almost exactly £l per ton, although no reduction is made on its price. Of course, so long as guano could be obtained at ^9 or £IQ, which is clearly quite within its value, this was a matter of no moment, tor the purchaser always got value for his money, al- though he might sometimes have a better bargain than at others. But now that the price is so high, it is only just that a fixed proportion of all its constituents should be guaranteed. I have entered into these details regard- ing the valuation of guano, because they appear to me to be calculated to some extent to allay the apprehen- sions now existing among farmers, by showing that the present price of guano cannot possibly be maintained. But this does not in any degree lessen the importance of introducing proper and useful substitutes for it. The subject is one to which I have for some time past paid considerable attention ; and long before the present rise in the price I had come to the conclusion that a far too exclusive reliance had been placed in guano. In making these observations I trust I may not be misapprehended, or supposed to wish to depreciate guano, of which I am sure no one who has attended to the opinions I have frequently expressed at the meetings of this society will accuse me. But I feel convinced that guano has fre- quently been used where other manures would have pro- duced an equally good result at a less cost. Prominent among these stands superphosphate, both because of its results in the field, and because it can be and is manu- factured in large quantities. In a recent number of the " Transactions of the Highland Society," I have entered so fully into the composition and valuation of this manure, that it will be unnecessary for me to recur to it here, farther than to point out that a good super- phosphate is sold at a price rather under the market value of its constituents. A good sample may contain — Water .. 16.64 Organic matter 12.04 Soluble phosphates 20.11 Insoluble phosphates 16.51 Sulphate of lime 9.15 Sulphuric acid 18.52 Alkaline salts 2.76 Sand 4.27 100.00 AmmoHia 1.55 Estimating according to Mr. Way's plan, this super- phosphate would be worth £S 16s. per ton, according to my own, £7 12s., or, with ammonia at its present high market price, £7 16s., and it would probably be sold at £7 10a. Such a superphosphate applied weight for weight, would, I apprehend, produce a result little inferior to Peruvian guano, at not much more than half the price. I believe, however, that all this could be done at a still lower price were farmers to manufacture their own superphosphate — a plan which will sooner or later be adopted. No doubt the impression is general that this process can be most economically effected by a manufacturer, and is not profitable for the farmer ; but this is chiefly because the latter has always tried bones, which are both expensive and difficult to dissolve, and never used the most convenient materials, such as bone ash, which would have led him to a different conclusion, as may be easily seen from a very simple calculation. Bone ash containing 75 per cent, of phosphates sells at £6 per ton ; but let us take it as costing the farmer £7, and sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1.7, technically called " pan acid," costs at present £5 63. per ton, which is unusually high. One ton of this acid and about a quarter of a ton of water would be requisite to dissolve two ton's of bone ash, and the product would cost £b 18s. per ton, and contain 46 per cent, of phos- phates, at least one-half of which would be soluble, but no ammonia. If the bone ash could be got at ^'6 per ton, and pan acid at £4 (which is not an unusual case), the superphosphate would cost only £5 10s., while its value estimated in the usual way would not be less than £S per ton. Ammonia might be added to this substance in the form of sulphate, at a cost of about £1 for every 1.5 per cent. ; but whether this would be profitable I am not prepared to state, as it could only be deter- mined experimentally, and there is no matter which under present circumstances it would be more im- portant to submit to careful experiment during the coming summer. Should it turn out that ammonia may be dispensed with, in a manure for turnips, then a most important point will have been established, and there will be every prospect of a diminution in the price of such manures. In fact, the sources from which phosphates can be obtained are undergoing great extension, though perhaps scarcely commensurate with the demand, and hence there has been a material increase in their cost, and in the case of coprolites an unreasonable advance. Within the last few weeks, however, it has been an- nounced that these substances are found in enormous quantities in France, and should this prove correct, there can be little doubt that it will influence prices. They appear to be very similar to those found in England. There is no doubt, then, that superphosphate will be the substance to which farmers will in the first instance have recourse, both because it is well known to produce good results, and to be obtained in large quantity. But then it may happen that the demand exceeds the supply, and in this case there would come to be a rise in price. It will not do, therefore, to rely upon it entirely ; and at- tention must be turned to other substances. Neither must it be forgotten that phosphates, however important, are only one of the elements of plants, and have been found to exert a more important influence on the turnip on particular soils than any other element : in fact, to propose the use of them is only to substitute one manure for another, and not to increase the total quantity of fertilisers at the disposal of the farmer, which is the true and only method in which a permanent depression of prices can be produced, for, as I have already observed, they appear at the present moment to have reached their maximum. The reduction of the price of ammonia and phosphates is in fact the reduction of the price of manures, and it can be eff'ected either by increasing the supplies, or by the better economy of those which we at present have. We have already referred to the discovery of coprolites in France as one mode in which the quantity of phosphates can be increased, and their price in all probability diminished ; but I am inclined, on the whole, to give greater weight to the increase and cheapening of am- monia. The great source of ammonia on which we at present rely, is the manufacture of gas ; and the cheapest commercial form of a pure ammonia compound is the sulphate. Now, when ^17 per ton is paid for that salt, the greater portion of the price goes for the sulphuric acid, which, so far as we know, has no agricultural value, and at all events could be obtained much more cheaply from other sources, and the cost of manufacture. The am- moniacal liquor of the gas works, after having been once distilled, can be obtained, containing 20 percent, of ammonia, at a price which gives that substance at from 3d. to S^d. per pound, or about ^^28 per ton. The objection to its agricultural use is a very obvious one ; the ammonia exists there chiefly as carbonate, and in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 196 that state is peculiarly liable to loss by evaporation into the air, and it is universally admitted that it ought to be fixed by sulphuric acid. It it to be observed, however, that we have no information of a satisfactory kind re- garding the loss which the carbonate of ammonia actually does undergo. We know that a certain proportion of the ammonia in Peruvian guano is in that form of com- bination, but the amount of loss it suffers on that account is not known. It is clear, however, that if con- centrated gas liquor were applied to the soil, the farmer could afford to lose one-third of it, and still have his ammonia cheaper than in the state of sulphate. We have at present no data bearing on this point, but it is well known that ammonia runs most risks when applied on the surface, and that if it be incorporated with the soil, it is retained by it. In fact, it is now well known that the very first action of a soil upon a salt of ammonia is to decompose it, to extrude its acid and detain its base ; so that we actually manufacture at a large expense a salt which is immediately destroyed again. I would suggest, therefore, as an experiment which may have most important bearings on the economy of manures, the trial of this fluid. I should propose the application at the rate of two to three hundredweip[ht to the acre on grain crops, both alone and mixed with a certain quan- tity of bone ash, and I would suggest that the land should be made up in ridges, and the solution diluted to a proper extent poured into the bottom of the furrows, while the plough immediately following the application should be made to divide the ridge and cover the am- monia. This I should propose to do several days before sowing, for I apprehend it would not answer to put the seed near the strong ammoniacal fluid, and a few days should be allowed for it to disseminate itself through the soil. I throw this out as a suggestion for the consideration of farmers, and though it is quite possible that this method of application may be too ex- pensive in practice, or that the ammonia may not operate as effectually, it is certainly worthy of trial. One hundred-weight and a-half of the ammoniacal fluid, and the same quantity of bone ash, might also be tried on turnips ; and should these applications prove suc- cessful, it will be possible to make a mixture as good as Peruvian guano, at a cost of not more than £S per ton. There are many other sources from which nitrogenous matters might be obtained, which are now much neglected, among which I may suggest dead horses and cattle, refuse hair, &c., &c., and last not least urine. It is always a source of regret to me to see the construction of our railway and other urinals, in which a large quantity of ammonia is daily washed into the sewers, where it becomes practically almost useless to agriculture. If in place of using water to wash it away, the smell was prevented by the use of disinfecting pow- ders or charcoal, which would be much more effective than the present method, and the produce collected in tanks, it might then be evaporated with a little sul- phuric acid, and would produce a very valuable manure containing a considerable quantity of soluble phos- phates and alkaline salts. This process was at one time practised in Glasgow, but was discontinued, chiefly, I believe, because the neighbours threatened to indite it as a nuisance. The material was collected at the dif- ferent manufactories of the town, and carried to the works in casks ; and I believe that, though a price was paid for it, the process was profitable. I have often asked myself whether in a town like Edinburgh, where the levels are suitable, it might not be possible to con- nect those places by a separate system of pipes, and convey all the produce to ;t manufactory, where it might be evaporated with sulphuric acid. I cannot help think- ing that it might prove successful, for the manure would undoubtedly be worth £8 or £9 per ton. The con- version of fish refuse and coarse fish into a manure is also deserving attention. There is no doubt that many fish which are unavailable for human food are annually caught on our coasts, which are never brought on shore, but are at once returned to the sea. If those fish were brought to land, cut into thin slices — which could be easily done by the fishermen's families — and then laid out to dry on the stones, after sprinkling with a little salt, the dry mass would be worth about £6 or £7 per ton. All these are matters which merit attention, and should the present crisis lead to any of them being made available to agriculture, its effects will be more bene- ficial than otherwise. There is one other way in which it will act beneficially, for it will direct more attention to the economy of farm-yard manure, which I believe to be one of the most backward departments of agricul- tural practice, and which has been kept back, to a great extent, by the cheapness of portable manures. Farm- yard manure, except on the farms of the best agricul- turists, is very much what it was a century ago, and there are few who could not introduce improvements. To this day nearly one-half of it is destroyed and wasted by keeping it in a state of active fermentation. Che- mists have always strongly opposed this plan. Sir Humphrey Davy did so, in his well-known lectures ; and no point advocated by him was more strongly animad- verted on by farmei's at the time. I have on several occasions referred to this matter at the meetings of the society, and I do so again, under the hope that the sub- ject may now obtain attention, the more especially as Dr. Voelcker has recently shown that the loss is really very great. All these matters to which I have referred must have their effect sooner or later on the price of light manures; but this must not prevent every means being taken to reduce their price : and the agricultural community should urge upon Government the im- portance of sending out special expeditions in search of guano, nitrate of soda, and all other substances which can be used as manure. And not only that, but re- wards should be offered to private discoverers, as at pre- sent there is little inducement to any one to search for these substances ; for he cannot keep his secret suf- ficiently long to make a profit of it. A sum of ^"'10,000 would cheaply repay the discovery of a deposit far in- ferior to Peruvian guano. The production of cheap food is a matter of the highest importance to the welfare of a country, and to do this cheap manures are now indis- pensable. Sir J. S. Forbes read the following letter from Mr. Finnic : — " I regret much it will not be in my power to attend the meeting on Wednesday, as I consider tlie object of it to be fraught with importance to agriculturists, but more particu- larly in consequence of a wide-spread alarm which exists (needlessly, in my humble opinion), that the raising of the price of guano by the Messrs. Gibbs, and their restricting the supply of that article, will prove an insurrnoimtable barrier in the solution of the question — How is the land now to be maintained economically and profitably in its wonted state of fertility ? Though unable to attend the meeting, however, I have thought it right to jot down some of the views which have occurred to me upon the subject, and now send them to you in case you may consider them to be of any service at the present juuctvire. It has for some time occurred to me, and I have remarked it on several occasions, that the treatment which agriculturists now experience at the hands of Messrs. Gibbs, is only what was to have been expected. The tempta- tion to overcharge is too great for human nature to forego, and is quite consistent with the history of all monopolies. But the lessons of history also teach us that this is an exhaustive process, because by charging for an article far beyond what it is worth, the latent skill and energy which Necessity, the mo- ther of Invention, has ever in reserve, is called forth into ac- tivity, and the result generally has Leeii, that on the one hand the monopolist, if not driven out of the market, has been com- pelled to lower his prices to the fair value of the article, and on the other, the public has reaped not only the advantage of 196 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the reduced prices, but also of the further discoveries which have been made. I confess, therefore, that although we may suffer a little temporary loss and iuconveuience, the farmers will soon come round to see that these gentlemen, uniutea- tionally, perhaps, have proved to be their very best friends. Far be it from me, nor is it necessary, to allege that guano does not stand deservedly high among our lists of portable manures. I would also be the last to maintain that we can effectually keep up the fertility of the soil without suppleraent- iug farm-yard manure, and that to a considerable extent, with substances foreign to the farm. But I have as little hesita- tion in affirming that, to the abuse, auJ not to the use of guano, is the preseut cdsis iu some measure attributable, in- asmuch as that substance has unjustly engrossed the atten- tion of the farmer to the exclusion of other portable manures equally as valuable and efficacious ; nay, I would say, even to the exclusion ol farmyard dung itself. It is not so many years since guano was first introduced into this country, and theu sold at £28 per ton. By-aud-by, as the supply in- creased, it fell to £25, but at that price it was apparently to remain, when the late Professor Johnston (not forgetting the invaluable services however of eminent men of the same school, such as Liebig and others) entered the field as cur analytic chemist. No sooner did he give forth to the agricul- tural community a list of substances which by due admixture might be used as a substitute for what was produced from na- tural sources, while it could be obtained at less than a third of the cost, than all at once the skill of an enlightened public, with a 1 the resources at command, was ma.le available. The refuse of every mauufactory became an object of inquiry and ini- porlaiice, and very shortly we were iiiuudated with endless varieties of portable manures, indeed to such an exteiit as to be far beyond tlie digestive powers of the United Kingdom. In this race of coaipetitiou, coupled no doubt with the sup- plies of infeiior guanoes, such as Ichahoe and Chili, the Peru- vian guano, with ail its vaunted superiorit)', had to submit to a downward movement, and ultimately succumb to a rate not exceeding £8 per ton. Now, let me ask, are our prospects gloomier than when guano sold at £25 per ton ? I venture to reply, we have only to put the same mscniuery iu motion, and results similar to those I have stated will follow ; and, certaiuly, this can be doue at present under circumstances much more likely to be attended with permanent and bene- ficial effects. There are now able and celebrated chemists presiding over every agricultural association at hoaie and abrond. ^Manufactories, both here and on the continent, are every d^y iucreasuig and developing additional supplies of refuse, which, in the majority of cases, can all be turned to acco-.iut, when presented to the agriculturist in a fit state ; and numerous are the iudividuals who, if properly eucouraged, would be our foragers and purveyors of what would really be profitable fur us to use. We have in London a company pro- ducing a manure at £7 10s. per ton, which leaves a handsome profit, manufactured from the blood and bones of the animals kilted at the public slaugliter-iiouses — two powerful agents, we must admit ; and why may not similar establishments exist throughout the Uuited Kingdom — nay, over the whole of Europe ? and surely the supplies from these aloue are not likely to diminish, when «e consider the growing taste ol a daily iucreasiug population for animal food. Have we not, likewise, a country teeming with machinery, which must all be kept in motion with grease and oil ? aud we know well that, from whatever source these are obtained, there remains a residuum fit and valuable as a luauure. Ii; short, it would be tiresome to cuumcrAte the inexhaustible reaciirces pateiit to agriculture, which only require the aid of science, in comhina- tirm with self-interest, to turn all to a profitable account, and fit us, without much loss or iucoiiVtuieuce, to dispense with even the Pe.uvian deposit. No doubt, upon the occasion I have referred to, much was presented to the farmer that led to disappointment ; and hence one of the principal reasons why agriculturists have so unreservedly adopted the u^e of guano, to the almost exclusion of any other portable manure. Our celebrated chemists, however, have not only served to ex- pose, but are now better able, from a more familiar acquaint- ance with the beariug of science on practical agriculture, to prevent the re-appearance of such trash. It is also true that the reduced price of guano drove out of the market much that was valuable, as the respectable manufacturers and dealers could not successfully compete. It can, therefore, occasion no surpiiae (one of the conditions of the Mesara, Gibbs being that no one who obtained a cargo from them should venture to sell any other than Peruvian guano) that, flushed with the idea that the ball was at their feet, and with the irresistible and fatal determination to be too soon rich, and relying too confidently on the passive resistance of farmers, they have, unfortunately for themselves, but luckily for agriculture and the interests of the general community, roused us from our dream of fancied security, aud in a way none of us can mis- take— viz., by putting their hands into the very bottom of our pockets. But, to make myself more exphcit with regard to the observation about the abuse of guano, I may remark that I myself, and perhaps so may others, plead guilty to the charge. In the case of turnips, where no farmyard manure was used, I have applied as much as from 7 to 8 cwt. of guano per Scotch acre ; aud to potatoes, with a liberal supply of farmyard manure, as much as 6 to 7 cwt. Now I have no hesitation in stating that experience has taught me that it would have been more profitable had I restricted the quantity to 5 cwts. in the cue rase, and to 4 cwts. ia the other ; and the benefit would have been even still greater had I employed a mixture of rape, dissolved bones, bone meal, &e., in preference to guano alone, in any of the proportions stated. I have also witnessed iu East-Lothian aa much us 5 to G cwts. applied as a top-dressing to wheat, aud I feel perfectly confident that the euterprising tenants in that part of the country will be the first to confess it was a mistake, Iq various other respects also, guano may be said to be abused, such as (1) in trusting to its ageucy aloue for keeping up the fertility of the weaker description of soils iu the country without returning these to pasture during the greater proportion of years, a hope which has always led to disappointment; (2), m supposing the best character of land can be profitably cultivated by reduciug much the proportion of farmyard manure and sub- stituting guauo instead; and the last and not least important iustauce of its abuse consists in applying guano aloue, to the exclusion of every other portable mauuie, whereas a mixture would not only have givetfasgoodrtsultsat first, but have proved more permanent in its beneficial effects. It is a curious fact iu practice that the guanos of an inferior class, wheu applied weight for weight with the Peruvian, have, upon the most re- liable evidence, produced equal results, aud that dissolved bones or bone meal have not been found to play a second part upon all Imd of a lightish description recently broken up from pas- ture. With these observations, which have extended to a greater length than I anticipated, I draw them to a close by simply expressing the conclusions at whicli I have arrived as to the mode of extricating ourselves from the apparent difficulty of the guano question. And Cral I would take leave to say that we, as agric.ilturists, are certainly bound to approach tl.e legislature and ask for what w& arc reasonably eiititled to, vi?., that Goverumeut render available all possible means of inves- tigating every source from which a supply of guano can be ob- tained, eveu although it should be of second class quality, and surely we may as reasonably expect to be supported in our de- mand by the general community, seeing that the policy of the Government is iu the direction of giving, and the wishes of the people in receiving, cheap and plentiful food. But secondly, as past experience gives us but slight eacouragcaient to place much dependence upon the assistance to be obtained from Go- vern mcnt or the Legislature, we should exhaust for ourselvts every other available and known source of supply, or, iu other words, encourage importers and mauufacturers, by making fair trial of such other portable I'r.auures as may be brought iuto market, provided these are certified by the analysis of some v.ell-known chemist. At the same time, we should not forget to turn our attention more than ever to the dung-heap at home, which, I am convinced, by judicious mansigement, may in every case be very much augmented, and which cannot be dispensed with, whether guano be high or low iu price, Aud lastly, 11- stead of employing guano by itself as formerly for turuipa and barley on tlie lighter and weaker description of soils, Itt farmers use along with it an admixture of some other portable manure, highly charged with phosphates, such as boue meal, dissolved boces, or eveu guauo of a secoiidary class, if uuadu!- terated, and for turnips and potatoes on the heavier character of soils, emploj along with guano some other nitrogenous ma- nure, such as rape dust, blood manure, &c., and while this course will be more profitable, it wiil tend materially to lessen tl.e demand on the Messrs. Gibbs, aud compel them soon to lower their colours and send in a flag of truce." Tbia terminated the proceedings. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 197 THE EFFECT OF DRAINAGE UPON PR ODU CT 10 N,— H 0 W FAR IT MAY BE PROFITABLY EXTENDED. The recent advance in the price of guano is sugges- tive of more important considerations than those to which we lately alluded, on the importance of the once- despised and ridiculed dung of extinct animals buried in our rocks, for the improvement of the soil. These may be compared with the accumulated masses of the ancient forests of strange and extinct vegetable forms, which once clothed the surface of the earth, and now furnish the coal with which we wann our limbs, and cook our food, and spin our cotton, and are shot from place to place like a sky-rocket, and thrash our corn, and grind it, and drain our land, and are going to plough it no one knows how deep. This advance in the price of guano suggests another important question — the necessity of not wasting it when we have got it ; the necessity of not letting quite so much of it, and of other manures, run to waste through our drains. There is moderation in all things, and we ought to take care that in running after every will-o'-the-wisp that haunts uudrained land, we do not fall into the evils which arise from over- drained land. The fullowing reinarks of a farmer of the old school, now nearly extinct, have some weight in them, and are well worthy of the consideration of some of our most zealous and enthusiastic dreamers, as the remarks of 15ractical men always are : " We slow coaci.es," said he, " as you uied to call us, and laugh at us for letting our muck bo exposed to the sun and air, were not so wrong after all. The virtue of muck is in the solid part. Dried muck is like a dried herb : it regains its virtue again as soon as it is wet, like the tea my old woman puts in her teapot. Then, again, we were laughed at, till there was no end of it, because we let the streams of liquid gold, as it was called, run to waste, in the black juice that drains fi-om our muck-heaps. And what do you new lights do? Why just what we did, only you do it in a much more expensive way. We just cut a gaj) with a spado, and let it off, little by little, into the bi'ook; and it goes offquietly without any fuss. But what do your new scientific farmers do? Why this : the most go-ahead of them drain their laud with pipes, laid at I don't know what depth, but at an expense of ^£'5 to £G an acre, and then lay iron pipes all over their farm at an expense of £■* to £6 an acre more, and put up a steam-engine at an expense of .£"300 at least. If that is not buying your crops," said he, " I don't know what is. My father bought the land he farmed by fanning on the old plan ; but your new-fashioned farmers buy their crops, just as the Londoners who come down shooting buy hares and partridges to take home in their game-bags. And then, to prove that all this is right, and that wo who have been bred on the land and bred all our lives to farming know nothing about it, you tell us how the drains run liquid-manure, and what a storm it raised among the old women in the next vil- lage because it spoiled tlie water of the brook so that they could not make tea with it. We, I say, not only got rid of our li(iuid-manurc without expense, but without any fuss with the old women, and that was worth sorac- thin^." " Well, but you will say," continued our friend of the old school, " those who go to all this expense in farming are very few : it is not every man that turns all his muck into licjuid-manure. I grant that; but those who laugh at all this, and who laugh at us too as being behind the age, what do they do ? They put their muck on, its true, in the old way, and they buy ever so much guano, and they dissolve it in water, and put in the turnips with the liquid-manure drill, and they drain their land five or six ftet deep, and all over like a grid-iron ; and they tell us it is not enough to get rid of the rain after it has come. Our drains must run to let us know it is coming, like a weather- glass. They tell us, too, we must drain land for the sake of the collateral advantages, whatever they are. They tell us we must set traps to catch the phos- phates and ammonia which come from the heavens in the rain. And they set their chemists to aualyze the air and the rain, to see how much manui'e comes in that way ; and no two of the chemists can agree how much it is, it comes in such small quantities. A great deal of it comes, too, in the dew ; so that is devoured by the crops as fast as it comes, and does not run to waste. But if your chemists cannot find out how much ammonia and phosphates come in the rain, they can tell you how much runs off in the wattr of your drains, and a fine lot it is. And then you let the foreigners know you cannot do without their guano, and they very na- turally raise the price. The slow-coaches, as you called them, who farmed on the good old plan that their fathers and grandfathers used before them, were not so very wrong after all : they did not make drains to get rid of their muck." Without adopting our friend's views to the full ex- tent, wo must candidly confess that there appears something in them. They suggest the reflection whe- ther we may not drain our laud too much as well as too little. We were once present at a discussion on these points, between two eminent drainers, which was pro- longed to the small hours, when the house adjourned, as some other great houses do, without having come to any decision, except that in which nothing was decided. One authority thought no land could be overdrained : one thought grass land might be. Shortly after this dis- cussion we crossed Romney Marsh. It was late in the summer, after a very cold and backward spring ; and it told its tale in the state of the feed, and the stunted condition of the lambs. We observed, however, that in those j^arts of the marsh v.diere the water of tlie ditches was not much more than threo feet from the surface, there was more feed than where it stood at a lower level. The remarks above quoted of our old-fashioned friend, and the large quantity of ammonia and phosphates which pass off in the drains, even where the muck is applied in the solid form, suggest some reflections on the manner in which it passes away, and how far these facts are re- concilable with the results of Professor Way's experi- ments on the fixing of manure by the clay in the soil. On what description of land, we would ask, does tho most ammonia and phosphate of lime pass off in the drains? Is it on the sands, the loams, or the clays i If the latter, then the question would be, how far this may arise from the manner in which the rain water passes through the soil into the drains. Does it, as some contend — and they are men of high authority — docs it ever filter through the clay, or docs it pass into the drains through cracks in the clay ? We know how some clays open in hot weather, and before they close they get filled with the more porous soil above ; and it is through these cracks, wo suspect, that the manure escapes. This escape of phosphates and ammonia thi'ough 198 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. drains, and it is quite clear that it is greatest ia land the more it is manured — suggests this further reflection, whether we may not economize ma- nure by a more extended rotation of cropping, and by some modification of the Lois Weedon culture, in which the land is made to manure itself by stripes of alternate crop and fallow. We cau remember some old farmers of the common field school, who contended that no good wheat had been grown since we abandoned the system of three crops and a fallow, and took to cross- cropping, as he called it. THE ECONOMY OF FARM-YARD MANURE, Upon a careful investigation, we safely assert that 20 per cent, of ordinary farm-yard manure is wasted. An examination of ten farm-homesteads consecutively taken has fully established this sup- ])osition. In six of these the whole of the water from the roofs of the buildings fell directly into the yards. In two instances the buildings were supplied partially with water-shoots, but these were in such imperfect order as to be nearly useless ; and in neither of the other two cases did they effectually answer the purpose for which they had been put up. Where the yards were of large dimensions, pools of liquid manure were found standing full to the edge, and which, after becoming filled, ran over into the nearest pond or ditch in a continuous stream of black liquid. No attempt had ever been made to carry it away in that state — no tanks having been formed for its reception. In most instances sufficient litter was at hand to ren- der the yards tolerably comfortable for the cattle, although in rainy seasons this appeared almost impos- sible; so that the manure became subjected to continu- ous wastings for weeks together. It is too much the fashion to look abroad for im- provements, and forget that the first necessity for them exists at home. Year after year passes away regard- less of consequences, and thus manure sufficient for the annual supply of the farm is lost once in every five years, and in some instances in a far less space of time. It has ever been thus, and will probably continue to be so, unless tenants can be awakened to the importance of the question ; and this, if left to themselves to cor- rect, would probably even then never take place. Whenever this subject has been individually adverted to, the answer is invariably, " My landlord will not do anything." The same observation applies to the improvement of buildings, to drainage, and to every other point of recent iuti'oduction. Unless, perhaps, in the case of some few spirited individuals, things remain as they have done, and wUl probably continue to do so until the expiration of their occupation arrives. The inquirer will probably ask. How can it be so ? whose interest is it to set about this ? and why is it not carried out? Here, again, we stumble; the law existing betwixt landlord and tenant is the chief obsta- cle. It is manifestly the landlord's interest to supply his farm with suitable and properly-constructed build- ings, and to see that they are constructed upon the best principle for insuring the economy of the manure. He takes care to restrict his tenant from selling off his farm any of the hay, straw, or roots, when yearly, from the bad construction of the premises alone, as much manure becomes wasted as would be equivalent to what a moiety of the hay, under proper management, would have produced. If landlords could understand the depreciation tha^. gradually takes place upon farms where little livestock is kept, they might soon be enabled to appreciate tliis question. Information must be acquired by ob- serving the progressive improvement that follows upon good management, with suitable home-stalls for making the best of the manure. We have seen the pro- duce doubled, and even trebled in seven years, under good management when due encouragement has been given; and we know of no investment so beneficial to a tenant, as that expended in the erection or improvement of properly-constructed buildings. Covered farmyards may by some be thought too expensive, although undoubtedly the best of all ; and where other good buildings exist, they may be judiciously combined with them at a moderate expense. It is stated that on this sys- tem Mr. Cook, of Semer, SulFolk, has been most successful. But in absence of such a plan, another may be adopted : sufficient open sheds might be erected and so placed as to render great assistance under the general arrangement for carying away the water from the buildings, especially when thatch pre- dominates as the covering. The cost will be found trifling comparatively with the benefit to be derived, and from our experience we know that upon farms of fi'om 200 to 500 acres it might be well executed at from twenty to thirty pounds. Another obstacle to the proper manufacture of manure is the great extent of the yards. Wherever this is the case they should be reduced, by the erection of fences to a proper size, and be so divided as to be available for each kind of stock. Where placed upon a regularly- inclined plane sui-face, fences with brick foundations should be put up, and the soil raised at one part and lowered at another, so as to bring them upon a level, or as near thereto as can possibly be efi"ected. Of all descriptions of farmyards, those having an abrupt inclination in one direction are the worst to deal with, and are more subject to losses from the effects of heavy rains than those of any other description. Although not easily remedied, by carefully disposing the walls and placing tanks in proper positions, little loss need be sustained ; and, indeed, in almost every case that has come under our notice we have found that from £50 to £100 judiciously laid out will effect a great deal, and in most instances all that is required. Why this is not carried out maybe readily answered. Each party, as landlord and tenant, imagines that it is the place of the other to put it into execution ; and thus, partly from obstinacy and partly to save them- selves the expense, it is never performed. It would be, however, very reasonable for a landlord to say to his tenant, " I perceive that your manure is annually wasted, to the great injury of yourself and my farm, and to prevent which I am willing to meet you in the expense of the improvement." Or, if in a position to take all the outlay upon himself, he might make the improvement, and charge six per cent, by way of in- creased rent, and this he might invariably venture to do whenever the farm changed tenants. The question is too important to be lost sight of; and we hope that these remarks may keep the ques- tion prominently before our readers. As we have already stated, the amount of good would be immense, whilst under the most disadvantageous circumstances the outlay necessary to obtain it would be trifling in proportion with the benefit to be derived. THE FARMEIVS MAGAZINE. 199 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. BY J. C. NESBIT, ESd., F.G.S., &C. A lecture on '* General Agricultural Chemistry" was delivered at Truro, on Wednesday evening, the 19th Nov., by Mr. J. C. Nesbit, F.G.S., F.C.S., &c., Prin- cipal of the Agricultural and Chemical College, Ken- nington. The lecture was given in pursuance of an advertisement from the Probus Farmers' Club ; and it was attended by a numerous and respectable company, principally agriculturists. The chair was taken by Humphry Willyams, Esq., a county magistrate and landowner. The Chairman, in introducing the lecturer, spoke of him as one who had throughout life devoted his talents to the benefit of the agricultural interest, and who, having been lately visiting Cornwall for the benefit of his health, had been studying its soils, and their capability of improvement. The Chairman then made some general remarks on the condition of agriculture in Cornwall, and on the energy and ability of the Cornish farmers. He referred to Mr. Nesbit as the principal of one of the first agricultural colleges in England, and expressed his regret that there was no agricultural college in Cornwall. A large sum of money, called the " Rodd Testimonial Fund," was col- lected some years ago, for the express purpose of establishing such a college, which sum of money was now lying dormant, and from which the agricultural interest was deriving little or no benefit. He took the opportunity of recalling that circumstance to mind ; for it was a matter in which he felt a deep interest, and he was convinced that no measure would be more bene- ficial to the county at large than the carrying out the original intention to establish an agricultural college in Cornwall. Mr. Nesbit then said : Mr. Chairman and gentle- men,— I assure you it gives me very considerable satis- faction to appear before you in Truro, to endeavour briefly to elucidate some of the principles of the appli- cations of science to agriculture. You must all be aware that in one single lecture it is scarcely possible to do more than to select from one or more of the different branches of agricultural chemistry a few of those which may strike me as being most important, or most ap- plicable to the condition of agriculture in this county. I shall, therefore, have to omit a very considerable por- tion of this important science, and to select only certain portions of it which I think more immediately relate to the subject-matter I have in hand, and are adapted to this county ; and to those subjects, therefore, I shall chiefly confine my attention. But, before I enter on the farming, or the real practical part of the subject, allow me to enter a little on the chemical part. I am rather diffident, before an audience like this, composed chiefly of those engaged practically in agriculture, of intruding my chemistry on them. I shall do it as shortly as possible, and only use such experiments as will illustrate the properties of those substances which plants accumulate to themselves, either from the air, or the soil, or the water with which they are continually bedewed. The first thing I have to say, in entering on this subject, is this: If you take any plant whatever, and burn it, you effect at once a kind of solution of that plant into two different series or kinds of ingredients or elements. The plant has its roots in the soil, its leaves in the air. Both have the power of abstracting, in their respective positions, materials for the service of the plant. The roots take certain matters from the soil, the leaves from the air ; and the water which comes down from the air is both absorbed by the leaves and the roots, and given out by the leaves under certain condi- tions. If you burn a plant — for example, wheat, straw, wood, or any form of vegetable matter — that which goes back again into the air, and disperses, is that which originally came from the air ; that which is left behind in the form of ash, is that which was originally derived from the soil. The one may be called the earthy or mineral matter of plants : the other the aeriform or gaseous constituents of plants. But we have other terms for them : we call the earthy or mineral, inorganic ;' and those which are driven off by heat into the air are generally called the organic consti- tuents. The mineral constituents consist of a great number of things which are common to most soils. We have silica, often in the form of sand ; we have lime, magnesia, potash (which is the substance which gives a soapy feel to ley from wood-ashes) ; we have soda, the basis of common salt ; phosphate of lime, which must be known to every one in the room as the earth of bones, and which is essential to plants on which animals live, or the animals could not obtain phosphate of lime for the bone structure of their bodies ; we have a little sulphuric acid, and a little muriatic acid, which are found in soils and also in plants ; and besides these, we have alumina and one or two other substances, which are found in soils, but which do not appear to take any part in the constitution of plants. Leaving these mineral constituents for the present, premising that you must have these before plants can derive materials from the air, I shall now confine my attention to those materials which they take from the air — the aeriform, or organic. These substances are only four. Three of them are gases ; and the fourth, though it exists in the air in the gaseous form, is a solid body in its natural or uncombined condition. The first is called oxygen — a constituent of water and of air. The next is hydrogen, found in common gas, in fatty matters, and in almost everything you see burn with a blaze. Nitrogen is the next body, which has its name from being found in nitre, or saltpetre, and is a substance present in most fulmina- O 200 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, ting or explosive compounds. And tlien we have the fourth, called carbon, or charcoal, which in its purest form exists as the diamond, and is also well known in its ordinary form of common charcoal : the substance called black-lead is not lead, but simply another form of charcoal. Carbon is also found in a combined state in all chalk and limestone rocks, which contain a substance called carbonic acid, formed by the union of carbon with oxygen. Carbonic acid is found in the air ; and it is from this source that plants derive their carbon or charcoal. I shall just endeavour to illustrate the propirties of these substances. [Mr. Nesbit here performed a number of chemical experiments, to show the properties of the four organic substances. He remarked that nitrogen is the basis of all ani- mal muscle, and is found in large quantities in all the seeds of plants, because they are destined to feed animals, which require its presence to a large extent.] After these experiments, Mr. Nesbit said :~I have had the pleasure of illustrating to you some of the properties of the four oi-ganic bodies of which vegetables coi.sist : — the oxygen, that which burns all things ; the hydro- gen, that which is burnt, and produces water when so burnt ; the carbSn, which when burnt produces this carbonic acid you have seen exhibit so many properties ; and the nitrogen, which is the distinguishing element of animal muscle, and must be found in vegetable matter destined for the food of animals. Some persons might no doubt be surprised if they were told that the vegeta- bles grown on the land do not derive the greater part of their nutriment from the land ; they derive on an aver- age nine-tenths of their weight from the air. There- fore, gentlemen, if any of you have been in the habit of thinking that your plants derive the whole or the main portion of their nutriment from the land, you have been quite mistaken. There is only a very small portion, that which is inorganic, derived from the land in the natural way ; the rest comes from the air. How does it come from the air ? You may have all in the land which it is destined to furnish, and all in the air which the plant requires ; but you want a power exterior to the plant to enable it to act upon these materials. There is an emanation from the sun — a power, a force, no matter what you choose to call it, whether magnet- ism, electricity, heat, light, or whatever it is — there is a force and power which emanates from the sun; and it is this, acting on the leaves of vegetables, which ena- bles those vegetables to absorb and appropriate the vari- ous substances I have mentioned. The ordinary vegeta- ble sends its rootlets downwards, and its leaves upwards. The roots collect from the soil the inorganic matters, the phosphates, the potash, the soda, the lime, the magnesia, the silica, &c. The leaves are sent into the air. The sap, which rises from the root, has dissolved in it the mineral matters, and its aqueous portion is of course composed of oxygen and hydrogen. In many instances plants form products consisting solely of hy- drogen and carbon, the corresponding amount of oxygen previously combined being wholly eliminated. This giving back of oxyt^en to the air is very curious, for you see the vital oxygen of the air is that without which man and other animals cannot live. The vegetables give back the oxygen, and we consume it : we give out the carbon from our system, and they consume it ; and thus, by this beautiful alternation, plants and animals provide for each other. [The lecturer here mentioned an experiment by a French philosopher, proving the powerful influence of sunlight on plants, and that the branch of a living vine had no power to abstract car- bonic acid from the air in the dark, but took the whole of it in the sunlight]. Plant forest trees in any part of Cornwall where, if not too much exposed to the N.W. wind, they will grow ; you will find that year after year, through the falling of the leaves and the growth of the roots, you will get an accumulation of vegetable matter in the soil. At the end of thirty, forty, or fifty years, you will be able to remove hundreds of loads of timber, and yet the soil will be then much richer in vegetable matter than before. It is evident that the vegetable matter must have come from the air, as it did not pre- viously exist in the soil. Now, let me conclude this part of the subject by saying, that the carbon, the hy- drogen, the nitrogen, and the oxygen, the four organic materials, plants primarily derive from the air; and it is to the air we must look for these substances. With your permission we will now turn our attention to the consi- deration of the properties of that important substance, farm-yard dung. Let us see if we can trace its properties, what it is, and where it comes from ; and whilst we give to dung made on the farm its true and proper value, let us not over-estimate its value. I must mention, that in entering on the subject of farm -yard dung I have passed over a great and important point, which time will not permit me to touch upon, which ought to be the sub- ject of a distinct lecture — soils. But returning to farm- yard dung : how is it made ? I hardly like to speak very much of the mode in wnich it is made in Cornwall ; but if it be true that gentlemen are in the habit here of taking straw and putting it on the roads, and allowing horses and carts to go over it, allowing it to get tho- roughly wet with the rain of heaven, so that everything soluble in it is washed out — that is one way of making something which may here be called a manure, but what it might be, if analyzed, I am rather fearful of saying (laughter). V."e find that everything volatile in it is gone into the air, and everything soluble is gone into the water, and what is of kast worth is left behind. In making farm-yard dung, you take vegetable matter and try to decompose it ; but let us see if we cannot decom- pose it with less loss than by this primitive Cornish system. Some gentlemen will tell you that by passing all the straw they have through the stomachs of their animals, all that can be digested will go to form beef or mutton, and that which cannot will be thrown out, and be useful for growing turnips or some other plants. But what I want to explain to you is this : that whether vegetable matter goes through the body of an animal, or is rotted on the roads, provided you don't let any- thing go into the air or into the water, if you save all the produce you get, you will have the same ultimate results of decomposition from the same materials. If you give a bullock or sheep a certain amount of hay, that animal chews the hay and passes it into the stomach, where a certain portion is made use of and con-sumcd for the purpose of affording animal heat ; another por- tion, not wanted for animal heat, is rendered soluble and laid on in the form of fat or flesh ; and another portion, wliich it cannot assimilate, is cast out by the animal. Ex-actly in the same way, if you take a quantity of vegetable matter, and let it be moist and put together in a heap, the oxygen of the air acts upon it, dissolves, burns a portion of the hydrogen out ; dissolves also a portion of the carbon ; gives out heat ; and you get precisely the same kind of ultimate decomposition in this case as when vegetable matter is decomposed in the air. The only difference is, that in the animal economy a more lengthened series of decomposition goes on, whereas in the air the series is not so lengthened : the ultimate products are the same in both. What you call farm-yard dung is merely the refuse vegetable matter rejected by animals, combined with other vegetable mat- ter which has been decomposed in the air ; the materials which once took part in the formation of vegetable life are prepared again to take part in the production of sub- sequent vegetable life. Your farm-yard dung is merely a form of once-existing vegetable life, decomposed and put into the land to reappear in another form of vege- table life. As to the strength of the constituents, the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 2ul pDwer of your farm -yard dung, it depends altogether upon the kind of vegetable matter you decompose. If you decompose straw, the dung will be of corresponding value ; if you decompose oilcake, the dung will also be correspondent to its value. Which do you consider of most agricultural value in a plant, the straw or the grain? — say of wheat or barley. We find by analysis that the seeds of plants contain a larger amount of nitrogen and phosphates than the stalk. When you use the seeds of any plant for the purpose of feeding, the dung of the animals has an increased amount of nitrogen and phosphates ; and this is precisely what the plants want, because they want ultimately to produce seed. If you give a Rrowing animal oilcake, the dung will not be so good as if you give the same amount to a nearly fatted animal ; because a young growing animal will abstract a larger amount of the phosphates to form bones, and of nitrogen to form muscle. You all know that the dung of animals in a nearly fut state is much richer than the dung of young stock. In the same way, the dung of milch cows will be much less valuable than that of fat stock, because of the phosphates and nitrogen required to form the milk. You may take it as a general rule that the nature and value of the dung will be rela- tive to the nature and value of the vegetable matter from which it was produced, whether this matter was decom- posed by passing through an animal, or in any other way. In decomposing vegetable matter, some consti- tuents are soluble, some insoluble, and some volatile. It is a general rule in this world that those things which are most valuable are the most difficult to keep ; while those of inferior value may belong to us without envy for any length of time. The nitrogen, which may be considered the most valuable of vegetable matters, is the one which most easily escapes ; as on the decompo- sition of substances which contain it, ammonia, a vola- tile compound of nitrogen, is produced, and without care may easily escape. The materials of next value to those which escape into the air, are those soluble in water ; including potash, soda, some phosphates, and all the nitrogen which in some of its combinations has not been rendered volatile. If you allow too large an ac- cess of water to your decomposing matter, all these will be washed away and go to enrich the vegetation of the ocean, which I believe is not necessary to be done as a private speculation (laughter). The plan of mixing lime with ma- nure cannot, I think, be very clearly laid down as one that ought to be advised. Lime is a great antagonist of ammonia, and if you were to mix any substance con- taining ammonia with lime, the lime would unite with the substance previously combined with the ammonia, and would set the ammonia free. To show you that it is not advisable, under ordinary circumstances, to mix lime with dung or any valuable manure containing am- monia, I will show the effect of mixing some lime with guano. If the farm-yard dung is made in what is said to be the Cornish fashion (I must beg pardon, I am only presuming on hearsay), namely, of washing the best part of the soluble matters out of the straw in highways and byeways, I suppose that putting lime to what is left would do little harm. But I will show you what would be the effect of adding lime to a valuable manure, one that does contain ammonia, something which ought not either to be rendered volatile, or to be washed away. I will put some lime to this guano, and you will find, the instant they get together, we shall have an undoubted evolution of ammonia, [The lecturer here mixed some on a plate, and it was handed to his audience, who, on smelling it, gave visible evidence of the effects of am- monia,] The Chairman — In proportion to the loss of am- monia, is the deterioration of manure, is it not? Mr. Nesbit assented. — We have now seen, he said, that what is called farm-yard manure is simply vegetable matter, somethiag which hn formed vegetable life ; and we have seen that the seeds which when fed by animals produced the very best manure, are those which contain the very largest amount ofnilrogen and phosphates, which at the present time are substances of the greatest pro- portionable value. Now as to the making your farm- yard dung, it is quite clear the move your animals con- sume of seeds, such ss oilcake, barley, ike, the greater amount of valuable manure you will have of your own raising ; and it is quite material that you should keep ic free from the rain and wet. There cannot be a better plan, when you have a collection of farm-yard manure, than either to get it into the land at once, or if that be not at the time practicable to mix it with layers of earthy matter. A bed of earthy matttr should form the basis, such as road-scrapings, ditch-stuff, or in lieu of these the common soil of the field ; then eighteen inches or two feet of the farm dung ; then four or five inches more of earthy matter ; then more dung ; then earthy- matter again, and so on, finishing the heap with a coat- ing of six or eight inches deep of earthy mud on the top. I don't advise you to put lime ; because if your manure is of any particular value, it will tend to drive off that portion which consists of ammonia. But I advise you to use earthy matter, and by turning it over once cr twice, and again covering it over on the top, you will eventually get a compost of considerable value; I am speaking of such times as vihen you cannot carry the manure on to the land at once. As far as the use of lime is concerned, it is better to make the lime itself into a compost with earthy matter, or even such refuse vegetable matter as stroil (couch grass) or other weeds, and continually turn it till its caustic nature is ren- dered mild. After this treatment it may be used witk layers of common earth between the layers of dung. I think we have now seen pretty clearly that our farm- yard dnng, the great staple of all, is really derived from the air and the soil by previous vegetables. We may consider that, therefore, as a point proved. Now let us go to another and a very important thing, the rotation of crops. In entering on this subject you will allow me to point out, that, whatever is said to the con- trary, farming is really, to a great extent, an artificial process. Your farms ai'c manufactories of grain and other special vegetable products. If you leave it to Nature, she will clothe your Cornish hills and valleys with those common and indigenous plants which are most adapted to the soil. She will put one form of verdure on one hill, and another on another; will take particular notice of all the variations of climate which your townsman, Mr. Whitley, is so happily and properly pursuing ; she will clothe them exactly with the vegeta- bles suited to each particular nook and corner, height and depth, or degree of moisture and dryness. These plants, however, are not suited for our purposes. W^e have to grow those which would not gro«v naturally, because we have to provide for our own sustenance, and are obliged as well to pay our rent, and the taxes neces- sary for the maintenance of the commonwealth ; there- fore, it is a point of the greatest importance that we should grow the plants best adapted for these purposes. In the first place, we all know that we require the staff of life; we require cereal plants, wheat, barley, oats, &c. If we refer to the various systems of tlie rotation of crops, we shall find that their ultimate object is to keep a large quantity of stock, and at the same time to pro- duce the cereal crops, both of which are necessary for the sustenance of man, and, as products of the farm, have the highest value. Now, different plants having a different expanse of foliage, are not endowed with equal powers of obtaining nutriment from the air. Some present very small leaves to the air, others very large ; some, again, have not very large leaves, but still present an abundant amount of foliage, and, whenever the sun 0 2 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. acts, present a large and broad foliage to the action of the heat and light of the sun. Now you will find the rotation of crops, if properly looked at, will practically resolve itself into this : it is to make use of some plants of abundant foliage to abstract from the air, for the use of other plants, organic matter which the latter have not the power to obtain from the same source in quan- tities sufficient to produce the crops which in an artificial state of cultivation the farmer requires. If you take as the most simple form of our rotation of crops, the four- course or Norfolk system, turnips, barley, clover or seeds, and wheat ; you will find the germ or principle of all the rotations in that one. The turnip, the first of the series, is a broad-leafed plant, and presents a large amount of leaves to the air. The turnip sends into the air these broad leaves, and derives therefrom a large amount of organic matter, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. The roots penetrating into the land absorb thence inorganic matters ; the two are together accumu- lated in the bulb of the turnip ; and if it were not dis- turbed, the turnip would make use of the substances it has accumulated in the bulb for producing seed. But you do not desire the turnip. seed, but rather to produce beef or mutton, together with some barley, for the purpose of obtaining a greater money value. The turnips are eaten by animals, and produce a certain amount of beef and mutton ; and that which the animal gives forth in its excrement is used for growing your next crop of barley, whether it is deposited on the land by folding sheep, or has been voided in the farm-yard, and subsequently carried on the land. By this means the barley, which naturally might only produce a quarter and a half, or two quarters per acre, is enabled by the mate- rials it receives from the turnips, and which are taken up by its roots, to produce four or five quarters, or even more, per acre. I come next to the clover, which follows the barley ; this, like the turnip, is not a plant of broad leaves, but still produces great foliage, and every leaflet that shoots up into the air sends a rootlet downwards. In proportion to the growth of the leaflet upwards is the development of the rootlet downwards; and if you allow the full development of the leaves up- wards, you will have a corresponding development of the roots downwards. If you then cut the clover, say at Midsummer, and remove the crop of hay, allow the plant to develop again, and cut and remove another crop in September, you will have enabled the plant to develop the largest possible amount of roots. These roots it is which, by their decomposition in the soil, fur- nish the additional amount of organic matter for the wheat plant, which enables it to produce a larger amount of wheat per acre than it could, possessing as it does narrow leaves, have otherwise obtained from the air. So that the clover provides for the wheat as the turnip does for the barley — turnips, barley, clover, wheat. Except in some particular classes of soils, which require the mechanical action of treading, and which are rendered too porous by the large development of clover roots, you will find that the plan of cutting and removing the crops of clover hay will give a better crop of wheat than if the clover was fed off by sheep or other stock. This is be- cause, if you send in your sheep, every leaf they eat off destroys the development of the root with which it was connected, and consequently diminishes the amount of vegetable matter that the roots would otherwise accumu- late in the soil, I will give you an instance of an ex- periment made. A friend of mine had a field of clover, and he cut it all at Midsummer, and took a very full crop ; subsequently he turned his sheep on one-half of the field, and the other half he allowed to grow, and cut it again in September. He dug up then equal portions of each part of the field. Where he had cut once, and subsequently fed, there was 35 cwt. of dry clover roots to the acre ; where he had cut twice, there was 75 cwt. per acre, giving a clear advantage to the latter practice of two tons of vegetable matter per acre in favour of the next wheat crop, which was decidedly the best where the two crops of hay had been removed. This is one mode of providing organic matters for those crops which pay best, and of which you want to grow the largest amount. Another mode is by ploughing-in the green crops. When stock fetches such a high price as it does now, and the conversion of lean into fat stock is attended with a profit, the ploughing-in of the green crops would not, of course, be followed. But I remember the time, only about ten years ago, when turnips were so plenti- ful that farmers offered £2 per acre to their neighbours possessed of sheep to send in their flocks to feed the tur- nips off ; and I knew that refused. I happened to be lec- turing in Berkshire on this subject in the spring of 1846, when, in consequence of the dearth of food in 1845, a great quantity of the lean stock had been sold, and in 1846 there were none to be got. There was a very abundant crop of turnips, and the gentlemen about that neighbour- hood did not know what to do with them. I said in my lecture to them, " I think your remedy is perfectly clear. If you set a flock of sheep on these turnips, the sheep will do nothing but eat a portion and take it away, and deposit the rest on the land ; therefore, if you chop up your turnips and plough them into the land, you will have more manuring matter in the land than if you give them to your sheep, unless you give your sheep oilcake or other artificial food." The experiment was tried over a large breadth of land in that district, and next year they had a better crop of barley than ever they had before, better than those of their neighbours whose turnips had been fed off by sheep. You must recollect that animals do not make manure ; they always abstract for the purposes of their growth a portion of the vegetable matter upon which they feed ; that only which is deposited is left behind as manure ; therefore, any vegetable matter passing through an animal always loses a portion of its manuring value. Speaking ou this subject, allow me now to refer to the rotation of crops in Cornwall. I expect on this point to see some opposition of opinion ; I am going to find fault, and I am going to suggest im- provements. I may be in the wrong, but I am open to conviction, as T hope you are. It is for me to speak what I think, and to suggest what may probably be for your advantage. I find you are very much in the habit here of taking two corn crops in succession, and very much in the habit of laying down grasses for two or three years. I have no doubt whatever that this practice arose in former times from necessity. I, for my part, have a very great opinion of the great wisdom of our ancestors ; I really believe, if they had not been very wise men themselves, they could never have pro- duced such a generation as the present (cheers and laughter). I therefore believe the operations of farming as practised in Cornwall at the present day were at one time suggested by absolute necessity ; and what I want to point out is, my belief at the present moment, that the very same system which is now practised, and formerly rightly practised, is not rightly practised at the present day, the necessity having passed away. If I read your system aright, you lock up your lands in clover and grasses for three years. I don't believe, when this system originated, you had clover, but that you were necessitated to lay down land to grass three years, to accumulate a certain amount of vegetable mat- ter in the soil, to get a crop of wheat out of it, and that was your only means of doing it. I know some of the Wiltshire downs were more badly situated than the lands of Cornwall ; they had to lay down grass for twenty years, they then got one solitary crop of corn , and then the land was nineteen or twenty years in ley before another crop. You see all this is only telling the same THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 tale ; and it is, that the farms generally in Cornwall and Wiltshire formerly were not capable of producing enough manures for the full development of their powers. The soil was better adapted for growing than there were facilities for getting manure ; you had then no means of getting extraneous manures, and fherefore required three years or twenty in grass to get conditions for a crop of corn. Do those conditions exist now ? When lecturing in Wiltshire eight or nine years ago, and pointing out the immense importance of artificial manures generally, I said that their chalk downs, letting at half-a-crown an acre, (whilst down in the bottoms there was land paying £4 an acre,) would in a very little time come into culti- vation. I said, " Doyou not see you can carry up in one waggon enough manure for twenty acres ? and you will then get your swedes, your barley, your clover, your wheat ; by carrying manures for swedes you will ensure a series of crops for four years." Now do you not see in Cornwall that you are similarly situated ? that you are not dependent — ought not to be dependent, on three-course leys ? for I am perfectly persuaded that by a proper system of extraneous manuring you would be enabled to get as much in one year from your clovers as you do now in three years. I was rather surprised to see this system in Cornwall ; and I am still more astonished to find that our good, but indispensable, friends the lawyers, by copying old leases year after year, and never stretching their inventive faculties to the length of adapting leases to the present time, are compelling and continuing this system. I do feelingly appeal to our indispensable friends ; and I ask all con- nected with the working of leases and lands to repre- sent that this is not the time for restrictions of that kind — (cheers) — and that we ought to have them wholly removed. By the use of a proper amount of artificial manure you can change the agricultural rotation of this county completely ; and I have no doubt, if I live to come down here in five years' time, if what I am now suggesting be carried out to a proper extent, that I shall receive a very different account of the productive powers of the county. I will suggest a change in your course of cropping ; I will not say it is a right one, but I offer it as a suggestion to be commented on and spoken of by you, gentlemen, when you like. Suppose we take a course of this kind : — Turnips — barley — clover and seeds — wheat — turnips — barley — mangel wurzel in lieu of clover (as lands will not always bear clover every four years) — and then wheat. On the clover and seeds I should put the farmyard dung in the autumn after the barley, instead of putting it upon the wheat in the subsequent year, and, if necessary, would assist the wheat with guano or some similar nitrogenous manure. I believe our young clover and young seeds are much injured by sending in the sheep immediately in autumn, when the plant requires to be acclimatised and strengthened for its exposure to the approaching winter weather. I would put on the manure at that time, because I am satisfied that when spread on the land it would not only be a covering to the young plant from the cold, but would materially assist, by its manu- ring, in its full and proper development ; and the benefit will be seen in getting an earlier production of the clover in the spring, than you do now. After the clover I would take wheat, then turnips, and by a proper system of horse-hoeing the wheat to get rid of the weeds, I believe it is quite possible, in this county and climate, to take a green crop, such as Italian rye-grass, after the wheat before the next crop of turnips. I would take my turnips, then barley, and then in lieu of seeds mangel wurzel, with a good supply of artificial manure, and then the land would be prepared for a subsequent crop of wheat. You will see this would be a much better and more profitable course of cropping, with a proper amount of extraneous manures, than your present system of laying down to grass ; when, if your grass fails in the first year, you are obliged by j»our leases to keep it for two years without anything on it. I must now refer to another clause contained in your leases. I find our indispensable friends have not confined their attention to dictating to farmers the exact rotation of crops ; for I understand you are all obliged to carry so much lime or shell- sand every year. A great many leases say you must lime your land, whether it is re- quired or not. I attribute all this simply to the fact that in former times lime was found useful, as well as the laying down the land to grass for three years. What I regret is, that the ingenuity of our favourite friends has not been exercised in altering these leases, and adapting them to the improved state of agriculture. I know this liming has been a vexed question for a long time in Cornwall. One class has said lime is the very best thing in the world ; another has said it is no use at all. When I heard of this question being debated, it struck me that probably both parties were right, and that they had been quarrelling about words without any meaning, each thinking of his own particular case, and not of his neighbour's. Mr. Olver, of Trescow, I believe, is one of the great advocates for the non-use of lime. I asked him to be so good as to give me samples of his soil and subsoil ; and through the kindness of Mr. Pollard, I got some of the shell-sand slime from Wadebridge ; and through the kindness of Mr. Bryant, I got some of the Rock-hill and Perlees Bay sand, from the vicinity of Padstow. I have analyzed the whole, and the results you will see from the analyses I novr exhibit: — From Trescow, near Bodmin. Soil. Subsoil. Moisture 3-05 .. ]-07 Organic matter 6-63 ... 4-89 Sihcious matter 7378 * ... 80-47 Oxide of iron lOiS ... 7-.')3 Alimiina 3-09 ... 4^00 Phosphate of lime 0-22 ... 0-08 Hydrated sulph. oflinie 0-26 ... — Carbonate of lime 1'62 ... 0'36 Chloride of Sodium 0-02 ... 0-03 Magnesia ... I'lo ... 1'17 10000 lOO'OO Nitrogen, (equal to) ... 0-33 ... 0-15 Ammonia 0-40 ... 0-19 Deposit of Slime, Wkybridge, Per cent. Moisture 1 3*32 Organic matter 4"6G Silicious matter 52-35 Oxide of iron 2-98 Alumina 2*24 Phosphate of lime 0'17 Hydrated sulphate of lime 0-79 Carbonate of lime , 21 '10 „ magnesia 0'90 Chloiide of sodium 077 Magnesia 072 10000 Nitrogen (equal to).. 01.5 Ammonia 0*19 Rock Hill Sand, Padstow. Moisture 0-52 Ore;anic matter, &c .'>-45 Silica (sand) 2080 Oxide of iron and alumina 2-20 Phcsphate of lime TOl Cliloride of sodium 0'02 Carbonate of lime, &c 7000 100-00 Nitrogen (equal to) a trace Ammonia , t — 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Perlees Bay Sand, Padstow. Per cent. Moisture 0-52 Organic matter, &c 5-48 Silica (sand) lO'OO Oxide of iron and alumina 1-41 Phosphate of lime , 0"26 Chloride of sodium 0*"J3 Carbonate of lime, &c 82"10 100-00 Nitrogen (equal to) a trace Ammonia — Allow me to direct your attention to the soil and sub- soil of Trescow [the lecturer here pointed to the diagram]. You see, without reference to other mate- rials, that there is a certain amount of carbonate of lime in the soil, 162 per cent.; in the subsoil only 0'36. Then if we look to these shell sands, we find in the slime at Wadebridge 21'10 per cent, of carbonate of lime; in the Rock-hill sand, 70 per cent.; and in the sand from Perlees Bay, Padstow, there is 82-10 per cent. It is to this carbonate of lime we must chiefly look as the efficient ingredients in these substances. Ycu will see that Mr. Giver, or his predecessors, have raised the natural condition of the land at Trescow from 0-36 of carbonate of lime in the subsoil to 1-62 per cent, in the soil ; and when I took the simple slaty matter of the subsoil by itself, and crushed it to pieces and analyzed it, that contained less still ; so that the decimal of 0 36 of carbonate of lime in the subsoil at Trescow merely arose from the finer portions in the upper soil being Wtished down. Now when you have getting on to two per cent, of lime in the soil, you have what I have gene- rally found, practically, to be an available amount of carbonate of lime in such soils. So that it is perfectly clear in Mr. Giver's case, that he or his predecessors have already carried enough lime on that land to satisfy the present conditions of the soil for the plants ; and that any provisions in leases, or in any other way com- pelling Mr. Giver, or any other farmer similarly situated, to cart more lime instead of guano or super- phosphate of lime, or similar manures, would cause an improper expenditure of money. Another thing of im- portance in the Wadebridge district is this slime [point- ing to a diagram], which contains 52-35 per cent, of silicious matter perfectly insoluble, and it also contains 21 '10 per cent, of carbonate of lime. If you got that for nothing, and had the expense of carting it to any considerable distance, four loads of that would produce the same effect as one load of the Perlees Bay sand. So that I think, with those analyses before them, the gen- tlemen of the neighbourhood of Wadebridge will hesi- tate before they carry on their lands deposits of slime ; they will rather take the Rock-hill sand, containing 70 percent., or the sand from Perlees, or other similar bays, which contain at least 82 per cent, of carbonate of lime. This question of liming is no doubt one of great importance. You must recollect I am not advocating that there should be no lime applied. I am perfectly satisfied that the whole of the western districts of Eng- land require lime. In Exmoor, some years ago, I ana- lyzed some specimens of the soils and subsoils of Mr. Knight, when he was about taking that land in, and which has come under the direction of Mr. Smith, the present intelligent and active steward there. I wrote him to say, that after my analyses, though they might pare and burn it, and use guano, superphosphate, or any other artificial manures, yet if they did not use lime they could not get a crop. Curiously enough, that was proved by accident : in liming a twenty-acre field, which had been pared and burnt, they had not quite enough lime to finish the field, and about an acre was left undressed. The field was prepared by guano broadcast, and superphosphate of lime was drilled with the seed throughout the whole field. I saw that field in the autumn, and where the lime had been put there was a magnificent crop of tur- nips; but although on the remaining portion of the field there was guano and superphosphate of lime and burnt ashes, there was not a turnip where no lime had been applied. You must not take any expression of mine as telling you that you must use no lime. The western districts cannot do without lime ; but I have no doubt that many soils having had lime or shell-sand carried for a series of years have enough-to last for a long period without any additional quantity ; and, therefore, it is advisable that landlord and tenant should come to an agreement to allow, under proper circumstances, its dis- use, and instead, use guano, superphosphate, or other manures. I am almost afraid I am occupying too much of your time ("Goon"). The next subject, and the last I have to refer to, is artificial manure. Now as it is perfectly clear you do not, and cannot, produce on your own farms enough manure for the efficient carry- ing on of farming, it is very important to know where you can get a supply from without, and what is best adapted for your crops. You are quite aware of the ad- vent into England of that imported birds' dung called " guano," which has been productive of very considera- ble effect, and which came in when protection was taken away ; it was curious that this guano should then come in to supply your real wants, and that the gold discovered in Australia eased the money market ; so that, in fact, you have not been quite so impoverished when unprotected as some of you thought you should be. Guano has been no doubt a great boon to this country, for we have had from it almost the whola supply of nitrogenous matters requisite to give increased produce, and it must have in- creased the produce of our lands by many millions of quarters of corn. In the present year, the last season, 210,000 tons of guano were sold in this country, and probably the farmer did not pay a less amount than £"'12 lOi. per ton, which approaches to two-and-a-half or three millions of money. That is a very large sum for the farmers to lay out, but it has been laid out profitably ; for you cannot suppose that the farmers who have laid out two-and-a-half or three millions of money, have gained less by that than one-and-a-half millions. That is allowing them only a very small profit ; for we have it laid down, by experiments which have come under my own observations besides those of Mr. Caird and others, that an expenditure of 2 cwt. of guano almost in all cases ensures a produce of a quarter of corn. It was a very fortunate thing that we had guano coming in, and equally important that mineral treasures of phosphate of lime have been discovered in our own country. It is well known, by the investigations of Professor Henslow and others, including those made by myself, that we have millions of tons of phosphate of lime existing in a mineral state in the eastern part of the kingdom ; and Liebig has suggested the means of dissolving these fossil phosphates by sulphuric acid. Thus we have a manure of our own manufacture, which, as far as turnips go, produces mar- vellous results. Now, I wish again to point out that those materials we find in the seeds of plants, in the shape of nitrogen and phosphates, are those which, when found in manures, at present constitute their chief value. Commercial bones contain on an average 45 per cent, of phosphate of lime, and from 3 to 4 per cent, of nitrogen ; Peruvian guano contains from 25 to 35 per cent, of phosphate of lime, and from 16 to 18 per cent, of ammonia; whereas bones only furnish about 4 or 6 per cent, of ammonia. When bones were first introduced, you recollect they acted wonderfully ; and turnips were grown where they could not be grown previously. The reason that farmers have kept to half-inch bones as they do, is because the half-inch pieces are visible to the naked eye, and things like oyster-shells and so on, when THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 205 introduced, can be seen. If the thing were pure, finer bones would be better ; because, if you take anything and break it, you increase the surface. The interior of the bone, before it is broken, cannot be acted on by the turnip or any other plant, only the exterior. The naoro it is pulverised, the easier plants act on it, and the smaller quantity is required for the produce of a crop. Liebig suggested that you should render the phosphates still more easily soluble by acting upon them by sul- phuric or other acids. When first tried in 1840 and 1841, its results were immediately seen, and the imme- diate action of the soluble phosphate was to bring the turnip quickly past the fly ; so that the great bugbear of the fly ceased to become the plague it was formerly, and the turnip crop was obtained with much more facility and much less liability to loss. But I have found from my own experience, that too much soluble phosphate is not advantageous. With the use of too much the plants are apt to grow up too quickly, and produce too large a cellular and vascular system ; and as the days are shortening, and the soluble phosphate is ab- sorbed, without the presence of some phosphates some- what less soluble, they cease to find in autumn their proper manure in the ground. There ought, therefore, to be in all good manures for turnips, a portion soluble to carry the plant past the fly, and a portion somewhat less soluble to provide manuring matter for its after- growth. I never, therefore, recommend superphos- phates to be prepared wholly soluble, but a portion only of them. With regard to guano, there can be no doubt of its beneficial application to grass land and to corn. I have myself used guano to the extent of 8 cwt. per acre per annum on grass land, with paying results ; and Mr. Trethewy will tell you that he has used 3 cwt. of guano per annum for the last eight or ten years on the same grass land with the best results. You will find in all those crops in which you want to develop the leaf, you must use nitrogenous matters to some extent, as for grass and similar crops. You can also use guano to great advantage for corn crops, but take care not to use too much, or you may get all into straw. The corrective of that is salt, which is the best thing you can mix with guano or nitrogenous products. I will tell you how I think it acts. If you were to use a large quantity of salt over an acre of ground, it would kill every plant in it. The wheat plant during a certain portion of its life, is maturing the straw, and towards the end is maturing the ear. If I use nitrogenous matter like guano for my wheat, I don't want it to go into the straw, but into the ear ; and for that purpose I use with the guano 5 cwt. or 6 cwt. of salt per acre. This does not kill the plant, but retards the early growth of the straw ; and if this be retarded until the production of the ear, the whole strength of the manure will be shown in the develop- ment of the ear and the production of the ear instead of the straw, ensuring consequently an increased crop of grain. Therefore I recommend 5 ewt. or 6 cwt. of salt with 2 cwt. or 3 cwt. of guano, or other nitrogenous manure, to be applied for wheat or barley. If guano is used for turnijjs, I always recommend it to be used broadcast and harrowed in ; and the turnips to be drilled with 1 cwt. or 2 cwt. of superphosphate of lime per acre ; if you drill guano with the turnip seed you are liable to kill it, unless with great precautions ; whereas if the guano be previously sown broadcast and harrowed in, the roots of the plants as they proceed laterally between the drills will find the guano ready to afford them their full supply of nutriment. In using superphosphate alone, I would advise a certain portion of it also to be used broadcast, and another portion in drill. The drill system was another invention of our ancestors, for the purpose of accumulating the small amount of manure they had, under the roots of their plants. Both the ridge and the diill systems are evidences of the paucity of manures during the time of their invention. I now come to another subject, the adulteration of manures, a subject on which I should be happy to have it in my piiwer to offer no observations ; but, unfortunately, manures are adulterated. I came the other day in con- tact with manures by a company, not however in the west of England, who professed, 1 believe, to again pro- tect the farmer. Their guano was said to be mixed with something which was to retain the ammonia, and then it was to be sold at about £]0 per ton; its value when analyzed, was found to be only £2 10s. per ton ! A superphosphate of lime was off'ered a^ about £7 per ton ; when analyzed, it was found to beworth only £'2 14s. per ton ! There are sharpers in every trade, and parties will impose upon you if you do not take means to prevent it ; you should never have any manures brought upon your farms with- out having them analyzed, or guaranteed to you of a certain value by analysis, and even then you would be protecting yourselves by having the bulk you received analyzed to see that it was equal in value to the sample which was off'ered you. If every farmer here present, either separately or in society, was known to have all the manures that went on his farm analyzed, and its value determined by analysis, who would ever come to offer them a manure that was not genuine? (Cheers). By a consideration of the different circumstances of the various valuable species of manures, I have drawn up a table seen above [the lecturer here pointed to a diagram] . There are here multipliers of value:— nitrogen, of jc74 per ton; ammonia, £60 ; phosphate of lime, £% ; phosphate of lime made soluble, £2^. ; organic matter, i"! ; alkaline salts, £\ ; sulphate of lime (gypsum), £"1 per ton. Silica I reckon of no value; I have never found it in any manure except when it was put there to deteriorate it. Carbonate of lime I reckon of no agriculi ural value in artificial manure ; you are right in putting it (in its forms of shell sand, or deprived of carbonic acid in the form of lime), on your land if the land requires it, but in artificial manure you don't want it ; its existence is generally evidence of something wrong. Any of you who have an analysis of manures, by taking those amounts I have mentioned as approximating somewhat to the agricultural value of manures, may, at all events, save yourselves from gross imposition. For instance, here is an analysis of an average sample of Peruvian guano, in which the valuable properties are organic matter, phosphate of lime, phosphate of lime made soluble, alkaline salts, and ammonia, giving, with the multipliers of value before-named, £"13 \2%. per ton as the value of the guano. Let us next take a sample of adulterated guano [jiointing to a diagram]. This is sold to discerning farmers who want to buy good and cheap bargains. Peruvian guano is in the sole hands of the agents of the Peruvian Government, Messrs. Antony Gibbs and Sons, and those who buy directly from that firm ; and they have only one price. But some farmers, who have not studied Dr. Franklin (who, in his " Poor Richard's Almanac" says, "At a cheap pennyworth psuse awhilf"), are very fond of trying to buy cheap bargains. The analysis of this adulterated sample shows its worth to be about £'5 per ton, and that has been sold in large quantities for £'10 per ton. Here is a sample of superphosphate of lime, only worth £2 3s. per ton, which I know has been sold at £1 per ton ; whereas here is a good sample worth £6 18s. or £7, sold at its proper value. Here is a sample of Bolivian guano, which they were trying to sell in Livrrpool at £10 a ton ; I could not value it higher than £7 193., comparing it with other sources for obtaining the same materials ; they arc now selling it at £9. Another is the worst of all, Mexican guano. Anything called guano, coming from abroad, the farmers would buy, at a little less than Peruvian. This Mexican guano was bought by a whole- 206 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sale house in Scotland, for £1 a ton, and it has been sold to the farmers at £% and £^ per ton; when analyzed, its value was found to be £2 9s. As far, however, as manures are concerned, you can easily secure yourselves by dealing with men of honest reputa- tion, and by taking the precaution, as other people do who engage in business, of seeing that the materials you receive are according to sample and money paid. If you do so, you will undoubtedly put a stop to that which I have been endeavouring to do for a long series of years, the adulteration of manures ; I do not expect to be perfectly successful unless the farmers themselves give their aid in preventing it. You see then, in conclusion, that I hold the opinion that the old lenses ought to be abrogated, and that you should have more freedom of action on your farms (cheers), because you have now the opportunity of bringing upon your lands manures from extraneous sources, by which you can grow a much larger quantity of produce than this county has hitherto produced, benefiting alike the landlord and the tenant. And I think you ought to take care to look out for the increase of your money within the twelvemonths of the time you lay it out in manures. You should take a single crop and manure that crop, and get your money back out of that crop. It is a much better principle to put just enough manure in the land to get one crop, than to be letting your money lie out a number of years, losing thereby the interest of that money in your land. I am sorry the time allotted to me has been insufficient for me to enter more deeply into this subject. I am ex- ceedingly obliged for the kind and attentive hearing you have given me; and in sitting down I thank you for your kind attention, and shall be happy to give you any further information in my power (loud cheers). Mr. Trethewy rose with much pleasure to propose a vote of thanks to Mr, Nesbit, for his interesting and valuable lecture. They must all be thankful for the light Mr. Nesbit had thrown on many subjects relating to agri- culture, and particularly with reference to shell sand, guano, and other manures. He could bear testimony to many of the lecturer's points, though not personally to all that he had brought before Ihem. A great many of them, however, he was prepared to corroborate, having himself carried out many of them to his satisfaction, and to the satisfaction of those who took the trouble to visit his farm and inspect the results. Mr. James Tremain seconded the motion. The Chairman, before putting the motion, stated that the Professor was ready to give information in answer to questions from any gentleman who desired to have the subject further elucidated. Mr. T. Rogers, of St. Just, in Roseland, begged to ask the learned Professor what farmers were to do with their waste straw, instead of throwing it about the lanes? Mr. Nesbit said, in some parts of the country there was generally not straw enough. He would suggest what might be done here with waste straw. He thought that in this county there was not enough of sheep- folding. He had seen sheep folded on a turnip field, the turnips being removed from the first place of folding to the last place of folding in the field, and a proper amount of straw required for manure being placed on the por- tion whence the turnips were first removed; the turnips ■were then removed from the next place which was to be folded, and were chopped up and given to the sheep in feeding troughs in the first inclosure ; and tbis was re- peated until the whole field had been folded over, and the straw well trodden in, when the whole field was afterwards ploughed in for the following grain crop. ^.Ithough in this county they were exposed to certain winds that were not at all agreeable, yet he thought the feeding of sheep on the land might be carried to a greater extent than it was at present. A friend of his had tried the experiment of folding two lots of sheep on the same amount of food ; he kept thirty sheep folded in the open air, and they gained on an average 1 lb. a week each. For the other lot he placed double hurdles, with straw between, against the prevalent wind ; the hurdles fastened together with packing string, and on the top were placed other hurdles covered with straw, forming a lean-to, so that the sheep might go under cover ; and these sheep made on an average 31b. of meat each per week on the same amount of food as was given to the others, which, being exposed, gained only 1 lb. ; and all the time they were each treading in the straw on which their food was placed. The Chairman, for the credit of the county, must inform the learned Professor that to a certain extent the days for strawing roads were gone by (laughter). He remembered when it was an invariable rule to throw out all the straw on the high roads, until Parliament inter- fered, and laid a penalty on those who threw straw on the roads. He regretted to say that in those early days farmers were so stupid that they were obliged to get their knowledge from Act of Parliament (laughter) ; but in the present day intelligence comes to them other- wise ; men are not only desirous of improving them- selves, but of improving others also. Air. Willyams said he was desirous of asking a few questions. He thought the result of certain portions of the lecture was that, as a general principle, in order to make farm-yard manure most valuable, it should always be kept dry ? Mr. Nesbit : Not perfectly dry ; but still not having too great an amount of moisture. The Chairman gathered from the lecture that if ve- getables, in their purest and most natural state, were converted into manure directly into the soil, they would make better manure than by being passed through any intermediate state ? Mr. Nesbit: They would make a larger amount of manure, but under present circumstances the feeding them off would be advantageous, as they would produce a paying value in beef and mutton. Mr. Bryant, of Padstow : "When Mr. Nesbit was referring to the analysis of Mr. Olver's soil, I think he said the carbonate of lime should be about two per cent. I notice that Mr. Olver's carbonate of lime is nearly one-third short of that. Mr. Nesbit : I said getting on to two per cent. Mr. Bryant : Of course Mr. Olver is exhausting that lime every year he tills his land ; but I think you remarked that he may continue for a long time with that quantity in the soil. If " getting on to two per cent." is necessary, he ought to begin to carry lime again. Mr. Nesbit : What I meant was, that Mr. Olver having got that quantity, if I were farming there, I would not lime again till I saw a distinct and visible want of it. If you calculate the amount raised from the soil — that an acre of ground comprises 43,570 cubic feet, you will find that two per cent, will give a very large amount of carbonate of lime ; and only a very small portion is rendered soluble every year. I think Mr. Olver has got, at all events, enough for some years. But I grant that if you go below a certain amount, there would be depreciation, and he would want a little more. It is a question of degree. The fact that all the western districts require lime must be taken as one truth : the fact that persons in the western districts can carry too much lime, must be taken as another truth. The prac- tice should be between the two. I have found that in most cases of western soils, when the quantity of car- bonate of lime borders on two per cent., it will be found an available valuable quantity, and I think that the fact that western lands require lime, and that certain parties may continuously carry more than is required, will re- concile the discrepant views of various champions on both sides, as to the use of lime. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 207 Mr. T. Rogers thought the use of lime must depend on the nature of the soil and subsoil ; with him lime was of no use; he lived on the coast, and supposed his sub- soil was calcareous. Mr. Nesbit: Possibly. Chemical analysis would easily detect the amount of carbonate of lime in the soil. You will find if you take a portion of your soil, and pour upon it a mixture of muriatic acid (spirit of salt) and water, if there is a considerable effervescence, you may take it as a general rule, that the land does not require lime. I do not say that all soils which effervesce do not want lime ; but the majority which effervesce do not. Mr. Alfred Lloyd Fox, of Falmouth : The lec^ turer has told us that linseed cake is exceedingly valu- able for fattening cattle. I have seen an advertisement of a seed, known as " locust seed," being lately imported. It is said to be more nutritious and more useful than linseed ; and it appears to possess a larger amount of saccharine matter. Mr. Nesbit: I have analyzed some of the locust seed, or bean ; but it was in rather a decomposed state ; it was a little moist. As far as that analysis went, I could not compare that sample to oil-cake ; the nitro- genous matter it contained, as far as I recollect, was only about one-fourth that in oil-cake; there was more sugar in it, but less oil. But before I give a decided opinion, I should like to have a sample of the very best. Mr. A. L. Fox supposed that as it possessed more sugar, it would produce more fat. Mr. Nesbit : But the linseed contains a brae amount of oil — ten to twelve per cent., and also of mu- cilage. The amount of non-nitrogenous matter was probably equal in both. Mr. Trethewv asked the lecturer if he would state his opinion as to any difference between oilcake and rapecake — not oilcake of first-rate quality, but of gene- ral quality. Mr. Nesbit : I have analyzed both oil- cake and rape-cake ; as far as chemical qualities, they are very similar. But there is this peculiar stupidity on the part of animals, that they will not eat rape-cake. Rape- cake contains as much oil and other matters as linseed cake ; and if you could get animals to eat rape-cake, they would do as well on it. But they have their pecu- liar tastes ; and I suppose when they have been accus- tomed to the champagne of linseed, they will detest the ginger-beer of rape-cake (laughter). When you can cook the two together, and present the mass to animals so that they can select them, the one does as well as the other. Rape is the more economical in price ; but since its feeding purposes have become known, its price has risen very considerably. It is, however, a question of ingenuity on the part of farmers to induce animals to eat rape-cake instead of oil-cake. Mr. Trethewy then asked a question with reference to the difference between linseed and linseed cake. Would the lecturer recommend the use of crushed lin- seed in preference to cake ? Were the fattening quali- ties in the oil, or in the shell and seed ? Mr. Nesbit : There are two things to be considered in the fattening of stock ; but those things would more properly be considered in a lecture on the fattening of stock. Nitrogenous matters go to the production of flesh ; mucilage and oil go to produce fat. As far as comparison of oilcake with linseed itself, there is a larger amount of oil in the linseed than in the cake; but then there is a less amount of nitrogenous flesh- producing matter. So that, if I had the two together, at the same price per ton, I would buy the cake in pre- ference. But we know that linseed is at a greater price per ton ; we get the oilcake cheaper when the oil has been pressed out of the seeds ; therefore I think there can be no doubt that the cake itself, after the oil has been pressed out, is cheaper to the farmer than the buying of seed itself at a higher price. Mr. A. L. Fox believed fish were very rich in phos- phates and in the nitrogenous principle. As a Cornish- man, he would ask the lecturer's opinion whether it would answer, in a commercial view, to carry on fish- eries along the coast, for the purpose of catching fish to be applied as manure. Mr. Nesbit : In my opinion, the question is a most important one for Cornwall. When guano shall cease to be brought to this country, where shall we get our ammonia from ? We know that every portion of guano has been fish, eaten and digested by birds ; a portion of the fish has gone to form the flesh and bone of the bird ; but every valuable particle of guano, both phosphates and nitrogen, has been got out of the ocean. There- fore, in future years, looking to the time when neces- sarily we shall lose our supplies of guano, I consider it a most important national project — the founding means of procuring manure from fish. There would thus be constant employment for fishermen ; and all would be fish that came to their net, because all could be manu- factured into manure probably equal to guano. Mr. Trethewy said, as a Cornishman, he might moot another question — whether the refuse pilchard salt was superior to common salt for agricultural pur- poses ? Mr. Nesbit said, the scales of fish in the pilchard salt contained nitrogen of some value ; but practically there was not any very great difference, though pro- bably the value might predominate on the side of dry fishery salt. Mr. Bryant said a question had been submitted to him, whether, when there might be sufficient lime in a soil, lime might not be applied in a quick state .' Mr. Nesbit should say that, if the soil had already a sufficient quantity of lime in it, no greater amount was required in any condition. If it were quick, in a few weeks or months it would re-absorb carbonic acid from the air, and would take its former state as carbonate of lime, merely differing in mechanical condition from the limestone from which it was first produced. In a book of his, comprising a series of lectures, he had given his consideration to the subject of the use and abuse of lime ; and he thought he had proved there that, with the exception of some little effect at first, the quick- lime would in a very short time become mild : it would reassume its character of carbonate of lime, and its main action was in this form. Mr. Karkeek felt much pleasure in stating how much gratified he had been with the lecture that even- ing. He had himself paid some attention to agricul- tural chemistry, and knew something about manures, having been the first to introduce guano, as well as superphosphate, in this district. The observations of the lecturer were such as were well worthy of every in- dividual's attention. There could not be a doubt that great adulteration had been carried on ; but he did not know that, in this district, any guano had been brought here, except that of Antony Gibbs. With regard to phosphates, they were sold under various names ; and he believed their qualities also varied considerably, and their prices. But there could not be a doubt that any good superphosphate should contain twenty to twenty- five per cent, of soluble phosphate; as did Lawes's superphosphate, so much used in this neighbourhood. There was another remark which had fallen from the lecturer, bearing practically on the subject of this evening's meeting. The lecturer had told the m they should have their manures analysed ; and he (Mr. Kar- keek) would suggest that they should form a club, and make a subscription among themselves, for having their manures and soils analyzed, The amount of subscrip- 208 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tion would not be very large, while the benefit would be very considerable. Mr. W. H. Jenkins complimented the lecturer on the success of his experiments and the elegance of his manipulation. Mr. Nesbit said, an observation had fallen from Mr. Karkeek, that there ought to be twenty-five per cent, of soluble matter in superphosphate. As this was contrary to his (the lecturer's) opinion, it was right he should say so. He had found that if superphosphates had too great an amount of soluble phosphate, without a corresponding amouat of a more insoluble phosphate, they stimulated the early growth of turnips too much, and the latter period of their growth not enough. He had found, practically, that if we had thirty-three per cent, altogether of phosphates, one-half soluble and the other half in a condition eventually to be assimilated by the plant, such a manure would support the turnip in the early period of its growth, and would not be found want- ing further on in the autumn. The Chairman, with some complimentary and gene- ral remarks, put to the meeting the proposal of thanks to the learned Professor, for the excellent and intelli- gent manner in which he had conveyed information in his lecture, and also for the agreeable way in which he had replied to inquiries. The proposition was agreed to by acclamation. Mr. Nesbit returned thanks. He had been exceed- ingly happy to meet the agriculturists present ; and, if circumstances and his pursuits might permit, he should be happy to meet them again, and at all times should be glad to do anything in his power to promote the pros- perity of the agriculture of Cornwall. On the motion of Mr. W. James, seconded by Mr. T._ Rogers, thanks were voted to the Chairman, who briefly acknowledged the compliment. And on the mo- tion of Mr. R. Doble, thanks were voted to the Mayor of Truro for the use of the hall. The meeting then separated. ELECTRICITY. By John Towers, M.H.S., &c. I adopt this word of vast and comprehensive import for the heading of the following communication, because I plainly perceive that the question of the universal presence of this most subtile and all-pervading element is shirked by our lecturers and analytic chemists, with, perhaps, the one exception of the great and renowned Michael Faraday. Referring now to the lecture of Rlr. Nesbit " On Agricultural Chemistry,'^ printed in the Mark Lane Express of Nov. 24th, 185G, I meet with the following observations in the first column of page 4 of the Supplement : — (1.) " Farm-yard dung is neither more nor less than decomposed vegetable matter, de- rived from plants which once had life in the soil, and which, when returned to the land, will furnish the necessary elements for reproducing vegetable life." (2.) " Considering the subject of the decomposition of vegetable matters, you must remember that some ele- ments of vegetables are volatile and some soluble, and that those which are least volatile and least soluble are also least valuable. The substance in manures which is most volatile is ammonia, and where there is bad management this will pass away in the air, while the potash and soda and other soluble materials will be washed away." While prepared to admit the abstract fact of the above two positions, it is evident that processes of decomposi- tion through some disturbing agency are established. Now what can be, or is, that agent? Is it heat ? — is it moisture ? Both the one and the other are effects, and not causes. But to proceed. Mr. Nesbit told his hearers (3) that " the quality of the manure must depend upon the qua- lity of the vegetables on which you feed your animals. If you feed them merely upon straw, the value of the dung will be in proportion to that of the straw ; whereas, if you add oilcake, and other substances of a 'similar nature, there will be a proportionate increase of value." (4.) "There is no ultimate action in the animal eco- nomy—no action, that is, in relation to the food tvhich the animal consumes — that does not take place in ordinary deconij)osition.^' These appear to me bold if not gratuitous assertions. Straw consists mainly of vegetable fibre, glazed with a coating of flint obtained from the ground by an electro-chemical process. In itself it cannot furnish much nutritive matter ; but still in its passage through the animal's alimentary system, it must have acquired more or less of animal matter. Oilcake is produced from linseed-meal heated to a certain degree, deposited in canvas bag-, and forcibly pressed by heavy stamps. The cake must therefore comprise much vegetable farina and a quantity of strong oil that cannot oe expelled by heavy pressure. The same may be said of colza or rape-seed cake. But upon what principle can it be correctly asserted that "the animal system does not add anythincj of value, as the animal only ffives forth what it receives" 1 What, then, be- comes of the biliary, abdominal, and urinary secretions that pass through the bowels of an animal, and are ex- pelled with the dung ? Do they, in fact, go for ndthing, and are worthless ? And yet so they must be, if it be true that, " so far as manuring is concerned, the dung of the animal is always less valuable than would have been the food on which the animal had subsisted." We must not be deluded by speculations or crude notions. The plain fact is, that animal faeces, combined with digested vegetable fibrous matter, contain the elements of volatile and mineral salts, which sub- mitted to chemical ( electrical ) action foment, and gradually develop ammonia, carbonic acid, and other products, that are so essentially requisite for the per- fecting of the vegetable economy. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 209 THE APPLICATION OF LIME. At a recent meeting of the Hexham Farmers' Club, Mr. E. E. Ridley read a paper on this subject, from which we make the following extract : — Lime differs from most other manures — it may almost be said from all — in this respect, that it is advantageous in agri- culture as a mechanical agent as well as a chemical one. It not only supplies food to the plants directly and indirectly by its iafluence upon the other constituents of the soil, but it is of great advantage in rendering clay soils opener and lighter, and in making sandy porous soils more compact and firm. It is well known that hot lime has a great affinity for water. It will gradually absorb the moisture from the atmosphere, swell greatly in bulk, and fall to a fiue powder. Now, when hot lime is ploughed into the land, and allowed to burst there, it will exert a powerful disintegrating effect upon the soil. Its operation will be something like the action of frost, which we know thoroughly opens and lightens the soil, with this differ- ence, that the particles of lime becoming mixed with the soil, prevent it from becoming trampled into so close and hard a state as it would otherwise be. When, therefore, lime is applied with a view principally of lightening the land, it is essential that it be applied as hot as possible. lu fact, it should be ploughed iu as it is carted from the kiln. None of it should be over-night exposed to the dews, otherwise you may expect it to be a powder in the morning, and its utility for the purpose you desired greatly injured. When lime is used on light soils with the object of increasing the tenacity and solidity of such soils, it is better that it should be iu the state of hydrate — that is, be completely burst or fallen by its union with water, belore it is ploughed in. But water should be thrown on to it as scon as possible, or if it ia allowed to fall from the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere, it should be put into large heaps and well covered, and not be spread upon the surface of the field several days before it is ploughed in, otherwise it gradually combines witli the carbonic acid of the atmosphere and becomes mild. In this state it is the same as chalk, and will not answer the puipose for which it is intended. The reason is, that hot lime unites chemically with sand, and forms a silicate of lime, and by this means the sandy particles are cemented together to a certain extent ; but if the lime be mild or if chalk be used, unless it be applied in very great quantity, there ia no consistency produced, the particles of chalk will not adheye to the sand nor to each other, and the laud is as friable and open as before. To obtain, therefore, the best mechanical benefits from lime, it ought to be applied hot, unslacked, to strong land; and slacked, but still hot, to light soils. But perhaps the most important use of bme in agriculture is its chemical effects. It destroys many injurious Bubstaucea that from time to time are generated in the soil. During the progress of vegetation there are constantly being formed various vegetable aciils that are more or less injurious to vegetation. Lime, when brought in contact with these injurious matters, to use a common phrase, kills them, that ia, it chemically combines with them and renders them harmless. It does so much more quickly wheu used hot, but will ulti- mately effect the same purpose when mild, though much more slowly. Grass land in the state just described is said to be Bour ; and it is well known that if it be ploughed up and tho- roughly limed, it will be, for a time at least, cured. The same process goes on in arable laud, though its effects may not be so well known or so easily recognised ; and there is no doubt that in lands deficient in lime, great injury to vegetation ia thus caused. Whenever we form compost heaps from the cleansing of ditches, or the cuttings from road or hedge sides, we invariably mix hot lime with these ingredients ; and wisely, because it is a powerful promoter of vegetable decomposition. Now, when lime is put into laud it acts exactly iu the same way ; you are in reality making a vast compost heap. If, for instance, you plough it in with the lea, it will decompose and destroy the grass and other roots, thereby rendering them more readily useful as manure. So, also, when it is applied to soil containing fold-yard manure, it will cause the manure to decay much more rapidly, liberate the elements of which it is composed, and render them available to the growing plant. If, on the contrary, it is applied to a poor, hungry soil, it has comparatively small effects. For instance, supposing au un- mauured soil to grow six bolls per acre, and a well-manured one twelve bolls, hy the addition of lime the former may pro- duce say nine bolls, being au increase of three bolls from the use of lime, while the latter may produce eighteen bolls, being an increase of six, aud showing a yield of three bolls in favour of lime being applied where there is manure. The reason of this additional produce is perfectly plain to the chemist, who knows that the lime will decompose the manure more rapidly, and make it act more speedily. Land, therefore, that is pro- perly supplied with lime will cause the fold-yard manure that ia put into it to be spent much sooner than if it were deficient in lime. It will enable the farmer to have his manure nearly all supplied to the growing crop the year it is applied, instead of having it partially decomposed during the winter, to have its elements washed into the subsoil or into the drains. And it becomes a plain corollary to the principle laid down, that the manure required by land should be applied to it each year, instead of having put into it in one year what is intended to serve four or five. There is a peculiar property which lime, in common with other alkalies, possesses ; it is that of inducing, while decomposing vegetable matter, the nitrogen of the atmos- phere to unite with the oxygen that is liberated by the decom- position, and form nitric acid. Nitric acid is the active prin- ciple ia nitrate of soda, aud is, as we a'l well know, of great value as a manure. Lime, therefore, not only sets free the nitrogen that is iu vegetable substances by decomposing them, but also (luring this process of decomposition so disposes mat- ters that au additional supply of nitrogen is taken from the air and made available as a manure. There are other advan- tages to be gained by the use of lime, but they are so obvious aud so well known that we pass on with the mere mention of them, especially as this paper is already too loug. Plants take up lime and assimilate it to their structure in considerable quantity, \aryiug from SrVlbs. per acre for an ordinary crop of wheat to 226 lbs. for a crop ot potatoes. It is therefore im- portant that there should always be a supply in the soil, which they can reach. Lime is famed for destroying the tough use- less grasses, and for promoting the growth of a sweet tender herbage. It is also valuable for killing noxious vermin, espe- cially worms and slugs, aud will, \\hen hot, if it comes in contact with their eggs or larvw, moat certainly destroy them. Lime ought always to be applied to land iu a hot or caustic state, where it cau be procured in that state at a moderate cost. Iu its mechanical iuflnence upon soils, we have seen that it is valuable in this state only. And though in its chemical effects it will, generally speaking, in the end be the same, whether hot or mild, yet its action in the former state is so much more rapid and effective that there can be no doubt but that it is most useful when so applied. We cught, therefore, to avoid allowing it to become mild before ploughing it into the soil. Wc think the proper time for applying lime is on the grass at the time it is ploughed, for the reason before alluded to, that it is effective iu destroying quickly the roots that are being turned into the soil. It ought, also, we think, to be applierl each rotation of four or five years, as the case may be. And that when the land is in a fairly limited condition, the periodi- cal addition may not be more than from two to three tons per acre, varying with the tenacity or looseness of the soil on which it is used. On grass land it should be applied as frequently, though not hot, but in the shape of well-limed compost. It is assumed that the land to be limed is mode- rately dry, either naturally or from beiug drained, because lime applied to very wet land is likely to do no good whatever. Mr. Wood remarked that he had never seen lime take a greater effect than some taken from the ruins of houses. Mr. Ridley said the plaster of the walla of stables contained a large pro- 210 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. portion of nitrate of lime. During the war of France with this country, the importation of nitrate into France was pro- hibited ; and the French obtained from the walla of cellars and stables in Paris sufficient nitrate to make their gunpowder. Lime had a peculiar proptrty in assisting the formation of nitric acid. He had seen it applied^to old grass, and it came away green very soon. When lime and manure were put into the soil together they had a wonderful property of making more manure out of the air, which was a clear gain without any expenditure. Professor Liebig said to an immense amount. THE LANDLORD'S INTEREST IN TO PROMOTE At the annual meeting of the Hexham Farmers' Club, held last month, John Grey, Esq., of Dilston, the Presi- dent, rose to propose for discussion, as previously an- nounced, " The Landlord's Interest in a Lease, and its Tendency to promote good Cultivation." After a few prefatory remarks, Mr. Grey said, the conclusion the club had come to on former occasions, with regard to a lease, was, that a lease was desirable in the occupation of land, because of the security of tenure which it gave to the occupier, and of the encoavagement it gave to good culti- vation. He would not at that time, nor was it necessary for him to do so, go over the ground again, because the club conceived the matter to be settled ; but at some of the discussions a good deal of controversy had been engen- dered, and, arising out of it, remarks had been made in the public press, which were scarcely just or warrantable, under the circumstances. He did not attempt to decry the liberty of the press, or to deny its right to censure any subject of national importance ; but it did happen occa- sionally that subjects were taken up by persons who wrote with a theoretic view of matters, and who had not a prac- tical knowledge of the subject they criticized. It would be in the remembrance of most of the gentlemen present, that a number of farmers in this neighbourhood undertook to draw out a set of covenants for a lease, which they thought would be just and beneficial to both landlord and tenant. This was a one-sided affair, because it was pre- pared entirely by farmers ; and in certain papers distin- guished for their liberality and tlie great abilities of their writers, these covenants had been very much canvassed and very much condemned, although they were drawn out by fanners themselves, as covenants to which they were willing to subscribe. Now it was necessary to remark — because he knew that the gentlemen who undertook the task of drawing up the document acted upon the prin- ciple— it was necessary to remark that no contract what- ever, whether made between nations, communities, or individuals, could be expected to be permanent and satis- factory, which was not founded upon principles of equity and strict justice. He considered that this part of the subject had been somewhat forgotten by the public press, who seemed inclined to treat the contract between landlord and tenant as entirely commercial. But there was, in realitj', a great difference between the mere manufacturer of wearing apparel, for instance, and the manufacture of human food, for he looked upon agriculture as such ; and it was not possible to conceive that it was right and just to either party to maintain that land should be managed and considered merely in the same view as a cargo of mer- chandize, or a bale of cotton or wool. What was land ? Was it not the property of an individual? It was so, whether by purchase or inheritance. It was that from which he drew his living, and to which he looked for the support and education and settlement in life of his family ; and it was his right, interest, and duty, as the father of a family, to see, if he granted a lease of his land for ten, eighteen, or twenty years, that that land was let under such conditions as were likely to bring it back to him in as good a state as it left him, or at least without any great deterioration. He took this, the unpopular side of the question, for argument's sake, and without anything like a bad feeling to the farmers, for whom, as they well knew. A LEASE, AND ITS TENDENCY CULTIVATION. he had the warmest sympathy. He sympathized with them in their difficulties, their labours, their anxieties, their strugglin-gs with adverse seasons, and in all circum- stances of adversity and trial. He would, therefore, say he believed that, in taking a view which some might think erroneous, he should not be accused of taking a part against the farmers. He merely wished to show that there was justice and necessity in a landlord having certain re- strictions in a lease, in preference to leaving it open. But, besides his interest in the management of the property, the landlord had a large investment upon that property, in the shape of buildings, enclosures, &c. All these things it was his duty to see were preserved in good condition ; and they well knew that, in the hands of some tenants, if there were no restrictions in the lease, the very contrary of these results would be brought about. An objection iiad been made to the system of granting leases— and he thought there was some argument in it — that it could not be expected that a man should farm equally well up to the end of his lease as he did at the beginning ; but he thought, to obviate this difficulty, it was possible to ma- nage so as to do full justice to the land, by maintaining its fertility, and not make the landlord the loser. He had himself introduced something of the snrt ; and he believed that in the very lease drawn out by the committee there was a proposition that, if a farmer did not wish to renew his lease, he should have an equivalent for his unexhausted manure. He believed this proposition had met with general acceptance, and was likely to be practised. An- other objection was that, in this county, leases were here- ditary property ; and they knew that here, as elsewhere, men wno took leases were mortals. Now, if land should be given into the hands of a person, without any restric- tions at all, however great might be the confidence reposed in that person by the owner, he would have no security that the tenant would live out even a third part of the lease. At his death, it might fall into the hands of any person, a seaman, a draper, or a tailor; and was it to be supposed that his heir, whoever he might be, was to be allowed to make mincemeat of the laud — to plough up the grass land, to cultivate the better portions of the soil, neglect the inferior, and go on makirg all he could at the expense of the farm, until at length the landlord was obliged to go to enormous expense to put his property in the same state aa when he let it? It had been said that it was great presump- tion at this day to prescribe the course of management to be pursued during fifteen or twenty years, for we lived in an age of progress, and in such a time immense improvements were made. Now, although they were not presumptuous enough to suppose they could look forward for so long a period, yet they did happen to know that there were certain things inju- rious to both parties, and from which both should be protected, which it required little foresight to see and to guard against. He read in ,a newspaper the other day, an article ridiculing the provisions in a lease which imposed penalties on tenants who sold the straw off a farm without bringing back an equi- valent in manure. Now he did not tbink this was deserving of ridicule. He recollected before nitrates, phosphates, and guano were discovered, that there was no other way of preser- ving the fertility of land but by converting the straw into manure. It was not, therefore, unreasonable that if a tenant were so situated, near a large manufacturing town for instance, that he found it profitable to sell his hay or straw, he should be required to bring back an equivalent. He had already said that there were men to whom it would be safe to grant an open lease. They must be men of great judgment, experience, honesty, and of adequate capital ; but it was impossible to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 211 know what might be their circumataucea before the lease expired. He had had much intercourse with farmers, and knew some who farmed well and were excellent persons ; but again he had seen some of a different class. And this was quite inevitable. There were some who farmed ill through ignorance : these were, perhaps, to be pitied. Others farmed ill through penuriousness, and under the impression that a penny saved was a penny gained, and would not lay out a pound in manure although they knew it would bring them in £2. There were some who farmed ill from worse motives, he feared ; and especially when the lease drew near its expira- tion. Now, if a landlord saw that a farmer whose lease was abor.t to expire was wasting his produce instead of reducing it into manure, was he not entitled to put a check upon him and say, " My property shall not be wasted in that way ?" He thought they would agree with him that there was some necessity for such a restriction. One 0/ the most singular remarks upon the subject he had met with lately, was to the effect that it was a great shame that plantations and under- wood should be preserved from the use of the tenants. Now this remark, in his opinion, showed the greatest possible ignorance on the subject. Who did not know that this country contained many pieces of rocky, hilly, and waste and barren ground, which were of no use at all to the tenant, snd which be would be glad to be quit of ; but which, platted with wood, by the landlord, produced timber for the use of the nation, gave an ornamental appearance to a farm and district, and were of incalculable service in sheltering the cattle ? It happened upon the property he had managed for several years past, where they had above 3,000 acres of woodland, there never had been a complaint of it preferred by a tenant ; but, on the contrary, only the other day he had been requested to enclose a piece of laud for a tenant, in order that it might be converted into a plantation ; and the tenant was not only willing to give up the land, but actually offered to lead the stones required in making the fence round it. This, he be- lieved, was a complete refutation of the absurd remark that tenants ought to have control over the woodlands. There was another thing which deserved to be mentioned. A good deal of injury was done to land by neglecting to clear out the ditches, in onier that the rains and floods might drain off properly. And if a mau were so slovenly as to allow his drains to get filled up, and the wet to soak into the soil, was there anything unreasonable in a landlord seeking a person to clear out his drains and ditches at the tenant's expense ? And yet this provision was quibbled at as injurious to the tenantry. It was said again, " Let tenants alone ; they are compelled to farm well for their own benefit ;" but every man had not the sense to know, or the liberality to see and act for his own benefit. If he had, why should a farmer stint his land of manure, when he knew that for every £50 expended in its purchase, he might expect to receive £100 ? And then, again, some men would thrive on a farm, and others would starve upon it. With respect to manuring, he had said that £50 laid out in guano, for instance, would bring back £100. It used to be different in former times. He believed most of the money which was made then was made by sheer economy, by early rising and late sitting, by great watchfulness, and the extreme of carefulness. He could recollect a very decent old man, who had risen from being a farm-steward to be a farmer himself, and who had not been long in one place till he got another. He (Mr. G.) took the liberty of asking him one day how it happened that he was getting one farm after another, and thriving, as he seemed to be ? The old mau said, " I am the first up in the morning, and the last in bed at night. I see every furrow that is drawn ; and, what is more, some people can get money, but do not know how to keep it ; now, when I get one shilling, I do not spend it, but I wait until I get another to put on the top of it, and so it accumulates." Farmers could not do so now ; for although industry and energy were always desirable, they must have better principles upon which to work with respect to the laying out of money. There were now manures which were required to ensure the success of certain kinds of crops, and money must be expended upon these ; and it was not sufficient to get up in the morn- ing, but the farmer must call in the aid of science, and proceed upon scientific principles. The chairman then re- verted to his original proposition, that a landlord must have protection for his property ; where he found an honest man he would, he said, give him a carte blanche to do as he pleased, but, inasmuch as a man might go down in the world, and might be compelled by the force of circumstances to take ad- vantage, however unwillingly, of the open character of his lease, it was only right and proper that there should be reasonable restrictions in every lease which should ensure the return of the land to its owner in the same state as it was when he let it. Mr. DoD thought that after the discussions which had taken place on the question of leases the club should come to some formal resolution on the subject, and he accordingly proposed " That this meeting, while opposed to a tenant being tied down and hampered by unnecessary restrictive clauses in his lease, is as decidedly of opinion that in all leases there ought to he certain general principles laid down as to the management of land, whereby a proprietor shall receive his freehold back again at the end of the lease in at least as good a state as when he let it." The resolution was carried unanimously, with cheers. THE SHELTERING OF SHEEP ON TURNIPS. Sir, — The exceedingly changeable and generally rainy weather which has been experienced during the present winter, has frequently led me to contemplate the necessity ot and the advantages which might be gained by affording shelter to fatting sheep on turnips ; and the statement made by J. C. Nesbit, Esq., while delivering a lecture at Truro, as published in your paper of the 20th ult., confirms my opinion, even to a much greater extent tlian I could have anticipated. He there stated from an experiment made, it had been proved that sheep fed upon a certain amount of food, and exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, gained upon an average 1 lb. per head per week ; while an equal number of the same sheep, receiving the same quantity of food, but somewhat protected from the weather, gained upon an average 3 lbs. Now this is a most startling difference, and deserves the attention of every agriculturist. If an ad- dition of 2 lbs. per head per week is to be gained by simply affording the temporary shelter described by the learned professor, I should think that without delay every sheep farmer will adopt that or a similar plan, and deplore the waste of food which for want of such a simple contrivance they have for so many years permitted. It is quite beyond a doubt that one great element in the fatting of animals is comfort, and when that is wanting they fail to derive that benefit from their food which they would otherwise do. When Taken bovine appetites need we allow the steam of our root-boilers to pass away ; but with Leplay, let us, before cooking, ferment our roots, make steam our willing slave to do our bidding, and from the material evoke a spirit, literally and metaphori- cally, of some value — and find, as a reward lor attending to the proverb " Waste not, want not," the final result not to be quite unsatisfactory. The variety of beet-root adapted for sugar manufacture and for distillation, is that known as the White Silesian or sugar beet. The system of preparing the land for mangel wurzel will do for this crop, with some modifica- tions according to circumstances. The soil best adapted to the root is dry sand, or calcareous soil; the roots grown on the latter average more saccharine matter than those grown on sandy, clayey, or mixed soils. As evi- dence of the superiority of calcareous soils M. Leplay, in the pamphlet alluded to in our article on Beet-Root Distillation, gives the following table. " Beet-root of 2 lbs. weight, grown on calcareous soil, and submitted to chemical analysis, exhibited the greatest amount of saccharine matter, viz., 15 per cent. ; and in estimating this richness, and taking it as a standard at 100, the beets yield the following proportionate numbers : Type or Beet Root. r calcareous soils .... 100 Roots of 2i lbs., grown on h^^y^^y '' ;;;; l\ L mixed „ .... 95 {calcareous soils fliift^^ mixed „ (calcareous soils Sy " mixed „ {calcareous soils mixed „ r calcareous soils Roots of 11 1 lbs., grown on -^clayey „ I, mixed „ 95 82 88 78 88 69 67 67 82 61 64 66 76 52 60 This table, it will be observed, opens up at once the question of " large and small roots — which are best ••"' one of the disputed points, as we have already noted, in connection with the crop, and in the discussion of which much information valuable to the agriculturist has been elicited. The manufacturer desires small roots, as containing the largest per-centage, according to his opinion, of saccharine matter — the farmer large ones, to give him the greatest possible average of weight off the land ; and as containing, according to some, a larger per- centage of the azotic or nutritive matter necessary for feeding. On this point M. Hirsch says, " It occurs often that in appearance both interests are contradictory, as the opinion seems to prevail amongst the growers that the larger roots give a higher average per acre than smaller ones ; and as it is an established fact that smaller roots give a higher per-centage of sugar. Now experi- ence has shown that the beet-root which gives the highest per-centage of sugar, if properly grown, gives the highest average to the growers ; and where different results are obtaiaed, th^ cams surely cannot be attri- buted to the beet itself or its size, but only to the mode of cultivation and the selection of the soil," M. Leplay says the following are his conclusions on this puint, arrived at "after numberless chemical ana- lyses, extending over a period of three years : The diminution of sugar in the beet is in proportion to its increase in weight. That this diminution is always more irregular and considerable in roots grown on clay, sandy, or mixed, than in calcareous soils. That the manures hitherto employed in the cultivation of this root do not appear to exercise any direct influence on its saccharine qualities, having to all appearance the effect of increasing its size and diminishing its saccha- rine properties. By regulating the distance between the roots you may at will regulate the amount of sac- charine matter, and by decreasing the size you increase the rich quality of the beet. * * * fhe problem of the maximum of sugar which cin be produced per acre is resolved by a combination of circumstances acting inversely, viz., by applying the maximum quan- tity of manure and allowing the maximum of space between the roots, you obtain the least sugar." Some three years ago a very elaborate series of experiments were made by Mr. Sullivan, of the Museum of Irish Industry, with a view to test the truth of the opinion very generally held on the continent, that " very large roots contained less sugar than those of a medium size." The result of these experiments proved that the opinion was correct, for "out of 70 samples of roots, making altogether 430 different specimens, we have found," says Mr. Sullivan, " only three exceptions to the rule that small roots are superior to large." Mr. Sullivan operated upon saccharine roots of all kinds. Dr. Apjohn, chemist of the Royal Agricultural Improve- ment Society, in his experiments to ascertain the rela- tive value of large and small roots, also came to the same conclusion — that the smaller roots contain the most sugar. But as to the amount or per-centage of sugar in the small roots, there is not the same agree- ment between these two eminent chemists ; thus, out of 118 samples of beet, Mr. Sullivan found that " only 24 out of every 100 of them contained less than 8 per cent, of sugar ;" and lays down as the result of his experi- ments that the saccharine matter constitutes with little variation almost 67 per cent, of the beet. Dr. Apjohn 's experiments, however, showed a mean result of 7"193 per cent, of sugar, and an average amount of crude saccharine matter of only 50-? per cent. — a very marked difference. It is right to state, however, that the two chemists operated in a different manner upon the roots subjected to analysis. Mr. Sullivan operated upon the part of the root containing, according to the theory of M. Rehring, the largest amount of sugar, and which is thus described: " If we divide a beet-root into five parts by sections at right-angles to the longer axis, the 1st forming the crown, and terminating at the limit of the insertion of the leaf-stalks ; 2nd, a segment imme- diately below the crown, varying from a half inch to one inch in thickness j 3rd, the body of the root; 4th, the point ; and 5th, the bifurcation of the root, and the smaller roots, we shall find that the sugar, and conse- quently the solid matter, contained in each of those parts, varies very considerably." The following results were obtained by M. Rehring, from an examination at successive periods of those different parts : Per-centage of Sugar. Date of Experiment. 28th October.. 15th November 20th December 12lh February . 1st March , , , Crown. Segment of root below the crown. Bottom of the root. Point of the root. 201 8-74 1207 10-47 2 00 8-94 1231 10-89 1-23 8-61 12 08 1064 0-32 7-34 1172 10-49 002 512 11-45 10-32 Bifurca- tion and smaller roots. 5-41 7-34 7-20 605 5-94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 221 From these results— we may remark, in passing — Mr. Sullivan conceives that the plan very generally adopted in practice, of exposing a part of the bulb above the soil, is erroneous, inasmuch as the segment containing the least amount of sugar is allowed to expand. By covering up the plant the root is said to " finger." Mr. Sullivan takes note of this objection, and says that it only proves " that the soil is not sufficiently broken up, and that if you surround a young bulb with a mass of mud clay it cannot expand equally, but will send out branches along the line of least resistance." On this point M. Leplay also adds the weight of his testimony, for he states distinctly that " roots completely buried in the earth give 5 per cent, of their weight of saccharine matter more than those which grow above the ground," In preparing the roots for analysis, Dr. Apjohn se- parated the crown or upper part by a " transverse sec- tion, made sufficiently low to remove the entire of the portion, exhibiting at the points of attachment of the earlier leaves a ridged or imbricated appearance. The residue was then divided into four equal portions by a couple of sections at right-angles to each other, passing through the vertical axis of the root." This plan was adopted with a view to obtain results fairly representing the constitution of the entire root, while Mr. Sullivan operated upon that part containing the maximum amount of saccharine matter. Assuming the correctness of M. Rehring's opinion as to the distri- bution of the sugar in the root, as already pointed out. Dr. Apjohn remarks — and we think with fairness — that " it is obvious that experiments confined to the meridian transverse section cannot conduct to correct conclu- sions, in relation to the value of the entire beet as a source of sugar. So far from being correct, such con- clusions must of necessity present an exaggerated view of the saccharine richness of the roots, and thus tend to raise hopes which must inevitably terminate in disappointment." On this point of the per-centage of sugar contained in the beet, the opinion of M. Leplay, who has made the cultivation of the beet his special study, will be of some value. "The relative richness of the root in saccharine matter is by so much the more important, as the price paid for it becomes a cons'der- able item in the question of profit in the manufacture of alcohol, and consequently the more sugar the beet- root contains the greater the yield of alcohol, and the less the expense incurred in its manufacture. " It has been vrith me a subject of observation that the saccharine richness of beet-root of the same growth varies exceedingly, and that it is not an unusual circum- stance to find roots which have been treated exactly alike, and grown in the same field, even exhibiting under chemical analysis a difference of from 5 or 6 to 15 per cent, in the amount of saccharine matter. " The average yield of sugar in roots varying so widely in richness, is estimated in France at about 10 per cent, of their weight, and which ought, after being submitted to the most improved process of fermenta- tion and distillation, to yield IQJ gallons per ton. This average is, as I have before remarked, the result of a mixture of beet-root of various degrees of richness in saccharine matter; but there is no question but that if it were possible by an improved system of culture to raise roots of a great and equal richness, the alco- holic produce would be greatly augmented, and might be reasonably expected to give from 20 to 22 gallons per ton, and thus yield a much higher return " It will be observed that if the per-centage of saccha- rine matter in beetroots grown under the same circum- stances varies as much in this country as it appears to do in France, the result obtained by Dr. A.pjohn might have been considerably modified had his experiments extended over a larger number of roots, and might have approached that of Mr, Sullivan. We have belore us the results of analyses instituted by celebrated conti- nental chemists, all of which go to prove that the per- centage of sugar is, on the average, ten per cent. ; and experience goes to prove that the composition of the beet is " pretty nearly the same all over the north of Europe," Great Britain possessing the most favourable climate for its growth : after this, Belgium and the north of France. Taking the experiments of Dr. Apjohn and Mr. Sul- livan as the most elaborate which have yet been made— so far at least as we are acquainted with — into the com- position of the beet, we find that however closely they agree as to the fact of large roots containing less sugar than small ones, they come to very different conclusions as to their feeding or nutritive value. Mr. Sullivan's expe- riments, according to some, lead to the conclusion that small roots are as valuable to the feeder as containing more food, as they are valuable to the sugm manufac- turer as containing more sugar than the large roots. " Our experiments," he says, " as well as those of pre- ceding chemists, have fully demonstrated that the solid matter of the beet scarcely varies in composition, or at least only varies within very narrow limits — that is the water alone, which increases and diminishes in relation to the other constituents ; and that hence, if the per- centage of sugar be smaller in one root than another, the total amount of solid matter available for food or other purposes will also be smaller." We give here a table containing the result of experi- ments made by Mr. Sullivan, as to the amount of solid matter contained in large and small roots of the white Silesian beet. With reference to the fifth column, he says — " As at first sight the value of a small difference in the per-centage of solid matter may not strike per- sons unaccustomed to scientific calculations, we shall expose such differences in tons of raw roots. Thus if the average per-centage of solid matter in roots of a certain size was 13.461, and in small roots 15'156, the differ- ence may be considered trifling ; but when it is seen that 100 tons of such small roots would be equal to 117 tons of the larger, it will at once be perceived how im- portant, in a practical point of view, such a difference becomes." iNumber of tons of Per-centage of Percentage of large roots, equiva- Weight of largo roots. Weight of small roots. solid matter in large solid matter in small lent in value to 100 roots. roots. tons of small. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 3 Hi to 4 2 1 3^ to 1 lU- 10-408 17-427 ] 67-43 3 2i — 4 9 1 3i - 1 7i 15-782 19-785 1-25-36 3 3^—7 lOi 1 lOi - 2 I2i 13-461 15-75(5 117-05 3 91 — 4 8i 0 7i — 1 4f 12-942 15-321 118-38 2 9 — 2 15i 0 14-i- — 0 14| 14-G71 17-152 116-91 4 13 — 5 14 0 8 — 1 4i 14-863 15-892 106-92 5 13i — 13 4 1 l-'l — 3 0 8-731 11-194 128-20 3 IH — 3 15i 1 11 — 1 14 14-104 16-285 115-46 222 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. "From these results," says Mr. Sullivan, "we are justified in concluding that the larger the root the smaller will be the per-centage of solid matter it will contain. This rule is not only " true when grown in the same field, but also when the roots grown over a whole district of country are compared." The follow- ing shows the result of a large number of examina- tions of white Silesian beet : average of roots above 71b8. gave a per-centage of 10-204; average of 51bs., 11-653; of from 3 to 51bs., 15-708; average of all roots, 14.532. The results of Dr. Apjohn's experiments coincided with those of Mr. Sullivan, so far as the establishment of the fact was concerned that the smaller roots contained the largest per-centage of solid matter, and also a larger per-centage of sugar. But considering that sugar was not the only substance required for feeding purposes, that muscle and flesh had to be formed as well as fat, he carried out his experiments to a further issue, with a view to ascertain, "not only the propo?-t ion of sugar in the several roots, but (2) the aggregate amount of their azotized constituents ; (3), the quantity of ash given by each, distinguishing the portions soluble and insoluble in water ; and (4), the total amount of phosphoric acid in the ash of each root." We regret that space does not permit us to give other than a brief analysis of a large number of experi- ments made to ascertain these points. These disclosed " several facts of scientific and practical interest." Thus, " in the case of the dried matter of the beet, the nitrogen — and the same is of course true of the corres- ponding albuminous compounds — is greater in quantity in the large than in the small specimens, or it follows a rule the inverse of that observed by the sugar." Again (2), " the total ash of the larger is greater than that of the smaller roots. This is strikingly true of the beets." (3) In the beets "the soluble ash com- posed of the alkaline salts is much more abundant than the insoluble or earthy ash." (4) " The phosphoric acid appears to follow the law of the nitrogen, or to be more abundant in the larger than the smaller specimens." The bearing of these results upon the nutritive or feed- ing value of the roots will be apparent when we con- sider that while the non-azotised portions of food, consisting chiefly of sugar, gum, and starch, are useful in maintaining the temperature of the animal, and in- creasing its fat, there are other functions connected with nutrition, which require other substances in the food to enable them to be carried out. Thus, to repair the wear and tear of the muscular fibre and different tissues and to renew the blood, it is necessary that the " food should be at least partially azotized." Now, in sugar beet, as well as in mangel and the swedes, these two classes of alimentary principles are met with ; and in them, to quote the words of Dr. Apjohn, " the amount of non-azotized alimentary matters is always relatively large, in fact more than suflScient for the performance of the duties we have ascribed to them, viz., of giving rise to oleaginous matter and maintaining the animal heat. If such be the case, it is obvious that, in estimating the feeding properties of a root, the point to be principally attended to is the amount of azote which the root con- tains ; and that with a view to estimate its value, the most useful experiment to make upon it must consist in burning it with soda lime. If the albuminous or proteinic constituents are found in the roots in sufficient quantity to restore to the blood its perpetual losses and build up the muscular and other tissues, the functions of assimi- lation generally will be carried on with a healthy vigour, and a degree of growth and healthy development of the whole body must ensue, which with a less animalized food would be impossible." Applying this criterion to the roots examined, Dr. Apjohn comes to the conclusion that for manufacturing sugar, and of course for distilla- tion, large roots are inferior to the small ; but that for the rearing and feeding of stock they are superior. The points here opened up are of the utmost impor- tance to agriculturists ; and especially to those who purpose carrying out distillation processes. We incline, however, to the opinion expressed by Dr. Apjohn, that in relation to the sugar question (and of course to that of distillation) the whole matter is not decided by the fact of the small roots containing more sugar. " You are," he says, " to take into considera- tion the relative weight of the crop ; and if the weight of the large crop be far greater than the small, the large crop may be better. You have only to get the per- centage, and multiply by the weight of the crop, and then you will have a product which will be an accurate measure of value ; and if you institute that comparison between the large and small roots, it is my impression * * it may turn out that on the whole the large roots may be more productive for the production of sugar." Seeing that one considerable point in favour of the establishment of beet-root distilleries on the plan of Leplay, already described, is the retention of the residues as a valuable food capable of being kept for a great length of time, it is of essential importance that a root should be obtained which is not only valuable for its amount of saccharine, but for its nutritive qualities ; and as regards the latter, the weight of practical opinion in this country is apparently in favour of large roots. From any point of view the subject is of the highest impor- tance, and all its details deserve the most earnest consideration. The question involves many points of importance with reference to the mechanism and practice of culture; for the advocates of the continental system, or " small roots," recommend narrow intervals between the roots, the adoption of which, in the opinion of many farmers, would throw difiiculties in the way of cleaning and cultivating the crop. But on this, and other points connected with the pre- paration of the land, the choice of seed, the hoeing and cleaning of the crop during growth, and the harvesting and the storing of the roots, we hope to dwell in a future article. This opportunity may shortly be afforded us in noticing a work which we are anxiously looking for, on the " Cultivation of the Beet," by M. Leplay, and which has been presented by him to La Societe d'Encouragement de Paris. R. S. B. THE RESTRICTIVE COVENANTS IN LEASES. A celebrated writer, treating upon experience, ob- serves, that a man may read a thousand volumes in a hundred tongueSj^and enshrine the lessons of ex- perience in his mind, and then go forth none the •wiser. His self-love will lend him a glass that will colour all he has conned. And thus it is even in the most ordinary affairs of life. Every one apprehends a question as it suits his interest, or meets his approval; and thence the ever-conflicting opinions that arise upon subjects, plain and palpable to common sense, but too often received with a spirit of prejudice or interested opposition. Thus, in that long-mooted, but still un- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 223 settled question of the restrictive covenants in leases, we ai'e still as much at issue as ever ; nor is it probable that it will become arranged, so long as landlords remain in the position to dictate terras to their tenants, or of land-agents who, in the exercise of assumed powers, will close their ears to all observations from the weaker quarter. It is not long since that we had occasion to com- ment upon the leases of the Duke of Northumberland, and we have now another instance of what may be expected from other land-agents, in what has fallen from Mr. Grey, of Dilston, at a recent meeting of the Hexham Club, At a period when farming has assumed a new phase, and is becoming day by day dependent for its success upon the amount of capital and skill brought into operation, it becomes more and more apparent that greater liberty of action, as well as in- creased security of capital, should be conceded to the tenant. With this view, the members of the Hexham Farmers' Club propounded a lease that it was consi- dered would embrace these objects; but although this lease proposes to have emanated from tenants, a cursory glance at the covenants and clauses introduced into it must convince every one that, if they really did come from such persons, they were only instru- ments in the hands of others who had sufficient power or influence to impose them. For, of the two, the lease propounded by the Hexham Club is in many parts more restrictive than that of the Duke of Northum- berland. The iH'oductions of a farm, whether of grain or root crops, ought to be equally available by the farmer for conversion into inanure ; and in case his farm should be situated near a town, where straw and roots can be sold at a greater price than could be obtained by feed- ing them out upon the farm, the tenant, under certain conditions, ought not to be prevented from disposing of them to the best advantage. This must have been one of the objects sought by the members ol the Hexham Club. But, what are the con- ditions that it imposes ? Why, that every tenant, upon disposing of a ton of mangel wurzel or turnips, shall incur a penalty of Jive pounds for every ton of turnips, or other roots, or straw, that he may sell, unless pur- chased manure to the value of one pound for every ton of roots, and two pounds for every ton of straw or hay be brought back to the farm. Moreover, in addition, he is bound to give due notice previously, to the land- lord or his agent, of his intention so to dispose of any turnips, roots, hay, or straw, and afterwards to produce vouchers of the purchase and of liis bringing back the manures as stipulated. Assuming the calculation to be correct that a ton of turnips is equivalent in production to a stone of 81bs. of mutton or beef, the value of such turnips would be defined by the market price of meat for the time being, and which may, for the sake of argument, be put at 6d. per lb., or 4s. per stone. This sum, therefore, would represent the value of a ton of turnips consumed upon the farm ; but the marketable value thereof might be, and would in most cases be, from 15s. to 20s. per ton. This, however, relates only to the tenants' interest. The landlord interposes and claims the right of having those turnips or roots consumed upon the farm, so that a proper quantity of manure may be made and returned to it. Such a loss, therefore, as he may consider the farm would sustain by having the turnips removed, is the only question at issue, or now to be considered. The usual estimate in reference to this question is, that an acre of turnips will return, in manure, twice the quantity it has required to produce them; not estimated exactly in manure made by the cattle or sheep feeding upon them, but that the manure left un- consumed after the turnips are removed, in addition to the manure produced by feeding them, would be equiva- lent to double the quantity carried on for their produc- tion. Assuming, therefore, the growth of the tur- nips to be equivalent, in tons, to the tons of manure carted on, a moiety of the manure would be only chargeable to that crop; as every ton fed out in conjunction with the straw used would produce a ton more, the loss to the farmer by the removal of a ton of turnips would, with the straw, be equivalent to the abstraction of a ton and a-half of farm-yard manure — equal to 4s. 6d. in money value. Again, without esti- mating the value of the straw consumed, the utmost value removed by a ton of turnips would be 4s. Gd., and for the removal of which the Hexham lease pro- vides that manure of the value of 20s. be returned to the farm, involving a loss to the tenant of not less than 15s. for each ton sold— less the value to be derived by him afterwards from the manure brought on. We have rather elaborately entered into this calcu- lation, to show the absurdity of such restrictions, believing as we do that laud-agents err in such matters rather from ignorance than any other cause. We trust, therefore, that if we can point out a remedy, there may be some persons still who may be disposed to adopt it. Suppose, then, for instance, that a tenant might find it to be beneficial to himself to sell roots or straw from his farm, what quantity of manure, by way of equivalent, ought he to return to the land? We have before premised that a ton of manure would pro- duce a ton of turnips, and, consequently, that the benefit derived by feeding them would be equal to the value of a stone of meat at 4s. ; that 2s. of this load of manure has been unexhausted by the turnips, and the value of another load that might be produced by them would be 4s. more, giving the sum of 6s. as the amount of injury sustained by the farmer by the removal of each and every ton of turnips. But then it must be recol- lected that the tenant has a right to the use of this ma- nure, except in the last year of his term ; and, there- fore, by returning 6s. in value of any description of manure he would bo giving a full equivalent for the roots removed. We should suggest that the question of removal of turnips would be better adjusted by the tenant bi'inging the manure upon the farm for their produc- tion previous to taking them ofl"; and if produced by guano, or any of those artificial manures that the turnip crop would exhaust, that lialf the quantity of a like description of manure should be applied to the land after their removal. To reduce this to figures, say 3cwt. of guano, 45s., for the turnip crop, and li cwt. after its removal, 22s. 6d.— total, 67s. Gd. per acre; and the quantity of turnips produced 15 tons, equivalent to 4s. 6d. per ton, as stated in the previous calculation. A new process in course of being established in this country, for distilling spirits from beet, and feeding the residue witli cattle — the latter is stated to be of equal value to the roots. Whether this be so or not, if the process can be established it would become necessary that tenants should be allowed to dispose of their roots, or the carrying out of the process would not be likely to succeed. Under the competition that the British grower of wheat will have to meet, every facility ought to bo allowed, not only by the Government, but by landlords themselves, to enable him to realize from his farm ; while amongst the first of these facilities must come liberty of action and liberal treatment. 224 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE CLAIMS OF THE LABOURER. Can that improved state of agriculture which has been the growtla of the past century, and that enlarge- ment of farms which has produced and accompanied it, and which is the inevitable tendency of the present age —can they be reconciled with the welfare of the agricultural labourer? Must we, on the other hand, accept it as a sad and mortifying truth, that while our cattle have grown sleeker under better food and better habitations, and wliile our garners are groaning under the increased produce which it is the boast of capital, skill, and science to have produced, " man has been the only growth that has dwindled here" ? It is not in his physical strength, nor his powers of endurance, nor his indomitable courage, that the degeneracy manifests itself. To these abundant testimony is borne by those great public works which have been raised during the period by the strength of his arm, as well as by the battle- fields of Waterloo and the Alma — of Inkerman and Balaclava. Is not the degeneracy complained of rather to be sought in the flight of those domestic virtues which were once thought to liave their peculiar home in the cottage of the peasant ? Is not this degeneracy traceable to the altered relations between employer and employed ? Is there no means of restoring the ancient or introducing even a better state of things ? Cannot the laboui-er in husbandry be made to participate in those advantages which the application of all our modern im- provements have bestowed on the farmer and the landowner ? We believe that he can ; and that with judicious arrangements on the part of the owners and occupiers of the soil, the rural labourer may share the benefits of the large-farm system. The necessity for a comfortable dwelling in close coutinguity to, or, better still, on the farm where he labours, cannot be too often insisted on for its economic as well as its moral advantages. Its economic advantages, under the pre- sent system of farming, which bestows so much more labour on the land than the system which it has super- seded, must be obvious. Labour expended in walking to and from work is labour wasted; and whatever wastes labour for the farmer wastes rent for the landlord. Under the open-field husbandry which prevailed about a centui-y back in many parts of the island, there would not have been such a glai'ing incon- gruity in the home of the labourer being remote from his work. The farmers and their labourers all congregated then in villages at a distance from* the lands they cultivated. To those villages all the produce was dragged ; and as the manure would ne- cessarily have been obliged to be dragged back again, it was not surprising that it should have been deemed necessary to take back as little as possible, and that the art of farming in those days consisted in extracting as much from the land, and returning as little to it, as possible. The art of farming under the modern system appears to be considered by some to consist in obtaining as much from the labourer in husbandry as we can, with as little return as possible. The system which failed with the land has failed with him. Now, however, we understand these things better as regards the land, and it is considerf d desirable, when the farm is of moderate size, that the buildings should be as centrally •situated as possible ; and that when it is of the enor- mous magnitude of some of those of Lincolnshire, cartage should be economised by means of detached barns and cattle-sheds. When shall we learn to apply these principles to our labourers as well as to our cattle .' When shall we learn that the man who has to pei'form half a day's labour in walking to and from his work, cannot do as much for his employer as he who resides upon the spot ? The moral advantages resulting from the labourer re- siding on the farm he cultivates are quite as great, and of much moreimportance,than the economical advantages. The failing of the English social system is the repulsive element which prevails between the difi'fi'ent grades of which it is composed. How many little good offices would such contiguity give birth to ! How much would it tend to remove that mutual want of confidence which too generally prevails between the farmers and the labourers ! The next improvement required is, the restoration to the labourer of a small poi'tion of land to be culti- vated for his own benefit. We cai-e not whether it be an eighth of an aci-e or a fourth, provided it be at- tached to his dwelling. If that dwelling be on the farm, there will be little difficulty in providing it with land ; and the allotment system may be left for the population of the towns : to them it is a great boon, but the farm -labourer should not require it. Next to the want of decent homes for labourers with families, is that of lodgings for the unmarried la- bourers in those districts where it does not accord with the present habits of the farmers to lodge them in the farm-house, as was the common practice a century ago, and is still continued in some districts. Perhaps this want cannot be better provided than by means of lodging- houses, on the plan of that described by Sir Arthur Elton, and put under the care of a respectable couple. One of the objects to be aimed at in the establishment should be to keep the young men from the beer-shop, by providing them with recreation for their leisure hours. There should be a space attached to it, or near to it, ibr cricket and other athletic exercises for the summer, and a reading-room for the winter evenings. Here, on stated days in the week, an evening school should be held for those who wish to improve themselves under voluntary tuition. It is idle to say the school would not be attended. Wherever such schools have been established, there has been no lack of eager and atten- tire scholars. Lectures on a variety of instructive and amusing subjects should be given them, on stated even- ings. But who are to be the lecturers, and what the subjects ? For the subjects, outlines of history — geo- graphy and accounts of foi-eign countries, their animal and vegetable products, their inhabitants and their man- ners— together with descriptions of our colonies, will always be found attractive : we speak from experience. So will lectures on chemistry, which in all assemblies are sure to be popular if accompanied with a few expe- riments, which may be easily exhibited, and by means of very cheap apparatus. Explanations of the steam- engine, too, would be not only entertaining but highly useful, now that steam is being so largely applied to agricultural operations. In these days of agricultural chemistry and of chemical manures, chemical lectures will be useful as well as amusing. The louder the ex- plosions and the greater the stench at a chemical lec- ture, the greater always is the applause. The diff"!!- sion of such knowledge among farm-labourers will lead, moreover, to advances in chemistry applied to agriculture. Once set the labourers thinking, and they will soon learn the import of facts which are daily passing under their eyes more than under those of the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. farmers, and still more tbau uuder those of savans. But who are to be the lecturers ? The clergymen, the gentlemen, and the young farmers of the neighbour- hood. With some of the subjects every man who professes to have received any education ought to liave some acquaintance, and those who possess it not will find that there is no better way of learning anything than by undertaking to teach it. One great object in providing rational and intellec- tual amusement of this kind, is to keep our labouring classes away from the beer shop. The tendency of our legislation, however, is to tempt and to drive them to it. Our malt tax and our beer tax — though the latter is repealed, the public-house system which it engendered remains — these have driven our labourers to the public- house in quest of that beverage which the English la- bourer must and will have, and which a century ago he could have at home, and share with his family. Brewing was then quite as much a part of the rural housewife's duty as cooking and baking. Home-baked bread and home-brewed beer have vanished from our cottages ; and the labourer, if he drinks beer at all, must drink it in the ale-house. We complain of his drunkenness, and at the same time congratulate ourselves on the increase of the revenue which those habits produce. Cowper complained of the Act-of-Parliament drunken- ness even in his day, and it has greatly increased since he wrote : — " Drink and be mad, then ; 'tis your country calls ; Gloriously drunk obey the important call ; Your country needs the assistance of your throats : You all can swallow, and that's all she asks." Few things would tend so much to improve the com- forts and morals of the rural labourer as the repeal of the malt tax ; but what would vested interests in drunkenness say to that? They are numerous and powerful. TRANSFER OF LANDED PROPERTY. The ownership of the soil has undergone a revolution during the last hundred years of agricultural progress, quite as great as that which has affected the relations between the farmer and the labourer. When Marshall wrote his " Agriculture of Norfolk," in 1788, he desci'ibed the cultivation of West Norfolk, to which his observations were chiefly confined, as still largely conducted by yeomen farmers, though their numbers were diminishing. As prices advanced, they sold their paternal acres to become large renting farmers. The change has since gone on increasing, till, if we may believe a foreign writer who has recently visited this country, the soil of England, which in 1786 was shared by 250,000 proprietors sole and corporate, had become absorbed in 1822 into the hands of 30,000. If we carry back our inquiries to a remoter period, we are told by the statistical writers of the time that the number of those who farmed their own land exceeded the number of those who farmed the land of others. On what data these statements are founded, in the absence of that statistical information which, in this country, pervades everything agricultural, we will not pretend to inquire; but without placing implicit reliance on them, it cannot be denied that the number of those who own the soil of England has greatly diminished, and that its cultivation is chiefly in the hands of tenants-at-will, or, at best, of those who have a mere chattel interest in it as leasehold tenants. Among the causes assigned as having produced this change, the intricacies of the laws afFecting the transfer of landed property are insisted on, in some quarters ; and it cannot be denied that it would be a great ad- vantage to the community if the transfer of landed property could be simplified. We cannot admit this, however, to be the sole or the chief cause of the conso- lidation of estates. The intricacies of conveyancing were quite as great as they are now, at the time when yeomen cultivators were more numerous. Those in- tricacies arise out of the desire inherent in human nature to provide for the disposal of property among future generations. To leave their substance to their babes, and call the lands after their own names, has been the practice of the wealthy, since the time of the Psalmist. In this way land has continually been aggre- gating lor a time into masses, and when the aggregation had reached its height, a redistribution of property has taken place, either by some violent convulsion, or by those silent social revolutions which the Increase of commercial wealth produces. After the Norman Con- queror had parcelled out the fair fields of the Anglo- Saxon proprietors among his followers, the first great monopoliser of it was the church ; and many of the intricacies of our forms of conveyancing arose out of a struggle between the legislature to prevent the accumu- lation of land in mortmain, and the contrivances of the monks to evade them. The church, however, pre- vailed ; and at the time of the Reformation had absorbed the greater portion of the soil. The dissolu- tion of the monasteries at the Reformation, and the subsequent troubles of the civil wars, had produced that redistribution of landed property which, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, placed a large portion of it in the hands of cultivating proprietors. An imperceptible change has produced that re-consolidation of landed property which we witness at present. The yeomen farmers at the close of the last century sold their lands for various reasons ; not because of the intricacies of conveyancing, but for various other pecuniary reasons. Some sold their lands because they were too much burthened with mortgages, arising from the borrowings of several generations, to leave them anything to live upon under the advancing prices, and with their land let on leases ol such length as to pre- vent them from deriving benefit from the increased value of the produce. Others, who were not so encum- bered, sold their lauds because money invested in the cultivation of the soil yielded better interest than money invested in its ownership. If that M'as the case at a time when farming consisted chiefly in collecting the natural produce of the soil, that disproportion has been by no means diminished when a more energetic cultivation obtains larger returns at a compnralively diminished expense, but demands on the i)art of the cultivator the command of a larger capital. Let us suppose the rent of land to be 30s. an acre, and the farmer's capital required for the purposes of cultivation to be j£,'10 the acre. He can cultivate a farm of 300 acres with ^3,000, on which he should make at least ten per cent. If he is to become the owner of this farm at the rate of thirty years' purchase, he will re- quire an additional sum of .£"13,500; that is to say, he would require as much capital as would cultivate a farm of more than three times that size, or enable him to establish three sons in three farms of the same size 226 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. as his own. To this cause, rather than to the legal expenses of the transfer of land, it is most rational to attribute the diminished number of farmers cultivating tlieir own land. We will suppose a farmer possessed of tlie above capital, and blessed with three sons and two daughters : how is he to provide for them all, if so large a portion of his capital is sunk in the purchase of the land ? We do not deny that diminution in the expense of transferring laud would be a national advantage. One thing which would greatly facilitate it would be, as we have pointed out before, the establishment of a cadas- tral survey, so that every title-deed might have an authentic map of public record attached to it, showing the boundaries of the land conveyed. A large portion of the expense of a conveyance arises from the neces- sity of describing in words the boundaries of the pro- perty. A registration of deeds, moreover, might perhaps tend to the same end ; but as long as men are suffered to entail estates, short and simple title-deeds are out of the question. The titles of the Irish Encum- bered Estates' Court are short and simple enough — none could desire shorter. But how long will they continue so ? In another century or two they will become as intricate as ever, when those who have recently pur- chased shall have loaded them with encumbrances similar to those which caused them to pass into their hands from those of the former owners. Destroy the power of entailing estates, and you may have as simple and as cheap conveyancing as you please. But are entails ever likely to be abolished in England ? Is it desirable that they should be abolished? Is not the peerage as essential a part of the British Constitu- tion as the other two estates ? Have not recent discus- sions, on many important questions, shown that they meet with a more statesman-like consideration in a house of hereditary legislators, with all the anomalies and absurdities which appear to centre round the idea of an hereditary statesman, than are to be found among the conflicting influences of a popular assembly ? And how long would the peerage last — how long would it maintain its independence — if the power of entailing estates were abolished ? How many, again, of the owners of these large estates are more than the nominal, or collectors of rents to be paid over to mortgagees ? We could point to several districts where an Encumbered Estates Court is as much wanted in England as ever it was in Ireland. It is, however, very doubtful whe- ther an English Encumbered Estates Act would do more than to transfer the land into the hands of the million- aires of commerce, rather than into those of cultivating proprietoi's. THE SUPPLY OF GUANO. There is a growing deficiency of supply in two very important articles of import and consumption — Cotton and Guano. Notwithstanding a cotton crop last year of 3,500,000 bales in the United States, owing to the increased demands of other countries, and the greater quantity of the raw material worked up here and in America, we are left with a supply barely sufficient for seven or eight weeks' consumption. Supplies from other quarters come in but slowly ; and in the mean- time the Chairman of the Manchester Commercial Association states, that for want of cotton they are starving; and that one of two things must happen shortly : a number of spinners and manufacturers, and those the weakest, will be compelled to stop their works, and their workpeople will be thi'own out of employment; or, we shall have completely used up our stock of cotton. The second deficiency is that in which our readers are more especially interested. The supply of Guano received is inadequate to the growing demands of the British farmer, notwithstanding the beds available are still ample, and the price too has recently been en- hanced £-2 per ton by the Agents of the Peruvian Government. We subjoin a return of the yearly imports of guano since the first introduction of that manure, some six- teen years ago, from which it will be seen that the receipts are very disproportionate to the increasing wants of agriculture. We have imported in that period something over two million tons ; but on the average of the last four years the annual imports have not exceeded 215,000 tons. Other countries are pressing forward for supplies of Peruvian guano, to which quality we are now exclu- sively restricted. The continent takes some 40,000 or 50,000 tons, the United States import 70,000 to 80,000 tons (the port of Baltimore alone taking half that quantity) ; the sugar and cofiee growing colonies are also liberal customers ; and therefore, while the aggre- gate annual exports from the Chinchas are larger, we do not receive as much now as we did ten or eleven years ago. Attempts have been made fi'om time to time to do away with the present Government monopoly, which places the purchaser, both as to price and quality, en- tirely at the mercy of a trade which is alike unsatisfactory to the merchant, the agriculturist, and the shipowner. If the trade were thi-own open the consumption would be increased, without any probable reduction of price, or loss to the Peruvian Government. We believe the contract of the Messrs. Gibbs expires this year, un- less it has been renewed. In addition to stocks being unusually low in the United Kingdom, the ships expected to arrive within the season are under those of former years. In the month of November (the latest advices we have), only 14 British vessels. With about 9,000 tons, had loaded at the Chinchas, and this is not all available for home- consumption. The Scotch farmers have found great benefits from the use of guano ; but instead of having, as usual, an available stock of 3,000 to 3,500 tons in the Clyde, there is only 1,000 tons ready to be doled out to the agriculturists. A year or two ago we called attention in our columns to the impending scarcity of this fertilizer, and stated " that in times when the necessities of millions of human beings are demanding more food — when prices are so high as to stimulate the farmers to grow as much grain as possible, and so make hay while the sun shines — they are told tliey cannot have the quantity for either love or money." The observations made then are even more pertinent now, and we could beneficially use half as much more guano annually as is now supplied out to us under present rates. In all parts of the kingdom the subject is occupying prominent attention amongst farmers. At the last meet- ing of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- land, Dr. Anderson, Mr. Hall Maxwell, the Duke of Buccleugh, and other speakers, alluded to the failing supply, and to the necessity of looking out for suhsti- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 227 tutes. At Truro Mr. Nesbit was catechized by the farmers on the possibility of artificial fish-manures be- coming available ; and in other quarters sewage-manure is being again looked after. In 1852 an official report was published by the Peru- vian government, which stated that an examination, made by a French engineer employed, gave the quan- tity of guano on the Chincha Islands at about 16,500,000 tons. Taking the present gross shipments from thence at about 400,000 tons per annum, with the probable increased demand, this supply will be exhausted before the end of the present century. As the Peruvian government netts somewhere about £4 per ton for this guano, these deposits bring in a revenue of more than a million and a-half per annum ; a sum exceeding the revenue of Hanover, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, and many other of the European states. The national debt of Peru, which is about £9,250,000, might be paid off from the proceeds of guano sales in six years. There can be no doubt that, with the progress che- mical science has already made in various departments, the question of a beneficial substitute for guano as a fertilizer is capable of solution ; and we are disposed to believe that the refuse of the fisheries, properly pre- pared, may yet come in largely to the aid of the farmers. To discover new supplies of guano, or efficient substitutes in the form of manuring sub- stances in small bulk, it has been well observed, are worthy objects of mercantile and scientific enterprise, more especially in view of the rich reward which would repay success by the extensive sale of an efficient ferti- lizer at home and abroad. Imports of Guano since the DUCTION Years. Tons. 1841 . 2,881 1842 . 20,398 1843 . . 30,003 1844 . . 104,251 1845 . . 283,300 1846 . . 89,203 1847 . . 82,392 1848 . . 71,414 E THE N FIRST INTRO Years. Tons. 1849 . . 83,438 1850 .. 116,925 1851 . . 243,014 1852 .. 129,889 1853 . . 123,166 1854 .. 235,111 1855 . . 305,061 1856 . . 200,000 Total.... 2,120,445. WHAT SHOULD BE A BUSHEL OF WHEAT? A meeting of agriculturists took place in the Town-hall, Ross, Herefordshire, ou Thursday, Jan. 29, to consider the above question. It had been convened by an advertisement from the Mayor, A. Maclaverty, Esq., who took the chair on the occa- sion, aud there was a large attendance of those interested in the question. The Chairman said he had convened the meeting in ac- cordance with a requisition signed by about forty influential agriculturists, setting forth that 601bs. was much nearer the average weight of a bushel of wheat than 621b3., and asking him to call a meeting at which the matter might be debated upon. As he was personally unacquainted with the merits of the case, he must leave it to other gentlemen to bring their views forward ; but, whether it was decided for 601b3. or 621bs. — whether for facility of calculation or the extra two pounds — he trusted the result of their proceedings would tend to procure uuiforiuity of weight all over the kingdom ; for that, as he un- derstood, was the great desideratum with the public (Hear, hear). Prices would soon right themselves ; but to obtain uniformity of weight seemed to require a little gentle pressure of public opinion. It had been arranged that Captain Power should move the first resolution, but, in that gentleman's un- avoidable absence, he called upon Mr. W. Wylie, who regretted that they had not the benefit of Captain Power's presence ou this occasion. Of course, they had a great deal more wheat to send out than to bring in ; but he could not understand what was meant by a bushel of wheat, unless it was a bushel of 8 gallons. They might put it at eOlbs. or at 621b3. ; but to sell 621bs. for a bmhel when a bushel did not weigh 621bs. was a mistake. The resolution he had to propose was this : " That the opinion of this meeting is that 621bs. is 21b8 more than the average bushel, imperial weight, in this district, and they therefore think it expedient that the weight per bushel sold in this market should not ex- ceed GOlbs." lie would not detain them any longer, as it was market day, and they had business to do ; and he therefore begged to propose the resolution he had just read. Mr. H. CnELLiNGM'ORTH seconded the resolution, and said he had spoken to our worthy members of parliament on this subject, at a public meeting, and Mr. Blakemore said he thought a uniform standard would be of great advantage if carried out. He also promised, that if the government did not undertake it, he would bring it forward himself. He trusted Mr. Blakemore would do so next session, and this was the more likely because that gentleman was now an extensive farmer ou his own account, and must therefore know the ad- vantage which would result from the proposed alteration. At present there was a great variation in the weight of a buihel of wheat in different parts of the kingdom, so that no one could judge of the price from the figures given in the newspapers, not knowing how much was meant by the quoted bushel. He thought it the duty of their representatives to watch over their mterests in this matter ; and he would not promise to vote for any of them if they did not support such a measure. They were honest, good men, but must be called upon to do their duty. There was another subject, not immediately connected with the object for which this meeting was called, but to which he would take this opportunity of adverting : the propriety and necessity of having some suitable place in which to hold their market (Applause). It was of no use their growiug corn, if they were to take cold and bring on premature deaths when they came to sell it. At present they had no comfort or ac- commodation ; but here, for instance, was a room, large and comfortable enough, and in every way suitable for the purpose, which he thought could be had ; he felt sure that Captain Power, as lord of the manor, would allow the use of the town- hall for such a purpose, under regulations, which might easily be agreed on (Hear, hear). Mr. Powell, of Old Forge, said he thought Mr. Wylie was going to move a very different resolution. He advocated a uniform weight, adding that it did not matter to the buyer, who would regulate his calculations according to the weight which he purchased ; but if they pretended to sell a bushel, tbey must sell a bushel, and all that meeting could say, nor all the resolutions they could pass, would not controvert that. If they would make this a pitch market — as he wished they would — every man could tell what he was buying ; but every buyer would regulate the price he would give according to the weight of the bushel he was going to buy, and so it would not matter how they fixed it. He could not understand what this meeting was for. Mr. Chellingwortii : The rent-charge is governed by the weight of the bushel of wheat. Mr. Powell : I would as soon buy 601b8. as 701bs. to the bushel ; but if you sell a bushel, it should be by measure. Mr. Reynolds, of Stafford Mills, Stroudwater, said neither of the gentlemeu who had spoken had shown the least neces- sity for the change they advocated in this particular market. He would not go against what Mr. Chellingworth had so ably put before the meeting about the necessity of appealing to Parliament for an uniform standard ; but the change now pro- posed would only have the effect of engendering differences between dealers and sellers, when nobody could plead that they had lost by the custom they had established. What between railway accommodation, the quantity grown in the locality, and the good uuderatanding between buyers and sellers, tbey had 228 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. one of the best little graia markets iu this part of England ; one which is attended well and supplied well, and where wheat is readily taken up ; neither had he heard of anybody running away very much in their debt (Hear, hear, and laughter). He also hoped aud expected that Mr. Wylie would have proposed a different kind of resolution, for he thought his inclination was more in favour of postponing the question, and abiding any decision made in Parliament, than of passing a resolution which would bring farmers and dealers into a collision which everybody would regret. It generally takes two persons to make a bargain, but in this case it required three — the farmer, the dealer, and the merchant. The farmer should recollect that he is no longer the sole supplier of the market, and that probably for the future he would be less so than now. They were surreunded by markets where 621b8. was the weight of a bushel ; his engagements were all fixed upon the basis of that weight ; aud, whatever they may decide, the cost of railway carnage, sack-hire, boating, and every other incidental, would be reckoned upon that scale. He would make no secret of it, but tell them plainly, that it took six bushels of wheat to make a sack of flour, and it could not be done under ; if they altered their weight to 601bs., it would make £100 a-year difference to him, iu his establishment. Had all the farmers in the room lost such a sum by selling 621b3. to the bushel? There was not a draper or other shopkeeper in the place who did not know the comparative value of his goods, and it would be a libel upon the fsroiers to say that they did not : well then, if they could arrive at that, why not sell 621bs. to the bushel where it was an accommodation to the buyers, and no loss to themselves? The buyers here were the sellers elsewhere, and they were expected to accooiiuodate their customers. They must be ruled by surrounding markets and competing dealers, and so long as 621bs. was the weight at Hereford, Wolver- hampton, ijurham, Birmingham, Worcester, Tewkesbury, and other places, why should not they do the same ? The dsders came to Ross and bought all their surplus wheat, and it would be to them as bad as a break of gauge in a railway if the weight was to be altered at one place. They had better pause, and consider that the more inducements were offered, the more dealers would attend their market, and the greater would be the competition ; and, therefore, what would benefit buyers was equally in their own favour. They had better wait and see what Parliament and their County Members would do in the matter : the dealers did not care how it was arranged, when it became the subject of an Act of Parliament, because railway companies, carriers, and everybody else wou'd then regulate their charges accordingly to the Act. To speak the truth of his mind : they could not expect all the country to be dictated to by Ross; it really reminded him of the "three tailors of Tooley-street," who called themselves " We, the people of England !" But they must not think that all England met in the Ross market, and didu't fill it (laughter). On behalf of the dealers, he would ask, and insist, that their interests should be considered, for they were not to be ignored and made subservient in the matter. He was open to take the ■wheat by measure — any measure they chose; let them pitch their sacks But they could not make the sacks alike, and therefore they sold by weight for their own accommodation. But they should put a boot on each leg, and not have it all their own way: the dealers had given up their measure; let the farmers give them their own weight. The dealers would not ask for any weight if they would pitch their sacks; but if they would sell by weight, let it be that weight which prevailed around them, which would be an accommodation to the dealer, and no loss to the farmer. If they could show him that they lost any- thing by selling 621b3., he would meet them at any other weight they pleased ; but the dealers had to make out their returns to the Government Inspector for to many bushels of 621b3. each, but there was standard weight. Mr. CiiELLiNGWORTn : We know that 4801bs. is the weight of a quarter of corn. Mr. Reynolds: Do you know that as a fact? I have written to the Comptroller of Corn Returns, aud according to his answer each man makes up as he pleases, and there is no definite standard. Mr. Wylie comes from a country whose in- habitants are remarkable for being sagacious and enterprising, and good farmers ; but what will he say when I tell him the Comptroller writes to say that iu ragged, shoeles?, stockingless Ireland, they sometimes get 651b3. to the bushel? Mr. Reynolds then read a letter signed " H. T. Jadis, Comptroller of Corn Returns," in which the writer stated his inability to furnish a standard weight for grain, and mentioned the fact narrated with respect to Ireland. He then continued : They had five exceptional years; there was war for a year or two, and wheat obtained a very high price: the farmer pushed the growth of grain, and met with a ready sale ; wheat had been sown eleven months in the year instead of two ; the grain never matured, and a great quantity of it would not go into a mill. But this would not last, and they must return into the old course again ; indeed, he had lately found fault with some of those great big sprawling wheats, which change their names about once in a twelvemonth, because they cannot keep a cha- racter for any time. But the question simply came to this : the farmers lost nothing by selling G21bs., while the dealers gained by it ; and they were not going to surrender it in Ross- market. If Parliament made GOlbs. a law, they would cheer- fully abide by it ; but it would be very ill-advised and impolitic for them to make any such regulation. He had formed many pleasing friendships amongst them, and had transacted busi- ness with most respectable men ; and it would be with great pain that he ceased to do business with them, as he should if they destroyed the harmony of the market by making such a rule as the one proposed. At Gloucester, Mr. Curtis Hay- ward, after presiding over a meeting at which it was resolved to adopt 601bs. as the weight of a bushel, had gone back to 621hs. ; and so it would be here. In conclusion, he begged to propose the foUowiug amendment: "First: That experience proves that the sale of corn by weight is more satisfactory than by measure, as it prevents disputes arising between buyer and seller in consequence of the irregularity of weight which, under the present mode of threshing and winnowing, is inseparable from selling by measure. Second : That this meeting is of opinion that one uniform standard weight for each kind of graiu, fixed so as in an average of years fairly to represent the imperial bushel of the grain for which it is intended, would be a great advantage and convenience to farmers and dealers, and would render much more simple and accurate both the reports of the corn markets and the return of the corn sold iu them." Mr. DucRHAM, of Baysham, seconded the amendment, and said a crop did not altogether depend upon what bad been urged by Mr. Reynolds. Sometimes they had blighted crops, and sprouted corn, which, althouf;h it would fill a measure, would not weigh so well as good kind grain. He noticed the difference of quotations of prices, which was sometimes as much as 3s. 6d. per bushel; and he thought prices could be much more equalized by weight than by measure. He ad- vocated uniformity in weight as the great want ; for, if they took up a newspaper, they found the prices to differ because the weights differed. It was 701b3. at Liverpool, 72lbs. at Shrewsbury, SOlbs. at Monmouth and Abergavenny, 621bs. at Hereford, and 601bs, somewhere else ; while in London, and some other great markets, they bought by measure and not by weight. The want of uniformity in this particular was a na- tional disadvantage to both consumer and grower. There was another thing they should embody if they petitioned Parlia- ment— there was an improvement necessary in making out the corn averages. He complained that at Hereford perhaps only one grain was mentioned ; and other kinds, the price of which ruled their tithe payments, were removed to distant places, such as Birmingham, Shrewsbury, Cardiff, or Swansea, and the price was published with the addition of the cost of transit ; so that they had to pay their tithes upon the increased value of the corn. The producer, and not the seller or the buyer, was the only man who could justly be called upon to make those returns ; and he knew there were thousands of bushels of grain grown in this district which did not go into the returns. Hereford was the only place in the county entitled to make a return, and all they produced and sold went as nothing, while they had, in consequence, to pay their tithes upon most im- perfect and fallacijus data (Hear, hear). Mr. Reynolds again repeated that 621b3, was a fair weight, and said a " petty market " like Ross should be rnled by those surrounding it. Mr. Wylie hoped it was not imputed that, because theirs was a " petty market, they were "petty" people who came there. A subject must be brought forward by some one ; and he had only undertaken to propose the resolution because they need not sell 621bs. when GOlbs. was over the general average (cries of " No, no," and disapprobation). Mr. Reynolds disclaimed all intention of reflecting upon any parties, or of giving offence to any. He did not know whether Mr. Wylie was trying to carry out the Gloucester THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 339 principle, uor did he care ; al! be wanted was the imperial measure. The Chairman then took a show of hands ; iirst for the amendment, and then for the original motion. The amendment was declared to be carried. Mr. T. S. Bradstock, of Cobrey Park, wiahed to put the matter right. Mr. Reynolds had said it did not matter to the farmer what weight was given to a bushel. Mr. Reynolds : Not as farmers. Mr. Bradstock said all farm payments were regulated by that — tithe coraniutations, and other matters. He then pro- posed a vote of thanks to the Mayor for bis eiticieut and im- partial conduct in the chair. Mr. CiiELLiNGWORTH secouded the proposition, which was carried by acclamation, and gracefully acknowledged. Mr. H. BussELL said if the Town-hall were to be used as a Corn Exchange, £10 a-year would be required to meet ex- penses. He proposed that dealers should pay lOs., and far- mers 2s. 6d. a-year, to make up that sum. At the suggestion of Mr. Reynolds, he added that the hours for transacting business should be from 12 to 2. Mr. W\LiE seconded it, adding as a corollary that the money for the hall should be paid in advance, because, though the dealers were very liberal, the farmers didn't like parting with their money (laughter). This terminated the proceedings. — Hereford Times, THE PRICE OF G U AN O— CO P RO LITE S. The recent advance in the price of guano which the agents of the Peruvian Government have deemed themselves justified in making by the state of supply and demand, has caused no little discussion at market- tables and farmers' clubs, where, when guano was first introduced into the country, it was decried as all theory — a mere powdering of the land ; and the conclusion generally arrived at was, that there is nothing like muck. While, however, the farmers lament this advance for their own sakes, they very candidly admit that the seller has the same right to take advantage of the state of demand and supply of guano as the farmers have of a short supply and brisk demand for wheat. This advance in the price of guano is suggestive of many important reflections. Amongst these, it shows the necessity of using every exertion to utilise the sewage of our towns, and the importance of that com- mission recently appointed for the investigation of that question — a commission which ought to have been ap- pointed many years ago. As a compensation for this rise in the price of guano comes the announcement of extensive deposits of phosphatic nodules or coprolites having been discovered in the green sand of France. Our farmers may then sleep in their beds without being haunted with the dread of losing their turnip crop a year or two hence, from the absence of guano, the want of which in some districts will be enough to throw all their lands out of course. Knowing the present general state of French agriculture, we have little doubt that we shall obtain a fair share of these coprolitic treasures of France. Ours is the best market for muck, as well as most other things, and to our market therefore the muck will come. Let us carry our thoughts a little up the stream of time, about coprolites and green sand. About the close of the last and the commencement of the present century, attendants at agricultural meetings might have seen a sturdy, plain-looking, but intelligent man, with a thoughtful countenance and a hearty laugh, without gloves, which he spurned, and dressed in the style of a farmer of that day, with large metal buttons on his coat as big as half-crowns. lie might be seen descanting to any knot of hearers who would listen to him, about there being a regular order of strata, or beds laid one upon another, which he illus- trated by the slices of bread and butter resting in an inclined position in a plate, and containing charac- teristic fossil-shells, bj which different parts of the series were distinguishable. He talked of the chalk and gi-een sand, the gault, the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays, and other strata. The majority of his hearers turned away with a smile of disdain, if not a loud laugh, at these wild and visionary tlieories. To do Smith himself justice, he was as ready as any one else to denounce as theory what he was not himself convinced of or had not seen ; and we remember being startled at the meeting of the British Association at Dublin, where Dr. Smith, for they gave him an honorary degree, declared that fire had nothing to do with a volcano. He had seen the oolite ; he had not seen a volcano. A few of his hearers thought there was some- thing in his views ; and when an intelligent land-agent* heard him describe the influence oftheoutcroppingridges of stone and clay on the agriculture pursued in Wilt- shire, he exclaimed, " That is the only way to learn the true nature of soils." Now Smith's discoveries are admitted as accomplished facts by the practical men who in his day would have pronounced them all theory. Some of them have even carried these views farther than Smith himself, and have pronounced that they can let lands by a geological map ; in which case we can only say, either the landlord or the tenant must go to the wall. Smith knew the difference, however, between the regular strata and that loose covering of clay, sand, and gravel spread over them to various dejiths, and covering the greater part of the country, except on certain elevations and forms of surface. To these deposits Smith gave the name of "diluvium," We lately stated it was the great Cuvier; but Professor Phillips, the nephew of Smith, ascribes the origin of the term to his uncle. Cuvier, Smith, Sir James Hall, and others, saw in these beds of sand and gravel, and the transported blocks which accompany them, evidence of aqueous action difierent from that which had profluced the regular marine strata, and they ascribed it to the passage of a transient flood over the land. Nothing very practical here, certainly ; but we shall see that great practical results have flowed from these investigations. We have described, on a former occasion, not the theory, but the fact of the accumulation of these deposits, and of the erratic blocks which accompany them over certain latitudes of Europe and America. The submergence of the land beneath the sea is j)roved by the presence of marine shells, most of these species now living, and extending up to heights of nearly 1,500 feet, as far as regards marine shells in the superficial deposits. Erratic blocks, transported from the north, occur up to much greater lieights. When Buckland was collecting evidence of the for- mation of this diluvium, now called drifts and erratic tertiaries, upon a terrestrial surface, he conducted tho.-;e researches which we have described in former articles. To the denuding process while the land was emerg- ing, and the re-arrangement of the materials, as well as to certain peculiar characters which cause the deposits of icy seas to differ from other marine strata, may bo traced the error of this having been only a 230 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. transient submergence. The fact of the surface of Britain having been submerged, is stronger than it was when these deposits were called diluvium. A change of name has taken place, no change in the proof of sub- mergence. When Buckland was collecting evidence of the exist- ence of a former terrestrial surface beneath the dilu- vium, he found that evidence, which we have before described, of these caverns having been dens inhabited by hyaenas; he produced balls resembling in shape the fossil fteces of the living hysenas, and containing, like them, phosphate of lime, derived from the bones which they had crunched and swallowed. Great was the merri- ment which these investigations respecting the fossil dung of extinct animals occasioned. ' ' What is the use of it?" cried some. "Buckland won't last for ever," said one of the University Dons, who did not like these new studies; and the Dr's. mounted class were riding over hedge and ditch, and blowing a horn when the professor stopped to lecture. " Buckland," said they, " won't last for ever ; and there will be an end of geo- logy when he is gone." Poor Buckland is gone; but his once-despised copro- lites have risen into as great importance as the then equally despised investigations of Strata Smith. He found them not only in the bono caverns which had been frequented by hyaenas, but in certain marine strata, where he proved them to be the fossil faeces of certain fishes, by evidence as conclusive as that which connected the coprolites of the caverns with the hyaena. Professor Henslow found coprolites and other phos- phatic nodules, forming layers in the Suffolk crag : they were soon pounced on by the makers of super- phosphate of lime. Liebig had shown that the manuring powers of bones arose from their phosphoric acid, not from their fat and animal matter. He had recom- mended the application of them in a dissolved state : the Duke of Richmond acted on the hint, and reduced it to practice. The manufacture of superphosphate followed : and fortunate does the landowner consider himself who can find on his estate a bed of this once- despised coprolite. All this has arisen out of the researches of Smith and Buckland, denounced as they were at the time as all theory, unworthy the attention of practical men. THE LEATHER TRADE. Among the necessaries of civilized life, shoes and boots are a somewhat important one ; and, when the shoe pinches, it is desirable that we should ascertain the why and the wherefore. The boot and shoe trade are holding meetings throughout the kingdom to consider the propriety of advancing the price of their commodities, in conse- quence of the extraordinary and continued rise in the price of leather. It would seem, then, that the demand for leather has outrun the supply ; and there are but few substitutes that can be brought in to take its place. During the past year or two there has been a rise in some descriptions of leather, amounting to from 50 to 75 per cent., while the advance in raw hides is equal to 400 per cent. Increased demand for boots and shoes both at home and abroad is, no doubt, the main cause of this advance. The United States have gone most extensively into the manufacture, and monopolizes the lion's share of the hides produced throughout the world. France has to a great extent given up wooden shoes, and takea to the manufacture of leather ones; and of a very superior class too : where one or two pair in the year formerly sufficed, half-a-dozen pairs are now used. The prosperity of the kingdom in the past year was such that all our manufactures progressed extensively, and the export of boots and shoes was 80 per cent, beyond that of the previous year. Population increases too even more readily than cattle, and the Government demands for the war were considerable. It appears, then, that the supply of hides of home produce and of foreign import is altogether inadequate for the manu- facture of leather, to meet a vastly-enlarged consump- tion, which has been gradually increasing, whilst the import of hides has been almost stationary for several years, and much less than it formerly was. The ave- rage import of tanned and untanned hides during the past fifteen years has scarcely been much over 000,000, although in some few yeai-s they have touched 800,000, and this is not above half the quantity taken for con- sumption by the United States ; exclusive, in each case, of the home supply from slaughtered cattle. The expenditure of the population of the United Kingdom has been estimated at £15,000,000 per annum, a very low figure, for at least two pair of shoes to each pair of feet may be calculated on ; those who wear more making up for the infants in arms and barefooted lads and lasses. The latter must now, how- ever, be very small ; for all can muster a pair of brogans for show at least, if not for everyday use. Moreover, the applications of leather are numerous for saddlery, harness, and a variety of economic purposes. The value of the leather manufactures exported was only £600,000 in 1851, now it is three times that amount. While we ourselves ship boots and shoes to a very small extent, we are good customers for a superior- made article to the continental manufacturers, fi'om whom we take, on the average of years, about 700,000 pairs of coverings for the feet, of various kinds ; besides the coverings for the hands, with which they supply us also in such large quantities. To proceed now to the statistics of the trade. Messrs. Powell and Co., in their last circular tell us that so great a revulsion in the value of leather and hides in so short a period as the last half of the past year, and especially in the last month (December), has never before been recorded. Stocks have been gra- dually diminishing, and prices advancing at an accele- rated pace, so that many articles of leather are now4d. to Is. per lb. above the quotations of June; while in raw goods a nearly similar advance has taken place. The chief cause of this unprecedented advance arises not so much from deficient production as increased consumption. There is no precise data as to the hides we obtain at home ; but assuming there are 1,000,000 from the slaughter-houses, and adding the imports, we are barely on a par with the United States foreign imports in the hides available for manufacture ; and must therefore be largely behind in our shoe manu- facture in quantity, however superior in quality. Messrs. Boucher, Mortimer, and Gale tell us that foreign countries from which a few years since large imports of leather and hides were received now expe- rience a scarcity equal to our own ; and, in place of supplying us with any surplus of their stocks, are THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 231 keenly competing with us foi' hides in the producing countries. The export of leather manufactures has been large beyond former precedent, and has assisted, with a brisli demand at home, to produce the activity which has now for some time cleared the markets of every fresh lot on arrival ; and at no former period were stocks in tanners' or factors' hands ever so light as at this moment. Thus we have entered upon another year with no stock of hides, w'ith unusually short stocks of leather at market, with a greatly in- creased consumption, and with the trade of the coun- try in a healthy and prosperous state. The United States are now our principal competitors in the foreign markets for hides, and they bid fair soon to engross all the supplies from the Central and Southern American ports. At New York extreme rates are also now obtained ; and, with a deficient supply, the stock on hand is re- duced very low. The total imports of all kinds, these including about 26,205 South American horse hides, were 1,780,317 hides last year, against 1,544,124 in 1855. The stock of hides on hand was only 6,230, against 49,192 in 1855, and 63,200 in 1854. In four years the imports of hides into New York has increased by half a million ; and yet the supply is inadequate. In comparing the imports at New York for the last two years, we find that, while there was a decrease in the imports from Angostura of about 100,000, from nearly all the South American ports there was a very large increase. From the River Plate the imports have trebled over 1855, reaching to nearly 700,000 hides. They have also drawn large receipts from Chili. The State of Massachusetts is noted for its manufac- ture of boots and shoes, and some idea of the magni- tude of this branch of trade may be formed from the fact, that there is made there every year, nearly two pairs of shoes for every man, woman, and child in the Republic. Not that all these are locally used — a large export trade being carried on to the southern and wi stern States, the West Indies, South America, Aus- tralia, Europe, and other quarters. At the five prin- cipal American ports, New York, Baltimore, Boston, Philadelphia, and Salem, the consumption of im- ported hides has averaged in the past three years 2,600,000 hides, equal to 5,200,000 sides of leather. And, if we had tlie necessary data to compute from, we should find this was far below the real quantity. For instance, Philadelphia made 500,000 sides of leather by the official inspection in 1855, while the consumption of foreign hides was only 100,000; so that 150,000 more must have been derived from the slaughter-houses. In Australia and India there is also an increasing local consumption for shoes, harness, &:c. We cannot estimate very closely the Continental con- sumption, but the imports of hides into Havre, which may be taken for all France, in the last few years have been as follows : 1852, 430,000 ; 1853, 309,000 ; 1854, 314,000 ; 1855, 586,000, Last year's return not yet received. The increased imports were also accompanied by a rise of prices from 15 to 20 per cent. The details given above will serve to account in some degree for the deficient stocks and advancing prices, and prove to the grazier and breeder that the hides as well as the flesh and tallow of his cattle are in increasing de- mand, and bid fair to realize even more remunerative prices. GRASSES. A Paper read before a Weekly Meeting of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society OF England, held on the 26th March, 1856, " On the Cultivation of Grasses." By J. W. Calvert, M.D. The subject, to which I have long felt anxious to call the attention of this Society, I purpose treating under the following heads : 1. An examination into the supposed difficulties expe- rienced by agriculturists, from the want of a suffi- cient botanical knowledge to enable them to lay down their tillage-land to the greatest advantage, into permanent meadows and pastures. II. The difficulties to be overcome, in consequence of the foulness of the ground, from slovenly' habits, in allowing weeds to grow up and shed their seeds from year to year, apparently sanctioned, or at least disregarded, by all classes of British agriculturists ; wherehj^ the greater half of the land is occupied by worthless herbage, the produce of the desired crops reduced below one-half of what they otherwise might be, and the quality much deteriorated. III. The difficulties arising from the ravages made upon the seed-crops of many of our best grasses by a species of grub or caterpillar, called by Curtis the Noclua cubicularis. IV. The difficulties arising from apathy and indifference on the partol those who have the means, and might, by example and precept, encourage the superior cul- ture of our meadows and pasture-lands, so as to produce at least double the present amount of nu- triment for their stock, which the land is capable of doing, if kept free from weeds, and laid down with properly-selected clean grass-seeds only. V. The difficulties attendant on ascertaining what are the kinds of grasses best adapted for permanent pastures and meadows in ordinary situations and soils, and which ought to be rejected as unprofitable or detrimental, either from their tendimcy to im- poverish and exhaust the land, inducing foulness by their creeping roots, or by occupying the ground where better grasses would otherwise grow. VI. The difficulty of obtaining seed of the best species and varieties of grasses for permanent pastures and meadows, without adraixeurc of weed and inferior grass-seeds. VII. A sunnnary of the preceding articles, with comments and suggestions, particularly in regard to the state of the land to be laid down, and the treatment of the growing seeds, so as to secure complete success. I. Before proceeding to exhibit the grasses now lying on the table, it will be necessary to premise some ge- neral observations, which will be more of a practical than of a scientific character ; for I do not profess to have studied the science of botany sufficiently, so as to qualify me to give definitions of the different varieties Q 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. to which I have for many years been paying special at- tention. They are very numerous; and in regard to grasses, in particular, botanists do not appear to have given themselves much trouble to ascertain and define them, so as to inform the general reader, student, or iigriculturist how to distinguish one from another. For instance, Festuca duriuscula is a name generally ap- plied to almost every slender-leaved fescue ; and the seed is sold by seedsmen accordingly. I have a speci- men here, and I thick no one will deny that it deserves that name ; for, happening to have a field in which little else was to be found ; I have had practical experience of its resistance not only to loaded carria^^es passing over it, but also to the scythe, which would lose its edge be- fore half-a-dozen strokes had been made, to cut it for hay. It will not, therefore, create surprise when I state that stock only eat it when urged by hunger. I observe, in the 15th vol. of our Journal, page 462, we have a "prize essay," article XVIII., on "The Natural History and Agricultural Economy of the British Grasses," by James Buckman, F.G.S., F.L.S., tkc, Professor of Geology and Botany in the Royal Agricultural College (Cirencester). He says: ''The importance to the agriculturist of a knowledge of the pasture or the meadow-grasses which are everywhere found in the fields, is now so generally recognized, that little need be said to enforce its value.' He adds : "But, however much a knowleige of this useful tribe of plants may have been desired by the agricultural in- quirer, yet he has been repelled from its pursuit by the difficulties ever attendant upon distinguishing genera and species of large vegetable families, without which, little progress can be made." Such a declaration from a professor in a public agricultural establishment ap- pears to me unnecessarily discouraging to the agricul- turist. That there are difficulties in discriminating one genus, species, and variety of grasses from another, I know from experience ; yet I am not of opinion that it is necessary that an agriculturist must first study botany, before he can expect to make progress in ob- taining much useful knowledge in respect to the names, qualities, and productiveness of such grasses as may be esteemed the best fitted for permanent pastures and meadows ; nor do I think, from what I can discover in this prize essay, that the Professor himself has reaped the advantages he would lead us to expect from his ac- quirements in the science of botany. In confirmation of what I am now presuming to state, I will give you what he says about ryegrass (at page 472) : " Though a number of plants — not grasses — are cultivated as seeds or ' artificial grasses,' it is quite unnecessary to remark that these are altogether distinct from the true grasses. Of the latter, only one species is used to any extent in seeds — namely, the Loliuni perenne (perennial rye- grass). Of this there are several varieties derived from cultivation, the best of which is the Italian ryegrass. Now these two varieties — namely, Lolium perenne (common ryegrass;, and Lolium perenne, var. Italicum (Italian ryegrass) — possess highly valuable properties. They yield nutritive food, and have an upright mode of growth ; so that, while adding greatly to the weight of the hay, they interfere less than most other species with the surrounding herbage s but as they are now univer- sally grown from cultivated seeds, there is in them a tendency to changes which are not for the better. This may be shown by attention to the habits of the Lolium perenne. In wild nature, we see that this grass is per- ennial in habit : hence, in depasturing its green herbage, it stools out very considerably. In cultivation, how- ever, it grows straight, upright, coarse culms, which, when flowered, are cut down for hay. It then has a less tendency to ' tiller' or ' stool ;' and much, conse- quently, dies for the want of living shoots to keep up its vitality. Now this is a tendency that increases, and must increase, until this plant becomes more of an an- nual than a perennial ; and indeed, in some districts, it is at present next to impossible to get a crop a second year. This, however, may in a great measure be pre- vented by early cutting of the grass, when for hay ; and here it is proper to i-emark that there can be no greater injury done to a grass crop, whether nutural or artificial, ih&n the letting it get too ripe before cutting." Now, if any of the committee who awarded a prize for this essay, or any other gentleman now present, understand the Professor's doctrine respecting the habits or peculiarities of ryegrasses, I should feel in- debted to him for an explanation, as it is to me quite incomprehensible. He appears to say that the perennial ryegrass may become Italian ryegrass by cultivation, and by further cultivatiun will become an annual, and die away altogether. As I shall have occasion to recur to the habits of ryegrass, it would be out of place to offer further comments on tliis subject; but I will, with the permission of the Council and members here present, proceed to point out the difficulties which I consider have so long retarded the progress of improve- ment in our pasture and meadow crops, both in regard to quality and quantity of herbage. I have already admitted that there is a difficulty in distinguishing the different genera, species, and varieties of grasses, even with professed botanists themselves. For instance, Sinclair gives a plate of the Reedy Sweet Grass, to which he attaches the name of Poa aquatica, but in his description of this interesting water- grass he calls it Glyceria aquatica ; again, the Festuca sylvatica he describes under that name, yet in the index you are referred to Bromus sylvaticus ; some botanical authors referring the same grass to one genus, while other authors refer it to another. The plan which I have adopted and pursued for about twenty years has been very simple, and yet has proved far more successful and satisfactory than I had any reason to anticipate at the commencement of my researches ; I mean to say, only as far as relates to discovering and cultivating a numerous variety of grasses possessing superior qualifications for culture to those generally met with in pastures and meadows, not only in regard to quantity and quality of herbage, but also in reference to the limited space of ground occupied by their respective roots, as well as seed-culms, instead of spreading far and wide to the detriment of other plants growing near them, occasioning the ground to be foul and expensively cultivated when under tillage. I have therefore rejected all plants with creeping roots, and selected such only as have abundant upright tender herbage. It has been my practice to make use of a spud, when in the country, for a walking-stick, and whenever I met with a grass decidedly surpassing in herbage those sur- rounding it, I took up the whole plant with my spud, and transplanted it on one of my experimental grass^ beds, making rows of each sort, so that I could watch their progress and judge of their comparative merits, selecting the seed from such as I deemed the best adapted to my views. The first grass which particularly struck my attention was a beautiful green slender-leaved fescue, growing in an old limestone quarry : its great superiority over the surrounding grasses was remarkable. I at once deter- mined upon collecting the seed from it, when ripe, and then sowing the same alone on clean ground ; on looking for it, however, some time after, I found the grass lying flat on the ground, but the seed-culms had disappeared. Resolving to cut the grass and transplant the roots, I found the seed-culms and seed completely buried beneath and among the foliage. The result after sowing the seed was so satisfactory, that I began to look out for other THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. •233 supeiior stray plauts, aud was foriuaate iu finding muuy which proved equally satisfactory. Having first trans- planted them on my experimental grass beds, where their respective merits could be tested, such as proved infe- rior or unsatisfactory were taken away. On one occa- sion I found a beautiful slender-leafed fescue on an exposed piece of ground, which had been lately enclosed from the Lingy Moor ; it was, however, growing near the new stone wall, at an elevation of probably not less than 700 feet above the level of the sea, where what Sinclair terms Mountain Grasses only could be looked for. I mention this circumstance to show that the idea of high ground being incapable of producing superior grasses is erroneous ; but that they want succulency, are dry, and deficient in Iheir natural flavour, I admit, unless sheltered by plantations, hedges, or walls. But where they are so sheltered, my selected grasses are now luxuriantly growing at an elevation estimated at not less than 600 feet, and are gieen and succulent long before and after the inferior grasses are brofvn and injured by the frosts ; indeed, I have varieties of slender and tender- leaved fescues, which are as green at Christmas and in ihe early spring as any grass on the ground at the most favourable season of the year. Although, to a superficial observer, there may be little or no visible difFereuce in many, especially of the slender-leafed fes- cues, yet on closer inspection there may be discovered in the different specimens, which are very numerous, a considerable variety in the green hue of the leaves, as well as ia the abundance of what is termed bottom- grass, when in flower or seed ; also in the flavour when masticated. A great diff'erence will often be found on examining the roots, some having almost hair-like fik- ments, while others will be coarse and very differently disposed ; some striiiing deep into the ground, while others take more superficial hold, sending up off-sets just clear of the parent plant, and in that way filling up the surrounding bare unoccupied spaces. A difference is often observed in the colour of the seed-culms or straw when becoming ripe, having different hues of pink, yellow, or white. A very perceptible difference may often be observed in the arrangement of the heads con- taiuing the seeds, each retaining its distinctive character, although growing iu rows so near together as sometimes to touch each other at their tops, especially when beaten down by heavy rains, without sporting or becoming hybrid. One curious and interesting instance to the contrary I think it right to mention here. I sowed some awned fine-leaved fescue seed (I believe the Festuca myurus, or Wall-fescue of Sinclair), which is an annual, by the side of the fescue which first attracted my atten- tion, as already described; to my surprise, I found the seed of both sorts were alike awned. I preserved and sowed them both on separate beds, and found the pro- duce to be the Festuca myurus only on both beds — both annuals. I had therefore all the awned fescues removed, after which the seed produced from the same perennial plants was without awns, and in no way contaminated, as shown iu succeeding crops grown from it. I could not discover that any other variety of fescue could be contaminated by growing near the Festuca myurus. I have made these statements as a hint that one sort may be better ad^ipted for one soil, situation, or climate than another ; so that we cannot decide on inspecting the seed, or even the plants themselves, while growing in a certain situation or soil, which sort will be the best adapted for another situation or soil. In order to be more clearly understood, I will state concisely a case in point, as it has occurred to mo, on one of my trial grass-beds. No. 14 surpassed all the others in being the earliest and the most productive : I therefore considered it at the time the best grass of the whole ; but on sowing the seed of each sort in other I parts of the same ficlJ, Nos. 9 and 6 pavticularly sur- passed it in quantity of produce, and there did not ap- pear to be any decided difference in the time of the seed coming to maturity. In repeating the experiment with the same and other sorts, in another part of the field, I found not only No. 14, but also Nos. 9 and G, had been surpassed by some other grasses, which before had not particularly shown their superiority, notwithstanding all were of greatly superior sorts to those generally met with. The safest plan, therefore, will be to have a con- siderable variety, as by change of culture certain varie- ties which may have escaped observation may spring up into healthy growth or luxuriancy, while others, pre- viously conspicuous, under altered circumstances have been supplanted, aud have disappeared till again brought forward by some adventitious circumstance favourable to its development. The soil of my experimental grass-field is rarely found to be alike for twenty yards together, varying from a peaty soil, modified by cultivation, aud lying over a subsoil of a peculiar sort of gravel in places, having below it a bed of sandstone, which appears to be a con- solidation of the superstratum into substrata of still larger blocks beneath each stratum ; in other places the subsoil is a stiff clay, which, as well as the gravel, is reached by the plough in patches ; while elsewhere, by deep ploughing, the soil is changed from black to a brown light sandy loam : the whole very prolific in weeds ; among others, coltsfoot is one of the most trou- blesome. Sinclair says, in his " Hortus Gramineus Woburneu- sis, page 234 : " It appears most unaccountable that at this day, when the different branches of practical agri- culture seem to be so well understood, it should be asserted, and without contradiction too, that it is of no importance what kinds of grasses are sown upon lands for the purposes of permanent pasture, as Nature itself, in the course of time, will produce those kinds of grasses best adapted to the soil, and which only remain perma- nent. Now, as the whole art of cultivating plants is nothing more than assisting Nature in the process of the growth of vegetables, surely the above doctrine can amount to nothing more than the confession of an utter deficiency in the knowledge of the art of assisting Nature in the process of clothing the soil with its nalui-al peren- nial grasses ; or that, instead of three or four years, in the course of which, by the kind assistance of Art, the valuable sward may be renewed, it is better to leave it to the slow unassisted eflorts of Nature, to be renewed in eight, ten, or twenty years." " The superiority of ancient natural pastures over those formed artificially v.ith ryegrass and clover was before alluded to. It will be found principally to arise from the variety of different habits and properties which exist in a numerous combination of different species of grass. From the beginning of spring till winter there is not a month that is not the peculiar season in which one or more grasses attain to the greatest degree of perfection. Some grasses there are that withstand the injurious effects of long-continued dry weather better than others, and vice vernd; hence the comparatively never-failing supply of nutritive herbage obtained from natural pas- tures, which it is in vain to look for in those artificially formed with one or two grasses only." Having endeavoured to show that it is not absolutely necessary that we should first study the science of botany before we can expect to make progress in laying down our tillage land advantageously into permanent meadow or pasture, as set forth by Professor Buckman, I wish now to state what I have found to be a much greater difficulty than the want of botanical knowledge. II. The greatest obstacle I have had to contend with, in Q 2 934 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the prosecution of this uudertaking, has been to obtain clean ground, on which I could depend, to grow my choice grasses, without the admixture of weeds and inferior grasses, so as to allow me to collect the seeds from them in their greatest purity without extraordinary trouble and expense. In this I have been baffled, after having persevered twenty years to overcome it. The habits of all those persons with whom I have had to deal have been such that, although my ground has been fallowed for years together, I have for the most part found — after an absence of two or three months, say from May to August — that weeds have been allowed to grow up unmolested, and shed their seeds, until the eve of my return ; and considerable surprise has been expressed chat I should be dissatisfied with its condition, as they considered the ground clean enough for any- thing. I have thus been disappointed year after year, and consequently have been put to almost incredible ex- penses. So long, therefore, as slovenly habits among our labouring peasantry are tolerated, and, as a matter of course, slovenly farming, it will be labour in vain for me or any one else to attempt effecting the improvements I had so fondly anticipated and so perseveringly prose- cuted, notwithstanding my great success in amassing a collection of grasses so greatly superior to any I have ever seen or heard of elsewhere. The great question, therefore, to be solved is^Does this state of things admit of a remedy ? In the IGth volume of our Journal, page 142, we have Mr. Peter Love's " General Remarks on Continental Farming." He says — " I feel it my duty to give a clear and faithful record of what I saw to admire, as well as what I saw to regret, in foreign agriculture. " On leaving Ostend," he says, in reference to the warp land, " the land under tillage is tolerably farmed (if we except the drainage and breed of stock). We then passed over some very light sandy land, with marshes along the river, which are pastured by some ill- bred stock. This district is nearly all enclosed. The cultivation is tolerably good, considering that it is nearly all done by females, who certainly keep the land free from weeds. About Cologne is a beautiful district, well farmed, with no waste land about fence sides or corners of fields, growing rubbish. On leaving Cologne for Dusseldorf," he says, " this part is well farmed, as far as the cleanliness of the crops goes, but the crops are lighter than they ought to be on such soil. We then passed through some poor hungry soil adjoining a barren heath, where the farming was clean, but the crops very light. The whole of these districts are open field. The industry displayed in keeping the land clean is iu~ deed great. The farmers here do not allow weeds to enter into competition with their crops ; a war of extir- pation bids fair to free the land of the nuisance." Pro- ceeding on his journey, he observes — " The farming is beautifully clean and neat, but all the crops were very light, except the clover, which was in many cases a capital crop. This was followed by a district of rather poor light soil, wholly in tillage ; the farms large, kept beautifully clean, and not a yard of waste land to be seen. The crops, except clover, were all light. After leaving Duisberg, we came through another district of poor light sandy soil, all in tillage, except a little meadow by the river sides ; the farms small, but cleanly farmed ; the whole of the crops, except clover, wretchedly light, not over ten bushels of rye per English acre, and twenty of oats — peas about sixteen bushels. About one-sixth of the land is clover, and another sixth peas, tares, and japeseed. The industry employed here to produce such grops is quite beyond my understanding ; for it appears j-mpossible that it can give an adequate return to feed a nd clothe the occupiers. Were drainage carried out, hese people would make this comparatively a little paradise. Drainage is all that is required to make these districts treble their produce ; but, as far as I have seen, it appears to be totally unknown on the continent," It would only be a repetition to follow Mr. Love in his travels ; my object in referring to him being merely to show the possibility of extirpating weeds and worthless grasses, and thereby not only enhance the value of tbe produce, especially in the grasses, but also lessen the ex- pense of cultivation. There are some points in Mr. Love's communication to which I am anxious to draw the attention of the members of this society : I mean, in the first place, his remarks on the extreme ignorance in our continental neighbours of the advantages of draining, which appear to us so self-evident ; and secondly, the extreme care taken by them not to allow their crops to be deteriorated in any way by weeds, the advantages of which practice are to them equally self-evident, of which, however, the English farmer seems to be as ignorant as the continental is of drainage ; so that it would appear that we ought not to flatter ourselves that we possess any great supe- riority over these poor creatures in the cultivation of our farms. In regard to Mr. Love's remarks on the very great superiority in our breed of stock over theirs, they will be more appropriately commented upon in another place. The third subject to which I would draw attention, incidentally remarked upon by Mr. Love, is the abund- ant produce of leguminous as compared with other crops, notwithstanding the frequency and extent of their cul- ture; but this subject I must also defer commenting upon for the present. When travelling through Lancashire, upwards of thirty years ago, I drew the attention of the coachman sitting by my side to the extraordinary quantity of docks and other weeds covering a field we were then passing. He remarked that the occupier wanted his rent raising. I asked him what would be the effect; to which he re- plied, that if the man had to pay a fair rent for his ground he could not afford to grow such rubbish upon it. I felt so forcibly convinced, at the time, that his reasoning was just, that I thought the answer worthy of being considered an agricultural aphorism, and which has often occurred to me since as being applicable, not only to the growth of docks and other romping weeds, but also to an endless list of plants growing along with and occupying the places of the more valuable pasture and meadow grasses to an extent that few professors in the art and science of agriculture have the least concep- tion of. I believe it would be no exaggeration to say that at least one-third part of our grass land is occupied by actual weeds; that another third-part consistsof either noxious or nearly worthless varieties of natural grasses ; and the remaining third-part of a promiscuous mixture of a better class of grasses, such as the locality in which they happen to grow or the shop of the seedsman may furnish. There may be districts or individual farms in Great Britain, with which I am not acquainted, where weeds are not allowed to grow and shed their seeds. If such should exist, at least one-half the trouble and ex- pense will be saved in the tillage, and more than double the value of the produce will be realized ; for in light land, especially, it appears to be now generally admitted that the less it is stirred up, the better for the succeeding crops ; but here weeds generally abound the most. The great question, then, is — How shall they be got rid of ? Whether we view this snbject as affecting merely the agricultural community, comprehending the landlords as well as the tenant farmers and their dependants, or taken in a national point of view, it is a matter of much I greater importance to the prosperity of the country than THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 has hitherto been calculated upon, at least as far as my researches have gone. It would be to very little purpose for me to write, or hold forth, merely to complain of and point out the diffi- culties which beset us in prosecuting this subject, with- out offering suggestions to overcome them ; and although it may appear presumptuous in me to do so, especially as my ideas differ very considerably from what is now termed the popular opinion, in regard to the employ- ment of children in humble life, so as to fit them to learn and labour truly to get their living in that station of life unto which it hath pleased God to call them, I think much might be done at this peculiar crisis, if all the members of this society would take it into their serious consideration how much better it would be for the children themselves, as well as the communily at Lrge, if taught to be clever, attentive, and cleanly in their re- spective callings, and imbued with a proper sense of their duties towards God and man, through the instru- mentality of Holy Writ and good example set before them (for I apprehend that, as a general rule, it is only in early life that habits are acquired, whether for good or for evil) ; and that if children be trained up to be cleanly, and accustomed to a course of discipline consistent with their station in life, and which need not be irksome, but rather sources of amusement, such as military exercises, gar- dening, &c., as recreation.-s under proper superintend- ents, they would generally retain through life the habits thus acquired. I think it quite possible that, as man is more of an imitative than an instinctive animal, and in very early life takes great interest in attempting to do whatsoever he or s-he sees done, or rather doing, by others, that is surely the time to encourage them in those habits which may prove most useful to them in after-life ; but when this opportunity has not been taken advantage of, the mind and imitative faculties become diverted into channels which may prove a curse to them, not only through this life, but to all eternity ; and in- stead of becoming useful members of the community, may become a disgrace and burden to their connexions and their country, whether employed as domestic or farm servants, labourers or artizans. Hence the necessity of reformatory establishments, which, I presume to think, would have been unnecessary if the children of the labouring classes could be educated and disciplined in the manner I am hinting at, and which I feel anxious to recommend as being most conducive to the public good generally, and the object I have more immediately in view in particular, ». e. in obtaining the means of freeing our soil from worthless rubbish, and substituting valuable products in its stead. Supposing that instead of erecting union work-houses and reformatories in the immediate vicinity of large towns, they had been built in the middle of large farms or tracts of land, and that a farm bailiff and other qua- lified superintendents of good character in the various departments of labour, including the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as the management of horses, horned cattle, sheep, pigs, &c., but more par- ticularly neat gardening, with prizes to those who should excel in neatnessand freedom of weedsin particular, inllheir respective allotments, the adva'^tages must be obvious. The whole plan might be &0 arranged, that field- labour and gardening might be attended to in f ivourable weather, while scholastic and military exercises, as well as many other necessary operations, might be carried on under cover in foul weather, so as to keep the mind and body always beneficially employed. It may be easily imagined that youths taken from such an institution, so trained, would at once become useful servants, and that reformatories would not be needed. It would be considered too great a digression for me to point out the many advantages that we might expect to derive from such a system, in point of economy to the nation, independently of the many comforts which all classes would experience in the more cleanly habits and other superior qualifications of their domestic as well as farm and other servants. III. The next difficulty I have had to encounter has been, the ravages made among some of my best grass seeds, by grubs or caterpillars, which pierce the seeds during the time of coming to maturity, devouring the kernels, as may be seen in the specimen contained in the phial No. 1. It is the seed of the taller fescue {Fesiuca elatior) for which they show a decided preference, while the seed of the darnel fescue {Festuca loliacea) will sometimes escape altogether, as may be seen in the other specimen contained in phial No. 2. Ten or eleven years ago, I found my wheat crops, in Yorkshire, for the first time very much infested by grubs or caterpillars, which pierced the grain while yet in a milky or soft state, continuing their ravages to a serious extent, till the corn was gathered into the stack. I also discovered that the same sort of insect had at- tacked my grass seeds, particularly the fescues. In the year following I calculated that at least one-third of my crop ofwheat was devoured by them, and the samples com pletely spoiled, a considerable portion of the grain being partly eaten. Feeling alarmed at this circumstance, I brought specimens of the caterpillar, &c., with me to London, and showed them to llr. Curtis, who told me that he had met with some specimens in Suffolk, and had taken a drawing of one, which he showed me, and which was afterwards copied into the 5 th volume of our Journal, page 505, and which he calls Nociua Cubicu- laris, together with an ear of wheat pierced by them, and also a moth which he supposes to be the parent of the grub. (Figures 15, 16, 17, and 18.) I showed him a specimen of what I considered to be the parent, be- cause I always found them in company together; but I never could find in Yorkshire a specimen of his moth. I have brought two or three of what I yet feel disposed to consider the parent of the grub. On enquiring of my tenants if they were suffering from the same cause, I could not learn from any one of them that they had ever observed these grubs or cater- pillars. They appear to be on the increase with me, from year to year, but nut regularly so. When the grass seeds are brought in from the field, and shot out from the bags, a few pounds of seeds will contain some scores of these insects, so that we cannot do otherwise than suppose that Ihey must seriously injure them. Although they have annoyed me much, I think it very probable that other districts may be kept freed from them by birds, which may feed upon them. I believe we have no birds with us of that description. It may be inferred from the damage sustained by the ^eed of the taller fescue, that it would be in vain for me to persevere in growing these grasses for seed in the same locality, the last year having been particularly favourable for the growth, maturing, and housing the grass seeds generally ; yet I do not recollect to have seen the seed more pierced than it was last autumn. IV. The next difficulty I have experienced in prosecuting my intentions has been, the extreme apathy or indiffer- ence of the agricultural community, of every grade, in regard to laying down their tillage land to the greatest advantage for permanent swarth. They appear to con- sider it satisfactory if the land, after being sown with grass-seeds, be well covered with green herbage, without giving themselves the trouble to inquire into the quality or permanency of each sort, or their fitness for the pur- poses intended. Indeed, I have scarcely ever attempted 236 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a conversation on the subject with any one, whether landlord or tenant, who has not quickly shown a de- cided disposition to change the subject of conversation ; so that, notwithstanding the progress that may have been made in most other arts and sciences, during the Inst century, the question is, whether that of laying down tilbige land for permanent swarth may not have retrograded ; for it cannot be denied that we do not now produce pastures and meadows equal to those which have been laid down by our forefathers. I think the explanation not difficult. I believe the introduction of rye-grass has been one great cause, by its great powers of monopolizing to itself, and exhausting the land of, the greater part of the nutriment which may have been left in it by the corn crop, upon which the seeds have been sown. In order to show that it will be labour in vain, and an absolute waste of seed and money, to attempt to form a good permanent swarth, if rye-grass be sown along with the better and more permanent grasses, I will mention a few cases in point. Some years ago I received some seed of the Alopecurus Tauntonensis from the late W. P. Taunton, Esq., which I sowed on a bed prepared for the purpose; but the wind being high and the seeds li-jht, some of them were blown away to another grass- bed adjoining. To my surprise, instead of foxtail, rye- grass only came up ; excepting on one small patch, where there was no rye-grass, a few puny plants of foxtail made their appearance ; but on the adjoining bed, where some of the seeds had been blown by the wind, some fine healthy plants of foxtail were growing. On the follow- ing year, the same kind friend sent me a small packet of what he believed to be, the Festuca heterophylla, which I sowed. In this case also, rye-grass only came up ; but, as soon as I perceived what it was, I pulled it up ; after this some weakly plants of the fescue made their appearance. On my last journey into Yorkshire I met with a reverend gentleman, with whom I had some acquaint- ance, who told me that a neighbour of his, having sown down a field for permanent swarth with grass-seeds ob- tained from his seedsman, but falling short of seed a portion of the field remained unsown with grass seeds ; but that now, some years having elapsed since the sow- ing, the other portion of the field has become the best swartli. He wished to know what explanation I could give. I told him the explanation was by no means difficult. He must, in the first place, recollect that competition with seedsmen could only be carried on by a liberal supply of rye-grass, and where that was sown little else need be looked for ; and as it was a great exhauster of the soil, it would soon die away, unless abundantly supplied with manure. That, in the case he had just alluded to, doubtless the seeds sown contained rye- grass, which had exhausted the soil, so that when the rye- grass died away, there was little or nothing left ; whereas, on the land where no rye-grass had been sown, the grass-seeds which might be scattered from the hedge and other sources would find a more fertile soil, and though it would necessarily be of very moderate quality, this ground would of course be the best covered with herbage. The idea that good grasses will spring up sponta- neously, without superior and clean seed having been previously deposited on the land, is too absurd to be entertained at the present day, whatever may be the nature, situation, or fertility of the soil; for with all our care weeds will spring up, as well as creeping- rooted and other inferior grasses, shed their seeds, and produce thtir like, unless interfered with by proper culture. It is too much to expect that Nature will make a more judicious selection for our wants than we can do for oursol'ps. Tf we take indiscriminately the sweepings of our fodder-rooms, we cannot reasonably expect grasses to spring up of a superior quality to those from which the seed was derived. Jf we apply to the seedsmen, they, in the exercise of their callinsj, will of course send you such as they possess, and as long as their customers are satisfied they will naturally be so too. This question, thereibre, naturally presents itself: Whose fault is it, that, under the auspices of the Royal Agricultural Society of Kngland, no proj^ress whatever appears to have been made since its establishment in impi'oving the cultivation of what may be termed " the staft' of life," in relation to the support and feeding of our stock .' In the second part of this paper, relative to weeds, I spoke of an agricultural aphorism, viz , that when a farm became overrun with weeds, it indicated that the tenant is not paying a fair rent, or he could not afford to grow such rubbish upon it. On due consideration, however, and a better acquaintance with the almost in- surmountable difficulties which a tenant has to contend with, I feel constrained to apply the same kind of logical reasoning that has been recorded as used by the wife of a culprit when brought before a magistrate in one of our niidland-county borough*, noted for the part it had in accelerating the passing of the Reform Bill. The culprit, being reprimanded for not paying proper respect to the magistrate, replied, with a sneer, '' Ma-gis-trate, indeed 1 why he's nowt but a shoemaker," The poor wife, in great trepidation, exclaimed: " Nay, my dear luvvie, don't talk o' that how; thou knows they can only mack magistrates o' what they've got to mack 'em on!" In like manner the tenant can only sow such seeds as he can obtain from the seedsmen or the fodder- room, for the defects of which he may not be answerable. The same question then recurs, Who is in fault ? If we look over the lists of grass-seeds recommended by our first- I'ate seedsmen, of what do they consist? Taking them alphabetically, we find, among a very thin sprinkling of passable grasses, the following : — Agrosiis, or creeping bent grass, called " wicks" or " wickens" in Yorkshire (vide specimens). Arrhenatheum avenaceum, called in Yorkshire " knot- grass," the vilest of all light-land wickens {vide specimen). Festuca duriusctda, hard fescue (vide specimen). Loliiim, improved ever-green "1 Rye-grasses Lolinm, dwarf-spreading variety J {vide specimens). Poa pratensis, smooth-stalked meadow-grass {vide spe- cimen— with a creeping root, a wicken or couch grass). Poa annua, annual meadow-grass {vide specimen &c. — with innumerable wide spreading roots). Poa fertilis, fertile meadow-grass {vide specimen — a more formidable creeping root than the Poa pra- tensis). I do not hesitate to say that the man is unfortunate who happens to have his land infested with such rubbish as the grasses just enumerated, because they are so diffi- cult to get rid of, either on account of their creeping roots, or the frequency or abundance of their seed shed- ding, or on account of their great powers of exhausting the soil, and therefore supplanting and occupying the places of better grasses. There are others of little intrinsic value of themselves, and which may also be found in Professor Way's list of grasses, of which he has apparently with great care and attention given us the analyses, and which may be found in the 14th volume of our /o/rnc^, beginning at page 171. But, as I suspect, very few, if any agriculturists would, if duly aware of their habits and qualifications, permit any one of them to be sown on their land, whether for rotation crops, or for permanent swarth ; it becomes, in that case, questionable what advantages THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 this society, or the agricultural community, will derive from the analyses of these grasses, however accurately ascertained. Had the Council, or Professor Way him- self, applied to me for specimens of my best grasses, I should have gladly availed myself of the opportunity of furnishing them, free of any other expenses than those incurred for the carriage of the parcels. I think it a matter to be much regretted that such valuable experiments in regard to the proportions of al- buminous and other important constituents of food should have been wasted upon so much worthless rub- bish ; while we still remain ignorant of thu most valua- ble constituents contained in many of our best grasses : I mean, more especially, such grasses as yield a great produce, and are preferred as food by stock ; for in- stance, the most productive varieties of the Fescue genus, which are very numerous — Alsike clover, the best varieties of bromegrasses, &c. {vide specimens). But I now find myself anticipating what more properly be- longs to the next division of my subject. One thing, liow- ever, I perhaps ought to mention here, which is, that it is of little importance whether certain sorts of grasses contain mucli or little albuminous matter, if the stock will not readily eat them. I had once a stack of beautifully green, sweet-scented hay, but whicli consisted in a great measure of the tribe or rather genus of Agrostis, or bent-giass, and of Holctis, or soft grass, &c ; but the stock would not eat it : conse- quently it was Used as bedding or litter. But when hay made from superior sorts of grasses was offered to them, although considerably damaged by ihe weather before being put into the stack, it was greedily eaten. From what I have already stated, it appears quite evident that a deplorable want of agricultural knowledge in regard to this department of agriculture is universal ; for whether we refer to individuals who make preten- sions of superior practical knowledge, or to professors and teachers of agricultural science, or even to those of this Society on whom the awarding of prizes devolves, we cannot shut our eyes to the want of judgment dis- played in their recommendations and decisions, which are more calculated to mislead than to instruct, and of which I can readily furnish instances. In a pamphlet which 1 wrote in 1850 (published by Heme, in the Strand, entitled " The Merits and Ten- dencies of Free Trade and Protection respectively in- vestigated," and of which there is a copy in our library), T extracted from Bell's Weekly Messenger an inquiry by a Suffolk farmer what grass-seeds he ought to sow, he wishing to lay down land into permanent swarth ; to which inquiry the following answer was given by an Essex farmer: — "Some persons prefer laying down without corn, but I have generally drilled in two and a-half bushels of oats per acre, sowing by hand afterwards three bushels best Pacey and lialf a bushel of Italian grass-seed per acre, mixed well to- gether, and then, by engine, 6lbs. of Dutch clover, Slbs. trefoil, and Slbs. cow-grass, mixed, harrowing them well in so as to cover, and rolling the land down ; by this method I have obtained a good plant of seeds, with a fair crop of oats." This production, I believe, needs no comment. I perceive that time will not allow me to refer again to profi'ssor Buckman's prize essay on British grasses, which it was my intention ti) have done ; but, as a further illustration of what I have advanced, I wish to refer to another prize essay on the management of grass land by Mr. Robert Smith, contained in the ninth volume of our Journal, beginning at page 1. The chief anxiety of Mt. Smith appears to be, from its frequent repetition, that the " fog, or surplus sum- mer grass," should be cleared away at least once every year. He goes on to state that " the grasses are really indigenous productions formed upon an accumulated mass of vegetable mould, and are of themselves suffi- ciently rich without the aid of manures ; they require, however, to be kept in proper bounds, that every re- maining blade be allowed to see the sun at least once a year, otherwise an accumulation of rough grass takes place, and the herbage becomes degenerated, changed in character, and less nutritive in quality : hence we often hear partits remark that certain fields have lost their feeding qualities. This results from the fact, that while the annual produce of the soi] is chiefly exported in the shape of beef, mutton, &c., and no return of manure is made to the soil, the grasses themselves have been allowed to be choked with superfluous rubbish, and not even permitted to adjust themselves according to ' Nature's course.' The importance of assisting Nature rather than marring her works is forcibly shown in this." Mr. Smith adds, that " many graziers prefer to ' skim ' these pastures ever, thereby checking the rough bunches and grasses that predominate, and giving a more even pasture to the succeeding cattle." All that I need remark on this subject is, that on one occasion I saw a remarkably fine root of cocksfoot-grass growing unmolested towards the middle of a bare cow- pasture ; I directed that a handful of salt should be thrown upon it. In about a fortnight after I inquired after the cocksfoot, and I was informed that the cow had eaten it up. On another occasion I found some ears of bailey growing among other coarse herbage in a heavily- stocked homestead, to which I recommended a sprink- ling of salt, which I doubt not would be attended with the same result. As, I presume, the establishment of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England was for the purpose of im- proving the art and science of agriculture in all its branches, and as we cnnnot well reform defects till we know what they are, I have endeavoured to point them out faithfully and fearlessly, feeling persuaded that the good sense of the members will receive these hints which I have taken the liberty of giving, not as a slight and as a demonstration of disrespect to those who have so kindly endeavoured to aid us in our efforts to improve the resources of our country, but as a stimulus to excite more attention to a subject in which we are all more or less interested ; and I trust that what I have stated is given on good authority, and may be depended upon. V. The time which I have allowed myself to completg this paper will not permit me to do much more than ex- hibit specimens of some of the grasses which T esteem the best calculated for permanent meadows and pastures. The better half, I consider, belong to the genus Festuca, or Fescue ; of which I have cultivated, witli great care, at least twenty species or varieties. I have brought some of them with me for inspection, fiom which a tolerable judgment may be formed of their value ; bear- ing in mind, however, that they are all grown at an ele- vation estimated at upwards of 600 feet above the level of the sea. In addition to these Fescues, may be added cocksfoot, two varieties of catstail or Timothy grass (Phleum pratense), three varietii's of brome grass (Bromus), three or four of Burnet (Sanguisorba) ; Poa triviales, or rough-stalked meadow grass, especially adapted for moist situations ; Poa nervata (Siberian meadow-grass), suitable for cold exposed localities; Alsike chjver ; rib grass (Plantago lanceolata). To these may be added Alopecurus Tauntoncnsis (Taunton's fox- tail), Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet-scented vernal grass), Avena flavescens (golden oat grass), and a small sprinkling of perennial ri d clover. I conceive the above list amply sufficient, and contains a much greater variety than will be readily procured. All creeping-rooted grasses ought unquestionably to be 238 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. carefully excluded, especially as we have a sufficient variety without them, of better sorts, as far as their qualities have hitherto b°eii ascertained. The following list is taken from the seedsmen's circulars, and from Professor Way's table of analyzed grasses : — Agrostis (creeping bent-grass). Arrenatherum avenaceum (knot grass). Bromus mollis (soft brome-grass). Festuca duriuscula (hard fescue). Holcus lanatus (woolly soft grass). Lolium (ryegrass). Poa annua (annual meadow-grass). Poa pratensis (smooth-stalked meadow-grass). Poa fertilis (fertile meadow-grass). Although there may be species or varieties of ryegrass which may be strictly called perennial, i. e., which will continue permanently in the ground among other grasses without renewal, and without an extra supply of manure, of which specimens are said to be found in the best old pastures, I think it would be difficult and unprofitable to attempt the cultivation of such, especially till we are better acquainted with their habits and qualities. I should therefore recommend their omission altogether in laying down tillage land for permanent swarth. I have been able to prolong the existence of what I thought a superior sort of ryegrass, in full vigour, for seven or eight years, by transplanting it annually into fresh soil. The Poa annua, or annual meadow-grass, although a dwarf plant, has large spreading roots, and is so prolific, by spreading its abundant seeds in all directions the same year that it is sown, that it is seldom that a bare space of ground is not quickly occupied by it, to the ex- clusion and detriment of more productive and better grasses. I have consequently found this, perhaps, the most troublesome of any weed among my selected grasses, on account of the rapidity with which it comes to maturity and spreads its seeds. Sinclair's account of the other grasses just named is very unfavourable. VI. As many of the sorts of grass seeds which I esteem the best are rarely to be met with in shops, and espe- cially in their pure unmixed state, I have been chiefly indebted to the kindness of my late much lamented friend, W. P. Taunton, Esq., and — Sowerby, Esq., of the Royal Botanical Garden, for choice specimens of plants or seeds, in addition to what I have found grow- ing on my own estate in Yorkshire. My orders were too small to be attended to by the seedsmen. I was for some years unsuccessfully endeavouring to procure a specimen of meadow fescue, and when I obtained some the first result was a crop of ryegrass, &c. I procured, as a favour, a small packet of rough-stalked meadow- grass ; but on sowing it, I found the plants so inter- woven with the creeping roots of the Alopecurus agrestes, or creeping black foxtail, that I have not been able to extirpate it, although I have had the meadow grass taken up and transplanted, in order to free it from this vile weed, to which I was previously a perfect stranger ; but for the most part I have found the seeds mixed with ryegrass more than with any other kinds. I have, how- ever, obtained very clean seed of the sweet-scented vernal grass, and of the Poterium sanguisorba of Sin- clair (Burnet), from the stedsmen, both of which I find a difficulty in cleaning without great waste. VII. In regard to the difficulties we meet with in distin- guishing one grass from another, it arises chiefly from net having any work on agricultural science to which we can refer for information on the subject, such as an Agricultural Encyclopsedia, which would explain terms in local use, and comprehend the elements of agricul- tural botany, with plates of weeds, with the most appro- priate name to each printed in old Roman capitals, so that one language might be used throughout the whole country, local names being distinguished by italics ; ex- tending to geology and every other department con- nected with agriculture. But while at one school botany is taught after the sexual system of Linnaeus, and at another the natural order of Jussieu, our difficulties of acquiring the information we are in quest of are thereby increased ; and it would be extremely difficult at this time to find persons competent to undertake such a work. As an instance in point, I want to know what is cow grass? Refer to different authorities, and you will find it is a name applied to different species of red clover. Having myself been recommended by our late president, W. Miles, Esq., to apply in all cases of diffi- culty to Mr. Thomas Gibbs, of Piccadilly, I should be glad to know from him what species of cloverseed is sent when cow grass is ordered ? Want of time obliges me to be concise in what I have to say further under this head. In the first place, then, if we abstract /rom the soil the richest part of it by a crop of corn, we cannot leasonably expect the benefit of what has been already taken away in the succeeding crop of grass. But supposing a crop of ryegrass to succeed the corn crop, what shall we expect will remain in the land to support other grasses which may be expected to appear after the ryegrass has disappeared ? Now, if we pay such a price for good grass seeds as they can be pro- perly produced for, will it not be a waste of money to throw them on the ground when there can be little pros- pect of a crop ? I should therefore say, obtain the best grass seeds only, however sma'l the quantity, and sow them immediately after a clean crop of turnips eaten on the ground by sheep. In the autumn of the same year turn in the young calves only — they will thrive well upon them, without doing damage to the young grasses either by close cropping or heavy treading, if the ground be not soft ; but late in the spring, or early in the summer of the succeeding year, the same calves might be allowed to graze upon the young grasses for the benefit of both. I have adopted the plan of sowing at the rate of 241bs. of my selected grass seeds to the acre, on well- prepared ground, and prefer thin sowing, independently of the economy in the expense of seed. My best crop of grass seed, especially of the slender-leaved fescues of the last year, was from seed sown late in May of the previous year ; while that sown about the same time in the year preceding ran more into bottom grass last year. I have by me now what I calculate would sow from ten to twenty acres at the rate just stated, more than I shall have occasion for ; and as my family is unwilling that I should devote so much time and money for what no one but myself appears to take an interest in, I have deter- mined upon desisting from prosecuting further this, to me, interesting pursuit as hopeless. If, therefore, any gentleman be desirous of taking advantage of my labours, and procuring some of my seed, he must make his appli- cation to me forthwith. I much regret that the propor- tion of coarse grass seeds is not equal to what I could wish, in consequence of the ravages made in them by the caterpillar before alluded to. John W. Calvert, M.D. 3, Park-place, Regent's-park, Jan., 1857. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 239 THE YOUNG FARMER ENTERING INTO BUSINESS. The young farmer who possesses an intelligent and inquiring mind is ever anxious to gain knowledge, but more particularly that department of knowledge which shall best fit him to conduct that business upon which he is about to enter. The business of a farmer in these days of modern progress differs materially from the old order of agriculture. The extensive — the general intro- duction of root culture ; the uses of artificial manures ; the varied rotation and management of corn crops ; the drainage and deep cultivation of the soil : the study and adoption of improved practice in these and other matters connected with the management of the various soils of this country, have raised its productive powers far beyond the average of any other country in the world. Nor is this all. The breeding, feeding, and general management of stock throughout the country have ad- vanced its value in a similar proportion, and increased the production of meat in an astonishing degree. How this is all done the young modern farmer has to learn, or his business will not prove a profitable one. He must ascertain the quality and capabilities of the soil he is to cultivate ; the best course of cropping to be adopted; tlie best description or kind of stock suited to his holding ; the best course of culture to be adopted ; the best horses and the best implements for his purpose ; besides the somewhat minor points all necessary to be known — i. e., the best varieties of grain, roots, and grass seeds, &c., to be adopted, and how to promote their best growth ; the best artificial manures applicable to his land ; the best kinds of food, and best mode of feed- ing his stock. He must know the difference between " a breeding farm" and a farm adapted for fatting (" a feeding farm") ; nor must he neglect attention to the locality in which his farm is situate. This will lead him t > provide for the market, or prepare his stock for the fair, and the like many little considerations of universal occurrence. The quantity of seed requisite for the various grain and root crops to be sown per acre has become a subject of grave consideration, and great economy is now prac- tised in this respect. The constant care and attention, and the quickest mode of fatting the various animals and poultry designed for food, have become a question of prime importance. The growth and preparation of the potato and other root crops for market have latterly been gradually creeping into general practice, and will ultimately become of great consequence, as the expense of importing these bulky crops will deter importers, and prevent such a trade being very profitable. It is perfectly ridiculous to say the young farmer has not much to learn. I know of no bounds to the profit- able appropriation of whatever amount of knowledge a farmer, either young or old, may acquire ; besides, we are on the eve of still greater changes in the culture of the soil. The introduction of steam power is but the work of time, and with it will come great innovations upon ordinary farm practice, and subsequently the aban- donment of all systems of rotation in cropping as sys- tems, and the modern cultivator will merely consult his own interest as to the crops he shall cultivate, tiie neces- sity for a rotation being done away by the effectual working of the soil, and the aid of artificial and other manures in replenishing it. Let us for a moment look at the ignorkut and superficial young farmer, big with his own self-importance, swelling with his fancied ac- quirements, and boasting in his slender knowledge and judgment. He is above being taught, and is gene- rally assuming to teach others, and mostly with all that pertinacity and positiveness which is said only to belong in perpetuity to the village pedagogue. Such a young man is not made for the times. No ! progression is the universal order of the times we live in — social progress — rapid progress. "Activity is the law of nature." Onward, onward ! " Excelsior, ex- celsior ! " is now the almost-universal cry ; and, de- pend upon it, the agriculturist must not lag behind. Much as he has achieved, he is still behind the times. Nearly all his fellows are in advance. The manufac- turer has advanced his productions a thousand-fold. The merchant will speedily transact business daily by electric telegraph with New York and Chicago, or with Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, &c., &c. The gigantic steamers are now built to import their 10,000 or 12,000 qrs. each, and shortly the weekly supply for London is to come in one bottom. Railroads are constructing everywhere, creating every facility for the transmission of Mother Earth's products from the remotest regions to the required market. All the world is alive, and the demand lor everything likely to advance the earth's productive powers is exceedingly great. The demand for first-class animals for breeding purposes is unprece- dented, not only throughout Europe, but in America, Australia, &c., &c. All this must, ere long, revert to this country in the shape of enhanced supplies, tending unquestionably to the reduction of prices in every kind of agricultural produce — a thing in itself not to be de- plored, but which the farmer, the young farmer, must be prepared for, and be able to compete with in the market. Need I, then, urge upon our young farmers any further inducement to become men for the times, and by the industrious acquisition of every kind of scientific, mechanical, and practical knowledge, fit them- selves to extract, to extort from the soil all the inherent virtues it contains in the form of food for the sustenance of both man and beast. But to my subject — T/ie young farmer entering into btcsiness. 1 was led to write the above on considering what would probably become a part of a young man's business ere he becomes old, ac- cording to the order of agricultural progress at the pre- sent time, and the necessity I felt that he should be educated to carry on such progress. I will now attempt to introduce the young farmer into business. The first thing, of course, is to look out for and obtain a suitable farm, which is no easy matter just now. He should endeavour to procure one near to a good market, and, if possible, in a pleasant country. The farm should contain about one-fourth pasture and meadovs- land, and the remainder arable, of a good loamy friable character, open and easy to work ; with suitable farmhouse and conveniently-arranged premises, situate on the farm near to the arable land. The size of the farm should depend much upon the talent, energy, and capital possessed by the candidate ; but, as a general rule, a farm of about 200 acres is a suitable occupation for the first essay of a young farmer, and as his expe- rience grows he may then with safety enlarge his busi- ne s. A farm of 200 acres has many advantages in bringing out the young farmer's powers. lie must almost of necessity take a share in all the operations of the farm. The extent is not enough to engage his time solely in the superintendence ; and the more he becomes familiarized with the manual operations of the farm, the better is he fitted to direct such operations to his work- men, and to decide at a glance if work is properly and 240 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. expeditiously performed. A little constant manual labour never does a young farmer hurt ; the sense of having daily done his duty on his farm makes the evening pass more cheerfully ; the man is bettered by it ; and being at all times ready to take a turn when requisite, his men are encouraged and his business goes well and prosperously, both master and men have confidence in each other, the farm is conducted more upon the princi- ple of mutual aid than of coercion, the men cheerfully work, and the master has the true satisfaction of know- ing they are contented. There is also a new feature in modern agriculture, which the young farmer will do well to recognize. Labourers are better educated : most of them are thinking men, capable of intellectual acquire- ments, which, to the credit of the nation, they are now able to obtain, through the aid of our many agricultural societies, cheap books, tracts, newspapers!, &c., and of lectures, which are everywhere brought within their reach. It is this that makes them men. And the young farmer can no more direct them as machines or as working animals, but must treat them as his friends and helpers. And this is a happy state of things, from which our young farmers will ultimately reap great benefits ; for as skilled labour and effective machinery are more and more applied to the cultivation of the soil, so will the educated thinking workman become more and more valuable to his employer. I shall assume at once that a suitable farm at a Lady- day entry is procured, and that of a general character, by which I mean that it is not especially adapted for merely one line of business, i. e., as a dairy farm, or a hill farm ; the former being devoted to the production of butter and cheese, the latter to the rearing of stock — chiefly sheep, and both requiring in their management a peculiar knowledge respectively, the one the art to make the most out of a dairy cf cows by attention to their feeding, milking, and dairying, the other the breeding aud rearing of stock. The farm I assume to have been obtained is applicable to the general purposes of agriculture, and I purpose to cultivate it after the best modern practice. The extent is 200 acres, one- fourth being under grass. The first question for our young farmer to ask is. What amount of capital shall I require ? In answer to it I will enumerate the quantity and cost of farm slock and implements necessary, and sub-equently add the tenant-right, which will represent the capital required, exclusive of household furniture, &c. I will put it somewhat in detailed form. Stock. To G Cart horses, at £35 each 1 Nag horse 4 Milch cows, at £18 lOs. each 12 Young steers or lieifers, at £9 5s. each 100 Breeding ewes, at 503. each . . 50 ShearliDgs for fattening, ot 523. Gd. each 150 Hoggets, at 42s. each.. 12 Pigs, at 353. each Geese, poultry, ducks, &c. Implements. 3 Ploughs for common ploushiiig, at £3 lOs. . . 1 Ditto for ridge work, &r. 3 Seta of harrows, various, at £3 5s. 1 Scarifier or cultivator . . 1 Field-roller 3 Carts with shelvings, at £12 10s. each 1 Li^ht ditto .. 1 Market wag^ron . . 6 Sets of double harness, for field atsd team work, at £4 153. each 1 Set of gig harness, saddle, aud bridles . . 1 Gig for family use 1 Dressiug machiue 1 Set of barn requisites, sacks, riddles, &c. 1 Drill for com and seeds. . £ s. d 210 0 0 30 0 0 74 0 0 111 0 0 250 0 0 131 5 0 315 0 0 21 0 0 2 0 0 10 10 0 4 0 0 9 15 0 / 0 0 8 10 0 37 10 0 8 0 0 28 0 0 28 10 0 12 0 0 30 0 0 12 0 0 8 10 0 25 0 0 1 Set of fold-yard requisites, chaflf cutter, crbs, troughs, &c £20 1 Set of field requisites, turnuip cutter, trays, troughs, &c 21 0 Sundries in yards, and cake breaker, forks, &c. . . 35 10 0 0 Valuation of stock and implements bought in at sales, &c., cheaply £1,450 0 0 Tenant-Right according to Average Customs, by estimation. To 40 Acres of growing wheat at Lady-day entry, at SOs. per acre 20 Acres of barley sovrn, at 303. per acre . , 15 Acres of oats or other spring crop, at 28s. per acre . . 40 Acres of seeds growing, at 128. per acre 35 Acres of fallows' ploughing, at 78. 6d. per acre Manure led on to the land, 300 loads at Valuation of cake and artificial manures used Ditto of drainage works done . . Ditto of straw and manure in yards Ditto of sundries not enumerated Estimated value of tenant-right on average prin- ciples £350 0 0 Farm stock and implement account .. 1,450 0 0 100 0 0 30 0 0 21 0 0 24 0 0 ; 13 2 6 50 0 0 50 0 0 25 0 0 25 0 0 11 17 6 Total amount of capital (in round numbers) re- quired on entry is . . . . . . £1,800 0 0 To which must be added cash required for labour, rates, taxes, housekeeping, and other out- goings for eight mouths . . . . . . 350 0 0 And for household furniture, dairy, &c. . . 250 0 0 Making a total of capital required to manage 200 acres of £2,400 0 0 I do not pretend to assert that the above somewhat loose estimate is in every point correct ; but on the average of farms throughout the kingdom, differing as they do so materially in almost every district, it will ap- proximate very nearly to a fair valuation. In Lincoln- shire, in some districts, the valuation is confined to the mere expenditure of seed and labour ; in others, cake, manure, drainage, and acts of husbandry are valued. In Yorkshire and other places, the " away -growing crop" is valued as a crop at harvest-day. In the south- ern districts of the kingdom, the valuations are still more stringent for the incoming tenant ; and the cost of acts of husbandry, dressings, half-dressings, plough- ings, copses, &c., &c., is very great. I have endea- voured, without particularizing too much, to steer somewhere between extremes. It is true, a farm cf 200 acres may be taken and worked — fairly worked — with less capital, but I cannot think with the like benefit to the tenant. I have before me a valuation, made some few years since, upon a farm containing about 800 acres of good land, which does not exceed ^"3,5U0; but the tenant was, in consequence, compelled to dispose of the grass and hay, straw, and other keeping, annually. The tenaiit should rather be " over than under the mark," because, if he is prudent and judicious, he can take advantage of any rise or fall in the market, and is not compelled to make sales to meet comiug demands ; be- sides, the anxious care of providing for an uncertain future is thus much abated, and the young farmer pur- sues his course with cheerfulness*, and knows and feels the comfort of independence. The question of capital once settled, we now come to the all-important business of laying it out to the best advantage. I have enumerated horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs in the valuation ; but the great question for every young farmer to solve is this : " Which are the best and most profitable kinds of stock for me to buy ?" Uefore he can answer this satisfactorily, he will find THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 241 many matters for his serious consideration. Take first the question as applying to his farm-horses. He will, in deciding what kind of horses he should purcliase, take into account the variety of soil he cultivates, and the proximity or distance from the point of delivery of his produce. If he farms light land, and the market is distant, he will incline to buy light, active horses. Does his farm partake much of tenacious clay or clayey loam, he must then decide to have strong horses. This de- cided, the question again comes, '' Which are best for my use in either case?" I, iis a practical farmer, re- commend the Suffolk Punch, the Yorkshire, and the Norfolk horses for light lands, and the Lincolnshire and Clevelands for heavy lands, with the very many crosses in the breeds ; and some of each cross are equally suited to both descriptions of soil, in proportion to their indi- vidual strength and form. I do not pretend to point out the precise breed of horses he shall choose ; for they are so crossed and mingled in blood, that he would have some difficulty in selection : but he would do well to try for a true breed. In Suffolks he would have no difficulty ; but I confess, as to other breeds, I should feel uncertain as to their pedigree. I don't know, how- ever, that this is of great consequence ; for, after all, he will be obliged to select from the fairs and markets such animals as appear best adapted for his service. I think it would answer well to have two or three well-bred, good breeding mares. He would then be able to keep up his stock of farm- horses by breeding ; and the occa- sional sale of a good colt is a good point in business. The next consideration for our ynung farmer is the selection of his grazing stock — a most important feature in his business, as upon this point mainly depends his success as a grazier, which is the most interesting portion of his business. The business of & farmer and grazier, taken separately, are, in fact, two distinct businesses ; but in general acceptation they are taken as one, which designation I have adopted — the farmer. The young farmer, then, proceeds to select his stock either for breed- ing or fattening, or both combined : I have estimated for a combination of both modes of grazing, as deeming the farm qualified for both. His inquiry, then, is first, What variety of sheep shall I purchase .' I answer, I cannot tell unless I view your farm, but as a general rule and speaking generally, I say, adopt that breed which prevails in the immediate locality of your farm. Men of business are, in the main, to be depended upon in these matters. They may not be grazing that precise breed best adapted to the district ; but rely upon it their experience has led them on favourably, not wildly and unduly prejudiced in favour of their " own sort." They have been found profitable, or they would have been abandoned long before you took your farm. But I say this only as a general rule. There may be many, very many good reasons for deviating from this course, some of which I will endeavour to show in giving a short comparative view of some of our popular breeds, and point to the districts in which they are to be found in greatest favour. The Southdown Sheep. — The most prominent qualities possessed by the Southdown breed of sheep is their hardihood, their fine quality of flesh and wool, their great beauty, their tendency to early maturity, their prolific character in breeding and suckling, their peculiar adaptation to open field or down pastures, and folding. Tlioy attain great weights, and make the highest price per stone in the market. The subdivisions of this breed may be taken to consist of the pure Down, the Hampshire Down, the Dorset Down, and the Shrop- ghire or west-country Down. Tlie pure Down is smaller, more compact, and of superior quality to the other breeds. The Hampshire and Dorset Downs are very aimilar. They produce a much larger quantity of both wool and mutton than the pure Downs : at the same time partaking much of their superiority in quality and their propensity to fatten. The Shropshires are large and compact, denoting a cross with the Leicester breed ; but they possess all the best qualities of the other Down breeds, with more wool of nearly equal value. In the present condition of our wool trade, and owing to the great importations of fine wools, the Down wool has not realized a good relative price in the market ; and the weight of fleece being light tends to check their great popularity, and has led to the introduction of various crosses of the breed, generally denominated half-breds. Hence we have Down and Leicester Down, and Cotswold Down and Ijincoln, &c., the two latter producing very large-framed sheep, and all producing much good wool of nearly equal value with Down wools. These breeds are excellent graziers, come early to maturity, and produce heavy carcases of mutton of good quality. The Leicester Sheep. — This breed of sheep is next in popularity with graziers. They possess many valuable qualities. Their propensity to fatten is un- equalled, and they produce a good fleece of valuable long wool, which in these times is nearly equal in price per lb. to the Southdown wool. Their frames are small, but very compact and symmetrical, and their flesh of beautiful quality, if not too fat ; and they are so docile and quiet in their habits, that they consume less (bod than any other variety of sheep of equal size. As breeders they are not equal to the Down varieties ; nor do they prove such good sucklers nor so hardy. The Cotswold and New Oxfordshires. — These are so similar, I shall take them as the same breed. It is by far the largest and heavest breed of sheep in the kingdom ; and notwithstanding they pos- sess very compact well-formed frames, they produce a good fleece of long wool, now making a high price in the market. The weight of carcase is occasionally enormous, a ewe having been known to reach 681bs. per quarter, rams from 80 to 901bs., and wethers from 60 to 741bs. The usual weight of a twenty-one months wether sheep, well fed, will commonly reach from 30 to 361b. per quarter. They are quick feeders, but their flesh is loose and flabby, with more lean meat than the Lei- cesters. The Lincolnshire Long-wools. — This breed is very large, and produces more wool for fleece than any other breed ; and which at the present time is of greater relative value in the market. Their fleeces frequently average, in a feeding flock, lOlbs. each ; which at this time is making 46s. per tod, or 20d. yer lb., or 16s. 8d. per fleece. They produce a large well-fed carcase of good mutton, equal to the Leicester, and superior to the Cotswold in quality. Their frames are large and well formed, and occasionally attain to great weights. A ewe exhibited at the Smithfield Club Show a few years since weighed 6.jilbs. per quarter ; and a three-shear wether sheep has been known to reach 8-llbs. per quarter. The usual average weight of a twenty- one months well- fed wether would be about 28 to 321bs. per quarter. They are hardy, and will fatten upon moderate pastur- age ; are good breeders, and of docile habit. There are many sub-varieties in all these breeds. The large Leicester and smalh r Lincolns approach so near each other in their general characteristics, that it is a difficult matter to note the distinctive features. The Cotswolds are much more distinct in character ; their form and caniage are different. The Southdown bieeds are mostly to be found in hilly and open-country districts where folding or fallow lands generally prevail, whicli is chiefly in the south of England ; the Leicesters, in the richer valleys and sweet pastures of the midland counties, Yorkshire, and the north ; the Cotswolds, the high lands or hills of 242 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Gloucester and Oxfordshire, and the marshes of Somer- setshire. The Lincoln long-wools inhabit Lincolnshire, the fens, and some adjoining districts. The half-breds are intermingled in nearly every district named ; and the first- cross is highly prized. I have thus very shortly introduced to a young far- mer these popular breeds of sheep with the view of guiding bis choice. I have abstained from mentioning any particular breed which I may incline to favour ; and my only recommendation is to choose that class of sheep that combine the most advantages in producing wool and mutton of the greatest value. To decide this point aright, he must take into account what I have named above — the weight and value of each fleece of wool and carcase of mutton, and the quality of pasturage on which they are to be grazed, bearing in mind, as a gene- ral rule, that sheep of large size require good pasturage ; sheep of light weight will be best adapted for inferior pasturage. I am well aware that this principle is not carried out on the Cotswold Hills: theie the pastures are, generally speaking, poor, cold, and bleak ; but the sheep are the largest in the kingdom. The artificial grasses are good ; but still the sheep are thinly placed : no heavy stocking is common. One other point I name as of moment in making this choice : it is very desirable to select a breed that will arrive at a great weight in a short time, either by its naturally quick growth or its propensity to fatten. A little animal may fatten quickly ; but he is still small. The British population are look- ing for a larger supply of meat, which must be met. FACTS CONCERNING THE WORKPEOPLE OF EUROPE. In our last we sketched the origin and course of the system of compulsory engagements, as exemplified by Russia, &c. We also spoke of its tendency to repress all sorts of ambition in the lower orders. A certain amount of physical enjoyment is insured to the serfs, but they are constrained to remain in their orbit. Under a free-labour system progress is the order of the day : every path is open. The strongest minds find no diffi- culty in mounting from the lowest positions to the highest pinnacles of society, but the weakest go to the wall. Nations in a swift state of progress, and particu- larly those imbued with the principles of liberty by the Goths — those valiant fellows who left their countries to destroy tyrants and slaves, and to teach men that nature having made them equal, reason could not render them dependent, except where it was necessary to their happi- ness— nations, we say, in a swift state of progress, such as England and France, soon broke the chains forged in the South. In Turkey and Russia, where population is small and the tract ot uncultivated land large, serfdom must long continue. There seems to reign in Asia (Russians being of Asiatic origin) a servile spirit, which they have never been able to shake off. It is impossible, in the histories of the people of Asia Proper, to find one passage that discovers a free soul ; we discover no- thing better than the heroism of slavery. Up to our time, the transformation of the compulsory into the remaining systems — that is, the voluntary per- manent engngements of Scandinavia and Germany, and the momentary engagements, or those identical with complete individual liberty — has taken place either at the mere caprice of the ruling authority (as in Russia), or many incidental causes have conspired to effect it in an irregular manner. Those of our readers who have studied history will at once remark that this transforma- tion was more due (throughout Europe) to the Crusades than to any other cause. This is most correct. The feudal system, before the Crusades, had begun to show signs of decline ; and when they were first organised, the ties of fidelity produced by feudal relationships were very strong. The Crusades sensibly mitigated the fero- city of the spirit of feudalism, and served to eradicate some of those gross abuses it had engendered. Any generous sentiments inspired by the system they pre- served, for they developed, in every people that increased their force, whatever was favourable to the progress of civilization. Indeed, we may further consider them as a safety-valve to the over-boiling spirit of the lower orders, which, if longer compressed, would have blown to pieces the whole fabric of society : and they generated that desire for personal distinctiou throughout all classes of the people which always belongs to a rising civiliza- tion. Men began to know what manhood meant, and that there was another sort of virtue than the virtue of blind submission. And further, as regards England, an intelligent law favoured escape from serfdom ; and the manufacturers, then rapidly rising, served but to encou- rage and stimulate an act smiled at by the law. A transformation effected so irregularly was attended by irregular results ; but this irrei^ularity, complained of by some writers, was better than a sudden manumis- sion of slaves. A general law to the effect would have inevitably produced great distress. The inhabitants of towns, as the policy of princes con- curred v/ith the advancement of their consequence, were freed from the bonds of serfdom sooner than were the peasantry. That large mass of serfs th;it had been artizans speedily organized themselves, when they be- came free, into associations of masters, companions, apprentices ; associations which limited the number in each calling to an amount calculated to prevent the ex- ercise of undue competition ; which bound the appren- tices to the companions, the companions to their mas- ters, until they had produced signs of their efficiency to ascend to the superior grades ; which, by proportioning the supply to the demand, always secured employment for the able-bodied of the corporation ; and which, by a well-regulated system of imposts, insured to the disabled certain and honourable means of subsistence. The cities of Lombardy threw off the feudal yoke before the era of the Crusades, whilst those of England and Germany obtained franchises at that period. The liberty of towns commenced with corporations, because experience had taught their inhabitants that otherwise the conservation of their rights and privileges would have been impos- sible. The serfs of the plains derived but little imme- diate advantage from the Crusades, for they could not unite : they were dispersed and feeble ; but the propi- tious impulse had been given, and the day of deliverance came. To a large class, however, of the lower rank of villains, trained to no specific pursuit, the gift of liberty was fatal. They found themselves hurried at a stroke from the extreme security of servitude to the uncertain fluctuations of the momentary system. They fell upon hard times, and mourned for the flesh-pots and yoke of Egypt ; for, not being trained for free labour competi- tion, they were reduced frequently to the condition of paupers, and lamented that baronial was only exchanged for parochial servitude. The higher order of these serfs of the plains, attached to agriculture and mining opera- tions, remained where they were, exchanging their abso- lute servitude for a voluntary but perpetual contract. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 243 We find instances of this species of contract principally northward. The regime of voluntary perpetuity possesses many advantages over the momentary contract, and may afford many valuable suggestions for securing the vrell-being of the masses in the perilous paths of those engagements. \ye may firstly remark that the peasants are free under condition of discharging their monetary liabili- ties, and by the benevolent patronage of their masters they are securtd against all the evils incident to a state of liberty among an illiterate and improvident population. The large masses of workmen grouped around the mines and iron factories ot Sweden, Norway, and Germany, are nominal proprietors of house and land, which they hold from the several companies to which they belong, subject to the condi- tion of paying 4 per cent, interest on capital invested in the purchase by the company until the debt is can- celled by the payment of weekly instalments. So long as the interest is regularly paid, the companies care not about receiving the principal, which is frequently left as the evidence of a good relation. The tendency of this plan is to induce the labourers to jiractise economy. In some cases they arise to the dignity of positive pro- prietors of house and land, and in other cases, where the debt remains, good conduct secures it to them from generation to generation. And further, provisions are furnished at a wholesale price. The company buys large stores when provisions are cheap, and sells out to their men at cost price — plus the interest due on capital so employed. The work-people derive help also from having the right to fish and shoot, and to cut wood, and of common pasture. What would not our English labourers give for such libeities ? Beyond this, schools for the young are organized; and that every man, woman, and child should be instructed is considered as essential as that they should be fed : physical and mental vigour are best developed cotemperaneously. The abuses to which the law of supply and demand is liable under the free labour system, are carefully pro- vided for. Ttiis is effected by keeping the number of habitations on their domains equal to the number of families required for the working of their establishments. These corporations oblige the superabundant population to emigrate, instead of availing themselves of the glut in the labour-market to lower wages and degrade the social condition of the community. Hence in this as in the compulsory engagements, to which it bears a close affinity, man is not rcmu'ierated according to the amount of labour done, but according to his wants and the necessities of his existence. We do not desire to hold up the sixteenth century as a model for the nineteenth century, but it is refreshing to look back upon a time when the nation was in a normal condition of militancy against social irijustice. Population has increased; employment has become com- plicated and fluctuating since then. We know that cir- cumstances are changed. But difficulties and drawbacks existed at those times as well as they do now. Of liberty, in the modern sense of the wont — of the sup- posed right of every man to do what he will with his own or with himself — there was no idea, at the period we refer to. To the question, if ever it was then asked, " May I not do what I please with my own?" there was the brief answer, " No man may do what is wrong, either with what is his own, or with what is another's." Producers, too, who were not permitted to drive down their workmen's wages by competition, could not sell their goods as cheaply as they might have done, and the consumer paid for the law in an advance of i)rice. The burden, though it fell heavily on the rich, lightly touched the poor, and the rich consented cheerfully to a tax which secured the loyalty of the people. A modern writer very truly says—" The working-man of modem times has bought the extension of his liberty at the price of his material comfort. The higher classes have gained in wealth what they have lost in power." While advocating a strict conservation of the spirit of so good a principle, we are free to confess that the solu- tion of our present difficulties must be made to agree with our present circumstances. And the letters that appeared some years ago in the Mark Lane Express on the subject of " Wages," were written with this practical idea; and in treating of the Squitable Wage principle, it is our opinion that we developed a remedy that did accord with the existing regime. We then adduced illustrations of its mode of prac- tical operation in England; but we now point to the multitudes who are deriving benefit from it in Sweden, Norway, and Germany. "The men are not remunerated according to the amount of labour done, but according to their wants and the necessities of their existence." This sentence, which appeared in our last letter, we introduce at the commencement of the present one, for the purpose of making a few reflections upon it. We granted the feudal system some redeeming points, and we asserted that when it was abolished, what of good it contained was preserved. One of the generous sentiments retained was that which we have quoted above, and it is not a little astonishing that we should owe so just and magnanimous a principle to Slavery. It was the necessity of serfdom we must own. But we in England are such decided abolitionists that we denounce the good with the evil unreservedly. We abjure the principle in question as a most glaring absurdity, fit only for moon-struck philanthropists and maudlin theorists on political economy. This form of patronage, however, strange as it may appear in this part of the world, extends over the greater part of Europe (either in a voluntary or compulsory shape), and wherever it prevails is accompanied with a solidarity of classes, and a feeling of unity between the ranks of society, that oddly contrasts with the disunion and re- vulsion existing under the more democratic institutions of the West. The action of the law of demand and supply, where there is a lack of morality, and the want of a sense of responsibility on the part of masters, is very fatal to the welfare of any work-people, or the stability of that nation of which they are the basement. Given morality and a feeling of responsibility on the part of capitalists, and the action of the law of demand and supply, so open to tyrannical abuse, will be identical to that of the volun- tary perpetual contract. That contract means that a man shall live, and enjoy the blessings of life, while he is increasing the wealth of those who have large means placed by Providence at their disposal. The system we see exemplified to our sorrow and perplexity in England, means that the poor man is a machine — made, worked, oiled, and used up for the exclusive advantage of the capitalist. There are exceptional cases, of course ; be- cause in England there are happily exceptional instances of noble-spirited masters ; but the great bulk of our artizaus and rural workmen are in a state far inferior to those employed under such corporations as we have re- ferred to. A cry of distress goes up from amongst us, almost as bitter and loud as that which rises from the cabins of the slave-born — there is heavy toil and light recompence. O ! that we could so analyze the statistics of crime and pauperism as to ascertain the exact number of men and women who owe their ruin to this law of demand and supply, administered by an unprincipled executive ! Could we but be enamoured of the sublime, the patriotic philosophy of Prevention, a glorious future 244 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. would speedily arrive to England. Could the capitalist of England be brought to declare, and to act on the conviction, that a provision for the intellectual and moral welfare of those by whose labours they profit shall be considered an essential part of their system of business, the " good time," so very long in the future tense, would actually stand erect and radiant in the very midst of the Present. But we, in this age of com- mercial enterprise, are in danger of being led away by those political economists who look merely at material agencies, and never consider moral causes and influences. Much worship is made to Economy, as though it was the Spirit addressed by Sandy Macay's anatomical figure : " Here I stand, a working-man — Get more skin off me if you can." Economy ! Thus to prostrate the term economy, in- deed. Liberality, justice, active sympathy, friendship — these are all qualities of economy. Close-fistedness is not economy ; a system of over- work and under-pay is not economy. Economy owns not such forces as oppression and intimidation, and servile dependence ; nor does true economy seek her food in the vitals of the working-people. True economy does not provide that iren be reared from the very dawn of life amidst scenes of filth, violence, and crime — blunting every moral sense, and debasing every thought and feeling. True economy is not a curse — it is a bless- ing, and conserves to us all the gifts of God, which men in tiieir folly and wickedness would barter away as did Esau his birthright. It will be seen that while those workmen, under the form of engagement we are now contemplating, have a greater or less sacrifice of personal liberty to endure, they are yet not exposed to that personal indignity of parochial relief. To them the enjoyment of comfort is insured to an extreme old age. We are quite aware that this form of patronage is variable, obliging, as we said before, a greater or less degree of sacrifice of per- sonal liberty ; but the aggregate amount of beneficent institutions under such system is always such as to pro- tect the labourer against evils that may arise from his incapacity and improvidence. In the raines of Derbyshire and the iron foundries of Nivernais, whose proprietors have abandoned the mo- mentary system for that of voluntary perpetuity, the workmen, though mere tenants-at-will, are considered to have a sort of lien upon the company for employ- ment and support, so long as their conduct is what it should be. The proprietors do endorse as a good prin- ciple of business the necessity for providing for the moral and mental wants of their work-people, and " they defend it as a legitimate and ivise application of funds entrusted to them for trading purposes." Schools are established. A self-supporting system of relief is maintained. In a word, the power which their superior knowledge and capital place at their disposal is used to meliorate the condition of the community. And we can draw a conclusion from these facts that will form a very good conclusion to this letter — namely, that the giving and the taking of wages is not the only connexion that should exist between the employers and the employed. We have more facts, however, to lay before our readers. F. R, S. IRRIGATION IN ITALY. No. I.— DESCRIPTIVE. While reading of the classic lands of Italy we are apt to think that the smiling gladness of her fertile fields arises mainly from her benign climate and her cloudlt ss skies, forgetful that while Nature has thrown with lavish hands her bounties from her, man with his laborious arts has not been idle. Although with a productive climate almost equalling that of India, where man, under the shade of the plantain or the palm tree, has but to stretch forth his hands to partake of the sponta- neous gifcs of earth — still the very peculiarities of the seasons have necessitated the establishment of a system of cultivation which, began ages ago, has with incessant toil and care been maintained and extended in modern times with amazing results. We refer to the system of irrigated meadows, which entering into the rotation with other crops, results not only in maintaining a com- plete supply of green food for the use of stock, but as a matter of course adding to the supply of manure and the increased cultivation of the cereal crops. In view of the certainty with which the grain crops are maintained by the system, the facilities which it offers for the fertilization of barren lands, and the increased atten- tion moreovtr now directed to the establishment of a somewhat similar system in this country, it may be at once interesting and instructive to glance as concisely as possible at its peculiarities as witnessed in Northern Italy. By far the most complete and exhaustive account yet published of Italian irrigation, is that of Captain Baird Smith (" Italian Irrigation," 2 vols., with Atlas of Plates : Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh and London, price 30s . ). This gentleman was instructed by the Board of Directors of the East India Company to visit the classic land of irrigation, with a view to obtain informa- tion which might be useful in carrying out similar plans in India. To study the system (to quote the author's own words) " in its various relations — to examine the details of its works, so famous in the history of hydraulic eginoenring— to investigate the principles and note the practical application of those legislative enactments which by universal consent are held to be the most per- fect at present in existence — to become familiar with the actual operation of that machinery for the distribution of water to cultivation, which is considered by most observers to come nearest to the type of theoretical per- fection, the history of which will be found hereafter to have an almost romantic interest — and finally observe carefv Jly those sanitary arrangements which the expe- rienc eof ages may have suggested, for preserving the public health with the least possible sacrifice of individual interests — were the chief objects proscribed to me in the instructions with which I was favoured." From this succinct account of the task allotted to the author, some idea may be obtained of the valuable contents of the work in which the results of his mission are embodied. Although with characteristic modesty the author scarcely hopes that he has succeeded in completely filling the outline thus sketched with the fullest details ; still, after a close examination of the work, we have no hesitation in recommending it as a most satisfactory account of this system, so full of interest to all practical agriculturists. To those who contemplate the establishment of a plan of irri- gation, we consider the possession of the book a.sine qua non ; for not only are the details of practice lucidly ex- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 245 plaiued ia the body of the work, but plates of "working drawiags" accompany the letter-press, these aboundlDg in hints and suggestions of a thoroughly practical nature. We have ventured thus particularly to notice this work simply from what we conceive the importance of the ''system" which it so well descriiies — a "system" which possesses at once a high value as an agricultural and sanitary agent. It is to its pages we are principally in- debted for the substance of our present papers. The valley of the I'o, in which the most extensive and highly cultivated " plains of Italy " are met with, is di- vided poUtitalhj between Sardinia and the Lombardo- Venetiaa kingdom, although naturally it is essentially one. Captain Smith, however, takes advantage of this division, and adopts it to describe the details of Italian irrigation under two great classes — Irrigation (I) in Piedmont ; (2) in Loiiibardy. The hydrography of Northern Italy is influenced by two mountain ranges — " one from the main chain of the Alps, and the other from the minor chain of the Maritime Alpsand Northern Apennines." The great " receiving stream" is the Po, which flows at right angles to its syitem of feeders. This peculiarity renders the Po a simply passive agent in the irrigating system ; it acts as an escape for its waters, but '' as yet it does nothing more." It plays no part as a source of supply to irri- gating canals; for these canals, intersecting Ihe tri- butaries at right angles, would necessitate arrangements entailing great expense in construction and maintenance. A fine exemplification of the adaptation of natural causes to the necessities of a country is met with, in the plains, on the left bank of the Po, of Lom- bardy and Piedmont. The source of the supply of the tributaries on the left bank is in the main ehain of the Alps, where the region of eternal snow is met with. These tributaries are at their highest flow during the height of summer, when the supply for irri- gating purposes is most needed ; and as the tempera- ture decreases, their bulk decreases in like proportion. In the States of Parma and Modena, on the right bank of the Po, the irrigating su])ply is least at the season when most required ; for as the mountain ranges from which the t.ibutaries draw their supply are of less eleva- tion in the minor chain of tlie Northern Apennines, the volumes of water decrease just at that very time, the season of hest and dryness, when water is most re- quired. " Hence," says Captain Smith, " when summer rains do not fall, to mitigate the severity of the season, it is evident that tlie system of irrigation from rivers un- connected with snow-covered mountains must neces- sarily be a very imperfect one." From tiiis wc see that, irrespective of other considerations of necessity or fitness, the adoption of the Italian system in this country must be of limited extent ; but it is just at this point where the question of " town sewage" supplies, obtrudes itself with great force, demanding to be heard, as offering a solution of the difficulty in a way more or less complete. It is thus that the extension of irrigation in this country comes to pos- sess a double inter est, sanitary as well as agricultural ; and the result of all experience, so far as we have gone, seems to point to the employment of our town sewage in the liquid form, as the only mode by which its con- stituents can be made available at a cheap rate. But the question Iiere opened up is so important, and de- mands so close a discussion, that we must leave its con- sideration for a future paper, and return now to the immediate object of our present one. The irrigating district of Piedmont — which we shall first glance at — embraces the provinces of Ivrea, Ver- celli, Novara, IVIortara, and Vigevano, situated between the tributary rivers the Pico and the Ticin >, and occu- pies an area of 2,500 miles, or 1,750,000 acres. The l)rincipal streams are the rivers named above, and those between them, as the Dora, Baltia, the Sesia, the Azogna, and the Terdeppio. From the inclination of the district through which they flow, from the base of the great range of the Alps to the banks of tire Po, the fall is very rapid ; the beds, however, being well calcu- lated to resist erosion. These rivers have again their tributaries, as tlie Dora, the Chisella, and the Sesia, the Elvo, and the Cerio ; " so that the tracts of the country between them are literally covered in every direction by artificial channels of various dimensions. The region of the Alps, whence they all flow, includes the loftiest peaks of the chain, and, amongst others, Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, Cervino, &c., all crowned wiih perpetual snow ; and hence insuring, during summer, an abundant supply to the rivers." But although the supply is abundant and permanent, it is very fluctuating, the whole of the rivers, with the exception of the Ticino, flowing directly from the mountains— interrupted by no great lakes, as in Lombardy, by which the waters can be replenished, and in which they can be purified from the debris brought down from the higher districts, and wliich, spreai over the land, is found to exert an injurious in- fluence, and deposited in the canals a constant source of embarrassment and expense. " Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the hydrography of Piedmont is admirably adapted for purposes of irrigation — a fact best proved by a glance at tbe map, which will show the extent to which it has ministered to these ends." From tables given by Captain Smith, it appears that, on the left bank of the Po, the area of the basins of the irrigating rivers in Piedmont is 7,65G square miles, discharging 27,230 cubic feet per second, of which only 8,290.54 cubic feet per second are utilized for irrigatory purposes ; this quantity of water irrigating a surface of 306,613 acres in the plain, and 180,000 acres in the valleys of Upper Piedmont — in all, 486,613 acres. The length of the canals and branches in which this water flows is estimated at 1,200 miles. This, however, does " not include the numerous small distri- buting lines which are to be met with on every farm, nor the channels of the upper valleys. These latter," says Captain Smith, " I cannot even attempt to guess at, so numerous are they, and so scattered. Most liberal arrangements for cross-communication are made in every part of the countiy ; and it is surprising to the visitor to see the profusion with which works of all kinds have been constructed." The statistics given in the work, with reference to the extent of the land under irrigation, show that oni-third of the " cultivated and cultivable area" is under its influence. In tbe best farms, where, as irrigated crops, rice, water-meadows, and Indian corn are cultivated, a good proportion is understood to be — three-fourths under irrigation, and one-fourth dry. March is considered to be the commencement, and September the conclusion, of the irrigating season. The four months. May to August (inclusive), are those in which the demand for the water is greatest. The ther- mometer, exposed to the sun during those months, shows a mean temperature of 91.97 deg. — a fact of considerable interest as connected with irrigation, which is essentially necessary to temper a heat so exces- sive. The average annual fall of rain, as deduced from ten years' observation, is very nearly 37 inches, of whicb the large proponion of 23h inches falls during the seven irrigating months. Tliis quantity is divided with considerable regularity over 71 rainy days, giving a daily fall of about 4-lOths of an inch. The perfectly clear or partially cloudy days, taken together, are just double the number of those on which rain falls ; and though this projiortion is not quite so favourable as in Lombardy, still it is wdll adapted for a country pro- 246 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. vided with means of irrigation, as there is sunshine and heat sufficient to mature the products, such as rice, Indian corn, fi*c., which demand these, as well as the employment of water, to ensure their perfection. The soil of the irrigated districts changes from " light sand to dense clay, and in many places showing much gravel mixed with the earthy constituents of the land." The heavy soils are devoted to the rice, the lighter to the cereals and the green crops. The general charac- teristic of the soil is light, but which, under water, is in a high degree fertile. We have already alluded to the fertilizing properties of an irrigatory system : in no place is there such a decided proof of this met with as in the modern districts of Mortaro and Vigevano — the ancient Lumellina. Pre- vious to the introduction of the irrigating canals, the state of the cultivation of the land and the condition of the po- pulation were " deplorable in the extreme. Nothing could be more striking than the contrast between the Lu- mellina unirrigated and the same district irrigated. Now, it rivals the Milanese in its rich productiveness : it is one of the most densely populated regions in Europe : its soils have received just the element they wanted, to call forth their internal powers ; and instead of arid wastes or extensive marshes, corn-fields, green mea- dows, or rice-grounds cover the face of the country." Such we offer as a brief sketch of the irrigated dis- tricts of Piedmont. We now turn to those of Lom- bardy, the second great district of Italian irriijation. The principal feature of the irrigated districts of Lombardy is the " lakes." The largest of these is the Lago di Garda or Benaco. Its supply is obtained prin- cipally from the Parca, which " has its origin among the snows of Monte Adamo, and by the streams of Ponali and Toscolano, which drain the minor valleys of Ledro and Vista. It is situated at a height of 226 feet above the level of the sea. Its length is 32| miles, and its maximum and mean breadths are respectively 10;} and 44- miles. Its perimeter is 87 miles ; and its super- ficial area is estimated at 73,856 acres. " Its maximum depth is 1,915.59.'' The other lakes may be briefly noticed: 1, Lago d'Iseo, 15J miles in length, 3^ in maximum and I5 in mean breadth, with a surface of 14,720 acres, and a maximum depth of 984 feet. 2, Lake of Como or Lario. This beautiful and well-known lake, so beautifully described by Sir E. Lytton Bulwer, is in length 50, in maximum breadth 2|, and in mean ditto 1 mile, with a superficial area of 34,944 acres, and a maximum depth of 1,928.7 feet. 3, Ceresio, or Lugano, which is 28 miles in length, 2 miles in maxi- mum and three-quarters of a mile in mean breadth, having a superficial area of 12,800 acres, and a maxi- mum depth of 520 feet. 4, Verbano, or Maggiore. This is the deepest of all the lakes, having a maxi- mum depth of 2,624,64 feet. Its area is estimated at 47,280 acres; the length is 40 miles, its maximum breadth 5 5 and its mean breadth nearly 2 miles. The lake Lugano pours its surplus waters into it, and the minor lakes of the Varise are linked with it, by small streams. The rivers flowing directly into this great lake are the Toccia, the Maggia, and the Ticino — which each in rising from the lake retains its name, " and becomes the discharging channel for the whole of the mountain drainage between Monte Rosa and the Splugen." Those three rivers — the Toccia, the Maggia, and Ticino, and this lake Waggiore — are the " main arteries'' and the " great basin," as it were, of a system of mountain drainage " extending over an area of about 90 miles in length, with a mean breadth of from 25 to 30, or nearly 2,500 square miles. Within this area are in- cluded some of the loftiest peaks in the Alpine chain, and among them the familiar names of Monte Rosa, Cervino, St. Golhard, the Great St. Bernard, and the Splugen." The rivers of the great irrigating system of Lom- bardy must, now be noticed. The most important of these is the Ticino, above alluded to, and which forms the frontier boundary between " Lombardy and Pied- mont." The total area of its basin is estimated at 2,705 square miles, and its discharge per second 11,667.55 cubic feet. The natural fall is so great, that ordinary water-communication could not be easily carried on ; but the difficulties thus presented have been overcome by the establishment of a series of navigable canals. The second great river is the Adda — the escape-line of the Vorno. The total area of its basin is 2,264 square miles, and its discharge is estimated at nearly 7,000 cubic feet per second. The third great river — the escape-line of the lake Iseo — is the Oglio. The total area of the basin and the branches of which is estimated at 2,553 square miles, and its discharge at 4,859.40 cubic feet per second. The last of the great rivers of the irrigating system of Lombardy is the Mincio — the escape-line of the lake Garda. The total area drained by the Mincio is esti- mated at 1,099 square miles, and its discharge at 2,658.95 cubic feet per second. These rivers have tributaries of more or less import- ance, of which, however, space will not allow us to give a notice. A feature of Lombardian irrigation which we must not omit to notice, is the "springs" or fontanili which are met with so abundantly over the whole surface of the plain, yield a rich supply of water, in which ihemarcite, or water-meadow system of the Milanese district, ex- clusively depends for its operation. Independently of these, we find the supply of water to the irrigating system of Lombardy by the rivers, major and minor, amounts to a volume of water equal to 30,737.45 cubic feet per second ; the area drained by them is equal to 9,427 square miles. The soil of Lombardy possesses similar characteristics to that of Piedmont. In the province of Mantua, it is heavy and compact, requiring drainage ; while in the Veronese it is strong and light. The variations of climate alluded to have reference only to temperature and its hygrometrical condition — climate being regarded solely in its relation to irrigation, and not as a general question at all. From the observations recorded. Captain Smith deduces the following : That during the four irrigating months the mean temperature ranges from about 70deg. to 75deg. Fahr., while its maximum is 85deg. to 90 deg., rising frequently, however, to 94 deg. at Milan and 98.2 deg. at Mantua. An extraordinary degree of dryness is shown by the hygrometer during the irrigating months — " the instrument for days together standing a few degrees only above zero," while in winter " it in- dicates an almost constant state of extreme humidity, approaching closely to total saturation." This point is worthy of special notice here; for, as in India, so in this country, the proposition to extend irrigation has been met with the apparently forcible objection that by it a damp, and therefore highly prejudicial state of the at- mosphere, would be brought about. As regards the rain-fall of the Lombardian districts, it appears that the yearly average may be " entered at nearly 36 inches, of which the large proportions of nearly 22 inches fall during the season of irrigation, being divided over a mean number of 24 rainy days, thus giving a daily fall of 091 inch. In giving the proportion of clear to cloudy and rainy days in Pied- mont, the reader may have fancied that the term, " sunny Italy," was scarcely applicable. In Lombardy, however, the case is different ; for " a little less than half the year the sky at Milan is unclouded, and the vegeta- tion receives the unchecked influence of the sun's light and heat. At Lodi the same happy conditions exist for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 247 more than half, and at Brescia for two-thirds of the entire year." What a contrast to this cloud-shaded country of ours ! The total area of Lombardy may be estimated at — including the Venetian province of Verona, possessed of a considerable extent of irrigation — 9,350 square miles, or say 6,000,000 acres. Of this, a very small propor- tion is waste or unproductive land ; but of 8,262 square miles in Lombardy, 561 only are reported by the Austrian Government as sterile. The entire length of irrigating canals in Lombardy is estimated by Captain Smith at 4,500 miles. Although throughout the whole of the Lombardian provinces the system of irrigation adopted, is more or less complete, " the grand develop- ment" to which the fame of the system is due, takes place within the provinces of Milan, Lodi, and Pavia. No. II.— PRACTICAL. Having in our two former articles briefly glanced at the leading characteristics of Piedmontese and Lom- bardian irrigation, we now propose to turn our attention to the methods employed in applying the water for the purposes of agriculture — a point which will elicit in- formation possessing great interest to our practical readers. The "vast plains of meadow land" is the characteristic feature of the agriculture of the fertile valley of the Po. These meadows are divided into two great classes — the " permanent" and the " temporary." The chief feature of the latter being that they enter into the system of rotation with other crops. The ordinary period of the rotation is for five years, as follows : — First year, wheat, cut about the middle of July, grass seeds being sown with the wheat; 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, meadow under irri- gation and abundantly manured ; 5th, Indian corn or flax. After flax, and at the end of June, millet is im- mediately sown, and comes to maturity about the end of October of the same year. A sixth year is occasionally added to the period, when another crop of Indian corn is taken, and the rotation again commences in the same order. The " permanent' meadows, then, are divided into two classes — the " summer" and the " winter." The latter, known as mnrcite, we shall notice hereafter. The per- manent summer meadow is under irrigation from the end of March to the middle of September. The follow- ing is a detail of the produce of a permanent summer mearlow. There are three cuttings during the season, the hay cut at each having a peculiar name to distin- guish it. When the irrigation is commenced very early in spring, four cuttings are sometimes obtained. The grass after the last cutting — the third or the fourth, as the case may be — supplies pasturage to the cattle at the end of the autumn: this is termed the quartcrola ; and is worth about 8s. per acre. The hay from the first cutting may be averaged at 24.375 per acre ; the second cutting yields 18.5 ; and the third 13.9 --the total weight per acre being 56.775 cwls. Averaging this at 2s. 6d. per cwt., the gross value of the produce of the acre of permanent summer meadow may be put down at £7 8s. per annum — the net rent being ^'1 17s. 9d. per acre ; so that the "rent is just one-fourth of the total amount" of these returns. In preparing land either for " temporary" or " per- manant summer meadows," three provisions are neces- sary to be attended to : — 1st. To enable the water to be spread readily over all parts of the land from the main distributing channel : all natural inequalities of the land which admit of the " water being delivered from cul- minating lines" are taken advantage of. In cases where this facility is not obtainable, the soil is artificially raised oi lowered. 2ndly. To enable the water to be spread over the surface in a thin sheet, it is made to slope in planes gradually, the amount of slope being, when practicable, two-tenths per 100, or in English measure, 3 inches in each 100 feet. The surface of those inclined planes varies very much : in light land the breadth is sometimes as low as 25 to 30 fact ; in heavy lands this is increased eight or ten times. In the pro- vince of Lodi, Orlumbani mentions that the length of some planes is 590, and the breadth in the direction of the inclination 460, giving thus an area of nearly 6 acres to each plane. 3rdly. Drainage is the third essential provision, by which stagnation is prevented. To eff"ect this, a channel is carried along the base of the inclined planes, discharging its surplus waters in the main irrigatory channel by a natural line of discharge. These, however, more frequently are led to irrigate another plane at a lower level. The direction, wherever jjracticable, of the drains and irrigating channels is from east to west — the slope of the "planes" in the opposite direction. Much importance is attached to the surplus water of the drainage channels : passing over land highly manured, it becomes greatly thickened, and being also of a higher temperature than when, it is supplied from the main canals, it is prized " as a powerful stimulant in the production of grass." The quantity of water supplied for irrigating purposes is a matter of great im- portance, and is estimated in different ways. These our space will not allow us to give here ; suffice it to say, that according to De Regi, " a continued discharge of 1 cubic foot; per second is sufficient for the irrigation, in twenty-four hours, of four acres." This gives a stratum of water 6 inches deep over the whole surface. With a solution of fourteen days, the above discharge would sufiice for the irrigation of " 48 acres of meadow land, there being precisely twelve periods of fourteen days each in the season of summer irrigation." The estimate, however, is much on the assumption that the water is absorbed by the land, which in practice does not happen — the Lombardian engineers calculating the " absorp- tion in each watering as varying from one-half to one- third of the total quantity of water employed." In this case, the continued discharge of 1 cubic foot per second may be considered equal to the irrigation of 96 acres. Averaging the various estimates made, our author thinks that " the differences due to variety of soil and other circumstances would be sufficiently provided for by a stratum of water four inches deep —of which half would be absorbed, and half left for further use." We now proceed to notice the second great division of the permanent meadows — namely, the marcite or per- manent winter meadows, the object of which is to pro- cure a constant supply of grass during the winter. To ensure this a continuous supply of water is essential, intermittent supply being inadmissible for this " remark- able species of culture." The supply is obtained either from the ordinary irrigating canals, the drainage or sur- plus waters of the common meadows, or the water of the fontanili, previously alluded to. These two last sources of supply are the most prized, inasmuch as it is essential that the temperature of the water used should be as high as possible. The " springs being always warm in the winter there, waters freely exposed to the influence of the atmosphere are preferred to any other means of irrigation during this season." A proof of the advantiiges of this water is met with in the fact that the " finest meadows are those nearest to the fountain head." The drainage water, when passing from land richly manured, is also supposed by the Lombardian agriculturists to be raised in temperature, and hence, as above stated, used for marciie cultivation. The cold waters of such rivers as the Olano, Zambro, &c., are the most adapted for it. B 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The ''sewage water" of large towns, as that of Milan, is the most highly prized. The water passing through the subterranean channels of the town, and charged with an abundance of fermenting matter, is found " not only to retain a higher temperature, but further, to stimulate the productive power of the meadows, by deposits so rich as to excel every other species of manure. So abundant are these deposits, that the surface of the fields becomes speedily washed by them, and it is necessary at intervals of two or three years to lower the levels so as to insure easy irrigation. The material thus removed is greedily bought by culti- vators in the vicinity as a most powerful and valuable manure." With reference to the use of the sewage of our large towns for agricultural purposes, we have in this brief notice of the system in use al Milan at once an example and a warning- Not much longer, surely, shall we contrive to perpetuate the folly of removing away that which properly applied would be highly valuable to agriculture. There may be differences of opinion as to the value of town sewage as compared with Other manures ; but all are agreed that there is in it so much that is valuable that it certainly is worth the saving — and that it can be saved by plans so economical as to leave some margin of profit, we quite believe. But to this important question, the economization and application to agriculture of town sewage, we propose to return at an early period. Before proceeding to describe the methods by which the sources of supply we have noticed are made avail- able for the " marcite " system, we may Iiere notice that of all these sources, that of the ordinary canals is most " in request with the cultivators," and this from the supply afforded by them being invariable. Again, with reference to the use of the surplus drainage waters, it has become a rule, where there are several medows at dif- ferent levels, irrigated from the same source, " to manure most richly those near the head of the supply, whether spring or canal, and to make the water itself the medium of conveying the manure to the others below. We are now prepared to glance briefly at the method adopted for the preparation of the land for the marcite system, and its produce results. R. S. B. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. in these brief papers it has not been our aim to suggest, or to take note of any suggestions which have been made in other quarters respecting plans or systems of education. This point has been discussed amply by able hands. We have been desirous chiefly to show how and in what way any plan or system can be best aided, and the important influence which a sound and healthy physical condition has upon the mental power. Nor can the importance of this question be over-rated : it bears closely upon the pecuniary condition of the farmer ; to him it has a high money value. The Rev. Harry Stuart, A.M., in his admirable pamphlet*, thus puts the case: — "Land can never be treated like any other raw material in its manufacture, on this very account; it must be manufactured by animal power. Animal power is as yet, and likely to continue generally to be, the moving power in cultivating the ground. * * And if steam could be substituted for horses, it would not matter so much to their employer what the morale of farm labourers was, as to profit ; and the farmer, in a commercial way, would have all the latitude of dealing with them, and of treating them, that those have who work up their raw material by steam-power, and which the good or evil state of the minds of his workers cannot affect. It is very diff'erent with the farmer. His chief moving power is not only a very costly, but a very delicate, and also a very easily injured one ; and its safety and efficiency must depend in a high degree upon the moral feelings of those who manage it. He has but one way, then, of dealing with them, if he would keep them in a proper state for the best working of this animal power ; and that way can never be made a cheap one, without rendering their feelings and their treat- ment of this power hurtful and losing to him, in an untold way and degree." These are truths pregnant with meaning, and well worthy the attention of all em- ployers. Here it will be observed that a labourer in a sound, healthy, mental condition, is not only likely to be a good worker himself; but a good, a just, and a mer- ciful attendant upon the inferior workers, the lower animals entrusted to his care. Hence, by attending to • " Agricultural Labourers : as they were, are, and should be, iu their social coudition." Second edition. Is. Black- wood, Edinburgh aad Loudon. the condition of the labourer, we make a double profit ; as on the other hand, by neglecting it, we incur a double loss. A reckless labourer, accustomed to indulge in brutal excitements, lost to all self-respect, can have no respect for the rights and property of others. Nor do we see how the substitution of steam for horse power in the work of a farm — an agricultural possibility, in the opinion of many, not far off" realization — can ever make a servant of high morale less a matter of consequence to the farmer. A careful and a prudent man will just be as valuable when superintending steam engines and steam ploughs, as when looking after horses. We conceive, indeed, that a contrary effect will result from the intro- duction of inanimate mechanism : all merely manual labour — the easiest obtained and the least paid for — will be less desiderated ; while higher and more frequent claims will be made upon the intelligence of the farm labourer. " No one," says Mr. Wren Hoskyns, in an able article on education in Morton's Cyclopedia of Agri- culture, "has more experience than the farmer how much depends upon the intelligence and conduct of those whom his business obliges him to employ. The able body, valuable as it may be, is far behind the able mind, in the field as much as in the workshop. Even in the lowest employments of the farm, call it by what name you may — common sense, judgment, prac- tical knowledge, or however else it may be disguised under various titles — it is knowledge which is most really valued and highly paid." But while every effort should be made to establish schools in rural districts, and aid them by due attention to the points we have indicated — in which the xons of our agricultural labourers will get imparted to them that knowledge and those habits which will make them better workers and better men — provision for the education of their daughters must not be lost sight of. Girls' schools are, in fact, more important than boys'. This may and does appear a hazardous statement to offer ; but a little consideration will show that it is a true one. There is no influence more potent, in forming the character of a man, than that of the fireside. It is there he learns habits, be these good or evil ones. A man brought up without this home influence differs materially in character, in his full development morally, from one who has experienced its salutary effects. And just as, little by little, the stone THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 249 is worn away by the water's constant dropping, so is the general impression made upon the mind of youth through the thousand-and-one influences continually at woi'k around the family fireside. If these influences are good, out-door school education will strengthen and maintain them ; if evil, the power of the same ex- ternal education in counteracting them will be 7iil. It is useless to suppose that the allopathic doses of the fireside poison will be counteracted by the Jiotnceojyathic antidotes of the school. And the guardian or dispenser of this mighty influence for good or evil, is the woman, the wife or the mother. " Among the working classes," says Dr. Booth, "and indeed some of the pro- fessional classes too, the father exercises very little influence or control over his children. The mother has to discharge, as it were, the moral duties of both parents ; she is the centre of home influence ; it is she who is to set the good example of sobriety, thrift, in- dustry, cleanliness, motherly affection, skill in household matters, sufficient knowledge to be able to answer the prattling questions of her little ones." From this will be seen the range of duties she has to perform, and the responsibilities she has to bear ; — and from this also will be seen the paramount importance of teaching our young females the nature of these duties, and how best to meet these responsibilities. Dr. Gilly, who has deeply investigated many points connected with the social eleva- tion of the agricultural labourer, has the following : "The advantages of female education are not yet sufficiently appreciated or understood. Sewing, mending, making, and habits of housewifery, so essential to the character of a cottager's wife, are not to be learned in our village schools as they are at present constituted. A school- mistress is wanted as well as a schoolmaster ; and if you cannot have one in every parish, at least let there be some provision made for girls' schools in central spots, for the accommodation of a district ; and then you will see a rapid imj^rovement take place in the appearance and manners of our female population. We demand the services of our young females in the fields ; but to coun- teract the rude tendencies of field services in females, we should be more anxious to educate them in a manner worthy of their sex. Wherever there is a girls' school, you are sure to discover its effects in the deportment and habits of the children and their mothers." Another, and not a slight advantage arising from the establishment of girls' schools of the nature above described, will be that the boys' school will be better attended. When mothers know the advantages of education, they will not be slack in making efforts to have them extended to their children. In the establishment of female schools, an essential point to be remembered is the combination of useful knowledge with the branches of what is usually termed education. On this point Dr. Booth says — " I don't value at the worth of a straw any school for the labouring classes, however pretencious it may be, which does not alternate working with learning." The subject which we have here opened up-— in no wise exhausted — is one of great importance. In relation to the extension of education in agricultural districts, it is scarcely possible to overrate it. One thoroughly up to the condition of our agricultural labourers, records it as his decided opinion that until "properly-equipped girls' schools are established in every district, so as to be convenient to the daughters of your labourers and ordinary farmers, all schemes for raising your labourers to the social condition they should be in, will be in a great measure defeated." This is occupying high ground ; but the position can be easily maintained. If, as has been well said, " the health and purity of the social system are placed under the immediate guardian- ship of women," it is but a common-sense proceeding, and one dictated by the ordinary rules of prudence, to see that the girls, who in our agricultural districts are in after-times to be either the guardians or the enemies of the " health and purity of the social system," according as they themselves are brought up, shall have every at- tention paid to their training, that they may know at least the difference between the evil and the good. We cannot force them to choose the good and to eschew the evil, but we can at all events show them their moral re- sponsibility, and leave them to their own discrimination. By training the females in the way indicated we begin at the beginning : all other attempts will be mere surface- work, resulting only in disappointment. In the short series of papers — sufficient only to open up the subject — which we have been privileged to present to our readers, we have endeavoured to show that " agri- cultural education" has a much wider acceptation, and conveys a deeper meaning, than might at first sight be thought of. To give it a fair field for the exercise of its mighty influence, other influences must be set to work along with it — in conjunction —not merely to follow. Not only must a system of useful every-day practical education be inaugurated, but time must of necessity be given to those for whose benefit it is instituted, in order that they may be able to avail themselves of its advan- tages ; while the home, the hearth influence, moral and physical, must be also attended to. To set all these influences at work, will demand much time and anxiety from those interested ; but their labour will be repaid, and their reward given them, in the breaking up of the ' 'stagnation' ' and in the enlightenment of the "darkness' ' of those minds at present too much under the influence of these depressing circumstances. KEEVIL'S PATENT CH EES E-M AKI N G APPARATUS. We give an illustrated description of Keevil's Cheese- making Apparatus for cutting, filtering, and pressing curd. Milk, in the language of the dairyman, is com- posed of three substances — butter, cheese, and whey ; and to separate the two former from the latter is one of the chief occupations of the dairy. Experience has long felt many difficulties in effecting this satisfactorily, partly owing to the rude manner in which the work has been done, and the still more antiquated character of the utensils of the dairy for doing it ; and partly owing to the strength of affinity which exists between the articles thus wished to be separated. With such, Mr. Keevil, who occupies Strand Farm, at Lacok, near Chippenham, and who milks some 60 to 70 cows daily, is familiar, and to obviate the same is the object of his patented cheese-making apparatus. And what makes the in- vention of the greater value is the fact that the finer the quality of the cheese, or rather the richer the milk from which the cheese is made, the greater the difficulties to be experienced under the old practice, as more of the cream and curd is separated with the whey than when the milk is poorer in quality. When milk is well watered to throw up cream, and three times thriftily skimmed, the processes of coagulation and separation of the whey are more easily cftected than in the case of new-milk cheese. Now, as the public taste has not the same relish for skimmed-milk cheese of this quality as it had in the olden time, it consequently follows that more new-milk R 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 251 l-H H K H a en CO l-H O f H a en O SO H O to CO CO S O » O U 2g2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Fig. 2. Section of platform and apparatus with kuives ia for cutting the curd. Fig. 3. Bection of apparatus and platform. The apparatus with pressing plate and screw to press the curd dry. The platform ia shown with one side lowered, to allow the whey to drain to the tap. cheese must be made, and hence a greater loss sustained from the waste of cream and curd. The supply of foreign cheese is now so great in the English market, that the home farmer can only manufacture the best quality of articles with success, calling to his assistance all the mechanical means he can command ; hence the growing importance of that under notice. The apparatus consists of a large milk tub, as shown in figures I and 4, the former being a back view, and the latter a front view. Fig. 1 represents the tub empty, with the knives in, and everything ready for the milk being put into it for coagulation. The knives are shown in the section fig. 2, on a reduced scale, and fig. 3 is a section of fig. 4, also on a reduced scale. In using the apparatus the following directions may be given .- — When " the curd is set" sufficiently firm the knives are gentlj' turned round, by means of the handles, cutting it (the curd) vertically and horizontally into small squares. The bar (C) across the mouth of the tub is then undone at each side, the spindle and frame of knives removed, and the curd allowed to settle for some twenty minutes. After it has fallen to the bottom, and the pure whey risen to the top, the semicircular plug (E) is drawn up, the top (M) turned, and the whey allowed to pass through the filter (D). As soon as the whey ceases to flow by the force of gravitation, a cheese cloth is spread over the curd, and the " pressing plate" applied, as seen in figs. 3 and 4. To prevent the curd rising at the sides of the plate, the cloth is put down between it and the tub. At first the pressure is light, so as not to squeeze out any of the cream and curd, the rule in practice being to screw down the plate no faster than the whey flows clear, or in a limpid stream, along the gutter across the middle of the pressing plate to the filter seen in fig. 4. This part of the work will very much depend upon the quality of the curd, and there- fore the dairyman will have to be guided by experience in this as in the old proeess. The pressing-plate may have once or twice to be removed — the curd cut back around the tub — placed in the middle, and the plate again applied until the whey is thoroughly removed, when the dry curd is broken and vatted in the usual man- ner. Throughout the process the general maxim is to disturb the curd as little as possible, and to drain off the whey clear. In principle there is not much difference between Mr. Keevil's practice and that pursued by our most suc- cessful cheese-makers, as will be seen from a short com- parison. From time immemorial, for instance, the curd has been cut with a long cheese-knife into squares, and the whey taken off clear by means of cheese-bowls, perforated pressing plates having whey wells in them, tub-cloths, and weights for pressing down the plates. Thirty years ago we followed this practice. The only difficulty experienced was in getting dairymaids to carry it out properly. To do it successfully the process is an exceedingly slow one ; and so prone are servants to take short cuts in such cases, that we always found a large quantity of cream and curd in the whey. In this re- spect Mr. Keevil's apparatus has many advantages over the old, his process being more simple and cleanly, effecting a great economy of labour, and producing a THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 253 more uniform result in the separation of whey free from cream and curd — advantages in cheese-making whose value can scarcely be over-estimated. Its only faults are price and commission— faults which, we are given to understand, have been, to a certain extent, removed since the Chelmsford Meeting"; and if the patentee and manufacturer consult their own interest here, the ap- paratus cannot fail to prove an invaluable acquisition to the utensils of many a dairy during the period of the patent. THE LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. FARM-YARD AND ARTIFICIAL MANURES. The first monthly meeting of the seasoii was held on Monday, Feb. 2, at the Club House, Blackfriavs ; Mr. Owen Wallis, of Overstone, Northampton, in the chair. The attendance was very good; the large room now appropriated to the discussions being quite full. Amongst others present were — Messrs. J. Pain (Beds), R. Baker (Writtle), T. E. Pawlett (Beds), T. Owen (Berks), H. Trethewy, J. Wood (Sussex), Rev. T. C. James, J. Howard (Beds), C. Howard ((?eds), L. A. Cousmaker, J. Tyler, W. Bullock Webster, Spencer Skelton, E. Purser, J. B. Spear- ing, E. Little (Wilts), J. Thomas (Lidlington), J. Thomas (Bletsoe), J. Body, H. Hall, J. A. Nockolds, W. Heard, C. Hall, J. C. Nesbit, B. E. Ward, J. S. Ruston, S. Sidnej', N. G. Barthropp, J. Kemp (Lin- coln) ; Captain Barlow, J. G. King, G. Cobb, J. D. Poole, and Dr. Lewis. The subject for discussion, selected at the instance of Mr. Robert Baker, of Writtle, was " The most judicious ilanagement and Application of Farm-yard and Arti- ficial Manures." The Chairman said : In appearing before the mem- bers for the first time as President of the discussion meetings, he had to express his regret that he had not been able to attend more of the previous meetings, and to request the indulgence and support of the Club in the performance of the duties of his office. The subject which Ml'. Baker had undertaken to introduce equalled in importance any that could possibly be brought be- fore an assembly of farmers. There had been great diversity of opinion as to the treatment and application even of farm-yard manure ; and since the introduction of so many varieties of artificial manure, the question had acquired increased importance. To choose the right thing for the right purpose, and to apply it under the most favourable circumstances, required no ordi- nary care and judgment. He was quite sure that the subject would bo introduced by Mr. Baker with that ability which he had always displayed on such occasions. Mr. Baker said : He appeared before so many practical farmers on that occasion with a feeling of great deference, being conscious that there were many gcntlemeu present who were more competent to impart information tlian lie was. He had no doubt, however, that the remarks which he had to make would be re- ceived in the same spirit in which they were ofiered ; his object being to elucidate the management of farm- yard manure — to show how it could bo best produced and most economically applied — and, having done that, to leave the further discussion of the subject to practical men who were conversant with it. Speaking generally, he would observe that farm-yard manure consisted of what was produced from tiie refuse vegetable matter of the farm, and from straw, combined with the deposits of the animals, and was manufactured principally dur- ing winter, and foddered with cattle in summer. Having given this general definition, he should, in the remarks he was about to make, confine himself to the different qualities of farm-yard manure, and the dif- ferent methods of producing it. They were all aware that such manure varied in quality with the description of food on which cattle were fed. If it were produced from vegetable substances alone, too much moisture, and too little of the nitrogenous matter of which it ought to be composed, would bo found in it. Therefore it was by the combination of various kinds of substances — of substances of a nitrogenous and oleaginous cha- racter, with those chiefly contained in vegetables — that the largest quantity of valuable manure could be ob- tained. Under the altered circumstances in which they were placed, farmers had turned their attention very much to the utility of what are termed artificial ma- nures ; and ho thought he might venture to say that they had in consequence lost sight, to a considerable extent, of the advantage of paying attention to the manufacture of manure by the ordinary modes. Ma- nures Wire produced on farms in four different ways — by adopting the old principle of open farm-yards, sur- rounded by sheds or buildings ; by covered farm-yai-ds, where the entire surface was covered over, and the water prevented from falling upon the manure; by stall-feeding; and, lastly, by box-feeding. Those were the four methods which were most prevalent in this kingdom. Under the first of these systems, that of open yards, the great difficulty to be encountered was the large amount of water which at certain periods of the year foil upon the manure. Notwithstanding all the precautions that might be taken by the addition of spouts to the buildings, and so on, there were some periods of the year when, owing to the superabundance of rain, the deposits of the animals became loo much mixed with water ; and it was often the case that at a distance of half a mile from the farm-yard a stranger knew that he was approaching it, by seeing tlie residuum flowing down the roads, or the ditches that bordered upon them. To prevent tliis was of course a very great desideratum. This led him to consider tlie second method whicli had been devised for the production of farm-yard manure. This new system had not been in- troduced very lai-gely on account of the expense which 254 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. attended it, the necessary outlay being too heavy for tenants to incur, and the matter not having met vpith sufficient consideration on the part of landlords : he referred, of course, to covered homestalls. There could be no doubt that if covered homestalls were erected on farms at the landlord's expense, he would receive back on his farm during a single lease the entire costof cou- sti'uction ; but the efforts which had been made to in- duce landlords generally to view the matter in that light had been attended with little success. Tenants in general were very willing to pay, in the shape of additional rent, a fair remuneration for the erection of such buildings ; but, notwithstanding this, little progress had as yet been made in that direction. As he had before observed, the quality of manure must depend entirely on the description of food on which cattle were fed. The more grain, the more oilcake, linseed, and other food of the same kind, the animals consumed, the better would be the manure; and it was by the spirited conduct of men who spent large sums in the purchase of oilcake, linseed, and other artificial food, that some farms had been brought to such a high state of cultivation. Such was the opinion entertained of the advantage of substances of that description by some farmers, that, setting aside the question of profit on stock from the consumption of such food by neat cattle, they considered the advan- tage which was derived by the land from the food itself a full compensation for the outlay. He thought all present would agree with him, that if covered yards could be secured by every farmer, the result would be that less fodder would be required, and the manure would always be highly concentrated (Hear, hear). He now came to box-feeding. Under this system boxes of certain dimensions, say 10 feet square, were provided, and the animals were jtlaced in them ; floors were sunk two or three feet below the level, and by means of raising the trough in which the animal fed a large quantity of manure was produced in a highly concen- trated state. It had been found in practice, that if a box contained less than 90 ft. of superfi cies, it did not answer so well as if it contained about 100; and it had therefore been assumed by many that 100 ft. should be the maximum, and 90 ft. the minimum. While he was adverting to this subject, it might be worth while to show how far boxes were better adapted for one descrip- tion of animals than for another. It had been stated by one or two writers whom he had consulted on the subject, that male animals did better in boxes than females ; and that the females did better when stalled than males. On the other hand, if they looked only to the quality of the manure, the raanui-e of the heifer was far better under stall-feeding than that of the male, because it required less litter. A farmer who had steam machinery at hand might obviate that to a gi-eat extent by cutting the straw. When straw was cut about six inches long it was more favourable than it was pre- viously for foddering cattle, and more economical in use ; and after manure was made from it, it would be more beneficial in its various applications. Wherever this system was resorted to, there must be buildings ex- pressly constructed for the purjjose of carrying it out. The only objection which he had heard started was, that there was so little compression in the angles or crevices of the boxes in which the cattle were fed, that the manure was apt to get into too dry a state, and was j not equal in quality to that made in the centre. This might be remedied by rounding off the angles, and instead of having the boxes in the form of a square or parallelogram, making them in a heptagon form, so that the cattle would tread on all the dung alike. He would now speak of stall-feeding. Stall-feeding was a system which was generally resorted to in order to perfect the fattening of first-class cattle that were in- tended for market ; and consequently the manure which was produced by such a process was of a highly con- centrated character. Now if that manure were re- moved from the cattle day by day, as was frequently the case, it instantly entered into fermentation, and much of its valuable properties was lost. Whenever, therefore, cattle were fed in stalls, it was necessary to cart the manure daily to the yards, and spread it evenly over the surface, so that there would be a regular ad- mixture of the best with the inferior portion. Too much care could not be bestowed on the spreading. If it were shot down in heaps very much injury would arise to the manure itself, as would be seen in the subsequent crop. Another plan, which was, he believed, first in- troduced by Mr. Mechi, was that of feeding cattle on latticed floors. Mr. Mechi and others had acted upon it to a considerable extent ; and, as it did not appear to make way with the agTicultural public, it was not, he presumed, found so beneficial as it had been repre- sented to be. It struck him, on viewing Mr. Mechi's system in operation, and observing the manure accu- mulated beneath the lattice, that it would be a great improvement if the lattice were placed over an inclined plane formed of asphalte. The manure would then pass down the incline till it reached the outside ; a little water would suffice to cleanse the incline, the cattle would be kept perfectly clean and sweet, and no portion of the manure would be lost. He might observe, in passing, that in adopting this system Mr. Mechi had another object in view besides that of preserving the manure, namely, the application of manure in a liquid state. He had seen the same sj'stem carried out very extensively by Mr. King Kail on his estate by Clare, in Suffolk, That gentleman grew a great quan- tity of red cloverseed, and the clover jielded a large amount of chaff, which was almost useless for farming purposes. Under these circumstances, it struck him that it would be well for him to keep a large number of pigs on the latticed floor. He did so, and his returns from pigs alone were from £1,400 to £"1,500 per annum. The manure which was thus made formed a sort of artificial guano. When the time arrived for putting in barley, he sowed from one to two cwt. per acre : it was harrowed in, and the result had been most successful. Mr. King Kail had informed him that, mixed with chaff, this manure was equal to guano for any purpose connected with corn-crops. Having thus shown how farm-yard manure was manufactured, he had now to consider the quality of good farm-yard manure which was ])roduced by the various methods in use. He THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 955 found, on investigation, that a cow feeding ou lOOlbs. of grass gave 711bs. of solid and liquid deposit. An ox would produce 1^ cwt. while feeding on turnips or mangel-wurzel, and would require from 24 to 281bs. of straw daily; in all, about loOlbs. of solid and liquid manure would be produced by an ox daily. This was in winter. An ox, if kept feeding continually on tur- nips, corn, and hay, in the ordinary mode, would pro- duce, in the seven months of winter, about 12 tons of manure; and, if foddered in summer, about seven tons more. Thus it would, altogether, produce about 19 tons in the yard. In box-feeding an ox would consume about 211bs. of straw daily, upon a hundred-feet range. In four months, a single ox of average weight, say from 80 to 90 stones of Bibs, each, would produce about 11 cubic yards of manure ; the pi-oductioa would be 33 cubic yards if it were constantly kept in a box for the whole year. Turnips would cause an ox to give the gi-eatest quantity of liquid manure. Turnips or mangel-wurzel would yield more than swedes, and the litter required would be equal in weight to about one- third of the weight of the urine that the animal de- posited. There were other things that affected the quality of manure. They all knew that horse-manure ■was far superior to that made from oxen, that manure made from oxen was superior to that made from cows, and that manure made from old or full-grown animals was far superior to that made from young animals. A cow in feeding extracted a lai-ger portion of the nu- tritive qualities of food than an ox, because food passed more rapidly into the form of milk than that of muscle. Again : nearly all that the older animals consumed went to the formation of fat and muscle, whereas much of that the younger ones consumed was absorbed in the production of bone : consequently, the largest pro- portion of manuring qualities came from the deposits of the animals which were producing the most fat and muscle. It might be supposed that, if a certain number of animals were kept in an open yard, and their de- posits were not allowed to escape in any way whatever, the manure would be as good as what was produced by the same number of animals in a covered yard. That, however, was not the case. The manure of animals kept in covered yards was, in fact, superior in quality to that of animals kept in open yards. The horses kept on the farm were the chief source of the manure which was produced. He would here remark that many farmers, in estimating the advantages of employing steam-machinery for various agricultural purposes, seemed to forget that there was no direct return from the application of steam, whereas there was a considerable return in the case of horses, as regarded the cultivation of the soil (Hear, hear). Horse-manure was very bene- ficial to the land. It contained a larger proportion of ammoniacal and nitrogenous ingredients than any other kind of farm-yard manure. That the urine of the horse was of a very superior description was evident from the effects witnessed in those patches of the soil where it had fallen. In the feeding of horses it was found that the animal produced in solid manure and urine three-fourths in weight of what it consumed. A well-fed horse would give 9f tons of solid and liquid manure per annum, and would require 2^^ tens of straw ; altogether it would make in a stable 12 tons of manure per annum. The diflterence in quantity of manure as between the horse and the ox was not much ; the difference in quality was very great. As, however, much manure was necessa- rily wasted when ahorse was in the field, they of course could not assume as much to be made as if he were con- stantly under cover and foddered. He now came to the question how much manure 100 acres of good arable land might be made to produce in a year. If they as- sumed that the farm would produce 4 qrs. of wheat per acre, 6 qrs. of barley, 7 or 8 qrs. of oats, and 3 or 4 qrs. of peas and beans, they could then tell how much manure it ought to yield. He maintained that it would produce sufficient manure in four years to manure it over once, at the rate of IG tons per acre ; though if it were manured by two operations instead of one, the benefit de- rived would be much greater. For every acre there would be 16 tons of manure made off the farm, if it were well managed. This quantity he held to be quite enough to keep the farm in a good state of cultivation; but if, in addition, some guano were imported on the farm for the production of roots, cultivation would be carried on more beneficially. He came now to sheep manure. It had of late become the practice to bring sheep into yards for feeding. Some writers had asserted that sheep would fatten faster if kept warm, than if exposed to inclement weather in a field. No doubt, as a general principle, animals enjoyed warmth and comfort, and had a ten- dency to fatten faster under such advantages than when exposed to cold ; because, in the latter case, a very large proportion of their food went to the mere pro- duction of animal heat ; whereas, in the former, it was employed in producing fat and muscle. Nevertheless, he held that the field was the proper place for sheep (Hear, hear). Sheep never appeared so comfortable in a yard as in the field ; and recourse to the former was attended with this disadvantage, that a less quantity of manure was made by 100 sheep in a yard than the same number in a field. In Norfolk, Suffolk, and many other districts of England, a very large portion of the land was well adapted for the feeding of sheep, the manure being no sooner deposited on the land than it was fixed by the action of the animal's feet. Sheep manure required, more than any other description of manure, to be fixed quickly. If it were trodden into the soil, all the ammonia was secured at once ; whereas, if it remained in an open yard, it was apt to get into a state of fermentation. If it were carted from a yard in warm weather, put on the land in heaps, and then fer- mented, half of its valuable qualities would be lost. It should, therefore, if obtained from a yard, be carted as quickly as possible to the land, and ploughed in at once, so as to secure all the ammonia. Now, having thus directed attention to the manufacture or production of manure, and the quantity obtainable, he would next allude to the management of it after it was produced. It was well known that the common oxygen of the air they breathed, on coming in contact with carbon, en- gendered animal heat. So also was it with manure- heaps. If a quantity of straw saturated with the deposits of animals were shot into heaps, and if, from 256 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the looseness of the heaps, the air entered the manure, then the oxygen, combining with the carbon, produced heat, fermentation followed, the constituent portions of the manure were converted into gases, and a large pro- portion of the most valuable properties of the manure was inevitably lost. It was therefore evident that the only means of retaining the constituent properties of mauure was by preventing it from getting into a state of fermentation. He admitted that root-crops, and especially turnips, would grow better through the ap- plication of decomposed manure than through the ap- plication of manure carted direct from the yard ; but this arose chiefly from the circumstance of the woody parts of the manure being more broken down than they would otherwise be, and therefore more readily appro- priated by the plants. If they lost one-third of the quality of the manure in reducing it to the state which was best for the turnip, the effects of that loss would be seen, not perhaps in the turnip-crop, but in the succeeding crop. It was evident therefore that the best mode of applying manure was to take it direct from the farm-yard, and turn it in at once, so as not to leave it exposed on the surface. If, however, excessively neat farming were considered a desideratum, and if turnips of a very superior quality were required, the manure might be first decomposed. However dis- posed farmers might be to proceed scientifically, they were generally governed by other considerations, and especially by the state of the weather. Manure could only be carted on the land when little injury would be done in the process ; and if, as was sometimes the case, it was carted in a wet autumn, the injury thus caused outweighed any benefit which the farmer could reason- ably expect. It followed from what he had before said that if manure were loft in a concentrated state, free from the action of the air so as to prevent fermentation, a larger amount of its constituent properties would be retained than under an opposite system. If there were an excavation three or four feet deep, and from twelve to sixteen feet wide, manure shot into that excavation, and well consolidated there, would not enter into a state of fermentation, and consequently all the constituent .properties of the manure would be retained until it was applied to the land. In like manner a shady position Avas preferable to one where the manure would be ex- posed to the action of sun and air. In whatever waj' the thing was done, the manure should be consolidated as much as possible, the sides and ends trimmed off cleanly, and the surface covered with about a foot of earth, and well beaten down so as to render any escape of gas impossible. Many practical farmers maintained, as he had before intimated, that the best manure for turnips was decomposed manure. He granted that such was the case; but, then, it was produced at a considerable loss. If it must be applied in that state, the question was how the decomposition might be best effected. Shortly before conveying it to the field, say twelve or fourteen days, they should turn over the heap, when it would, of course, enter into ac- tive fermentation; they should tlien cover it with earth or some suljstance to prevent the escape of ammonia ; and in that state of fermentation when, as it was said, it would neither dig nor fork, it was in the best condi- tion for being applied to the land. There was another mode of application to which he would allude. When manure was carried to the field for the production of turnips, it was sometimes taken out of the cart and spread on the ridges, and as soon as the ridges were formed the manure was ploughed in immediately. Another plan was to shoot it down in heaps on the flat ; and farmers were frequently seen to go on for one or two days carting manure, and then ploughing it in all at once. In the first case the management would be judicious if the manure, on being taken out of the cart, was covered immediately. The other method was an injudicious one. The management should be such, that as fast as the manure was carted out, it was ploughed in as fast as the ploughing was performed, the seed was deposited ; and if the process was canned out uni- formly, there would, no doubt, be a good crop of plants. There was another system which was prac- tised throughout the whole of the corn-growing dis- tricts of the kingdom ; he referred to the system of top-dressing. In his own experience he had never found manures act so beneficially as when they were applied to clovers in the autumn. The covering of clover layers with manure in November, after the cold weather had set in, the manure being spread evenly over the surface, and lying exposed during tlie winter, proved very beneficial to the clover and wheat crops. Every farmer who wished to carry out the details of farm management in the most beneficial manner should manure his young seeds or clover on the same principle as if he were manuring directly for wheat. It was also the practice in many counties to manure old clover layers directly after the first math was removed ; and if a second math was taken, he did not think so much damage was likely to ensue as some had supposed. This, he knew, appeared contrary to the principles of good management. No doubt the exposure of tlie manure on the surface of the soil deprived it of a considerable por- tion of itsconstituentproperties; butthelosswascompen- sated for, in the benefit derived by the clover ; and we need hai-dly say that if they got a good crop of clover they were almost sure of a good crop of wheat (Hear, hear). Tlie application of manure to root crops was a matter that deserved great attention from farmers. They fre- quently found that for the production a crop of mangel wurzel, twenty loads per acre of the best manure thefarm would produce were applied. Twenty loads carted and spread could not be estimated at less than ^6 per acre. Such was the power of this root, that to whatever extent it might be manured, it extracted most of the constituent properties of the manure. Since the introduction of guano, however, and other artificial manures, a very large proportion of this consumption has been saved to the farmer. By applying 3 cwt. of guano at a cost say of 40s. per acre, and adding a little salt, an excel- lent ci'op of mangel wurzel could be secured. Conse- quently farmers were much indebted to guano for the production of root crops. Now, as the statement of the subject on the card included artificial manures, he felt that it was due to the club tliat he should make some remarks with regard to them. As to the first on the list — guano — they had in that a very different sub- stance to deal with in the ensuing year from what they had had in the last year. Instead of continuing to pay lis, or 12s. per cwt., they had now to contend with an advance of from 20 to 25 per cent, in the price. He had always felt that the impoitation of guano into this country, in the manner in which it was conducted, was a great monopoly. The Government THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 257 had suffered one of the most useful substances that had ever been introduced into this country to be monopolized by one or two individuals j those individuals fixed the price at whatever amount they thought proper; and though they told them to-day that the price was £15 per ton, to-morrow it might be £20, and they must comply with the terms. (Hear, hear). As a citizen of the State, and as one who contributed largely towards the maintenance of our powerful marine establishment, he contended that the Government ought not to have sanctioned this monopoly. It was, he maintained, the duty of the Royal Agricultural Society and of that Club to ad- dress the Government on the subject, and to tell them that they ought not to tolerate an arrangement by which Messrs. Gibbs and Co. had the sole control of the importation of guano, and exacted from farmers whatever price they pleased. It was not enough for the Royal Agricultural Society or any other society to offer a reward of £oOO or ^£"1,000 for the discovery of a manure equal to guano. The case required to be dealt with in a more effectual manner. As the matter stood, guano threatened to become an article rather of luxury than of use, and something must be done to meet the altered state of things. Now, as regarded the application of guano, it had been shown by Mr. Vernon, as the result of experiment, that the direct application of it for grain crops ought never to exceed 2 cwt. per acre, and that the use of a larger quantity did not increase the quantity of grain, though it en- hanced the cost of production. It had also been ascertained by investigation that if guano were applied as a top dressing for gTain, it ought never to be applied in at one operation, but it should be applied partly in April, and partly at the latter end of May. It was more beneficial when applied in two dressings than when applied in one. If guano were applied in a dry state, and where there had been a continuance of dry weather for a long time, its most valuable properties were dissipated, and little benefit was derived, whether l)y grain or root crops. This shows the necessity of applying guano when the land was in a sufficisntly moist state, because then it immediately becomes in- corporated with the soil, and all its gaseous ammonia is fixed. In tlie case of turnips, it should be applied not at the ploughing for the turnip crop, but at the previous ploughing. On being sown itshould be turned in with a shallow furrow, and rolled down, and it shoula then remain until the season arrived for sowing the turnips. Ten or twelve days_ after, the guano may be brought near to the surface. Under that mode of proceeding no portion of its fertilizing powers would be lost. Another great fertilizer was soot. Soot was about equal to guano as to the effects it produced, though it required to be used in lai'ge quantities. If it vvcre used as a top-dressing during the prevalence of the dry winds of JIarch very little benefit accrued ; but if it were applied during rainy weather or a moist state of the atmosphere, great benefit was derived from it. He had for many years used from l,OLiO to 2,000 bushels of soot per annum. In some years the effects which it produced were exceedingly good, while in others they were scarcely visible : the difference arose from its being applied in the one case in dry weather, and in the other in moist weather. Another usffiil )nanuring substance v,-assalt. Of this he did not think farmers generally applied enough to the land. If salt were always sprinklcfi on manure heaps as they were carted out, the benefit would be distinctly visible in the quantity and the quality of the subsequent crops. Salt apjdied in small quantities was beneficial for wheat, and upon all land v/hcre there was too great a ten- dency to produce straw an application of salt would check that tendency, and also increase the grain- producing powers of the soil. Sea-weed, again, was said to be highly beneficial ; but as he knew nothing of its effects from personal experience, he would leave others to speak of them. Of the valuable properties of superphosphate of lime and bones he need say nothing to a meeting like that. Having thus spoken of what might be termed natural manures, he would say a word or two with regard to those manures which were strictly artificial, and in which there was now so much competition. Some of these manures were very valu- able, and their utility was becoming more and more ap- preciated. He would recommend all present, in pro- curing them, not to deal with any but persons of repute, and persons whom they knew to be trustworthy. Hehad had samples of manure sent to him as presents by ma- nufacturers, accompanied with a request that Le would be kind enough to state his opinions as to the results. Having tried the experiment, and found the result satis- factory, he could not do otherwise than report favour- ably : but what was the consequence ? Why, he was afterwards blamed by farmers, who said that in conse- quence of seeing his name appended to a certificate, they had bought manure which produced no such effect as had been described. The truth was, that the manure sent to him, and that which was afterwards sold to his friends, were totally different in quality (laughter). This showed the necessity of caution in purchasing artificial manures. There ought in all cases to be a written gua- rantee as to the constituent properties of the article ; and then, if these were wanting, the seller could be held responsible. The urate he had found very service- able. Blood-manure and wool manure were also used with great advantage — which was the best or the cheapest he was unable to say. To show the necessity of vigilance in such matters, he would remark that about two years ago a new article was announced as being exceedingly beneficial ; and it was observed that it was much cheaper than guano. After a large number of persons had been caught by this statement, the mat- ter was investigated, and it was afterwards declared in print that an article which was sold for £7 per ton was not worth more than from 25s, to 30s. An action was threatened ; but the fear of the trade in the article being cut up root and branch by exposure, prevented it from being brought. There were many other branches of the subject into which he might enter, but he had already trespassed too long, and must refrain from speaking of chalk, lime, marl, and other manuring sub- stances of an inorganic character. He would only re- mark, in conclusion, that if he had said anything that was likely to advance the cause of agriculture, if he had put forth any ideas which were likely (to use a hacknicd phrase) to make two blades of grass or two ears of corn grow where only one grew before, he should be quite satisfied. He felt thankful for having had the at- tention of a class of men whom he respected more than any other class of the community, esteeming no labour too great if he did but succeed in obtaining their appro- bation (cheers). Mr. Sidney (of Feckham), could not concur in Mr. Baker's remarks with regard to the importation of guano. Peruvian guano stood in a somewhat similar position to our own iron and coal, and in France and Germany many persons might be heard complaining of the monopoly of this country in these articles, and of the hardship to them of England's being able to manu. facture cheaper than most continental countries. The English Government had no right to prevent Peru— a very poor country — from making the best of almost the only source of wealth she possessed. He would not recommend farmers, however, contentedly to pay an enormous price for guano. What he suggested was, 258 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. that they should try to obtain supplies from some other quarter. This country had the largest marine in the world, and yet hardly any attempt had hitherto been made to discover guano in any other situation than that from which it had been obtained. It was well known that it was only in rainless zones that guano could exist, but those zones had not yet been ex- plored as they should be, with the view of extending the sources of supply. Mr. JN'ocKOLDS (of Stanstead, Essex), asked whether, when Mr. Baker had manured for mangold-wurtzel or other roots with guano, salt, and farmyard dung, he found any difference in the succeeding crop ? Mr. Baker : The crop was better after farmyard manure than after guano, inasmuch as the mangold- wurtzel was more exhaustive of guano than of farm- yard dung. Mr. NocKOLDS : Then the whole value of the farm- yard dung was not spent by the root-crop ? Mr. Baker : Certainly not. Mr. NocKOLDS : With regard to sheep and manure, he remembered seeing, a year or two before Lord Leicester's death, that nobleman's sheep, kept in en- closed yards, which his lordship contended was the best way of treating them. Now Lord Leicester's sheep were chiefly Spanish merinos and Anglo- merinos ; and the question was, whether the warmth they got in the enclosed yards was not beneficial in some degree to the growth of wool. Mr. Baker : Undoubtedly it was. Mr. NocKOLDS thought, however, that the open air was best for sheep, and that their wool was benefited by a certain amount of cold ; for if they transferred a sheep to the East Indies, they would find that it lost its wool, and, instead of growing wool, grew hair. He would suggest, therefore, that the open air was preferable to the enclosed yard for sheep (Hear, hear). Mr. Pain (of Felmersham, Beds), said there v.ere some points with respect to the application of manure which he should like to receive some information upon ; and, with that object in view, he begged to state what his own practice had been. As to mangold-wurtzel, then, his practice in dealing with that was, to cart the manure on the land in autumn, plough it in, and allow it to remain until the following spring, when, as soon as the weather was favourable, he took an opportunity of working the surface of the soil, having first applied two or three cwt. of guano to it per acre. The guano being thus worked in, he next rolled the soil, and proceeded immediately to put in the seed ; and hitherto, by the adoption of this practice, he had suc- ceeded very well. The more solid the ground could be made for mangel-wurzel the better ; for with artificial manure the land required to be in that condition to keep the crop growing and bring it to maturity. In the ma- nagement of the turnip crop, he always deferred carting his manure until late in the spring, in order to prevent the escape of ammonia ; and instead of covering his dunghills with earth, as was Mr. Baker's method, he generally covered them with about 4 or 6 inches of salt, which effectually accomplished that object. In this state he allowed the heaps to remain until within a week or ten days of the time when he required to use ihem. He then turned them over, and put in the manure for his turnip crop. On all farms the manure was drawn out at a given period, and he had invariably found that, if it were carted in heaps, and the carts drawn over them for the purpose of making them as solid as pos- sible, with a good layer of salt, there was no fear of the ammonia being lost. Mr. Purser (of the London Manure Company) Eaid there was a great disposition on the part of the farmers to cast blame upon Messrs. Gibbs, in reference to the price of guano ; but he could assure them that those gentle- men had no more to do with the matter than any gentleman then in the room. The guano of Peru was, in fact, pawned to the Peruvian bondholders, who took upon themselves to fix its price from time to time. As far as the supply of guano was concerned, he apprehended they would see very little brought to this country before the end of March ; it became them, therefore, to consider what they were to use as a substitute for it. His experience taught him that the chief demand for guano prevailed from January to the end of April, presuming that it was more particularly used for wheat, barley, and oats. That was also the experience of Messrs. Gibbs. For the turnip crop they would, of course, resort to phos- phates and other manures containing smaller propor- tions of nitrogen ; but a substitute for the present emergency was what they had chiefly to look to, and his own practice had shown him that ajudicious mixture of sulphate of ammonia, combined with superphosphate of lime in salt, was one of the best top-dressings for wheat. For the barley crop there certainly was no manure that had uniformly answered so well as guano ; and for oats he should consider nitrite of soda, as a top-dressing, would be most beneficial. Dr. Lewis (Physician to the Post Office), thought some of Mr. Baker's observations with respect to the loss of manure might perhaps be a little for- tified by what he was about to submit to the meet- ing. In the last number of the Registrar- General's Quarterly Returns it was stated that the mortality among the families, and especially the children, of farmers was very great indeed, as compared with the mortality among many other classes of the community. This fact was the more remarkable, because the rate of mortality among such persons ought to be very small. Farmers and their families had the advantage of open country and fresh air in a much greater degree than the inhabitants of towns; they had, generally speaking, good unadulterated food, which a large portion of the town population had a difficulty in obtaining ; and for these and other reasons it might well have been supposed that the mortality among them was comparatively low. The question was, then, what made it so high as it was on good authoriti' stated to be ? He had no doubt — and in his opinion he was corroborated by what fell from Mr. Baker — that it was caused by the impurity of the atmosphere around the dwellings of farmers ; that impurity proceeds from the dung heaps and the accumulations of manure, solid and liquid, in the vicinity. The Registrar-General observed very truly that farmers were very clean in their dairies, and that the greatest care was taken to prevent specks of dirt from spoiling the appearance of the butter and cheese, but that they were far less careful as regarded the effect of the surrounding atmosphere upon their own health and that of their families. Unfortunately, the emanations which were so injurious were invisible to the eye ; and that was the reason, perhaps, why they were so little thought of. The best test, however, in such cases, was the lungs of young children ; and these could not be healthy where they were constantly exposed to the in- fluence of ammoniacal and nitrogenous substances. The fact that many farmers, including some whom he had the pleasure of seeing, attained old age and looked robust, did not at all militate against what he was saying. There were many examples of the most prolonged life in the unhealthiest districts in England ; and therefore it was by no means to be concluded from the circumstance that many farmers reached old age, that their residences were healthy. The mortality was to be estimated by taking the number of children in families, and ascer- taining the average population reared. The practical THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 259 deduction which he wished to submit to the considera- tion of all present was, that by putting a stop to such a state of things as Mr. Baker had described, which was, that gentleman stated, such that, half-a-mile from a farm-house, you might tell that you were approaching it, simply by the emanation's which proceeded from the yard— by putting a stop, he suid, to this state of things, they would be securing the most valuable fertilizing substances in their manure, and at the same time pro- viding for the health of their children. Flaving studied the subject under discussion for some time, in connexion with botany, he was glad to find that farmers were now viewing the matter under a more scientific aspect than they did some years ago. In former times, it vv'as cus- tomary for them to put a manure consisting of they knew not wh :t, on a soil consisting of they knew not what, to produce a crop consisting of they knew not what. He was now delighted and proud, as an English- man, to perceive that English farmtrs were setting an example to the whole world, and adapting themselves to the pltercd circumstanct s of the times in which they lived (Hear, hear). Mr. J. C. Nesbit (of Kennington) could confirm, from his own observation and from inquiry, what Mr. Baker had said with regard to the utility of applying manure to the clover crop. He could bear testimony that such an application greatly increased the production of the subsequent wheat crop. Under such a mode of opera- tion, two things took place which tended to benefit the farmer — the soluble substances in the manure spread on the young clover were speedily waslitd into the soil, and the covering acted as a protection against the frost and cold. With respect lo guano, he was certainlv surprised to hear Mr. Baker speak in such an anti- commercial manner. The matter was one that rested with the Peruvian Government. As to Messrs. Gibbs and Company, he believed they had no more power to fix the price of the article than that Club had ; and he had no doubt that, if they could have done so, they would have prevented the rise which had taken place. What it behcved farmers to do, in the present state of things, was to look out for some other source of, supply. It should be borne in mind that the real source of guano was the ocean itself. The bird fed upon fish ; and it was, he believed, to the fish that surrounded our coast in such countless myriads that they mu;t look for an efficicut means of supplying the future wants of the country. Every effort ought to be made to discover some satisfactory mode of manu- facturing the fish which abounded along our coasts into a nitrogenous manure ; and if the hardy and industrious population that lived on the borders of the sea once became aware that there were persons ready to take off their iiands any amount of fith the/ could supply, there would be no difficulty, he believed, in obtaining a suffi- cient quantity. There was, in fact, no other resource than this to fall upon. In a few years the deposits of guano in the Pacific Ocean would have been removed ; it would then absolutely be necessary to have some sub- stitute for guano, and this, he believed, was to be found in the fish near our own coasts. Mr. Kemp (of Thurlby, Lincoln), had for years carted all his farmyard manure fresh out of the yard, and used it, while new, for his seeds, by which means he secured the best crop that his farm would yield, whether for grazing or mowing. That was also, he be- lieved, the best mode of using garden manure, and it was decidedly economical. Thei ought not, he main- tained, to use farmyard manure for the turnip crop. He had not used it for that purpose himself for years, having found it more beneficial for seeds. His artificial manures he always applied in a liquid state. Mr. Baker had intimated that they might as well do nothing as sow guano during the dry winds of March. He remembered seeing, whiletravelling through Yorkshire, five orsix wag- gons laden with soot standing in a field ; and on his inquir- ing what they did there ? the reply was that they were " waiting for rain !" the weather being at the time very dry. Had that manure been applied to the wheat or barley in a liquid state, which was by far the best and most economical mode of applying it, there would have been no occasion to wait for rain, and the benefit would have been seen at once. All artificial manures, whether used for turnips or as a top-dressing for corn, ought to be applied in a liquid state. He was sorry to hear some gentlemen speak of guano as if it were impossible to find a substitute for it. Had they not, he would ask, a substitute within reach at that very mo- ment ? What became of all the guano- -he meant the sewage — of the metropolis ? What became of the soap- -suds of the farm-house, the dish-washings and other refuse in their dwellings .' At one period he was utterly at a loss to know how to apply liquids to the land ; but when Chandler's liquid manure drill made its appear- ance he got over the difficulty at once. He had since con- structed near his house a large tank, into which every- thing in the shape of soap-suds, dish-washings, &c., was made to pass ; and the deposits in that tank were worth at least .i?20 a-year to him, whereas formerly they all flowed into the river. Let farmers only direct their attention to the proper use of liquid manure and sewage matter, and he was convinced they would no longer stand in need of guano. The other day, while travel- ling, he fell into the company of a very intelligent gar- dener, and he took the opportunity of questioning him with regard to his mode of applying manure. This person told him that he iiad been in the habit of making experiments with regard to the relative advantages of solid and liquid manures, and that, having applied them in equal quantities for a crop of rhubarb, he found that the liquid manure gave 30 per cent, more produce than the solid. Such a fact as that was very startling, and the mention of it should be sufficient to induce farmers to pay more attention to the use of liquid manures. The Rev. T. C. James (of Ermington, Devon), ex- pressed the pleasure he felt at seeing so many young men present, lie thought he could not do better than recom- mend all who desired further information on the subject to go to Messrs. Whittaker's, the publishers, before leaving London, and invest 6d in the purchase of a useful little book, " On the Preservation of Natural TxLinures," being a lecture delivered at the annual meet- ing of the Bakewell Farmers' Club, by Alexander McDougall. The Chairman wished to make a few remarks before the discussion was brought to a close. They had all heard, for many years, a great deal about the deteriora- tion of manures by the escape of ammonia, when they were applied on the surface. His own experience, long since, led him to regard that notion as a myth, and he was glad now to have had his opinion confirmed by an able article published in the last number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, emanating from the pen of Dr. Voelcker, professor of chemistry at the College at Cirencester. He (the Chairman) believed that manure was never so advantageously applied as when it was Jaid on the surface, and that so far from deteriorating or losing anything through exposure to the atmosphere, it caused more benefit to the upper soil, where it was desirable that its effects should be most apparent. It was the practice of a very extensive turnip grower in his own neighbourhood to draw his manure out on the land in May or June, and there leave it ex- posed. The reason given for pursuing that course being that the dryer the weather the better would be the ulti- mate effects. Having ploughed it in once, he then 260 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plousbed it out again, and he said that the more it lay on the surface the finer was the crop. AYhen the notion about manure suffering deterioration by the escape of the ammonia was first promulgated, he (the Chairman) took care to have his manure carted on the land, ploughed in, and covered up as snugly as possible ; but it hap- pened, somehow or other, that the turnips of a neigh- bour who was a "slovenly farmer," and who adopted a different course, using common rotten straw, while his manure was the very best, would get away from him a week or a fortnight in his crop — a result which he could only attribute to the fact that m the one case the manure was applied to the surface, and in the other it was not- A friend of his, Air. Shaw, was, too, at this moment occupied in manuring his turnip land ; but, instead of ploughing in the manure, he contented himself with merely scuffling it in ; thus corroborating what he had stated to be his own experience in the matter. He would now read to the club what Professor Voelcker said on this subject: — Having described at length my experiments with farmyard manure, it may not be amiss to state briefly the more promi- nent and practically interesting points which have been de- veloped in the course of this investigation, I would, therefore, observe — 1. Perfectly fresh farmyard manure coutaina bnt a small proportion of free ammonia. 2. The nitrogen in fresh dung exists principally in the state of insoluble nitrogenised matter. * * * * » « * 6. The most effectual means of preventing loss iu fertilising matters is to cart the manure directly in the field whenever circumstances allow this to be done. 7. On all soils with a moderate proportion of clay, no fear need be entertained of valuable fertilising substances becoming wasted if the manure cannot be ploughed in at once. Fresh, and even well-rotted, dung contains very little free ammonia; aud since active fermentation, and with it the further evolution of free ammonia, is stopped by spreading out the manure on the field, valuable volatile manuring matters cannot escape into the air, by adopting this plan. As soils with a moderate pro- portion of clay possess in a remarkable degree the power of absorbing and retaining mauuring matters, none of the saline and soluble organic constituents are wasted even by a heavy fall of rain. It may, indeed, be questioned whether it is more advisible to plough m the manure at once, or to let it be for some time on the surface, and to give the rain full opportunity to wash it into the soil. It appears to me a matter of the greatest importance to regulate the application of manure to our fields, so that its constituents may become properly diluted and uniformly distributed amongst a large mass of soil. By ploughing iu the manure at once, it appears to me this desira- ble end cannot be reached so perfectly as by allowing the rain to wash in gradually the manure evenly spread on the surface of the field. By adopting such a course, iu case practical experience should confirm my theoretical reasoning, the objection could no longer be maintained that the land is not ready for carting manure upon it. I am much inclined to recommend as a general rule : cart the manure on the field, spread it at once, and wait for a favourable opportunity to plough it in. In the case of clay soils, I have no hesitation to say the manure may be spread even six months before it is ploughed in, without losing any appreciable quantity of ma- nuring matters. I am perfectly aware that, on stiff clay-land, farm-yard manure, more especially long dung, when ploughed iu before the frost sets in, exercises a most beneficial action by keeping the soil loose and admitting the free access of frost, which pulverizes the land ; and would therefore by no means recommend to leave the manure spread on the surface without ploughing it in. All I wish to enforce is, that when no other choice is left but either to set up the manure in a heap in a corner of the field, or to spread it on the field, without plough- ing it in directly, to adopt the latter plan. Iu the case of very light sandy soils it may perhaps not be advisable to spread out the manure a long time before it is ploughed iu, since such soils do not possess the power of retaining manuring matters in any marked degree. On light sandy aoih I would suggest to manure with well-fermented dung shortly before the crop intended to be grown is sown. 8. Well-rotten dung contains likewise little free ammonia, but a very much larger proportion of soluble organic and sa- hne mineral matters than freah manure. 9. Rotten dung is richer in nitrogen than fresh; 10. Weight for weight, rotten dung is more valuable than fresh. 11. In the fermentation of dung a very considerable pro- portion of the organic matters iu fresh manure is dissipated into the air in the form of carbonic acid and other gases. 12. Properly regulated, however, the fermentation of dung is not attended with any great loss of nitrogen nor of saline mineral matters. 13. During the fermentation of dung, ulmic, humic, and other organic acids are formed, as well as gypsum, which fix the ammonia generated in the decomposition of the nitrogenised constituents of dung. 14. During the fermentation of dung the phosphate of lime which it contains is rendered more soluble than iu fresh manure. 15. In the interior and heated portions of manure-heaps ammonia is given off; but, on passing into the external and cold layers of dung-heaps, the free ammonia is retained in the heap. 16. Ammonia is not giveu off from the surface of well- compressed dung heaps, but on turning manure heaps it is wasted in appreciable quantities. Dung heaps for this reason should not be turned more frequently than absolutely neces- sary. 17. No advantage appears to result from carrying on the fermentation of dung too far, but every disadvantage. 18. Farmyard manure becomes deteriorated in value, when kept in heaps exposed to the weather ; the more the longer it is kept. 19. The loss in mauuring matters, which is incurred in keep- ing manure heaps exposed to the weather, is not so much due to the volatilisation of ammonia, as to the removal of aramo- niacal salts, soluble nitrogenised organic matters, and valuable mineral matters, by the rain which falls iu the period during whicli the manure is kept. 20. If rain is excluded from dung heaps, or little rain falls at a time, the loss in ammonia is trifling, and no saline matters of course are removed ; but if much raia falls, especially if it descends iu heavy showers upon the duug heap, a serious loss in ammonia, soluble organic matters, phosphate of lime, and salts of potash, is incurred, aud the manure becomes rapidly deteriorated in value, whilst at the same time it is diminished in weight. He had read this portion of Dr. Voelcker's article, be- cause it appeared fully to confirm his (the Chairman's) own practice. Being no chemist himself, he was, he admitted, at one time working completely in the dark as regarded this question (Hear, hear). Mr. Baker, in his reply, said that, notwithstanding the opinion of Dr. Voelcker, he still maintained that the excessive stirring of manure, and the subjecting of it to a great degree of fermentation, injured its quality, and that it became farmers to guard as far as was practicable against that evil. On the motion of Mr. Thomas (of Bletsoe), seconded by Mr. Paia (of Bedford), the following resolution was adopted : — " That the judicious management of farm-yard and artificial manures is to preserve their various constituent properties from waste by fermentation or exposure to atmospheric action, and that their qualities are more fully secured by assimilating them with the soil as speedily as possible." On the motion of Mr. Pain, seconded by Mr. Wood, thanks were voted to Mr. Baker for the able manner iu which the subject was introduced by him ; and a similar compliment having, on the motion of Mr. Trethewy, been paid to the Chairman, the meeting separated. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 261 THE MANURE DIFFICULTY AND ITS SOLUTION. The ancient philosopher, who could not get every thing he wanted, wisely made up his mind to do with- out it. The English farmer is just at present in a po- sition to profit by so admirable an example. It is not, perhaps, the first time in his life that he has found him- self in similar circumstances. He has often, indeed, ere this had to avail himself of the precedent we have quoted. When landlords have frowned, or law- Lords have turned their backs on him, he has taken his good friends Patience and Perseverance, one on each arm, and gone on as well as he could. It is remarkable, too, how famously he can go, having once made up his mind to trust to himself. Farming was wont to be considered a delightfully independent, self-supporting sort of busi- ness, where you baked your own bread, brewed your own beer, killed your own pigs, and literally lived on what you made at it. We have got a little beyond this, and rank no longer merely as a beerand-bacon- consuming people. We are more advanced, and have consequently more wants. There are occasions, how- ever, when we may have need to fall back on the glo- rious independence of our i^rimitive condition — to do without what we cannot get, or supply it in some way or other for ourselves. We I'epeat, that wo are in some such a strait just at this moment. With very commendable forethought, however, we have already had a consultation amongst ourselves as to what is to be done. The members of the Central Farmers' Club have had a meet- ing on the subject of manures. It was very well attended, with representatives of the class interested from many difierent parts of the kingdom. Mr. Baker, the Nestor of the society, was called upon to open the proceedings; and he did so with very excellent judg- ment. He had to treat of manures home-made and artificial or extraneous; and he made the former the great topic of his discourse. He went seriatim thi'ough the several modes still in practice ; while he recom- mended what his own experience told him were the best. He showed not merely what the farmer could do for himself here, but what the landlord might do to help him. Like almost all matters connected with agriculture, this making of manure is also a double- barrelled question. The old-fashioned open farmyard, vdth its ,Styx-like streams running out of it, and dan- gerous passages across it, will do no longer. There are better systems ; but, of course, these require better buildings. The point comes home to the landlords at once. They v/ould stem, however, scarcely as yet to have felt the force of it : — " This new system had not been introduced very largely, on account of the ex- pense which attended it, the necessary outlay being too heavy for tenants to incur, and the matter not having met with sufficient consideration on the part of land- lords : he (Mr. Baker) referred, of course, to covered home-stalls. There could be no doubt that if covered home-stalls were erected on farms at the landlord's ex- pense, he would receive back on his farm during a single lease the entire cost of construction; but the efforts which had been made to induce landlords generally to view the matter in that light had been attended with little success. Tenants in general wore very willing to pay, in the shape of additional rent, a fair rcmun(!ration for the erection of such buildings ; but, notwithstanding this, little progress had as yet been made in that direction." Wo question very much if there be not some fault or neglect on both sides. In the rage for artificial stimulants, there is little doubt but that the farmer has often made the least, rather than the most, of his own resources. As Mr. Baker himself says : " Under the altered circumstances in which they were placed, farmers had turned their attention very much to the utility of what are termed artificial manures; and he thought he might venture to say that they had in con- sequence lost sight, to a considerable extent, of the ad- vantage of paying attention to the manufacture of manure by the ordinary modes." Another alteration of circumstances may bring them back to this. The whole tone of the discussion went to warrant such an opinion. Owing to some extraordinary neglect, or maybe some more studied design, it would appear we are to have scarcely any guano at all for the approaching season of its use. With this fact put palpably before him, every one saw the necessity of placing himself in a condition to be able to do without it hereafter. Guano even now is not an absolute re- quirement for good cultivation. There is a certain facOity in its operation, an easy means of obtaining an end, that will always make it more or less popular. At the same time it is a stimulant that has not half, if any, of the lasting effect of farm-yard manure. As Sir Tatton Sykes' authority, Mr. Jorrocks, says, "muck's your man " after all. We could name one of the best farmers in England — a prize exhibitor at our national meetings, and a prize-taker for crops in his own county — who has not used an ounce of guano for years past. But Vv'hat's to be used instead of it ? " Muck's your man" to begin with — covered yards, box-foeding, or stall-feeding, as circumstances may allow, or landlords be answerable for. This is the strong feature of the whole case. Then, of course, there are other artificial manures to be employed, on the understanding that they are obtained only of respectable dealers. This is another very impressible point. There has been almost as much trickery of late years in the manufacture of manux'es as there has been in railway shares, or the reputable business of banking. The security here is to know something of the people you are dealing with — to never be attracted by cheap prices, and not to depend entirely upon testimonials, Mr. Baker says with amusing naivete — " He had had samples of manure sent to him as presents by manufacturers, accom- panied with a request that he would be kind enough to state his oijinions as to the results. Having tried the experiment, and found the result satisfactory, he could not do otherwise than report favourably : but what was the consequence? Why, he was afterwards blamed by farmers, who said that, in conse- quence of seeing his name appended to a certificate, they bought manure wliich produced no such effect as had been described. The truth was, that the manuie sent to him, and that which was afterwards sold to his friends, were totally difierent in quality. This showed the necessity of caution in purchasing artificial manures. There ought in all cases to be a written guarantee as to the constituent properties of the article ; and then, if these were wanting, the seller could be held respon- sible." There is too much truth in all this; and poor Mr. Baker, with his fair fame and integrity of {)urpose, has often, no doubt, though unwittingly enough, been made a capital decoy-duck. The moral, however, is suffi- ciently plain ; let tho victim put it about in some way 202 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or oilier how he has been served, and let a .tricky firm never have but one chance. Then, again, there are other substitutes more under our own control. According to one gentleman, the universal panacea is Chandler's drill, and converting everything into liquid manure — a wholesale argument that few will subscribe to. Liquid manure is all very well in time and place; but its application under many circumstances is known to be something more than a mistake. It is the fashion of over-riding these hoblnes that brings us so often to grief. The sewage of towns, too, should be made more use of — when anyone will be kind enough to prove how it will pay to do so. Mr. Nesbit, logically following out the question before the House, suggests the fish on our coasts as the substitute for what is after all but composed of fish. There is nothing that has been more dwelt on than this. We should be afraid to say how many fish manure com- panies we have heard of; or how successively the difiicullies encountered in the outset have overthrown them. To be attempted with any promise of success, an undertaking of this kind should be on the most gigantic scale. After a while, perhaps, we might collect fish as methodically as we have done bones. Still the per-centage of valuable matter in fish is very small; and it is quite an open matter yet whe- ther it could be obtained and offered at a rate suffi- ciently low to command a large sale — the only princi- ple upon which such a business could be carried on. The discussion was altogether well-timed, and can- not fail to do good. Nearly every variety of practice came in for some consideration ; at the same time prac- tice and science did not appear always to agree. The opinion of Dr. Voelcker and the opinion of the Farmers' Club are on a certain point or so a little at variance. Fortunately, it is the comparison and discussion over these little differences which lead eventually to so great an amount of good. They put people " a thinking." A FARMER AMONG THE CHEMISTS. LETTER III. My dear Berzelius, — Like some other ladies, " Dame Nature" is accustomed to refresh herself with ammonia ; but what relative proportions of it she may inhale as " smelling-salts," imbibe as " sal volatile," or apply externally as "hartshorn-embrocation" — that is to say, how much is abstracted by leaves from the air, how much drunk up in solution by roots, or how much sucked in by leaves from the rain and dew which wet them — is a piece of chemical statistics not yet furnished to the agricultural public. The testimony of some great authoiities quoted in my last, and of others to be adduced in the present letter, can scarcely be consi- dered positive and decisive. For the statements are either wavering and uncertain, directly conflicting, or assumptive and comfortably evading the difficulty, while there are but one or two clear rays of illumination in the general obscurity. In the Fa)-»icr's Magazine for 1842, absorption of ammonia by foliage was ridiculed. " It is said, indeed, that some plants possess the means of appropriating this gas by their leaves ; and we see it gravely announced that a frugal farmer might improve his rotation by taking an occasional crop of Jerusalem artichoke — a plant found to be eminently endowed with the faculty of find- ing it! the sky that indispensable but costly azotic element which wheat in particular carries off from the soil." In 1850 the Gardoicr's Chronicle ssXA, " Among the more important facts which recent chemistry has demonstrated is, that plants naturally derive the ammonia which is so necessary to them from the atmos- phere. Thrown into the air in the form of a carbonate, it is immediately dissolved in the vapour eternally pre- sent; and when that vapour is precipitated as rain, it is conveyed to the earth and to all the foliage that in- tercepts it. Absorbed by the leaves, sucked up by the roots, it adds intensity to the green colour and vigour to all the powers of vegetation." I turn now to Morton's CycJopceclia of Agriculture, and there find practical men taking for granted that the leaf inhales ammonia. Mr. Hannam seems to imply that ammonia, or nitrogen in some shape, enters into some plants above-ground, by saying that "after a green crop is ploughed-in for manure, the soil is richer by the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitro. gen, which the green crop has obtained from sources independent of the soiK" Mr. Ilaxton affirms that the growth of the turnip is promoted by " the powerfully absorptive properties of the leaves in collecting ammonia and carbonic acid from the atmo- sphere." And in another place : " In a damp climate the leaves of wheat are constantly receiving ammonia from the moisture in the atmosphere." The scientific authorities (in the same Cyclopaedia) are more guarded. Professor Buckman thinks that the existence of ammonia in the atmosphere " accounts for numerous species of plants being suspended without contact with the soil. It also accounts for the growth of such plants as lichens on granite rocks, or even on glass, where it is impossible that their contained nitrogen can have been derived from the medium on which they grow. Indeed, it has been a subject of much discussion as to vihether plants in general derive their nitrogen from the soil or from the atmosphere. The examples of air-plants, such as Dromelias and orchids, show that \^some~\ plants can ob- tain nitrogen without contact with the soil. On the other hand, ammoniacal manures are known to he of great use, and to produce great fertility ; but whether from being absorbed by the roots, or from being exhaled around the plants under the influence of heat, is a matter we cannot yet decide upon." Dr. Voelcker writes : " It appears to be very likely that, whilst wheat, barley, and in a smaller degree oats, are principally de- pendent for their supply of nitrogen on the nitrogenized constituents of the soil, clover, lucerne, and other crops, which are characterized by an abundant foliage, can draw their supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere in one form or the other." In another place : "Although it cannot be denied that plants absorb the ammonia of the atmosphere, it is nevertheless true that this property of absorbing and elaborating the atmospheric ammonia in sufficiently large quantities is shared by compara- tively yeit?/)^an^*." Professor Way, however, brings something resembling reliable testimony to the point. He says, " The beautiful experiments of Priestley, Saus- sure, Daubeny, and others, have taught us that by means of their leaves plants decompose carbonic acid, which is always present in the air ; and further, that from the volatile carbonate and nitrate of ammonia they derive supplies of nitrogen for the formation of their albuminous constituents." Still, it is hardly clear whether he means that they "derive" this "volatile carbonate, &c.," by their leaves. Lastly, Dr. Lindley tells us that "the leaf absorbs vapour and gaseous THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 263 matters from the atmosphere, especially water, carbonic acid, oxygen, c/?i£? ammonia; there is some reason too to suspect that free nitrogen may be taken up." Here then is a distinct and unequivocal statement ; the sub- stantiating proofs of which, I suppose, may be met with somewhere. Most, but not all, of the above authorities agree that vegetables feed on ammonia by means of their roots ; but, as you see, they differ considerably, or furnish little proof, upon the question of its extraction from the atmosphere by leaves. And whether all, or only some, or which of my crops rob the soil, or the air, or both, of the mysteriously-energetic agent, I am left to find out elsewhere. My last letter contained a word or two respecting the importance of this question ; which I will now still further insist upon. Prosy practitioners of husbandry may think that if nitrogen be known to accumulate (no matter how) in certain kinds of cropping, without im- poverishing the soil of that element — at least, as far as manuring is concerned — common sense will direct us not to lavish our costly nitrogenous manure upon those crops, but save it for other kinds, if such there be, during the growth of which no such accumulation takes place; and that this amount of knowledge is sufficient for business purposes, without speculating as to the precise manner in which the gain of nitrogen has natu- rally accrued. They may say, " If we have found out which are the good-natured plants that enrich in- stead of beggaring our land, as long as they retain this convenient and profitable habit why need we trouble our heads as to how they forage for us ?" But such men never inquire " how the apples got in," as long as their pudding continues pretty good eating they never enter into the significance of astronomical discoveries, provided their East India-men arrive safely with cargo : they never ask about the laws of distri- bution of metalliferous deposits, while their private workings continue to hold out. You, Berzelius, have studied agricultural science, not to gather rough rules that may be immediately available for temporary use and profit, but to construct a chart of principles and lasting landmarks, so that a great art may be steered along the true course without needing to lose time in vainly seek- ing its way up all sorts of fair-looking inlets and decep- tive channels. You know, from the analogy of other sciences, that the true theory of cultivation (or whatever I you please to call it) cannot be discovered until the nature and operations of the things cultivated are plainly understood, and that without the guidance of demon- strated principles, all empirical rules and recipes are liable at any moment to be proved fallacious. And I need not say much to convince you that we are ignorant of a very important item of knowledge respecting the habits of a crop, when we know not whether (for the sake of nitrogen) it asks of us ample space for leafage, or deeply-pulverized and well-at-rated feeding-ground for its roots. Let me be sure that a certain kind of crop draws in ammonia mainly by its roots, and I shall con- fidently seek improvement in modes of tillage, hoe between the rows of plants, and feed them with nitro- genous manure, say before the time of blooming, or just at such periods as analysis may prove large quanti- ties of ammonia are assimilated ; and I shall spend no energy uselessly upon developing the leaf. On the other hand, let me be aware that another crop ob- tains its ammonia chiefly by the leaf, and I shall look for its better management and more economical production in a freer access of air to the plants, and a forcing of them into a precocious and expanded foliage ; while the amount of nitrogen within reach of the roots will not concern me at all. I shall endeavour to favour the plants in their eagerness for the invigorating gas, instead of fallowing, pulverizing, and manuring to azotise the soil. Spared such an expense, I shall invite them to "fall to, and help themselves," not out of my dishes, but to a feast of the inexhaustible fertilizer carried by the winds, — like as sulphuric-acid makers extract cheap oxygen from the atmosphere, instead of buying it in an expensive mineral form. I might sometimes manure the root for the purpose of swelling the leaf; or I might encourage the leaf for the sake of augmenting the capa- bilities of the root : but once having certitude as to which organ was the principal agent to be fed, trained and cared for in every crop, my efforts after improved culture would be concentrated above or below-ground, as the case might be ; I should know that there alone, if anywhere, progress might be made, and so push along that path, instead of waiting the chances of unlooked- for discovery. But, I see, I am running away from the question of the value of this knowledge to agricultural science, and am trying to show how it would advantage agricultural practice; so that my next communication must touch upon this point before proceeding to other subjects. Yours, &c., J. A. C. PROBUS DISTRICT PLOUGHING MATCH. This annual ploughing match took place on Tuesday, Feb. lOtli, in a field at Treverbyn, in the occupation of Mr. John Stephens, in the parish of Probus. The field was of large extent, more than twenty acres, a five or six years' ley, and in excellent condition. Twentj--nine ploughs com- peted for the prizes. The work done by the double or turinvrcbt ploughs was very good ; but the work by the single ploughs was not so good as might have been expected, probably owing to the men not having been accustomed to them. All the single ploughs were of good construction, being made after those of Messrs. Howard, Ransome, and other good iiuploiuent makers. The three single ploughs which won the best prizes were made by Mr. Ucrrans, of Tregony ; and the double or turnwrest ploughs were almost •ill made in the county. The weather was fine, and there was a large number of agriculturists in the field. The stewards of the field were Mr. John Stephens, of Trever- byn, and ]\Ir. Robert Ilcarle, of Carvean. The judges of the ploughing were Mr. James, of Mcrther ; Mr. James Davis, of St.' Ewe, and Mr, James Chapman, of St. Ermo. A dynamometer was used in the field to test the draught of the different ploughs. The dinner took place at the Hawkin's Arms. There was a large attendance, consisting of between sixty and seventy, who were presided over by Mr. Richard Davey, of Red- ruth and Polsue, supported by the Rev. Prebendary Barnes, of Probus, the Rev. H. Boyd, Mr. Trethewy, Mr. Tresaw- na, and other agriculturists of the neighbourhood ; Mr. W. Trethewy occupying the vice-chair. After the usual loyal toasts were drunk, the Rev. H. Boyd, in responding to " the Cluu'ch", expressed his pleasure in being present at the meeting, and also at an earlier part of the day's proceedings when he witnessed the skill shown in the field at Treverbyn. He had no claim to much practical skill as an agriculturist, but still he might claim the interest, if not of a producer, of a consumer ; and tlie interest of one who considered agriculture to be one of the most enjoyable as well as useful occupations to which a man couki turn his hands or his head. During the last few years he had had the opportunity of witnessing agrieul- 2e4 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ture under very difieient phases. He had not only been in England, but abroad in the far lands of the East, whei-e, he need not tell them, farming was very dilTerent from what it was in England. He then gave an interesting description of the liilly and level country in the Holy Land, their dif- ferent soils, and the ploughing, sowing, and ingathering of the harvest in that land. During the last two years he had been liviugin a county which ranked among the foremost of the counties of England in agricultural progress — Lincoln- shire. ]\Iany of the farmers there possessed very large capital, and many of the farms counted their acres not by hundreds, but by thousands. Many of the fields contained fiftv, one hundred, two hundred, and he had even heard of more than three hundred acres being under one enclosure. A great difference struck one on coming down from Lincoln- shire to Cornwall. A stranger at the first glance might pass an unwarranted and unjust judgment. Like results cannot be expected where conditions were different ; one must take into account the character of the soil and the temperature of the climate. He could imagine a sharp and clever man, with all his new notions in his head, coming down from the east country into Cornwall, and finding him- self like a fish out of water, and only after repeated failures and taking hints from his neighbours, learning how best to manage a farm in the West of England. Mr. Karkeek said, in returning thanks for his health being drunk in connection with the " Royal Agricultural Society," some of the previous speakers had spoken of the great improvement that had taken place in agriculture ; and he believed a great deal of that improvement was attributa- ble to the Royal Agricultural Society, in awarding liberal prizes for the exhibition of breeding cattle, and particularly agricultural implements. A short time since they offered a premium to any person who would produce a manure equal in fertilising properties to guano, capable of being produced in large quantities, and sold at £5 per ton. Now if ever the society showed a degree of illiberality, they did in that instance. If it were in the power of any man to produce a manure equal to Peruvian guano, they should have offered a prize for it, equivalent to the great boon it would confer upon the United Kingdom ; instead of Avhich they offered the paltry premium of £1,000. He had lately beeninformed on good authoritj^, that Antony Gibbs & Co., who are the sole agents for the sale of Peruvian guano, have said : " Talk about £1,000 ! we are ready to give a hundred thousand, and not a hundred thousand onlj', but a hundred thousand pounds per annum to any man who will produce a manure equal to the Peruvian guano, and not for only £5 a ton, hut we will give £10." He alluded to this, because they all knew that at the present time Peruvian guano was at a very high price, and a great deal of blame had been attribu- ted to A. Gibbs & Co. on that account. But depend upon it, it was not their fault ; he knew, from good "authority, that they had objected to the rise taking place. The fact was that the whole sale of Peruvian guano was in the hands of the Peruvian bondholders, who raise and lower the mar- ket as they please. No blame, therefore, was to be attribu- ted to Antony Gibbs, though his name was often brought before the public in that way, and with a degree of illibe- rality he did not deserve, Mr. Trethewy considered the work in the field that day was exceedingly well performed, with a few exceptions. The first opening out of the ground with some of the single ploughs was not in that order it should be, but they very much mended as they progressed, and on the whole he should say the work was very well done. He was sorry to differ from their worthy chairman respecting deep ploughing in that county. As far as he had seen, in many instances it had not succeeded; he had never seen subsoiling attended •with any good effect. It was true there were some soils in the county which could not be ploughed too deep, but he was speaking of the soils generally. Where there was a good subsoil, it was certainly of importance to mix it with the upper soil ; but if they examined the different cuttings of the railway and other places, they could see there would be little benefit derived from mixing the upper with the sub- soil. Also, where much guano or otiier artificial manure was used, he considered the more it was concentrated and kept at the surface the better. He agreed with the chairman, that on light soils such manures passed through much quicker than they did on stiller soils, with a clay subsoil ; but not- withstanding that, if they ploughed verj^ deep, they had little effect from the manure afterwards. It was the practice in many counties to get a good deep mould, and he believed it held the moisture and the manure better, where they had something to work on ; but in that county it was generally very different. He saw some soil not long since worked by their worthy chairman, and that could not be ploughed much too deep, for whatever stones were brought up one year, they were crushed into mould the next, or the year following, and could not do much damage ; but where they ploughed down the upper soil, and brought up as bad or worse, he thought it must be injurious. In some parts of Gloucester- shire there was very deep ploughing; but in other parts they only scratched the back-bone of the rocks ; those lands were on the oolite, and if they went deeper they lost their ma- nure ; and it was much the same in that county. As to the ploughs used that day, he thought there seemed to be pre- vailing fashions in ploughs as in other things. A few years since there was scarcely such a thing as a turnwrest plough, often improperly called a double plough. But at length the turnwrest ploughs came into general use, improvements were made in them, and at last it was thought no other ploughs were equal to them. The turnwrest ploughs in fact,"in the hilly ground, were turning down the tops of the fields to the bottom, which rendered the upper part of the field quite useless, whilst the quantity of soil brought down was more than was required. In going over a farm with a tenant, who had a long two-acre field, and very sloping, he saw that the top of the field had been stripped by repeated ploughings, and a large portion of the soil turned down to the bottom, so that the fanner had only half of the field under the plough, and after some time would have none. Furze and brambles had taken possession of the soil at the top, and followed down after the plough. lie told him he saw the plough had notice to quit, being driven out by the brambles and furze. In Devonshire and Kent there were turnwrest ploughs, but not in many other counties, or in Scotland. They there ploughed straight up and down the hill, and consequently the soil drained itself. He did not know whether the common ploughs were not better for ordinary purposes than the turnwrest ploughs they used so generally in that district. The Chairman explained that he had only given his opinion that deep ploughing was good, and had been proved so, where it was practicable. As to applying it pell-mell to any kind of land, that might be very injurious. If he were going to-morrow to lay down a field, and intended to come to deep ploughing hereafter, he should turn up only about an inch at a time. He had found the greatest advantage from subsoiling ; he had tried it after the wheat stubble then put in the green crops, and the succeeding crop of barley had been enormous. Mr. Trethewy said many would confirm his statement that they had never seen any benefit fi-om subsoiling in that neighbourhood. The Chairman rem.arked, it would not answer unless there was depth of soil. Mr. Karkeek said he did not think some of them had applied manure when they had got up the subsoil. Mr. Karkeek, upon being referred to in reference to the farm of the Chairman, at Philleigh, observed that he had taken some notes on his recent visit to that place ; and after apologising for the brief manner in which they were taken, said Mr. Tresawna, Mr. Trethewy, Mr. Christopher Whitford, Mr. Henry Croggon, a«id himself were present. The notes were as follows :— " Some attention having been excited during the past two months relative to Mr. Davey's new system of feeding cattle on Polsue farm, and Mv. Davey having given a very kind invitation in reply to an intimation of our wishes to inspect the farm, we proceeded on Thursday last to fulfil the visit, of which we now pro- ceed to give a brief account. We found the cattle. North Devous, thirty-two in number, kept in separate boxes in two houses recently built. They were fed in wooden troughs eighteen inches wide by twelve inches deep, with a mixture of grated turnips and chaff straw in the propor- tion of ninety pounds of the former to seven pounds of the latter, mixed in the following manner. The grated turnips (swedes) are intimately mixed with the chaff in a bin suf- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 205 ficiently large to supply the cattle \vith_ one daj^'s food. These ingredients are allowed to remain in tl'.e bin three days, during which time considerable fermentation and heat are produced in the mass, sufficient to cook the whole, as if it had been submitted to the power of steam. We observed that an odour is emitted durinj^ the fermentation similar to fresh brewer's grains, evidently the consequence of the saccharine matter evolved from the roots and chaff. There were three bins constantly at work in this manner, so as to afford a regular daily sirpply. !)71bs. of this mix- ture is given to each animal, and 4ibs. of linseed cake per day, in the following manner : — 1st feed G o'clock a.m. mixture of chaff and turnips, 2nd do. 9 o'clock a.m. ditto. 3rd do. 12 o'clock noon 41bs. cake. 4tli do. 1 o'clock p.m. mixture. 5th do. 4 o'clock p.m. ditto. In addition to this, about 31bs. of diy chaff is given during the evening. The cattle are exceedingly fond of the mix- ture, so much so, that there has been some difficulty ex- perienced in getting them to eat the linseed cake. In ordinary feeding with turnips, it is always observed that cattle will consume the cake in preference to roots, but not so in this case, as the mixture is preferred to the cake. We estimated the cost of feeding cattle in this manner at about 6s. per week. It very evidently agreed with them in a remarkable manner, as the whole number wore in an ex- ceedingly thriving condition. They were purchased about ten weeks since, and placed in the boxes on this new system of feeding eight weeks, and many of them were fat enough for the butcher. We paid particular attention to the boxes and their construction. They were eight and a-half feet square. The dung was allowed to accumulate until it rose to about two feet, when it was removed — about two months' accumulation— each box averaging six loads of very rich manure. Our attention was also directed to the method adopted in keeping the store pigs. The piggery consisted of a covered building about thirty-three feet square ; three feet below, and adjoining the farm stable at one end, containing eight powerful grey labour horses ; and three feet below the oxen house, containing eight oxen, but with room enough for twelve head of cattle at the other end. The piggery v.-as separated from the oxen-house and stable by two doors. The litter from these departments is duly mixed and distributed over the piggery, so that in fact we here found a complete manure manufactory, carried on by the pigs, forty in number; and notwithstanding this daily accumulation of horses, cattle, and pigs' dung, the piggery was clean, dry, and without any disagreeable odour. The manure there manufactured was exceedingly rich, averaging two hundred loads removed every three months during the six winter months of the year. The pigs were usually fed with the fermented turnips three days old, which was prepared in three tubs constantly at work, according to the method adopted for the feeding cattle. Within the last fortnight some damaged barley had been given in addition to the fermented turnips, and we certainly never witnessed forty pigs together in such a happy, contcntiid, and thriving condition. The buildings were admirabl}' arranged for thegreatcstccnnomy of labour. There was a powerful corn-crusher, a cliaif-cutter, and root- grater in an upper store room, worked by one horse, and the chaff and grated turnip were dropped through shoots into the bins below in the lower store room, where the mix- ing and fermenting took place. The store-rooms were about forty feet by twenty-five each. We must not omit mentioning the mode by which the food was conveyed to the different feeding dejiartmonts. This was managed by a tram waggon worked on rails and a turn-table, by which it was directed either to the stable, oxen house, or feeding houses as required. Here the economy of labour appeared complete, as the whole of the feeding department was easily conducted by a man and a boy, who manufactured the food and fed all the cattle and pigs, and had the charge of two hundred sheep in addition. Wc should add that this system of feeding is both simple and inexpensive, .and could easily be adopted on any sized farm ; and wo would par- ticularly recommend our neighbours to take the opportunity of making themselves acquainted with the wliole of the de- tails by personal observation. The construction of the feeding house is well worthy of their attention ; also the dairy cows'-house and yards attached, which were_ suffi- ciently large to accommodate sixteen cows. There is one circumstance connected with these buildings, which will be certain to attract the observation of any visitor, viz., the absence of disagreeabjo smells and the perfect cleanliness in every department. Regularity in feeding and cleanliness is highly important in successful feeding of cattle, and this ' desideratum is particularly attended to _ on Polsue estate. We have made some inquiries respecting the cost of the root pulpers and graters, and we find that Phillips's patent pulper costs from £6 10s. to £12 12s. ; Bentall's patent root pulper from £5 os. to £9 9s. ; and Bushe and Barter's grater, gmanufactured by Ransomes and Sims, a machine very similar in construction to Mr. Davey's, may be purchased for £4 10s. This appears to be a simple, strong, and lasting implement. The roots are delivered from the machine in a grated state, and it is easily worked by one man." [Mr. Tresawna here remarked that the piggery was covered.] The Chairman said it was known to most of them thatV agriculture was not his original avocation, and that it was "^^ not many years siuced he turned his pick and gad into a ploughshare ; but having nov/ put his hand to the plough, he believed he should not turn back. He had felt a great in- terest in agriculture, and had travelled to see all the model and example farms worthy of notice, from the Land's End to John-o'-Groat's House, and certainly something might be picked irp from all of them ; but whilst he had seen something to copy in all, he had also seen much to avoid. The principal failure of the farms he had visited was in the farm buildings, which weie inconvenient and insufficient to accommodate the tenant, and enable him to return the pro- duce of the farm to the best advantage. How often did they see a heap of manm'e left on a bank to evaporate by the ac- tion of the sun and wind, or to drain away or stagnate in the ditches ! How could a man farm properly unless he had the means ? He did not lay all the blame to the land- lords ; he thought it was their duty to assist, but he thought the tenants should nav something per cent, on the money laid out. He believed many a landlord would do something for his tenantry if they would meet him in the cost. Some time ago he told a man he would lay out £200 on his farm in buildings -, but the man said, " I won't thank you for it, and won't'pay you anything for it," consequently it was not done. He had always felt great interest in agricultural matters. The feeding of cattle on fermented roots, which Mr. Karkeek had mentioned, he had seen abroad, but had not formerly room to convert a sufficient quantity into food to last three days. He had now been enabled to do that at Polsue, and he was sure any farmer going there to see it would be well pleased, and they were quite welcome to see it. Mr. Trethewy, referring to the statements Mr. Kar- keek had read, said in the feeding at 6s. per week at Pol- sue, the value of the manure was not taken into account. If that was done, the cost would be nothing like 6s. a week. Chaff was consumed, and the turnips and oilcake were charged. [Mr. James, of Merther, here asked what the chaff consisted of, to which the Chairman replied any straw he happened to have from thrashing.] Mr. Trethewy further said he never saw cattle looking more contented than at Polsue : he could see from their appearance of comfort that they were doing well ; and he had no doubt, if they had been weighed from week to week, they would have been found to increase rapidly. As to the pigs, they appeared to be doing better than any animals he ever saw on the fbod they had, which was perhaps due, in a great measure, to the warmth of the piggery. He then mentioned some returns of the Registrar-tieneral as proving that warmth was best both for man and anim.als. Mr. Karkeek also made some remarks on the beneficial influence of warmth in the feeding of animals, and said it was well-knoAvn that warmth was an equivalent foriood. Mr. .Tames was much pleased with what Mr. Karkeek had read respecting Mr. Davey's farm. He also had the pleasure of seeing that farm, and he was particularly struck with the small quantity of roots consumed by the bullocks, less than 100 lbs. per day; and yet those bullocks were doing remarkably well, as well or better than any lot of 266 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bullocks lie had ever seen. Now Jmllocks of that sort or size in Cornwall, when feeding, consume generallj' about 1| cwt. of roots daily ; and if bj' Mr. Davey's plan about one- h alf the quantity could be saved, it would be a very impor- tant point. Mr. Davey's plan was a little more expensive in labour for preparing the food, but the saving in food would more than compensate for that. He then spoke of the im- provement made in agriculture during the last twenty years, and contended that the agriculturists, generally speaking, h ad made as much advance as the manufacturers. But th ey should all endeavour to make further progress, and follow in the steps of such gentlemen as their worthj^ chair- man, who were introducing new systems into agriculture, and would be able to say whether they were profitable or not. Mr. Lawry asked a question or two with regard to the draught of the ploughs, which had that day been tried by a dynamometer. Mr. Faull, of Treverva, said the turn-wrest ploughs averaged 4^ cwt., and the single 4^ cwt. This he thought was owing to the skim coulters of the single ploughs not having been well worked. The single ploughs did not work so deep as the double ploughs ; the width of the furrow was not taken. Mr. W. Trethewy thought if it had been, the single ploughs would have been found to have turned a wider fur- row than the turn-wi-est ploughs. Mr. Trethewy subsequently introduced the subject of manures by way of promoting a discussion on the use of superphosphate of lime, and advised the farmers not to em- ploy it as a manure for corn crops ; for although it undoubt- edly was an excellent manure for turnips, he was satisfied it would not answer for wheat, barley, or oats. He alluded to some experiments made by the late Mr. Pusey which confirmed his opinion. He would suggest the use of nitrate of soda, mixed with common salt, in the proportion of I| cwt. each per acre, as a top-dressing for barley and oats, in case the farmers Avanted a substitute for guano, on account of the present increased price of tliat article. Mr. Karkeek perfectly coincided with Mr. Trethewy in the advice he had given, and said that farmers might rely on the fact, that although superphosphate of lime was even now recommended as a manure for spring corn crops by dealers in that article, yet he could assure them it was almost valueless for that purpose when used by itself ; but when mixed with Peruvian guano, in the proportion of 2 cwt. of Lawes's Superphosphate to 3 cwt. of guano, it would prove a valuable and very efficient manure. He had been in the habit of recommending this mixture for corn crops of every description for several years, and it had been used with great success by an immense number of fanners ; and the invariable result was to produce a stilfer straw, a greater tillering, and a heavier ear, than could be produced by the same weight of guauo used by itself. Alluding to the va- rious superphosphates now offered to the public, he cautioned the farmers against purchasing any kind whatever, unless the amount of " soluble" phosphates was guaranteed. This he considered absolutely necessary to the farmer who looks upon the quality in artificial manure as the great security for a good crop of turnips. He said it had hitherto been the practice to attach a value to the insoluble phosphates of the superphosphates, which had been done much in error, particularly when the insoluble portion consists, as it most frequently does, of hard-ground coprolite, which was of little or no agricutural value. The fanner would therefore do well not to place any value on the insoluble phosphate, unless they have the assurance that this portion is in the form of bone. He also considered that good manufactured super- phosphate should contain at least from 22 to 25 per cent, of soluble phosphate, which, with some 10 per cent, of insolu- ble phosphates in the form of bone, would prove a valuable manure for turnips. This terminated the proceedings of an evening most agreeably and usefullj' spent. THE GUANO CRISIS. We are just now at the very height of our guano difficulty. That is to say, this is the season — a most favourable season, too — when above all others we need itj and there is none to be had. One of our most respectable manure-dealers was, for the first time, on Saturday, directly refused. They could not even promise him any further supply. When people have gradually accustomed themselves to the matter-of-course use of anything, the unexpected want of it must be very severely felt. This is the case with the farmer. We want guano as a manure for our barley and oats, and as a top-dressing- for our wheat. We have reckoned more or less on our customary allowance, and have con- secjuently neglected proportionately, to provide any sub- stitute. With ordinary care, as we begin to see now wlien it is too late, we might have fallen back upon our own resource; as it is, however, there is an extraor- dinary and altogether unprecedented run on such manufactured manures as contain the ingredients re- quked — ammonia and phosphates especially. The makers and dealers are at their wits' end to answer the orders pouring in upon them, and go from one to the other anxiously seeking the material to fulfil them. Each succeeding year turns up its peculiar subject for discussion. Last year it was agricultural statistics ; this it is as assuredly the guano monopoly. Almost every one of our leading national societies have already touched upon it. The Farmers' Club, as we have shown, was the first to open the attack ; and since then both the English and Scotch Agricultural Societies have given it a prominent place in their proceedings. A fortnight since, Mr. Evelyn Denison, as President of the Royal Agi-icultural Society of England, was de- puted to confer with Lord Clarendon on the subject. We have yet, however, to learn what came of the in- terview. And only on Monday last a more numerous deputation from the Highland Society paid an offi- cial vLsit to Loid Stanley of Alderley. The object was of course to procure, if possible, a supply of guano from elsewhere ; and the first point urged upon the attention of his lordship was the policy of obtaining possession of the Kooria Mooria Islands. These deposits, it will be remembered, have been brought into notice chiefly through the agency of Mr. Caird, who, a week since, at a general council Meet- ing of the English Society, dwelt at some length upon their value. The representatives of the Scotch agi-i- culturist went on to ask for an exploring expedition ; at the same time they warned the Government from sanctioning any further monopoly, as it seems is to be the case with Captain Ord and the Arabian Guano. Still the i^rinciple of monopoly is broken through when once we can establish an opposition to it ; and the pos- session of these Kooria Mooria islands might work us good in a variety of ways. We believe such conferences as these to be all in the right direction — the first step to the attainment of what we seek. It is sheer absurdity to say we must not look too much, or depend much upon the Government here. On the contrary, this is just one of those ca«es that we must look to the Government; and, moreover, let them know that we depend upon them. Pray who is to help us, or to put such a trade as this upon a proper footing, if our own flag does not ? Was it any other business — Manchester, Birmingham, or Sheffield — so interested, their leaders would never stav their exertions until THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 something was done. Neither must cms. Tlie former has surely some friends in either House who will keep the question alive for liim. But what did these Houses or the Government ever do for the farmer yet ? the less sanguine may enquire. Litth) enough, perliaps. A sufficiently good reason for their doing more now they have the opportunity — and when they may do it, not merely without injury, but with manifest advantage to themselves and the community. Still, let us repeat, the agriculturist may do much for himself. We give in another part of our magazine (see page 191) alecture delivered by ProfessorAnderson, on Wednesday, before a full meeting of the Higliland Society. The whole point of this paper is, as was the case at the London Club, that the farmer has not done enough for himself — that he has learnt to rely far too much upon the use of guano, when many other materials would often have served him as well or better, "J feel convinced that guano has been frequently used when other manures icould have produced an equally good result at a less cost." The whole lecture is very plain and practical, and must be proportionately effective. It will be obseiwed, the Professor dwells on the now common charge against the farmer, the waste and abuse of his own home-made manure ; while he hints at something more as likely soon to be a home-made article. The agriculturist is to be the manufacturer of his own superphosphate. This leads us to another point of view, taken by a gentleman, a communication from whom was read at this meeting. How is it, if the Professor and practice agree so well in this matter— how is it that people have come to such an indiscriminate application of guano, " when other manures would have produced an equally good result at a less cost" ? Mr. Finnic himself helps us to the solution of his own query. The farmers have, as a rule, become afraid of other manures. They have so often been done ; so often been caught with wliat was warranted cheap and good, that they have pru- dently refrained from pursuing so dangerous an expe- riment. With all their faults, the Messrs. Gibbs have preserved their characters, and given us the genuine article; while the best friends the Messrs. Gibbs ever had have been the adulterators. With all its puffing and quackery, there has been no time when people were more ready to pay a good price for a good article. The thing, however, maybe carried too far— just as it has been. We should have continued to submit quietly enough to Peruvian dominion, had there not, like Byron's Corsair, been " No limit to their sway." As it is, we are already in open rebellion. We are fight- ing our cause, moreover, with every precedent in history to assure us that tyranny pushed to its extreme has been ever fatal to him who exercised it. Like a pig swimming, monopoly going too fast a-head will only end by cutting its own throat. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE Sowing of grains must now go on rapidly; spring wheat, oats, barley, peas, beans, and vetches, so fast as the season and means will allow and can execute ; flax and lucerne on well-prepared grounds, with 12 lbs. to 20 lbs. of seed to an acre, and sain- foin at 1-2 cwt. to an acre, and dress with gypsum. Sow parsnips and carrots on rich well-prepared lands ; drill at 18 inches distance on the flat ground, with seed steeped in lees of urine, or in a solution of nitrate of potass — one to six of water — and dry by encrusting with quicklime. Top- dress clovers and young wheats with applications of salt, rape-dust, malt coombs, gypsum, and nitrate of soda ; the latter at 1 to 2 cwt. on an acre. Sow cabbage seeds for summer plants ; put hght stock animals on watered meadows ; set traps and spread mole-hills ; bush-harrow, roll, and finish the dunging of grass lands. The planting and cutting of timber of any kind must now be finished. Plant hops on dry lands, trenched, and well prepared ; make hills six feet distant each way, which best admits the scarifier ; place four sets in each pit — one in each corner — and cover lightly with earth. Begin to cross-plough the lands intended for green-crop fallows ; remove all turnips from the fields; and carry out dung in weather unfavour- able for sowing. Send the strong lambs to the natural and artificial grasses, and to the watered meadows. The ewes will now drop lambs very fast, and will claim much attention : feed amply with juicy food, swedes, beet-root, and cabbages, by being preserved for this most useful purpose. The feeding of hogs for bacon will cease this month, and the foremost-fed bullocks may also be removed. Carry all dung to the manure heaps, and keep all houses clean. Set poultry on eggs for hatching, and exchange eggs with any neigh- bour; feed well, and attend to cleanliness, and provide good accommodation for the young broods : it is both pleasant and profitable to see a numerous and healthy flock of poultry on any farm. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO, &c. PERUVIAN GUANO, (per ton, for 30 tons) £Vi 5 0 to X 0 Do Do (under 30ton8) H 15 0 15 BOLIVIAN GUANO (none) 0 0 0 0 ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c. Nitrate Soda Nitrate Potash \ or Saltpetre J Sulplit. Ammonia 18 0 0 .Muriate ditto... 22 0 0 Superphosplit. \ g n n of Lime i Soda Ash, or > „ g q Alkali j Gypsum 2 \£W 10 0to£20 0 0 0 30 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 Sulph.otCopper-j X 3. d. £ or Roma.1 Vi- f ^^ fl 0 to 43 trioljtorWheat ( steepin, Super 17 0 18 0 Do. Combing— Wether matching ,, . 23 0 24 0 Do. Picklock 19 10 20 0 Do, Common 16 0 17 0 Do, Hog matching Ui \0 25 0 Do, Picklock matching 20 10 2110 Do, Superdo, 17 10 18 10 LEEDS WOOL MARKET, Feb. 20.— There has not b; en any material chaus;e in this market this week. Sales have been to a moJerate extent, to supply the immediate wants of the manufcturers, at last week's rates. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, Feb. 21. Scotch. — There continues a fair demand for Laid Highland wool, but at these high prices consumers buy with great cau- tion. White Hif^hlaud is also in fair request, and cotiimauds full rates. Cheviot and crossed are also in fair demand. s. d, s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 241bs 15 6 16 6 White Highland do 18 0 20 0 Laid Crossed do,, unwashed .... 17 0 19 6 Do, do. .washed 18 0 22 0 Laid Cheviot do. .unwashed .... 20 0 23 0 Do. do. .washed 23 0 28 0 Foreign. — The near approach of the London sales, with light stocks, stands in tbe way of anything like active opera- tions ; but the demand is good, and anything arriving ia picked up at once at fully late rates. FOREIGN WOOL MARKET, CITY, Monday, Feb. 23. — The accounts from the various continental wool markets state that business had been very quiet, although full prices in all instances were current. At the sales of colonial wool in Loadoi!, which commence oa the 26th inst., it is expected that full rates will be realized. The quantity already arrived amounts to about 32,280 bales, the greater part of which is from the Cape of Good Hope, viz., 6,151 from Sidney, 7,^37 from Victoria, 816 from Tasmania, 469 from Adelaide, 77 from Swan River, aud 16,939 from the Cape of Good Hope, besides about 2,207 bales of low wools from the Enst Indies and China. It is generally at.ticipr.ted that the demand for the middling qualities of Australian and C?.pe wools will be very active, especially for France aud the German markets, owing, in a great measure, to the short supplies of British and the increased consumption for home use. Per lb. Duty Free. s. d, s. d. German, f 1st and 2nd Elect 3 4 to 4 6 Saxon, j Prima 2 4 3 0 and ) Secunda 2 0 3 4 Prussian. (Tertia 18 110 Australian&V.D.Land— Combg.&Clothg I 2j 2 9 Do. Lambs 1 li 2 PJ Do, Locks and Pieces 0 8^ 1 111 Bo. Grease 0 8| 1 8A Do. Skin and Slipe 0 lo| 111 S. Australian &S.Eivcr—Conibg.&Clotl'.g 11 2 2i Do, Lambs 10 20 Do. Locks .ind Pieces 0 8 16 Do, Grease ,. 0 6 1 3 Do, Skin andSlipe 10 18 Cape — Average Flocks 10 1 lOj Do, Combing and Clothing 11 1 F^ Do, Lambs 1 1^ 1 10^ Do. Locks and Pieces,, 1 3J 15 Do, Grease 0 8 14 Printed by Rngerson snd Tuxfo'd. 2Jf>, ?tr.nnd, L-'ti(lr.n. THE FAKMEE'S MAGAZINE. APRIL, 1857. PLATE I. VULCAN, A THOROUGH-BRED STALLION. ENGRAVED BY E. HACKER, AFTER A PAINTING BY J. F. HERRING, JUN , OF GREAT WILBRAHAM, CAMBRIDGE. It is not all over yet with the glories of Dudding Hill Farm. True enough, 900 sheep and 120 head of cattle do not browse in its pastures; 500 pigs do not dream their souls away near its crowdy troughs; retired steeple-chasers — Lottery, Vanguard, Carlow, Proceed, and Duenna to wit — do not carry the bailiff on his 800-acre rounds, or trot into London, rattling their inglorious chains, as leaders m the waggon-team ; and two hundred head of blood stock do not ruminate in i07 loose boxes, or prick up their ears, in the meadows hard by, to the " merrie musick" of the Neasdon harriers. A more sober order of things has set in, under the auspices of the Editor of the " Herd Book ;" the boxes are gradually being devoted to oxen and kine, not put in as warming-pans over-night for a thorough-bred (as an Alderney was for Voltigeur at Doncaster), but, strictly on their own account ; and the clink of busy " hammers closing rivets up" near the ring, betokens that the spot will in a few short weeks be known to all breeders, as the Short-horn Tattersalls of England. Blood- stock have, however, not wholly retreated from their old haunts, before the descendants of Hubback, and the rest of Coates's short-horned chivalry. Having none of that ardour which carried the veteran on his white pony through many a day of weary pedigree-chasing in Yorkshire, we cannot say that we visited that memorable seven-box row this month with exactly the feehngs of yore. In the place of the chesnut Ethelbert, there was nothing but a vacuum in No. 7. The Hermit was not conferring his 2,000-guinea lustre on No. 6, nor Cleveland Short Legs (a Devonshire worthy now) on No. 5 ; but they formed the hermitages of a young bull and a chesnut Suffolk cart sire, with limbs like a young elephant. The hollow-backed Tearaway, who dropped down dead, like his grandfather, Blacklock, as he was returning into No. 4, just after covering a mare, has also found a successor in Vocalist, the grandson of the 1,000-guinea Grand Duke ; and the massive Highland Laddie glowered fiercely round at us from the bin, where the shelly light-loined Pitsford was wont to feed. Two boxes, however, are still faithful to their first love. Chabron by Camel has succeeded to No. 2, which The Libel quitted after the sale for Sled- mere, and where the elegant Lothario, the first blood horse that the Messrs. Hall ever purchased, broke his thigh and died. But No. 1 has a better tale to tell. Harkaway has left it, to end his days beyond the Tweed, at Ladykirk ; Epirus has gone to the " happy hunting grounds," and Peep-o'-Day Boy has migrated in lieu of 2,000 " yellow boys" sterling, to the land of knouts and frostbites, where General Chassr, Coronation, Jereed, and Van Tromp, have gone before him. Vulcan is the tenant now, and save and excepting a slight sway in the ^back, from years, looking as fresh and well as when Nat (who had wasted 4h pounds in two hours for the mount !) came in "hands down" on him in front of 22 for the Cambridgeshire, or when young John Day rode out the dead heat with Rhodanthe for the Liverpool Trades Cup. Giving 23lbs. to the mare, who was a five-year-old like himself, was no joke in those palmy days of Aintree, when men, and not " dolls," went, saddle in hand, to scale. St. Lawrence, Tearaway, Bellona, Satirist, Cruiskeen, Retriever, and Cardinal Puff, had all to bow to him in his time; and whether he was carrying 12st. 12lb8. at Goodwood, or cutting down the speedy Chameleon OLD SERIES] T [VOL. XLVL—No. 4. 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or Scutari over the two-year-old courses at Newmarket, he was equally at home. We should describe him as a whole-coloured and bony brown dapple, slightly over sixteen hands, with a very clean-made head, and remarkably fine across the muzzle, which is put on rather dromedary fashion. Add to this, a good neck and back, oblique shoulders, great depth of girth, with legs as fine and sound as a foal's, and rather curiously " shot" with grey hairs, and the portrait is as faithful on paper as Mr. Herring's is on canvas. He is by Verulam by Lottery, out of Puss by Teniers, and so claims kindred through Peruvian with Alexander ; while on Verulam's side he strains back to Tramp and "Waxy, the two stoutest sires that perhaps the north and south paddocks ever produced. True to the Tramp traditions, the ", young blacksmiths" have proved themselves, both in Ireland and elsewhere, first-rate workmen over a stiflf country ; and by another twelvemonth we shall doubtless see not a few more of them dotting the pleasant meadows between Dudding Hill and Willesden. PLATE II. GENERAL BOSQUET, A Short-hoen Bull, BRED BY AND THE PROPERTY OP F. H. FAWKES, ESa.j OF FARNLEY HALL, OTLEY, YORKSHIRE. General Bosquet was calved on March 14th/1855, and got by Bridegroom (11203), dam (Betty Foy) by Borrowby Boy (9980), g. d. (Lady Fairy) by Laudable (9282), gr. g. d. (Fairy Tale) by Sir Thomas Fairfax (5196), gr. gr. g. d. (Thomasine) by Stillington (5337), gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Young Rockingham 2547), gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Driver (1928), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Richard (1376). In July, 1856, General Bosquet, then only fifteen months old, and the youngest of the thirteen shown, took the first prize of twenty-five sovereigns for the best bull calved since July 1854, at the Chelmsford Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In the same month he took the first prize of fifteen sovereigns at the Meeting of the Northumberland County Society, being here again the youngest of the seven entered. In August — not September — he took the first prize of twenty sovereigns at the Rotherham Meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society. General Bosquet is a rich roan young bull, of great girth, and altogether a thickly-formed animal; very level and symmetrical, with good looks, and many excellent points. In a word, he is a credit to Mr. Fawkes' justly-celebrated herd. THE SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE OF LIME. BY CUTHBEBT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. The history of the introduction of superphos- phate of lime into agriculture may be studied by us with considerable advantage. To trace the very first researches upon the action of mineral acids upon the soil, the rude trials that were then made, the very slow introduction of the insoluble phos- phates, the steady increase of its use, and the still more rapid improvement in the value of that met ■with in commerce, commands, as it were, our at- tention— will well reward us for the time we devote to the consideration of the subject. It is indeed interesting to note the zealous, the imperfect, un- scientific attempts of those agriculturists who, towards the close of the last century, instituted trials in this direction. Actuated by the conviction which then began to be entertained of the import- ance of chemistry to agriculture, trials were here and there made ; but, like those of the alchymists generally, with ill-defined objects, and generally with valueless results. The zeal of some of these searchers after knowledge now-and-then supplied their want of scientific knowledge. Of this valuable class was Arthur Young. He lived at the dawn of modern chemistry ; imbibed the enthusiasm of his great chemical contemporaries — of such men as Watt and Priestley ; and, as he partook of their ardour, so he seemed, in his trials, to imitate in a great and ruder measure their modes of investiga- tion. When Davy was describing the labours of Priestley, he in fact pretty well sketched all those of Arthur Young, as he possessed, said that great philosopher, ardent zeal, and the most unwearied industry. He exposed all the substances he could procure to chemical agencies, and brought forward his results as they occurred, without attempting logical method or scientific arrangement. He pos- sessed in the highest degi-ee ingenuousness and the love of truth. His manipulations, though never very refined, were always simple, and often ingenious. To his scientific deficiencies, however* THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Young was sensibly alive. In the year 1790, he told his readers, at the commencement of an ac- count of a series of experiments, " to apply air as a manure" (an excellent object, which has never yet been systematically pursued, yet whose import- ance did not escape the sagacity of Young). " It has never been my conduct to abandon to specula- tion that which can be brought to the test of experiment ; but a person in such retirement as I live in, without opportunity of consulting with practical chemists — a person thus situated may feel very earnest desires to pursue a line of activity and vigour, and yet experience the mortifying convic- tion that, for want of a better support, his wishes may be vain, and his efforts useless" {Annals of A(j., vol. i., p. 169). Still, Young was undaunted by these difficulties. He evidently had a strong suspicion that mineral acids might be useful as manures ; and he tried to verify his opinion by trials which are the earliest instances of which I am aware of such 'an application. It was in May, in the year 1782 {lb., vol. i., p. 141), that we find him using for this purpose — 1, nitric acid ; 2, nitric acid and tartrate of potash} 3, muriatic acid. In pots of earth thus dressed, he sowed seeds of barley ; but the success, as might be anticipated, was but poor. In June of the same year he con- tinued these trials {lb., p. 156), then using — 1, charcoal and sulphuric acid ; 2, charcoal and nitric acid ; 3, charcoal and muriatic acid ; 4, sul- phuric acid and iron filings ; 5, muriatic acid and powdered flint. He applied these mixtures with- out success to pots of earth in which barley had been sown. He tried similar mixtures for coleseed {lb., p. I6l). He I'epeated these experiments in 1784, for barley {lb., vol. iii., p. 39); and again, upon turnips, in 1804 {lb., vol. xliv., p. 340) : and we may note how closely he approached, in these scientific — yet almost objectless — trials, the dis- covery of the soluble phosphate of lime ; for had he used with the sulphuric or muriatic acids the animal charcoal, instead of that from charred wood, he would have been the first person who made the superphosphate of lime, and applied it as a ma- nure. It is to be remembered that, even in Young's time, bones, or the insoluble phosphate of lime, had begun to be employed as a fertilizer ; for in 1775 General St. Leger used them on grass- land, at Warmsworth. Arthur Young did the same on his Hertfordshire farm, although I have not been able to refer to the place in his Annals where he recorded his opinion of them. It is not my intention to trace the increasing use of crushed bones : they gradually became more and more valuable in the farmer's eyes. Other sources from which the phosphate might be obtained were suggested. I proposed the native, or mineral, phosphates of lime for this purpose in 1830 : nine years afterwards, the present mode of preparing superphosphate of lime was suggested by Liebig, in his "Organic Chemistry" (by Playfair, p. 184). He had previously ascertained that to manure an acre of grovmd with 40 lbs. of bone-uust is sufficient to supply the crops of wheat, clover, turnips, &c,, with phosphate of lime ; but as he added, "The form in which they are restored to the soil does not appear to be a matter of in- difference, for the more finely the bones are reduced to powder, and the more intimately they are mixed with the soil, the more easily are they assimilated." The most easy and practical mode of effecting their division, he concluded, is to pour over the bones in the state of fine powder half of their weight of sulphuric acid, diluted with three or four parts of water. The first trials in this country with the superphosphate of lime, as a manure, were made by Mr. Fleming, of Barrochan, in 1841 {Johnston's Lectures, p. 28) ; he made it by applying muriatic acid to bones, and with the product successfully dressed swedes and potatoes. These starthng dis- coveries shared the fate of most newly-announced improvements — they were ridiculed, adopted tar- dily, and then a race .ensued for the exclusive ap- appropriation of the discovery : two patents were granted on the very same day (May 23rd, 1842) to two gentlemen (Mr. J. B. Lawes and Sir J. Murray), without the slightest knowledge or com- munication with each other, for the exclusive manu- facture and use of superphosphate of lime as a manure. These patents were the subject of several long and expensive law-suits. Both of these grants have, however, expired ; and I am unwilling to do more than merely allude to their former existence. From about the date of these patents manufac- tories of the soluble phosphate of lime were estab- lished, the use of the coprolites or mineral phos- phate of the Cambridge gault and the Suffolk crag was sometime afterwards adopted at the suggestion of Prof. Henslow. Other improvements were also introduced in its manufacture : to some of these I now propose to direct my readers' attention. For the first few years its composition, as met with in commerce, varied very considerably. In 1846 we find Mr. Pusey stating that the genuine superphosphate of lime ought to contain in 100 parts {Farmer's Mag., vol. xxxvi,, p. 307) — Phosphate and super-phosphate of lime, about 35 Sulphate of lime 20 Organic matter 20 Water 20 After an interval of another five years. Professor Way, in 1851, found the composition of commercial superphosphate of lime to be as in the following T 2 280 THE FARMER'S AiAGAZINE. 11. III. 9.66 . 11.58 14.50 . 8.33 15.34 . 1.61 15.72 . . 23.45 2.83 . 6.41 26.12 . . 26.64 5.83 21.68 table, which gives in column I. and II. the analyses (Jour. a. A . S., vol. xii., p. 223) of superior samples of superphosphate of lime. No. III. of an inferior specimen: — I. Moisture .. .. 14.71 Organic matter, and salts of ammonia 10.18 Diphosphate of lime 13.50 Neutral phosphate 6.35 Sand, &c 9-98 Gypsum 36.63 Alkaline sulphates, muriates, &c. . . 3.65 Here, then, we have, in the specimens of the superphosphate of that year, from 18.50 to 14.50 per cent, of soluble phosphate. Passing over the next four years, we find in 1855 Dr. Anderson em- ployed in their examination. In the following table will be found (T. H. Soc, 1855, p. 60) the composition of a variety of commercial super- phophates ; first, of three specimens made apparently from bones only : — Water I 10.70 Organic matter ' 12.74 Soluble phosphates 15.08 Insoluble phosphates .... 1 18.01 Sulphate of hme j 2.22 Sulphuric acid 18.39 Alkahne salts 13.06 Sand ' 9.8 100 17.50 15.63 13.08 24.65 15.87 6.23 4.63 2.41 13.60 24.90 8.71 29.14 10.76 7.49 1.82 3 58 100 Ammonia I 2.07 2.35 The next three were made apparently from ture of bones and coprolites : Water Organic matter Soluble phosphates. ... Insoluble phosphates . . Sulphate of lime Sulphuric acid Alkaline salts Sand : 17.19 24.33 17.29 10.60 21.22 14.38 3.41 14.36 20.82 16.0 5.19 6.48 6.13 3.98 7.96 9.87 100 100 1.66 1.03 100 3.13 13.84 7.95 14.18 7.44 21.71 19.62 3.92 11.34 100 Ammonia.... I 1.66 1.03 I 0.93 And thirdly, three specimens supposed to be made entirely from coprolites : Water 8.43 Organic matter 0.0 Soluble phosphates j 15.37 Insoluble phosphates .... 1 15.07 Sulphate of lime ■ 36.03 Sulphuric acid ! 11.24 Alkaline salts 1 .60 Sand ■ 12.26 : 100 Ammonia i 0.0 We have here the amount of soluble phosphate as high in one instance as 21.22 per cent. And we find that about this time some care was bestowed to produce a portion of nitrogenous matter in the superphosphate. 18.20 23.77 2.83 3.0 14.04 12.19 6.15 7.77 36.88 36.23 11.51 8.44 3.17 0.01 7.22 8.59 100 loo 0.56 0.49 This appears to have been a particular specimen to which not many of those commonly met with quite approached. Of 17 1 specimens examined by Way in 1852-55, only 11 contained more than 20 per cent, of superphosphate {Jour. R, A. S., vol. XV., p. 552). In 1857 two large manufacturers of this manure have published a statement of the ordinary compo- sition of this fertilzer (and others may have done the same, of which T have no knowledge) — viz., " The London Manure Company" and Mr. Lawes. The first state the composition of their super- phosphate to be, according to the analysis of three chemists, as follows : — Way. Nesbit. Voelcker Moisture *Organic matter. . Sihca Oxide of iron — Alumina Soluble phosphate ^= Neutral phosph. Insoluble phos- phate Chloride of sodium, magnesia, &c .. . Sulphate of lime.... * Containing ni- trogen : Ammonia , 22.68 5.55 5.56 14.69 (22.91) 11.37 8.32 31.83 100.00 0.35 0.43 20.75 14.55 4.60 1.60 12.95 (20.20) 14.65 7.45 23,45 100.00 0.49 0.60 20.36 2.64 4.48 14.68 (22.92) 12.48 5.24 40.12 100.00 The superphosphate of Mr. T. B. Lawes, accord- ing to the published statement of Professors Way and Voelcker, to give their own words, contained on the average — Per cent. Soluble neutral phosphate of lime 21.88 Insoluble phosphate of lime . . 7. Upon the whole we may conclude that a good superphosphate will now contain from 12 to 20 per cent, of soluble or biphosphate of lime, but that the average may be taken at about 15 per cent.; but, as Mr. Way observes, the average proportion of samples in the market is below this number, being probably not more than 12 per cent. We may, from this rapid retrospect of the dis- covery of this salt as a manure, and the gradual improvements in its manufacture, be fairly led to conclude that the proportion of soluble phosphate which it contains, will now in all probability, from year to year, be more and more increased : and a still more important consideration is suggested, when we reflect that there are other insoluble, yet essential ingredients in the crops of our fields, which may yet, and will probably, by the chemist's aid, be hereafter rendered as soluble and as service- able to our growing plants as the soluble phos- phate of lime. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 ARTIFICIAL MANURES. At the February monthly meeting of the Oxford Farmers' Club, Mr. James Walker, of Begbroke Hill, intro- duced the subject of which he had previously given notice, namely, " The relative merits of artificial manures, and the most beneficial mode of applica- cation." In introducing the subject, Mr. Walker claimed the indulgence of the meeting, at he was not aware till a few days ago that he should be required to bring it forward on this occasion. He stated that his object was to gain information on this important subject, and knowing, as he did, that there were members of the club paying £100, £200, and, in one instance, £360 per year for artificial manure- namely, 30 tons of guano, at £12 per ton — he thought it was a subject worthy of discussion. It mattered not what a man paid for artificial manure, but what they wanted to arrive at was the greatest return for his outlay of capital, or, in other words, what money in reality artificial manure was worth. He would, therefore, strongly urge upon the mem- bers of the club, before they extended their libe- rality abroad, to begin at home, and engage some analyzing chemist to make them acquainted with the different components which their soils contained, in order that they might be able to put the right manure in the right place. That would be going to the foundation of good farming, and they would benefit by it in a two-fold manner, inasmuch as they would not only know the requirements of the soil, but also the real value of the artificial manure purchased. He believed that, however beneficial 4 out of every 5 applications of artificial manure might appear, they would be materially improved if they knew the requirements of the soil, and the material most suited to it. It would be admitted by every one connected with the growth of the root crop that every succeeding year produced some new feature in connection with that valuable plant; there were great doubts whether that result arose from degeneration or natural causes, such as frost, &c., or from artificial causes. He was of opinion that it too often arose from the over-application of artificial manure with an over-abundance of ashes, which destroyed at a much earlier period than they anticipated the vegetable blood ; that did not be- come manifest, even to the daily observer, for a cer- tain period. He was firmly convinced that if less v/as applied to the vital parts, and more sown broadcast, it would greatly improve the quality, if not the quantity, of the crop at the storing season ; and he was also of opinion that the root crop re- ceived as much support from the surface soil, or even more so, than from the sub or root soil ; for instance, if they took 1^ inch of soil of newly- broken land, what could they do in the shape of growing turnips, even where they had all new soil for their rootlets ? If they studied the book of nature, they would find that the works of Provi- dence were equally marvellous in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom, and that every plant and every root was provided with certain vessels to per- form every function required by nature. In 1855 he (Mr. Walker) entered on his occupation, and nearly all his crops were destroyed by the applica- tion of too much artificial manure ; consequently he paid particular attention to the subject, and tried various plans, so that his observations were founded on practical experience, and not from theory; in fact, on several points he differed very materially from others. He would call their attention, in the first place, to a r2-acre piece drilled with superphos- phate, at the rate of 3^ cwt. per acre, on 10 acres of which the manure held out, but not on the other two, and therefore they were drilled with ashes alone. For months no manifest difference could be seen, even to the closest observer; but the first indication of disease was more yellow under the leaf, and as the season advanced the 10 acres be- came very rotten, whilst the other 2 acres were comparatively sound. Now with respect to super- phosphate, the composition varied considerably, in- asmuch as some was prepared from raw bones, some from boiled bones, and some from bone ashes, through the agency of sulphuric acid. As they could not arrive at any conclusion as to the genuine- ness of this manure, they should protect them- selves by getting the advice of some competent chemical analyst. His next piece was 1 1 acres of deep soil, drilled with three sacks of bone-dust per acre, and a better patch of swedes he never grew, but 9 out of 10 were rotten ; and in putting his ewes on them, thinking to make the best of them, he had 50 dead lambs to 7 live ones. He did not mention these facts to depreciate the value of bone- dust, because on some soils it acted advantageously. His next piece was 13 acres of turnips and swedes, sown broadcast, and, previously to hoeing each time, he saw more improvement than in any of his other crops ; and the result was that there was scarcely a rotten one, although they stood until March, whereas parts of the other crops were stored at the proper season. He was convinced, however. 232 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by his own experience, of the superiority of the blood manure mixed with guano, and it was the best suited for his soil ; for although he had not fallowed one acre for either swede or turnip, he could not desire a better crop than he had grown that year. As regarded superphosphate, there was no manure so easy of adulteration, and it had been known to contain but small traces of am- monia or nitrogen, and as high as 45 per cent, of water, which was easily accounted for, in proportion to the saline compounds mixed therein, rendering it a useless and worthless article, concealed only in the shape of superphosphate, the best compositions averaging about 20 per cent. The next piece he drilled with bone-dust, and had 9 out of )0 rotten ; but he did not mention that to depreciate bone- dust, because it was a valuable thing in some cases, while in others it was an injury. Nitrate of soda was also easy of adulteration ; but that was not of so much consequence, as it was not put on cereals, but on clovers and grasses. Now, with regard to artificial manures generally, and looking at them in all their bearings, his advice was to do without them as far as possible, and substitute real forarti- ficial manures. It had been said that the man who grew two blades of corn where only one grew be- fore was a benefactor to his country, and, on the same principle, that remark applied with equal force to the man who grew 2lbs. of meat where only one was grown before. He was led to ask himself the question whether he was justified in making so large an outlay in the shape of artificial manures, when they all knew that there were many unscrupulous persons in the manufacture of them, for he was sorry to say he had used some which contained only mere traces of the productive com- pounds; he did not, however, condemn all the traders for the sake of a few, and thought they ought to give every encouragement to the faithful and honest vendor. It should, however, be borne in mind that even the real effects which a manure produced were not always a guarantee as to its genuine quality, inasmuch as the season, the soil, and the crop intended to follow for cultivation, had considerable influence. With these observations on artificial manure, he would venture now to call their attention to that universal manure — good farm-yard manure, well made. It lay in their power to improve upon it, and to extend its quan- tity and quality as far as possible ; and they ought to do so, because it contained every element re- quired by vegetation of all descriptions, whether cereal, vegetable, or bulbous, and was applicable to all soils, rendering a lasting and effective support to the succeeding crop. Svich was not the case with artificials, most of which were characterized by a specific action, rendering their effect on the succeeding crop of small importance. It was true that on extreme occupations, where cartage of dung would be easy, artificials might act as well, whereas if they succeeded in getting a good crop of swedes or turnips they had all the requirements for the rotation of crops. He was of opinion that arti- ficial food was a cheaper outlay than artificial ma- nure, and they had a double advantage, for they were certain of getting a genuine article, and one suited to all purposes. He contended that oil- cake or other artificial food was cheaper at £11 per ton than artificial manures, looking especially at the alarming point to which adulteration had reached. If adulteration were to continue as it now existed, and they needed artificials, he sug- gested that it would be better to obtain them in the shape of compounds, which could be had easily and separately. In conclusion, Mr. Walker said he could hardly hope that a meeting like the pre- sent would be unanimous in opinion, farming as they did on such different soils, and entertaining various opinions. He claimed their indulgence for the few practical remarks which he had ventured to make, and, while he thanked them for their at- tention, he hoped to hear more valuable observations' from otiiers on a subject which deeply concerned, not only themselves, but the v/hole community (much applause). Mr. G. Osborne thanked Mr. Walker for the able manner in which he had brought this inter- esting subject before the meeting, and remarked that artificial manures reminded him of a rat- catcher who laid a bait and promised a great deal, but it turned out all moonshine and deception. Mr. Walker had told them that 9 out of 10 of his roots proved rotten where he had applied artificial manure; and although the British farmer waa ready with purse in hand to purchase artificial manure, the first thing which shied him was the enormous price, and the next was the gross decep- tion that was practised ; for he (Mr. Osborne) had seen manures which did not possess one-twentieth part of the qualities which were attributed to them. In his opinion, the best artificial manure was beans, peas, &c., to be applied through the medium of a sheep and beast. Mr, Walker's views amounted to that, for he urged them to make the best use of their own farm manure, because they knew the market value of it ; but what farmer knew the value of the artificial article ? With respect to the appli- cation of manure to the soil, suppose they took a quantity of tegs, feeding them oft' with pulse, beans, or oats, at a cost of 5s. per bushel, one-half was returned to the farmer in mutton and wool, and the other half went to the land in the shape of manure for the preparation of the next crop. He had heard that new pulse had a tendency to cause the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 death of animals, but he could not speak of such being the case from his own experience, although he thought that excess of food might tend to the premature death of beasts. With respect to arti- ficial manures, he thought that Peruvian guano was the best, and he was borne out in that view by the fact that the Ifoyal Agricultural Society had some time ago oft'ered a prize of £1,000 for a substitute for it, but none had yet been devised, and no per- son had proved that he was entitled to the prize. Mr. J. Price, of Glympton, said that Mr. Wal- ker had supplied valuable matter for reflection on the merits of artificial manures and their uses. Agriculture was in that state that they could not dispense with artificial manures, which were the greatest boon ever discovered in the history of agriculture, both to the farmer and the community at large. AVith regard to the use of artificial ma- nures, and the soils for which they were adapted, he had had some experience, having used them to some extent for the last few years. With x-espect to the rotting properties attributed to them b'y Mr. Walker, they were, to his mind, unaccountable. In 1855, one of Mr. Barnett's tenants used blood manure in one part, and applied ammonia phos- phate to another, and in the winter he called his attention to the two, wlien he found that on the ammonia phosphate piece there were two-thirds more rotten than on that where the blood manure had been used. In the following summer he (Mr. Price) made a similar experiment with a totally diflferent result, which, perhaps, might be attributed to the difference of the soil. The manure might have been adapted for one soil but not for the other, and therefore he thought, with Mr. Walker, that they ought to know the nature of their soils, otherwise their eflforts might be abortive, and they might lose their crops through using the wrong manure. How to get at that knowledge of the different soils was a difficult matter, but it struck him some time ago that a society like the Oxford Farmers' Club, numbering between 200 and 300 members, ought to raise its subscriptions to such an amount as would enable it to employ some able chemical analyst to analyze their soils, and recom- mend what manures to apply to them, so as to have the best information, and to be in a position to pre- vent that unhappy employment of costly manures, which only defeated the objects they had in view. With respect to Peruvian guano, he thought that it was the best and cheapest artificial manure ; they were at a distance from the ocean, but the applica- tion of salt had the effect of strengthening the straw and increasing the quantity and quality of the grain. Last year he planted oats on poor land which he well manured, and succeeded in getting 10 quarters to the acre on part, and 8 quarters on the whole, which was such a crop as he never ex- pected to get. Mr. Price concluded by remarking that he had seen the evil of drilling the whole of the manure with the turnip-seed, and the advantage of applying half broadcast and half with the seed, and it was far better than when the whole was applied at once. Mr. Williams, of Northcourt, said that this question was one of deep importance to the practi- cal farmer, and much depended on the nature of the locality where they were about to apply the manure before they could test its value. If they lived in a neighbourhood where they could dispense with cereals, then came the question of cheap ma- nure; but, situated as they were, and obliged by varied circumstances to consume cereals grown on their farms, it became a matter of the first consi- deration how they could consume the straw to the best advantage in forming the basis of manure for their turnip crop, which was the foundation of the four-course system. It had been remarked by Mr. Osborne that one-half of the outlay of manure was returned in wool and mutton, and the other half in the improvement of the land, but the question was whether that was the proportion, or whether it was more or less in amount. That proportion must be determined entirely by the relative value of the raw material used in the consumption, and the value of the article produced. For instance, some four or five years ago barley was from 18s. to 22s. per quarter, and meat was at Gd. per lb., whereas now barley was worth double, but meat, instead of sell- ing at Is. per lb., was about the same price as be- fore ; therefore they were producing meat at a less value than when corn was cheap, Mr. Williams then entered into a variety of details to show that the crops raised by artificial manures bore no pro- portion to those raised by good farm-yard manure. He mentioned that Mr. Stacy had used on some of his turnip land 6 cwt. of London sewage manure, Vv'hich produced 4 tons to the acre, and were seven days earlier than the others. He (Mr. Williams) was in favour of using farm-yard manure on their crops, availing themselves of artificial manures to help them on. They should first look to the com- ponent parts of their land, and by testing it one year they would be better able to come to a conclu- sion as to what was the best system to adopt in a number of years. With reference to the mode of application there was much difference of opinion, and it had been suggested that drilling the whole of the manure caused nine-tenths of the roots to decay, which was not the case when only half the manure was drilled, and the other half broadcast. With respect to guano, it no doubt, when properly applied, jn-oduced great results, but where it was not properly applied it had failed. His own idea 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. was that it should be used as a top-dressing, and in moist weather, because the moisture of the earth absorbed its properties, whereas in dry weather, instead of being taken to the roots, they evaporated in the air. Mr. WilUams then moved " That the consumption of corn on the land with sheep, and with cattle and pigs in the homestead for the con- version of straw into manure, should form the basis of the turnip crop, and that artificial manure should be used as an addition, especially in bringing that crop to an early stage for the hoe, and that the arti- ficial manure should be drilled or sown immediately imder the plants." Mr. PuLLEN, of Thumley Hall, seconded the motion. Mr. Wilson, of Stonor, thanked Mr. Walker for introducing this subject, and giving them the results of his experience, and expressed his opinion that a man who had plenty of farm-yard dung need not employ artificial manure. It was of the highest importance that they should understand the nature of the soils they were cultivating, and every member of the Royal Agricultural Society could have a chemical analysis of his land on moderate terms, which would form a guide to his future operations. With respect to the premium otfered for a substitute for guano, he begged to remind them that Messrs. Gibbs had raised it to £2000, and had advanced the price of guano £2 per ton. He thought they might consult Professor Nesbit with advantage, for he was one of the best analytical chemists of the day, and had done more for the elucidation of the growth of crops than any man in the kingdom. It behoved every man to see what his soil was capable of producing, and if 5 cwt. of salt could be made to produce 7 tons of mangold, it was worth their attention. It was generally admitted that farm-yard dung compre- hended every quality that was necessary for vegeta- tion, and the conclusion which he came to was that before they expended any money in artificial ma- nures, they should make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the nature and requirements of their soils. After some desultory remarks, the adjournment of the debate was moved by Mr. Scott, of Kidding- ton, and seconded by Mr. H. Turner, of Wood- stock. The meeting then broke up. On the monthly meeting in March the discus- sion was resumed by Mr. Scott (of Kidding- ton), who said that, on resuming the important subject brought before their notice at the last meeting, he should do little more than state his reasons for moving the adjournment of the debate, and then leave it in abler hands for further discus- sion. He was aware that there were several members present at the last meeting who wished to express their views, had time permitted, and also that many others of great experience were then absent, but who he hoped were now present to give their opinion on the subject. As regarded the re- solution moved by Mr. Williams, on " the best mode of applying manures to the soil," he perfectly agreed with him ; but as he considered the leading point in the discussion to be " the relative value of those articles," and that nothing was said respect- ing that in the resolution, in his opinion it was rather objectionable. They were highly indebted to Mr. Walker for bringing forward this subject, as it was one that materially concerned every one who was interested in the cultivation of the soil ; and they were the more indebted to him because he did not come forward to tell them of his success, but of his failures, and of failures which ap]3eared to him very mysterious. He (Mr. Scott) could not see why 3} cwt. of superphosphate, or 3 sacks of bone-'dust per acre, should have such an injurious effect upon the crop, provided the land was in a sound state : therefore, as a member of this club, he begged Mr. Walker to give them a little infor- mation respecting the nature of the soil to which the manure was applied. He did not wish that he should analyze his soils for that purpose ; as he could not agree with those who told them at the last meeting that, to get at the foundation of good farming, it was necessary to employ an agricultural chemist to analyze the soil. In some cases it might be advantageous ; but he had no hesitation in say- ing that the result would be in general unsatisfac- tory. What was the reply of Mr. Nesbit, one of the greatest agricultural chemists of the day, when the question was proposed to him by one of the farmers of Cornwall, at their annual meeting in November last ? He said that it would be very well to know the nature of the soils before applying the manure, but that " the analyzation of soils often reminded him of the man who, having a house to sell, came with a brick in his pocket, as a sample of the house." He said also, that " there might be almost fifty kinds of soil in the same field." and that " what was the nature of the soil of any particular farm was a complicated question." But he (Mr. Scott) thought differently with regard to manures ; they being for the most part a manufactured article, the seller should be able to give the purchaser an ajialysis of his purchase, as a guarantee of its genuineness. And as there were parties who would treat with the farmer on those conditions, of them the manures should be had, rather than buying a lower-priced article without that guarantee. As to the manner of applying artificials to the soil, he thought, with Mr. Williams, that the best way was THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 285 to use them with farm-yard dung for a root-crop ; but as sufficient of the latter could not be obtained, how should the other be applied alone ? That, he thought, depended upon whether they sowed on the ridge or on the flat. On the ridge system he preferred broadcast, then ridging up, and drilling in the seed ; on the flat system, drilling the manure under the seed, not allowing the two to come into contact. Any manure between the rows was worse than useless, as it encouraged the growth of weeds, which they endeavoured to destroy by means of the horse-hoe. When used as a top- dressing, it should unquestionably be applied in moist weather : and always, if practicable, harrow or hoe as soon as possible, in order to prevent the evaporation of its volatile i)arts. In conclusion, Mr. Scott said he would not trouble them with any faeble remarks of his respecting the relative value manures, as the subject would be taken up by others far more able than himself, and who, he was ceitain, would do justice to its importance. Mr. Mein, of Blenheim Park Farm, being called on, said that, after the able manner in which the subject had been introduced and handled, it might be considered presum^ption in him to attempt to improve upon it, and he would not have risen except to give his own practical ideas upon the application of artificial manures, which he thought no man ought to deny giving. The mover of the subject (Mr. James Walker) had but very shghtly alluded to the use of artificial manures as a top- dressing for corn crops, but confined his remarks chiefly to the root crop ; but he (Mr. Mein) thought they ought to devote their attention to both. They were all well aware that all manures were easily adulterated, but not so easily detected ; but, not- withstanding the fear of adulteration, it would never deter him from using artificials as a top- dressing. He recommended them to go to a re- spectable dealer and purchase their artificial manure, and if they were still doubtful of its quality, then go to an analyst. The best top-dressing he ever used for corn was Peruvian guano, at from 2 cwt. to 4 cwt. per acre : for wheat he would apply 2 cwt. in the autumn before drilling, and 2 cwt. in spring — always in moist weather. For barley and oats he recommended 3 cwt. to the acre ; and for grass, 3 cwt. and salt 3 cwt. to the acre ; and there was no better application. In applying it, he would not do so till April, when the weather was damp. He had tried superphosphate, to see what effect it had as a top-dressing, but he found that the land where he applied it to was not one shilling the better for it. As to other manures — of which there was an endless list — he would not mention any but super- phosphate, guano, and nitrate of soda ; and would pass unnoticed, and not condemn, other."?, although there was not one which he had not tried. With other manures it was necessary to put up marks to show where they were applied ; but it was not so with guano or nitrate of soda, for they told their own tale, and it would be seen at once where they had been put. With respect to nitrate of soda, he considered it next to Peruvian guano ; but it had got to such a price that they were almost excluded the use of it. It was almost as magical in its efl^ects as guano; and he always found great benefit from it when applied to force seeds forward for early cutting. On grass lands he found a good top-dressing was bone-dust, 8 bushels to the acre, with from 30 to 40 of turf-ashes, mixed, and the earher applied the better. Mr. Walker's method of feeding with cake and corn, both in the yards and upon the land, was good; but he did not con- sider that any reason why artificial manures should not also be used. He (Mr. Mein) did not consider that artificial manures could be dispensed with. For the turnip crop he preferred mixed manures, namely— guano, salt, and dung; guano and salt; guano and dung ; guano and bones ; guano and superphosphate; and superphosphate and dung. The swede required the best treatment, and he never grew them so well as with guano and dung; he therefore preferred applying half farm-yard manure and half guano, as by that means, in place of growing 50 acres of swedes, he could draw his dung out to 100, and there was none of the varieties so well worth attention as the swede. Take a farm of 800 acres, and reduce all the strav/ of one crop to good dung, and to grow a good crop of roots they might put all that year's manure on 50 acres, and not overdo them. What, then, was to become of the remainder of the farm ? They must apply artificials. But if they apphed that manure to 100 acres, and gave them from 2 cwt. to 4 cwt. artificial as well, they might make it all swedes and mangels, and grow a much greater bulk of roots; they would grow them far better that way than by applying all dung or all artificial. On the remainder, with artificial only, they might grow good white globes or tankards, but not swedes. To limit the growth of roots only so far as the farm-yard manure would go, or vetches fed off with cake and corn, they could not intend the present population to have much beef or mutton. The metropolitan markets showed at present a lamentable deficiency, notwith- standing all the artificial applications to the soil ; and were they to drop the use of them, the case would be much worse. Much had been said about the adulteration of artificial manures, but he con- sidered that the farmer was more to blame than the manufacturer ; and he looked on it not as an adul- teration, but a reduction. In the years of low prices--1850 and IS"}! — when the farmer was soli- 286 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cited for his orders for artificial manures, his answer was that he could not afford to huy at such prices, but must have something cheaper. The manufacturer met his views by maliing a cheaper article, and in place of selling him a genuine article of Peruvian guano at 14 gs, per ton, he sold him an article at little more than one-third the price; for they might reduce guano from £15 to £5, while with regard to superphosphate it might be made at any price. The Messrs. Gibbs, who had been the bugbear, had been badly treated as regards the price; and the farmers should have done their best to coax the trade when the price was but £9. The Royal Agricultural Society had offered a premium if a manure could be manufactured as good as guano at £5 per ton ; but none had been found to this day. In offering that premium, it only showed that, notwithstanding all the attempts made by that and other societies to upset Messrs. Gibbs' arrange- ment with the Peruvian Government, it was an unfair way to go to work. The result had shown that they had got the manure in their own hands, could raise the price to what they pleased, or with- hold it altogether if they thought proper. There had been deputations to the Board of Trade on the subject, which were of no avail ; but if the agricul- tural societies and farmers' clubs had petitioned the London and Liverpool merchants, they would have attained their purpose much sooner. The want of gaano to the man who had been in the habit of using largely was a serious affair ; for what was to fill up the gap i Superphosphate would not do it ; and if it did, what was to be the price this year ? for the bone-holders and sulphuric-acid manufac- turers had it in their own hands, and would not offer 100 tons at the present time for more than a fortnight. The failure of the root crop would, in his opinion, be felt far more even than the potato crop. They must not look to the application of farm-yard manure in such cases only as Mr, Walker's, where he was well situated, and his farm buildings were in the centre of his arable land ; but they must consider the number of acres of land which were inaccessible to the manure-cart, where guano and superphosphate had been applied by being carried up those hills on horseback. With respect to the extreme application of manure, Mr. Walker attributed the failure of his root crop to that ; but he (Mr. Mein) would rather see his crop rotted by extreme application than otherwise ; and, as far as his experience went, he would rather see a heavy crop of wheat with some black heads than without them, for he never saw a great crop of corn without black heads among them. If they v/ent to the other extreme, by using ashes, they might get, as Mr. Walker said he did, a crop of turnips with- out any disease, but they would be about the si7;e of the top of his thumb, and stand any weather ; but he (Mr. Mein) would rather have a large good crop, with something to lot; and in his opinion it was better to plant early than late. In all his ex- perience, he never saw that the lavish use of manure had a tendency to destroy the root crop. White globes sown in May could not be expected to be all sound in May again ; and therefore his advice was to plant early, and store early. On the last occasion Mr. Williams, of Northcourt, moved the following resolution — " That the consumption of corn on the land with sheep, and with cattle and pigs in the homestead for the conversion of straw into manure, should form the basis of the turnip crop, and that artificial ma.nures should be used as, an addition, especially in bringing that crop to an early stage for the hoe; and that the artificial manure should be drilled or sown immediately under the plants." Now he (Mr. Mein) did' not consider that that motion went far enough, or suflfi- ciently conveyed the views of the club upon the subject, under discussion ; and, for that reason, he begged to move the following amendment: — " That this club considers the use of artificial manures is still too much limited ; that Peruvian guano, as a standard, is the best top dressing for corn crops ; farm-yard manure, guano, nitrate of soda, and bone-dust, for grass land ; that mixed manures are the best for root crops, and that with- out a liberal use of artificial manure the present extent of land in this country could not be kept in cultivation, as there is nothing that has tended more to assist high farming than the introduction of artificial manure; and, finally, that this club does not consider that the decay of the root crop is attributable to the lavish application of manures." Mr. H. Turner, of Woodstock, seconded the amendment, and said that, having been a farmer all his life, he agreed with Mr. Mein that there was nothing so good as a top dressing for any corn crop as Peruvian guano. There was nothing so good for the root crop, if properly applied, but it should be applied with the drill under the seed, or with the seed. He had, however, seen famous crops of swedes that were grown with nothing else but superphosphate, about 2^ cwt, to the acre. The gentleman who grew them, and whom he (Mr. Turner) supplied with the superphosphate, was Mr. T. E. Miller, of Southfield Farm, near Oxford, and he had very kindly sent six of the roots for the Club to see and judge of their quality. Three of the roots now produced were part of a crop where the seed was drilled in with 2^ cwt. of superphos- phate to the acre in the last week in June, after fallow for turnips ; the other three v/ere after a crop of rye grass, fed oii with sheep, and was treated in the same way. 'liie roots were now before the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 287 Club, and he would leave it to say whether they were not sound and good. He was sorry to hear Mr. Walker say that nearly all his crops had been destroyed by the application of too much artificial manure, but thanked him for having brought for- ward this subject. The gentleman who grew the roots which they had before them said that if they could find one rotten one, he would give them the crop for nothing. He (Mr. Turner) a few days ago rode over 45 acres of swedes, grown under Mr. Mein's direction, and he did not see one rotten one ; those were pitted ; but, on Friday last, he walked over another field, under Mr. Mein's management, where the crop was growing at the very time, and the only roots that were rotten were those which had been bitten by rabbits and hares. With respect to the application of artificial manure* he (Mr. T.) had not had much experience in this country, for he left it, and was away for 1 6 years, and when he returned the improvement in agricul- ture was perceptible to everybody. He would not go so far as to say that it was entirely owing to artificial manures, but he thought it had produced a great deal of it, and it was owing also to the introduction and adoption of a better class of implements. At the same time there were many men farming poor tracts of land, which would not be worth much without the use of artificial manure, and without which they could not produce that fine quality of meat and corn. He would not go so far as the honourable and learned member for Hand- borough, Mr. G. Osborne, as to tell- them what proportion of food went to supply the animal with fat and flesh, and what proportion into the land, but would leave that part of the subject to parties possessing more experience than himself. Mr. J. Seckham said that, as a vendor of artificial manure, it was natural that he should take a great interest in this subject, because the decision of a body of practical men like the Oxford Farmers' Club would have some influence in this county, especially on what kind of manure should be employed. He cordially concurred in the remarks which had fallen from Mr, Mein and Mr. Turner, and wished to impress upon the Club the fact that the vendors could not regulate the price of manures, for this reason — they were not the manufacturers, but merely agents. They solicited orders, and gave the price ; but when they wrote to the London agent they found that the price was advanced, which would account for some other customer having been previously supplied at a lower price. None knew the fluctuations of price so well as those vendors who had to go with money in their hands to make purchases ; for as it touched their pockets, they had a lasting remembrance of it. As to the relative merits of guano and other manures, he could not enter into them, as he had never been a farmer on his own account, and what little experience he had gained was from others, who had tried various manures. Mr. Mein gave the preference to guano, nitrate of soda, and super- phosphate ; but he (Mr. Seckham) thought he should have added blood manure, as it had been used with very great success by many parties in this neighbourhood. The vendors were obliged to keep a variety of manures, because they might have a good customer for oil-cake who desired to have some other manures inferior in quality and price to those referred to by Mr. Mein. Some who had not been accustomed to pay £14 a ton for guano, but were short of farm-yard manure, would not go to that expense, but be content with some- thing lower in price. It was not every farmer who had got so long a purse to dip into as the Duke of Marlborough had, nor had such long heads as the Duke's agents, and therefore they acted according to their means. As the decision of this Club on this subject was very important to every vendor of artificial manures, he hoped they would not be hasty in condemning any particular kind, because it might have failed in one instance, and yet have succeeded in many others. Mr. CoGGiNS, of Kiddington, being called for, said he considered that the relative merits of various artificial manures had at present been very little treated upon, and although he could not agree with all that Mr. Walker had adduced, still he had given them much to think upon. He (Mr. Coggins) was more inclined to support Mr. Mein's amend- ment, which commenced by stating that the application of artificial manures was too limited, and that guano, as a standard, was the best top- dressing for corn crops. At the last meeting the necessity of analyzing the soils was much dwelt upon, but he thought it would not prove of much utility; and if they employed chemists for many years, they could only come to the conclusion that the two great fertilizing matters were phosphorus and nitrogen. It was found that the application of manure must be nitrogenous or ammoniacal, and guano v/as the cheapest form in which it could be obtained ; and when guano rose in price, all other manures advanced. Mr. Caird, in experiments which he had made, proved ihat the application of 2 cwt. of guano had raised corn crops from 2 to 5 qrs. per acre. With respect to farm-yard manure, he (Mr. Coggins) would apply it to ariable land, because it possessed all the qualities which were required. Mr. Coggins then entered into various scientific details as to the properties of bone dust and other manures, and the ciTects they had pro- duced, and urged the farmers not to be deterred from using artificial manures, because in some 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, isolated cases they had not, from some cause or other, effected all that was anticipated from them. As to the analysis of artificial manures, it might be necessary when buying of some parties, but not when they were dealing with the principal makers, and he could truly say that in Lawes' superphos- phate he had never met with the slightest adulter- ation ; they might buy some at £5 ; but that of Lawes' at £7 would be by far the cheapest. Mr. E. Lane, of Northfield Farm, Witney, being called for, said that, as an analytical chemist, he agreed with what had fallen from Mr. Coggins. With regard to the relative value of artificial manures, they must come at once to the proportion of soluble phosphates and ammonia which they contained. The best Peruvian guano from Messrs. Gibbs they guaranteed to possess 16 per cent, of ammonia; but sometimes it amounted to IS per cent. Superphosphate was much used, and its value depended on its amount of soluble phosphate and ammonia. Mr. Mein said he had done better with guano than with superphosphate ; but he (Mr. Lane) had found in all cases that super- phosphate pushed the young plant, and surpassed guano at first ; but that afterwards guano surpassed the superphosphate, and therefore he recommended the mixture of guano and superphosphate. There was no better application than superphosphate to push on the plant, and afterwards guano to bring it to a good crop. In answer to a question respect- ing the size of roots, Mr. Lane said that, in his opinion, the moderate size possessed more nutritive matter than the larger ones. With regard to the rotling of the roots, he did not think it could be attributed to artificial manure ; but he believed that superphosphate brought them quicker to maturity than when farm-yard manure was used, con- sequently they would rot sooner than when it was not used ; they ought to be pitted earlier than when no manure was used, and the roots ought not to be in contact with the artificial manure. Mr. Savidge, of Sarsden, being called for, said, he came to learn, and not to teach ; but he felt that he should be an unworthy member if he refused to give them the result of his experience when asked to do so. He had been engaged a number of years on a large occupation, and had used artificial manures to a considerable extent, especially guano, superphosphate, and nitrate of soda, having cul- tivated 1,500 acres, and with but one exception had not had any failure ; if they weighed well the cause of failure, they would probably find it was in their own hands. He had been at a standstill as to what to do, after applying manure in a genuine state, and finding himself deceived in the results, but had arrived at the conclusion that the tillage of the land was the only cause of failure. His experience did not lead him to join with Mr. Osborne in attributing the failures to what he called rat-catchers' stuff. He thought they ought to well weigh this question ; for it was all very well where nature had done all; but there were thou- sands of acres which, without the aid of artificial manure, would be of no use whatever. He had been engaged on land in Dorsetshire, which was not worth 5s, an acre before artificial manure was apphed to it, and now it grew turnips, of which neither he nor any grower need be ashamed. He had grown turnips by guano and superphosphate, and should be pleased to show them to the greatest grower in this country. Mr. Walker had made him almost think that they were spending a great deal of money and getting nothing ; but he (Mr. Savidge) was satisfied in his own mind that the rotting of Mr, Walker's turnips was attributable to the ashes. Since he (Mr. Savidge) had used Chandler's hquid manure drill, he had grown 150 acres without having a cart-load of rotten ones. He agreed with Mr. Mein's views on this question, but hoped that the Club would not be premature in coming to a decision on the subject, as it was one where they did not know when they should get to the end. He (Mr. Savidge) had grown a good crop of turnips with 2 cwt. of guano mixed with salt; but salt would not do on clay lands; and with Lawes' superphosphate he had grown as good a crop of swedes. He had found great benefit by the application of salt mixed with guano, and sown broadcast with Lawes' manure. It was well known that at all their various markets they met lots of agents for the sale of artificial manures ; he had no wish to say one word against any of them, or to recommend one in preference to another ; but he was bound to say that as Messrs. Lawes had treated him so well, he had no wish to leave them. It was said that the most respectable dealers could not supply superphosphate under £7 per ton, while others offered it at £5 or £5 lOs., in which case they must either supply an inferior article, or get nothing by the transaction. If every member of the Club would state his failure or success, it would assist them in arriving at a conclusion ; but it was quite clear that if A bought for £5 what ought to be worth £7, he must expect to be disap- pointed. Mr. Stanbridge, of Kiddington, remarked that Mr. Walker admitted having used ashes, and alone, and that was the great fault with ashes ; there was a great difference in ashes ; for vegetable ashes differed from wood ashes, and wood from coal, and it was the same with bones. He differed also with Mr, W^alker in putting the manure under the plants, because the plant did not obtain all its THE FARMER'S AZtNE. 289 nourishment from the subsoil ; the seed germinating should be in contact with the fertilizer ; but if it were put in any other way, it would be searching for its nourishment. AVith regard to ashes, there was a great difference in them, some possessing a considerable quantity of earthy matter, and the ashes of vegetable matter were better than that from burnt soil. On the motion of Mr. King, seconded by Mr. Stanbridge, it was unanimously agreed to adjourn the discussion to the next monthly meeting. The Club then broke up. THE LAW OF LANDLORD AND TENANT. Once, when a distinguished phrenologist was deli- vering a lecture upon the science, he was asked by one of his hearers, where the organ of common sense was situated? His reply was — Not anywhere; it is a combi- nation of all the other faculties. And seeing that the heads of some men are so devoid of it, and at the same time so impervious to reason, we are led to imagine that the other faculties may be deficient also. We are led to make these observations from having been asked, the other day, what we meant by "Tenant-Right." Presuming that the enquirer had not long read oui journal, we ventured to explain our object ; and fearing that there might still be others who, like himself, had endeavoured to stultify themselves upon the question, we venture upon a further explanation. It has long since been notorious that the laws affect- ing landlord and tenant are nearly or altogether in favour of the former. This has arisen from thf original system of tenure, as established and carried out during thii feudal period, when the tenant was a mere vassal of the lord, and was subjected to sucli impositions — called laws — as the other might feel disposed to inflict upon him. Tliese at the pre- sent day are but partly obliterated from the statute- book ; and as all subsequent laws have been made by the great landlord proprietors themselves, they still partake of the character of those established under the feudal system, conferring I'ights over the property of the tenant that arc in themselves at variance with both justice and equity, and which, at tliis advanced period of civiliza- tion, ought not longer to be tolerated. It is tlie abrogation or amendment of those laws that we seek to attain, so as to give the tenant equal rights and pri- vileges with other_subjects of the State; and more espe- cially as regards the laws immediately affecting the interests of both landlord and tenant, as represented by the latter, in the occupation and cultivation of the soil. In the first place, it is our intention to define the operation of the common law upon this subject, and to point out some of the most striking discrepancies by which it is attended, with suggestions for its improve- ment. In the next, we may address our obser- vations to agi'eements entered into and carried out, by leases and otherwise, for terms of years of greater or less duration. As regards the first of these, upon a landlord letting a farm without any restriction beyond that of a verbal agi'eement, by which it is understood that the holder, as yearly tenant, will cultivate and manage the farm in ac- cordancewith the custom of the country, as practised in the district where it is situated — and whether so stated or not is immaterial as regards the result, the law being stringent upon that point— the landlord's interests being protected to fhe fullest extent by the custom, such invariably being favourable to him in almost every particular. If the tenant pays to the landlord for any particular acts of husbandry upon his entering on the farm — as for hay, straw, manure, grasses, fixtures, &c. — the landlord is bound to pay for the same again, upon his again quitting the occupation. " As he takes so he is bound to leave," is the principle acted upon in such cases. But in the event of tlie tenant expending large sums by way of improvement, he is not entitled to be repaid any portion — however beneficial — although, on the other hand, he will be liable to make good any waste he may have committed, or for any injury that the land or premises may have sustained by his mis- management— if such mismanagement can be shown to have arisen, or to have been carried out, contrary to the custom or practice prevailing in the district where the farm is situated. If, however, upon entering a farm, he finds that all the land has been cropped with grain-ci'ops the preceding year, he will not be justified in cropping it in like manner upon quitting ; and so of the working of the fallows, and selling off the hay, manure, or straw. He will only be entitled to the cost of the tillages of the former, and to be paid for the latter in accordance with the custom, as before stated. And upon his receiving six months' notice previous to the expiration of the current year of his tenancy, he must quit and yield up the premises, together with all improvements and erections that he may have efiected or added, without any compensation whatever. Here, then, we see that tenant-right, as it now stands, becomes tenant-wrong ; inasmuch as the holder is bound to use the land of tlie lessor in such manner as the custom of the country defines, and which is generally construed to be in accordance with the best system of husbandry practised and carried out by others in the district where it is situated. Certain modes of cropping must be adhered to, the roots not being allowed to be sold or removed ; the hay and straw to be foddered out upon the premises, and the manure arising therefrom to bo left, without payment or com- pensation ; while the ordinary tenantable repairs neces- sary for the maintenance of the buildings must be carried out at his expense. But, on the other hand, 290 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. if buildings of any kind have beeu put up by the tenant ; if inorganic or artificial manures have been applied; if large quantities of oileako have been fed out by cattle or sheep ; if the land has been thoroughly drained, and roads have been made, the tenant has no claim against the landlord for obtaining compensa- tion. All is to be sacrificed at one "fell swoop," and he thus quits the farm stripped of his investment, and generally without the slightest cliance of obtaining any- thing at all. It is very true that upon the large estates of our hereditary landlords such occurrences very rarely hap- pen; but upon the smaller estates of the class of laud- lords who look to the letting land as they would to a ti'ading concern, every opportunity of turning matters to their own advantage is taken. If the landlord and tenant were placed by the law upon au equal footing, such injustice as we have de- scribed could never happen. The landlord could compel the tenant, as now, to cultivate the land in a proper manner ; to preserve the buildings from injury and decay ; to leave the requisite quantity of land in a state fit for cropping in the succeeding year ; and to fodder out the hay and straw, as before stated. But if, on the other hand, the tenant had drained, marled, fallowed, limed, ma- nured, and otherwise improved the land, and put u]) buildings, at whatever expense to himself, these should be brought into account by way of set-ofi* against actual or alleged dilapidations, or recovered at common law by the tenant, of the landlord. In this country, where the land must be forced to produce crops, and is not dependent upon the quality of the soil alone, a large sum per acre becomes of necessity invested by the tenant, to enable him to reach the state of cultivation requisite to realize the largest amount of produce ; by which it frequently happens that the investment of the tenant for such pur- pose approachesthe value of the land itself. The average amount may, however, be estimated at 25 per cent. — a large proportion — for which no security is aflbrded the tenant beyond that as before stated. In all such cases we hold that the tenant ought not to sufier loss; and it is with the view of amelioi-ating his position, and for striking off the legal fetters by which he has been con- fined, that we uphold the principle called " Tenant- Right." Not seeking anything to the disparagement or injury of the landlord, but to secure to the tenant compensation to some extent for the outlay that he has made; not to shield him from the penalties his bad management may have deserved, but to balance the difierence of advantages and disadvantages — of injuries or improvements — against each other, and thus to se- cure the best interests of the landlord, by obtaining fair and equitable remuneration for the tenant. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 25th of February. Present : Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the Chair ; Lord Berners, Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Mr. Aytown, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Burgess, Mr. Caird, Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Mr. Dent, M.P., Mr. Jonathan Gray, Rev. L. Vernon Ilarcourt, Mr. Key, Rev. James Linton, Mr. Maning, Mr. Paget, M.P., M. Ccnstantine N. Racotta (from WaUachia), Mr. Ridley, Mr. Scott, Prof. Slmonds, Prof. Way, and Mr. Bullock Webster. Messrs. Burgess and Key, of Newgate Street, favoured the Council with their attendance, for the purpose of explaining to the members the new me- chanical mode, adopted in France and introduced by them into England, for distributing sulphur over such fruit and plants as may require the application of that dressmg or of other pulverulent substances ; and Mr. Kelghley, of Hull, favoured the Council with his at- tendance for the purpose of giving details on the subject of the importation of the Carob Bean as an article of food for cattle. — Lord Berners stated, that having on the previous evening had a conversation with the Earl of Clarendon on the subject of the supply of guano from Kooria Mooria Bay, in Arabia, he was glad to find that every effort would be made to render the importation of that manure as advantageous as possible to the farm- ers of this country. The Council adjourned to their Monthly Meeting on the 4th of March. A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday, the 4th of March. The following Members of Council and Governors of the Society were present : Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P., president, in the Chair ; Earl of Powis, Lord Feversham, Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, Bart., M.P., Sir Charles Gould Morgan, Bart,, Sir John V.B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Sir Archibald Keppel Mac- donald, Bart, Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart., M.P., Mr. Dyke Acland, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Hodgson Barrow, M. P., Mr. Barthropp, Mr. Bramston, M.P., Mr. Brandreth, Mr. Bullock, Mr. Caven- dish, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Druce, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), Mr. Kinder, Mr. Pain (Mayor of Salisbury), Mr. Shut- tleworth, Prof. Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Robert Smith, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Turner (of Bartou), Mr. Jones Webb, and Mr. Burch Western. William Roupell, Esq., of Saint James's Square, London, was elected a Governor of the Society. The following new Members were elected :— Abbott, Evelyn, Lowdhara, Nottiogham Ankers, Robert B., Tarvin, Chester Arkell, Henry, Butlers Court, Boddington, Gloucestershire Armstrong, Robert, Over-Tabley, Knutaford, Cheshire Aylmer, John Boughen, Fmcham Hall, Downham, Norfolk Brain, William, Greet, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire Buchanan, James, Cutton's Hill, East Grinsted, Sussex Catherow, James, Almners, Chertsey, Surrey Chowne, Henry, 28, St. Swithin's Lane, London Corner, I. B,, Longworth, Wellington, Somerset Couchman, Charles, Temple-Balsall, BurmiDgham Divett, John, Bovey-Tracey, Devonshire THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 291 Drakeford, David, Dillioiis, Crawley, Sussex Edwards, Robert V., Shottiaham Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk Gouger, Henry, Frogmore House, Blackwater, Surrey Haddon, Alexander, The Old Parks, Ashby-de-Ia-Zouch Hall, John, Sibthorp, Newark-on-Trer.t Haslam, Charles, Basingstoke, Hampshire Jarvis, William, Whighton, Walsingham, Norfolk Lane, William, Broadfield, Nortbleach, Gloucestershire Massey, Richard Mautel Oliver, Midgham Park, Newbury, Berkshire. Morris, Thomas William, Bedgvove, Aylesbury, Bucks. Reeve, Richard Henry, Lowestoft, Suffolk Scott, Lieut.- Colonel, the Hon. Charles Grantham, 9, Eaton Square, London Stansfeld, Hatton Hamer, 10, Basinghall-street, London Toogood, George Waugb, Hayden-Knoll, Boddingtou, Glou- cestershite Waters, Edward, Stafford-sub- Castle, Salisbury Warren, James, Maiden-Newton, Dorsetshire White, James, Lindons, Coleford, Monmouthshire Wallis, Arthur, Basingstoke, Harapsliire Finances.— Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman of the Finance Committee, presented the monthly report on the accounts of the Society, from which it appeared that the current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers was ^1,613. Expenses. — Lord Portman, chairman of the Ex- penses Committee, transmitted to the Council the re- port of that committee, the details of which, in the ab- sence of his lordship, were explained by the President. The following resolutions were passed in reference to its recommendations : — 1. On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, seconded by Colonel Cballoner, That no Pavilion- building should this year be erected for the purpose of a dinner at the Country Meet- ing- 2. On the motion of Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, seconded by Mr. Turner (of Barton), That the General Salisbury Committee be requested to report to the Council under what other circum- stances a dinner of the Society could most conveniently take place at the Salisbury meeting. 3. On the motion of Colonel Challoner, seconded by Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), That Mr. Manning's offer to under- take the show-yard works at the Salisbury meeting be ac- cepted. 4. On the motion of Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), seconded by Mr. Turner (of Barton), That in the Implement Catalogue at the Country Meetings, the entry of each article should not exceed 12 lines of printed matter : the first sis to be free of charge, but the remainder (one or more up to six) to be paid for by the exhibitor, at the rate of one shilling per line. 5. On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr. Shuttleworth, That the exhibitors of implements should in future pay 23. per foot run for the amount of shedding 20 feet wide, which they may engage to be constructed for them at the Country Meetings, by the Society's contractor of works. The Report was then referred back to the Committee, with a request that the remaining topics of its recom- mendations might be printed and sent round to the several members of the Council for their consideration. Prize Essays. — Mr. Thompson, chairman of tlie Journal Committee, reported the renewal of the Prize for Microscopical Investigations ; and the request that Members of Council would favour the Committee, be- fore the 1st of May, with their suggestions of subjects for next year's prizes for essays. Che.mical Lectures. — Mr. Dyke Acland reported the recommendations of the Chemical Committee on the subjects of the Lectures to be delivered this season before the Members by Prof. Way, the Consulting- Chemist of the Society. Sahsburt Meeting.— Mr. Cavendish, Vice-Chair- man of the General Salisbury Committee, presented the report of that committee, detailing the steps taken, in conjunction with the mayor of Salisbury, for the pre- paration of the land for the purposes of the show-yard and the trial of field-implements. Steward of Cattle. — In the absence of Mr. Mil- ward, the resolution of which he had given notice was carried unanimously, on the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr. Turner (of Bart m), that Mr. Robert Smith should be appointed one of the stewards of cattle at the Country Meetings of the Society, in the place of the late Mr. Woodward. Trustee. — On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, seconded by Colonel Challoner, Mr. Bramston, M.P., was elected one of the trustees of the Society, to supply the vacancy occasioned in the list by the decease of the Duke of Rutland. Judges. — On the. motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Lord Feversham, a committee was appointed to inquire into, and report to the Council, the best mode, in their opinion, of nominating and selecting judges for the Country Meetings of the Society. Lectures. — On the motion of Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), seconded by Mr. Druce, it was arranged that Lectures by Professors Simonds and Way should be delivered before the Members in the Council Room on the first Wednesdays of the ensuing months of April, May, June, and July, at eight o'clock in the evening : the subject of the first of these lectures (on the 1st of April) to be that of Guano Deposits, by Professor Way. Arabian Guano. — The President favoured the Council with the result of his interview with the heads of the Government in reference to the supply of Guano from the Kooria Mooria Islands. He reported that he had endeavoured to bring the arrangements between the discoverers of the Guano Islands and the Government to a satisfactory conclusion ; and that the following terms had been settled between the Government and Messrs. Hayes and Co., according to which guano from the Islands on the coast of Arabia is to be imported into this country. Messrs. Hayes give up all pretensions to a monopoly under their grant. They propose to throw the trade open to all ships from the ports of this coun- try, and to permit them to load on payment of a royalty of £1 per ton, the Government having promised the presence of a ship of war for the security of the trade. It will be the interest of Messrs. Hayes to introduce into the United Kingdom, in the course of the next four years, during which their grant lasts, the largest possi- ble quantity of guano. In this way their interest and that of the public become identical. They estimate that 100,000 to 150,000 tons of guano may be imported by next spring. This the President regarded as likely to be a most important service to the whole farming com- munity, as tl:e quantity and the open market must pre- serve a moderate range of prices. In the event of this being realised, no one, he thought, would grudge to the discovcrtTs the full and ample remuneration which such an importation of guano would aft'ord them. Polish Murrain. — The Earl of Clarendon trans- mitted a despatch from the English Vice-Consul at 292 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lubeck, stating that the murrain had again broken out in Mecklenburg ; and that in consequence the authori- ties of Lubeck had prohibited the introduction of horned cattle from that State, unless provided with a certificate declaring them to be free from the disease. This despatch was referred by the Council to Prof. Simonds, the Veterinary Inspector of the Society, for the favour of his report. Vienna Agricultural Meeting. — The Imperial Agricultural Society of Vienna requested the Council to favour them with a deputation to the ensuing great meeting to be held in that city. The Council adjourned to their Weekly Meeting on Wednesday, the 11th of March. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 11th of March ; present : Mr. Crompton Stansfield (in the chair), Count de Wezele (of East Prussia), Mr. Devas, Mr. Goold, Mr. Jonathan Gray, Mr. Knowles, Mr. Maude, Mr. Lockhart Morton, M. Nyberg (of Sweden), Mr. Pocock, Mr. Thomas Scott, Prof Simonds, Mr. Trimmer, Mr. Vines, Prof. Way, and Mr. Burch Western. Cattle Murrain. — Communications were received from Viscount Palmerston and the Earl of Clarendon, in reference to the pleuro-pneumonia among cattle in this country and the murrain at present raging in Tauroggen and Mecklenburg. Prof. Simonds stated his views on this subject, and thought that the Govern- ment could not be too much on their guard by taking precautionary measures to exclude the murrain ; he par- ticularly dwelt, however, upon the importance of our obtaining an exact knowledge of the true pathology of that fearful disease which had traversed the continent of Europe, before deciding upon measures for the total ex- clusion of foreign live stock from our markets, the average imports of which into this country during the entire year of 1856 amounted weekly to 1,602 head of cattle, 2,789 sheep, and 190 pigs. The Chairman, Mr. Scott, Mr. Goold, and Mr. Vines also favoured the •meeting with remarks on the same subject ; and a let- ter was read from Mr. Etches. Cakob Bean. — Professor Way favoured the Coun- cil with the following analysis of Carob Beans imported from Sicily by Messrs. Hadley, of the Old Jewry, and supplied to him by Mr. Scott, of 5, Charing Cross : Sample of Locust Bean, analyzed Dec. 1855. Moisture .. .. .. .. 13.43 Albuminous matter . . . . . . 4.06 Oil 6.76 Woody fibre 12.42 Sugar, gum, &c. .. .. .. 49.31 Other organic matter . . . . . . 7.60 Mineral matter .. .. .. 6.42 100.00 In the sample of Locust Bean supplied by Mr. Scott, and analyzed at the request of the Society, the seeds were found to constitute about 8 per cent, of the entire weight ; they were separately examined for sugar and albuminous matter, with the following results : — Pods. Seeds. Sugar .. .. 60.00 per ceut. .. 13.11 per cent. Albuminous matter. 3.23 „ ., 13.90 „ March 10, 1857. J. Thomas Way. Ridge-Draining. — Mr. Arkwright, of Sutton Hall, Derbyshire, favoured the Council with a plan of the system of draining he had employed and found effectual on his estate at Sutton. The Council adjourned to the I8th March. A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 18th of March; present — Colonel Challoner, Trustee (in the chair), Hon. Augustus Vernon, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Beale Browne, Mr. Devas, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Goold, Rev. L. Vernon Har- court, Mr. Knowles, Mr. Majendie, Mr. Manning, Mr. E. W. Moore, Mr. L. Morton, Mr. Pain (Mayor of Salisbury), Mr. Pocock, M. Racotta (of Bucharest), Mr. T. Scott, Mr. Sidney, Prof. Simonds, Mr. Vines, Prof. Way, and Mr. Wood (of Hanger Hill). Communications were received from the Secretaries of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland and the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, on the subject of the foreign cattle-murrain ; from Mr. i'ortier, Vice-President of the Central Agri- cultural Society of Belgium, on the mode adopted in England for destroying Thistles, and for burning clay for agricultural purposes ; and from Mr. Warren, on suggested experiments for ascertaining the conditions under which water finds its level, or remains at rest. Professor Simonds reported that the mortality among the cows at Paddington, which at one time had amounted to 19 per cent., had again become reduced to its ordi- nary rate. The cause of death in this case he attri- buted to the affection now so long known in this country as pleuro-pneumonia. With regard to the foreign murrain, that was a typhoid fever of a very contagious nature indeed ; and he could not too strongly impress upon the Society the essential importance of informa- tion being obtained on the particular point, whether the disease showed itself at once, or remained incubated for a certain period in the system before fully developing itself. No steps, he thought, could be taken with advantage before the nature and pathology of the dis- ease had been thoroughly investigated. — Mr. Vines drew a parallel between the murrain and the glanders in the horse, and thought there was no ground for alarm in reference to the importation of the disease into this country. — Mr. Raymond Barker made remarks on the extent, more or less, to which contagion might arise from the shipping employed to convey foreign cattle to our ports. — Mr. Sidney strongly impressed on the Council the necessity of despatching Professor Simonds, as the Veterinary Inspector of the Society, without further loss of time, to those districts abroad where the foreign cattle-murrain was at present raging, in order that direct and satisfactory investigation might be made by him on the spot, and the details be at once reported to the Council for their guidance on this important subject. The Council adjourned to the 25th of March. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 293 THE THREATENED APPROACH OF THE MURRAIN. There is nothing the agriculturist hears witli so much alarm as any rumoured outbreak of murrain or cattle disease. In this age, especially, when the stock of the English farmer is becoming generally more and more valuable, such a visitation would be proportionately more serious. This murrain is now raging with fearful severity. Not, fortunately, in our own country ; but still in those states with which we are in direct and con- tinual communication. It pervades with more or less intensity many parts of central Europe ; while from tliese very districts we yet continue to receive our cus- tomary importation of cattle. One animal has already been condemned on its arrival here — one of a whole herd, which may each carry with it the germ of disease! Strange to say, beyond this solitary seizure, our Go- vernment would appear so far to have done little or nothing; although the authorities in other countries are keenly and actively alive to the danger which threatens them. If, however, any people have the necessity for using extraordinary caution and vigilance in such a case, it is ourselves. Almost every fatal cattle plague which has fallen on this kingdom has been found to have been imported. Whether our system of management be better, our feeding more generous, or merely position and climate in our favour, it is very certain that we are not prone to generate disordei'S of this terrible cha- racter. Beyond this, it is well known that since free trade in foreign stock has been established, there has been a clear increase in, and gradual intimacy with dis- eases of which we previously had but little experience. Under the best of circumstances, there is nothing the owner of a good herd greets with so cold a welcome as one of these " foreigners " hanging about his home- stead. Just now we scarcely know any means too strong to be used in his expulsion. But such a stej) may be all too late. After the most careful and patient investigation, our best Veterinarians still declare these to be " diseases which can be far more easily prevented than cured." Further, they are known to be of that description which do not often show themselves for many days after they are contracted. An animal may thus pass as sound, which has all the poison in his system, and that may spread it as fatally as one only a stage further advanced in the attack. If anything then is to be done, it must be done quickly. On the continent the most extreme measures are at once resorted to — proceedings which it would be scarcely possible to adopt here. If a beast is seized, tliis one is not only immediately destroyed, but the whole herd with which ho has been going. Tlie spread of anything likely in tiie least degree to contaminate is strictly foi-biddcn, at least in tiiosc territories from which such decrees emanate. It is only here in Eng- land that we continue open to contagion until we con- tract it ; assured though we are, and long have been, that prevention is the chief recipe we have to rely on. This matter was brought more prominently before the Government by Mr. Stafford on Friday evening. It was also spoken to by three other members well known from their connections with agriculture and agriculturists. These were Lord Naas, Mr. Packc, and Sir John Tyrrell ; the last-named of whom would appear to under - rate what the Royal Agri- cultural Society has previously done in threatened] or actual visitations of such a nature. We confess that wc think quite the other way. From what we know, the Society has never been more active — and scarcely ever so much so, as in meeting and counteracting the exten- sion of these terrible outbreaks. We must admit, more- over, that it is to this Body we still chiefly look for the insurance of what should be immediately enacted. It will be the duty of the Council to keep the Government vigilantly alive to the danger which so imminently threatens us ; as well as to urge— or rather perhaps to demand— the enforcement of such prohibitory mea- sures as shall best attain to what the veterinary officers of the Society impress upon us is the only really suc- cessful way of dealing with the disease — that is, l)y never suffering it to come amongst us. We have already referred to the decision and vigour which have characterized the proceedings of other powers. The Minutes of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England will tell us more in detail what some of these are. When, about two years since, one of these epidemics was raging in Russia,' the subject was brought forward at different weekly Council Meetings, when, amongst other communications read was a letter from Lord Bloomfield, our Minister at Berlin. With this was enclosed a copy of the precautionary stops adopted by the Prussian Government, and which it may be of service, in more ways than one, to repeat here: — " These measures arc to be more strictly observed if the murrain has broken out in the vicinity of the fron- tiers. If an infected place in a foreign country is only three miles or less from the frontier, then it is posi- tively forbidden along a certain extent of frontier, to be marked out by the provincial authorities, and in any case along the extent that lies so near to the place in- fected, to admit — (rt) Horned cattle, sheep, swine, goats, dogs, and poultry, fresh skins of bullocks and of other ani- mals, horns, and unmelted tallow, beef, dung, winter fodder, and stable implements of uny kind. (h) Also raw wool, dry hides, and the hair of animals (bristles excepted) are excluded, if there is reason to believe that they come from an infected place. (c) Only to allow such persons to pass without mo- lestation who, according to their circumstances, U 294 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. caunot be .supposed either to have been iu any in- fected place at all, or, even if they have been there, ia auy way to have come in immediate contact with infecteil cattle. All persons, on the contrary, ^ho, according to their circumstances, inay be supposed to be occupied and to have intercourse with cattle, such as cattle and leather-dealers, butchers, tanners, skinners, are refused admission ; or they must, when very cogent reasons are brought forward for their admission, previously submit to a careful purification, to take place under the superintendence of the police. The provincial authorities are moreover empowered to enforce the application of these measures, even when the infected places lie^ye miles beyond the frontiers. " This must, in every case, happen, when a brisk and accelerated trade in the abovejiamed articles takes place by means of turn])ike-roads or communication by ■water between the infected places and the inland, or when the contagion in the interior of the foreisjn country has spread itself to a great extent. In cases of this kind, and especially when the spreading,- of the con- tagion in the foreign country by propagation makes rapid progress, or when other dangerous circumstances hap- pen, then these measures are to be enforced, even when the disease prevails at a distance of more than five miles." Again, Mr. Blackweil in a letter from Lubeck, on the contagious disease that had broken out in Mecklenburg, says: — "The most stringent regulations to prevent its spreading or introduction should be instantly adopted, and duly enforced by the competent authorities. The most eftcctual way of checking the disease would be to slaughter the cattle attacked by it at once. But whether they be slaugh- tered or die of the disease, their carca&es, as well as their excrements, should be burnt or otherwise de- stroyed, or at least thrown into deep pits dug for the purpose, and carefully covered up with earth. The hides, if preserved, should be tanned as soon as possible. The clothes of the attendants, the stalls, «owhruses, &c., should be purified with chlorine; and the cow- houses well ventilated before other cattle are stalled in them." This is no merely class question. It is one that in- timately concerns the whole community; although we expect it must be a class that in the first instance, at le'ast, will have resolutely to deal with it. Whatever advantages we may derive from our commerce with other countries, our import cattle trade is scarcely one of these. Last year, as our official returns will show, the arrivals were much below an average, although they are now again on the increase. Still, however numerically strong these occasionally may be, the quality has long been deteriorating. Butchers and dealers, indeed, have of late spoken of it with unre- served contempt ; and perhaps for the present the sooner the supply is stopped the better. THE LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. THE CULTIVATION OF POOR AND HILLY LANDS. The monthly meeting of the Club took plyc3 on Monday, March 2, at the Clubhouse, Mr. Owen Wallis, of Overstone Grange, Northampton, as chair- man for the year, presiding. He was supported by the following gentlemen amongst others present : Messrs. R. Baker, Writtle; N. G. Barthropp, Cretingham ; B. P. Shearer, Swanmoor ; J. B. Spearing, T. Congreve, W. Bullock Webster, R. de Trehonnais, James Thomas, S. Sksiton, J. C. Nesbit, J. Cressingham, G. P. Tux- ford, T. Scott, J. Bradshaw, D. Drakcford, E. Purser, J. Russell, S. Sidney, II. Shotter, J. Ambrose, C. J. Brickwell, J. Bailey Denton, H. Gibbons, W. Banwell, J. H. Sawell, C. Hall, W. Beckett, R. B. Hammond, &c. The subject appointed for discussion was "The best means of improving the cultivation of poor and hilly lands," the introducer of it being Mr. R. Smith, of Ennmett's Grange, South Molton, Devon. The Chairman observed that, in opening the pro- ceedings, he could not help remarking upon the useful- ness and variety of the discussions which took place there. In December last they had a discussion, which was introduced by Mr. Thomas, of Lidlington Park, Woburn, on the importance of an extended system of cropping for rich and highly-cultivated lands. That evening, they were going to discuss the practicability of reclaim- ing the uncultivated moors and hills which were as yet in a state of nature. This was a subject in which every grazier iu England, as well as every consumer of animal food, had a direct interest. It was to the recla- mation and improvement of poor lands that the grazier must look for the means of furnishing an inereased supply of store stock ; and all who were conversant with the feeding of cattle must be aware that the supply was very inadequate to the increased wants of the con- sumers of this country (Hear, hear). He was sure the subject could not have fallen into better hands than those of Mr. Smith ; but they must make some allow- ances for him that evening, for no doubt many of them had read the very able article which had just appeared from his pen in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, and which was, in fact, a prize essay on this topic (Hear, hear). Under these circumstances, they could not expect much new matter from him ; but he was sure that everything he did say would be said well and ably. Having alluded to the necessity of an in- creased supply of store stock, he thought it would not be irrelevant to make one or two remarks on the pre- servation of the stock which they already possessed. He would refer especially to the great fears which were (as he thought, justly ) entertained that the murrain which THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 295 was ravaging continental Europe to such a fearful ex- tent would, unless timely checks were applied to the im- portation of diseased cattle, extend to this country (Hear, hear). He was very glad to find that one of the members for Northamptonshire noticed the subject the other evening in the House of Commons. He hoped the farmers of England would bestir themselves in the matter, and take care that it did not get into the Circumlocution Office, so that the application of a remedy would be too late to prevent disastrous conse- quences to this country. They might, perhaps, be charged with interested motives in wishing to see checks applied to the ioiportation of foreign cattle ; but he, for one, disclaimed any such motive. It v/ould be much better for the consumers of England to pay a small ad- ditional price for their present supply of animal food, than to run a risk of having no such food to eat ; for if this disease were introduced into the country, and made similar ravages to those which history declared it to have made in 1715 and in subsequent years, the effect would be dreadful, not only to the owners of our herds of cattle, but also to the consumers of meat generally (Hear, hear). With these remarks, he begged to call npon Mr. Smith, that gentleman being too well known to every one connected with agriculture to need any intro- duction. Mr. R. Smith said : I could have wished that the committee had solicited some other member of the club for the introduction of this important subject — " The best means of Improving the Culti- vation of Poor and Hilly Lands" ; but I judge that their choice could not have fallen upon a member who is more completely surrounded by " poor and hilly land" than myself. The enclosing and reclaiming of poor land have long engaged the attention of the English farmer, and we have only to point to the marked success that has followed the enterprise and outlay of capital upon the sands of Norfolk, the heaths and wolds of Lincoln- shire, the chalks of Wiltshire, the clays of Sussex, the fens of Cambridgeshire, or the reclaiming of hilly wastes, to show what has been done in days gone by. These early improvements are within the recollection of our oldest farmers, and history has brought them down to the present day. The great feature of these improve- ments appears to havebeen that of an admixture of toils. For instance, the sands, heaths, and wolds have been consolidated by i;jarls, others by chalk, the peaty fen lands by clay, while the clays have been changed by draining. And mark ! the whole of these mixtures have taken place with the one common view of produ- cing a soil that should, as nearly as local circumstances would admit, approach the valuable characters of cur mixed loamy soils. It is due to those who have pre- ceded us, to say that these works were carried oti at a period when they had not the enjoyment of present ad- vantages. They had not our modern i'nplements ; they had no guano or phosphates ; they had no Central Farmers' Club, to discuss their intricate subjects ; they had no Royal Agricultural Society to aid their enter- prise ; but they had this — they had English zeal at their hearts, and practice at their fingers' ends. Nay, they had more : they had, even in those days, the forethought of establishing an equitable custom for the security of their capital. It is beyond my province, this evening, to enter upon the details of this success ; bat there arc members present who, I hope, will give the meeting the benefit of their past experience, and full results of any new practice that has succeeded upon their farms. The poor and hilly lands of England embrace a wide and formidable acreage of cur island ; they are, indeed, re- marked upon by the foreigner, in comparison with his visits to our highly cultivated and thickly populated dis- tricts. They stand, in this great agricultural and com- mercial country, as beacons for extended enterprise. The questions, then, arise— What are the local and pecu- liar influences bearing upon these poor lands? Why should they not receive a spirited outlay for their im- provement ? Have modern practice and science advanced to such a degree as to give us any new advantages in grappling with those ancient difficulties which have caused these lands to be hitherto neglected? It ;s evident, at any rate, that for such a bold and important enterprise extraordinary encouragement and assistance must be given by the landlord. This may be given by low rentS; long leases, permanent improvements, liberal security for unexhausted investments, or by artificial manures. This leads to the inquiry as to which soils are fit for improvement, and by what means the improve- ment may be made. It is not for me to enter upon a minute detail of the composition of soils, barren or fer- tile, but to touch briefly upon their characters for im- provement. The soils most susceptible of improvements are the silicious or sandy, the peaty or vegetable, the calca- reous or chalky, and the clays . The silicious are poor in- deed. This arises from their being so remarkably porous in their nature that they can neither collect food or re- tain manures that are put into them. Still, they have the merit of warmth on their side, and may, consequently, be made to bear good crops by the ap- plication of marl, clay, cr chalk. This admixture has the desired effect of giving a more retentive soil, which, when coupled with the natural heat of the original soil, produces excellent crops, especislly roots, from the more early germination of the seed. The peaty soils are of little value until they have been cultivated. These are best improved by " claying," as adopted in the south of Lincolnshire, and Cambridgeshire. The calcareous soils, taken as a whole, are capable of improvement. These soils, being possessed of carbonate of lime in themselves, and not unfrequcntly resting upon heavier soils, which may be subsoiled to good efiect, they are best improved by artificial manures and root crops. The poor clays are the least desirable of all soils, en account of the heavy outlay in cultivation, and the length of time occupied before they can be brought to pay, or even into a manageable state. Their poverty originates in the saturated state they have got into. Suitable drainage is the only safe passport to their per- manent improvement. As to the plans of draining I will say nothing : every practical man, who has been educated upon the borders of a sterile clay, is fully capable of being himself a «* director of a company of u 2 29G THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. drainers." Neither need I occupy your time by stating the effects produced : they are alike familiar to you all. But thus much I may say — that there are to be found amongst the heavy soils of England some of the best farms and farmers that our island can produce. In connexion with the improvement of poor lands, arises the question of " breaking-up inferior grassland." This subject has already been discussed by the Club. There cannot be a doubt as to the profitable results of such a course upon certain lands ; but a definite line must be drawn, to mark their several qualities, before the work is begun. Some moist lands require to be drained, and, after subsequent tillage, relaid to pasture again. Some dry and inert soils are more suitable for general tillage ; while there are others so situated by soil and climate, as to be better adapted to improvement by top-dressings of lime, compost, or artificial manures. In support of their arable culture, it may be said that, by the recent introduction of modern implements, and that of the phosphate manures, farming lands have received a marked advantage over the pasture lands. Having so far touched upon the characteristics of our poor soils, I now proceed to notice their capabilities of improvement. These, for the convenience of our sub- ject, may be reduced to two heads— viz., the light and heavy soils. The light soils embrace the sandy and chalk downs, heaths, and peaty ground. These, as previously mentioned, have been susceptible of improve- ment by the free admixture of marl or clay as a top- dressing ; but these practices have been frequently arrested by the difficulty of application, and the pro- spective difficulty in harvesting the crops upon hilly lands, while other poor lands have remained uncultivated from local difficulties or want of capital. With the view of compressing my opening remarks into a small and convenient shape, so that a full discussion may follow, I will simplify what I have to say, by taking an acre of average land, as Nature formed it, upon poor hilly ground, and giving an estimate of its cost and produce during a period of four years, at the end of which we may fairly calculate that the land ought to be in an efficient state to be cultivated under the usual rotations of a farm. In carrying this plan of improvement out, I propose that the four years' rotation should be — 1st year, roots, after the land has been properly broken up and manured, &c. ; 2nd year, roots a second time, grown cheaply ; 3rd year, seeded down with artificial seeds, after the turnips, with a corn crop ; 4th year, growing seeds, to be grazed by sheep. Such a system as this can noto be most easily carried into effect, by the free use of artificial manures, after the lands have been consolidated by marl, according to ancient custom. The consumption of these green crops by sheep upon the land has a decided effect upon the permanent im- provement of the soil — first, by enriching it to an enormous extent ; and secondly, by the mechanical effect produced upon the land by their feet. I need scarcely remark that, if artificial food were given to the sheep during the consumption of these crops, the work of improvement would be complete. The cost of im- provement, upon the light lauds, will stand thus : First Year's cost for Turnips. £ 8, d. Parlug and burning, oi otherwise cleaning the surface soil 15 0 Two plougbings, draggiugs, rollings, &c 15 0 One hundred loads of marl, at 9d. per load 3 15 0 Two cwt. guauo, sown broadcast 1 10 0 Two cwt. superphosphate and farm ashes, drilled 10 0 Turnip seed, sowing and setting-out, &c 0 10 0 Eent and rates (should be nominal) 0 10 0 £9 15 0 Second Year. — Turnips again. Ploughing, dragging and rolling, &c 0 15 0 Artificial manures and ashes, drilled • 1 10 0 Turnip seed, &c., rent and rates 10 0 £3 5 0 Third Year. — Seeded, without corn. Ploughing, dragging, rolling, &c 0 12 6 Artificial grass-seed, rape-seed, and sowing 1 0 0 Rentandrates 0 10 0 £2 2 6 Fourth Year. — Seeds for grazing. Top-dressing of artificial manure 1 10 0 Rentandrates 0 10 0 £2 0 0 Summary. — Cost of the four crops. First year's outlay , 9 15 0 Second ditto 3 5 0 Third ditto 2 2 6 Fourth ditto 2 0 0 £17 2 6 Interest of capital, wear and tear cf implements, &c., not charged. Summary. — Value of the four crops, First year's return, 17 tons of turnips, at 6s 5 2 0 Second ditto 20 tons of swedes and hybrids, at 7s 7 0 0 Third year's return, value of new seeds and rape . . 2 10 0 Fourth ditto seeds for grazing 2 10 0 £17 2 0 It will be seen by this calculation, that the improve- ment of poor lands is a work of time and outlay of capital, but can be effected in the character of a com- mercial transaction — and this, if wished, without the cost of farm-buildings to any extent during the first four years of a lease. Still, this can only be done by men of capital under long leases, low rents, and security for their unexhausted investment. These improvements may be effected by tenants' capital; but I see no reason why a landlord should not contribute his part in the shape of marling or artificial manures for the light lands, upon the same principle as he would drain the clays. This would be an equitable course, and make our figures more readable. This system of green crops and sheep farming is applicable to all dry soils, es- pecially such as have been over-cropped and exhausted of their vegetable matter. Still, in the carrying out of these practices we must first consult Nature's dictates, as to the suitableness of the climate for the growth of grass, as a pursuit. As regards the heavy soils, I would remark that these are proverbially wet and un- Sixth Year — Wheat. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. aqiaiii'i ^^ kindly for tillage ; and from their indisposition to the growth of roots, they aro but rarely sought after. There are many varieties of clay, some of which are equal to any soils when drained, and afford good profit from their cultivation. But, Sir, the very sound of a " poor clay- land farm" is enough for most men; and they rejoice in having nothing to do with it. I need scarcely observe that efficient draining is the first great work to be per- formed. Then follows the pulverization of the soil, to as great a depth as circumstances will admit, which may be accomplished by deep ploughing and subsoiling. The further improvement of the clays may be best effected by the growth of green crops, at the commencement of the rotation — not so much, in this case, for their consumption upon the land, as for the purpose of giving the newly-drained soil a suf- ficient time to correct itself before any corn crops are grown. The poor clays in their present state (without draining) are not to be trusted with the investment of tenants' capital ; neither can they be improved by a tenant to a profit, as my subsequent figures will show. Therefore, for the permanent introduction of these soils into arable culture, some extraordinary efforts must be made, both by landlord and tenant. In the calculation for the light lands, it is shown that in four years the cost of their improvement (without wear-and-tear and interest of capital) will have been redeemed ; but for the same work upon the clays full six years will be required to reinstate the outlay. With the view of showing the comparative data, I will supply a calculation extending over a six years' course of cropping, viz. : — First Year. — Dead fallow, drained. Second Year. — Spring fallows, liberally limed, then sown with white mustard to be ploughed in ; then sown with grass seeds about the end of July. Third Year. — Mixed seeds, mown. Fourth Year. — Seeds for grazing, top-dressed. Fifth Year. — Beans, sown on a winter furrow. Sixth Year. — Wheat, sown with artificial manure. 297 Fifth Year — Beans after Seeds. Winter ploughiug , ,, 0 10 0 Seed beans, sowing, and cleaning 1 5 0 Eeut and rates QIO 0 £2 5 0 Broadshariug and cleaning bean stubbles 0 15 0 Ploughing, dragging, and rolling 0 15 0 Artificial manure (broadcast) 2 5 0 Rent and rates 0 10 0 Seed wheat and sowing i 5 0 £5 10 0 Summary— Six Years' Outlay. First Year £6 10 0 Second Year 7 7 0 Third Year 0 10 0 Fourth Year 2 0 0 Fifth Year 2 5 0 Sixth Year 5 10 0 Total. £24 2 0 Summary— Six Years' Return. First Year— Dead fallow (no return) £0 0 Second Year — Value of young seeds 1 0 Third Year— Mixed seeds, mown, &c 3 10 Fourth Year — Seeds for grazing 2 0 Fifth Year — Beans, 4^ qrs., at 36s 8 2 Sixth Year—Wheat, 30 bushels, at 6a. 9d 10 2 Total £24 14 6 Statement of Outlay. First Year — £ a. d. By cost of draining (winter) 5 0 0 Three plonghings after draining, viz,, in May, August (across), and November (for the winter) 1 10 0 Rent and Rates (nominal) 0 0 0 £6 10 0 Second Year — Spring ploughiug, dragging, &c 0 15 0 4 tons of lirae, and carriage (say 10 miles) .... 4 0 0 Ploughin«c-in lime and dragging, &c 0 12 0 White m\istarJseed and sowing 0 5 0 Ploughiug in mustard, &c 0 10 0 Grass seeds and sowing (end of July) 0 15 0 Rent and rates 0 10 0 £7 7 0 Third Year— Seeds for Mowing. Rent and rates , 0 10 Fourth Year — Seeds for Grazing. Attifieial manure, top-dressing 1 10 Kent and rates 0 10 £2 0 0 We have here the same dilemma in our profits as was shown in the cultivation of the light lands, and extend, ing over a period of six years. This marked result clearly shows that the work cannot be done by a tenant, and points to the conclusion that drainage must certainly be executed by the landlord, and if he paid for the lime in the second year, the tenant doing the carriage, he would reap his reward by improving the " fee simple" of the land, and also strengthen the position of his tenant, at the critical moment of his enterprise. There is yet this question to be answered. Which are the best lands for future occupation, after they shall have been thus im- proved .' I am aware that these soils have their several merits, and that they are adapted for two distinct branches of husbandry, and that while the one is pro- ducing roots, grass, sheep, and corn, the other is produc- ing vetches, beans, clover, and wheat. Upon this I venture no opinion, as, if I did so, it must necessarily lead me astray from my particular mission — that of introducing the subject upon the card. We now come to the poor hilly lands and commons. These arc to be found in the more northern and western counties. They form a con- siderablo tract of land, and require to be better known by the sons of agriculture in our thickly-populated counties. You must excuse my position as agent for this particular branch of property, and kindly receive ray remarks in the spirit in which they are given, rather than conclude that I am about to advertise the shop. By choice, I would rather adopt the convenient course of the late Dr. Abernethy, and say with him, " For in- formation upon this complaint, read my book." But my book is only a brief essay on the " Bringing of Moorland into Cultivation," and will be found in the Royal Agricultural Society's last Journal. As an evi- 293 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. deuce of the iiicreased interest taken in these open Lill and common lands, I may refer to the extensive enclo- sures that have already taken place under the new En- closure Act, and the enormous acreage that is now under the consideration of the Enclosure Commissioners, This progress is being made by the resident owners and farmers of the immediate neighbourhood. Another official inst-ince may be given of these advances in Devon and Somerset. I will take these counties, and place them in juxtaposition with the favourite arable counties of Lincoln and Norfolk, to show their several assessed values for the property-tax in 1815 and 1851. This is the official statement of their annual value of real pro- perty as assessed to the property-tax, viz. : — Lincolnshire Norfolk .... Devoa , Somerset ... 1815. 2,061,830 1,540,952 1,897.515 1,900,651 1851. Increase ^er Cent. 3,009,456 2,463,893 2,736,361 3,111,703 441 64/ 108 These comparisons give encouraging results, and show that we may yet see these almost-countless acres of un- improved lands turned to a better account. These poor and hilly wastes, being usually situated in thinly popu- lated and highly elevated districts, are not so suitable for the subsequent growth of corn as the poor sands or chalks of the more thickly populated and less elevated districts of the southern and eastern counties. In bringing these hilly lanls into cultivation, it is usual, first, to pare and burn the surface-soil and weeds. The Imd is liberally dressed with lime, and, after the usual tillages, is sown with turnips. I will give the cost, in comparison with the inland (improved) lands : — Unreclaimed Waste (dry) Land. By paring and burning £1 0 0 By one ploughing and dragging, &c 0 12 6 By 2-i- tona of lime and carriage, at 203 2 10 0 By rent and rates 0 7 6 £4 10 0 In the second year turnips are again sown with arti- ficial manures, or the land may at once be so^yn with grass seeds without a corn crop, as otherwise adopted in the third year. The fourth year the seeds are grazed with sheep. The result of my farming upon this class of land has confirmed my views as to the value oi green crops, when these lands are first taken in hand. I may mention, to correct a too prevailing opinion, " that all hilly or common lands require draining, and that they are more cr less of a worthless character," that this is indeed a wrong impression ; and, in confirmation of my statement, I have only to quote the remarks of the late Mv. Pusey, as contained in his report of the farm- ing of Lincolnshire, and other similar districts (see Hoyal Agricultural Society's Journal, vol. iv., part 2, page 308), to show that these lands are worthy of notice. Mr. Pusey says, " On returning to the West Somerset country in 1S41, I was surprised to find that moors, which had formerly appeared to be fitted only for the pursuit of the blackcock and the red deer, consist in great part of sound land — not in my opinion merely, but in that of the farmers, one of whom said to me, ' Here was land enough idle to employ the surplus po- pulation of England.' " In bringing my remarks to a close, I feel that I have detained you too long. Still I have endeavoured at every point to keep within com- pass, and thus to treat the many subjects as briefly as circumstances will admit. In conclusion, I may express a hope, that as the wild duck and other water fowl have disappeared by the drainage of our fens, the rabbit warrens by the cultivation of the heaths and wolds, and the snipe by the drainage of our moors, we shall yet see our remaining difficulties overcome by the ma- gical effects of artificial manures and green crops as " the best means of improving poor and hilly land." Mr. B. Webster (of Neath) would ask Mr. Smith whether he would be disposed to follow the course of proceeding which he had described if he were dealing with a soil and climate of a different character. Would he, for instance, apply it to the heaths of the dry portion of Kent in the vicinity of Tunbridge Wells ? Mr. Smith said it appeared to him that the general improvement of heaths, and of the class of dry lands referred to, would be sought first by marling or chalk- ing, and next by the use of artificial manures for the production of green crops. He would certainly be dis- posed to give animals artificial food. Mons. Trehonxais (of Falmouth) enquired what crop Mr. Smith would put on land newly gained from the sea — on such alluvial soil as was found in the eastern parts of the fens of Lincolnshire? Mr. Smith said his answer to that question was very simple indeed. Alluvial soils would grow anything they pleased to grow in them (Hear, hear). If they went deep enough, they were sure to get a crop on the borders of Lincolnshire. In the case of alluvial soils, they had simply to eradicate or clean the surface soil, and after that they would take a corn crop. Mons. Trehonnais said he wanted to know what course of proceeding would be most advantageous. In France he had seen grass growing spontaneously on lands newly reclaimed from the sea. He had observed, for example, in Normandy, where a large bay having been reclaimed from the sea, that the finest grass grew spontaneously ; and the question was, whether it were better to break up such land at once, or to let grass grow upon it. Mr. Smith said he should take Nature as his teacher. He had seen farming on both sides of the island — the dry side on the east, and the wet side on the west. On the western side he tried an experiment in a turnip field. He set apart an acre of land in the middle of a field, and prepared it in the usual way for turnips — not drilling the turnips — and they would perhaps be sur- prised to hear that that acre of land in the West of Eng- land was in the succeeding spring clothed with grass. He should, then, in such matters take Nature as his guide. In a case like that which he had mentioned, he would grow grass. In the other case referred to, he would produce corn. Mr. Sidney (of Peckham) was glad that a subject on which there had been so much exaggeration had been treated that evening by a gentleman of practical expe- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 299 rience. Mr. Smith was not a farmer of yesterday. He commencod farming ia early life in one of the best parts of Lincolnshire : he faruied for many years in Rutland- shire, which was called the garden of England : and he now occupied with great credit to himself a farm in one of the wildest parts of the West of England, where there was a very great prejudice against strangers ; yet it was only the other day that he (Mr. Sidney) heard a De- vonshire farmer say that whatever could be done in that part of the country would be done by Mr. Smith. Now he did not make these remarks with the view of flattering Mr. Smith ; but in order that when the reports of this dis- cussion went forth, the public, who as a body knew very little about agriculture, might see that the man who had given an account of what ought to be done in this mat- ter, was a man who knew what he was talking about. There never arose a period of distress in this country but that some closet philosopher came forward with a scheme for putting an end to that distress by some patent mode of dealing with the waste lands of England (Hear, hear). Such propositions could not be treated with contempt, for they had been made from time to time by men of considerable literary influence. It was not many years since Mr. Stuart Mill, one of the first po- litical economists of the day, brought forward a proposi- tion for settling a million of paupers on the waste lands of Ireland. A system of cottage farms was laid down in gre '.t detail : it found favour with a great number of persons, and it was only the firm resistance of the go- vernment of the day th?;t prevented the addition of another million to the pauper population already existing in Ireland. It was impossible to take up any number of publications on economical subjects without meeting with propositions of the same kind. The other day there was a very large meeting of working men in Smithfield — not idle, worthless fellows, but industrious and respectable mechanics — and a gentleman of very mistnken views, though of very great talent and elo- quence, introduced this remedy. Mr. Ernest Jones told those whom he addressed, that there were in this country 20,000,000 of acres of good land which had never baen touched by spade or plough ; and that on these 20,000,000 acres of land a million families might be located as self-supporting English farmers ; and he went on to tell his hearers a great many wonderful things in connexion with this waste land scheme. Now he thought the present was a good opportunity of exposing the unsoundness of Mr. Ernest Jones's views with regard to waste lands. But be must express his regret that they had so very few statistics connected with agriculture that they could rely upon. It was fioractimes vaguely stUed that there were twenty millions of acres of waste lands in England and Scotland. It would be well if we could learn something about the quality of the land ; if some gentleman like Mr. Smith were employed to go over the waste lands, and prepare a report on the subject, a vast amount of non- sense now talked would be dissipated. From the best information he c^nild obtain, there were at the pre- sent time about 4,000,000 acres of waste lands iu Eng- land and Wales; the remainiog 20,000,000, described by Mr. Ernest Jones, must consist of the barren dis- tricts of Scotland. He would then assume the quantity of waste lands to be 4,000,000 acres. Well, that quantity made a very great figure when an orator was making a speech, but it represented very little corn and beef. It included the waste lands of Wales, and any man who was acquainted with the Principality must know what an enormous amount of laud there was of a cold, mountainous character, having only aa inch or two of soil, adapted for nothing but the grazing of a few sheep. Moreover the 4,000,000 acres included the rocks, fells, and lakes of Cumberland and West- moreland, and the wastes of Dartmoor and Exmoor. He would leave it to Mr. Smith to say whether the wt'stern v/astcs would ever make anything more than second cfl: third-class grazing land. In riding through such counties as Lincoln and Norfolk, one might oc- casionally come upon a common which had not been cultivated ; but when he saw the adjoining land under cultivation, he felt astonished at the courage of the men who had first ventured to put a spade or a plough into such soil, the result being in many cases a large expen- diture of capital and labour, with a very moderate re- turn on the caoital expended. Now he found that, be- tween 1710 and 1850, 8,000,000 acres of land had been enclosed. He need not enter, at a meeting like that, into a history of the reclamations of Norfolk and Lin- colnshire ; but he would observe that, considering the spirit and enterprise of Mr. Coke, and other land- owners of those districts, it was a reasonable inference that the land left unreclaimed was not likely to yield a very brilliant return, though a great deal of it might gradually be brought into cultivation by a large ex- penditure of oil:ake, manure, and artificial manure. In- deed, speaking generally, he should be glad to know where the rich fertile waste lands which were somtimes spoken of were to be found (Hear, hear). He knew of only one instance in which the prejudices of a noble landowner had prevented the cultivation of a considerable tract of land. He referred to Cannock Chase, which consisted of about 20,000 acres of land in the centre of Stafford- shire, and which belonged to the Marquis of Anglesca ; but that case was altogether exceptional— he should be glad to hear of any other instance of the same kind. Well, now, haviugreduced Mr. Ernest Jones's 20,000,000 acres of land to 4,000,000 acres in England and Wales, he thougc-t he might safely assume that of those 4,000,000 acres at least half were either water or barren mountain or rock, which it would be quite impossible to turn to any useful purpose. He now came to the pro- position for the cultivation of all this waste land. Mr. Jones's plan was, to build cottages, with farms of 20 acres attached to each, on the good waste land of Eng- land, wherever that might be found. From an estimate published in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal it appeared that cottages might be built at £S7 apiece ; but, as that struck liim as being rather a high figure, he would assume that the actual cost of the cottages, under the plan in question, would be £bO each. Here they had, then, on every 20 acres an expense of £bO at once. He had gone over Mr. Smith's calculations of 300 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the expense of reclaiming waste land, and he found that -the highest estimate was ^18 per acre and the lowest £6, the latter having reference solely to the growth of grass. This latter estimate would on a farm of 20 acres give an outlay of ^6^120 for reclaiming, which, with the ;^50, would bring up the expense to ^170. Further, there must be something to buy tools with, unless indeed these farmers were to scratch the ground with their fingers. So that, according to a very moderate estimate, to settle these people, who were supposed to be surplus labourers — he did not admit that there was any surplus labour — to settle all these people on the waste lands would require an expenditure of ^200,000,000. (Hear, hear). Moreover, Mr. Smith calculated that such land when it had been reclaimed — an operation which in time would require a minimum of four years and a maximum of six — would yield a rent of only about 15s. per acre for pasture, but not a single quarter of wheat or even barley. (Hear, hear). These ob" servations were addressed to men who were well ac- quainted with such matters, and who could correct him if he were wrong ; but if, on the contrary, he were right, it was desirable that these facts should be made known, in order that the mistaken views of rash though well- meaning men might not mislead the public, and espe- cially the working-classes. There was a time, no doubt, when the reclamation of the waste lands of this country was an object of great importance ; but after the lapse of a period of fifty years, during which agricultural im- provement had been stimulated to so great an extent, by skill and enterprise and increased demands, there was, he believed, only a comparatively small quantity of waste land, the reclamation of which would yield any considerable return. No doubt there was still a great deal of laud of that description which it would pay a man residing in the district, willing to rough it, and un- derstanding the matter, gradually to improve and bring into cultivation ; but those who knew what cultivation really was, and how long it took to make an agricultural labourer, would easily conceive what would be the effect of taking a man who had been accustomed to work in a smith's or a carpenter's shop, placing him on a wild moor, and holding out to him the prospect that at the end of four or six years' incessant labour, and with the assistance of such an outlay as he had mentioned, he would have an estate worth i^'20 or ^£'22 per acre. (Hear, hear). Again, Mr. Jones said, that our aristo- cratic system, by confining the land to a few persons, kept down the labourers. Now, it would so happen that on crossing the channel, and visiting that country of which they had so eloquent a representative among them in the person of Mons. Trehonnais, they met with the exact reverse of the state of things here. In this country the highest degree of cultivation that agri- culture had ever seen had been attained on those great estates where the landlord, going hand-in-hand with the tenant, had given him security of tenure, and entering into a rational kind of partnership with him, had enabled him to develop the capabilities of the soil. But across the channel they saw a country where no landed aris- tocracy existed, and where the tenant lived, as it were, by his own labour and that of his family, making use of only the simplest tools ; and he could testify from per- sonal observation, that the peasant-proprietor in the northern parts of France lived very much worse than the ordinary agricultural labourer in England (Hear, hear). If you were to ask the English smith or carpenter to live as the French or Flemish peasant lived, to work out of doors to the same extent, to wear the same kind of clothes, or to subsist in the same manner j on soup, into the composition of which very little meat 1 catered, he would treat you with contempt, and would tell you that you wished to reduce him to a state of ab- solute pauperism. He would go further, and assert that if the system of cottage farms proposed by Mr. Jones had been carried out on the reclaimed lands in Norfolk and Lincolnshire, those lands would ultimately have been again abandoned to the region of waste (Hear, hear). He had to apologise for making these remarks, but he could not refrain from endeavouring to show theorists, by a few plain facts, that it was not by turning skilled mechanics into bad farmers that they could hope to benefit the working classes (cheers). Mr. Shearer (of Swanmore, Hants), in denial of there being any surplus mechanical labour, wished to observe that in a southern agricultural district of England, in which he resided, there had for the last two or three years been such a scarcity of skilled carpenters, bricklayers, and other artisans of that kind, that farmers had been obliged to forego many alterations and improvements which would otherwise have been made. Mons. R. de la Trehonnais (of Falmouth) rose to corroborate what had fallen from Mr. Sidney in refer- ence to the cultivation of the soil by labouring pro- prietors ; and he hoped that what that gentleman had said would tend to check the unfounded hopes which de- mocratic orators excited in the breasts of labourers on that subject. In his country (France), the sub-division of land had formed a great impediment to the improve- ment of agriculture. To such an extent, indeed, was this the case, that the French Government, having lately voted £4,000,000 sterling to be advanced by way of loan for drainage purposes, were at a loss to carry out their design, because they could not do so in such a manner as to ensure permanent benefit to the country. The large landed proprietors, who were few in number, thought it derogatory to their dignity to accept Govern- i ment assistance in the matter ; while as regarded the ' mass of proprietors, their estates were so small in extent, that it was almost impossible to conduct draining ope- rations on a sufficiently extensive scale to be of any public value. There must, of course, be an outfall for the drains; and when an estate was about to be drained, it often happened that the work could not be done be- cause the owner of the adjacent land would not allow his property to be interfered with. With such a limited area to drain, it was in many cases necessary to forego draining operations entirely ; any extensive scheme for draining land was, under such circumstances, almost necessarily abortive. He happened to be engaged at the present time in forming in France, with the appro- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 301 batioa of the French Government, a Land Improvement Society ; and when he applied to English agriculturists for advice on the subject, he found it almost impossible to make them understand the difference in the position of agriculture in the two countries. Such, indeed, was the state of things there, that it was almost impossible to carry out improvements on an extensive scale, except on Government property and property belonging to parishes. While population was increasing, the ait of cultivation seemed rather to be on the decline ; and he had no doubt that the price of grain in this country was 5s. higher than it would otherwise be, in consequence of the demand from France (Hear, hear). Considering that agriculture, especially in the southern parts of France, was in such a favourable position as regarded soil and climate, it was a lamentable subject of reflection to himself that his countrymen should be obliged to come to this small island to supply the deficiency in the food of the popu- lation. Having been enabled, by a residence of many years in England, to appreciate the great enterprise and skill which had been brought to bear on the cultivation of this island, he felt exceedingly anxious, as a French- man, to see the agriculture of his country similarly de- veloped ; and he trusted that a better day was dawning for the agriculture of France. Mr. J. C. Nesbit (of Kennington) thought the operations described by Mr. Smith was more applicable to that part of the West of England which was moun- tainous and rainy than to districts of an opposite cha- racter. It miglit be taken as a general fact with respect to all the western districts of England, including the waste lands, that lime was a necessary ingredient in the cultivation of the soil. Paring and burning would generally not avail without the application of lime. There were veins of limestone in many districts; but, gen- erally speaking, the west country was deficient in that substance. In the western districts of Cornwall and Devon, farmers, having no lime of their own, had obtained a supply from the coast, in the form of shell sand, and the importation of this substance having been car- ried on for a great number of years, and on a very ex- tensive scale, there was now in many cases an excess. Mr. Smith had recommended a course of rotation, viz., that of taking turnips, turnips again, then seeds, and so on ; and only taking a corn crop, he thought, in the fifth or sixth year: and he subsequently mentioned a rotation in which the corn crops would come together, preceded by three green crops. Now it struck him (Mr. Nesbit) that this would be rather receding from the four-course shift, which gave two crops in four years, and extending the period. As at the present time the grand point was to grow more corn within a given time, he would suggest that for three green crops and two corn crops it was desirable to adopt a rotation of this kind — turnips, next wheat or barley, then seeds, then wheat, then barley. Thus they might have in many districts of the country a rotation of five crops, consisting of three corn crops and two green crops. By using artificial manures they would be able to apply the requisite stimulus, and by taking barley after wheat they would secure a better sample of barley. He happened to mention this subject the other day to one of the chief of JCord' Leicester's tenants. This gentleman told him that when he was dining with Lord Leicester a short time before, his lord- ship asked him why he could not grow more corn than he did under the four-course shift ? The next day he wrote to his lordship to ask him if he might grow barley after wheat, and his lordship gave his consent. He then put in 80 acres of barley after wheat, and the result was, as he informed him (Mr. Nesbit), that the barley proved the best sample that he had for a long time had. Supposing that they had succeeded in re- claiming waste lands, he thought the next great object was to endeavour to grow a large quantity of corn, an increased supply being manifestly required for our own population. There were some kinds of waste land which were not alluded to by Mr. Smith ; such, for example, as the sandy lands between Brandon and Thetford, and which it seemed scarcely possible to reclaim. Lands of that description seemed fitted for nothing but rabbits and natural grasses. There was also a species of waste land near London which it would be very difficult to reclaiaa. There was, for example, the land about Bagshot, There they had sand alternating with thin beds of clay, this clay varying in depth from three to four feet, and not being of a good description. The cultivation of land of that description had been at- tempted by a great number of practical men, and he had seen scores of acres banked up and afterwards aban- doned. It was, however, a curious fact, that when the labourer put his spade into land of this kind, he almost invariably succeeded in turning it into good potato ground ; and the question arose whether, though it was not worth the money-while of farmers to cultivate such land, it was not desirable to make allotments of it to labourers, whose industry would stand in the place of capital (Hear, hear). He believed there was not such a large extent of waste lands reclaimable as many sup- posed. The high lands of Yorkshire and Lancashire were at an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet above the sea, and it was almost impossible to suppose that they would ever be clothed with anything but heather ; and though there might be other districts in which the reclamation of waste lands was more practicable, he thought there was a very large quantity of waate land that could not bo cultivated profitably. Mr. B. Webster, having been called upon by the Chairman, said he so entirely coincided in the remarks of Mr. Smith, that he had really nothing to say beyond making the declaration of his concurrence in them. Mr. Scott (of Charing Cross) had had a great deal to do with the reclamation of waste land, sometimes at his own expense, sometimes at the expense of others, and he could certainly corroborate from experience Mr. Smith's representation that it was a very up-hill battle. That was especially the case when you had to contend with land- owners who were not sufficiently sensitive of the advan- tages which they would derive from such reclamation. Some years ago he was brought into close contact with a gentleman who was well known in Cheshire as the owner of a good many thousand acres of land ; he referred to Mr. Warburton, of Harley Hall. The reclamation 302 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which he (Mr. Scott) attempted on a portion of that estate was of a very peculiar kind. A good deal had been said that evening about high elevations. There they Tfere on a very low level. Having gone into that district from the Lothians of Scotland with a strong feeling in favour of agricultural improvement, and with the eager spirit of youth, he determined to try what lie could do on what might be considered a continuation of a well-known waste called Whitley Rede. He in- troduced into Cheshire a system of draining for which he had the honour of receiving a silver medal at the hands of Mr. Mark Phillips, and a similar acknow- ledgment from the Earl of Derby. Having a sort of instinctive perception of what was coming from Mr. Parkes, and not dreaming that Mr.Webster would go back as regarded depth (laughter), he determined, with re- gard to this land, not to adhere to the old standard of 2 feet or 2 feet 6 inches; he went 3 and 4 feet, cutting the drains in some cases with shoulders, and the ex- psnss of draining 300 acres was £b an acre, and with other expenses about £7 an acre. Some account of his draining operations would be found in " The Farmer's Magazine" of 1843 or 1844, and also in the transactions of the Manchester and Liverpool Agricultural Society's Reports. In the first year he took potatoes off the boggy land, and having bought a ton of guano at Liver- pool, at £2b, and applied it at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, the result was, that he got twelve tons per acre of magnificent potatoes. Having been told by the per- son who bought them that these potatoes turned to glue (laughter), he learned a lesson from that. In growing potatoes the next year, he used rape-dust in the propor- tion of 7 cwt. per acre, and he got £3 per ton for them. After this he sowed oats and Italian rye- grass, and he thought this latter crop was equal to any that he had seen in England. Well, Mr. Warburton, like many other owners who have to bear the whole burden, began to cool on agricultural improvements. Upon this be (Mr. Scott) advised him to put down the cost to capital account, and endeavoured to persuade him that he was buying the fee-simple of the land, as it were, over again ; but lie was not satisfied, and seemed unwilling to pro- ceed. One part of the land being then in Italian rye- grass, &c., he ofi'ered to take to it at 3 guineas per acre ; his offer was accepted, and he cleared twice that sum per acre by his bargain, although Mr. Warburton had some scruples about taking so high a rent (Hear, hear). He kept 5 ewes and lambs per acre, which he sold at an av^ra^re price of £\ 2s. ; they were all off the land by the end of July. He then got some Northumberland tegs, which were cleared off in September, and then barren cows were freshened on the land to the end of November. On the same land he had had 44 tons of mangel, and 37 tons of swedes per acre. Now his object in making these statements was partly to show what might be done with boggy land. He gave his own experience in this country ; and others he believed would corroborate him on the subject. In Ireland he had seen much waste heathy end boggy land most profitably relaimed. As regarded Mr. Smith, he was surprised to find, from hia address that evening, that the more dis- tant he could make the period of profit the better pleased he seemed to be (laughter). He reminded him of the words of Campbell — " 'Tis distance lends enchanftnent to the view" (laughter), whereas, in his (Mr. Scott's) estimation, the whole end of farming operations and the spirit of the day was expressed in the words, " Come, let me clutch thee'' (renewed laughter). What was the use of dissolving bones, as recommended by Liebig, except to ensure a more rapid realization of profit ? The mode of pro- ceeding which Mr. Smith advocated might be very good in theory, but it would be impossible to find practical men who would be willing to wait so long for a return. Why should he take two green crops, which yielded no direct profit, in succession ? and why, after taking two such crops, should he debar himself from taldug white crops ? He (Mr. Scott) had himself lived in the West of England for three years, and he thought the result of what Mr. Smith laid down would be that the cultivator would leave the profit to be reaped by his successor. Such a mode of viewing the matter afforded rather a discouragement to those who were disposed to cultivate waste lands. A Member would be glad to know what became of the land of which Mr. Scott had spoken, after he gave it up. Mr, Scott replied that the greater part of it was now laid down as a dairy farm, and was let at a stiff rent to the son of a well-known farmer in Cheshire. Mr. Bradshaw said he could bear testimony to what Mr. Scott had said with regard to the character of Whitley Rede, being well acquainted with it as a sportsman. The Chairman said it appeared to him that both Mr. Scott and Mr. Nesbit had lost sight of one of the mo5t im.portant parts of the subject treated by Mr. Smith, namely, the altitude of the land on which that gentleman had been making his improvements, and he must say he thought that would always be a serious bar to anything like successful corn cultivation, that land so situated could only be made profitable as stock farms ; and that even as stock farms it could be more profitably employed as adjuncts to low-land farms (Hear, hear). For his own part, if he were living within twenty, thirty, or forty miles of such land as Mr. Smith was improving, he should be glad to have 500 or 600 acres on which to keep his young breeding-stock daring the summer months, to be then removed to the low arable lands. In travelling last year through the hilly districts of Derbyshire, he was particularly struck with the evident imjirovements which had been made upon some of the high lands by drainage only, doubtless at great cost and labour, for he observed that much rock wa8 mixed with the grass ; but where the improvements were effected there was a wonderful diflVrence percepti- ble in the value of the land. He was quite certain that if all sucli lands v.ere drained as far as they were capable of being so treated, they would more than double THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 303 be quantity of stock which v/as t50w kept upon them, and so far would be very useful ; whereas, at present, they were little better than waste (Hear, hear). He had seen the same results oi> soaie of the Yorkshire moors, and he believed a similar remark v/ould apply to that class of land throughout the United Kingdom. He agreed with Mr. Sidney, that there was, in England, no really good land that was not under cultivation ; and he was quite sure Mr. Sidney was correct in say- ing that it would be almost dooming men to trans- portation to give them sraall tenancies upon these hills. Mr. Sidney had certainly done good in showing the fallacy of such an idea as that (Hear, hear). Mr. Smith, in his reply, adverted to some of the observntions which had fallen from Mr. Scott. He had offered to their notice a simple, rude plan, which, if they proceeded properly, tenants could carry out. True, th:y might rush to conclusions. For instance, they could grow wheat in the second year, if they chcse, climate and other circumstances being favourable to their d jing so. But he very much doubted, looking at the terms on the card, whether it would be wise to sub- stitute com for green crops, in the way which had been alluded to. Chalky, silicious, and calcareous earths required the admixture of marls, and the application of such extreme measures as the farmers of England were wont to adopt in times gone by. The question on the card was, What was to be done in future ? and was there a better plan? He held that there was, because, in the days of oar forefathers, wh?n they redeemed the heatl s of Norfolk and the wolds of Lincoln, they had only chalk and marl to fix them with ; and after that, they brouglit them into cultivation. The lands thsy did not treat in this way, thr.y did not think worth reclaiming. There were, however, many hillsides which carts could not go upon, but which sheep might tread, and might then be brought into good cultivation. By the mods of treatment he had suggested, buildings would not be re- quired under a period of four years, and the whole matter could be dealt with entirely as a commercial transaction. He could bear out what Mr. Scott had said, with respect to the reclamation of bogs. True, he had not SJen such results as Mr. Scott described, but he could bear testimony to the fact that unreclaimed wastes were most inviting, because they might be immediately pared, bivnt, and artificially manured, and as many turnips grown upon them as they pleased by artificial means. If they rushed icto extremes, however, in doing these things, they would find that the outlay would equal the return. As to bogs, he had drained several, and the re- 8 ilts had been favourable. Dry lands were undoubtedly fhe most inviting for the growth of turnips at first, but T^hen the moderately black soils — such as required to be srabsoiled — were broken up and drained, the vegetable matter, combined with the use of lime, rendered them tyfe most productive lands for roots and grass afterwards. TKfe dry Lnds were at the same time more healthy for idiitiediate use, and for the pasturing of flocks. With regard to the remarks of iMr. Sidney, of course he (Mr. Smith) did not jiropose that the artisan should quit his rfx-rii shop in order to cultivate these hilly lands. The men that were wanted for the purpose were tl;e hardy men v/ho lived in the neighbourhood, and who would take oft their coats and apply theu* own labour to the land. In concluding, Mr. Smith moved the following resolution : — " Resolved that, in addition to a j^idicious admixture, by which most soils have hitherto been redeemed, poor hilly lands would noiv be most effectually improved by the free use of artificial manures, iucluding lime, end the successive grovrth of green crops to be coasumed upon the land." Mr. B. Webster having seconded the motion, it was put from the chair, and agreed to unanimously. UNIFORM SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The Chairman observed that, before the club sepa- rated, he wished to make a few remarks relative to a subject which was exciting a good deal of attention at this moment, in his own nsighbourhood especially, and he believed throughout the United Kingdom. He alluded to the necessity which was everywhere felt for obtaining something like a uniform system of weight or measure — he should prefer the weight — in selling their corn in the market. Under the present system, or want of system (Hear, hear), the difficulty which a man experienced in ascertaining the relative price of corn was so serious, and the confusion which g^revailed so great, as to constitute a state of things that was almost disgraceful (Hear, hear). His attention had been calkd to the subject more particularly then by some gentlemen in his neighbourhood, who had requested him to mention it to this club, from whom they thought any recommen- dation would come with better grace than from any other body of persons in the country. He vrould, there- fore, take the liberty of urging upon them the import- ance of each doing his best in his respective sphere, with the view of attaining the very desirable object referred to. They might then, on some future and not far distant occasion, take steps regarding it, that might be attended with some practical and useful results. In consequence of the many improvements which had, of late years, been introduced into farm machinery, a great deal of corn went at once into the sack, and was there weighed, not measured. And, this being the case, he thought that a uniform weight ought to be agreed upon (Hear, hear), though he would not take upon himself to say what that weight should be. But a meeting was held at Gloucester, a short time ago, at whicli it was suggested that wheat should be taken at GOlb. as the average weight per bushel, instead of 621b., which was the standard at Birmingham and some other places. Now, GOlb. was, on the whole, he considered, a fair representative of a bushel of wheat, taking into ^pcount the average of seasons, and the average districts of the country. It was, also, the weight which was adopted under the Tithe Commutation Act, and, on that account, too, had a recommendation in its favour. Unless for tithe purposes, of course it mattered not whelher the standard was 501b., 601b., or 701b., because the price would be sure to adjust itself to any given 304 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. weight ; but, as the arrangement to which he referred existed under the Commutation Act, he thought it would be unwise to disturb it by the adoption of any other standard for the sale of their corn. Mr. Skelton (of Sutton Bridge) said the question was one of very great importance, and expressed a hope that the club would lose no time in turning their atten- tion to it. In districts where the system of corn-rents was in operation it was of especial importance to get at the real value of a quarter of wheat and other grain ; and the only right way of doing that was to ascertain the natural weight of the grain, and sell it per quarter agreeably with that weight. Mr. Bradshaw (of Knole, Guildford) said that in his locality wheat varied from 59 to 65 lbs. tlie bushel, and that he himself was in the habit of selling by weight and not by measure. The Chairman did not agree with Mr. Skelton that the measure should be adhered to. On the contrary, he thought they would simplify the purchase and sale of corn by having a fixed weight. They would then have only to determine the difference in value as to quality ; whereas, if they sold by the bushel, they would first have to estimate the weight where no weight was given, and after that the quality. Besides, he was informed by his friend Mr. Shearer that GOlbs. the bushel was the weight upon which all government contracts were based, and that all excess over that had to be paid for (Hear, hear). Mr. Scott : In the Liverpool market wheat was sold by weight at 70 lbs. the bushel, and when oats were sold in that market they bought not a bushel, but 45 lbs. At the Chester market on the other hand they bought, not 70 lbs. of wheat the bushel, but 75 lbs. ; instead of 45 lbs. of oats, 50 lbs. ; and 84 lbs. of potatoes instead of 80 lbs. In fact, the whole thing was so complicated and confused that the buyer had nothing to guide him with regard to quality but his eye. Now, if they adopted the system which Col. Pasley, the author of " Equalization of Weights and Measures," described as the perfection of the heap measures, and sold their grain, as was done in the Edinburgh market, by attaching to the sack a ticket inscribed with the weight, and placing it in the public scale, then he would have an additional and still more satisfactory test of its value. The subject then dropped, and the meeting separated, after a vote of thanks had been passed to Mr. Smith for his paper, and to Mr. Wallis for presiding. THE FOOD CRISIS IN FRANCE. The prosperity of nations, taken in a general sense, or in any single instance of their m©ral and physical interests, is the last link of a concatenation of causes, all springing from a right principle. If the first foun- dation is unsound, whatever may be the patching-up of tbe superstructure, the whole fabric is a lamentable failure, and sooner or later must come down. But there is this providential peculiarity attached to public institutions and interests, that solemn and significant warnings are frequently given, to draw the attention of rulers and statesmen to the crazy systems which their genius may be striving to prop up and preserve. Happy is that nation which can boast of a sovereign or a minister with a sufficient grasp of intellect to discover the faulty link, the ailing root, and who can derive from his patriotism a courage sufliciently heroic ; for nothing short of this is necessary to apply the proper remedy. Alas ! such is the infatuation of men, that, terrible and disastrous though these warnings may be, the remedy prepared is generally applied to the visible and outward manifestation of the sore, and seldom, if ever, to its root. The history of our own country is by no means barren of such examples ; if, therefore, in this article we draw our readers' attention to what is taking place in a neigh- bouring and friendly country, Ave do not do so with invidious feelings of conceit and pride, but merely with the view of inquiring, as far as lies in our power, the real cause of that dearth and scarcity of provisions under which France is ailing — to an extent sufficiently alarming to excite the earnest and anxious solicitude of the wise sovereign who directs her desti- nies. A prosperous and contented people is one of the most imperative necessities of Napoleon's reign; while it is undoubtedly the most difficult problem a sovei'eign ever had to solve ; for that prosperity and contentment must not be only prosj^ective, they must be immediate. It is not enough that the germs that are to ripen into the manifestation of these blessings at some distant period should now be laid in tlie enactment of wise laws and regulations, and the adoption of right principles; the multitude is swayed by those daily wants, which cannot be postponed; and hope, witli all the alluring halo of its promises, is powerless against the cravings of a hungry people. It must be borne in mind that the French govern- ment is perhaps more unfortunately situated as regards public calamities than any other. Rightly or wrong- fully, it is ever held accountable for every kind of public suffering ; to its rule is laid every kind of evil or distress that may occur in all matters of public in- terest or institutions. If food is dear, labour scarce, wages low, rent high, commerce stagnant, the money market tight, it is all the government's fault; and its popularity rises and falls with the relative prosperity of everybody's interest. The cause of this mischievous anomaly is, that since the great principle of legitimacy in the succession to the throne of France was destroyed by the catastrophes of 1789 and 1830, the opinion and fickle favour of a versatile multitude has been substi- tuted for the right of birth, as the judge of ruling dynasties ; and as a dire experience has proved that armies and bastilles are no security against the people's angei', once roused, the inexorable necessity of courting tliat multitudinous tyrant — the people's favour — sits THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 305 with the sovereign upon his tlirone, and becomes the first adviser of his crown. After the revolution of 1848, that necessity created the ateliers nationaux — national workshops; and when they had grown into that frightful and ruinous nuisance which made their abolition a matter of unavoidable necessity, the insurrection of June, with its bloody street-battles, its barricade butcheries, its sacrilegious murder, imperilled the very existence of the power then constituted, because the disbanded workmen made it responsible for their disappointment, or their real distress. To show the great difference that exists between this state of things in France and our own country, we need only point to the late meetings of unemployed labourers in Smithfield, and their processions through the streets of the metropolis. Much distress exists no doubt, but in those manifestations not even the shadow of a political blame is hinted at the Government. In Paris, such manifestations, unchecked, would have led them to fly to another revolution. During the last few years, when the price of corn was comparatively high, and therefore bread dear, such distress existed in Paris that the government thought it advisable to interfere with the bread-trade, and compel bakers to sell their goods at a loss, giving them a compensation out of the public money belong- ing to their own municipality. We do not allude to this fact for the purpose of discussing its policy, but merely to show to what shifts — temporary, and there- fore illusive remedies — the French government is obliged to have recourse, in order to silence the grievances and suffer) ugs which every day, regardless of what was done yesterday, sternly ushers in with its dawn. It is not only private enterprise that is tampered with, but commerce Is arrested in its progress by a measure which the most simple tyro in political econo- my would pronounce as not only useless and mis- chievous, but as calculated to produce the very reverse of what it was intended to do. We allude to the pro- hibition of egress, at the frontier, of French agricultural pi'oduce, whilst free importation is allowed. We read now in the papers that M. Fould, the con- fidential adviser of the Emperor, is gone to the South of France, with the view of ascertaining the causes which have led to the scarcity and dearth of food in that district. We know not whether the Minister of State will succeed in arriving at a right conclusion, or, if so, have the courage to describe it to his imperial master ; but we believe that the cause is obvious enough, and, without fear of contradiction, may be safely as- cribed to the neglect in which French agi-iculture has fallen, and the rude state to which it has been reduced through ignorance and want of capital. In the southern provinces of France there are whole districts in which the implement which is represented to our mind by the word plough is altogether unknown ; the soil is merely scratched by a pole furnished with a piece of iron at its end, and fastened, at an angle of 45 degrees, to a piece of wood, to which oxen are har- nessed, and does the office of a share. The coulter is fixed by a wooden peg to another pole, and drawn by two oxen ; so the whole forms two distinct and perfectly disconnected implements : the ploughman guides the one with his right hand, and the other with his left. Such is the state of agricultural practice in that part of the country ; and if we except the northern departments and the neighbourhood of large towns in Normandy, with some of the central departments, and also the estates of a few landed proprietors who farm their own land, the whole of France may be said to be nearly on a par with the southern provinces. Everywhere the most noxious weeds abound and luxuriate in full liberty. The fallow system which there prevails in the place of our root crops leaves the weeds in full possession of the land, without the single stroke of a hoe to disturb their hold. From a careful personal inspection, we have no hesitation in saying that full one-third of the cereal crops in France is de- stroyed by weeds. Drainage is known only as a theory : a few spirited proprietors have indeed commenced operations, but as a general measure it is utterly ignored, and still less understood. The protection in which the French iron-trade re- joices, and by means of which a few manufacturers are made to prosper, renders the use of that indispensable material a most costly luxury in the country. The fiscal laws which regulate the importation of foreign agricultural implements are so absurd and so vexatious, that both the buyers and sellers have seen the necessity of giving it up; bo that the relaxation in the amount of duty which took place last year — that is, its reduction to 12s. per 2 cwt. — has proved a useless boon to French agriculture. Setting aside all controversy about the respective policies of protective duties and free trade, we can nevertheless understand, to a certain extent, the plau- sibility of protection to home-flourishing industry ; but upon what grounds can protection be defended when it is applied to an industry which has no existence in a country, whilst its produce is indispensable to the prosperity and progress of the most important and most vital interest of a community — agriculture ? France has no Garretts, Ransomes, Crosskills, Drays, or Howards, to protect against foreign competitors: their implement makers are only village wheelwrights and country mechanists. It may be argued by some, however, that the French government are doing a great deal. Look at the agri- cultural colleges, model farms, and farming schools^ which since 1848 have been established in every district of France. Look at the agricultural societies in every town ; consider the numerous shows that take place in every department, and the great ones in Paris ; weigh in your mind the liberal prizes offered, not only to the exhibitors of the bc^t cattle or produce, but also to the holder of the best-managed farm, &c., &c. All this is undoubtedly very good and worthy of praise, but nevertheless it is productive of little or no good, because these are remedies applied to the wrong end. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Let us take, for iufatance, the district agricultural schools. Let us suppose, for argument's sake, that the youth instructed there receive the soundest education, and come out first-rate agriculturists, in a theoretical as well as practical sense. What is the use, we ask, of these learned men in a country where the condition of the land to be cultivated is such that it is utterly incapable of receiving the application of the sound principles which have been tauaht to them ? Agricultural science without an adequate catii- tal is of very little avail where fields arc overrun with parasite weeds, steeped in stagnant v/atcr, impoverished foi' want of manure — where the breeds of animals are slow growers, and still slower feeders — where the farm buildings are of the very worst description, low, ill- ventilated, or open to the four winds of heaven — where the implements are rude and inetficient, and where a duty coupled with vexatious formalities prevents the importation of those of foreign manufacture; especially where protection to the iron trade renders the use of that motal almost an impossibility. Science with such conditions as these is all but useless; and the very efforts which these agiicultural doctors, furnished as they are with their diplomas, think it their duty to attempt, in order to enlighten the neighbouring natives, actually turn against the cause of progress. Such efforts are fatally abortive, and the jealous, ignorance of the peasants finds in the miserable failure of this scientific agriculture a cause of triumph for tlieir routine, which strengthens their prejudices, and encom- passes the march of progress with fresh and more for- midable obstacles. Then as regards agricultural societies and shows — the former seldom number a single tenant-farmer among them ; those who compose them being landed proprietors or town tradesmen, utterly destitute of agricultural knowledge, residing in towns, and taking little or no active interest in agi-icul- tural pursuits. As to the shows, they only serve to exhibit and render manifest the vast deficiency of the French breeds; and fa- want of terms of comparison with better races, they only excite emulation in routine, not in progress; for, with the exception of a very limited number of landed proprietors, there is scarcely one single farmer in France iu possession of animals of improved English breeds. Such are the true causes of the dearth of food in France. Population increases, and agricultural re- sources tend to diminish ; for it is a lamentable fact that with all her advantages of climate, and the natural fertility of her soil, France yields little more than one- third of English produce per acre, ■whilst the acreage of her unproductive land is incredible. The remedy is obvious. By voting the recent grant of one hundred millions of francs for drainage purposes, the French Government have at last hit the evil at the right place. The next question is how to apply this grant of money? We know that very strenuous efforts are now being made to establish in France a Land Improvement Society, somewliat similar to those which have lately been established in this country with such manifest results of usefulness and efficiency. This project, however, is not sufficiently mature to enable us to si>eak of it with any degree of certainty. Let us hope, however, that now the Govern- ment of France are on the right track, they will persevere, and bestow at last upon their long- neglected agriculture the boon of an enlightened legislation and commercial policy ; as also furnish it with the means of developing the vast resources that lie dormant be- neath the damp weedy surface of her rich champaigns. Then, but only then, will her multitudes cease to hunger. Then, but only then, will contentment and gladness, steadiness and tranquillity, prevail, and close for ever the sluices of revolution and strife ; securing, for the future, prosperity at home, and abroad peace and glory. T. MR. ISAAC'S PLAN OF A LABOURER'S COTTAGE. Among many valuable articles in the number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society just pub- lished, wo are happy to see one devoted to the dwellings of the agricultural labourer. It is a lamentable truth, which we have adverted to more than once, that the condition of the labourer has deteriorated during the last century, while the cultivation of the soil has been improving; and our breeds of domestic animals have reached such a high degree of perfection as regards dis- position to fatten and early maturity, that it has become a question whether advancement in that direction has not been carried as far, not only as is practicable, but desirable. The improvement of the rural labourer's condition forms one of the objects for which the Royal Agricultural Society was instituted, and is well worthy of more attention than it has received hitherto from that body. In this Society the influence of the owners of the soil prevails so largely that it may be considered the House of Lords in our agricultural institutions, while the Central Farmers' Club of London may be held to represent the Commons. The condition of the laboui'er has not as yet received in the upper house so large a share of attention as so important a subject de- mands. In this matter the agricultural Commons appear to be taking the lead, for their list of subjects for discussio)i during the ensuing year shows two even- ings out of seven devoted to the farm labourer. For the future wo hope to see no ntimber of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal without an article de- voted to tin's most imjiortant su' ject : important alike as an agricultural question and in a social and political point of view. It is to be hoped that the deliberations of these two agricultural bodies on this subject will be continued until the condition of the THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE. 307 farm labourer shall have rejched such a state of im- proveoieat as that attained in other departments of British agriculture. The clergy have been among the foremost to draw attention to this important question — to point ont the wants of the labourers as well as their failings and their merits. If that body were called upon for suggestions, it cannot be doubted that many valuable contributions would be obtained. But to the more immediate subject before us — the aiticle by Mr. Isaac, of Terrace-walk, Bath, on the construction of labourers' cottages. It occupies but nine pages of the Journal, but in those few pages much valuable matter is condensed. The author com- mences with some remarks on the influence of bad dwellings on the habits of the inmates, which might be considered superfluous, if it were not un- fortunately too true that there arc close parishes where the clearance system is still in full activity, and where the labourers are driven to congregate in villages and towns as much as four and even five miles from their work. It is not the tenant farmers who do this ; they deprecate it for their own sake, as well as for the sake of the labourers themselves. Starting, then, from the admitted principle that the first and most effectual method to elevate the labourer is to provide him with a comfortable house at a moderate rent, the author proceeds to offer a few practical hints and sug- gestions as to the manner in which this may be best effected. He commences with the axiom that the cottage of the labourer must be of such a character that it will be remunerative to the builder ; for though many benevolent individuals have erected cottages, and let them at sums that scarcely pay 2\ per cent, on the outlay, it may be accepted, he says, as a general rule, that no lasting improvement will be effected in dwell- ings of this class unless they yield a remunerative in- terest. Taking this into consideration, and estimating that no labourer can afford more than a rent of £o a year for his dwelling, and that investments of this kind should pay a gross intei-est of £Q per cent, he has endeavoured to curtail the designs so that the cost shall not exceed £85 a cottage. On this the editor remarks, in a note, that the estimate does not include that neces- sary appendage to the cottage of the labourer, a pigsty. The plainest of his elevations, the cottages being built in pairs, arc very much in the style of the dwellings of factory operatives which we see in the vicinity of those establishments in which the mill-owners have studied the comfort of their workmen in their dwell- ings. To the eye of taste, the author observes, the elevations may rot be deemed sufficiently ornamental, his principal aim being to combine comfort with eco- nomy. The introduction of gothic gables and verge- boards v.-ould, he adds, have been productive of a far more agreeable elevation, while he fears that by such an arrangement the comfort of the inmates would be lessened, and the expense increased ; for these gables cause constant leaks, and the sharp gothic roof renders it necessary that the bed-rooms should be partially constructed in it, by which their cubic contents are diniiniihed, and ventilation rendered more difficult. His second elevation, with these additions, has certainly a better architectural effect ; but as this is not for the gratification of the labourer, but of the landowner, it ought not to be at the expense of the former in his rent. It is quite enough if ho puts up with those in- conveniences in his habitation, which the author has pointed out as being entailed by this ornamental addi- tion, in order to please the eye of others. The cottages are proposed to be built in detached pairSj such an arrangement being both cheaper and warmer, with a quarter of an acre attached to each pair. This is certainly better than no land at all ; but we can see no reason why this allowance of land should not be increased so as to give a quarter of an acre to each cottage. The author urges that the proprietor should never entrust the erection to the renting farmers, in consequence of the inadequate nature of the accom- modation which the labourer receives when the expense of constructing his dwelling is thrown upon the tenant. So far we agree with him, but at the same time we contend that a sufficient number of dwellings for the constant labourers required for the cultivation of the land should be on the farm, and considered quite as much a part of the farm buildings as the barns and stables, and quite as much under the control of the tenant, though not provided at his expense. With regard to the arrangement of rooms, these plans provide the essential requisite of three bed-rooms. They are all on a second floor, and no bed-room to be wholly or partially in the roof, nor to contain less than 500 cubic ieet. In our hospitals the allowance is 1,000 feet for each occupier ; in prisons and unions 500. In the arrangements of the ground floor he considers it desirable that the living-room should not open at once into the outer air, but should lead into a kind of entrance-passage or porch, in order to preserve the keeping room from draughts. The pantry is so placed that it does not communicate directly with the wash- house or scullery, in order that the food contained in the pantry may not be contaminated by the operations carried on in the latter. The well is placed under the back kitchen, in order to preserve the water from frost and to save labour in carrying it. The stairs are made to rise from the entrance-porch or lobby, so that the bed-rooms may be approached without passing to the living rooans. For the economy of v^'armth, floors of wood aro substituted for stone or brick. The ground floor is to be at least six inches above the surrounding soil ; and in order to keep the walls of the cottage dry, the roof is to project six inches, while to economise heat the fire-places of the pair of cottages are placed back to back. The living-room is furnished with the Newark cottagc-rango ; but others are mentioned as deserving attention. The principle of warmirg the bed-rooms by means of the fire on the ground floor is adopted, while by certain arrangements the contamination of the air passing throMgh the flue is guarded against by providing tliat the heating surface shall not be of a deleterious character. 308 TUii I'ARMEiVS MAGAZINE. Arrangements ai-e alsD made for sufficient ventila- tion. Into these and other details our limits will not permit us to enter, and we conclude by recommending the article, with its plans, specifications, and other details, to serious consideration. The time for action has come, and that if the arrangement of these cottages are not perfect in all their details, they are at least a great improvement on the majority of the dwellings of the rural labourers. THE DRAINAGE OF THE METROPOLIS, AND THE DISPOSAL OF THE SEWAGE FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. Sir, — The Committee of Engineers have opened their commission at Westminter ; the question before them being an appeal from the decision of the Board of Works. It is of the greatest importance that a right and just judg- ment shall be pronounced upon this very important case ; there never was an Act of Parliament that involved greater interests than the one in question, and consequently it re- quires every energy and intelligence to be brought to bear A upon it. The engineers, it is to be feared, will only deal *' with it as did the Board of Works, viz., to r/el rid of it, by cutting a channel at the lowest level, and allow it to run away, under a sewer of bricks and mortar, and thus waste its invaluable properties in the Thames and the sea. But the agi-iculturist — the man of progress — differs in opinion to the engineer, and declares that the immense deposit and daily supply shall not be wasted ; that the sixty thousand tons daily made in London ought to be appropriated to that use which the economy of nature so clearly points out, and which the common sense of the public so clearly agrees with. But time flies : the decision will soon be pro- nounced, and then it will be too late to complain. This decision will most materially effect the rate-payers of the metropolis in one of two ways. In the one case the}' will have to expend five millions of money on the project, and entail the same upon their posterity for generations yet un- born ; in the other they will be benefited yearly to the extent of one and a-half millions. The former involves ruin and disgrace, the latter prosperity and honour. It would be very unjust for me, or any man, to condemn any system except I had full confidence in another and superior one. Having, therefore, studied this subject for a period of 12 years, and carefully watched its bearing upon others, I feel sure that there is no way of properly dealing with the sewage of London otherwise than in a liquid state. It is said by Dr. Hawkesley, in a letter to Sir Benjamin Hall, that men of his profession derive useful lessons from the structure and economy of the human system, and he very justly observes, " We should assimilate the glands or tubes of man to the earth's surface, for the carrying away of the excreta and other used up matter." I so far agree with Dr. Hawkeslej'', but to go with him into Lis iron box and compost of cinders, earths, &c. I will not. Dr. Hawkesley forgets that we have already got the glands or glandules ; we now want the heart to extract those glands and force the blood into every portion of the system. Erect the steam engine at the termination of tliose dirty glands or sewers, and pump the life-invigorating sewage upon the earth's surface, that it may fructify and replenish the whole, " that our garners may be filled with all manner of stores, that our cattle may bring forth thousands and ten thousands in our streets." Allow me now to introduce mj' S3-stem to public notice through the columns of j'our wide-spread journal. It has ever been the practice of men of science to cut up their matter into detail, and deal with atoms in preference to systems, of which those atoms form a whole. I will adopt this course with the hope of being best understood ; and in dealing with the sewage of London in a liquid state, take the excreta of one individual in preference to two and a- half millions, the present inhabitants of London. With this excretum — the produce of one day— I dilute it with a certain quantity of Thames water, the whole being one cubic foot, which would weigh 56 lbs., more or less. I take this to the top of my house, where is a 1 2 pipe ex- tending from thence to the boundaries of the metropolis in Essex, the farther end being lower by a few feet ; this liquid, if poured in every day, would soon fill the pipe, and overflow at its Essex end. I now extend this operation from the excreta of one individual to that of 208,333, being one-twelfth part of the inhabitants of London, and this would amount to some- thing above 5,208 tons per day. Having fixed upon the Fleet Ditch for the operations, a reservoir is required to hold 466,666 cubic feet, this to be equally divided so that one shall contain 12 hours' supply, in which shall be intro- duced certain precipitants that will release all excreta held in solution ; when thus settled down, the clear water to be drawn off into the Thames, leaving only the liquid manure of such consistence to enable it to float down the great PIPE of 20, 30, or 40 miles in length. The next question will be the engine and machinery for raising this immense weight to the height of 60 feet in the working hours of each day. The engine requires to be about 20-horse power. The machinerj' I propose to employ is that of a large disc or wheel of 60 feet diameter, working upon its axle, of not more than 2 feet its extreme length ; on the extreme of this disc shall be the cogs, which are acted upon by a pinion of about 16 inches diameter. On each side of this large disc or wheel are placed 3G iron projecting rods, which carry the same quantity of buckets or vessels, each contain- ing 72 cubic feet, or 1 ton 16 cwt. As the disc revolves the upper bucket empties its contents into a cistern at top (b), which is connected with the pipe .supply, in a manner shown by the sketch accompanying this letter. By this means I calculate upon having one-fourth the weight upon the disc at one time, and 130 tons could be raised at one revolution of the disc or wheel, and with four revolutions per hour, making 520 tons, this at 10 hours per day, the amount of 5,200 tons, would be the quantity' re- quired, less 8 tons. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 309 DISC OF 60 FEET DIAMETER, ON WHICH ARE SUSPENDED 36 BUCKETS ON EACH SIDE, HOLDING 72 CUBIC FEET, WEIGHING 1 TON 16 CWT. TROUGH CONNECTED WITH PIPE SUPPLY. I trust I have sufficiently explained my ideas in order that all your readers may judge of its practicability and ertect ; and should I have done so, there does not remain a single objection why this project should not be carried out, and thus appropriate to its proper use those thousands of tons of manure that is far, very far, before any guano that can be obtained. I vyould here say a few words in reference to the Act of Parliament. The provisions of that act are that no sewage matter shall be allowed to f5nd its way into the Thames, within a certain distance of London. Now I believe it will be impossible to comply with this clause, inasmuch as it will be necessary for the storm water to find its outlet as usual into the Thames ; but as my object is to cleanse the river, as well as to intercept the daily supply of the sewers, there can be no objection, in the case of a purifying storm, to allow the same to go into the Thames, on condition that I collect the deposit thus made in forty-eight hours, or in other words, that I take from that deposit every week double the amount of its weekly increase. 1 have said thus much on my plan, wliicli it remains for others to improve]upon ; many minds are now upon it, and as many propositions will be made. One thing is certain : here is a large amount of manure extracted from, and having the very germ of the plant which it is required to raise, whether it be wheat, barley, oats, beans, or any other grain : this manure possesses the properties and is capable of re- producing its original, and that in a greater degree than any manure yet known. The question as to the proper way of applying it to the land is of the greatest importance ; and to arrive at the proper conclusion we must refer to Nature's law, and to what that law points out for the safety and benefit of God's creatures. On this point I believe it will be admitted by all that the excreta from any body of inhabitants are most injurious and destructive to life when allowed to remain in the dis- trict inhabited ; indeed, we have an instance and proof of this in our late wars. When the French and our own troops occupied Shumla, it was found necessary continually to remove the encampment to another localit}-, solely because the district became imhealthy from accumidations of excreta. If then this was found destructive to life by a 310 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. few thousands encampiug in one district, what must it be where millions are stationed century after century ? One inference only can be drawn — that London, from this immense accumulation, must be injurious and destructive to life while the nuisance exists. Two and a-half millions of people cannot be removed to other positions, we must therefore get lid of the nuisance ; and to do this effectually and to a purpose, it is only iu a liquid state it can be done. First, it is in this state that the law of nature pomts, because it would be impossible to collect it in its original state. Secondl}', a certain quantity of water is required to make it a fertilizer. Thirdly, because that water destroys all nuisance, and neutralizes its injurious qualities. Fourthly, the water supplies the medium by which its transport can be effected without offence to the district or to the parties emploj'ed upon it. Fifthl}', the water makes it available at all times and seasons to the crop. Sixthly, it is the only right way to apply manure to a crop. Seventhly, it is the most economical way, because it goes direct to the support of the plant, and each plant partakes of its properties in an equal degree. Eighthl}% because it is only in a liquid state that manure can enter into the com- position of a plant. Ninthly, because by its application in a liquid state and in showers the plant receives a large portion of air from the atmosphere, which it otherwise would not receive. Tenthly, the seed does not require a manure to produce germination, but only when it becomes a plant. But the points in favour of liquid manures are numberless, and in all a great benefit is derived from its application and use. The gi-eat question is, will this means be adopted for the cleansing of London, and thereby the fertilizing of thousands of acres around it.'* Will the present commission now sitting at Westminster take this view of the subject, and apply this immense deposit and daily supply of manure to the only purpose it can be applied to.' or will they dig their nasty dirty ditch to Gravesend.» Will they have the common sense to know the difference between the letting the sewage into the Thames at twenty inlets, as now, and the consequences of letting it in all at once at Gravesend ? If they do adopt the ditch plan, it will be the early grave to many, and the end will not be until the system is changed. In a few weeks the plan for good or for evil will be announced, for next Saturday is the last day to receive plans or suggestions from the public. In the mean time it is the duty of agriculturists and their repre- sentatives to be upon their guard. Let them understand that one plan involves an expenditure of £5,000,000, and an annual outlay fearful to contemplate, while the other plan is productive of revenue of millions annually. It is stated by high medical authority that the Thames now, as it is, is injurious to the health of the inhabitants on its banks. The evaporations from its muddy refuse gives off injurious vapours detrimental to the large mass of life swarming around it. What must this be then, if un- diluted with water, frunning down this Upas ditch to Gravesend ? for I defy the best man in the world to pre- vent the smell of this or any other channel of a similar nature. I have now done all in my power to induce the agri- culturist to take this most important subject into con- sideration. In his hands it becomes a soiu-ce of wealth and a blessing to thousands : in any others it will become a som-ce of ruin, of death, and a curse to London and its environs. I have avoided to speak of deodorization, know- ing that it is all a fallacy, and quite as uncalled for as it would be to "gild refined gold, or paint the lily white.' Does he wish to have some deodorized with a first-rate apparatus, let him make a few holes in an old pail, filling the same with some soil from his field, and by pouring on the liquid he will have the quantity deodorized and fit to carry into any drawing room. The truth is, the earth, the hungry soil, is the deodorizer. We all gave the Prince great credit for introducing his apparatus for the purifying of town sewage, and making it fit " to be set before the Queen ;" why, he derived his hints from the book of Nature ; he knew that a flower-pot filled with soil would do the same thing. I now leave the case in your hands, with the hope you will rouse up the dormant energies of the members of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the farmers' clubs throughout the length and breadth of the land, and the citizens and inhabitants of London, so that they may open their eyes to each other, and canvas their separate interests, and thus prevent the waste and mis- appropriation of one of the greatest mines of wealth ever yet discovered. I am, sir. Your obedient servant, George Pratt. London, Feb. 2ith, 1857. PRACTICAL, HIGH, GOOD, AND CLEAN FARMING IN SOUTH LINCOLNSHIRE. Sir, — I beg to say that I was, in and just after harvest last year, at Dyke, near Bourn, Lincolnshire. In looking with astonishment over the leviathan stackj'ards, full of gigantic stacks of clean corn, and admiring the cleanliness of the corn from weeds to the owner, a farmer of the first magnitude, living at Dyke ; in answer to my admiration, he said, " I farm without weeds — I cannot afford to grow them. I grew this year, 1856, 200 acres of wheat, and I will show you my wheat stubbles ; and if you can find a bushel of twitch upon the 200 acres where the wheat grew, I will forfeit you £5, and leave it to your own judgment. After harvest," said he, " I set men and boys with flat- tined forks to dig up and pick out every bit or small bed of twitch that can be found upon the whole of m j' arable land where the corn grew ; by so doing, I keep my farm as clean as a market-garden near the metropolis. I require no antediluvian dead fallow. I crop it hard and often, and manure it high and sufficiently with artificial manures, &c., and grow yearly a sufficient quantity or proportion of root and green crops, which I consider the mainstay of all good farming. I allow nothing to grow but what I put into the land — clean seed. I plough deep, and employ sufficient labour. I feed my land as well as my cattle and sheep, or the soil would get weak, poor, and hungry for the want of manure." If good farming will not pay, bad cannot. If men half plough, half weed, and half manure their land, how can they expect to have whole or large crops, manure being the foundation of all great crops ? And manure heaps require thatching quite as much as j'our corn stacks, to pre- vent the strength or essence being washed away by having too much water upon the manure. Many tenants are bound by agreement not to sell to go off their farms hay, straw, or root crops. Why not bind them down to preserve the black water, which is the essence of the hay, straw, or root crops when consumed in a farm-yard ! At the same time, as a compensation, allow them a north Lincolnshire tenant-right, alias equity or justice, between landlord and tenant. And agi-iculture will never shine as it ought to do until it is so, for the want of tenant-right has kept agriculture so long in a backward and torpid state ; and we need not wonder at it, whilst men have no security for what they lay out upon the estates of others. Samuel Arnsby. 18, Norfolk'Street, Hyde Park, London, March 9. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 KENNINGTON AGRICULTURAL AND CHEMICAL COLLEGE. LECTURES ON THE GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE EARTH, HAVING REFERENCE TO THE PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIC LIFE. BY CHARLES JOHNSON, ESU., PROPKSSOR OF BOTANY GUY'S HOSPITAL. No. XI. " Animals grow, live, and feel." Feeling, which must here be limited to consciousness of touch, is always associated with our idea of animal life, and the presence of that faculty is only capable of being determined by the result of touch — motion : that is, voluntary motion. In the study of organic being, hence originates the greatest difficulty in deciding between the claims of the simpler or minuter productions to animal or vege- table nature. How are we to defiue the limits which separate the movement that is voluntary from that which is purely the result of mechanical impulse ? Every one who has been accus- tomed to microscopic investigation must be sensible of the liability to error under (vhich he labours from this very circum- stance ; and, when we come to the discrimination between animals and vegetables on similar principles, the sources of such error are greatly multiplied. An example will illustrate our position. We are looking upon a little mass of some sub- stance, the form and general appearance of which is uufatnilisr to us ; or, it may be a white thread-like body lyiug on the ground before us. The one, for aught we can determine at first sight, may be really what it appears — a lump of jelly, a morsel of fat, or a piece of maccaroni, dropped there perhaps by some passing bird who was carrying it away in its beak ; the other may be a hair or thread, wafted hither by the wind. The first effort at farther enquiry is a touch : the jelly shrinks or trembles — the thread wriggles, or even coils itself. They are living animals ! they feel— they are conscious of my touch. Such, at least, would be the ordinary decision of any unscien- tific person— of one unskilled in physiological enquiry; but only because the mind is more accustomed to note motion as an inseparable attribute of animal organization, while a parallel feature in the vegetable is apparently absent, and is biassed accordingly. The little gelatinous mass and the slender thread may be really animals, and animals too of essentially varied structure ; for such have I in my recollection while thus de- scribing. But do the observed movements confirm their being such ? They are small and low in Nature's scale of being, and possess no striking external features beyond general outline, hue, aud texture, by which their animal character can be traced, and all of these latter are common to the lower forms of both kingdoms. Movement, excitable by touch, is not, however, exclusively au animal property. The Sensitive Plants close and droop their leaves upon the slightest provocation : those of the self- moving plant, Hedysarum gyrans of India, are in constant gyrating motion on their stalks. The Veuus's Fly-trap, Dioncea muscipida of the North American swamps, is equally apt at entrapping the insects which may chance to alight upon or creep over its singularly constructed foliage, as might be the most dexterous human hand, or the most active of spiders. But he who should assert that either of these vegetable pro- ductions belonged properly, in consequence of such manifesta- tions of sensibility, to the animal kingdom, would be laughed at or regarded as insane. The vegetable habit, the green leaf, the flower, fruit, aud seed, all capable of beiii(» recognized throughout the series, are sufficiently indicative of the great class of being to which they appertain, and science and igno- rance alike unhesitatingly refer them thither. But what be- comes, in this allotment, of the self-moving faculty, the percep- tion of touch, so decisive in other instances ? Why, it has been replied, the Sensitive Plant, though it moves as if it were conscious of danger, is no more secure from injury than it was before the leaves closed together ; while the Dioncea shuts its trap as readily upon a piece of wood, stone, or metal, as upon a fly or beetle. It is not, correctly speaking, feeling — not con- sciousness. These are only examples of an irritability apper- taining to certain vegetable tissues, and which are necessary to the existence of plants under peculiar circumstances : they are in no degree analogous to the animal attribute they so ob viously resemble. It would occupy too much of our time to pursue enquiry at length into all the facts connected with this subject ; but it is necessary further to observe, that no trifling amount of doubt attaches to the universally acknowledged consciousness of many of the lower animals, so far as concerns the acts proceeding therefrom being dependent upon a diff'erent cause from that leading to the before-mentioned corresponding acts among plants. The Polype, which stretches its long flexible arms to seize a more distant prey than that which comes of its own accord to the leaves of the Carohna Fly-trap, is as liable to mistake the nature of that prey as the unconscious bogplaut, and will swallow a fragment of a steel needle with the same eagerness that it does its favourite worm ; while the boa con- strictor of the London Zoological Society not long since diued or supped upon his own blanket ; and, although the stomachs of both animals may reject after a time the indigestible mate- rial, the seeming act of will in both instances is rivalled by the Dionaa, which retains the captive fly so long as a particle of moisture remains in its body, while it opens the prison doors upon the useless capture, exposing it to be washed off by tie next shower, or blown away by the wind. It is not then surprising, when the preconceived popular notions of distinction between plants and animals are found on examination to be estabUshed on such an equivocal basis, thr.t the philosopher should mistrust even the evidence of his own senses, and cavil at the assertions of his brethren. The most sagacious aud best-informed among us is but a groper after the needle proverbially hidden in the haystack. Hence we have the frequently-enunciated dogma concerning "the animal kingdom ending where the vegetable begins ;" and hence, too, the many equally plausible arguments, deduced from alleged facts, that the germs of one class of beings may, under different conditions, produce the species of another ; or, that an interchange between animal and vegetable nature may, and positively does in some instances, occur in the same being during its progress to maturity. The works of the most eminent writers on natural science often teem with e.'camples of this indeterminate generation of the lower grades of organiza- tion, quoted with all due gravity as results deserving crcditj V 9 312 t5e' ii-Aiik'^Ef'S' :^A.GA^INE. or, at least, of uabia3sed examination, by those who presume to doubt. A marked peculiarity of assertions thus put forward is, that in almost every iastance they are founded upon a solitary fact, and that fact wituessed only by one person, or, if the observation has been repeated by another, the details are rarely accordant. It is not intended by these remarks to in- sinuate that the observer in either case is to be blamed for inaccuracy in his general statements, or considered as in any degree announcing as fact that which he has not seen or believed himself to have seen. Far be it from one, himself occupied in seeking out truth, and, like others of his class, often compelled to a temporary trust in probabilities, to ridicule or throw discredit upon the efforts of his fellow- labourers to elucidate natural phenomena, or to aid in the pursuit of any knowledge which may lead mankind to appre- ciate more fully the complicated machinery of creation. But the rapid conclusions that are too frequently drawn from appa- rent, but really mistaken, facts, have ever been among the most powerful obstacles to our improvement. Let the equivo- cality, regarding the correctness of all such surmises as those before us, be borne in mind by those who utter as by those who listen. Assertion does not make fact: the man who has seen an apparition may believe in its reality, even though bis better judgment counsels differently ; but he will probably find it difficult to instil a corresponding belief into the mind of another from whom the phantom has been withheld. So it is sometimes with the phantasies of science, and I am in the latter predicament : few are the instances in which different persons have seen the same ghost at the same time and under the same circumstances, a fact which tends to weaken the testimony of the most trustworthy witnesses ; our natural history question has no firmer foundation. There was a period iu which the learned scarcely doubted the vulgar belief that the sky rained young frogs and lady- birds, when the sudden appearance in countless numbers of one or another of those well-known animals renders the ground alive and dark with the newly-transformed thousands of the little leaping reptiles, or covers miles of country with the crimson livery of the insect, clustering in profusion almost miraculous on every leaf and blade of grass. The tadpole antecedent of the one, and the larva state of the other, either unrecognized, or their metamorphic passages imperfectly un- derstood, lent an air of mystery to both phenomena which the after-advance of natural science alone removed. Are we much better certified of the characters and conditions of the minor microscopical existences, than were our predecessors of the middle ages in respect to the foregoing and many other facts now so familiar to every school boy ? And, unless we were so, our authority for speculating upon what occurs on the pro- bable limits of the organic world, and the relative attributes of its two great classes, rests upon a basis too uncertain to warrant the assertion that what we see is, or rather is really accordant with the impression it makes upon our mind at the time. To place in their proper light the assertions referred to in the above remarks, and the conclusions drawn from them by some philosophers, it will be necessary to have a few examples before us of the experiments or observations upon which they are based. The observers have been many, and their details are far too implicit and circumstantial to admit of any doubt as to their accuracy. The facts are, we may assume, indis- putable ; the inferences alone, q\iestionable. Prepared by our previous examination of the subject, we may be enabled to estimate at leisure the true value and bearing of the first upon this important question ; while, if they had come before us without this introduction, such is the apparent plausibility of the inference, that a person might be readily led to adopt the views of the discoverers of these really startling truths, and thus be altogether unfitted to pronounce an unbiassed opinion. The more active imaginations of some of our continental brethren, and the tendency of those of one school, especially, to indulge in researches to which our matter-of-fact idiosyn- crasies are in some measure opposed, have led the naturalists of France and Germany to the foremost place in these abstruse inquiries. Among them, Bory de St. Vincent, Unger, Keissek, and Kiitzing, rank as supporters, by argument and evidence, of the bold theory or doctrine of the spontaneous and indeter- minate production of species among the lower grades of animal and vegetable existence. A general statement of the creed of the transcendental natu- ralists may stand thus : A cell or germ once formed, may, under different circumstancE s, mature either as a vegetable or animal, and that without any limitation as to species. Thus the spore or seed of a conferva (a hair or threadlike aquatic vegetable), growing under certain conditions in the water, may either reproduce its own kind, or it may become an animalcule. The same spore, cast upon a dry rock, would vegetate as a lichen ; falling upon dead or diseased organic substance, it might produce a fungus ; while, taken into the stomach of a living animal it would become an intestinal worm. It ought to be remarked here, that the entire of these conclusions is not war- ranted by the facts themselves ; but the latter are sufficiently surprising at first sight to account for the more exaggerated assumption. Mr. Franz Unger found one of the confervoid plants in question growing, near Vienna, in a ditch of clear water derived from the melting of snow, and watched its de- velopment by means of the microscope. Having minutely ob- served the formation of its reproductive germs and the manner of their separation from the parent plant, he was astonished at finding, that instead of floating quietly in the water or sinking at the bottom, as might be naturally expected of a vegetable seed or spore, each of them swam about, for the space of an hour, like an animal endowed with volition ; nimbly avoiding others as they approached, or gliding around them, stopping, and again setting itself in motion. Towards the close of their hour of animated existence, the originally globular form of the spores became more or less elongated ; each extended an ap- pendage resembling a root, by which the young plant fixed itself to the side of the glass vessel containing the water, or to some other^body with which it happened to come in contact, and, continuing to elongate, in about eleven days bore fructifi- cation in its turn, when the cycle of events was repeated as before. Kiitzing, as quoted by Dr. Lindley in his "Vegetable King- dom," asserts that in the cells of his Ulotlirix sonata, another of these threadlike aquatics, there are found minute animal- cules, with a red eye-point, and a transparent mouth-place ; these bodies, however, are animals only for a time. Eventually they grow into vegetable threads, the lowest joint of which still exhibits the red eye-point. "This phenomenon," observes Dr. Lindley, " which Kiitzing assures us he has ascertained beyond all probability of doubt, puts an end to the question of whether animals and plants can be distinguished at the limits of their two kingdoms, and sufficiently accounts for the conflicting opinions that naturalists entertain as to the nature of many of the simpler forms of organization." Kiitzing appears to have pursued this subject with no small amount of perseverance, but the following experiment is certainly not calculated to enforce the opinion he would inculcate ; because corresponding ultimate results would have been obtained, by placing a little rain or spring water under similar circumstances, without the preliminary decomposition of animal substance. He cut into pieces a species of medusa (one of those "gelatinous, transln- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 313 cent, marine animals so common on our sea-coasts, and known by fishermen under the names of sea-nettles and sea-blubbers). He washed the pieces carefnlly in distilled water, put them into a bottle of the same, corked it closely, and then placed it in a window facing the east. The bits of medusa soon decom- posed, and a very offensive odour was the consequence ; so long as the latter lasted, nothing particular was observed to take place ; but when, after a few days, the putrid scent had passed away, myriads of monads (the lowest and most minute of animal forms yet recognized) made their appearance. Shortly after, the surface of the liquid swarmed with extremely small green points, which eventually increased so as to cover the whole surface ; similar points attached themselves to the sides of the bottle ; seen under a microscope, they appeared to con- sist of numberless monads, united by a slimy mass ; and at last, after a lapse of several weeks, the Conferva fugacissima developed itself in perfection. As already observed, regarding any supposed transition from animal to vegetable life, this experiment is unsatisfactory, ex- plaining nothing, establishing no ground whatever for such be- belief. The very species of plant named as its result, is produced in an uncorked bottle of water exposed to light, and in every rain-pool that remains long enough for its development ; the little green points, seeming monads, described as preceding its growth, being the spores from which it emanates. How thg spores are brought thither is mere matter of conjecture; whether dispersed at all times in the atmosphere, which their exceeding minuteness renders not unlikely, and only becoming visible during the preliminary expansion which is the com- mencement of their growth, as a seed swells before it germi- nates, or whether any more plausible suggestion may be ad- duced, no value can be attached to either, beyond that of greater or less probability : but the experiments and observa- tions of the advocates of their spontaneous^roduction must be classed under the same category. The slime or mucus, so frequently accompanying the gene- ration of these minute bodies, has itself furnished a curious theme for speculative enquirers, and some have even believed that in it we actually witness the earliest preparation of matter for animal or vegetable existence. Bory de St. Vincent suggests that " one might call it a provisional creation waiting to be or- ganized, and then assuming different forms, according to the nature of the corpuscles which penetrate it or develop among it. It may further be said to be the origin of two very distinct existences, the one certainly animal, the other purely vegetable. The matter Ij'ing among the shapeless mucus consists, in its simplest state, of solitary spherical corpuscles ; these corpuscles are afterwards grouped, agglo- merated, or chained together, so producing more complex states of organization. Sometimes the mucus — which acts as the basis or matrix of the corpuscles when it is found in water, which is the most favourable medium for its develop- ment— lengthens, thickens, and finally forms masses of some inches extent, which float and fix themselves to aquatic plants. These masses are at first like the spawn of fish, but they soon change colour, and become green, in consequence of the formation of inferior vegetable corpuscles. Often, however, they assume a milky or ferruginous appearance ; and if in this state they are examined under a microscope, they will be found completely filled with the animalcules called Navicularise, Lunulina;, and Stylaria;, assembled in such dense crowds as to be inc.ipable of swimming. In this state the animalcules are inert. Are they developed here, or have they found their way to such a nidus, and have they hindered the development of the green corpuscles? Is the mucus in which they lie the same to them as the albu- minous substance in which the eggs of many aquatic animals are deposited.' At present we have no means of answering these questions." The principal difficulty to be overcome, in prosecuting inquiries of this kind, consists in the uncertainty attending all our estimates of phenomena in which the agency of life is concerned, owing to our utter ignorance of the power or principle it involves. So long as observation is confined simply to the comparisons of structure in different species of plants and animals, and to tracing the conditions of in- dividuals as dependent upon its varied character, our road seems clear, our conclusions satisfactory. But in the ques- tion before us, the present limit of human comprehension seems to have been reached ; and we must be content to pause awhile, patiently awaiting new capabilities, either from the improvement of our instruments of research and greater experience in their application, or from an extension of the reasoning powers by which that experience is regu lated. Human progress has ever been slow in the aggregate, though occasionally it may have appeared, by a sudden leap, to leave all previous attainment far behind, and wrap the mind in astonishment and pride at its own unexpected ad- vance. More than two centuries and a-half elapsed from the time when Galileo first directed his optic tube to the heavens, to that in which the elder Herschel discovered the distant planet Uranus ; and then the astronomer who might have predicted that the circuit of the solar system was to become doubled in its known extent, while forty-one more planets were to be discovered within the life-period of a newly-born infant, would have been considered mad. Yet such has come to pass; more accurate observation of the realms of starry space, and the increased powers of the telescope, have effected this, and more, towards the en- largement of our sphere of knowledge. In like manner may the prospect of a closer acquaintance with the minor works of Nature be anticipated, if it is not already seen to loom in the distance. The range of the microscope is not more circumscribed than that of the telescope, though ex- tending in an opposite direction ; and although our present imperfect acquaintance with optical phenomena may assign bounds to the improvement of both, that those imagined bounds are not impassable the history of past discovery en- courages us to hope. Life is so far seemingly separated from any other power, of the existence of which we are sensible, that, like electri- cal and magnetic action— referred to a common source, but differing in some of their modifications— may be that which inspires vegetable and animal being. If so, the mutual diver- gence of the forms of both from one type may really warrant the surmised association of them in their lower grades. But such association is at present only surmise ; and ais the two mysterious agencies manifested in the lightning-bolt and the loadstone may merely resemble each other in that dual- ism of opposing forces in each which apparently pervades the universe, so may all our speculations terminate in an en- tire overthrow of all present views and theories based upon no more positive foundation. So may the knowledge we now congratulate ourselves on possessing prove equally mistaken and ridiculous as we now deem the crystal firmament of heaven under the old philosophy, contrasted with the boundless realms of ethereal space which constitute the modern idea of the universe. I have thus commenced by opposing certain vngue and undefined notions concerning the origin of organization, i.iiii 'ii'l P,U. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and have no others to propose in place of them. So far, however, as the subject immediately'' before us is concerned, the question we have been discussing may be allowed here to rest. The vegetable element, beyond a certain point, is pre-cxistent and subservient to the animal, to whatever period may be assigned eventually their relative origin. THE YOUNG FARMER ENTERING INTO BUSINESS. The choice of his cattle will be the next object of the young farmer. This, I think, is not of quite equal im- portance to the choice of his sheep stock ; I shall, there- fore, merely enumerate our most popular breeds as adapted for general breeding and grazing purposes. I would, however, ask the young farmer to wait awhile before he becomes a breeder of cattle to any extent. A small farm is not well adapted for breeding both sheep and cattle. The latter require much food, and great accommodation. All the calves and yearlings must be provided with warm hovels and yards, and ought to be very carefully attended to : young sheep require much less attention, and will thrive well in open fields upon common food. I think it would be his best practice to purchase cattle annually for his fields and fold-yards ; but if he desires to breed, and proceeds to a choice, then the most profitable English breeds of cattle are the pure shorthorns, the Durham and Yorkshire shorthorns, the Herefords, and the Devons. Besides these, we have the Sussex, the Longhorn, the Sufiblk, the Shropshires and Welsh Runts. Any of these breeds produce profitable grazing animals ; but for breeding purposes, the short- horns, Herefords, and Devons, are to be preferred. I make a distinction between a pure-bred Shorthorn and the ordinary Durham and Yorkshire breeds ; the latter, as a class, being somewhat smaller, and less expansive in frame. The former, or pure-bred cattle, have every qualification to make good and valuable animals. The Herefords approach next in frame and value to the shorthorn ; and the Devons are smaller, but of excel- lent quality, and admirably adapted for moderate upland pastures. Either of these breeds may be adopted with credit to his choice ; but the pure Shorthorn will gain the greatest size and weight of flesh in the shortest time, and of good quality. The Hereford comes next, and is of beautiful frame and proportions, and the flesh is of very superior quality. The Devons are smaller, but ex- ceedingly symmetrical and handsome, and quality of flesh very fine and superior. The strength and richness of his pasture lands must chiefly influence his choice ; the better land the larger and better cattle, for inferior land he should choose a smaller breed. For dairying on a small scale, either of the favoured ^breeds will do admirably ; but they are not quite equal to the Long- horns or Sufi'olks as milkers. Animals best adapted foy dairy purposes are not always good for fattening. The young farmer on this small farm will do well to select the breed that answers well for both the dairy and the field. For this the Shorthorn and the Hereford stand pre-eminent; the former, having latterly undergone greater improvement than the latter, is, I think, to be preferred. His next business in selection will be his Pigs. No class of stock is more profitable, under clever management, than this ; and it is highly important that our young farmer starts well. The varieties in the breed of pigs are not to be numbered. The two great distinc- tions are usually denominated the large and small breed, but the subdivisions and crosses are endless. A pig of the small breed, at the late Smithfield Club Show, made £20 or £21 to the butcher. The distinction is chiefly in form and looks, rather than weight ; but the large breed are invariably taken to weigh the heaviest. The small breed only occasionally arrive at great weights. The small breeds are of the best quality of flesh, and finer in off'al, and make admirable porkers. The large breeds attain the greatest weight in the shortest time, but are coarser in the quality of meat, and are best adapted for curing as bacon. Their breeding properties are about equal, but the propensity to fatten is in favour of the small breed. To arrive at a correct decision, the young farmer must take into account his vicinity to a good market, and note which kind of meat is most in request at such market. The London trade will take ofi^ his porkers, if small ; but some of the great shipping and manufactur- ing towns will best take off his large pigs. I therefore recommend him to adopt the large or small breed, according to bis ready access to either the London or such large provincial markets respectively, where great weights are popular. The agricultural districts and country market-towns are generally the best customers for the large breeds, and will give as much per stone as for the smaller breeds ; and as the large breed produce more flesh in the least time and cost, it is manifestly to the advantage of the farmer thus situated to adopt the larger breed ; but if he farms in a pork-consuming dis- trict, he should adopt the small breed, as the price theie given will more than compensate for the little diflference in accumulating weight of flesh. Having decided as to the kind, his best course will be to apply to some re- spectable breeder of known repute, and obtain from him a stock of breeding sows. Three or four of these will soon bring him plenty of stock, as none of our domestic animals breed so fast; and he may be able, by good management and feeding, to sell some as porkers in a few months from the farrowing; but in general it is better to allow them a reasonable growth before fatting, particularly the large breeds, which in their early stages are quicker growers than feeders. Poultry. — This at first sight appears a trivial subject to advise upon, but in reality it is not so. Good atten- tion to the breeding and rearing of poultry is profitable, and deserves greater application than is commonly given to it. It is not desirable to keep too many varieties ; it is seldom that all kinds of domestic poultry thrive well in the same yard. Geese and ducks do not agree well THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3lB' in the same pond. Turkeys are great enemies to all other kinds of poultry ; and even two distinct varieties, of the common fowl do not agree together. The young farmer will do well to make a judicious choice of the sorts he will breed, in which he must be guided by the facilities his farm-yard gives, and then proceed to the selection from the best well-known stocks. This is no easy task to do correctly, for he will find sub-varieties in every sort — in geese several, in turkeys severalj in ducks many, in fowls innumerable. As a general rule, and with a view to the greatest profit, he should select the larger varieties of the sort he has chosen to keep. The only recommendation I would give on the point is to be very cautious relative to the introduction of the many new varieties lately brought into notice — such as the Cochin China, Polish, Spanish, and the like. The large Dorking is superior to them for the table, and the everlasting layers are equal to them for eggs. Pea- fowls, guinea-fowls, bantams, &c., look ornamental in a farm-yard, but are not profitable. It may occasionally answer remarkably well to breed fancy potcltry ex- clusively ; such are sold to poultry fanciers, amateur breeders, and the dealers in breeding poultry. This, however, is not the common legitimate business of the young farmer. His business is to produce food for the community, and he must choose his breeding-stock accordingly, and it is his to prepare them for the general market. It is not my intention in this series of papers to advise the young farmer as to the conduct of his business or the management of his stock ; this I probably may take up subsequently. My present design is to advise him as to his course upon entering into business, and to guard him against error in various ways in his first efforts. It would also prolong these papers beyond reasonable bounds if I essayed to advise upon the choice of his varieties of grain, roots, &c., or of artificial grasses, food, or manures, &c. ; these would form better subjects for discussion in giving advice upon general management. My next object will be to offer some words of caution and advice, with the view to direct his choice in the selection of his implements. This, in the present day, is a very difficult task, as the improvements made in this department of agricultural progress have, perhaps, exceeded all others ; and the implements are so good, and so many, and made by so many manufacturers, that to name any one implement, or any one manufacturer, seems invidious, an J as something derogatory to another, where the merits are so great and so equal both in use- fulness and manufacture. The Choice of Implements, — These I have already enumerated in my particulars of estimation for the amount of capital required, and the number and kind of implements to be selected. It is for the young farmer to weigh well the cost and capabilities of each kind, as catalogued before him by the different makers. It will by no means do to take the decision of judges — or, in other words, prize implements — to be correct, as being best adapted for his occupation. It may be good as a general rule, but he must look for those implements which will most effectively cultivate the soil he has to deal with. A heavy-land implement is too cumbersome and expensive for light land, and vice versd, Sec. We will take first the implements for culture, and in the choice of these lies the greatest difficulty ; not in making a good selection, for that is easy, but in making the right, the best selection. To begin with Ploughs. — How, from amongst so many and such eminent makers of ploughs, shall he be able to select the best ? Why, we say at once, he cannot. He must exercise his own taste and judgment, not forgetting cost and simplicity in construction. Where the merit and capabilities of the implement are so equally balanced by the skill and talents of different manufac- turers, it must be merely a matter of taste in making a selection. The kind of plough is another thing, and he must choose one according to the tenacity or freedom of his soil. For light land, a light-land plough ; for heavy land, a heavy-land plough ; for medium soils, " the best plough for general purposes." I would venture to re- commend that the plough be of iron — i. e., wrought-iron beam, with cast-iron body and share, and steel mould- board. The plough to be of the simplest construction, so as to form either a swing or wheel-plough, to be used with one wheel to regulate the depth ; but not two wheels, to regulate depth and width too : this adds to the cost, and to the idleness of the ploughman, without lessening the draught of the plough. It would be acting judiciously to pay a visit to the manufactories of those plough-makers most in repute in the district in which his farm is situate, before he decides upon a choice. Good and effective ploughing is the foundation of good husbandry ; there- fore a good and easy-going plough must be selected. Harrows. — These implements generally stand next in every catalogue. The varieties in harrows are equally numerous with the class of ploughs. The same general rule will apply: light-land harrows for light land, heavy- land harrows for heavy land, with occasional deviations; light land will at times require heavy harrows, and vice versd. I think the prevailing fault on this point is in selecting harrows of too light construction : land requires thorough working or high pulverization ; light harrows won't accomplish it. Select them of sufficient weight, made of wrought-iron, with plenty of teeth, every tooth taking a difterent track. Those made in sets are to be preferred, so as to fit the " land," or " stetch" : a set of three to take a six-feet stetch, or a double set for a twelve-feet stetch, with seed harrows to match. This would permit the horses to walk in the furrows, when requisite. The teeth should be of suffi- cient length to prevent clogging in work. A set of strong heavy harrows for rough-fallow work, to follow the cultivator, is very desirable. Cultivator, or Scarifier. — This is a class of very valuable implements, which no good farmer can do with- out, or avoid using. The varieties are many. Those most effective in work, simple in construction, and eco- nomical in price, are to be preferred. But the adapta- tions of these implements are for various purposes. Those possessing several and the most effective combi- nations are most valuable for general use. A good cultivator or scarifier (for the implement is nearly the ;io THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. same) ought to be able to pare the soil at any shallow or given depth, and to break it up at a great depth ; to work readily through beds of twitch ; to cut or tear the whole furrow-sole, and slice, and effectively move the soil in loose fallows ; and if capable of conversion into a subsoil pulveriser, all the better. I have not yet seen any one single implement qualified to effect all the above purposes. One is superior in one department, and an- other excels iu a different position ; a good parer does not excel in rough fallows, and vice versa. Field Rollers, or Crushers. — These are implements of great and increasing importance. Rolling and crush- ing are more practised than formerly, not only in fallow work, but in pressing and levelling grass lands, and to aid growing crops. The right choice of this expensive implement is worth much consideration. The varieties are very numerous. The serrated clod-crusher is admi- rably adapted for breaking large clods into smaller frag- ments, but it is not equal to the plain roller for crushing and crumbling them into dust, which all farmers find so generally necessary in business. The grooved roller is very eflfective for rolling corn crops, and is also highly useful as a general field roller. Both the serrated and grooved rollers, and some plain ones, are made in sec- tions, or a series of wheels or discs, which are variously arranged, with bosses and otherwise, to prevent clogging in work. This mode of construction in disc sections is objectionable in some points ; occasionally the whole weight of the implement is brought to bear upon a single disc or section, as in meeting with a prominent clod or stone : the danger from breakage in this case is great. There are also many fanciful inventions for breaking, crushing, and even cutting clods ; and for the better pressure of corn crops : these are all very well in their places, but I would recommend our young farmer to avoid anything fanciful, and to choose that roller which appears to him best adapted for universal service upon the soil he cultivates, and comparatively inexpen- sive. The diameter should be rather large, or it will work heavily, and the plain rollers should consist of two or more cast-iron drums or cylinders. The cast-iron rollers are to be preferred, as dintinguished from the common wooden roller. A single field-roller, or crusher, ought to sufi&ce for our young beginner's farm of 200 acres ; he should be therefore careful, we repeat, to se- lect one suited to general purposes. The Drill. — This, in all its adaptations, is a very costly implement ; and yet it cannot be dispensed with, as row- culture possesses so many and such great advantages. The great thing for our young farmer to consider is, the various and specific uses to which he intends to apply his drill. If he proposes drilling in manures with his corn crops, at narrow in- tervals, he will require an expensive implement ; but if be circumscribes his manure- drillings to his root crops, he will only require three or four spouts and coulters, with requisite troughs, which will lessen the expense very considerably. It would be folly to buy a drill for any specific purpose, as they are manufactured with combinations so general that they may be used for every crop. I should again recommend our young farmer to look to simplicity in construction, its adaptation to ge- neral uses, and price. Other Field Implements. — The Horse-hoe, for corn crops, is expensive, and I think not very profit- able, management : the hand-hoeing is better for the crop. The Ridge-hoe, for row-culture, he must have. He must have several combinations in this implement^ i. e., for ridge-hoeing, for moulding-up root crops, paring, skeleton ploughing, broadsharing, &c. Drag- rahe. — The new lever-rakes are best : the teeth should be long, and the lift high and easy. Spades, Shovels, Hand-hoes, Hand-forks, Manure-forks, should be purchased of Sheffield or similar manufacture, particu- larly the forks having steel tines. Miscellaneous articles, such as reaping-hooks, hedging tools, carpenters' tools, &c., &c., I need not stop to advise upon. Carriages. — Waggon. — For delivering com at any distance, it should be of light build, and of perfect workmanship and material. To have iron arms, or patent axles, with raves, fore and hind-ladders (both moveable), wheels of somewhat large diameter, and shafts either for double or single harness. Carts. — These should be adapted for a single horse, and be of sufficient capacity for harvest work, fitted with move- able sbelvings and side-boards, and running on iron arms with patent axles. For hilly districts, they must be fitted with either break or drag-chain. The varieties of manufacture and pattern in getting up common farm carriages is great, and very attractive. Our young farmer must take time, and by no means make a hasty choice. His object must be, to obtain them light and durable, and not costly ; and he should avoid much that is ornamental, as adding to the expense. I name this, as it is often a great point to show a handsome carriage, &c., &c. Harness. — The fashion and make of farmers' horse- gear differ in almost every district. The heavy, un- sightly, and expensive gearing of some localities is much to be deprecated. They are almost load enough for a horse to carry, without work, for the day. Choose light Bridles, with single bit ; Cart-saddles not large, but of good form, and strong breeching ; the Long Gears of strong chains, with a rather broad back-band and strong belly-band, and no superfluous back-strap, crupper, and hip -straps; the Plough Gears with simple back-band and chains, with ringles, not hooks ; the Collars light, and of black leather, well stuffed ; the Uarnea and Fill-hanks strong, but not too long, and fastened with leather thongs, not chains. Yard Implements, &c. — Cake-breaker. — The simpler in make, the better, if it will break for cattle and sheep. Turnip-cutter. — Ditto, if it will cut for cattle and sheep. Chaj^ Engine, — I am inclined to advise our young farmer to obtain one for horse-power. It is expensive ; but the economy of cutting food for all kinds of stock will amply repay him. It is important to make a good choice. The form of knife and method of feeding in the box are great points for consideration. Bean-crusher or Bruiser. — This is a very desirable implement to have ; but it may be dispensed with. The nearest mill can be employed for grinding. Cattk' THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sm: cribs. —These should be of oak, with full or closed sides and bottoms. Pig-troughs should be either of stone or cast-iron. The many sundries I pass over, and proceed to The Barn Implements.— ZJress/n^' Machine. — The manufacture of corn-dressing machines has so greatly improved, and their adaptations are so perfect, that I dispense with the blower. This is an important imple- ment for the farmer's use, as the perfection of his sample is of great moment to him. I should recom- mend our young farmer to choose the best, if possible, regardless of cost ; and he must take care that its com» binations are sufficient for dressing his seed as well a^ his corn crops. The Thrashing Machine I pass by, as being too expensive for a farm of 200 acres. The minor barn-requisites I need only name — bushel- riddles, chaff-skeps, scuttles, shovels, sack-barrow, and sacks. I have only to name, in addition, some field and yard requisites, i. c, rick or thrashing cloth, ladders, barrows, grinding-stone, hurdles, sheep- troughs, crow-bars, stone and turnip-picks, water- troughs, buckets, butchers' requisites, carpenters' re- quisites, &iC., &c* FACTS CONCERNING THE WORKPEOPLE OF EUROPE. We now come to what we call the momentary system, or the perfect freedom of the labourer to invest his physical capital in the best market to be found. Where the generous spirit of employers induces them to calculate hoio much they can give to their work- people as payment for toil, rather than how little, this system is perfectly safe both for the individual and the community. But where this is not the case, the system is dangerous. Equality ceases. The capitalists become pretty much dictators in the labour market, and the workmen sink to tlie rank of slaves — a very unprofitable and combustible element in the community. We defend this assumption on the recognized principle that virtue is essential to the success of a popular form of govern- ment, while it is not to a despotical or monarchical government. It is necessary that if the people make the laws they must keep them. Where the person in- trusted with the execution of the laws is sensible of being himself subject to their direction, there must be eminent need of virtue. If in a republic virtue is not found, ambition and avarice possess the community, and the State is undone. " The politic Greeks," says Mon- tesquieu, " knew no other support but virtue. The modern inhabitants of that country are entirely taken up with manufactures, commerce, finances, riches, and luxury." And we have a practical exemplification that they are undone. There was not enough virtue in Eng- land to maintain the Commonwealth, and repeated have been the failures to establish a republic in France, simply because this one essential requisite to a popular form of government was wanting. Now, virtue or morality is quite as necessary to the healthy operation of a free-labour market as it is to a free form of government. We have in England the most un- restricted competition of workmen, and we have, too, the greatest amount of social distress in the civilized world; .ind arguing from effect to the cause, we detect the absence of that great popular regulator to which allusion has been made. Beholding this state of things, and predicting rot- tenness to the nation therefrom, we draw attention to certain modifications of this entire liberty, and several plans for producing an improved relationship between em- ployer and employed. The trade corporations in the momentary system have, in many respects, an affinity with the system of feudal patronage, especially where the workshops are directed hy water-power, and scattered over the country. Numerous privileges of the former system then accrue to the workman, such as house and garden, forest rights, wood-cutting common pasture, and shooting, &c. ; but the supervision of the trade, the establishment of rules to banish unhealthy competition, and to insure the labourer a fair measure of employment, the organization of mutual insurance funds to guarantee the old and infirm uniform support — these, instead of depending ou the wisdom of large capitalists, are deter- mined by a committee of the leading workmen themselves. Sirch societies formerly existed in this country under the name oi guilds. The term is one of very early date amongst the Saxons as applied to a sort of vicarial fraternity ; but it seems to have been at the close of the eleventh century that " merchant-guilds," &c., came into use in England, and the idea was probably imported from the free cities of Ital}'. They were not confined to trades, but embraced many branches of manufacture. They exist to a large extent still in the south of Germany, and are now companies or asso- ciations ha\ang laws or orders made by themselves, in virtue of authority from the prince to that effect. They produce like results to what they produced here. By limiting the number of apprentices under each master they provide against undue competition. By preventing any journeymnn from exercising the functions of master or from working on his own account without having given proof of his efficiency by taking out his diploma, they save the public and them- selves from quackery, &c. By habituating the journeymen or companions to travel through the towns of the empire they increase their intelligence and efficiency, and lead them, unfettered by local prejudices, to view that place as their home where their services are likely to be most ui request. • In these class corporations there is a perfect spirit of equality combined with a due gradation of rank : cacli member regards his fellow as a brother, and feels that he is a subject to no laws but what have been framed for the interest of the society, and which he may be called on one day to supervise and administer. These are so many self- constituted republics, where the popular element is combined in a certain degree with the arlstocratical, and where the safety of each individual is insured by the joint co-ordination and mutual assistance of all. But when the workmen seek the monopoly of the public-market on their own terms, in- dividual liberty is interfered with, and the public is not perhaps so well served as they are by uiuestricted eompe^' 318 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, tltion ; but society is relieved from tlie support of pau- I perized labourers, the public streets from some of tbe worst forms of mendicity, and the ^vorkraan himself is taught to regard his trade as his inheritance, which he can leave as a secure source of income to his posterity. These facts are full cf valuable instruction of a kind much needed in our day. We wish the redeeming features of the system that vma the necessity of serfdom might come to be the choice of those nations, like England and France in a swift state of progress. In the excess of freedom they have cast away at once supports that galled, and supports that did good service. The retention of some of these last might have con- tributed to the vigour and maturity of the young giant, Free Labour. These ancient corporations exist nowhere now but in Ger- many. And even in Germany the recent improvement in machines, and revelations in chemistry, and appliances of steam power and hydraulic pressure, are daily contracting their circle, and promise to explode them altogether. In England the Cutlers' Society alone remains. Cheap labour and colossal establishments have been used to undersell them, and of course they will undersell them when people are always ready to sacri- fice quality to appearance, and care no more for men and women than for spinning-jinnies : the old bonds of fraternity are broken, our labourers are antagonistic, they strive fiercely one against the other, and those that lag behind are snatched up by the furies of hunger and crime that follow upon the trail of its onward movement. The substitution of steam and coal for water aud wood, has broken up most of those rural manufactures where the work- man was protected by mauy of its old rights and immunities, and grouped our populations, destitute of all resources beyond their ephemeral salary, rouud the coal mines which supply the new manufactures with their motive power. Thus Man- chester and Liverpool have grown up around the mines of Lancashire, Birmingham on those of Staffordshire, Leeds and Sheffield on those of Yorkshire, Glasgow on those of lower Scotland. The old towns have emptied half their inhabitants into these locaUties ; the peasant, also, allured by the high precarious remuneration which they offer, has left his low-paid but certain employment in the country ; and when over-specu- lation or a glut in the market necessitates a contraction of supply, a crush ensues, and the multitude, deprived of their ancient resources, are brought to the verge of pauperism. The Enclosure Bill, by breaking up common pasture right, has, while doing much good, done much mischief. Hence, as in the manufacturing districts, a chasm between master and work- men has been made, and of which come misunderstanding, hatred, heartburnings, and combinations. While looking at these old guilds and brotherhoods, and ad- miring the good that is in them, we do not advocate a return to them, but we do advocate a return to that great and saving principle of goodwill and fraternity on which they were founded. Acting on this, we shall find ourselves nearer to them even in form than we now think it possible to be, for such things have almost assumed the guise of old wives, fables to the dashing speculators and fast men of our age. Now to "supply a practical application to this letter, let us ask how many of those who read it have reduced wages during the past season, not because men could do with less money, but because men were more numerous — because, in fact, it was " a slack time," and they could command labour at their own terms ? Wc, of course, cannot reply to this question ; but we can form some notion of the bulk the volume should have, which contained the names of those who answered the question in the affirmative, so deeply rooted is this pernicious practice. Well, here is the very case in point : an instance of that want of principle which makes the momentary system so ruinous to the poor, and so dangerous to the community. In following out our remarks, we submit that, under an unrestricted system of labour, men should be able to turn their hands to many sorts of employment, par- ticularly in the great manufacturing centres, where mul- titudes are often suddenly deprived of their means. But this versatility is less characteristic of the urban than of the rural population. We hear those who care for no- thing but to work up the raw material cheaply and quickly, praising the division of labour. They see no further than the extra finish attained. And we can find no words of our own to express our feelings on this subject, equal to those of Mr. Ruskin. In the sixth chapter of the second volume of "The Stones of Venice," la speaking of Gothic architecture, he says : " We have much studied and much perfected, of late, the great civilized invention of the division of labour; only we give it a false name. It is not, truly speaking, the labour that is divided, but the meu ; divided into mere segments of men — broken into small fragments and crumbs of life ; so that all the little piece of intelligence that is left in a man is not enough to make a pin or a nail, but exhausts itself into making the point of a pin, or the head of a nail. Now it is a good and desirable thing, truly, to make many pins in a day ; but if we could only see with what crystal sand their points were polished — sand of human soul, much to be magnified before it can be discerned for what it is — we should think there might be some loss in it also. And the great cry that arises from all our manufacturing cities, louder than their furnace-blast, is all, in very deed, for this — that we manufac- ture everjthini^ there except men. We blanch cotton, and strengthen steel, and refine sugar, and shape pottery ; but to brighten, to strengthen, to refine, or to form a single living spirit, never enters into our estimate of advantages. And all the evil to which that cry is urging our myriads can be only met in one way : not by teaching nor preaching ; for to teach them is but to show them their misery ; and to preach to them, if we do nothing more than preach, is to mock at it. It can be met only by a right understanding, on the part of all classes, of what kinds of labour are good for men, raising them and making them happy ; by a determined sacrifice of such convenience, or beauty, or cheapness as is to be got only by the degradation of the workman ; and by equally deter- mined demand for the products and results of healthy and ennobling labour." And this advice is as available for the farmer as the manufacturer, since the one is not more prone than the other to consider the moral influence of work, or the responsibility of capitalists. Mr. Ruskia has looked deeply and tearfully into this matter. Like ourselves, he has seen that myriads, tiained only to the solitary pursuit by which they earn their bread, have, when that resource fails, no choice left between famine and the workhouse. In proportion as science has multiplied the means of reproduction, the division of labour has deve- loped itself ; and in proportion as this has taken place, the number of able-bodied paupers has increased. la sacrificing everything to the exercise of unbridled liberty, and allowing the old social forms to be rudely displaced by any innovations, and to place mankind in new positions, unfettered by laws designed to ensure their social stability, we sought to effect a reform, but have improvised a revolution. And society is left to blunder through this cycle of changes. Eveu the increase of pauperism, which is the crying abuse of the day, is met on the same principle as THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 319 ia Henry VIII. 's time. The unfortunate victim of general enlightenment and unrestricted freedom is, as soon as he presents himself, sent back to his parish, to be stowed away ; and his fellow-parishioners are taxed for his support, at a rate which generally amounts to more than double the sum required for his subsistence. Instead of getting rid of the anomaly, we have sought to domesticate it amongst us. So much are we ena- moured of its results, as to force it upon our outlying dependencies. But this invention meets not the require- ments of the case. The more sensitive and dignified poor, sooner than have recourse to its provisions, undergo the greatest hardships ; and, in spite of enormous assessments, misery is before us everywhere. We cannot, under these circumstances, speak words of peace nor of gratulation. We may allow that our imports and exports show a state of progress unpa- ralleled in the history of nations ; but the seeds of decay are scattered abroad, and the same causes which operated to hasten and complete the fall of the Roman empire, are at work amongst us, and threaten our sta- bility. As those who desire that our country may continue to be the great sun of the civilized system, we must hasten to avert the darkening shades of this social corruption. One way, as masters in which we may succeed to this end, is in systematically cherishing a practical sympathy towards our work-people. The rich sever themselves too far from the poor ; and a spirit of distrust grows up between. The rich distrust the poor : the poor distrust and hate the rich. M. de Tocqueville, writing of the causes of the French Revo- lution of 1789, says that the separation of classes was one of the most potent causes of almost all the disorders which led to the dissolution of the old society of France. Inseparable barriers were placed between the nobles, the bourgeoise, and the tiers d'etat. This spirit of disaffection was rather nurtured by the denaturalizing spirit of centralization which was inspired into the Go- vernment of Louis XI., in 1G92, for the purpose of curtailing the liberties of the towns, which were deemed very alarming. This spirit, insidiously working, pro- duced a uiuformity of society, but destroyed the power of unity. French society presented the paradox of a collective individuality. While, however, we would not do away with a due gradation of rank, we think that it would be well to bridge over those fearful gaps that do exist between the classes of our land, by a pre- sent sympathy. The distrust arises out of ignorance. Did the rich know more of the virtues of the poor, they would esteem them better ; did the poor know better the noble qualities of the rich, they would learn more to appreciate and less to distrust them. So long as this spirit of disaflection continues, it must increase — it is a feeling that admits of no stag- nation ; and some future political economist, writing at Sydney, may say : " Surely the wreck of- three empires on the same rock — Rome, France, Great Britain — should induce us to amend our chart, and seek a safer course." To avert such a disaster, we can only, of course, work individually, and use our in- fluence in a right direction. Does it not seem as if, to this end, we may learn sometimes even from feudalism ? There was a glorious spirit that now-and-then broke forth in those dark times — a spirit that told of a tender, affectionate regard downwards, and a deep-rooted at- tachment upwards. It is something of this spirit of fraternity that we must endeavour to conserve amongst us — the identical spirit that animated that old mountain- servant who, two hundred years ago, at Inverskeithing, gave up his own life and the lives of his seven sons for his chief; as each fell, calling forth another to the death — " Another for Hector ! '' But had Hector been a rigid deciple of our present school of Political Economy, think you that he would have had a faithful servant to cry " Another for Hector ? " Farmer Spudweed wouldn't find that Smith worked with less energy, because, when his wife died, he in- quired kindly about the children, and helped Smith with a little advice as to the best means of putting some of the elder ones " in a way." If the farmer value the " God bless you ! " of the poor, he would be more likely to get it by interesting himself in the family affairs of the poor around him, than in preserving an indifferent or haughty bearing, which he may think more conducive to his dignity. Another way, as we have before stated, of improving the good feeling Wetween masters and workmen, is by practically recognising our responsibility — a responsi- bility that never terminates — a responsibility that does not display itself in spasmodic eflForts, but which is systematic in its beneficial action. We are no advocates of a maudlin, sentimental liberality, that hires vagrants and spawns slaves. That system of soup-tickets, blanket-societies, and doles, does but degrade our poor. It originates in kind feelings, but feelings based on false thinking. The best species of philanthropy, just now, is to prove to the poor that there pass into their hands the complete materials for subsistence and comfort. Where the masters are not conscientious, of course this cannot be done ; but where wages are fair, they are capable of being proved , by the exercise of providence and economy, sufficient for the reasonable wants of people in such a station. Some time ago, a gentleman, knowing the improvi- dent habits of the poor, offered, in a season of unusual distress, to share a cottage with a man, his wife, and their six children. He stipulated that the commissariat department should be entrusted to him. He lived with the cottagers for six weeks, and introduced them to a degree of comfort they had never before known, through a judicious expenditure only of their scanty wages. It is hardly to be expected that every benevolent gentle- man should be prepared to make this sacrifice ; but we, see from the example how desirable it is that the poor should be taught, by some means or other, to husband their resources with far more judgment than they do. The experimentalist just mentioned says nothing about finding any surplus, after supplying bodily wants, to aliment the minds of the children; and, where the experiment was made, we do not suppose such means are supplied by the farmer. When this is the case, we, 3^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. as masters, should see that the right we deny them in one way, should be rendered in another. The mining proprietors of Sweden and Norway and Germany hold themselves responsible for the social comfort of their work-people during stagnation of trade. It would be well if we, instead of doing this, could teach ours to be so provident of their resources as to make this provision for themselves. But it is absurd to expect to achieve this triumph, while we continue to hold up the temptation of a Perennial Fund, to the ruin of those whose principle is not strong enough to make them self-reliant. It is vain to preach providence, while we hold forth such a license to improvidence. Oh, are there not some wonderful anomalies in our England ? The pauper, who sinks willingly upon his dirty feather-bed, we feed and foster ; the criminal whose fall is consummated, we pet and comfort ; the frugal, toiling labourer, who is struggling, with all his earnest soul, to keep himself from the gulf of eleemo- synary degradation, we load with fresh burdens, and mulct and neglect, for the benefit of the complacent re- cipient of charitable doles ; the honest man, just stumbling on the verge of guilt, and striving to avoid it — like many an agricultural labourer this winter — we proflfer no aid to, but surround with fresh temptations. F. R. S. EMIGRATION AND EMPLOYMENT BY ASSOCIATION. The old site of Smithfield Market is now turned to a new purpose. It has become the scene of meetings of the unemployed artificers of the metropolis, who have been thrown out of work by the slackness in house building, which in every business follows periods of paroxismal activity. The unemployed artificers are urged by some of the orators whp address them on these occasions, to demand a division among them of our unenclosed waste lands as a remedy for their distress, in the hopes of restoring those good old times, which never existed except in the imagination of the poet, when every rood of ground maintained its man. It might have been supposed that the failure of !-o many freehold land societies, established a few years back, would have effected a cure for this species of delusion. Perhaps, however, the majority of those who attended these meetings, either as speakers or listeners, were not aware of the fact. The parties, moreover, who assembled on this occa- sion, appear not to have been aware of another fact, that while the land remaining to be enclosed in this country is chiefly of the poorest description, which can only be made productive by the expenditure of a large amount of capital, there is in our colonies not only a great demand, at high wages, for the description of workmen who ai-e unemployed here, together with cheap food, but also a vast area of the finest land, in which they may invest their savings to good account, and thus make a provision for their old age and for their children, as the owners and cultivators of their 200 or 300 acres, to be worked partly with their own and partly with the assistance of hired labour. In the Melbourne papers we read, a few weeks back, the following as the scale of remuneration, with rations, for agricultural labourers, as well as for mechanics. Rough workmen of all kinds meet with ready employ- ment, at the following rates : — Per annum. Married couples, without families. . £75 to £80 Do., with families £55 to £65 Gardeners 50 Grooms 40 Shepherds 35 Hut keepers 25 General servants 20 These wages, it should be remembered^ are in addi- tion to rations. Now, a mechanic who can get out to Australia, either fi'om his own resources or through the Emigration Cora- missioners, and wishes to exchange the employment to which he has been accustomed for the occupations of rural life, is always eligible as an Australian shepherd; for employment of that kind is difierent from that of a shepherd in this country. It is not necessary that he should even have seen a sheep before his arrival there ; perhaps, on the contrary, it is better that he should not. The duties of an Australian shepherd are so different from those of the same calling in this country, that the veriest Londoner can soon learn them, and perform them better than one who has old habits to unlearn. Then, again, as regards rations, which are given in addition to the above wages — the standard weekly rations — are the following : lOlbs. of flour, 121bs. of beef or mutton, 21bs. of sugar, and half-a-pound of tea. As regards household servants, men-cooks receive from £70 to £80 a year. These are not men-cooks of the London stamp, but cooks like those on board ship. Female cooks are in less request, receiving from ^^30 to ^^35 per annum. Nursemaids, £20 to ^^25 ; and besides these wages, much better matrimonial prospects than await them here. It was added that there was a good demand for all kinds of skilled labourers, especially among the build- ing trades. These are the very class of unemployed workmen who are meeting in Smithfield, and who are promised as a remedy for their distress a few acres of poor land, which, so far from operating as a relief, would only aggravate it. The wages of mechanics toithoiit rations were stated as follows : — Carpenters, 14s. to 15s. a day ; masons, J5s.; plasterers, 14s, to 15s.; quarrymen, 10s.; la- bourers on the road, 9s. to 10s. per day, with water and tents provided. We give these particulars as they appear in the Melbourne papers ; of course, however, intending emigrants will do well not to trust entirely to these statements, but to obtain official information as to the state of the labour market, through the Emigration THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3^i Commissioners or their agents. In these inquiries they will always find some person to assist them : among the best to be consulted are those by whom they have been employed, or the pai-ish clergymen. The voyage to Australia, however, is a long and expensive one, beyond the resources of most of those to whom emigra- tion is recommended as a remedy for the distress arising from an excess of workmen of a particular calling, com- pared with the existing demand. There are free passages granted, it is true, by the local government, from the proceeds of the land sales. The conditions on which they are granted have undergone some modifications of late, and we are not at present informed of their precise nature. This, however, may be easily learned on application to the Emigration Commissioners, at the same time that inquiries are made respecting the de- mand for particular kinds of labour. We know, how- ever, on the best authority, that a man who goes out to the colonies at his own expense, holds a more inde- pendent position than he who emigrates at the public expense. The peasantry of Ireland, during the distress arising out of the potato failure, solved the problem of a self-supporting system of emigration, in which mil- lions of money have been expended, and millions of persons removed ft-om a state of want to that of inde- pendence. The Irish emigration has been chiefly to the United States. There, however, it has been over- done; and there are hot a few instances of their having returned, partly from this cause, and partly from the " Know-nothing" opposition to them, in consequence of their numbers having i-educed the rate of wages to the native workmen. And how was the Irish emigration conducted? A contribution was raised among their family and friends, sufficient to send out one member of a family, with the understanding that as soon as he was able, from the receipt of the good wages and low-priced food to be obtained in all newly-settled countries, he was to return the loan, to be re-lent to another desirous of emigrat- ing. Instances of the pledge of re-payment being broken were extremely rare. Now, what the poor Irish can do, cannot the more highly-paid Anglo-Saxon artificers of this country do ? Among the agricultural labourers of England juster notions prevail on the subject of machinery than were current thirty years back. The introduction of machinery into agricultural operations is no longer regarded by them as an inven- tion for the "murder of mankind," as it was often called then, but as a means of abridging the toil of the workmen, and of the employment of additional labour on one operation, by the means of the money saved by machinery on another. They see, too, that on those farms where there is the most machinery employed, there the most money is expended on human labour. It will not be long before juster notions will prevail among the working classes on the subject of emigra- tion, and the means which our colonies afford to them of raising themselves in the social scale. What we would urge, then, on all those trades in which there is a periodical fluctuation in the demand for their ser- , vices, is to institute emigration societies, for the pur- pose of enabling those who are out of employment to transfer themselves to those colonies where they are in request ; whether they give the preference to Australia, New Zealand, or Canada. Canada holds out many inducements to the emigrant; among others, its comparatively short distance, and the small expense at which it may be reached. The advantages, however, which Canada offers to intending emigrants, agricultural and non-agricultural, must be reserved for future discussion. Since the above was in type a meeting of the British Workman's Association has taken place, in which the true remedy for the present distress was fully recog- nised. A call has been made on the Government to assist the unemployed to emigrate to the British colo- nies ; and the principle has been very properly recog- nised, that the assistance shall only be by way of loan, and considering the present urgency of the case we think the Government fairly called upon. Various statements have also been made to the effect that red tapism, at the office of the Emigi-ation Commissioners, throws impediments in the way of the emigration of the vei'y description of persons who are most eligible, and for whom at the present time emigration is most required. We would, therefore, suggest to the work- ing classes the formation of an Emigration Association, the object of which shall be to assist those disposed to emigrate to the British colonies to do so, and to assist them by way of loan. Another object of the Association should be to collect reliable information as to the de- mand for particular kinds of labour in the different colonies. The sums which have been wasted on unsuc- cessful strikes, if applied to promoting emigration by way of loan, would have a far more beneficial effect on wages, and on the position of the labouring classes than was ever yet obtained by the most successful strike. EMIGRATION TO CANADA. A correspondent from the country has written to us for information respecting the best mode of proceeding, in emigrating to Canada, with regard to the purchase of land, and the most eligible part in which to settle, the system of agriculture, &c., practised there, &c., &c. In reply, we advise him by no means to settle in the lower pro- vince, but to go at once to Upper Canada. In the former, he will have to encounter the prejudices and the non-progressive disposition of the French Canadians, whilst in the latter he will find a true English population prosperous and spirited. The London district is essentially English, a great number of the settlers being Norfolk and Suffolk men, who have carried thither their indus- trious and active habits, and their intelligence and ex- perience in husbandry. These he will find useful neigh- bours and friends ; for a similarity of wants renders all persons friendly in a new country. We would also strongly recommend him by no means to trouble himself with any inquiry about land until he arrives out, and then to take his time and look round 322 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. him before he makes his selection. There are plenty of agrents here who would help him into difficulties with great pleasure and alacrity ; and hosts of them in Canada, all of whom have the very best tracts of land to dispose of. His best plan will be to consult some old and respectable settler, who will be more likely to give him impartial and valuable advice than a land-agent either out there or in this country. With respect to works treating on Canadian affairs, we know of no one better or move complete than Mont- gomery Martin's History of the British Colonies, which has come out in numbers. We believe the numbers refer- ring to Canada may be had at the publisher's separately, and he will find it contains a vast fund of general in- formation respecting that colony, that will be of great service to him. With regard to tools and implements of husbandry, it will not be any advantage taking either them or furni- ture with him. He will find that he can furnish himself with both at as cheap a rate as he can purchase them here. Even if he has them by him already, I much question whether it would not be advisable to sell them off, and so convert everything into money, and save him- self the trouble and annoyance of taking them hundreds of miles up the country at a great expense. We have known many emigrants regret having taken things out with them, having found the trouble and expense very great, and discovered, on arrival, that they could have purchased them on the spot at nearly English prices. No furniture will pay, for taking over, except beds, which, as he will want ttem on the passage, it will be as well for him to provide himself with. THE RECLAMATION OF WASTE LANDS— WHERE HITHERTO ACCOMPLISHED. The Central Farmers' Club has been more than usually happy, of late, in timing its subjects to appro- priate pei'iods, as well as in selecting the best men to deal with these. Nothing, for instance, could be more welcome than Mr. Baker's paper on Manures, when we were just at the very height of our difficulty as to what manures we could resort to. It was no slight service to have a practical farmer demonstrate to his brethren that they had more material about them than they appeared to be aware of. The March discussion, again, was introduced under equally favourable auspices. The mob orators of Smithfield wei'e declaiming against the waste of land in this country, and The Times news- paper was answering them, precisely at the time when the members of the Club met to consider " the best means of improving the cultivation of poor and hilly lands." This selection was in every way judicious — not only in the thesis itself, but especially so in the gentleman to whom its treatment was entrusted. We say ad- visedly there is no man in England who should be heard with more attention on the improvement of poor lands as Mr. Robert Smith, now of Exmoor, and late of Rutland. Seldom has the previous career of any one so thoroughly prepared him for the duty he undertakes as had been the case with Mr. Smith, in re- lation to the subject he was here called upon to handle. Brought up and living for many years in an adjoining county, he had become, of course, thoroughly ac- quainted with the means by which so far our gi-eat triumph in the reclamation of land bad been achieved. Almost himself a Lincolnshire man, he had closely studied evei-y cause and effect in the extraordinary alteration of the fen country. His more recent expe- rience speaks yet more directly to his energy and capa- bilities. What Robert Smith has accomplished on Exmoor is by this nearly as well known as what the Yarboroughs and the Chaplius have done for Lincoln. It is significant, and well worthy of notice, to see how in either district we arrive at our object by the same road. Mr. Smith may transport himself bodily from Lincoln to Devon, but he has all his early lessons and precepts strong upon him still. The gi'eat secret, the key-stone in the foundation of the improvement of either Lincolnshire or Devonshire is the same. Pro- perly it should be a joint concern: The landlord should take his due share in the good work ; but, above all, the tenant should have the effect of his labour indis- putably secured to him. Mr. Smith's paper has con- tinual reference to this principle. " Those who long preceded us," he says, " had English zeal at their hearts, and practice at their fingers' ends. But they had more : they had, even in those days, the fore- thought of establishing an equitable custom for the security of their capital." What, again, he asks, "are the inducements we should offer farmers to face the poor lands yet untouched ? What can the landlord give ? Low rents, long leases, permanent improve- ments, and liberal security for unexhausted invest- ments." It is hardly necessary to add that he prac- tises all he preaches, and that on the Knight pro- perty on Exmoor tenant-right agreements have been one of the chief means used in developing the energies of the tenant and the resources of the soil. The address delivered last week to an audience mainly composed of practical men had the one essential advantage of being a detail of the speaker's own prac- tice and experience. Of the success of this there is now no question. The only solid objection would seem to be in that offered by Mr. Scott, that the return is placed a little too far on . The plan, however, advocated is clearly grounded on the supposition that the landlord will do his part, by draining, and establishing other permanent improvements, which, as Mr. Scott himself well observed, should be put down to the cost of the capital account— the buying, as it were, the fee-simple of the land over again. We confess that our own opinions lean almost entirely with those of Mr. Smith It is no mere spurt, or " small profits and quick re- turns," that will materially improve poor cultivation. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 323 If there be any soils still worth working on, and whose increase may vie with the examples we have in Lincoln and Devon, we may be assured their established ad- vancement must be a work of time. Nothing goes back so surely or so quickly as an ungrateful soil only half dealt with. As many of our readers may have remarked from the report we have already given, the discussion which ensued was by no means up to the mark of the opening paper. This, perhaps, under the best of circumstances, could hardly have been expected. With the exception, however, of Mr. Scott and the chairman, hardly one of the other speakers touched materially on Mr. Smith's remarks, or indeed on the subject at all, as it stood on the card. To Mr. Scott we have already referred, while Mr. Wallis dwelt on a strong point altogether unnoticed — the policy of using billy lands, unfitted for the growth of corn, as slock farms only. Although not mentioned at the meeting, this too, we believe, is part of Mr. Smith's practice. Many of the tenants on Exmoor are Lincolnshire men, who once or twice a year move and remove their sheep and cattle from the lowlands of the one county to the wilds of the new set- tlement. If not precisely to the point with us all here at home, the occasion offered a very becoming opportunity for the official announcement of a scheme that has now for some little time been talked over in agricultural circles. Whatever more we may do, or may not do in England, a strong effoi-t is about being made to advance the cul- tivation of France. Monsieur Trebonnais declared he was now " engaged in forming, with the approbation of the French Government, a Land-improvement Society ;" and it is only justice to say that such a pro- ject could not have been in better hands. Monsieur Trebonnais is already well known to our most eminent agTiculturists ; and as his energy is only equalled by his eloquence, our neighbours may feel every confi- dence that he will do his best with the venture he has embarked on. The chief impediment to improved cultivation in France is one that we are not very likely to fall into here. It may be all very well for Brown, Jones, and Robinson, in Smithfield, to talk of giving every man his twenty acres of land, and setting up Snob the shoe- maker, and Trimmings the tailor, to grow turnips and feed sheep ; but it could hardly be worth the time of the Farmers' Club to answer such nonsense. " How to improve the poor lands of England ?" Answer — " Not by adopting the plans of Mr. Ernest Jones," sounds something like a self-evident proposition. The general tone of the debate appeared to infer that in reality there was not so much poor and hilly land to improve as was commonly supposed. Such an im- pression must be received with caution. But a few years since, and Exmoor, no doubt, would have been pronounced not worth the trouble; a few years yet further back, and Lincolnshire would have been as certainly condemned. Of course people must take some care in what they deal with, although in these days, with geology and other sciences brought more and more within the range of the agriculturist, we start with advantages our fathers never possessed. "All lands," writes Mr. Smith, in a prize essay for the Royal Agricultural Society, and which appeared al- most simultaneously with his address at the Farmers' Club"— all lands as yet uncultivated or unreclaimed are properly termed the waste-lands of England. They include several varieties of soil, and are placed at va- rious elevations. They have each in their way some local and peculiar influences bearing upon their power of affording a due return for any spirited outlay ad- vanced for their improvement. It admits of a ques- tion whether the modern improvements in practice or in science have progressed to such a degree as to give us any new advantages in grappling with those ancient difficulties which have caused certain moorlands to be hitherto neglected ?" The answer to this question we take to be an affirm- ative and encouraging one. We gather it, indeed, from Mr. Smith's own career ; and while we may congratu- late him on his success, we may thank him for his example. WHAT THE HEREFORD OXEN WERE NEARLY HALF-A-CENTURY BACK. Sir, — Perhaps the following lines may be amusing to the rising generation of farmers. The transcendent prices which the fat Hereford oxen made in Smithfield libout fifty years back struck vast quantities of spectators with admi- ration and astonishment. If memory serves me rig;ht, in the year 1812 or 1813 I saw sold in Smithfield Christmas market fifty Hereford oxen, belonging to the high-famed Mr. Westcar, living in the Vale of Aylesbury, that ave- raged 50 guineas each, making 2,500 guineas. At the same time, in Smithfield Mr. Richard Kightley, of Castle- thorpe, Bucks, sold thirty Hereford oxen that averaged £57 each, making £1,710. Mr. Kightley's oxen were sold by himself, and Mr. Westcar's fifty oxen were sold by Mr. Thomas Potter. Mr. Westcar was heard to say in Smith- field, that of the heaviest Hereford ox he ever fed, the carcase when dead weighed 157 stones 21bs. of 14 lbs. to the stone. We have no Hereford kept to any age that would weigh that now. The old and famous breed of Herefords are not so large in frame as they were fifty years back ; but are more complete, and feed at an earlier age. Nearly all the above- named high-priced gigantic oxen had been worked, and had earned some money at the plough and other labour, before they were fed. At that time it was well known that Mr. Westcar had a large close, that kept the whole of the summer 200 large oxen, and with the 200 oxen fed 300 ewes and their lambs : all went to market the same year. Buckinghamshire has for many years been famous for grazing first-rate Hereford cattle ; and Sir Charles Knightley has some tenants in Northamptonshire who are famous for grazing Hereford steers of the best quality. The far-famed Mr. Richard Hewitt, of Dodford, for instance, is said to be second to no man in the judgment of first-rate qualitj'' and symmetry of sheep and oxen. King-street, Yours trnlj', SmWiJield, Feb. 3. SAMUEL Arnsbv. 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. IRRIGATION IN ITALY. No. III.— PRACTICAL. In the preparation of the land for the " marcite" sys- tem, it is usual to crop in the first instance with Indian corn : this requiring constant weeding and cleaning, brings the soil into good condition. In October the crop is cut, and the roots carefully removed ; and the land ploughed and harrowed, and brought to as smooth a surface as possible. In this condition it remains till January, when the irrigatory works are commenced. The first duty of the comparo, or the party who super- intends the distribution of the water, is to lay and well prepare the main channel, which is situated on the highest part of the field. The field is next divided into a series of rectangular compartments, between which minor irrigatory channels, at right angles to the main channel, are made. The width never exceeds 25 or 30 feet, the length being usually eight or ten times this ex- teat. All the compartments are made to slope on each side of the main channel, in the ratio of 0.3 in 1. The water passing from the main enters the minor channel on the top of each compartment or ridge, and is shed over each side in a thin stream, yielding constant stimulus to the grass. Still smaller channels are made in the space between the minor channels, which receive the water from the side slopes of two contiguous minor channels. The whole of these channels discharge into a main drainage channel, which is made parallel to the main irrigatory one. When all the channels have been constructed, a second ploughing and harrowing is given to the land, which is then left to the end of February or beginning of March, when it is again ploughed and harrowed and thoroughly cleaned from all weeds. Oats, about 4^ bushels to the acre, are then sown in April. After harrowing, clover and Italian ryegrass are sown in the proportion of a bushel per acre of the latter, and a fourth of a bushel of the former. It is at this stage that the small channels in the " furrows" are made. Spaces are usually left at both ends of the meadow of sufficient breadth to allow carts to pass, the channels being carried across these by wooden pipes. Captain Smith estimates the expense of forming a water-meadow at an average of £6 per acre. The water required for marcite cultivation is described as enormous. According to a good authority, " the total quantity of 6 cubic feet, if thoroughly economized, would be sufficient in actual practice for the irrigation of from 15 to 18 acres, being from 2| to 3 acres per cubic foot." Where the surplus waters of irrigation are Zos?, it appears that the continued discharge of one cubic foot over an acre of marcite is equal to the passing over of its surface, in every twenty-four hours, of the enormous quantity of 86,400 cubic feet, or nearly 390 tons, or 14,400 gallons of water. For this amount of discharge, as above noted, that is one cubic foot per three acres, £3 is charged for the winter months ; thus making the cost of water supply equal to about 20s. per acre. As to the produce of marcite meadows, our author gives what he esteems a fair average statement, under circumstances possessing " no special advantages, such as vicinity to large towns, or command of sewerage waters." The yield per acre is given as follows : — cwt. Ist cutting in February 84.00 2nd ,, from March to April 126.00 3rd „ from April to May 131.25 4th ,, from May to beginning of July . 73.50 5th „ from July to middle of Sept .. 63.00 477.75 Or nearly 24 tons of grass. The marcite meadows in the vicinity of Milan, however, give fully twice this quantity ; being cut in November, January, March, and April, for stable-feedings, and in June, July, and Au- gust they furnish three crops of hay ; while in Septem- ber they aflford an abundant pasturage to the cattle. They thus give seven crops during the ye»r, and the ordinary yield per acre is estimated at from 45 to 50 tons, with half as much more in remarkable instances. Under ordinary circumstances 35 acres are con- sidered sufficient to supply grass and hay to keep 50 cattle stall-fed ; these being turned out to pasture in September and October. Of this amount of acreage, 20 acres are required to furnish supplies of grass for seven months, with 15 acres for the hay for three winter months. The author gives a table of "expenses" and " returns" of a farm keeping 50 cows, having 20 acres marcite, from which it appears that the " returns" are equal to about .£'11 2s. 6d. per acre; to which is to be added the value of the plantations invariably surround- ing irrigated lands, which is taken at £1 68. per acre annually. This gives, where the water belongs to the proprietor of the land, a return oi£l2 8s. 6d. per acre; reduced by 20s. where the water has to be paid tor. As the net returns are usually divided between the landlord and the tenant, the rent may be taken as at from £b to £6 per acre. Where the produce is sold oif the farm, the rent ranges from £7 to £8 10s. In the neighbour- hood of Milan the returns are very much higher— from .£10 to £\2, and occasionally to ^^21 per acre. The production of the marcite meadows being con- , tinuous, manure is used to a great extent. The clear- ings of the channels, with the fresh earth from the surface of the land, together with the manure from the stable and cow-houses, are made into a "compost," which is applied at the rate of 250 cwt. per acre during the year. Linseed oil-cake and lime powder, in the proportion of seven of the former to one of the latter, is often used as a manure, at the rate of about 15 cwt. to the acre. But the most highly-prized of the manures for the »war«7e meadows is the "refuse of the pigsties which are attached to every farm, and in which the otherwise- useless products of the dairy are consumed. So im- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 325 Portant is this manure considered, that persons who do not themselves manufacture cheese or butter always make it a condition with the parties to whom they dis- pose of the produce of their cows that a certain number of pigs shall be maintained on the farm. It is usually calculated that three pigs supply, in the course of the year, manure sufficient for one acre of marcite." It is applied in the liquid form, at any season of the year, care being taken to apply it after the cutting, as it is found to injure the growing crop. A notable feature of the agriculture of Northern Italy is the rice cultivation. This is divided into two classes, permanent and temporary. The former is carried out only in low, marshy localities ; these abounding prin- cipally in the districts of Mantua and Verona. As this crop is the only one which these lands are capable of producing, it naturally assumes an important commer- cial aspect. Where rice is cultivated under the other class, it takes part of the rotation, which, extending over nine years, is divided as follows : — " 1st year, wheat with grass seeds; 2ud, 3rd, and 4th, meadows; 5th, 6th, and 7th, rice; 8th and 9th, Indian corn or other crops, varying from year to year.'' In the swampy districts already alluded to, the produce per acre is taken at 30 to 35 bushels of uncleaned grain ; while the " temporary" lands in their vicinity yield 40, and sometimes as high as 60 or 70 bushels. The process of cleaning reduces its bulk to about one-third ; this must, therefore, be taken into account in the calculation. Where the crop enters into rotation, the mean produce of four years is given, by Captain Smith, at 51 to 55 bushels of uncleaned, and 17 to 18 bushels of cleaned. Taking 6s. as the return per bushel of the cleaned rice, the gross average return is ^5 6s. 9d. per acre. The experises of cultivation, of the case cited, were as low as 15s. per acre; "and supposing the expense of water to double this amount, we have a net return of £4 lis. 9d. per acre." In some years this return has been as much as £7 5s. Notwithstanding its admitted un- healthiness, the cultivation of the rice crop is becoming extended, the profits being so considerable. For a notice of what has been done to " reconcile sanitary and pecuniary interests," we refer the reader to the work now under review. An important feature in connection with the system of irrigation in Northern Italy which we have now described is, that it demands, as essential to its exist- ence, the possession of large capital, and the concentra- tion of property in the hands of wealthy proprietors. To this combination its actual development is due ; "and however well the system of small farms may act in Upper Lombardy, I believe it would be the entire ruin of those provinces where fertility has been produced en- tirely by these canals of irrigation, constructed at vast original outlay, and maintained at present by heavy and annually increasing expenses beyondthe means of small proprietors to defray." The relation subsisting between these large proprietors seems to be of a very satisfactory character. In letting their farms three systems are adopted : first, the aJfUto in denaro, or payment in coin. Tliis is almost exclu- sively confined to " those great irrigated farms which require the constant superintendence of highly-qualified men possessed of considerable capital." The arrange- ments adopted to carry out this system are very com- plete, and afford universal satisfaction. Prior to the entrance of the tenant the proprietor engages an en- gineer to make a survey of the whole farm, this being so complete in every department that the plantations are numbered tree by tree — everything is carefully set down. On the expiry of the lease a second survey is gone through, and a balance-sheet (bilancio) is prepared from the comparison of the two. The second system of " letting " is termed the affitto a mezzadria, literally meaning equal division of the products between the proprietor and tenant, but in prac- tice referring to the system where the produce is divided no matter in what proportion. For description of this method we refer to the writer. It is not, however, found to work so well, which has given rise to a third system, termed affitto a grano, by which the tenant is bound to pay to the proprietor a certain quan- tity of wheat, ranging from 14 to 20 bushels for each acre under cultivation. In Lombardy " it has been almost the invariable practice of the government to sell the water in absolute property to the possessors of the soil." This system is found to operate very beneficially ; and from the facility which it affords to the proprietor to lay out his capital in the formation of the minor canals necessary for irri- gating purposes, these have been constructed to such an extent " that the whole surface of the country is covered by them as by a dense net-work." To the casual ob- server this system of ramification would seem to give rise to endless disputes, from the apparent invasion of private rights ; but a complete system of legislation has been instituted to define the various points which would probably give rise to disputes. To carry out the various adjustments of this legislation the services of a body of highly-educated engineers are required. " Not only do they design and superintend the construction of the various kinds of works, whether ordinary or hydraulic, which are required, but the whole of the details of leases, the preparation of the various documents required on the part of the landlord and tenant, and advice as to the different improvements of which the land may be susceptible, are committed to or required from them." From this will be seen " how important a part the engineers of Lombardy are required to take in the whole agricultural system." In concluding our notice of irrigation in Italy, we trust that our readers will derive a fair idea of its pecu- liarities therefrom. To those, however, who still further wish to investigate all the details connected with the system, historical, practical, legislative, and sanitary— to some of which we have but barely alluded— we have every confidence in recommending the volumes which have formed the basis of our present paper, us abounding in valuable information on these important heads. R. S. B. 326 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. A FARMER AMONG THE CHEMISTS. Letter IV. My dear Berzelius, — How fast do you think the science of manuring would have advanced, had it never been proved, but only guessed, that all vegetables ob- tain carbon (principally, shall I say ?) by their leaves ? Depend upon it, the comparatively low value of car- bonaceous matter as manure would not yet have been so generally admitted as you now see it is. But the old theory that a manure should be compounded according to the analysis of the crop, and supply each constituent in the same proportion in which the crop requires it, received a death-blow when it was found that some of the ingredients came spontaneously from the air, and were thus relatively unimportant, if not superfluous, in manure. Carbon, therefore, constituting nearly half the substance of plants, was at once dismissed, or per- manently established in its humble place in the manure- theories of agricultural philosophers ; and their specu- lations were shut up to the remaining elements combined in the fabric of vegetables as those in which the secrets of artificial productiveness mainly lie. In a similar manner, if the amount of nitrogen caught from the atmosphere in any form by the inhaling and absorbing leaves were once determined, do you not perceive that the problem of the quantity due to collection by the soil, or needful to be supplied to it, would be so much the simpler and easier, particularly when the added manure, and the various sources of loss, shall have been computed and allowed for ? I have given you this analogical view of the advan- tages of knowing how much nitrogen enters through foliage, in order to supplement some remarks in my last letter : let me now strike into some other intricate path in the maze of agricultural theory. Accompany me into the region of field-experiments with manures : only look well to your steps, lest the perplexed and involved statements and results entangle you ; and take heed to your head, lest the cannonade of criticism and disputation should shatter it. But, ere we bury ourselves inextricably in " Liebig and Lawes," I must tell you how amusing you chemists often are, when talking of the quantity of certain substances supplied to land, and the proportions of them fixed in the crop. You sometimes speak as if sowing a ma- nure— strewing your powder upon the surface, or even drilling or ploughing it in — were analogous to deposit- ing cash in a reliable bank. It will be taken care of, all enter into the economy of the establishment, and appear again when it has been utilized and worked up into a profitable form. The doctors used to talk in the same strain about the operation of large quantities of medicine, never thinking for a moment that possibly all the physic forced into the stomach might not enter into " the system ;" whereas, now-a-days, we hear of very minute doses being efficacious, provided the quality and character of the medicine be suited to the disease. If quantity makes comparatively little difiference with re- spect to substances actually taken into the bodies of animals, do you think that a few pounds and ounces of manure, distributed without a pretence of intimate ad- mixture upon hundreds of cubic yards of soil, can be reckoned upon as sure to show themselves in the sub- stance of plants growing therein ? The roots of a crop seem about as likely to find and partake of your " dressing," as the wireworms were to meet with the arsenic and brickdust proposed by your old acquaint- ance to be ploughed under every furrow as their poison. Only think what a place your manure is put into I Why, if you were a tiny insect just visible to the naked eye, instead of a man of some pretension in bulk and stature, you might traverse the interstices of a consolidated soil as though you were wandering through the levels, and ascending and descending the shafts of interminable mines ; or were climbing among mighty caverns, looking up into dark and impenetrable recesses, and down into many a stupendous bottomless abyss. Grains of guano scattered upon the surface, or tumbled into some of these fissures, would appear like isolated boulders ; some washed bodily downward for great distances by the rains which pour down the gulfs and chasms, and all gradually melted and carried down in solution. The solution, streaming and percolating, would undoubtedly be found hurrying principally down the wide cracks and gaping chasms, or the large shafts sunk by those deep miners, the worms ; while only a portion would be absorbed and taken into the finer crevices and pores of the masses of earth, where Professor Way's minute per-centage of double-silicates lie ready to seize the ammonia from the liquid, or where fine rootlets are waiting thirsty for the draught. You cannot surely imagine that every por- tion, or even a large proportion, of the water holding the manure in solution or suspension, is exposed to con- tact with particles of soil in the act of merely sinking through a few inches of staple I Why, a starch-maker cannot bring all the particles of a mass of starch into contact with the chemical liquor in which he immerses it, without breaking up the soft pulpy mass and stirring and churning it for hours. Were he to trust merely to letting the liquor filtrate through the starch, very little indeed would be acted upon ; the liquor would excavate or wash away certain channels for its passage, leaving the intervening portion of substance unmoistened. Granted that comparatively little ammonia may find its way into deep underdrains ; but still it may — and I should say, must — be largely carried down and locked up in the land at depths very far out of the way of being readily and immediately available by the roots of young plants. Then there is some likelihood that the roots of a plant, clever as they are at finding and laying hold of a favourite morsel, may not light upon all the manurial food which may be left within their reach. And I really think that a great agricultural experimenter ought THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 337 to think of such sources of loss as these, before he pro- ceeds to infer, from the small proportion of ammonia- manure recovered in a crop, that there has been a great wasfe by evaporaiioti through the plant. Is it not just as probable that the lost ammonia never obtained an en- trance into the plant at all, but must of mechanical necessity have gone down to enrich the subsoil which our shallow methods of tillage will not allow plants to reach without difficulty ? Again, consider, Berzelius, what a dressing of manure really amounts to. By entering into a little calculation? you will find that 2 cwt. of guano per acre contains no more ammonia (at 17 per cent.) than is equivalent to a film covering the surface of the ground, about the ten-thousandth part of an inch in thickness. To say nothing about eva- poration, how much of this infinitesimal application must be washed far into the recesses of the subsoil before the rootlets of the crop have so meshed the upper stratum of soil as to arrest tlie fugitive substance in their tentacular embrace .' But even if the ammonia, be supposed by a mar- vellous activity of the earth's absorptive and chemically- combining properties, to be all seized and stored up in the upper soil, who can tell how long a time is needed before it can all be made available for whatever purpose it may serve in the direct nutrition or preparation of the mineral food of plants? Clay lays hold of ammonia with wonderful rapi- dity; but it is not so easy to make it leave go again ; and as far as I have yet learned, I believe that ammonia is very slowlj' given up from its union with the particular earths or minerals forming its keepers in a soil. May not part of the loss experienced in ammoniacal manuring be due to the soil's imprisoning in idle durance a great portion of the volatile and evanescent ammonia which has been missed by roots, and escaped being washed or exhaled away? At any rate, it is found that the surplus of ammonia, which a crop has failed to find and feed on, is not actively useful to the crop which follows. The more I consider the physical constitution of the land, the currents of water and air in constant circulation through the interstices, and the minute proportion of manure which can induce an augmented though temporary fertility in an immense mass of earth, the more I wonder how the rootlets of our crops manage to assimilate so much of an artificial di-essingas they do. Yours, &c., J. A. C. DEEP-LAND CULTURE. Of the " innovations" now attracting the attention of agriculturists, "steam culture" possesses a peculiar interest. Should the difficulties which beset this im- portant subject be overcome, the farmer will find in it a power which will throw in his way facilities to an amazing extent, not only to perform quickly and econo- mically the ordinary modes of cultivation now in use, but to test the value of that system to which sound theory and successful practice alike point as likely to be productive of the most important results — namely, that which has for its object the cultivation of the soil to a greater depth, and its pulverization to a finer state than is even now contemplated by our most go-a-head of farmers. Before entering upon the question of steam culture and a consideration of the " philosophy" of the plans by which it is proposed to carry it into effect, we propose taking up a short space, to glance at the system of deep-land culture; to note what are the prospects its adoption holds out to agriculturists ; and to advert to some points of interest closely connected with it. As to the value of a thorough pulverization of the soil, agriculturists long divided, are now fast approxima- ting in opinion. Few, indeed, are ignorant of the immense advantages resulting from allowing the atmos- pheric influences to act upon the soil ; but some still incline to the opinion that it may be carried too far, more especially when in combination with thorough drainage — this opinion being held in consequence of supposing that in the case of heavy rains the soluble matter will be washed-out and conveyed to the drains, which thus, in point of fact, will act as sewers to carry off fertilizing matter from the land, in the same way as street drains carry off the exuvire of towns. This ob- jection— important as at first sight it appears— is at once met by the able and valuable investigation made into the absorptive powers of the soil by Professor Way. The results of this our readers are doubtless acquainted with ; suffice it to say, that the experiments fully proved the power of the earthy particles of the soil to absorb alkaline substances of all kinds which might be passed into it through the agency of manures ; this absorptive power of soils being greatly aided by atmospheric influences. The fact, moreover, is also deduced from those experiments, that unless the alkaline solution — resulting from the action of the soil and atmospheric influences upon the manures — has free access to all parts of the soil to which the roots of the plants can penetrate, this absorptive power is not fully developed ; and tlie manure in its condition as originally applied to the land is then apt to be washed into the drains. If we find, under certain favourable circumstances, the roots of plants extending to a great depth in the soil, we may without deducing too much from this fact, draw the conclusion that this extension of root is a condition favourable to th'e health and productive growth of the plant, and that where the soil will not permit this ex- tension, the growth is proceeding under conditions to some extent prejudicial to its productive progress. Mr. Stephens puts this matter in a very clear light, in the introduction to his work on Deep-land Cultprk.* " In common practice, the surface soil devoted to the use of plants seldom exceeds seven or eight inches in depth, and of that space a good manuring of farm-yard dung occupies a considerable proportion. This, assisted by a special manure, stimulates the growth of the roots of the cereal plants to an expansion beyond what the • "The Ycster Pcep-Iaiid CiiUure— being a detailed account of tlie method of ciiUivntion wliieh has been successfully practised for seveinl years by tho Martinis of Tv.einiilalo, at Tester ;" by Henry Stephens, r.R.S.E.,_aulhor of " The Book of the Farm." BlackwooJ, Edinburgh and London. Y 2 3-28 THE FARMER'S MAGA2INE. space of soil allotted to their growth affords room for. Roots in a confined space, supplied with manure, become crowded together, decline in health, and their growth is checked. The plants may still bring forward their produce to a fine degree of quality, but it will neither be so large nor so valuable as the manure be- stowed and the labour spent on the soil would warrant the expectation of. Whence, then, does such an un- expected disappointment arise ? From the subsoil, though thoroughly dried, being left in a hard state. Were it in a state of pulverization, like the surface soil, the roots, whenever stimulated by the manures, would strike down in every direction into the subsoil ; and the more they were encouraged in growth, the longer they would become ; their fibres would increase in numbers, and they would stretch out and reach the bottom of the pulverized subsoil ; the crowding of the roots in the surface soil would be entirely avoided, and the baneful consequences of loss of health and stuntedness in growth in the plant would be replaced by vigour of stem and leaves, strength of constitution, and capability to yield the largest quantity of produce. Were farm-yard dung buried deep into the pulverized subsoil, and the embryo plant encouraged in the pulverized surface-soil by means of a special manure, the limits of the growth of the entire system of the plant — stem, leaves, and roots — would then only be restrained by the power of the local climate, or the general character of the season." And what is here stated by so excellent an authority to be true of the cereals would be also true — and perhaps exemplified in still more striking results — of the root erops. The depth to which soils should be stirred up and pulverized is, apparently, therefore to be decided by motives of economy and the capability of our mechanism, rather than by any question relating to condition of soil. For the objection often brought forward against systems of subsoiling and deep ploughing, that the mixture of the sub-soil with the surface-soil deteriorates the quality of the latter, is one which experience would seem to indicate as founded upon conjectural notions rather than well-established facts. At all events, at the Marquis of Tweeddale's farm at Yester, where deep- land culture has had a most complete trial given to it, this objection seems to have met with a most direct re- futation. On this point Mr. Stephens, at p. 52 of the work already alluded to, thus remarks : — " Most people, who have witnessed this subsoil-trench-ploughing on the Yester farms, believe that the mixing of the surface soil with wiiat appeared to them a bad party-coloured subsoil, would poison the surface soil for the future; and on this supposition a very general prejudice has been raised against the operation, amongst farmers. Such apprehension might reasonably be entertained in bringing «p a large portion of subsoil in undrained land prior to the sowing of a white crop ; but retaining such an ap- prehension against the subsoil of thorough-drained land at a proper period of the rotation — namely, prior to a grain crop — is mere prejudice, because it is not sanc- tioned by experience. On the contrary, experience has proved the innocuous state of the subsoil in those con- ditions. For two seasons the young grass seemed to suffer on Yester Mains, and the injury was ascribed by the workmen, in consonance with the common prejudice, to too large a proportion of the subsoil being brought up at once ; but in reality it was rather to be imputed, in both seasons, to the want of time that should be allowed for assimilation of the soil and subsoil, and also in a great degree to the want of a sufficient quantity of manure. The apprehension of injury arising from a bad subsoil is more prevalent in England than in Scotland ; but the feeling has certainly been engendered and main- tained by the injudicious employment of the subsoil of undrained land. Where any iron exists in the subsoil of undrained land, it is in the state of a protoxide, which is soluble in water and is always injurious to vegetation ; but wherever land is thoroughly drained, the protoxide is converted into per-oxide by the action of the air, and being insoluble in water, is rendered innocuous to vege- tation." We see from this how intimately connected are the three grand modern improvements — thorough drainage, deep cultivation, with complete pulverization of the soil — all tending to the complete development of the plant, and all tending to increase its produce. To introduce easily and economically-worked imple- ments, by which these important desiderata can be obtained in the ordinary practice of agriculture, has long been the aim of the most enterprising farmers. Amongst those who have devoted a large portion of their time and no small expenditure of money to the suc- cessful solution of the problem of deep-land culture, the name of the Marqnis of Tweeddale deserves the most honourable mention. For many years he has per- severingly carried on a well-devised series of experi- ments, or rather practical operations, resulting in laying the foundation of " a mode of farming so very different from what is in ordinary use, that it would deserve to be called a New System." Of the principal features of this new system, how they are practically carried out, and what are the physical and commercial benefits derived from it, we propose to give a short review. * In giving a brief notice of the system of deep land culture introduced by the Marquis of Tweeddale, it will be as well at the outset to glance at the peculiarities of soil and climate of the faims where it has been so suc- cessfully inaugurated. From this it will be perceived that there has been nothing very favourable in either the one or the other to lead to the supposition that the suc- cess of the system has been from other causes than prin- cipally the excellence of the principle upon which the improvements are founded. As already hinted at, at the conclusion of our last article, the system has pecu- liarities altogether distinct from those of other plans previously introduced ; so much so, that it may be said to be entitled to " rank as a new discovery." The Yester Farm under the immediate control of the Marquis consists of three — Yester Mains, Broadwood- side, and Danskine. They are all situated in the county * " The Yester Deep Laud Culture," by Henry Stephens, F.K.S.E. Blackwood and Sous, Edinburgh and London. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 329 of Haddington, and slope from the extensive range of hills known as the Lammermoor towards the north. Their elevation above the sea is considerable, Danskine being as high as 750 feet, Tester Mains from 400 to 500, and Broadwoodside about 400 feet above its level. As regards the fall of rain and the temperature of the dis- trict, the former, notwithstanding its proximity to the hills, ranges a little higher than the average of the lower part of the county, and not more than for the east coast of Scotland. As to the latter, a series of observa- tions showed that during the " vegetating season," ex- tending from March to October, the mean temperature was 49 deg. ; and for the " non-vegetating season," from November to February, 35' 75 deg. " In spring the air is cold and dry when the wind is in the east ; in summer the rainy points are the south and east ; whilst the west wind always brings fine weather. The weather seldom sets in mild till the end of June." The soil of the Tester Mains farm, before its im- provement was effected, was to a large extent " poor, wet, moorish surface, resting on a stiff, retentive, sandy, clay subsoil." The remainder being " the home farm of the family," has been long in cultivation, and is rather more loamy, although its subsoil '' was also a poor, stiff, sandy clay, of various colours — black, white, red, yellow, blue, and green — the blue being a very tenacious clay." Numerous boulders are found in the subsoil — some so large as to require blasting ; while moorband-pan was also found in it. Of this farm, 504 imperial acres in extent, 444 acres have been thoroughly drained and sub- soiled. The farm of Broadwoodside, 228 imperial acres in ex- tent, all of which have been thoroughly drained, sub- soiled, and trench-ploughed, had a soil divided pretty equally into poor, stiff, sandy clay, and stiff tenacious clay, with a subsoil of poor stiff clay of various colours, and abounding in boulders of all sizes. The third farm, Danskine, yet to be noticed, 235 acres in extent, had a soil in one part of " poor, stiff, sandy clay," and on the other " poor, stiff, hard clay, with patches of bog interspersed here and there. The surface soil was generally from five to six inches in depth, and seven or eight inches would have reached the subsoil through the deepest part of the soil. The subsoil was poor hungry clay, of various colours, and contained many stones, with much moorband-pan. Below the stones and the pan the subsoil was of a more open nature than that in either Tester Mains or Broadwood- side." The moorband-pan above-mentioned, as found in all the three farms, was of two kinds, fine and coarse- grained—the latter cemented together in a black ferru- ginous matrix. It was generally found about eight inches below the surface, and although in many cases it yielded to the plough, in others it had to be broken up by the hand-pick. Exposure to air or frost soon re- solved both kinds to their constituent parts : more than a year elapses, however, before the pan moulders away. Although thus capable of incorporation with the soil as they rose in masses to the surface, they were, along with the stones, carted off the land. Before the improvements were effected, these farms, thus possessed of a by no means propitious climate or a generous soil, gave miserable results. On Tester Mains even, which, in the possession of its owner, vras always subjected to better cultivation than the other two, the " winter wheat was generally thrown out; and so miserably deficient was the grass in most of the fields, that on walking across one of them, only a few useful plants might be seen. As a pasture it was not worth half-a-crown an acre." The other farms were in no better condition as regards paying properties, Broadwoodside being valued at 7s., and Danskine at 10s. an acre overhead, when they came into the Mar- quis's possession. Of the value of a system which has changed all this — which has raised the worth of the land fivefold — enabled its produce to compete with that of the best farms of a district avowedly one of the best-cultivated in the kingdom — lessened the cost of labour — obviated the ne- cessity of using numerous and costly instruments — hastened the ripening of the crops, and added greatly to their value — and brought other minor advantages in its train — little need be said in its favour. The results are the best proof to the farmer of its practical value, and yield a strong inducement for him to thoroughly investigate the principles on which the system is founded, and the mechanism by which these are carried out. This thorough investigation is not for us here to enter into ; we can only give a slight sketch of the system adopted, glad if this sketch will prompt the reader to make an acquaintance with the "chronicle" so clearly penned by Mr. Stephens, and which we need not say abounds in those practically useful hints and deductions which characterise all this writer's productions. Thorough-draining is the basis of the Tester deep land culture system, as indeed it is, or should be, of all land improvement. At Tester Mains thorough draining was begun in 1832. The depth of the drains was equal to 33 inches from the surface, or 30 inches below the bottom of the open furrows of the rounded ridges. The distance between the drains was 1 8 and 30 feet ; those at the former distance rendered the land drier than those at the latter ; but the latter distance was found to answer well enough. The main drains were four feet deep. Horse-shoe tiles and soles, made at the tile works on the farm, were used for both classes of drains. On Broadwoodside farm, the depth of the main drains was 4 feet, the subsidiary 33 inches below the crown of the ridges, the distances being 15 to 28 feet. The draining on this farm was begun in 1842, that on the Danskine in 1845. The main drains on this latter were of the same depth as the others, the subsidiary 30 inches, distances 18 feet. Tiles and soles were used at both farms. On the three farms, 881 acres were thorough- drained, at an average cost of £5 9s. 6d. per acre. Following the arrangement laid down by Mr. Stephens, the next point to be noticed is the " deep-ploughing of the soils and subsoils." On commencing the sys- tem, the ordinary plough of the country was used, this giving a depth of 10 inches with two, and from 12 to 14 with four horses. But the tendency of the plough. 330 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. while working at the latter depth, to come to the sur- face, thus involving labour on the part of the plough- man, and the accidents to the tackle when stones were met with, showed that some other form of plough was necessary — a plough, in fact, which would ensure a " descent to the depth of 14 or 15 inches, with a power of clearing itself at that depth of the furrow slice. To ensure a form of mould-board which would give these advantages, practical experiments were carried out with " so much perseverance, that the altered mould- board was worked in the afternoon, arising from the trial of the alteration in the course of the forenoon." The result of these experiments was the " Tweeddale Plough," which with four horses clears a furrow of from 15 to 16 inches in depth and 14 in breadth with as much ease to men and horses as the common plough is worked up with two horses in a depth of ten inches. " The secret of the matter," says ilr. Stephens, " seems to be, that the improved mould-board, instead of press- ing against the furrow-slice, separates it at once from the land-side with its breast, which is the only point of resistance, and causes it to slip along a straight in- clined plane from the point of the sock to the ear of the mould-board, on reaching which it falls away by its own gravity. Friction against the mould-board is thus in a great measure avoided. * * It cuts the furrow square on the land-side, and makes the sole flat and smooth. Two men go with the plough, while four horses are em- ployed in it. * * To show the ease of holding this plough, some men can temper the irons so as to enable it to go from twenty to thirty yards without anyone holding the stilts." For drawings of this plough, and full instructions to enable any mechanic to make it, and for the method of yoking the horses, we refer to the work of Mr. Stephens'. But satisfactorily as the Tweeddale plough did its work — unequalled, in Mr. Stephens' opinion, for pre- senting the soil in the best possible state to the action of the atmosphere — it did not realize all the expectations of the Marquis. An implement was wanted by which to stir the tenacious party-coloured subsoil, and at the same time " raise it with a large proportion^of the surface soil, thereby rendering innocuous a subsoil which would otherwise have proved deleterious to vegetation." This implement was obtained after some experiments ; it is founded upon Read's four-wheel subsoil plough, but by the " substitution of a new sock and inclined plane for the old share, the Marquis soon converted it into the Tweeddale subsoil trench plough." For working drawings and detailed descriptions of this implement see the work, pp. 46-49. The Tweeddale plough formerly described, and the sub- soil trench plough, are worked in conjunction : the former goes first, with its four horses, cutting its furrow fifteen or sixteen inches in depth ; while the latter follows, completing a furrow of from nineteen to twenty- two inches in depth. " Thus this subsoil trench plough affords all the requirements of a perfect trenching to the ground, namely, to stir the subsoil effectually under the level of the plough furrow, to retain the chief por- tion of the subsoil, in the form of mould, in its original place, and to mix any required proportion of the subsoil converted into mould with the original surface-soil. This mode of treating the soil and subsoil by means of these two ploughs has a great and remarkably immediate effect upon clay soils, and hard and tenacious clay subsoils. The upper soil being dry — which it should always be, where subsoil trench ploughing is to be executed — on being mixed with the damp subsoil below, the latter becomes immediately drier, and both soon assume a uniform degree of moisture." Mr. Stephens claims for this system of subsoil trench ploughing a pulverizing and mixing effect superior to spade husbandry. "The subsoil trench plough raises up a portion of the subsoil by degrees, and rubs it against a corresponding portion of the upper soil laid over on the funow-slice by the plough that has gone before ; and on the subsoil losing the support of the in- clined plane of the subsoil trench plough, both sorts of soil fall together over the ends and sides of the incline upon the bottom furrow ; whereas where soils are mixed in trenching, by men, with the spade, masses in spade- fuls are placed together side by side, and not innumera- ble small portions of mixed loose mould. A great dif- ference exists between a mixture of spadefuls and that of loose mould." Of the classes of subsoil, " sandy " ones are most easily effected by this system of deep-drill culture; "pure clay " the longest, "gravelly" and " thin clay " holding the middle place. No rule can be given with certainty as to the time when this trench plough- ing of the subsoils should be renewed ; it has, however, been decided on, " that the Tweeddale plough should be employed to cross-plough, in the autumn, the stub- ble land intended for green crops in the ensuing season, to the depth of fifteen inches, at the end of every rotation of fives." Passing over the practical notes as given by Mr. Ste- phens, on a variety of points — as the treatment of boulders met with in ploughing, the arrangement for saving time, working strength, &c., &c. — we proceed, in conclusion, to glance very briefly at the physical and commercial benefits resulting from the establishment of the system at Tester Farm. We have already adverted to the mean temperature during the vegetating and non-vegetating season, before subsoil trench ploughing was carried out. Very com- plete investigation showed that, after it was adopted, the advantage in favour was 2° during the vegetating, and 4° 25' during the non-vegetating season. The mean temperature throughout the year was raised 2° 75' by thorough draining and trench ploughing. For many other points connected with this department, we refer the reader to the work itself ; and as to the economical results, space prevents us from giving more than a mere outline. Stubble may be once ploughed in autumn, and left thus all the winter, requiring no further work till spring. Labour is thus saved, and the poaching of the land prevented to a great degree ; deep-rooted plants are cultivated ; the soil is completely pulverized ; less manure is required ; the air and rain permeate the soil THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 331 and subsoil with ease ; the raia is better filled and ripens sooner, and the roots of the winter wheat pro- tected from the frost in the deep subsoil. For full in- formation on these and other interesting points we refer the reader to the work from which we have gathered this faint outline of "a great work in agriculture;" for great in its conception, in its working out, and in its realization, undoubtedly it is. That a careful perusal of the work, or a full investigation of the practical working of the system on the Marquis of Tweeddale's estate, will convince the reader and inquirer that this high character is not altogether undeserved, we fully believe, and that the patriotic endeavours of his lordship are not unworthy of the eulogium passed upon them by Mr. Stephens. " When a grand system of cultivating the soil is discovered and established, through the in- strumentality of great labour, the discoverer may justly feel proud of it ; but when the discoverer imme- diately, on establishing his system on a secure basis by his own experience, proffers it for the use of every landed proprietor and farmer that chooses to adopt it, the discovery is elevated to a national importance," A CHAPTER ON FENCES. Sir, — In the management of landed property, whether the party be the owner or only the occupier, nothing can be done in the way of improvement until the plots of ground, whether large or small, are securely fenced ; and when we read of the vineyard " that had the fence thereof broken down," the idea is conclusive to our minds of its being utterly ruined. On every farm the winter store is separated from the summer feed by a fence, and is thereby secured from untimely eating : it is therefore evident that for the pro- tection of property good fences must be maintained. Where the ashler-stone wall can be had it silences all complaints, and stands in no need of paint or repairs for half a century. But as districts that abound in stone are frequently short of earth, it is often as much as 25 per cent, upon the value of the land to put up good stone fences on it ; hence we find all sorts of expedients resorted to as substitutes for walls. By far the most beautiful fence in ordinary use is the hedge ; and if I were to say a word against it, I should have a host of demurrers to the doctrine that a quick-set hedge could have a fault : but the truth must come out, and that is this, that quick-set hedges are in reality a very slow-set, and, like most slow movers, become rather expensive — firstly, because the election of a white-thorn hedge on level ground requires two lines of fences to protect it for years from the browsings of beasts, and to prevent their trampling its tender limbs to death ; and as I have never seen anyone realize hard cash in open market for the clippings or other produce of his thorn hedges, I should really feel some scrupler. of conscience before I forwarded the culture of an article that required much good land to grow in, and could not be sold when it was grown. The culture of beautiful thorn trees for their graceful forms and gaudy flowers, is quite another affair, and does not belong to fencing. The next fence that I mean to notice here, is that made of strained wire ; for I pass over the ditch, dyke, and ha-ha or sunk fence, as pieces of absurdity when committed on agricultural property of no ordinary kind, and count upon such working their own cure in time on the same principle that " wasters come to want." Wire makes by far the cheapest fence of any. It is easily erected, requires little painting, having a very small body, so small indeed that it is usually styled an invisible fence, separating property into all sizes of plots, yet leaving it as a whole, and to all appearance at least from a distance, as an open common. How grievously disappointed sheep and neat cattle must be to find this shadow crossing their path, and confining them to a small parallelogram, when, to all appearance, " the world was all before them where to choose their resting- place." The strained-wire fence has too many good qualities not to have some drawbacks. Strange enough, in all these years I have never seen one that could keep catile enclosed excepting when all was quiet, and they had not only peace but plenty, for the moment that any disturbing cause was introduced, the fence was of no further service, for the mountain-bred sheep would bound over it ; the lambs would get under it and through it, and stray cattle would only be delayed by it till they got to rub against it or try some other device to destroy it. This visionary ghost of a fence reminds one of " The nate little house built of weatherboard stout, ^That kept everything else but the weather clane out." A respectable grazier going to see his cattle one morning met his own bull in the lane with the field-gate upon bis horns giving chase to another bull. Now I wonder how long a strained-wire fence would have detained these two domestic animals? The hurdle, whether made of wood or iron, is really the staple fence of the practical man. With hurdles he pens his sheep upon the pasture or tillage, and protects property of all kinds upon his farm, orchard, garden, and homestead, by merely setting up a line of hurdles, and when that line has served its turn he takes up his hurdles, and the place where they stood has neither been disfigured as a greensward, nor made uneven for the plough in tillage ; and it must not be overlooked that this secure fence has scarcely occupied an inch of land. And if the hurdle fence is not a good one, it is the fault of the owner, and not the fault of the style of fence ; for an iron railing may be seen enclosing lions and confining elephants just as securely as if they were caged canary birds. The hurdle of the present day is decidedly the most barbarously rude article that has descended to us, and I think it is high time to give this good old servant a hitch forward in the march of intellect. The head of one iron hurdle coming in close contact with the head of the next, just prevents the paint or gas tar from getting to them, and this, seemingly, for no better reason than that the connecting bolt should be as short as possible. When 33-2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. hurdles are put down along a level line, say the base of a field, and on turning the corner at right angles to carry the line up a steep incline, the hurdles will begin to show either A or V, and at every wavy turn, either up or down the same A or V, will tease the planter, for the stiff geometrical form of an iron hurdle is stereotyped to stand erect only where the ground is level, and only where it is so will the hurdle turn all corners correctly. An ordinary iron hurdle has 5 prongs, namely, 2 at each end, with a knee connecting, and 1 in the middle, and taking these five prongs at 1 foot each, and the two knee-pieces at 9 inches each, we have the footing of a hurdle 6ft. by 3ft. requiring 6^ feet of bar iron for its holding. Hurdles can scarcely be put down without straining them in some part, for the five points have all to be attended to, otherwise the prongs will go wrong ; and the line or direction of the fence to be made, as well as the vertical and horizontal lines, have all to be studied in the planting of this iron wall, to prevent its being unsightly. But this is not all, for the very nature of the hurdle seems to demand that it be portable, and not only so, but easily removed. Now when we consider what a five-pronged iron hurdle is like, with all its crooked knees and dagger points, a cartload of such is really something to feel alarmed at, not to speak of the labour necessary to drag hurdles out of the earth and load them into carts. Thus far I have spoken of iron hurdles, but the wooden hurdle for all practical purposes has just the same faults as the iron one, and after its own clumsy fashion will admit of the same remedy. When a wooden hurdle is made, its bars either are or ought to be at right angles to the head-pieces and morticed through them. Now if this hurdle is placed for driving, and one of the head-pieces receives a blow and enters the earth, say six inches, it either must go in crooked, or else every mortice will have to sympathise like the slings of a parallel ruler, for it is utterly impossible for one leg to be down and the other up, and all the right angles of the bars and head-pieces remain intact. It is therefore evident to common sense that the hurdle and its holdfast ought to be separated since they cannot be combined without one part working the destruction of the other. Wooden hurdles ought not to be pointed or have any prongs for insertion in the earth, but be made like so many field- gates ; neither is the pole to be pointed that is put into the earth to connect the hurdles, but to have a hole bored for it by an earth auger, just as a carpenter would bore a hole in a piece of wood to receive a pin. This boring has been suggested for hurdles years ago, and is the simplest and easiest way by far of getting the work done, and it is very easily seen how injurious the pointing of a stick is when you want it to hold fast. Who would think of pointing a gate-post, or of driving one ? I have taken all this trouble to convince the practical man that his own good sense went with him to the field-gate, but forsook him when it came to the hurdle. Ah, he will, no doubt, say, " But who can afford long iron-bolts and screws to connect hurdles to upright columns of wood ?" Now I have never seen a piece of oak used for a round in a ladder of larger diameter than 1^ inches, and they are usually little over inch in diameter, and upon the good faith of their strength we have all ventured life and limb at great e^evaiions. Therefore let the hurdlemaker try a pin about the size of a ladder stave, and if it is rightly shaped it will hold like a rivet, and can be done and undone at pleasure ; and failing these, the farmer has still left the twisted twig with which he binds his brushwood, the " green withes that were never dried," with which Samson was tied when he went astray. The object of this paper is not to teach hedge-carpenters how to make wooden hurdles, but to enable gentlemen employed in planting trees to fence them from cattle by iron hurdles, so that the hurdles themselves may be ornamental as well ^as useful, and I do not intend here to give illustrations, as I have no interest whatever to serve in the matter : and when the thing is clearly pointed out, agricultural implement makers will not be slow in illustrating and greatly improving my ideas, it being their delight as well as for their interest to turn their work out of hand handsomely, by showing not only wood-cuts but actually iron hurdles that shall lie on the ground or on a cart as flat as if they were mosaics, with no more horns or claws than a building of brick would have, and the holdfasts to be made like the trident of Britannia, as exhibited on a George the Third halfpenny, so that hurdles and holdfasts may be packed in bundles like ordinary goods, and instead of a few hurdles occu- pying a space on a cart like a load of hay, they will form a very compact mass, and enable a load to be made of them with ease. In ascending or descending, or in other words, in going over hills or through hollows, in planting hurdles, I propose iron balls with a hole through each to be used as washers, not uselessly, but actually adding their length to the line of fence, each holdfast to have at least one between the head of the hurdle and the holdfast on each side ; through these balls, as well as through the heads and the holdfast the screw-bolts pass ; and in all cases where the vertical and horizontal lines require it, more balls are used like strings of beads, and thus the ornamental character of the fence is maintained and rendered workmanlike without any of those A's or Vs above mentioned. In making the iron hurdles for horses and cattle the strain is on the top rail, whereas in making them for sheep the strain is on the bottom rail. Now we all know that the joint is the weak point in a hurdle, and therefore the fewer weak points that we make the better. Dismiss then, hurdlemakers, from your minds all ideas of cutting or joining that can be avoided. Therefore in sheep hurdles make the bottom rail of the same piece as the two head-pieces, and save these two joints and two cuttings, but let the rail part be set on edge and the head-pieces flat, so as to have one twist at each corner. And in the case of ox hurdles, let the top rail be the same as the head-pieces, and turned on edge like the bottom rail of the sheep hurdle. But I must close this letter, for it has grown on my hands from a mere notice to a long letter, and I must refer those to my address, who want further explanation. I remain, yours respectfully, 100, Quay. street, Alexander Forsyth. Manchester, March 1th. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 33.3.0 FARM BUILDINGS. Sir, — I observe .in article in j'our journal on farm steadings, which contains much of the views which I have carried out practically. I take the liberty of enclosing an article which I wrote for the " Encyclopedia Britannica." Since then I have given plans for several steadings, which have answer-^i admirably, and they are now becoming quite common in this district. Indeed, the old plan is abandoned laniversally throughout this county ; and I have been employed to draw plans for farms at a distance, one of which of large dimensions I have just sent off for the home- farm of PoltBlloch in Argyleshire. Being the- first to in- troduce these covered-in steadings on a uniform and compact plan, I had the honour of Prince Albert's commands to go and show a specimen to him. The first one which was put up was on my own propertj' in Wigtonshiro three or four years ago, whicli has been visited and approved of by many practical agriculturists. Should you ever come as far north as this, I will be glad of a visit from you, and to show you some of these erections. Hoping you will excuse my making this communication, I am. Sir, your most obedient servant, James Cowie. Mains of Haulkerlon, Laurencekirk' , March 14, 1857. FARM BUILDINGS, (From the New Edition of the " Encyclopedia Britannica"). After the article was partly put to press, we became aware that the two gold medals offered by the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and the best plans of farm buildings for large and small farms, had been awarded to ]\Ir. James Cowie, Mains of Haulkerton, From the novelty of the principle adopted by Mr. Cowie, and the skilful manner in which he has worked it out, we felt de- sirous to include an illustration of it in the present treatise. This he has kindly enabled us to do, by placing at our dis- posal specifications and descriptions of plans. Plates No. 14, 15, and IG. "The plan. No. 1 (plate 14), is calculated for a farm of 400 acres, and can be erected at a cost of about £1,200, ex- clusive of carriages. I have given full sections and elevations along with a ground plan of it, accompanied by full specifi- cations, which will enable readers to understand it fully, and in fact to make it available and ready for tradesmen to work by, if required. Notwithstanding, to those not accus- tomed to judge of buildings from drawings, a few. explana- tions may not be unacceptable, as leading to a more ready understanding of the arrangements. It will be seen that the two granary lofts upper and lower, are attached to the sheaf-loft and corn-room. The division between them can be made to shift, so as one can be lessened or enlarged as may be required. The adjacent house has, in the ground- floor, a boiling-house and hay or grass shed, which may extend above the water-wlieel to the corn-room wall. The floor above can be occupied as an auxiliary sheafloft or granary, or for erecting machinery for bruising com or other food, &c. The straw barn is placed in the centre of the building, and allows two kinds of straw to be deposited separately. The hay shed and infirmary, when not occupied, can serve as a store for straw or chaff if need be. The turnip sheds are placed quite adjacent to the cattle, which can be fed from a small waggon on a railway, by the arrange- ment adopted here, in nearly half the time required by em- ploying the common wheel-barrow. The sheds or boxes for the loose cattle are placed four feet below the level of the rest of the interior, and are immediately behind the stalls, so as to admit of the dung being removed from the tied-up cattle with the least labour. The cow-byre is in a separate division, and the calves house is in proximity to it. The stable which has two doors opening externally for more ready access to the horses, is conveniently situated as regards proximity to the boiling-house, corn-room, straw barn, dung- shed, and cart-sheds : and there is a room provided over the turnip-shed for a sleeping apartment for the persons in charge of the cattle and horses. There are two large loose boxes, carpenter's shop, pig styes, an ample tool house, and an enclosed shed, which is capable of containing two carts, or can be employed in a temporary way as a guano or potato house. The poultry house has a yard, part of which can, as occasion may requii-e, be staked off as an exterior area for an invalid beast requiring fresh air. The saddle-horse stable and gighouse may be simply referred to in concluding the description. This steading thus embraces within a comparatively compact circle, all the conveniences required for a farm of the size specified ; and it is not the least recommendation to it that the farmer can see almost at a glance, in any part of the interior, all his 10 or 12 horses, his 50 stall cattle, his GO shed cattle, and his 30 or more calves ; and from the position of and ready access to them all, he can at once see how they are supplied with food and litter. The whole homestead with its contents, live and dead stock, are in fact as much within the visible scope of its owner, and manual access of the servants, as anything of the kind can or requires to be. "The plan. No. 2 (plate 15), is that of a farm on the small property of Calvennen, in Wigtonshire. It was built last season, at a cost of about £500. It has three roofs ; and the arrangements, which are similar to those in the plan just described, will be understood by a refer- ence to the accompanying plans and sections." " specification for steading of farm-offices, " Mason Work. " All necessary excavations will be performed by the tenant. " The walls will be founded at the depth shown by the sections, or as much more as will ensure a firm and solid foundation. The contractor must satisfy himself as to the extent of the necessary depths, as no addition will be allowed for extra building. " The foundation-courses of the walls are to be laid with large, flat-bedded stones, laid close together, and their joints hard-packed with stone-shivers and lime mortar, and 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. having a toe or ledge from 3 to 4 inches broad, projecting bej'ond the thickness of the walls on each side. The walls are to be of good coursed and well-banded and packed common rubble-work. The stones composing the outside course are to be well axe-dressed on the face, and to have beds of not less than 7 inches of breadth, and not to exceed 12 inches in height, having headers laid in each course at from 5 to 6 feet apart, extending at least two-thirds the thickness of the walls, and the whole to be particularly snecked on the outside, and back-snecked. All corners, outband door and window rybats, to be 26 inches in length, and squared on the ends ; and inband i-ybats to go through the walls ; and the whole to have heads not less than 8 inches broad. The rybats of the large doors will have checks Ij inches by 2| inches on the outside all round. All other doors opening to the outside will have checks IJ inches by 2y inches; and the other door and window-rybats will have checks 2 inches deep, and one inch check on the lintels. All the corners of the buildings, door and window rybats, soles and lintels, tabling and put stones, and arch stones, are to be well droved and jointed ; and the pillars of the cart-sheds are to be close-jointed, and all rybats to have a margin 3 inches round the outside faces, and on each of the external corners. The. heel- posts of the byres are to be of stones 8 inches square, to be well droved, and to have a groove cut in each 1| inches square, for the travis-boards, and to be well sunk in the ground (2 feet at least), and to stand 3| feet above the saddles, as shown. " The feeding-troughs of the byres are to be raised above the causewaying G inches, and bottomed with well- droved and jointed stones ; and the wooden posts of the stable and byres are to have proper stone bases. The urine under-drains are to be laid with glazed socket-pipes to communicate with the urine-tank, as shall be pointed out. " The internal walls of the corn-room, sheaf-loft, and granaries are to have one good coat of plaister ; and the walls of the same are to be beam-filled between the couples. " Such of the houses and passages as shall be pointed out for causewaying shall be done in a proper and suffi- cient manner by tlie contractor at the rate of threepence per yard. " The foundations of the underground wall of the ark are to be laid with large flat-bedded stones, all well-laid and packed; and the whole of the water-walls are to be of well-sized stones, squared up, axed on the face, and well- jointed, and to have full beds, and built in courses, and every third stone to be a header of at least 2 leet in length. All openings are to have squared-up scuncheons. There will be a projecting course laid at centre, 9 inches thick, and at least 1 foot D inches in breadth, well droved and jointed. The bottom of the ark is to be slabbed with good quarri'-stones, and the tail race through an arched opening 3 feet square, the thickness of the wall. The size and form of the stones for hanging the machinery, and all the necessary cuttings, boring, and levellings, &c., must be executed at the sight, and to the satisfaction, of the mill- wright or inspector. " All the lime for the building is to be of the best English shells, well slacked, and made into a strong com- position of mortar with clean sharp sand; and all the joints of the outside work are to be well ripped out, and pointed with Scotch lime-mortar, in a proper season ; and the ark is to be pointed with Roman cement. " All necessary raggles are to be made, window-frames bedded and pointed in, and the lead and the running-in of the hinge-crooks of the doors, also the laj'ing of the urine- pipes, and all inferior jobs necessary for the completion of the mason-work, must be done at the sight, and to the satisfaction, of the inspector, without any additional charge. Carpenter't Work. W " Safe lintels throughout the buildings to have 1 inch of thickness to every foot of extreme length, and to have 9 inches of wall-hold, and clostly fitted up to the outside stone lintels. All inside doors to have wood lintels. "Joists and sleepers to be laid as shown, 18 inches from centres. Joists to have 9 inches of wall-hold. " To have one row of trimmers in centre, 10 inches by 1. '■ Mill beams to be laid as shown, to have 12 inches of wall-hold ; to be double-morticed, and fixed with a |th- inch joining bolt. " The main couples or wide roofs will be framed as shown, and secured at the joinings with iron plates ; the rafters to be placed 21 inches from centres, checked at joinings, and securely nailed. " The wide roofs will be supported by cast-iron columns, as shown. These columns to have large bases and capitals, and to have 6 inches diameter at the centre, and not less than f inch thick of metal, fixed at the top to a dressed beam 11 inches square, and let into the stone base at the bottom g inch. The other roofs to be framed upas shown — roofing to be checked at joinings, and properly nailed. " Slate-lath to be nailed on to answer slates 16 inches by 8 inches, or as near to that size as can be conveniently got. " Gutters between the roof to be formed as shall be shown ; all to be properly bracketed up and laid with ploughed floor- ing. " Luffer-windows for granary and ventilators to have frames 3 inches by 2 inches, boards one inch thick, and m»de to open and shut with a rod and wood brackets, as shall be shown. " The window frames to be two inches thick, and to be made to open on pivots 12 inches from the top, and to be filled with strong rough plate-glass. " All the large doors to be in two halves, bound with four bars each, 7 inches bj' li inch, and all to have margin stiles in both edges ,3 J- inches bj' 1 J inch. Covering to be I inch thick, ploughed, and all heeded on the joints. Each door to have two slipping bolts 18 inches long, § inch diameter, made to work on strong iron plates ; hinges to be 2j inches broad, IJ inch at neck, and each hinge to be two- thirds the width of the door, and to have three screw bolts each. " Corn-room door to be cut across the centre horizontally. All the other outside doors to be in one piece, and all to be framed on the backside with stiles and bars ; stiles 3^ inches, bars 7 inches by Ij inch. Each door to have four bars covered with | inch deals, either to be ploughed and heeded on the joints, or plain joints separated |th inch be- tween deals aa shall be required; hinges 2 inches broad, ^ inch thick, and two-thirds the breadth of the door, and each to have a screw-bolt at neck. Such of the doors as shall be pointed out to have a sliding-hoard 9 inches square at THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 885 bottom, to admit air at pleasure. All the doors to have strong ring latches, and those on the outside to have home- made locks of the value of 5s. each, to be put on with three screw bolts each. Kej's of the stable doors to have rings. The doors for granaries and sleeping apartments to be made similar to the others, but hung on posts with good hinges, and to have locks same as the others. All the doors, luffer and other windows to have three coats of white lead paint to be finished to a taint to be appi-oved of. " Crooks to be feather-tailed, pins for large doors 1 1- inch, for small doors 1 inch. " Mill-loft and granaries to be floored with 1^ inch thick deal, not broader than 7 inches, clean dressed on face, grooved and tongued, and nailed down with 141bs. spikes, and the bye-wood all cleaned off. Dressed skirting-boards fixed to the ducts round all the walls of the granaries, corn- room, and sheaf-loft, 7 inches deep and 1 inch thick. " The mangers to be 16 inches deep, and sloped from the back to 20 inches, and in addition to have a 3 inch deal biting tree of hard wood. The front and bottom to have If inch deal, the back 1 inch deal. " The posts to be octagon, 8 inches diameter at foot, and 7 inches at top, grooved for travis 1| inch deep and 2 inches broad; to be fixed at top to a run-joist 7 inches by 2J inches, with a large oak pin, and at bottom with an iron pin 5 inches long, I inch diameter. Front posts same size, split up the centre and similarly fixed. Posts and run- joists to be clean dressed. " Hay-ricks to be fitted up in the stable 36 inches broad. The splits to be 2\ inches by Ig- inch, and to be 4 inches between. Rails to be 4 inches by 2 inches, and checked for splits, and properly nailed. "Travis to be 2 inches thick, to be clean dressed, close jointed, each joint to have 3 iron dowels |th in. diameter; and to be fixed between the front posts by screw-bolts. The gable walls to be lined the length of the stalls with 1 inch deal, ploughed and fixed to straps 1 inch by 2 inches. Travis to be finished on the top with an ogee, and strapped with thick iron hoop. ^ " Harness-pins and saddle-rests to be fitted up as shall be pointed out, each post to have an iron hook for hanging harness. Two rings to be fixed into each post for binding horses. "Two corn-chests to be fitted up in recesses in walls of stable, of 1 inch ploughed deal, 4 feet long eich, 2 feet wide inside, and 3 feet deep ; provided with proper locks and hinges. One corn-chest 3 feet long for riding stable, similar to the others. " Fronts and backs of byre-troughs to be 2 inches thick and 12 inches deep, to slope towards the cattle, and rounded on the edge. " Post to be fitted up as shown, to be fastened at bottom and top same as stable, to be 5J inches diameter, cham- phered in corners. The front post to be grooved for receiv- ing travis, the other one to be in two, and travis fixed to them same as stable. Run-joists to be 6 inches by 3 inches. Iron sliding rods 14 inches long, | inch thick, to be fixed in the posts with screw-bolts for cattle bindings. "Racks to be fitted up 30 inches deep on the side next the cattle, and 24 inches on the other side. Same dimen- sions as stable racks, and fitted up in the same waj', splits to be 6 inches between. "Travis boards to be 14 inch thick, 4^ feet high at front, and 3 feet 3 inches at back ; and front bar 5 inches broad and 2 inches thick, to be nailed to the front posts, and 2 feet above the edge of the troughs. " Troughs to be made into proper lengths for convenience in shitting. Sides to be 14 inches deep and 2 inches thick ; bottom In inch, to be properly secured by longitudinal spars, nailed to bottom and framing. Frame 3 inches bj' 2 inches, and made to stand on feet. Width of troughs to be 2J feet ; all to be firmly nailed. " One straw-crib to be made for each division of sheds. Posts to be 4 inches square, to have 3 rails on each side, 4 inches by 2 inches ; to stand 4 feet high, 8 feet long, and 4 feet wide. " Two traps to be made for corn-room, loft, and stable, of such length and dimensions as shall be pointed out. "All scaffolding, centring, and moulds are to be furnished to the contractor for the mason-work. All inferior jobs not specified, nor shown in sections necessary for the proper completion of the carpenter work, shall be done without any additional charge, unless from its nature and extent such shall be allowed by the inspector of the work. All the timber shall be of good Baltic timber or Ameri- can red pine, and must be well seasoned. " Scantlings of Timber. " Sleepers, 6| inches by 2J. "Joists, 10^ inches by 2i " Rafters, narrow roof, 6 inches at bottom, 5 inches at top, 2^ inches thick. " Baulks or ties 6J inches bj'' 2. " Cross beam for thrashing mill, 10 inches by 14. "Safe lintels for large shed doors, 10 inches by 10. "Slate-lath, IJ by 1. " Rafters of main couples, 5 inches by 8. " Tie beams, 9 inches bj'|5. " King posts, 5 inches by 5, " Spurs or anglers, 5 inches by 5. " Purlins, 5-^- inches by 5|. " Immediate rafters, 6 inches by 2. " Slater Work. "The roofs to be covered with blue Welsh slates, size 16 inches by 8 inches ; to have 2-inch cover or overlap, and all to be fair and closely laid. To be nailed to laths with nails weighing 8 pounds per thousand, steeped in oil when red hot, and each slate to have two nails. Skylights to be put in as shown, of strong sheet-glass of the size of 12 inches by 18 inches, fitted into zinc frames, weighing 16 ounces per square foot. The valley gutters to be covered with lead weighing 61bs. per square foot, and 12 inches in breadth. The flat gutter between the roofs to be covered with lead weighing 6 lbs. per square foot. "The gutter at the narrow ends will be 9 inches in breadth, and the lead to rise up on the roof the usual height. " Gutters will have declivities of IJ inch on every 10 feet of length, and to liavc boxes formed where shown, 5 inches deep ; to have 3-inch lead pipes soldered into the same, and carried througli the beam below into the cast iron columns. All the roofs to be upheld sound and Avater-tight for eighteen months after being finished. "The carriages will be driven by the tenant, and the 336 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. contractor must supply all materials and work. The whole work must be performed b}' the day of in a most substantial and workmanlike manner, to the en- tire satisfaction of or any other person to be named by the employer. All necessary inferior jobs for the completion of the work must be performed without any additional charge ; and any alterations that may be made in the progress of the work, at the suggestion of the inspec- tor, shall be paid for or deducted, according to his esti- mate." THE PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF IRELAND, Relative to the Exporting Power of that Country as compared avith the Past. Dear Sir, — Some weeks ago there appeared in your journal an extract from the Wuterford Mail (' On the Position and Prospects of Ireland.'' Conceiving that that document, although containing much truth, so far as figures go, is also fraught with erroneous conclusions, I have to request the favour of you to allow me a space in your columns, to give a clearer explanation of the causes of the present condition of that country, especi- ally in respect to the decrease in the exportation of agri- cultural produce since 1844 ; and, in order to reply more explicitly to the article in question, I shall reduce it to the following distinct propositions, viz. : — First, that the social condition of the Irish (people) depends more on the physical condition of the country than on its political state. Secondly, that the Incumbered Es- tates Court has not per se benefited the country, but only in so far as the new proprietary or occupiers make the land more productive. And thirdly, that the de- crease of the population between 1846 and 1850 is an evil, because less corn has been exported between 1850 and 1854 than between 1840 and 1844 inclusive. I shall consider each of the propositions as they are placed. In the first I detect an egregious error, it being evi- dent to every impartial observer that both the social and the physical condition of Ireland have been produced by the political slate of the country for the fifty years previous to 1850. I assure you it is with no desire to rip open old sores that I refer to the wild and impracti- cable schemes enunciated by that extraordinary man who for half a century led the people as it were in chains, and by the power of his eloquence found easy means of extracting from the poorest of the people their twopence per week towards the " rint ;" I refer to it to show what were the social eff'ects of his political humbug upon the people, producing in the sequel all those physical evils which for the time converted what might have been an earthly paradise into a waste, howling wilderness, " the valley of the shadow of death." But I shall possibly be called upon to prove my posi- tion, and 1 therefore anticipate the call. Let the reader fancy to himself the great body of British operatives, of all classes and professions, banded together in a political league, like the "Repeal Association" of Ireland, to follow the requisition of one man of gigantic mind in pursuit of an ignis faluus, which he well knew would never be reached, but which his infatuated followers firmly believed he would accomplish for them. See the cultivation of the field, the employment of the loom, the pursuits of trade, all forsaken to attend public meetings, sometimes held for days together, and the attendants numbered by tens and hundreds of thousands ! and this continued without intermission for years together, until, excited by the spirit-stirring and incendiary harangues of their leaders, addressed to the basest passions of the human heart, it resulted in one universal desire to sever by violence the ties which bound them to the Govern- ment and the constitution, and thus to risk all by break- ing out into open rebellion ! What, think you, would be the eff'oct of such a movement in England, upon the social and physical condition of the people ? I reply, just what it was in Ireland. Agriculture, commerce, manufactures, were neglected to an extent an English- man can form no conception of, and they consequently decayed to such a degree, that nothing but a decimation of the population could have compensated for it. The public mind was kept upon the stretch, and everything neglected but the visionary elysium of national indepen- dence, held up to view by a leader who well knew the impossibility of ever realizing what he promised, and the injurious consequences that must have ensued had he been able to do it. I happened to reside in Ireland during some of those crises brought on by public agitation , and can bear witness to the deep and lasting injury inflicted on the social and physical condition of the people by the continual harassment of mind and withdrawal of atten- tion from the sober pursuits of life. The Irish peasantry themselves are fully convinced of this now. Although an excitable people, and easily led astray by political demagogues, when their minds become disabused they have discernment enough to see which way their interests run. For years after the escapade of 1848, which gave the death-blow to their hopes by its failure, a spectator, standing on the quay at Dublin when the emigrants were embarking, might hear the poor fellows cursing the very name of that leader who had led them astray after a will-o'-the-wisp ; and ascribing all the evils of the coun- try to the agitation he had created. Within six mouths after O'Connell's death, that name was no more heard mentioned in common conversation, than if he had never existed; and, I believe, to this day his proposed monu- ment in Glasnevin Cemetery is deferred to " the Greek THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 337 kalends." I assert, without fear of being confuted by facts, that all the physical evils of Ireland are the result of its anti-social condition, and that this is ascribable to the political state in which the people have been held, which will appear still more clearly as we proceed. The second position of the writer in the Waterford Mail asserts that the Incumbered Estates Couit has not " per se " benefited the country. I do not know what he means exactly by the use of the words "perse" here. If he merely means that had the act never been acted upon, but remained an abstract and inoperative proposition, I agree with him ; but if he means to say that the liberation of the land of Ireland to the amount of twenty millions sterling from incumbrances that ren- dered it absolutely worthless to all parties connected with it, and which has been effected so/e^z/ by the Incum- bered Estates Court, is not a benefit conferred by it "^jer se," then I differ materially with him. Suppose I see a man struggling in the water, and about to sink the third time, and I jump in and pull him ashore ex- hausted and insensible ; but, taken to the receiving house, the man recovers, and walks home as hearty as ever; do I, or do I not, confer a benefit " per se" on that man ? I am quite sure of this, that the Royal Humane Society would look at the case in a different light from the writer in the Waterford Mail, and con- sider 7«e, and not their oflBcers, entitled to the silver medal . And this is precisely the case of the Incumbered Estates Court. All the good that has been effected — and the Waterford Mail is compelled to admit the reality of it — has been the work of that Court "per se," and not incidentally. But let us examine a little into the details of the working of the Court, so much abused by some, and extolled by others. There was a great outcry a few years since respecting the condition of the landed property of one of our first English noblemen in point of rank, which was consi- dered to be so encumbered as to be beyond extrication otherwise than by bringing it to the hammer. The noble proprietor acted most honourably throughout the affair, and fully sustained the character of the class to which he belongs, for that uprightness in private life which distin- guishes the highest ranks of English society. But what bearing, or what comparison has this isolated case with an immense proportion of the land in Ireland that has been turned over to the Incumbered Estates Court ? I happen to have had many hundreds of the petitions to that Court for the sale of estates pass through my hands for examination, and can bear witness to the irretrievable condition to which the bulk of them have been reduced by the multiplied incumbrances heaped upon them, chiefly between the years 1790 and 1830, when land was high, and Ireland in its palmy state. Many of the estates were mortgaged for much more than their intrinsic worth, and some had been in Chancery for years, and would have remained there, as long as one shilling of their value was left to be shared by the lawyers. I have seen petitions for the sale of estates on which mortgages, settlements, dowers, &c., &c.. reached the number of one hundred, or one hundred and twenty ; the amount of the whole being far beyond what the fee simple would fetch. To such a state were these properties reduced by the reckless principle on which many of their owners acted, that they were of no use whatever either to them, their tenants, the mortgagees, or the country at large. They got into Chancery, a receiver was appointed over them, and in most cases the law expenses absorbed the whole proceeds. As the Court of Chancery could grant no lease, except "for seven years or during the suit," all improvement or proper cultivation of the land was effectually barred. In many parts, squatters settled themselves upon them, and defied the civil power either to turn them out or make them pay rent ; whilst the reputed owners, com- pelled to absent themselves, were either living abroad, or serving in the English army, or knocking about in this metropolis to obtain employment under the Government. From this fathomless abyss the Incumbered Estates Court has drawn them ap, ;»nd by a judicious division of the properties has made the purchase easy to men of moderate means ; wnllst tbe expense of transfer under the Court was small, and gave the purchaser a parlia- mentary title " good against the whole world." Nothing can better prove the beneficial working of the Court- to the owners as well as to the creditors of an estate— than the fact that nearly half the petitions for the sale have been put into the Court by the owners themselves. I recollect one instance of an estate in Galway, I think, the proprietor of which received only three hundred pounds a-year out of a rental of four or five thousand, the rest being paid to mortgagees and other incum- brancers. He was wise enough to place the estate in the Court ; and the result was, that after selling enough to pay off the whole of the incumbrances, he had enough left to yield him twelve hundred a-year, instead of three hundred as previously ! Was this, or was it not, a benefit " per se" of the Court ? There can be but one opinion on the subject. Thus emancipated by the Incumbered Estates Court, and by that alone, the land of Ireland has passed into the hands of a proprietary or of occupiers who have both the means and the disposition to make the best of it. If the returns of the exports of corn have not shown the improvement, it is not because cultivation has been neglected, as the Waterford Mail insinuates, but be- cause cattle paid better than corn up to the year 1853. The consequence was, that thousands of acres were laid down with grass, and the breeding and grazing of cattle and sheep have been sedulously attended to. Now, how- ever, that we are likely to have remunerating prices for corn in future, another change is taking place, and we hear that the pastures are again broken up and sown with wheat ; so that we may look for increasing quantities of that grain in future from thence. But another cause exists for the small export of wheat from Ireland of late years. When the potato failed, the 338 THE FARMER'vS MAGAZINE. people were driven to the ase of Indian com and wlieat, and now that the decrease of population (of which I shall presently speak) has raised the value of labour, the Irish peasantry, having acquired a taste for other food than potatoes from necessity, use it from choice ; and in future they will live on cereal food more and more, so as to absorb a large portion of their own growth, as they have of late years. But I must leave the last pro- position of the Waterford Mail for another letter, having already in this reached the bounds I had pre- scribed to myself. Yours, &c., London. Veritas. AGRICULTURE IN CANADA.— HINTS TO EMIGRANTS. NORTHUMBERLAND, NEWCASTLE DIS- TRICT, CANADA WEST, 26th Feb. 1857.— We are passing through a winter of a most peculiar character for Canada. The wheat was covered by snow in the latter part of November, after a most favourable growth and general appearance. December brought us continued showers of snow, with a cold so intense as is rarelj^ ex- perienced here before Christmas ; the thermometer ranging as low as 34 degs. below zero, and for many days together never marking above that point. This continued also through January, without our accustomed Januar}' thaw. It was singular during the clearer days of this period to see the vapour steaming from our lake into the cloud region as from a seething cauldron. In the early part of February we had, however, a sudden and complete change. Thick mists and heavj' rains carried off the snow in flooding tor- rents, doing much damage in the course of the larger streams. With the temperature of June, often through the night reaching oQ to 60 degs., the snow disappeared in a very few days, and the frost came out of the surface to the depth of 4 or 5 inches, the wheat looking everywhere most beautiful. This weather continued nearly three weeks without any night frosts of consequence, until a level cover of snow has again completely enveloped our fields, and the wheat plant, which would have been in great danger had bare frosts supervened, is again safe for the present. Of course we can conjecture little as to the future; should pretty severe weather again come on, and bring a late spring, our fall wheat prospects will be most encouraging ; should moderate weather, with little snow, keep the sur- face bare, there is Voora for most serious injury. Except for a short period in January, when a great deal of wheat was bought at 7s. 3d. to 7s. 6d. currency per bushel, our supply has been rather slow, but our farmers seem now anxious to realize at present prices— 7s. 3d. The sample is in general excellent •, but our fripnds the Americans, as usual, draw off all our best lots. Our Government, in anticipation of a considerable im- migration from Europe in the coming season, is making careful inquiry in the various localities as to the number of labourers and mechanics who could find employment, with the view, as far as possible, of having them forwarded at once to these points. I notice, in a late Express, an inquiry on the subject of emigration to this country, and must fully approve your reply ; perhaps a short notice from the field of action itself might not be unacceptable to those whom the pressure of competition in an old country may he leading to look in this direction. First then, we would address more especially those con- nected with agriculture. If your business at home keeps you with any reasonable degree of exertion, stay there. Don't emigrate, for the sake of your families : let them do it for themselves, the habits of the j'oung are more easily changed thau those of the advanced in life. Home is not the old fashioned thing it used to be. Canada will soon not be more distant than a county of England was yester- day. If you send your children, give them first a sufficient knowledge of some occupation by which they can hope, with their own exertions, at once to earn a living. All ex- pect good wages here, and we cannot afford to pay and teach apprentices, where they won't be bound for any length of time to repay the trouble and cost. You have determined to come however. Bring all the money you can muster, a few rough clothes (cotton or linen for summer, woollen for winter) ; no chimney-pot hats, no hob-nailed shoes, no implements, no furniture, all these things are cheaper and more suitable here. You may use a feather bed or two on ship board, and they may be useful here, as well as some bedding. If you have a good common carpet, bring it, it may afford you comfort, but you can do very well without ; as well can you dispense with much which you thought necessary at home ; in your first steps at least. A pair of good hands, however, are your best capital, if joined with head to use them ; but plenty of money can be profitably enough used here, though you can never farm on an extended scale. Put in your pockets the best testimonials of respectability you can get, we will try your abilities for ourselves. Bring also as many letters from parties having friends here as may lie in j^our way, such will provide j'ou a hearty recep- tion, and it will be hard if some of your referees do not prove good advisers. Cast aside at present all notions of buying an estate, unless you have too much money ; be content to rent, if you can get it, and not lock up your capital for the mere trifling return the escape from a low rental will afford you. An estate is not here the summum bonum — the source of everything good and happy and independent that it is in England, often quite the reverse ; your necessary buildings and improvements to keep up with the times perhaps keep you ever in hot water to find the means to get them, A rich landlord to do these things is often very convenient, even although he be sometimes a little arbitrary ; he is not so troublesome as a needy dun wanting money of you. Take a steamer to Quebec ; steerage fare £7 10s., cabin fare £15. If you take steerage fare, bring for yourself a few delicacies in the eating line ; and try to join a party of a few acquaintances at starting. Don't forget to shake hands with the steward as soon as your are over the bar; on what you leave in his palm may depend some of your advantages in cooking, &c. If you take cabin passage j'ou have only to guard against the gout or repletion. Twelve THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 339 or fourteen days will place you on Lake Ontario, until you drink of whose waters you need not think of delay. The land is then before you. Choose for youi'self ; but take the first satisfactory engagement that offers. Jingle your purse to yourself in private, until you love the music, but you need not let others hear it. An emigrant does not need to appear rich to meet a good reception : and a newly arrived Englishman is generally too free to spend. Live rather considerably below than up to your means before you have a home. Cleared farms let at from 15s. to 20s. per acre at from 3 to 10 miles from some town ; leases seldom longer than 3 to 5 years. Hundreds of our farmers are doing well, but it is with what old countrymen would consider severe exertion and strict economj'. We have no gentlemen farmers here — no, I am wrong, we have many, but they have to keep their farms, not their farms them. Agricultural skill and education come here to a bad market ; you cannot farm ex- tensively enough to turn them to profitable account. A hard working family of lads on a farm will earn you £70 or £80 a-year each as long as you can keep them, but if trained here they soon want to escape out of the nest. This is the poor man's country : in agriculture the middle classes are doomed to disappointment. The little farmer, who can turn his hand to anj'thing, is the man we want. From two to four hundred pounds is as much capital as a renting farmer, without a large working family, can gene- rally employ to profit, that is to say in farming without the purchase of land. If you purchase land you need a much more considerable capital beyond your purchase money, in order to effect the constantly exacting improvements in buildings, fences, &c., which a tenant here cares little about. You can thus start on small capital ; but there is only one waj' by which you can expect this to do better proportionately for you than in England — that is by work- ing harder and longer hours, and living more economicall}'. If you adopt these plans you have before you a fair prospect of getting rich. We have here no quiet point of satisfied content, no landing-place on the steep hill-side, where a man can sit down and enjoy the prospect ; but it is in the words of our old Yankee song, " Sich a gitting up stairs as I never did see." Your legs get tired, but there is no rest — on, on, on ! The country is beautiful, the climate weakening ; farm- ing labour makes the frame wiry and squalid, not robust and hale. Dysentery is one of the dangers of a new emigrant. Purchase at the druggists a few pennyworths of Dover's powders : take 4 to 6 grains every 2 hours on any such attack while travelling. Drink little water, as you are, in moving round, ever changing your source of supply. No grog. With care in such matters you will soon acclimatize. Try to arrive in May or not before September ; I should prefer the latter season. Those who have not been brought up to agricultural pur- suits at home need not think they will do for farmers in Canada, where much greater manual skill and experience is desirable in tlie farmer himself than at home. Your labourers scarce know how to do any piece of work pro* perly, and you pay them high wages — 4s. to 7s. 6d. a-day at ordinary seasons : if you misapply a few sush days' work in a small concern, the loss is serious ; you must be ever ready and able to go through any difficulty yourself. If you have these qualifications, reader, come along. Don't be too close with us when you arrive ; open out your his- tory and your plans, we ourselves have all been homeless wanderers, and can feel for you. If you show us you are some decent body, I promise you the ready help of our most experienced practical farmers. You can always hear of such by inquiry at the local landing-places; and don't fear that a call of inquiry will be deemed an intrusion. An emigrant sees our most friendly face; we may look cold and selfish to each other, we always show a warm face to him while he smells of the old sod. The first six monthly numbers of Hogg's Instructor, 1856, published in Edinburgh, and taken by many of the English mechanics' institutes, contain some papers on the country which might be useful to an agricultural reader. Emigrant, if you come in my way, I shall be glad to help thee. Farm labourers have now from £30 to £40 currency a- j'ear and board ; a good man of family about £50 to £54 and cottage, with potato-ground, fuel, and perhaps cow kept in summer. I speak in Halifax currency, 24s. 9d. of which is £1 sterling. Robt. Hume. A FARMER'S POLITICS. The impending election of a new Parliament will sug- gest to every thinking farmer many thoughts of the future— the probability that in a very few short weeks his prospects for the next seven years may be fixed so far as respects legislative aid, or interference with his business. The next two or three short weeks is all the time the farmer now has to look about him, and to use his utmost endeavours to secure that candidate, for par- liamentary honours who is most likely to confer on him and the agricultural interest generally the greatest bene- fit. We live under a free-trade regimen now. It is not as in the olden time, when the fine old English gentlemen could rule and regulate things to their own will. The whole phase of the country has undergone a most remarkable change. From being the first agricul- tural country in the world, and its agriculture by far the most important interest in the country itself, in which all classes were proud to participate, it has now given way to, and become partially superseded by, ma- nufacturing industry and commercial enterprise. We fully believe that, in the superiority or quality of its agriculture, it is more pre-eminent than ever; and the increase in its productions has been the astonishment of all staticians. Our object, then, as farmers, must be to uphold it in all its importance and usefulness ; for which purpose we ought to look out, and return men of transcendant ability and influence — such men as will give us effective aid in removijig those peculiar burtheng 340 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. under which agriculture labours, and to foster its in- terests, by preventing hindrances, and by the enactment of such salutary measures as are likely to aid its advance- ment. I shall name a few of these peculiar burthens and preventives for the farmers' serious consideration. 1st. The Taxes upon Malt and Hops. — These taxes require great amelioration at least ; to say nothing of their total repeal. It is futile to say they do not press heavily on the land, and that the tax is paid by the com- munity. I hesitate not to say that these taxes enhance the cost of management on my farm fully two shillings per acre. Is that nothing ? Is it nothing that the poor labourer is debarred his draught of beer on account of its cost ? I am of opinion that a reduction of one half of the taxes on these articles would increase the con- sumption amazingly — almost to compensate for such reduction. Why should not the poor man's beverage be cheap ? Cheapen the poor man's drink, and put the tax upon spirits and wines instead. If we must have the tax, let the rich pay it : by no means the poor. Will it increase drunkenness ? No ! Is it not a fact that where malt is cheap, drunkenness is comparatively rare? The poor man ought to enjoy his daily pot of beer: it would strengthen him, and do him real service for labour. Quite as good and as important to consider as the Chancellor's Budget on this subject. Then look at the great increase in the growth of barley. Barley is now chiefly grown on barley-soils, as only the best qualities sell well, because inferior lots are not worth the duty and cost. Reduce the tax materially, and coarse qualities will then be malted in abundance. This will permit the profitable growth of barley on all soils. That none but rich men can be maltsters is a known fact. It requires great capital to carry on a moderate malting business. Hops, again, are only grown in a few fa- voured districts ; chiefly because the restrictions and regulations are so stringent that few farmers take the trouble to acquaint themselves with the whole course of their management. Take off the duty and restrictions, and we should soon have hops in plenty. Growers would be found in every district, because they would be un- fettered. Many farmers would grow little plots for their own and neighbours' service, and manage them in a very economical way in drying, &c. Taxes and prohibitioiis upoji home-grown Tobacco, Beetroot Sugar and Spirits, Chicory, Hemp, Flax, Liquorice, Madder, S^c. — In this short paper I cannot take up these specific questions, but they deserve the best attention of every agricultural member, with the view to the removal of unnecessary restrictions, and the abolition or modification of the tax upon each article enumerated. Why is the talent and enterprise of the British farmer to be thwarted and snubbed by prohi- bitory restrictions, local burthens, poor's rates, consta- bulary rates or charges, county rates, highway rates, church rates, nuisance- removal charges, &c. These various rates and charges form a fertile source of legis- lative thought for a county member. Poor's Rates. — This rate usually includes the charges for the maintenance of the poor, the constabulary, and county expenditure, each requiring the closest [super- vision. The great question for consideration is that of union ratings. Under certain regulations it is unques- tionably the best and cheapest course : some definite starting point or pivot must be fixed upon, so that each parish shall bear its relative proportion of the charges. This done, the union becomes one large parish, and is managed accordingly, without the petty squabbles often intruded into our board-rooms by guardians pleading on behalf of their respective parishes. County Rates and Constables' Maintenance^ — These would be far better under the supervision and control o^ elected guardians than under the magistracy, or rather their clerks. Highway Rates. — The expenditure of these rates ought to be under the control or expended by a compe- tent district surveyor, and not by annually-elected parish officers, who are mostly unacquainted with road- making, and are generally incompetent men, who seek the office for their own private convenience. Church Rates. — These must be abolished altogether. Time was when it might have been fairly placed as an impost on the land, there being no other reliable source from which it could be drawn. But when population is increasing so numerously, it seems to me monstrous to continue such a burthen on the land for the express ac- commodation of the many who attend church. The burthen ought to be borne by that portion of the com- munity participating in the advantage, and not by the landed property of the country. Why is the land or real property exclusively to find church accommodation for the great population of this country ? Some other fund ought to be made available so that it is more equi- tably diflfused. Nuisance Removals and Boards of Health Bills. — These are effecting much good. Greater simplification is required, and more definite powers must gradually be given. These are modern measures requiring great attention. Tithes. — This burthen I will show in my next is charged too highly. The pivot average is too high, and must be reduced. General Subjects. — Tenant Right. — A complicated question, but of great importance to tenant farmers. Equalization of Weights and Measures. — Equally complicated and highly important. Agricultural Statistics. — This is a modern question for the Legislature. Why are we to be kept in uncer- tainty as to our annual produce, when other countries possess that necessary information and regulate their course of business by it ? Extensioii of the Rural Franchise. — There can be no good reason for withholding the franchise from any man who knows how to use it aright ; but we must have some guard. Ten pounds rental is very well so far, but it will exclude many sensible men from that privilege. My space is full; 1 will enter more fully into these matters in my next paper. Farmers, look to your friends ; return clever honest men who will advocate and uphold your true interests — men up to the times, ever watchful, never weary. Opposing interests do their utmost, and so must you. Be up and stirring. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 341 ON DISTILLATION FROM BEET-ROOT. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF M. BARRAL, EDITOR OF "THE JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE," (1) We had not intended to occupy ourselves at this mo- ment with distillation from beet-root, in spite of the importance which this branch of industry has assumed amongst a great number of agricultural operations. We were aware that numerous processes were instituted amongst the inventors of the different products of dis- tillation, and we awaited the decisions of the tribunals upon the controverted points. In addition to this, a particular circumstance enjoined silence upon us. The tribunals of Cambray and Vitry, in an action for piracy instituted by M. Dubrunfaut against Messrs. Lanfrey, Lefebore, and Co., in one case, and against Messrs. Bocqiiet and Co. in another, nominated a Commission of Survey, composed of Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse, or in default of one or more of these learned men, of Messrs. Peligot, Barral, and Jocquelain. It evidently became us to remain silent in presence of these facts ; but Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse have given in their reports in the month of August last, and M. Dubrunfaut has had printed a long memoir, in which he has introduced us in a manner that it was impossible for us to allow it to pass without correction. On the other hand, a great number of agriculturists have written requesting us to afford them information upon the dif- ferent processes of distillation, and they reproach us for not having fulfilled the obligation professed by our publication, of always sustaining the interests of agri- culture, and of guiding, according to our ability, all the efforts of progress. If we consider, also, that from the decision which the tribunals are on the point of return- ing, it may result that all the proprietors of distilleries now established on farms may be liable to the penalties incurred by the infringers of the patents, and that all run the risk of being condemned in heavy damages and costs, which will ruin them — that, in short, the distilla- tion from beet-root would become the monopoly of one single patent — we ought not to shrink from giving suc- cinctly the advice demanded of us, and re-establishing distorted facts. (2) It is not in this place that we can discuss completely the long memorandum of M. Dubrunfaut; it contains not less than 244 pages of large octavo, of the closest text. If we are compelled to do it, we shall undertake that work of discussion in a separate publication. Be- sides, time fails us at this moment ; for we ought to say that M. Dubrunfaut, who compels us to speak after a private conversation which he has had with us, has not sent us a copy of his memorandum, which he has distri- buted with extreme parsimony, so that we have only read his work by chance, and in a cursory manner. It is, however, only consistent with the ordinary rules of good breeding, that when we inculpate a person in an affair, we ought at least to afford him the means of knowing what we have said of him. However this may be, we belong not to those who wish to maintain that M. Dubrunfaut has rendered no service — has done nothing for the progress of industry. We do him the justice his services merit, and we have concurred in awarding to him some of the high rewards which have reached him. But that is a very different thing from granting him the monopoly which he claims. This is the question we are about to discuss, and shall avoid mixing with it any personalities : we may differ in opinion from an opponent without endeavouring to wound his feelings. In other respects, we have no reason to complain of the manner in which M. Dubrun- faut has spoken of us ; but we do regret the bitter terms he has used in speaking of Messrs. Chevallier and Gelis, who differed from him in opinion. (3) M. Dubrunfaut asserts that they calumniate him when they say that he claims an exclusive privilege for the distillation of beet-root ; we will add, however, that he wishes to extend that privilege to the distillation of Jerusalem artichokes, parsnips, and other analogous products. If this privilege were justly acquired by him in the conditions regulated by our laws, we should only be rendering him homage by recognising his rights, and we would be the first to require all distillers to pay him the two francs per hectolitre of alcohol, which he has fixed as his royalty ; nor should we consider too large the annual payment of 600,000 francs that agriculture and industry would have to make him for the 300,000 hectolitres of alcohol from beet-root that are now pro- duced in France. But we do not believe in the sound- ness of such a privilege ; and we say that M. Dubrunfaut actually claims it when he pretends that his own inven- tions are pirated by all those who make use of sulphuric acid in distillation, whether they employ the juice ob- tained by the rasp and press, as do Messrs. Lanfrey, Lefebore, and Co., or by the process of Champonnois, or that of Leplay. With respect to M. Champonnois, M. Dubrunfaut says: " He has only appropriated, in his patents and practical manufactures, the application of a principle and process, the property of which was guaranteed to me by the law. The differences which exist between his descrijjtion and mine prove that he has badly understood z 343 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and digested the principle which he has undoubtedly borrowed from me." We have abridged much to avoid entering into the detail of all the accusations brought against M. Champonnois by his opponent. In the meanwhile, we shall take the following passage, which sums up the judgment of M. Dubrunfaut as to the real value of the claimed process : — " The Champonnois process," says he, "placed under the powerful protec- tion of the house of F. Cail and Co., of Paris, who found there a large area for his manufactory, has had a reputation which it would be impossible to explain if it were not for the high influence of the parties who are found to be interested in the success of the undertaking. The basis of a large speculation, it has proved the occa- sion of great errors, great illusions, and undoubtedly great profits, which have accrued — not to the agricultu- rists who have worked the process upon the faith of the announcements, but to the practical manufacturer, who made that process the basis of their operations. Light will, one day or other, be thrown upon the real value of this process ; we know, also, to whom belongs what is useful of it, and who will resume it in his own right of M. Champonnois." In regard to what relates to the process of M. Lcplay, M. Dubrunfaut expresses himself thus : — "He has only borrowed literally from us the principle and practice of distillation by bits ; his method of distillation itself can be considered only as an improvement added to our mode of working, and in these respects his patents are in reality only insignificant, or even ridiculous modifica- tions or changes applied to ours. In short, if they constituted improvements and progress, they would still rest upon the principles and processes of which the working is reserved to us until the expiration of the term secured to us by the law." In short, M. Dubrunfaut pretends that the distillers who distil the juice proceeding from rasps and presses, commit the offence of piracy if they make use of sul- phuric acid, or ferment it in a continuous manner with- out the addition of yeast. Thus we read in the Decree for the appointment of Surveyors by the Tribunal of Cambray, *' Dubrunfaut prosecutes Lanfrey and Co., as the chief of the pirates, which he determines by the use they make— 1st, Of sulphuric acid added to the water which flows over the pulp at the moment of rasping, and which has the effect of preventing the alterations to which the non-acidulated pulps and juices are liable, of weakening the cells not torn in the process, and thus favouring their draining without prejudice to the advan- tages which result when that acid is added to the juice in certain proportions and conditions, which develope the natural fermentation of the beetroot. 2ndly, Of divers other operations similar to those contained in the patents, and certificates of addition which are attached thereto, especially the employment of wines or the re- charging of the vats. 3rdly, Of the fermentation with- out yeast, and of a peculiar yeast by them prepared. 4thly, Of juice of beetroots acidulated in another manu- facture, in order to be preserved during the transport, and afterwards furnished to the distillery." What else is there beyond the processes we have enumerated, and which M. Dubrunfaut assumes belong to him ? There remains only the previous boiling of the beetroots practised by M. Genot in the neighbour- hood of Metz. It is on account of this method that M. Dubrunfaut brings us into the question in the following terms, the incorrectness of which we should condemn, even if the wording displayed all the greatest courtesy : " A learned man," says M. Dubrunfaut, "as much distinguished by his erudition as he is by his worthy and honourable character, M. Barral, the editor of the ' Journal of Practical Agriculture,' having occasion to speak of the business of distillation from beetroots in 1853 and 1854, in connection with our works, deceived undoubtedly by the incorrect information which has been furnished to him by our adversaries, says positively that the distillation from beetroots has been practised for a long time in a continuous manner, and without in- terruption, in the departments of the Moselle and the Meurthe. " In consequence of this publication we have had the honour of seeing M. Barral, and demanding of him upon what facts he supports his assertion relative to the ancient existence of distilleries from beetroots in the Moselle and the Meurthe. M. Barral, with that frankness of character which distinguishes him, confessed to us that he supported it upon the authority of the Genot distillery situated in the environs of Metz. It is necessary for us to say that in reply, founded on the preceding explanations relative to the Genot patents, we remarked, with good reason, to M. Barral, that the truth was precisely the opposite of his assertions. Indeed, was it very likely that M. Genot, a distiller of potatoes in the vicinity of Metz, should have applied in January, 1852, for a patent for the exclusive privilege o( the dis- tillation from beetroot, if that manufacture had existed and been practised from all time at his door, and under his eyes, in the departments of the Moselle and the Meurthe ? " The information that we have otherwise collected on this question has proved to us that before 1852 no distillation from beet-roots was in activity either in Lorraine or in Alsace, nor in any part either of France or any foreign country. We were therefore surprised at the scrupulousness of M. Barral in supporting, on the autho- rity of the patent or the distillery of M. Genot, the ancient existence of distilleries of beetroot in Lorraine. They had , besides, furnished him, upon the entire subject of this manufacture, false indication and incorrect information, which have beforehand stamped with barrenness all the documents which this learned man has published in his journal upon distillation from beetroots ; and if we had followed the advice of the Journal of Practical Agricul-j^. ture in order to carry out that industry, laying aside our., own experience, we should have arrived at a negative re- sult, for the manufacture would neither liaye,J^.j THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 created nor acquired at this moment. Tlius, M. Barral has recommended for distillation furniture the models published and known as the Derosne apparatus, con- structed by the firm of Call. He has religiously pub- lished the designs of this apparatus, which were behind the time in the progress of manufacture, and M. Barral is too erudite, too conscientious, and too much the friend of truth and progress, to contest these assertions, if occasion presents itself of discussing their worth," (4) If an accidental circumstance had not brought these lines under our notice, M. Dubrunfaut might have reaped the benefit of our silence. People would have said that we had not replied, and that consequently we stood condemned upon all the facts advanced. It is al- ways wrong to publish private conversations which one may be induced to utter, by the simple fact that we hold to a certain order of ideas which cause us to see the truth under a false colouring ; and we render ourselves liable to commit errors arising from the blindness pro- duced by self-interest. Let us see, first, the manner of reasoning of M. Dubrunfaut, The passage which we have just copied is preceded by the following lines : — " It was in January, 1852, that M. Gcnot demanded his patent, when alcohols were at the price of 64 fr. the hectolitre. The process of M. Genot was nothing more than the process patented by M. Lalenne-Delgrange in 1844, of which we have not spoken before, because M. Douay-Lesens, who purchased the cession of it from M. Lalenne-Delgrange, declares, in his patent of 1846, that this process and its acquisition have turned out an arrant fraud. In this respect, therefore, the patent of M. Genot is worthless, and the purchaser has only paid an annuity, renouncing voluntarily the working of a patent which he had reclaimed as one of principle and of process." Well, when M. Dubrunfaut did us the honour to pay us the return visit, in the middle of 1855, at the period of the " Exposition Universelle" — a circumstance which leaves us in no doubt as to the date to which we refer, for he wished to accompany us up to the very door of the Palais de I'lndustrie, in which we had been waiting for a sitting of the jury — we told him that we had re- cently visited the factory of M. Genot ; that his process had worked perfectly well for three years, yielding im- portant profits. We added that M. Genot had declared to us that he had renounced his patent, because he had discovered that he had been preceded in this district, and certainly in Belgium. In short, we maintained that at least four distilleries of beetroots existed in the Meurthe and the Meuse before the patents of M. Dubrunfaut. Thus M. Dubrunfaut cannot be said to have proved that there have been no processes besides those which he declares to be his, by the help of which beetroots are distilled in order to produce alcohol ; at least, that he pretends to be also the inventor of the fermentation of the beetroot pulp. So, again, he cannot conscientiously say that the process of M. Genot is worthless, since it was asserted to him by us, and he has not denied it, that this process worked well for several years. If there is any identity between the process of Genot and that of Lalenne-Delgrange, that demonstrates that this last pro- cess is not without value. We must also avoid all equivocation. We have never said that it is necessary to lay aside the indications of M. Dubrunfaut, or that they have exercised no influ- ence on the progress of distillation. Still, we are de- cidedly of opinion that the invention of the employment of sulphuric acid has been placed by M. Dubrunfaut himself at the public disposal, and we think that that invention has in practice inconveniences sufficiently serious to render it desirable that it should be replaced by some other, producing juice less destructive of the apparatus of distilleries and of the pulps for cattle. " The surveyors acknowledge," say Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse, " that at the time when M. Du- brunfaut obtained his patents, sulphuric acid had been pointed out as able to favour the fermentation of the juice of beet-roots. It is by M. Dubrunfaut himself that this indication was given for the first time in a work entitled ' The Art of Making Sugar from Beet- root,' published in 1825, page 543. M. Dubrunfaut points out in this passage not only sulphuric acid, but also tartaric and oxalic acid, as capable of being use- fully employed in the fermentation of beet-root juice. Whilst we cannot therefore grant to this simple announce- ment of a purely scientific fact, founded upon an experi- ment of the laboratory, the character and nature of an industrial process, the surveyors in the meanwhile con- sider this publication, even by its title of scientific generality, as sufficing to place at the public disposal sulphuric acid as an agent of the fermentation of beet- root juice, and as giving to all manufacturers the right of making it the basis of a patent for the production of alcohol of beet-roots. They are consequently of opinion that sulphuric acid as an element of ferraention of beet- root juice was known, and public property, at the period at which M. Dubrunfaut obtained his patent." It is true that Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse have withdrawn with the left hand what they have granted with the right, by admitting that the particular doses indicated by M. Dubrunfaut in 1852, with the other conditions of fermentation described in his patents, may be considered as patent discoveries and inventions. We shall come again to that point presently, for it is an important point for the future success of the manu- facture by agricultural distilleries, and there is a doctrine involved in it, the adoption of which would be attended with the most serious consequences. We know that with the employment of sulphuric acid a yeast is produced even in the fermentation of the beet- root juice, which may be used to assist subsequent fer- mentation. On this point Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse express themselves thus : — "The production of yeast during the fermentation of beet-root juice was demonstrated in 1825, upon the occasion of the same experiments cited above, upon the juice of beet- 2 2 3« THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. I root put in fermentation by means of sulphuric acid. Tiiis is also a purely scientific fact, placed by the pub- licity given to it by its author in the public property of Science, whence it is lawful for any one to take it, and, if he is able to do so, transfer it to that of manufacture. In fact, a patent was taken out in 1846 by Douai- le-Sens for the manufacture of beet-root alcohol, and in which direct reference is made, although collaterally only, to the formation of yeast and the possibility of utilizing it. This patent, merged into the public pro- perty, had, like the publication of M. Dubrunfaut, pro- duced no industrial result to lead us to suppose that its manufacturing practicability was possible. The sur- veyors consequently consider that the yeast produced by the fermentation of beet-root juice, and its employ- ment in aid of ulterior fermentation, were equally in the public possession before 1852." The passage in the work of M. Dubrunfaut, published in 1825, which plays so conspicuous a part in the pre- sent question relating to the distilleries, is as follows : — " A remarkable effect of sulphuric, oxalic, and tartaric acids upon the juice of beet-roots is, that if we place the juice thus treated under a temperature favourable to the alcoholic fermentation, it immediately enters with great force into that fermentation ; whilst, at the same temperature without the assistance of the acid, it would become dark and glary. What is not less remarkable in this effect, is, that the liquid mass is covered with a coating of yeast having precisely the appearance, smell, and taste of the yeast of beer, and may, like that, be used as a powerful leaven for other fermentations. We might utilize this substance successfully, if we wished to convert the juice of beet-root into alcohol, and are aware that the advantage of this process would consist in procuring a very excellent alcoholic fermentation in the juice, without the employment of other yeast." •^n (5) ^" It appears very extraordinary that M. Dubrunfaut, in 1856, wants to inflict a rent of two francs per hectolitre upon every one who utilizes the plan pointed out by him in 1825 for the fermentation of beet-root juice. "I did not, in 1825, give the proportions of the agents to be employed ; I gave only a part of my secret. It was only more recently, in 1852, that I discovered the several conditions essential to its success. Pay !'' This is the translation of the following word used by him in his conversation with us, which he was wrong to make use of without our consent. " For my part," said he, " I have not written over my door ' Chair of Instruction,' but ' Shop.' In my publications I never give sufficient details to render it unnecessary to have recourse to me. I call them my clients." To this we have nothing to say : it is right that those who make use of M. Dubrunfaut should acknowledge the personal services he renders them. But if they do not have re- course to him, if they rest themselves upon what is the property of the public — if they work with the elements . which he himself has agreed to impart to them, we say that the manufactures thus raised ought to have nothing 9 lo fear of his exactions. If M. Dubrunfaut gave no 'proportions in 1825, there were other parties who prescribed them afterwards ; to prove which we shall only recite those of the patent obtained the 9th of De- cember, 1838, by Messrs. Nicolie, Wattringue, Broug- neart, and Mouray. Here we shall differ in opinion from Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse ; but it is easy to see that these learned men have been guilty of an inadvertence which has led them into an error. In effect they say : " In this patent the acid is employed cold, in the fixed proportion of oue- thousandth part, but simultaneously with a preparation into which enters the Marseilles soap, the effect of which should be to neutralise a part at least of the sulphuric acid ; that preparation comprehends also saltpetre, flour of rye, butter, &c." There is not a single distillery visited by us in which we have not seen a composition more or less analogous employed to precipitate the scum in fermentations. For fifteen hectolitres of juice the patent of Wattringue and Co. employs 1 k. 500 of sulphuric acid, and only 2 kih, or the twentieth, of a composition into which it enters ; flour of rye, coarsely ground, 16 kil. ; bean of wheat, 9 kil. ; fresh butter, 1 k. 5 ; Marseilles soap, 2 k. 5 ; saltpetre, 1 kil. ; boiling water, 20 kil. There is not, in the 2 kil. specified in the patent of Messrs. Watt- ringue and Co., enough to neutralise the hundredth- part of the sulphuric acid introduced. Thus, the objection has no value. (6) The proportion of one-thousandth part of acid for the fermentation of beetroot juice has been, as we have seen, for a long time public property. What say the patents of M. Dubrunfaut, taken out in 1852 ? The learned manufacturer thus resumes what he calls his new inven- tions : " I have shown," says he, " 1st, that we can always weaken the cells of the roots with all kinds of acids ; 2nd, that we can from thence macerate the weak- ened pieces cold, or make ferment; 3rd, that we can macerate the fermented pieces previously weakened by the acid ; 4th, that certain proportions (one to two thousandths) produce the alcoholic fermentation sponta- neously of the beetroot juice — that certain other propor- tions (from two to four thousandths) assist the fermen- tation, and the regularization of the fermentation in presence of yeast developed; 5th, that a proportion of two to three thousandths at most, liberates the juice per- fectly, and preserves it during a longer or shorter period from all kinds of fermentation or alteration prejudicial to distillation." This we do not haggle about with M. Dubrunfaut, but accept the summary of his works, such as he himself gives it, without attempting to discover if his patents have the distinctness of his recent memorial. But ought we to admit that, this summary being acknowledged correct, the consequence is, that whoever shall employ sulphuric acid in the proportions of one to four thousandths, the limits indicated above, will be a pirate ? This is the question which concerns all the agricultural distilleries which now, to the number of 150 to 200 probably, em- ploy sulphuric acid. Messrs. Dumus, Bussy, and Pe- louse have answered " Yes, " in what concerns the dis- tilleries using the juice proceeding from the pr;es^,,^ut THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 345 they sav " No, " for the distilleries worked by the system of Leplay. They have not yet been called upon to ex- plain themselves for the distilleries on the system of Champonnois, The fundamental argument upon which these savans support themselves in giving their opinioa on what relates to the privilege they assume they ought to grant to M. Du- brunfaut for the distillation of acidulated juices, is, that previous to 1852 that distillation — many times un- dertaken, and even patented — had been as many times abandoned. They produce, in support of their view of the case, two certificates ; one, of a certain number of manufacturers of the North, declaring that before 1852 the distillation from beetroots was only known by the disasters resulting from the processes previously in- vented ; the other, of merchants, commission-men, and brokers of alcohol at Paris, attesting that, previous to 1852, alcohols from beetroots were unknown at the bonding warehouse of Paris, or that it came thither in very small quantities, insufficient in any degree to disclose the existence of a decided manufacture. But is it not evident that it is the actual rarity of spirits of wine, and the high price of alcohols maintained for four years, which have allowed the manufacture to revive and esta- blish itself? Most of the former attempts have yielded before the sudden fluctuations and changes from high to low prices, as it is supposed the present beetroot distilleries will fall when the vine shall again successively yield an abun- dant vintage. Yet these distilleries having gone through the first period of trial, having passed through all the trials which all new establishments submit to, have many more chances of sustaining themselves than had the previous ones. It ought to be well understood that it is not in the best-arranged patents, but only in prac- tice, that we can learn to manage well a fermentation. M. Dubrunfaut has had it in his power to render great services to manufacturers by his instructions, but that is all. In no respect do we find in his patents the true discovery of the proportion of sulphuric acid. He points out variable proportions, commencing with that indicated by Wattringen, by Cheval, and others. But how ought these properties to vary ? M. Dubrunfaut takes as his rule of comparison the quantity of juice, and he says that we shall put from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 of sulphuric acid to the thousand. But when shall we put 1 or 2 ? Upon that point he gives no guide to the distiller, who must judge what it is necessary to do from his own ob- servation and individual skilfulness. In this respect there is still a discovery to make. If M. Dubrunfaut knows the secret by which, in a given quantity of beet- root, we can rnpidly fix the proportion of sulphuric acid it is necessary to employ, he has not given it to the public in his patents. Besides, the quality of the beetroots varies in a factory from one day to another, according as they are brought from one field or from another ; and also according as the season is more or less advanced, every day rendering a variation in the propor- tion of sulphuric acid necessary. Now, the distillers do not even know the proportion they employ, and act em- pirically; nor has any analysis in the processes used by M. Dubrunfaut attempted even to fix the proportions employed by the manufacturers attached. These have been unable to make use of the means patented, in order to determine them, since those means are still to be in- dicated. We repeat that we know not how to act, ex- cept by an habitual glance or sleight-of-hand. Such are the considerations which lead us to divide upon this point from Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Felouse. Let us add that the certificates of the merchants and manufacturers referred to above are wanting in exact- ness, that alcohol from beetroot had been sold more than once previous to 1852 in considerable quantities. A document published at Brussells, in 1851, entitled "A Treatise on Distillation," by M. Lacambre, speaks of the distillation from beetroots as of a business perfectly established in Belgium many years before. We have already ourselves cited, and shall continue to do so, the distillery of Genot, which has produced alcohol upon a large scale long before M. Dubrunfaut dreamt of re- suming from the public use what he had given to it twenty-eight years before. For the distillers who make use of the Leplay process, we shall now recite the very expressions used by Messrs. Dumas, Bussy, and Pelouse, in which we shall find some indications which may serve for the defence of those who employ the Champonnois process, if W. Dubrunfaut puts in execution his threats against them. " M. Dubrunfaut," say the learned Commissioners, "sets out upon this idea — that no fermentation is possible except in the juice ; and he applies the process of fer- mentation directly to the juice itself. When he works upon the pulp it is still in reference to the juice which it is to supply ; and, finally, when he employs sulphuric acid with the beet-root in pieces, we clearly perceive that it is to effect first the weakening of the roots, then their maceration, and, lastly, the fermentation of the juice. " In the Leplay process, on the contrary, the pro- duction of the juice ought to be avoided with the greatest care, both before and after the fermentation. The spirit of the process consists in not producing juice at all, but in working the fermentation of the saccharine in the beet-root itself : all the details of the process tend to realize this theoretic condition. " The addition of water, or a certain quantity of fer- mented juice, to put it in train, intervenes only to communicate the action of fermentation to the saccharine contained in the beet-root. " The subsequent changes are made with the beet- root in pieces, always upon the bottom of the vat, with- out renewing the fermented juice, and by means of new portions of sulphuric acid added always to the same liquid. " Without wishing to pronounce a judgment upon the relative value of the theoretic views which have served for the basis of these two patents, and without prejudging even upon the industrial value of the two processes, it is impossible not to acknowledge that the Laplay-process creates in some manner a new industry, and that it constitutes in every respect a new applica- tion, by suppressing in principle and in fact all the accessories requisite in the preparation and extraction 346 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the juice — such as rasps, presses, apparatus for the weakening and maceration — by replacing the distillation from the juice or pulpose matters in the shape of paste, by the direct distillation from fermented pieces. "From these motives the surveyors estimate that, admitting that the processes employed at Sermaise are precisely those described by Leplay in his patent, there is no identity between the processes employed at Ser- maise and described by Leplay for the fermentation of pieces of beet -root, to be afterwards distilled, and those previously reserved for the certificate of Dubrun- faut of the 10th of February, 1853. "The only important point of real contact which exists between the process of Leplay and that of Du- brunfaut, is the employment of sulphuric acid, which in both is the essential and indispensable element, up to the present time, of a good fermentation. In the em- ployment of sulphuric acid, there are two things to be considered : — 1st, the acid itself, as the agent of fer- mentation ; 2ndly, the mode of using it, and the pro- portions in which it is needful to use it, in order that its action may be as beneficial as possible. " As to what concerns the employment of sulphuric acid, the surveyors admit that it has become the property of the public by the publication of 1823 issued by M. Dubrunfaut himself, in the passage recited in the dis- cussion on the art of manufacturing beet-root sugar. We have therefore to consider the mode of using, and the proportions. " The surveyors admit that the mode of application, and the proportions indicated by Dubrunfaut, whether for the direct fermentation of the juice, or even for that of pieces, as he practises it for the weakening and maceration, are not necessarily applicable to the fer- mentation of the pieces directly as Leplay executes it ; that it was not possible to conclude that the proportions employed by Dubrunfaut were the same that it would be proper to employ in operating continuously upon the same liquid as the agent of fermentation, as is practised by Leplay; that that remarkable fact, pointed out and utilized by Leplay, of what may be called the indefinite conservation of the fermentable property in the beet- root juice by the successive addition, indefinitely re- peated, of the sulphuric acid in presence of the pieces, could not be foreseen a priori, nor deduced from the patents of M. Dubrunfaut ; and that it imparts to the system of Leplay a seal and a character peculiar to it alone. For these reasons the surveyors are of opinion, that the process of Leplay may be adopted and practised without encroaching upon the processes claimed in the patents and certificates of Dubrunfaut." This learned discussion alone demonstrates the small value of the assumed discovery made by M. Dubrunfaut of a certain proportion of sulphuric acid, beyond which nothing would be practicable ; it proves that in admit- ting the right of Dubrunfaut to special proportions, it is necessary to ascertain whether any other process of dis- tillation employs the same proportions ; and it follows, as we have stated above, that we have still, as a prelimi- nary step, to discover the means of determining, a certain amount of beetroot being given, what exact quantity of sulphuric acid will be the most proper to apply in order to extract the alcohol. Our readers must acknowledge, after the facts which we have placed before them, how difficult it is to answer the numerous questions which have been put to us, upon what processes we could recommend them to adopt. Could we with propriety involve them in a course in which they would run the risk of encountering all the embarrassments of a long and doubtful law-suit ? Thus we are very often condemned for not giving solutions of questions which we do not possess. Be it observed, again, that we have not spoken of the existing law-suits upon distilling apparatus, in which contradictory judg- ments have been pronounced. With regard to the fermentation of beetroot, our decided opinion is that it is now freed from obstructions by the placing at the public disposal, in 1825, of the using of sulphuric acid, and of the proper yeast pro- duced during the fermentation of the beetroot. If the processes described so accurately in 1825 by Dubrun- faut have not been entered upon until recently in indus- trial practice, that only proves that alcohols have not sustained so continuous a course of remunerative prices as to render the distillation from beetroot generally profitable. Its present success does not prove the dis- coveries to be recent. Undoubtedly the merit of M. Dubrunfaut is not less great ; but he cannot now be re- compensed by a direct premium upon distilleries. If we admit the contrary, that would conduct us to per- petual patents ; a system maintained by some persons, but which we look upon as bad, and, in every case, con- trary to our laws. We should vote for all the rewards that can be proposed for M. Dubrunfaut, in all circum- stances in which our advice is required ; but we do not believe in the validity of the privilege he claims. In conclusion, we cannot help remarking how much better the agriculturist understands progress than the manufacturers. When the former discovers a new mode of cultivation, when he conceives a plan of increasing the produce of his fields, or the profits of his stables or cattle-sheds, he hastens to show to everybody what he has done ; and his most exalted ambition, his only reward, is to see it imitated. The manufacturers, on the contrary, for the most part, combat for insignificant details, which they hasten to patent in all that relates to progress. Still more, if a manufacturer more generous than his brethren does not take out patents for the im- provements he has effected, but delivers them gratui- tously to every one, it is sure to happen that some other person patents his inventions, and compels him to pay him a premium for their use, or, at the least, to run the risk of a prosecution for piracy, the issue of which is always doubtful. J. A. Barral. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 847 THE CHEESE MARKET AND MANUFACTURE. Cheese, as a food and a condiment, is in general use in all countries where it can be easily obtained ; and its varieties are innumerable — from the globular Dutch and the hard horny Suffolk skim, which often requires an axe to cut it, being so liard " that pigs grunt at it, dogs bark at it, but neither of them dare bite it," to the cream, and rich Cheddar and ripe Stiltons. Old Fuller tells us that poor men eat cheese for hunger, and rich lor digestion. This maybe so; but be the uses what they may, cheese en- ters largely into consumption as an article of diet, and, our home production being insufficient for the demand, the foreign imports are necessarily large. Various esti- mates, founded on the supposition that two-thirds of the population will each consume three-quarters of a pound of cheese annually, bring up tlie home production to 100,000 tons, which, added to the foreign imports, gives a total consumption of cheese for the United Kingdom of about 120,000 tons. Little or no cheese is made in Ireland, and but a small quantity in Scotland. The chief English cheese counties are Cheshire, Gloucester, Salop, and Derby, where fully three-fourths of the whole quantity of British cheese is made. When we consider the nutritious properties of cheese as pointed out by chemical analysis — showing that it stands considerably higher in this respect than butcher's meat — we cannot wonder at the large consumption, which outruns our home manufacture. It is, more- over, an article readily available for food, requiring no subsequent preparation, and easily kept. The cheaper and commoner kinds, therefore, become a considera- ble article of diet among the agricultural popu- lation, and containing 31 per cent, of flesh-forming constituents and 25|^ per cent, of heat-giving sub- stances, it affords much sustenance to the body. London and Liverpool are the chief ports for the reception of foreign cheese, but large quantities go also to Scotland, especially to Leith and Dundee. The value of the foreign cheese imported exceeds one million sterling. Of 19,004 tons imported in 1855, 15,550 tons came from Holland, 3,459 from the United States, and small quantities from France, Sardinia, Tuscany, and other parts of the Continent. The round Dutch cheeses are well known and largely coMsumed here. The cheese prepared for exportation in the Italian States being kept in brine, is excessively salt, and is only preferred as a condiment for macaroni. It fluc- tuates in price from 12s. to 30s. pev Sardinian cantar of 931bs. In 1850 there were produced in the United States 113 million pounds of cheese, and this enormous product was nearly all required to meet the demand for home consumption, the total export there amounting to scarcely 9 million pounds. The foreign exports of American cheese have, however, been declining, for in the fiscal year of 1855 the shipments were under 5 million joounds, valued at ^103,000. More than three-fourths of the entire shipment came to England. Strange as it may seem, the imports of foreign cheese into America were at the same time on an extensive scale, amounting to upwards of one million and a-half of pounds. France sent the largest supply across the Atlantic — more than one million pounds; the Germans sent 157,000 pounds of their fragi-ant Limburger and other varieties ; and the Dutch 220,000 pounds. With the exception of Canada, the dairy produce of our colonies is as yet insignificant, although there is no reason why in Australia, the Cape and Natal, and parts of British India, it should not in time become exten» sive. Our exports of foreign cheese have fluctuated in the last fifteen years from 3,500 cwts. (the lowest) in 1848 to 9,436 cwts. (the highest) in 1853. The average of the last six or seven years gives an annual export of 5,970 cwts. The total shipments of cheese in 1855 comprised 27,666 cwts., of which 22,318 cwts. were British made. The chief shipments were 13,824 cwts, to Australia, 4,984 cwts. to Brazil, about 1,000 cwts. went to the East and West Indies and Turkey, and smaller quantities to South Africa, Mauritius, British North America, and the Continent. There is no reason why we should not make cheese enough for our own consumption, except perhaps that we trench somewhat largely on the milk production, especially for the sup- ply of our large town populations. We append a return of the imports of foreign cheese into the United Kingdom in the last sixteen yeats — cwts. cwts. 1841.. .. 270,219 1849.. .. 390,147 1842.. ,. 129,748 1850.. .. 347,803 1843.. . 179,389 1851.. ,. 338,659 1844.. .. 213,850 1852.. .. 289,458 1845.. .. 267,824 1853.. .. 396,404 1846.. . 341,682 1854.. . 388,714 1847.. . 354,802 1855.. . 385,136 1848.. . 441,635 1856.. . 407,076 •"UOO! 2 c« ; 5oo2 j; 3S -;^S •^ M 5:« £ " 2 -<»~- 9 so a^s^^ Sn « .n oi J3 r 00^ ; "" " o '" o» OO C* X 2 mS Sg o o o o o iJ? 00 O Ol iC * 1 bo tc ta bt ! ; CO "^ O O C 2 £ o c " -J ■* .M . .-3 . , o c p g . ; a ss P-ss ^ s: O ti . .!« ^^t! CIS pC g § „, c O O o -5g § -"OS ;„-i:m- T5" O -^ - «' • c S a> O en g i; o S«« 33 •a a - o jr, c o ^ 2 s 5 S S 'J^i oc:i 'i5 c s > c o 3 ^ E-i o ,3? Mill 1:1 ..c -^ 0) o o -s j5 . a o i; t^^ D ■ ■§■? o S 2 o^ -S. S = 2 S i° g p c •052 «-3 S Sc K^ ►^ 5 B.-0 caQ 'O -^ 'O -a -a -a t3 T3 T3 .S .5! .S; 03 .S .2 c» .i .2 o o lo .2 S s a s s c c c ■S a = I 2 '^ S " c S a 000 s ^ s a c c = B = E c e ^ [-1 ^^ (*i O O O C C o o :3 .t; o '=^ ^ ft< O C! 5t< oT c c c = a 00000 e^ : c S g c = - ) o o o o O o - *" ^ & & & '* OS ■a ~ 2, S ° S i o ^ >J u I ^ C C = C EC I = O O g O CO 5.1- .2 o i> TO O 1: -^-^ " *« -C T3 "^ -C -^ '^ T3 T3 '^ ?c rt rt S c35,rt (Saa Qjrtcccsra -C -C -O Qj 0) a> S 5 aj t3 ^3 <3 '^ '^ C3 ctj ca C3 C3 to t^ I'- 'a -3 - Oi « t>' « t^ O !>. ■3 -a -3 -c -a 13 -c 1.^ m-f:< 7;r ■;:r" n « 0 t» -T ." 0 ~T 0" "T 0 O) "TT ^ ci i^ 0 m 0 rr i^ « 0 « S TO 0 0 ^ ^-fSO 0 -^ CO 7* « . « - "^ c c c c C c ^ c a — C-rt c a c c c a s a a a a a a a a = a a c a a a a a • c 0 0 0 is ^ d &: u E: t: 03 IS & & ? cS ^ rt * == IS l: If 5= ^ IS s e ^. **•__ bs Is \ - 't. =; * : is L. W ^ o ^ »j J5.= rt ^ o rt i;£i.5 o to rt ■;: o _' « > n rt td 5; . .^ rt i2 2 o ai " = 5 b-^ 2(i.L xc >■. . - a J2 xxo '^ o o c o • s ^ « ° -S > o tJ ~ ts" S « ' o -3 x ■s O I-1J2 a-2 a> XB.2: B S' ■°.n^o °. •5 o •- c t.( ♦-■art' .c rt -S5 ^ c rt >. rt ■5 H !j i O c 2 1 = ^ hcbSw X t-. X X X j3 .0 .n J3 .0 O M '/, ^ f x >> X >, X >> X X x >» j: JO j^ -c ^' .D ^ (/a'-' . 3 '-' •° -^ : ^ i- .5 " :2 .;S „" -, p > E~ Si. (U J " ^ I 3 O g°.^^° o O -^ 'C ^ OJ o " oT 5 « 5 5 5 2 a .2 i« -a o K 3 -O o -g g' o a; >> >, t-> s>. x X a 2 ^ 3 .Q .^ ■ rt « • ^ rt rt -2 So 3| in '^jiSX.S.^ 3 - cfi >. o o -« ;^-^ rt"^ 5\n 7 -* i? a ^_ 55' ^ c :^ Q. -5 »r 02 /9 i I-' a v^^ 1 ( a fc rt i^ o<5 xb 3 'r; '■o B ? 0 S" t - ° 3 E ^- — J2 a er =7 ^ ? £. •" I K i: > > H ' X S >. >, X fc-^ Q. "^ rt o rt S "3 fflcc> X X. rt w S " " 1 to rt'a^c "^rt S — s • • rt ! ^ o-.: 5 X . 5 ■a "0*5 a'^ oT '^ X i- g.-° s 3 >— O o o « .*j 3 a 3 o c o „ ° --s - « '5 -iXXX XX XXX lor-tooto ao — 1>- 'i>c»"* t>.»-»>a3 0t^oi ost>wt^co -1* 005OCS cJ^^cooieociootoxocooo ox »« — o . . 3 c = • • = ^ c XX OJ o a; rt rt J3 =r J3 -3 rj tj .^ u X O X X O X o O X 3 p !-" rt t^ ^ , j; J3 O J= : a S = X S p ? rt 0 b o " s11 n- :-gK 3 3 «Q fcS" rt X tc t[ ^l^ii" a c ■3 S^ '^ X X 1-. pi, Fh pL, ft g fHlii g-jH 2 6 3.^ H £'^E04' Oy!itS»r Jn PhOCO^ 0355:3=; W o '5 rt-2 J3 m 3 O O 3 WWW , X O X ! : rt t; « J ) JO -O J3 c 5-.C t. rt « : : « s : J -a 3 ; )H o o 2 ; tc tc W) ^i 1 a a a a • c be S o '/. s O X X fcc rt (8 X) JO .a el. ■S2 ^« E a IS .2 ti o <» 5 5 0 atfi . d S"! ^^ J2 1^ f^ ' ^•2 u^ «J O in .5^ GO be be bfi ^ bo , a li a "am P .1333 N tj O C C O O_0J l-< « be iui u b>e be bfi ic u^ o »0 01 ^ " "S MX S. Re Rape Phill Horn Aylin ^ ^ s ^3 sgs???:: aaa^g : : : s Cd OQ(2 Tc g 5; S ^ -S =3 i- c > ■» ?^ o -3 c . S: E^ ; ts 'tii ;: m ^ i o « o o 'be I I I 3 • S ,0 • i^ • j; ; a S s-^ " • 'S S S I I '2 rt j:: 3 o 3 £; CO a o cQ Qi sa ; t» rt « c ''o^ > >- S o 01 i' o S r^ -M t. 3 .a .2 a 3,3 a a a o o a o o o ^ few fc & fc 04 i-i « CQ in o» a a a a a a 000000 & s= & ^ & & 00 1^ C3 !>. cToT T? t3 '^ T3 -3 'd O O O 0 QJ O) ctf c3 e3 aS a rt >-l w • 3 ^ '.U ai 0 .3 .53 t) D." "3 S fe ;! 0 S .a a a a a 000 fe & & fe — I s {'■J a a a coo ■t S & •^ -^ . Q a; 3 .M 3 go's . 'o ^ ^ a a a a 0000 O "^.Q -• *^ IS a; >. a a a a '^^^ 00 o '^ a a ??•" -a 5 •° IS ^'^ > Ss" a « !'=**«H a a a o 00 S — ■* -^ ■3 -s -d t3 -3 a-c a a a a o CU o O O ■" .J E= S fc ^ i: I ^ .» oj .. _ „ a „ ta CO c o ~ o oj cm ,-. 01 a ^ •3 '^ -3 -3 -3 S-3 G; t- i> aJ OJ .0 GJ ■g ^ c " t; ^ ■g ec ^ C3 rt eg ^ a a a a a .^ a a Ol O f» p.«i M •3 -d-d p'3'3 n ed c5 "^ Oi tc o 01 a a a a OOiCD^O CO'^*C0^t^ rtrtrtrt cscscjcs a a a a a a 00 0000 fc fe & & S & eo o" o o^cTt* •S "S a be S3 & 5 c g> o K ^ .ti Si ^ =- ° 3;„ i o 5 - o o «S " o -^ ^ -3 -t^ O *^ 1 P 2 -T f c ^ o O "c •- •S ^ a a >-° «- ai c " - 3 a. -a - o >.J=o ° •= 2 B 3 ^ „ ^ j;So So _ J. « ^ 3 3 3 3 rf ^ >1 >. <► (»> .0 .C J3 .C .3 3 - 3 - 3 O 5_ O o O -^~ X a ^ a^ - "3 ' O S S O W .5 ^ a e ' -^ d 3 O) j:: ca -3 Xj -C JS JO .Q ■^ ' }^^ -^Ss o L a * "--i*^ "^ p H ►J c! ^ &> P IT, '^ .3 ii a sT o ^"S ^P< c -a t, 2'° S'-" ^ O woo'^"^^'^ ^.aSS g-3 g^ a bea 03sa>Oo^^„ ?'°S7_fec2o5°=' c o" 3 " 7? •" 2 'S "T t' '"?;oS-co-S=^=ia3a) > t. = S ■§ « "3 ^ -3 ---3 ■- s^'a a -"- : - ill ^m 8Q rt o 3 *^ b~' >, t>. >. t^ b-. a !>. «>. .>,>->>»>%>> .0 X? JO ^ .a £i XI JO .3 JO x> js ,0 11 : -•" U ■3 aT § - rt a,— 4 H 00 2.D j -=■« S ' ►J o Sc Is 'Si = 3 5 C, Q) C " O „' o H-a 3 3.- O 1; 3. E-SW >. >. X J3 x^ J5 ¥^ * cfqi-l -1 &^^*„ £!"*§ a » s C-o « ;p C3 Qij>s a :S5S 3pq o a; - fe - ° 2 = ^ -o S « a a ., Mfe « 5.a 3; c O ■£ B Pb !> JO JO x> ■^ 0 ^ »J a ^ 0 oT oi 0 cj a 0 >> a 3 J- 0 s" > 0 j= a « 3 JS &^ .S .3 0 J= >, t>. t-. >■. t>^ 1^ O*— OC-iC COCCOCO^O Oi:CCDOOaO|05 '^C:!.* ce*oJt>cor^o •^oO'^*c>.c* C* •-< Ifl GO 00 CO <— < gas i » & moo i-fe i-i--« = = :::::: c^ • ■ '° : ::aag -J^J3 U^JSJSJD^Xl J3-Q^J3J3^ 0-=)X>^J3^^ X)J3c;^)o J r> -O -J ^ J3 ) Q. a a i5ft< S o RO S2 "ciltJl S -^ a.'.r n ^ S a t,3 rtiux!jq~0 00 Pi Ph p, p, |ii pi, ^ r-i ^-^ ^ -y -ti iP^fitfii K p;k u to g HD So to bo 55 CO « ?> O S .3 ;= ,£ ^ g ^ J3 J= ^ t:£bcu>b£bcb£b£bD J 5 « * .5" a .p. . . § a -• .2 , i= 3 50 O O 5^ a . a ei rt na ^^•^aa ,a « _g _c;^ •* « tc to O oiOt^OOM C^" Ol«« s g as O lA tn lO « CO CO -- O 13 QJ - • -ffl ' SOm Oik. gas ssi : o ^H o o S c bij s -g g g aj HM^B ;gg gsss a aaaa .2 2 -2 » s s 8 •- ^ =;* ^ t: s =5 .B . Eh , U •^.2 S ° S ss^>^a g « c J cs «3 O Pes 03 -d f_ CO : B S Q * O •id "3 en c — 133 i556mHM&i^c^Q So o « B3 P5 <) Sj-1* a CS £ - S ■^ -2 S -r be— S be ■g §^ a O = C Q 4^ t3 a' ., ^a& O 3 § .= S •> -Ph i C *P or r — 3 — S ° ?, S S t- -a " 5 » = o OPhPSB CO W 05 w < T3 'O "O '^ "C c c s c a 3 3 3 = 3 95 .S; .S (M »i .S .S m .s « « ^03^ " c lal ■g ■£ ca a. Q-a 1= = e ° o 5 t> £» 03 ,.. a 3 W 1 O "3 K O •S i^ i ,^ is 5^ i^ ~ i'jl a a a o o o k & » ■^.f?> .:4 ^ oQg t: P ^^o- O 0(j u" a a a o o o 6: & fe •S a ;: a ei! _„ "3 o o ■n* o tl c hJ&h5;3 "HO-i-^ a s! a a o o o o fe 6 fe s a a o o ^ o» -* -• t^-^ Oi .-1 c a a o o o a o laac g O o o & & S • . t-. >. :2^c .s • >.-'^ c " a ; ^ *1 _2 -a ^ • .2 ^'^ > M " "3 § « S - d, 2 a o .« %- 3 i- tj - = P'^ (2 .5 ^IHol. , ° oTo 3 I-* -•■ a .„- o o ? - a a a a o o o o) — c3 d rt rt a a o o ^ e » o o o 2 . : c5§ • : 3 § 3 =s " t^ • '5 m^-". t.^>-.:« a " " ' ■ a t>. 3 2 •= g p. O ■" O o be cs" §f S j;*'°»-'oa>. -■S*^ S a .T3 a p : ; o ^ . • *■* o 5 o 5 o ' l-a ° rt"^P « w a ■s ■£ ^ S .2 o ■S ° - 3 5 "3 a o "^ ^ 3 _- 2 o , ^03 . = 5 = £->.■: o o rt 3 ^ ^ Q Oi-Jcc M >, >> t», >i >> ^ ^ J3 .3 J5 J3 .0 .Q oac-iSaC^o-o S" ^SS'S'2 _-i|:S^a3^- o.ao&o — fciins-'^csartCo-- - <.EHH(»HOa«OOWOH«E-> .0 .a ,0 -D .3 .Q.0XSJ3.0 XiJSJ3JSX?J3 ^ a . i^ a «'-' .•= S 03. :S I g^ is t- a' o : ° O a S -^ • ■^ ai eS as o o 3 3 J o 3 ". f^ J= t^ 3 -g .sS '^■^ -a OS -a a S -a J s 3 °as <-H 00-50 a- ^^5" t-, >, !>. t-. 5-. t». >. >-,'° ja'^o *i] JO ^ .0 -o ^ j5 ja J3 .0 = ■3 : a o 2 • a ~ § " a tS *■! o -^ 3 ^ «'«-&■ >■ 0) >> . J3 13 ^ rf ^ C Cm (J §3 ° 3 rt m ^ « X? -O X> -C OTT>«^^Ot>iOO C'jQOCl'^iOiOO— • 10 m o — • I 0 CC J> CO rH to r* t* -^ I -^ •—00000000 0000 • 1 >s>^>»0 Xt^>-.o X>.OAX>.OX>X>.3 %M.ae3X^^catH si ) J3 y .a J .0 ^ o o o >> ^ t*^ .0 ^ .Q -O J XI o o >» o o o >^ >■» a) ^ c3 cd .e ■a -g ,0 ci ■g^ : : u a "5 «[!? S -a o .5 ^ o a ja-3 f> 25 =5^ ^ Itg a- *- 9; *H "^ "IT ii -3 F 2 tt rfi m m m m rfi f/) MB CO i» W W CO 75 CC S' „ ?, R ° =- J p. " S o o • t. « "o, S a a o-'S 9S M w w ai CO en M H H H p " u o. a >-. i-f 13 3>. V V rn ^^^ 2g ^ §|S.2 •a •- J. S ■3 -a "9 .5 a a = o ^^^^ 352 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE RECENT PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. It cannot be considered but as an evidence of the increasing importance and influence of such an in- stitution, that the proceedings of the Royal Agricul- tural Society are now watched with much interest and critical attention. The Council work more than ever with the eyes of England upon them. There was a time when the community of farmers just attended the July show, received their Journals, and paid their subscriptions, without caring to know much about what was done, or who did it. This, however, has gradually changed — and, we may say, for the better. The general body of members are beginning to identify themselves more with the Society they support. Wliether consulted or not, there is not an act agreed upon, nor a resolution arrived at, but that they are pretty sure to talk it over. If, moreover, you will only listen a little, they are brimful of suggestions and alterations; have propositions that must benefit the Society, if only fairly entertained ; and, often enough, ample experience and argument to maintain what they advance. Latterly, there has been no lack of something to talk over. The Agenda Book of the last two Monthly Coun- cil Meetings must have provided plenty of business to get through. First, and most essential of all, there was that question of Finance which limits so many a de- velopment, and so often stops the mouth of a pro- gressionist. At the first glance it is absolutely startling to see how much the country meeting costs the So- ciety. When we remember the bonus invariably raised from the locality selected, and the additions to the prize lists from the same source — when we couple these with the money taken at the doors, the sale of tickets for the dinner ; of catalogues in the yard and other in- comings— one could scarcely suppose that a national agricultural show could be such a very bad specula- tion, after all. But it is. Chelmsford last year con- tributed fourteen hundred pounds ; the admissions reached tiiree thousand ; and the catalogues and dinner tickets made close upon seven hundred. In all, the re- ceipts amounted to six thousand five hundred, and the Society lost two thousand pounds by the week ! To be sure it offers sixteen hundred in premiums ; and the expenses of laying out and fitting up the yards, with those of the judges exceed three tliousand. The cata- logues about clear themselves, as within a hundred or so does the very good cold dinner Mr. Holt puts upon the table. And yet this dinner shows a deficit of something like seven hundred pounds ! It is nearly always well attended. On the last two or three occa- sions there have been very few vacant places ; and still, nearly half of this retreating two thousand is debited to the dinner. How can it be ? asks somebody who has not studied the question. The oratory is gratis ; there are no pro- fessional singers to answer for, and the toastmaster and trumpeting altogether do not come to a ten-pound note. But then the pavilion — it is well called the " Pavilion" dinner — annually costs the Society some- think like six hundred pounds ; and the conti'actor is often supposed to lose money by the job. Then do away with the dinner, say the economists ; or, Do away with the pavilion, say others, who know there is no getting on in this country without a dinner. And the Council are going to do away with the Pavilion. Something less expensive will be tried this year at Salisbury, and we can only hope with every success. In any case, it will never do to abandon the dinner. It has always been one of the attractive features of the week ; as, indeed, it always must be. Puttmg aside the question of cost, we must say it has generally been very well done ; in fact, we remember no other such a cere- mony where so large a company has been so admirably accommodated. Something, we believe, might be learnt in the way of economy from the West of England meetings, where, beyond the original outlay on Mr. Gray's material, the cost of erection is little or nothing. So far so good. Then we are to have this year a series of lectures on the first Wednesday in every month, beginning with Professor Way in April. With the hope of securing a better attendance, these are now fixed for the evening instead of the morning, as here- tofore. We could have almost wished they had also been made one day earlier in the week. On the first Monday in the month there is the Discussion Meeting of the Central Farmers' Club ; on the Tuesday morn- ing, meetings of one or two other agricultural bodies ; and many a man that we could name would stop over Tuesday who cannot afford another day. On the other hand, Wednesday evening is "no House" in the Commons, so that members will have the opportunity of attending in Hanover-sqnare. Unfortunately, so far, we have not a great many farmers in the House, though there is no knowing what this election may do for us. At any rate, let those who have not the opportunity of hearing these lectui'es have the chance of reading them as soon as possible. It is this dissemination of intelligence' that gives its chief value. What, for instance, would be the effect of the discussions at the Farmers' Club, if they were not reported immediately in our own and other agricultural papers, or circulated amongst the members by means of the Journal ? Why, for one man, one ruralist recollect, who attends a meeting of this kind, a thousand at least read of it. And here is Pi'ofessor Way going to lecture next week upon guano, and it will be, according to precedent at least, three or four months, about the middle of July say, before the thousands of members will know a word of what Professor Way luts been saying about guano. The Professor, we repeat, lectures in the evening of the first Wednesday in April, at eight o'clock. On the morning of the same day the members of the Council meet, and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 at that meeting let some member harden his heart, and propose manfully in so many words that " reporters be admitted." Let us not be misunderstood. This is by no means a matter personal to ourselves. Had it been so, we might have been less prone to speak of it. The question is rather one with the agricultural public, with the general body of the members, that is, who wish to know what is going on, and to turn the Society to its best uses. It will not do three months after date to pay over Professor Way or Professor Simonds to those to whom he is due now. We care not how the amount is transmitted, so there be value received some way or other. If it would be making the Professors too well known to give them in full in the Mark Lane Express, or any other of our contemporaries, let special reports of these several lec- tures be sent at once from the Society to the members of the Society — Another, and not the least promising plan for inducing people to join. Both these matters we have referred to are steps in the right direction, and it can only be regretted should they lose any of their effect in the completion of the arrangements connected with them. The money saved at Salisbury may be better applied ; and the ready dis- semination of the Society's knowledge cannot but make it the better appreciated. THE PREMIUM SUBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS. If the two hundred and sixteen " Subjects for Pre- miums " issued by the Council of the Society of Arts meet with the response they are entitled to command from members and tlie general public, the 31st of this month (the final day for admitting essays and articles for competition) will put the Society in possession of a mass of information surpassing in value, variety, and usefulness any ever before collected. We are glad that the list of desiderata, while including essays and ac- counts of new processes in the arts or in methods of manufacture, drawings and models illustrating any new mechanical arrangement by which these may be simplified or labour saved, and descriptions of any novel application ofraw materials to useful purposes, or specimens of such materials not previously known, em- braces several strictly agricultural subjects, with various others, manufacturing, engineering, chemical, or com- mercial, having an important bearing upon the pursuits of husbandry. Thus, among the 96 subjects under the head " Raw Materials," one is " For an account of the best methods of growing and preparing flax, with a comparison of natural and artificial modes of steeping." Another is, " For an account of the various grain and pulse crops grown in India, classifying them under their several local and botanical names, and specifying their culture, yield, uses, and prices." And then we have also, " For an account of the methods at present employed for the extraction of oil from seeds, and the useful application of the cake, or marc, as food, manure, &c. ;" " For the production of ammonia or nitric acid from their elements, by methods which would admit of practical application ;" " For the production of char- coal from wood, capable of being used as an economical and efficient substitute for animal charcoal in the manu- facturing processes where the latter is at present used ;" " For the best collection of tanning substances, dis- tinguishing those at present used from those generally unknown to commerce;" " For an account of the principal dyes and dye stuffs at present employed in the woollen and silk trades [another subject referring to the cotton trade], their sources of supply and modes -of application;" " For an account of the processes at present employed for the extraction of dyes and co- louring matters from animal, vegetable, and mineral substances ;" " For an account of road material of different kinds, and the absolute [and relative value of each." Here there is ample scope for any agricultural or rural improver to enlighten us upon everything re- lating to flax, oil- cake, nitrogen manure, woad, weld, madder, bark, charcoal-burning, road-making, &c. Among the 70 subjects under the head " Machinery," one is " For an Essay on the application of Steam Power to the cultivation of the soil" ; another, " For an essay on the principles which should regulate the construction of i-eaping-machines, with a review of those which have been practically tested"; another, " For an account of the machinery employed in reap- ing, drawing, thrashing, hulling or shelling, grinding, crushing, cutting, and pulping farm produce;" another " For the best method of di-ying corn, both before and after being thrashed." And, still further, we have " For an account of the best machinery employed in drying, cleaning, grinding and dressing wheat into flour;" " For an account of the best machinery for preparing, grind- ing, and dressing barley and oats into their respective manufactured constituents, pearl barley, groats, &c.;" " For an account of improvements in the manufactui-e of sugar from beet-root, in Great Britain and Ireland, and of the results obtained;" "For an account of the uses of wire-rope, with a review of its relative merits when compared with hemp-rope and chains, particu- larly for drawing in deep shafts;" " For an account of the machinery and process at present employed on the Continent for earth-boring." Fi'om all these papers wo anticipate much valuable service to the farmer, alike in furnishing new knowledge upon many processes for treating his produce and enhancing its value, assisting him in the important matter of farm-macliinery, and advancing the great question of cultivation by steam. Among the 31 subjects under the heads "Manufac- tures" and "Miscellaneous," we find — " For an essay on the arterial drainage of land, considered with refer- ence to the geological strata of the districts to bo drained, with suggestions for such improvement in the main and subordinate outfalls of the country as aro rendered desiiable by the more rapid accumulation of 354 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. surface water, caused by the increase of under- draining;" " For the best method of economically deo- dorising sewage and other waters, and of precipitating or otherwise extracting the matters held by them in solution or suspension;" "For the best method of separating (and preserving) ammonia and its com- pounds from sewage waters and refuse matters, for agricultual purposes;" "For the best method of con- verting precipitated or extracted sewage matter into a dry or available state, for agricultural purposes;" "For the best method of enriching the solid matter obtained from sewage waters, either by mixing the same with other salts or manures in which the solid sewage matter is deficient, so as to adapt it to various agricultural crops; or, by facilitating its decomposi- tion, to render any latent fertilizing ingi-edient it may contain more readily fit for the food of plants ;" " For an essay on the management and maintenance of public roads, with special reference to their altered position since the introduction of railways;" " For a cheap quality of glass, applicable for drains, water- pipes, sinks, shelves for larders, dairies, etc., in which coarseness and want of transparency are not regarded." Here the subjects relating to sewage manure are of the very greatest importance to the agriculturist and to the entire community, and the solution of the difRculties involved in the terms stated would be a triumph of practical chemistry and an unspeakable gain to the world. Out of 21G subjects, comprising art, manufactures, metallurgy and mining, mechanics and engineering, chemistry as applied to the arts, sanitary science, in- dustrial instruction, colonies and commerce, there are ten directly agricultural, and fifteen more immediately connected with cultivation and rural economy. There is yet time for any of our readers to send in any infor- mation it may be^ in their power to afford ; and we advise them to apply at once to the secretary, at John- street, Adelphi, for the conditions on which communi- cations are receivable. It is possible that a long time may elapse before valuable or novel suggestions in a prize essay become generally appreciated and put in practice, for wc well know, from the example of the Royal Agi'icultural Society's experience, that published information and theoretical proposals are often very far a-head of actual realization. Take arterial drainage, for instance, and we see that, in spite of prize essays, detailed reports, engineers' recommendations, long and incessant com- plaints of loss and damage, and frequent appeals for re- dress and for an impi'oved system, floods are still preva- lent as ever, river estuaries remain choked, water-mills dam back the drainage from myriads of deep-buried pipes, quarrels and litigation attend rights of water- way, and no great movement is yet on foot for the re- demption of our wet valleys and their conversion into good corn-land. But undoubtedly the publication of the best knowledge and the newest ideas respecting any great subject in art, manufacture, husbandry, &c., tends to accomplish the desired result by enlightening and strengthening those individual minds that may be engaged upon that particular subject, and so through their agency gradually reaching and affecting all who should be concerned in it. Some subjects in the above list are not of this advanced character, but speak at once to the attention and interest of us all ; and the produc- tion and public enunciation of any private and local knowledge, experience, or suggestion, will prove of in- calculable service to every practitioner who is seeking the means of progress and improvement. Incur next we will say a few words upon some of the topics named in the Society's schedule, hoping that our reminder will not be too late for some of our agricultural penmen wlio may not have had their at- tention drawn to this means of promoting and difi"u3ing their views or inventions. REVIEWS. THE POST AND THE PADDOCK. By The Druid. (Hunting Edition. — London, 1857.) Piper, Stephenson, and Spence, Paternoster-row. This is the third edition of one of the most interesting sporting publications we have ever taken in hand. The two first editions contained but twelve chapters ; to this are added three others ; viz., the " Breeding of Hunters," " Auld Lang Syne," and " Dick Christian's Lecture." Heroes and lovers speak poetically, but The Druid having eyes to see what has passed and is passing around him, gives his recollections in an artistic and highly-finished manner. To the sportsman, what is so interesting as a history of the chace ! To those of the present day, what can be so soul- stirring as to recall the memory of the jolly hours they have spent in the full enjoyment of that most passionate of all amusements — " the fox hunt !" How he delights to re- capitulate the events of " the find," the burst of " full cry," . and the glory of being " in at the drath" ! And should he wish to have recapitulated to him how his father and grandfather did the tldng in "Auld Lang Syne," let him read the 14th chapter for information. We quote :— = " To a sportsman, nothing can be so interesting as the legends of the chase. In early days, some two hundred years ago, the higher orders of society took no interest in, and were wholly ignorant of, the science of hunting ; and it was many years before periwigs and satin vests gave way to the green coat and brown tops. The only sportsman was the old rough squire, who had never been far from the purlieus of his mansion. The smart sportsman of the pre- sent day, who breakfasts at nine o'clock and rides his hack twenty miles to covert, will hardly believe the style and habit of those days. Our ancestors used to breakfast in the baronial hall, on well-seasoned hashes and old October; and the huntsman and whippers-iu, in the servants' hall, on the same good cheer. Thus fortified against the mora- ing air, they sallied out at early dawn to enjoy the sports of tlie field. In those days there were no regular coverts. The whole country was a mass of straggling gorse, heather, or weeds, and it was quite a chance where you could find a fox. The only certainty was gettuig on a drag and hunting up to him, which was the system invariably pursued. We confess we are at a loss to know from whence the present THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 353 splendid foxhound originally sprung'. The beagle and the bloodhound are the sorts we 'chiefly have record of. It might have been a cross between the two. The beagle might have been preserved in its original state, and the bloodhound, with the cross of the beagle, might have con- stituted the foxhoimd. Be that as it may, before the days of Meynell the world were in a mist as to the science of the chase. He it was who first introduced quick hunting; he found that the only way to kill a good fox was never to let him get ahead of him. His hounds were quick and powerful, and never hung on the line, but got to head before they began to handle the scent. The consequence was that there was always a body fighting for it, and making the most of it, good or bad, whichever it might be. He had plenty of line hunters ; but when the forward hounds struck the scent, they flew to the head, and did not chatter and tie on it. Instead of hunting each other they were hunting the fox. It was delightful to see them come out of covert, when he was away. They did not all go through the same gap, but be the fence what it might, they generally got together, before the leading hounds were over the first-field. Before hard riding (that bane of hunting) became the fashion, it is reported that he bred his hounds with more chase than in later days ; but when the system of pressing them began, he was obliged to breed them with more hunt, or they could not have kept the line. It was not from their great speed, but from their everlasting going, and never leaving it, which tired the horse and killed the fox." " Dick Christian's Lecture" is the last chapter, and an excellent wind up to this most amusing work. But we must not forget to call especial attention to the chapter on the breeding of hunters. The information contained — in fact, the epitome of history embodied in it, is well worth double the price of the whole work. Write again, " Good l)ruid !" May you never lose the graphic power of descrip- tion so fully and freely given in your " Post and Paddock." We trust you will fulfil your promise given in this edition, that you will " concentrate your energies on a companion sporting work." ADULTERATIONS DETECTED IN FOOD AND ME- DICINE ; or, Plain Instructions for the Discovery of Frauds in Food and Medicine. By Arthur Hill Hassall, M.D., F.L.S. ; author of the " Reports of the Lancet Commission." — Longmans & Co. A work which should not only make known to us the na- ture of the various adulterations practised upon our food and medicine, but which should teach us the way to discover those adulterations for ourselves, was much required. Such a work ia that before us. It is a particular merit of this work that, while it contains scientific details of high practical interest to the microscopist and the chemist, there are yet interspersed throughout the text such plain and simple instructions and processes, that even the unlearned and imscientific can scarcely fail by their means to discover whether the food he consumes is genuine and wholesome or not. The interest of the subject of adulteration is considerable ; there ia not a single individual wlio is not deeply concerned in it ; the consumer is so especially, for he is not only fleeced of his money, but often of his health as well. The sanitary reformer is, because the public health is deteriorated in consequence of tlje large number of poisonous substances used in adulteration ; the statesman, because it is computed that no less than seven milliona are annually lost to the revenue through adultera- tion ; the moralist, because the principles of the trading com- munity are lowered by the general prevalence of the practice ; lastly, it is of vital importance to the physician, as medicines are the tools or weapons with which he has to combat disease; and if they are not to he relied upon, how vain become all his best endeavours to cure disease ! But adulteration has especial interest for particular classes of persons— those pursuing particular businesses or occupa- tions. There is not a tradesmau engaged in the sale of articles of consumption that ought not to be familiar with the contents of this work. There is much iu it to instruct the agriculturist, the farmer, and the miller. The chapters especially on milk, cheese, flour, and bread should be perused by all such agricul- turists as desire that their knowledge of these matters should keep pace with the times. The remarks on the diseases of the cereal grasses are most interesting and important. A case is made out, in this work, imperatively calling for legislation. If this does not take place, then will matters become ten times worse than before ; for all the recent expo- sures of adulteration wUl have but served to teach dishonest tradesmen the way to adulterate with greater refinement and success than heretofore, Mr. Scholefield, we believe, was pledged to bring in a bill during the present session of Par- liament. Unfortunately this bill will have to stand over for a time. We trust, however, that the delay will but serve to ensure the success of a measure so much required, and of such real social importance. We can, therefore, most cordially and most conscientiously recommend this work to our readers. The individual who could not succeed in extracting from it, by applying some of the information contained in it to his own particular advan- tage, and thus paying for the cost of the work ten times over, must indeed be a most passive and uningenious person. Dr. Hassall's powers of observation and analysis are evidently of a very high order, and, judging from the amount of labour in- volved iu this work, his powers of application must be equally great. The cost of the work, considering the number and beauty of the illustrations, is extremely moderate. CAN GREAT BRITAIN, WITH HIGH AND GOOD FARMING, GROW FOOD ENOUGFI TO KEEP HERSELF? Sir, — According to the highest authority. Great Britain and Ireland contain about 77,000,C00 acres of land; 14,000,000 acres of which are said to be barren and worthless, I mean the surface ; and 12,500,000 acres of waste improvable land. Deducting the 14,000,000 acres of worthless land, it leaves 63,000,000 acres to keep the population of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, which is said to contain little under 30,000,000 souls. Let the reader consider, when the census is taken, how many ere under seven years of age, that consume but little food. At that rate there are 30,000,000 inhabitants upon 63,000,000 acres, which is 2 acres and 16 poles for each human being, including children. So that there appears quite land enough to keep our population, if highly farmed, at the same time making the most manure of everything the earth produces yearly, to be returned to the land again, instead of polluting our rivers and manuring the sea, nay, wasting that which would produce great crops of corn, &c. The wisest of men say that our land is capable of making manure sufficient to support itself, without the aid of guano. Instead of the British farmers laying out millions in guano, let them lay out half the money iu foreign oilcake and corn, and convert it into meat, which would produce yearly a vast quantity of beef, mutton, pork, poultry, &c., &c. : nay, after the cake and corn had passed through the animals, would pro- duce great crops of corn, clover, and root crops, and v/ould be doubly advantageous. After deducting the meat from the price the said cake and corn cost, the manure made by the animals that consumed the said food would not come to half 356 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. BO much as the guano coat. And then a farmer would know what his manure was made of ; he would not be bamboozled by adulterated artificial manures. Have all artificial manures analyzed. When bread got to a famine price, £1 per bushel for wheat, the great statesman, Mr. Pitt, caused bread and flour to be weighed to several families ; and he found that a quarter of wheat per head per year upon an average was suflicient for bread and flour. According to this wise statesman's calculation, we only require, with high farming, 7,500,000 acres of wheat, at 4 quarters per acre, to be grown yearly ; leaving 55,500,000 acres in Great Britain and Ireland to produce meat and other kinds of food for man, besides bread and flour. The great-minded Napoleon I. wisely said, "So long as England could keep herself, no country or combination of countries could conquer her ; but whenever England became dependent on foreigners for food, then by a combination of countries England might be conquered by starvation." If so, and it sounds like comtaon sense and reason, why neglect the cultivation of our own soil, and emigrate to cultivate foreign wildernesses, leaving part of England a wilderness at home for the want of cultivation ? Give every British farmer a North Lincolnshire tenant- right, and let them read books upon improved agriculture, like the " Farmer's Magazine," to add more science to practice, and the wildernesses for the waut of cultivation in England would soon disappear, and be like Lincoln-heath, once a wil- derness, now fine clover and turnip fields. Lincolnshire and Norfolk show what wildernesses in a few years may be brought to, which is a fine example to all the world. Samuel Arnsby. 18, Norfolk-street, Hyde-park, London, Feb. 25, 1857. THE SUPPLY OF GUANO. The discussion introduced so lately and so op- portunely will be useful to many of oui- readers. One of the chief truths dwelt upon at the dis- cussion at the Farmers' Club — the failing supply of guano — is suggestive of several facts worthy of more than ordinary attention. It will strike everyone as rather a curious, yet gratifying state of our agricul- ture, when our great farmers have to watch the im- ports of guano, to note the state of the manure mar- kets almost as carefully as they do those of Mark-lane and Smithfield. This watchfulness is brought about not only by the steadily increasing consumption of the best artificial manures, but by the great variations in the annual amount of imported guano. Thus we find tliat2,881 tons of Peruvian were imported in 1841 ; that this import increased to 283,300 tons in 1845, decreased to 71,414 in 1848 ; increased to 243,014 tons in 1851, diminished to 123,166 tons in 1853; again increased in 1855 to 305,061 tons, and then fell off to about 200,000 tons in 1856. This falling off, there is little hope, we fear, of being recovered in the early part of 1857. It is true that, whilst we are writing, we are aware that, say 96,000 tons are chartered from the Chincha Islands, and will be gradually dropping in ; but it is very doubtful if the majority of this make its appearance until it is too late for spring dressings — and if so, what is to be done ? What substitutes can we adopt ? Now, at the discussion to which we have re- ferred, Mr. E. Purser told the meeting that in his own experience, and those of other trials he had assisted at, sulphate of ammonia, combined with salt and super- phosphate of lime, had proved a most valuable top- dressing for wheat. In confirmation of this statement, let us first remember that the great value of Peruvian guano is found in its ammoniacal or nitrogenous por- tions. Next let us briefly refer to some of the reliable trials which have been instituted to compare the power of Peruvian guano, as a top-dressing, with that of other well-known manures. We turn to the Farmer's Mafjazhic, vol. xlii. p. 404. We find there Dr. Ander- son, and two excelleat Lothian farmers, carefully em- ployed in 1855 upon this most important inquiry. (See also p. 15 of Johnson and Shaw's Farmers' Almanac for 1856.) Now when Mr. Finnic, of Swan- ston, top-dressed his wheat with 1371bs, of Peruvian guano per acre, the produce was 5 qrs. 2 bushs. When he substituted 871bs. of sulphate of ammonia for the guano the produce of wheat was 5 qrs. ; with 1121bs. of cubic petre the produce was 4 qrs. 6 bushs. In the trials of Mr. Hope, of Fenton Barns — when after a top-dressing with 1371bs. of Peruvian guano the land yielded 42 bushs. of wheat — a dressing of 871bs. of sulphate of ammonia yielded 44 bushs. of wheat. The soil dressed with I121bs. of nitrate of soda gave 40 bushs. of wheat. There were other trials upon grass, potatoes, &c., by the same agriculturists, all tending to prove the same facts, viz., that other well known fertilizers may be readily substituted for guano. For turnijis ammoniacal manures are far less needed than for the cereals. We can, for root crops, have recourse to superphosphate of lime, or, what is better, to a mix- ture of this with crushed and fermented bones. But here another question arises, Will these manures remain at their present prices ? We confess we have our misgivings, for the demand for all these has been long on the increase, and the failure of the guano sup- ply will assuredly accelerate the consumption. On one point, however, we have no doubt, and on that we do not address ourselves on this occasion to either the merchant or the manufacturer, but to the consumer. To the farmer, then, we say earnestly, procure your supply, especially of superphosphate, without a j^ost's delay. Do not content yourself with bespeaking it, but have it home, and in a dry store. Rest assured you will get a cheaper, a more perfect manure now — even if the price is not speedily advanced — than if you wait until most farmers are rushing to the dealers for their supplies, and the over-taxed maker is compelled to send out the superphosphate hardly a week old, that ought to have been made at least two months before it left the manu- factory. We have written thus earnestly to the farmer since we know full well that these things are apt to escape his notice amid the many cares with which he is attended, and because we are well assured that if he acts upon our suggestions he will have no cause to repent it. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 357 CANADA AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. A few weeks ago, in reply to a correspondent, we published some remarks on tlie best mode of emigrating to Canada. Since then, we have received an extract from the Canadian Neios, a paper published in London, accompanied with a map, on which is de- lineated the Great Trunk Railroad, recently opened at Toronto, and which already is laid down, we believe, from Quebec to Buffalo, with a branch to Portland in Maine, United States, with the ultimate design of ex- tending it to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, and Frederickton, and St. John's, New Brunswick. Thus Canada West will be at once connected with the Atlantic seaboard, and with all the great Western, as well as the European markets for their produce, without the more tediouS transit by lake navigation, which, in fact, is at present insufficient, by the narrowness of the intervening canals, for the increasing quantities that every month sends down. Our object, however, at present is to apprise those who are desirous of emigrating, that the Colonial Go- vernment has determined to give free grants of land to eligible persons, and that a large and va- luable tract of country has been specially devoted to this purpose. This tract is in Canada West, and is situated on the south side of the Ottawa river, and to the north-west of the Great Trunk Railway, from which a branch will be in a short time carried directly through the district. In addition to which, the Go- vernment has directed the river Ottawa to be sur- veyed, in order to its being made navigable and con- nected with the western lakes, so as to form a junction with the St. Lawrence more direct than the present circuitous route. On this tract of land free grants of one hundred acres each will be made to persons of any nation who have at- tained the age of 18 years. He will be required to take possession of his lot within one month, and to build a house or log hut, at least 20 feet by 18, in which he will have thafrec assistance of his neighbours, according to the usage of the country. He must put into a state of cultivation at least twelve acres of his land in the course four yeai's, and reside upon it during that period. The roads have been made by the Government, ])ut the settlers in future must keep them in repair. Failure to fulfil these engagements will be attended with for- feiture of the land ; but their fulfilment will entitle him to the deed of grant from the Government free of all cost. If a family, consisting of several settlers, entitled to lands, prefer living on separate lots, they are allowed to do so provided the conditions above stated are ful- filled on each lot. Thus a freehold estate may be ob- tained without purchase or expense, over which the proprietor will have the entire control without condition or restriction after the above stipulations have been complied with. The paper, however, cautions emigi-ants from sup- posing that they can succeed on these free grants, or indeed in any part of Canada, without some capital to commence with. It is estimated by the Government agents on the spot, that an emigi-ant family of four persons, of whom three are young children, will require £45 sterling, or ^56 2s. currency, to weather through tlie first year. And this is independent of hiring him- self for four months during the first winter as a lum- berer, by which he will earn £42 and his board and washing. He will also be able, if he can purchase a potash kettle, to convert the ashes of his burned timber into three or four barrels of potash, for which he will obtain at the rate of £6 per barrel. It is calculated that an industrious and able settler can clear eight acres the first season, growing a crop of potatoes on the first cleared. The next spring he can clear two more acres, and may then plant three acres with wheat, five with oats, and two with potatoes- From this time, if he is careful and industrious, and, above all, sober, he cannot fail to rise to independence. He will see his cattle as well as his corn increase, and the comforts of a free home gathering round him daily ; and, if health and strength do not fail him, there is nothing to prevent his prosperity. His property will not only increase in positive, but in relative, value ; for land uncleared doubles in value every ten years by the mere increase of settlers. The district on which these grants are made are estimated to be capable of sustaining a population of eight millions, the soil ig represented to be equal in fertility to any in the pro- vince, and has main roads under construction by the Government to the chief towns in the neighbourhood of the district, independent of the projected railway, which will of course in a great measure supersede other means of transit. We are glad to see that the Paper in question lays great stress upon one important condition, although it is not included in the Government Rules. We refer to temperance, nay, total abstinence, as an essential principle for a settler to adopt and adhere to. " No man can prosper if he be not sober : without sobriety, he will not have strength to undergo the fatigues of his daily labour. And, besides, an intemperate man will immediately become a marked man. In the rural dis- tricts total abstinence is the almost-universal practice ; and, if the farmers only were to return members to the Legislature of Canada, a Maine liquor-law would be quickly enacted." Such are the advantages now held out to emigrants by the Canadian Government, and we trust they will not be refused by such of our countrymen as con- template a removal to that country. Canada is fast rising in prosperity, and will, beyond a doubt, be eventually the most valuable and useful colony belonging to the British Crown. Connected, as Canada-West will soon be, with the Atlantic-seaboard at several of the most 2 A 358 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. important shipping ports, by the Grand Trunk Railway and its projected branches, the most distant parts will be brought within three weeks' transit of the British shores, where her increasing produce will always find a ready, welcome, and profitable market. If further en- couragement is wanting to induce persons to emigrate, let them read the following statement : " The foregoing is no imaginary picture. There are tliousands of per- sons in Canada at the present time, who arrived within the last tioelve years penniless, and are now the culti- vators and owners of cleared farms, varying from 50 to 200 acres in extent. Most of them, after earning a few pounds at day-labour, settled down in localities which were then the very heart of the untrodden forest, , but are now well filled with a population, every member of which, with scarcely an exception, is soier, indus- trious, and thriving." We ought to add that the local Government Agents for the lands are, Mr. J. P. French, Mount St. Patrick, county of Renfrew j Mr. Perry, Flush Mills, county of Addington; and Mr. W. P. Hayes, Hastings, county of Hastings, all in Canada-West. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. The sowing of all grain crops must now be finished as fast as possible, and also lucerne and flax-seed. Finish the preparation of grass meadow grounds ; sow vetches and grass seeds on wheat and barley tilths. Harrow before sowing the stale surface of winter-fallow wheat grounds, and again after the seeds are sown, finish by a heavy rolling. Get prepared as quickly as possible the green- crop lands, and towards the end of the month sow beet-root in drills well dunged, and 28 inches apart ; steep the seeds in weak solution, and encrust with quicklime. Plant potatoes in drills 30 inches apart, and well dunged with farm-yard manure in a half puti'escent state ; use large sets of tubers newly cut, moist dung, and in a large quantity. Cover the drills quickly, and roll them down. Before the land is drilled, spread quicklime over the surface in 200 bushels to an acre, and harrow it into the land immediately ; or strew the hot cin- ders over the ground, and the subsequent workings of the land will mix the lime, which will be pow- dered by the dampness of the soil. This mode requires an earlier application than the old method, but it must be very beneficial to the land, by reason of the warm and moist exhalations evolved during the dissolution of the hot cinders. Early crops will now require both horse and hand-hoeing, as carrots, lucerne, wheat, beans, and peas. Paring and burning of lands will now proceed rigorously ; burn the turfs moderately into a black torrified mass, as in that state carbonaceous matter is most abundant. It is the best method yet known for bringing into cultivation all lands that contain much fibrous, inert, and ligneous matters. Burn, for application by the drop-drill, rough, earthy, and vegetable substances found on road sides and ditch banks. The ashes will often raise good crops of turnips. Rye, watered meadows, winter barley, and vetches will now be ready for soiling cattle in the yards, and for being consumed on the ground by ewes and lambs. The food is best used by being cut and placed in racks, and the racks regularly moved over the mown ground. Fold the sheep nightly on the cleared space, allowing in the fold two square yards to each animal, and two nights in one place. All bare grounds and inferior grass lands are much improved by the folding of sheep upon them. The lambing season will now draw to a close. When cabbages and beet-root fail as food for the ewes, use oats and bruised oil- cake mixed, and a portion of salt. Remove the stronger lambs to the pasture fields. Attend to the milch cows and suckling calves. Give the former an ample allowance of juicy food, natural or prepared ; to the latter as much milk as they will take. When begun to be weaned, at the end of 16 weeks, give to them in racks in the calf pens young vetches, bruised cakes, bean and bar- ley-meals boiled, and linseed jellies. Give them a lump of chalk and of rock salt to lick. The latter substance will quicken the action of the digestive organs, and the former will correct the crude acidi- ties of the stomach. The last remaining fatting bullocks will be sold during this month. Use oil-cake in finishing oflf the animals. The most backward in condition must go to grass. The season of curing bacon being over, all pigs on hand must go on for summer stores, and come in for early winter fattening. The earliest fat lambs will now come in for sale. During the wet weather, carry all the dung from the cattle-yards to the heaps in the fields, and litter the yards afresh for the summer soihng of cattle and horses. Prepare by ploughing, harrowing, and rolling the fallows for green crops, keeping most forward the portion to be sown with Swedish turnips the next month. Plough clay lands for a wheat fallow. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS GENERAL AGRICULTTTRAL MARCH. REPORT FOR During nearly the whole of this month the weather in all parts of the United Kingdom has been very favourable for agricultural operations. Both ploughing and sowing have progressed rapidly, with the land in fine condition for the reception of the seed ; and, with very few exceptions, our accounts respecting the appearance of the winter wheats are very satisfactory. In some parts of England consider- able breadths of land have been sown with barley which had originall}'^ been intended for wheat, the growers being of opinion that the former produce will turn out more pro- fitable than the latter. It is very probable that such will prove to be the case, because there is still every prospect of a large consumption of barley by the distillers (who still hold an immense number of foreign orders for "raw" spirit), and because the home crop of barley is inadequate to meet any extra demand. Still it is necessary that our barley-growers should bear in mind that they will have to contend against an extensive importation from the conti- nent, and that great heaviness in the wheat trade must have, at least, some influence upon barley. The raw spirit trade is certainly one of very recent date ; it has taken from this country an immense amount of spirit, but in the event of there being a good continental wine crop this year, it must of necessity decline, though it can scarcely fall to the level it was a few years since, from the fact that Eng- lish spirit is now much preferred in France to that originally imported from Holland. The consumption of barley will no doubt be very large, and every quarter im- ported will be used for various purposes ; still it becomes a question how far it is prudent to displace much wheat for the production of sprinc; corn. As regards barley, how- ever, as a paying crop, it has certainly a prospective ad- vantage when compared with wheat. The demand for the latter for several months has been wholly confined to im- mediate wants; the importations (notwithstanding that there has been a good export trade) have resulted in an accumulation in warehouse. Money has been very scarce and dear, and there has been a total absence of all speculation. The quotations have, therefore, gradually given way. Great losses have been sustained by most of the importers, both from the continent and the United States; and the season has opened with every prospect of very large arrivals from almost every quarter of the globe. The bad condition in which the bulk of the English wheats have been shown has added to the dulness in the trade, which has certainly been in a most unsatisfactory state ; and the question is, what feature is there in it calculated to improve its general bearing ? Speculation in wheat is very distant. Very little grain is now held in continental ports on English account ; and there is a vast amount of supply to come forward from the north of Europe as well as from the westward — indeed, we are of opinion that with a full average crop at home, wheat will be much lower towards the end of the year than it now is, and this conclusion is ' the more forced upon us from the nature of the advices which have lately reached us from Russia, which refer to large stocks of produce in the interior of the country, and the rapid extension of cropping both in the north and south. The return of vast numbers of people to industrial pursuits must have its accustomary influence upon the pro- duce of the soil ; and no doubt great efforts will be made this year to furnish Europe with more than usual supplies of grain. Under these circumstances an active corn trade cannot be anticipated ; indeed, present indications are the reverse of this, more especially as the stocks of English wheat still on hand are seasonably extensive. There may be some parties inclined to doubt the truth of this asser- tion ; but a strong proof in its favour is the fact that, for some time, local wants have been met from local sources, and that scarcely any foreign grain has been purchased at the outports for inland consumption. Now, a deficient crop in England is sure to be followed by an outport de- mand, which has considerable influence upon price, not only here but throughout the continent. As yet, nothing ap- proaching scarcity is complained of in any quarter, and we conclude, therefore, that our farmers hold an average supply of wheat for the time of year. Last season's crop of potatoes, both in England and Scotland, has turned out considerably in excess of many estimates submitted, even by the growers themselves ; there cannot, indeed, be the slightest doubt on this head. The metropolitan and other markets continue to be well supplied with most kinds in fiiir condition ; and some rather important arrivals have taken place into London from Holland. This abundance has naturally had some effect upon the grain trade, because it tends to lessen the consumption of bread. The result of the sales of colonial wool held during the month has been highly satisfactory, from the fact that prices have advanced from Ijd. to 3d. per lb. At that im- provement nearly 50,000 bales were disposed of. Notwith- standing this rise in the quotations, the demand for English qualities has fallen off, and, in some instances, the currencies have declined Id. per lb. This fall must be attributed to the high value of money, and the anxiety manifested by our flock-masters in disposing of the new clip. Present prices are certainly a great inducement to get rid of stock ; and we are now of opinion that wool has reached its highest point of value. Our present clip is turning out a large one : we have had extensive importations from Australia and the Cape since the middle of the month, and it is very possible that neariy 60,000 bales will be submitted for competition at the May sales. Both meadow and clover hay has sold slowly throughout the month, arising from the increased supplies on offer; but straw has slightly advanced in value, the top quotations being 303. per load. The quantity of hay on hand is the largest we ever remember at this season. Compared with many former years, the cattle trade has been in a healthy state. The supplies of stock brought for- ward have been very limited. In Ireland agriculture appears to be prospering. Throughout the best districts a great improvement has taken place in the mode of cultivation, and we have every reason to anticipate very large exports of stock to England during the summer months. In the event of our expectatioHg 2 A 2 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. being realized, the falling off in the importations from the continent will be less severely felt by the consumers, as a further rise in our quotations may thus be prevented. From Scotland we learn that the new wheats are turning out very deficient in quality, and that large quantities have been disposed of as low as 40s. per qr. The early lambing season has gone off well, and the losses from inclement weather have been less serious than in some previous years. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Although the fluctuations in the value of live stock, owing chieily to the changeable state of the weather, have been more numerous than in the previous month, and on the whole a slight decline has taken place in the quotations, the cattle trade has been in a healthy state since we last wrote. The supplies of both beasts and sheep exhibited in the Metropolitan Market have been comparatively trifling in number, but decidedly above average quality, especially as regards the latter; but the receipts ofScotch and country- killed meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall have been on a very extensive scale. Surprise has been expressed in some quarters that, considering the amount of supply furnished to the great market in London, prices have not advanced even beyond their present range ; and not a few persons contend that consumption has fallen off. All acquainted with the trade must be aware that, even though trade generally is prosperous, and the working classes are well employed, a high value of meat is most prejudicial to the butchers in various ways. The purchases are, therefore? wholly confined to immediate requirements, and the butcher obtains the largest portion of his supply from the dead markets. Then, again, the wants of local districts are now chiefly supplied by means of local markets, and the en- largement of those of long standing ; nevertheless, with all this competition — which, by the way, renders it less neces- sary to purchase largely in London for distant localities — all kinds of stock continue to command very high prices. In a comparative sense the breeders are reaping great ad- vantages, and the most successful graziers are making large profits. That prices will continue high for a considerable period, is to our minds fully apparent : for what, in point of fact, is there in the present state of things calculated to de- press our markets ? The commercial interest is in a state of great prosperity, even though money is very dear, and our home and foreign trade is equally satisfactory : hence, an advance of one penny per pound in the price of meat cannot be so much a matter for serious consideration as in periods of commercial distress. But we find the theory broached that the quantity of live stock in the United Kingdom has considerably decreased of late years, owing to the influence of certain laws. We maintain that the supply has not in- creased so much as could be desired, but there is no warrant for assuming that scarcity is apparent in any of our great districts. For what feature, we will ask, can be adduced in support of the doctrine of a deficient home supply? True, in 1855, the season was an unfavourable one for the rearing of stock, owing to the deficiency in the hay and root crops ; and in that year, as well as in 1853 and 1854, immense numbers of both beasts and sheep were hurriedly forced for sale in a half-fat state. It will be recollected that we ■warned the breeders and graziers of the evils that might eventually arise from what we considered an un- necessary destruction of property ; but we were met by the observation that there was not an amount of food in the country sufficiently equal to the wants of the stock, and, further, that sheep 16 to 18 months old paid better than if kept for a longer period. That system, however, is, we find, being steadily abandoned. Its aban- donment must lead to high quotations for a period ; but we do not hesitate to say that eventually it will be productive of the greatest advantages to the countrj'^ at large. No doubt the principal cause of the present high range in the quotations is the limited amount of live stock imported into England from the continent ; and the future state of our markets seems to forbid any great increase in the arrivals, owing to the great wants of France and the miserable con- dition of French agriculture, which, as regards the produc- tion of sheep, is thus refen'ed to in one of the leading French papers : — " In both countries an equal number of sheep is bred ; this number is about 35,000,000 head. The 35,000,000 in the United Kingdom live on 3 1,000,000 hectares (2| acres), while the 35,000,000 in France live on 53,000,000 hectares. It therefore results that on an equal extent of territory the English breed two sheep where we only breed one. This is not the sole difference. In many of our departments the production of fine wool has been encouraged,''to the detri- ment of the production of meat. The English have sent their fine merinos to Australia, where they prosper admira- bly, and their whole attention is devoted to the production of meat. It thence results that the 35,000,000 French sheep produce annually 60,000,000 kilogrammes (21b.) of wool, and 144,000,000 kilogrammes of meat ; while the 35,000,000 English sheep produce annually 60,000,000 kilo- grammes of wool and 360,000,000 kilogrammes of meat. The proportion of mutton produced in France and England exists in the very disproportionate figures of 144 to 360. And in these figures we have compared France with the British Isles, thus comprising the hilly regions and moors of Scotland, as, likewise, the poorer districts of Ireland. Were we to confine ourselves to England proper, the contrast would be even greater. England breds two sheep per hec- tare against two-thirds of a sheep bred by France ; the pro- duce of an English sheep is more than double that of a French one." The writer goes on to compare our pro- duce of other meat with that in France, and arrives at the same results, viz., that English agriculture is far in advance of the continent. Possibly this is a fact pretty generally known ; but we refer to it chiefly for the purpose of showing that France, like ourselves, is not in a position to meet any extra demand, which must of necessity be met from other sources, and contribute to raise the necessaries of life, if not permanently, at least for a season or two. The annexed return shows the imports of foreign stock into London during the month : — Beasts 1,719 head. Sheep 3,123 „ Calves 573 „ Pigs 4 „ Total. 5,419 Same time in 1856 l,842head. „ 1855 2,103 „ „ 1854 8,409 „ 1853 10,884 ,, 1852 6,747 „ „ 1851 8,381 „ „ 1850 ..i..;.. 6;004 ,i THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 361 The total supplies of stock, derived from all sources, shown in the Great Aletropolitan Market, have been as under : — Beasts 17,345head. Cows 490 „ Sheep 74,880 „ Calves 1,118 „ Pigs 2,230 „ Comparison of Supplies. March Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1856.... 22,623 470 100,700 797 2,140 1855.... 18,644 380 88,790 835 2,765 1854.... 20,588 532 93,060 1,091 2,780 1853.... 19,228 360 85,680 1,614 2,780 From these figures we might be led to conclude that the consumption of meat in London is falling off. We have already referred to the rising importance of some of the local markets, and it is necessary to explain that the traffic in dead meat, arising from the rapid extension of railway communication, is yearly becoming more general and exten- sive. Consumption is now chiefly met from the dead mar- kets, and no doubt the present altered mode of supplying London will extend itself more especially in the event of wool, hides, &c., keeping at their present high value. In the provinces there is a great demand for those articles, and which are easily disposed of by those who slaughter ex- tensively without incurring the expenses of carriage and commission. Very few lambs have been on sale in the metropolis, yet the demand for them has ruled heavy. In the early part of the month the best Down lambs sold at 8s. per 8 lbs., but prices towards to the close settled down to from 6s. 8d. to 78. 4d. per 8. lbs. Out of the 17,880 sheep in the market nearly 7,000 came to hand out of the wool, and 'they went at from lOd. to Is. per 81bs. beneath those in the fleece. This is the greatest difference between the value of shorn and unshorn sheep we ever recollect. The general quotations have ruled as follows : — s. d, s. d. Beef, from 3 4 to 5 0 Mutton 4 2—6 0 Veal 4 4—58 Pork 3 6—5 2 Comparison of Prices. March, 1854. March, 1855. March, 1856. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, from...2 10 to 4 8 3 4 to 5 0 2 10 to 4 10 Mutton 3 2 — 5 2 3 4 — 5 2 3 2 — 5 2 Veal 4 4 — 5 8 3 10 — 5 4 4 10 — 6 0 Pork 3 4 — 4 10 3 2 — 4 4 3 4 — 4 8 Compared with the previous month, we have had a slight falling-oft" in the quality of most breeds of beasts ; but the sheep have, for the most part, come to hand in unusually prime condition. In the leading districts the health of tlie stock continues good, and there is a great abundance of good wholesome food. The month's arrivals of beasts from Norfolk, Suft'olk, &c., have rather exceeded 10,000 Scots and shorthorns. From other parts of England 2,500 of various breeds liave come to hand ; whilst the receipts from Scotland have amounted to 1,.500 Scots, and from Ireland, via Liverpool, 308 oxen. Newgate and Leadenhall have been heavily supplied with meat, for which the demand has ruled steady. Beef has sold from 2s. lOd. to 4s. 6d. ; mutton, 3s. 4d. to 4s. 8d. ; veal, 3s. lOd. to 4s. lOd.; pork, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 4d. per 81bs.,by the carcase. WEST GLOUCESTERSHIRE. The weather dm-ing the present month has been charac- terized by the usual vicissitudes of the season, more rough and boisterous, however, than that which was experienced throughout the preceding one, with considerably more down- foil. Keen frosts, with occasional storms of hail, sleet, and rain, have operated in checking precocious vegetation,. which from the mildness prevailing throughout the month of February was generally anticipated, providing that tem- perature had continued. The present appearance of the autumn-sown wheat does not call for any deviation from the last account. It is here necessary to remark that the samples of grain brought into the markets evince scarcely any improvement in condition, although the drying and piercing winds which have been experienced might be ex- pected to have exercised a beneficial effect. There is manifestly some cause for this, irrespective of the rainy condition of the weather during the greater portion of the time when the.grain was being harvested ; and the assump- tion expressed in the last report, that the indiscriminate use of artificial fertilizers had in some measure an influence, is to a certain extent strengthened. It is a question not unworthy of investigation. Artificial manures, when ex- tensively applied, have the effect of producing vcrj- luxu- riant, pleasing, and flattering appearances; but the profitable results, in other words the yields of the crops, are not in all cases commensurate with these appearances. The con- tinuously receding state of the markets for home-grown wheat indicates the inferior condition of the bulk ; for even at this period of the year there are very few samples of a quality fit to work without admixture of foreign grain. The operations of the month are in a satisfactory state of for- wardness ; the planting of beans is very generally finished, and a considerable portion of the oats and barley is already sown. Taking a glance through the country, the turnips and swedes appear to be nearly exhausted ; but as there is a considerable quantity of roots that have been providently housed, a correct estimate cannot be formed, and tlie infe- i-ence gained by inquiry leads to the impression that there is a full average quantity in store, quite sufficient to last till the period arrives when spring-keep may be anticipated. The hay holds out well. Grass lands, however, which at the early part of the month began to exhibit slight symptoms of assuming a vernal tint, have from the late frosts, cold rains, and bleak winds, sustained an unmis- takeable check. At one period everything was promising for an early spring. The case may now be altered ; yet it is premature ts express an opinion, so much depends upon the temperature of the month to come. The earth at pre- sent is not surcharged, with rain, and genial showers in April, together with gleams of warm sunshine, will soon throw the vegetable kingdom into a state of luxuriant beauty. The supplies of beef and mutton are by no means abundant, and tnere is every prospect that a considerable deficiency will be experienced. There is not any epidemic disease to create alarm in this country, but in the event of the murrain increasing on the continent, we may certainly expect a greater demand than our own resources can adequately supply. Veal in this neighbourhood is plen- tiful ; at this season of the year it is so almost invariably. Few of the farmers in tliis part of Gloucestershire are accustomed to rear a greater number of calves than they absolutely require to maintain the strength of their dairies, and the present price of meat is a temptation to take every- tliing to market that is in fit condition for the purpose : the ready penny principle more generally prevails over the de- ferred interest, which may be associated with the rearing of an extra quantity of stock. 362 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SOUTH LINCOLNSHIRE. The past month has kept up its ancient character, and its very old designation, " March many weathers"; indeed, the whole winter, although a very favourable one, may be said to have consisted of three or four distinct winters and summers, alternating surprisingly both in cold and heat. We have not much to report upon in the course of business. Beans, peas, barley, and oats, have each gone in excedingly well, and very little remains to be put in. Many of our farmers have commenced potato planting. The fallows are very forward, and work well. All kinds of stock have done well. Sheep have thriven surprisingly. The great abund- ance of keeping, in both turnips and mangel wurzel, is the theme of general remark, and consequently store stock is relatively high in price, and large supplies are coming into the market. The corn trade has been gradually drooping throughout the winter, and has not yet made a decided Stand. I do not mean to croak, but I must, as a faithful reporter, state that the frequent and violent changes of weather we have experienced has at length told upon the young wheats. Clover and seed-lands are looking un- usually thin, and great loss of plant has been general. I looked upon this loss as partial in the past month, but I am convinced it has spread much further than I anticipated ; however, by careful attention to rolling and repeated hoe- ing, much may be done to restore the sickly plants, and cause the filling up of thin ones. The lambing season, thus far, has been favourable, and "good luck" has been the result. The fall of lambs not abundant, but strong and vigorous. Ewes have plenty of milk. Political excitement is just now stirring up our low-country farmers into ener- getic action. South Lincolnshire has not had a contested election for 16 years; and so reluctant are South Lincolnshire men to engage in such contests, that had fair-play been then dealt to that deservedly popular member and deeply- lamented man, the late Henrj"- Handley, no contest would then have taken place. The aristocracy and clergy, how- ever, determined to turn him out ; sooner than cause great dissension, and possibly much oppression, Mr. Handley re- signed. This becoming known, created great indignation amongst his chief supporters, the small freeholders and tenant-farmers ; and they determined, if possible, to " bring him in" by their own spontaneous and unaided efforts. This caused one of the most exciting and interesting elec- tions on record. The division is now called upon again, but the enthusiasm is by no means great. The nomination is fixed for Wednesday, April the 1st. Farmers ought to be extremely cautious in choosing their members. Free trade with all the world should be rung in the ears of every agri- cultural member, and it ought to prompt him to do his ut- most to take off every restriction and hindrance likely to arrest the farmer's progress. Agricultural members must closely study the bearing of such questions on agriculture, with a view to their removal or amelioration, as the malt tax, the hop duty, the poor's-rate or union-rating, county rates (now under magistrates), highway rates (so that they be extended to district surveyors), church rates, tithes (so that the local averages shall rule local tithes), also the pro- hibitions and restrictions upon growing tobacco, chicory, hemp, flax, &c., and the manufacture of sugar, malt, &c., also the regulations relative to the uniformity of weights and measures, the collection of agricultural statistics, and the extension of the rural franchise; and agricultural members have much to do, and much to answer for, to their constituents. DURHAM. The month of February came in with sharp frost and a hesvy fall of snow, which quickly disappeared on the 6th and following days ; since then and up to the end of the month the weather has been quite unprecedented for its unusually mild and dry state. The land that had been some time ploughed was in fine order, being well pulverized by the frost, inducing farmers in many localities to sow oats, which we think rather too early in the season. A lar^e brearUh of spring wheat and beans was sown under most favourable and satisfactory auspices. Oat sowing is now drawing fast to a plosCj and barley will he comroitted to the ground in a few days. About the end of the month sowing will be nearly brought to a conclusion ; and we have no recollection of ever experiencing a finer seed-time than the present. The autumn- sown wheat is very promisius:, with no indication of premature luxuriance. Farmers thought it was hazardous sowing the sprouted seed ; but we have not observed any thinness of plant. The corn exposed to the wet season in harvest was all unsouud, and millers will not give more than Is. pet stone for it, being still very much out of condition; and the same re- mark applies to every other grain that was not secured pre- vious to the wet season setting in. Daring the last season it was found that the crops on the land ia the highest state of cultivation aud under good farming sustained more injury from the incessant and drenching rains than the inferior lands and such as were not \i ell managed. A corn crop is very different from a green one. In the former crop too much manure can easily be applied, but in the latter case can rarely be applied in excess. The clovers on the best cultivated lands are generally found a failure from the lodged corn, and also the grain and straw are of inferior quality, and yield deficient. It is certainly better to apply too much manure than an insufficient quantity : in the latter case the land becomes foul aud unpro- fitable. Potatoes have kept badly in pits, being much diseased, and selling at 14d. per peck. Our fat stock markets are well supplied at good prices ; neat keepers from Ss. to 83. 3d. per stoue; nice wedders, in the wool, 9.1. per lb. Wheat very dull sale, and prices have a downward tendency. At Dar- lington, on the first Monday in March, hinds' wages were Is. per week lower than they were last year, say from ISs. to 143. per week, with house and fire and perquisites. Draining has not proceeded so briskly as it had done lately : a good many hands have been out of employment. — March 20. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. BANBURY FA.IR was well attended by buyers and sellere, the town being crowded, and business very brisk. The beef fair was well supplied for this time of year, and fat beef sold from 4s. 6d. to 49. 81. per st. Stores were in very large numbers, and sold at high prices, there being a good demand for superior bessts. In the sheep department the supply was not very large, but they sold at very high prices ; shorn sheep from 4s. 6d. to 43. 8d., and iu the wool 53. 6d. to 6s. per Bibs. Mrs. Ryniill exhibited a splendid ewe, nine years old, bred and fed by Mr. Cother, which weighed 611bs. per quarter. The horse fair was unusually well supplied, but only the good horses sold well aud quickly. BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a good show of fat stock, which sold readily at previous rates. Lean stock went as usual. A large number of iu-caWing cows had good sale, at the full prices of last market. Beef 7s. to 83. per st., and mutton 7^d. to 9d. per lb. BRIUGNUIITU FAIR— Stock was not superabundant, but good in quality, and unusually high-priced. Sheep sold at as high as 9d , and even 9^d. per lb. Beef was also very dear ; good fat cows fit for the butcher fetching as ranch as T^d. to 8J. Cows aud calves were also high-fijjured. Pigs were few. The horse fair was well supplied with good, useful breeds ; but prices were so muelj advanced that buyers held aloof and few sales were effected. There was a small quantity of cheese in the fair, which sold at the usual prices. BROMYARD FAIR.— There was a plentiful supply of steers, cows, and calves, and barrens, all of which found ready purchasers at good prices. Fat cows brought from 7d. to 75d. per lb. ; couples, of which the supply was short, fetched from £2 23. to £i 10s. per couple. Few pigs on offer, and these brought a high price. In the horse fair there were but a few good animals, which obtained high rates. BROUGH FAIR.— Cattle-dealers from all quarters again came iu numbers, and all beasts arriving on the evening previous were bought up. Next mcrniug betimes the jobbers were intent on their business, meetiug the farmers coming to the fair with their stock on the Appleby road, for several miles, aud bought up scores before they got into the market. The fair-stand was completely cleared out by one o'clock. We need not enlarge further, only Just to say that present cslverg THE FARMER»S MAGAZINE, 363 fetched from £11 to £12, to aa far as £22— £25 being asked in souie instances ; in fact, if there was anything in the shape of a beast there was a buyer. KELSO FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— There was a good show of fat cattle (though not so large as usual at this time, owing to a great many being sold at home), a number of the lots of which were of excellent quality. There was a good at- tendance of buyers, and a brisk demand for cattle at 7s. 3d. to 73. 9d., and some at about 8s. per stone. There were a number of lots of Sheep, amongst which was a small lot clipped, which were not sold. Sheep sold readily at from 7^d. to 8d. per lb. A full market of cows, which met with a good de- mand, and mostly all sold. Bred cows from £14 to £19. Ayrshire from £9 to £13. LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— There was a fair show of sheep, but of beasts the market was not well stocked. Prices were up, mutton selling at 7^d. per lb. (clipped sheep), mutton in the wool, 9^d. ; beef, Ss. to Ss. 6d. per stone. MUIR OF ORD MARKET.— The March fair is almost exclusively for hogs, but the abundance of keep this year in the north induced dealers to hold back till next month, except to a comparatively limited extent. The number of sheep was only 3,674, the smallest number shown at Muir of Ord in March for many years. Of these the majority were small lots, but some very fiue Cheviot wedder hogs were shown, two pretty large lots commanding particular attention, one be- longing to Capt. Macleod of Orbost, and the other to Mr. Stewart Macrae, Auchmore. The first of these was sold at 223. 6d., and the other at about the same figure ; but having been sold along with some cross Leiceaters, bringing the price of the whole to 23s. a-liead, we cannot state the precise figure. A large lot divided into two was sold by Mr. Keuneth Macrae, Auchmore, at 22s. Mr. Clarke, Eribol, bought a lot at 20a. a-head. These were the principal lots of wedder hogs disposed of. Others wrere "sold at a less figure, or in small numbers suitable for special purchasers, and the price of which did not affect the market. A good many Leicester cross hogs were exposed and were in demand, one lot having been purchased in the early part of the day, and disposed of again on a rise of about six per cent. Mr. Winton, Ardersier, bought a very fiue lot at 26s. Mr. Cameron, Dreim, bought the Kinnetas crosses at 243, 6d. Mr. Fenton, Conon Mains, sold at 24s., &c. Though the prices, aa will be seen, are very high, the market was stiff, and several of the smaller lots remained un- sold at the end of the day. NORTHAMPTON FAIR was fairly supplied with mutton, but short of beef, the former realising as much as 6s. per stone in the wool, and 5s. out of it. Beef also made 5s. per stone. Every description of store stock was very dear, and high prices are still the order of the day. PAIGNTON MONTHLY MARKET.— A large quantity of fat stock sold readily. Fat bullocks from 63s. to 65s. per cwt., store bullocks 453. ; cows and calves from £16 to £20 ; sheep, S^d. to 9d. per lb. ; fat lambs 24s. each. ROSS FAIR. — There was an average supply of stock, which readily sold at advanced prices. Mutton averaged 9d. in the wool ; some prime lots reached a higher figure. Beef realized 7d. to 7id. Pigs dear. The supply of horses was pretty good, but not large. Good animals were sold at high prices. The weather was very fine, which caused business to be brisk, and as on former occasions the fair was cleared soon after mid-day. SHREWSBURY FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— We had a good supply of store cattle ; but sheep were very scarce. Best fat beef made e^d. per lb. ; inferior cows a shade belov/ ; fat calves, 6^i. ; useful stores and cows and calves selling at high prices; fat wethers from 8d. to 9d. per lb ; couples of ewes and lambs from SSs. to 58s. ; fat pigs, 6d. per lb. ; stores rather lower. STAMFORD HORSE FAIR.— There was an average show of all kinds of animals; as usual, really useful horses were in short supply, and the demand being great, very high prices were realised ; inferior animals met a slow sale at in- different rates. TADCASTER FORTNIGHT MARKET.— We had a fair supply of stock to-day. Beef. 78. 6d. to 8?. per stone ; multon, 7d. to 8Jd. ; vea!, 7\A. per lb, TALGARTH FAIR was not so well supplied with horned cattle as usual, nor with so many horses, sheep, or pigs, but for those on offer high prices were asked, and in many cases obtained. TENBURY FAIR was very thinly attended. Little stock of any description, and a small attendance of dealers. Busi- ness very flat. WORCESTER FAIR was but moderately supplied with stock, but the attendance of buyers was more than usually numerous. Beef sold readily at from 7d. to 7id. ; mutton commanded very high prices. Pork lOs. 6d. to lis. per score ; store pigs dear. In horses a good business was done, superior animals being readily disposed of. There were several auction YORK FORTNIGHT MARKET.— Calving and dairy cows were in good supply and demand, at about late prices. Plenty of lean beasts were shown, but many were unsold, al- though rates tended downwards. Fat beasts were rather scarce. A good supply of mutton sheep had rather slow sale at 8d, to 9d. per lb. Grazing hog sheep were plentiful, but the demand was heavy at fully 23. to Ss. per head lower, with many unsold. NAVAN IRISH FAIR was, in every respect, one of the largest and best which has been held here for many years, each department being well furnished with a stock of a very supe- rior class, which met a ready sale, the demand having far ex- ceeded the supply. There were several cattle-dealers from the other side of the Channel, who purchased largely for the Eng- lish market. The Earl of Mayo sold a lot of fat bullocks at £22 173. 6d. each; John O'ReiUy, Esq., Athboy Lodge, sold a lot of fat heifers at £20 each ; Mr. M'Evoy, Nobber, sold a lot of fat heifers at £17 each ; Messrs. Gough and Donnelly, Navan, purchased a lot of 75 fat heifers at from £17 to £22 each, for the English market; P. P. Metege, Esq., J. P., Kil- cairne, sold a lot of fat bullocks at £27 each ; Edward Tynan, Esq., Balanack West, sold 16 fat store heifers at £14 each ; Mr. Tally, Kilakeer, sold 12 store heifers at £10 lOs. each ; Mr. Edward Keirnan, Athboy, sold 12 store heifers at £11 lOs. each ; James Cruise, Esq., Feunor, Slane, bought 20 store heifers at £8 each ; Mr. James Cregan, Commons, bought 7 springers at from £12 to £15, and sold them again at from- £13 lOs. to £16 each; Mr. Michael Sheridan, Canistown, bought 4 springers at from £14 to £18 each; Mr. Criunion sold a lot of springers to Mr. Smyth, of Navan, at £14 lOs. each. The sheep fair was well stocked, principally with mut- ton and store lambs, both of which sold extremely high ; mutton at 8|d. to 9d. per lb. The pig fair was one of the largest held in Navan for the last twenty years. Bacon sold at extremely high prices, the average prices were from 583. to 64s. per cwt. THE LATE MR. H. CHAMBERLAIN'S STOCK SALE, DESFORD, LEICESTER- SHIRE. This important sale of celebrated stock of Hereford cattle and Leicester and Southdown sheep took place at Desford, on Tuesday and Wednesday, March 3 and 4, Mr. J. Holland, jun., officiating as auctioneer. Mr, Cham- berlain's reputation as a breeder and feeder being so well known, there was a large assepablage of gentlemen in- terested in the breeding of stock from all parts of the kingdom ; and the competition for the most valuable lots ran very high. Amongst those present, and who were purchasers, were — Messrs. ClifTord, Abel, Harrison, Tunnicliffe, Drakeley, Boot, Merryman, Jordan, Wag- stafF, West, Hill, Bailey, Townsend, Strafford, Breedon, Allen , Adcock, Jackson , Painter, Devves, Stephens, Matts, Watson, Wayte, Hull, Webster, Chapman, Ivens, Hands, R. Kirby, Whattoff, Thompson, Wragg, Powers, Hughes, Sharpe, Cooper, Winterton, Kucknill, Underwood, Bur- dett, Creswell, Spencer, Fox, Apperley, Henshaw, Swinnerton, Gilbert, Frost, Humphreys, Reeves, Wright, Lynes, Abbey, Perkins, Brickwell, Daveys, Buckley, Smith, Kenney, Robinson, Brown, Hopkin- soii, &c., &c. The following are the principal prices realized for some of the sheep : Fat New* Leicester wethers 753., do. do. theaves 51s.; fat Southdown wethera 78s., do, do. ewes 58s,, do. do. theaves 48s, 364 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 6d. ; in-lamb New Leicester ewes 81s., do. do. theaves 833., do. Southdown ewes 78s., do. do. theaves 73s. Store sheep: New Leicester ewe lamb-hogs 6ls., Southdown ewe do. 50s. ; wether lamb-hogs 53s., Southdown wetlier do. 50s. Hereford cows and calves realized the following prices: Snowdrop ^19 8s. 6d., Plumb ^20 9s. 6d., Clarke (with her calf) jglSs. 18s., Daisy £19 8s. 6d., Stately £24 3s., Spoti£^20 9s. 6d., Handsome .£21 10s. 6d., Countess £19 19s., Rose .£20 9s. 6d., The Queen £21 10s. 6d. Hereford heifers : Snowdrop £24 3s., Sprightly £22 Is., Rose £20, Beauty £22 Is., Handsome £31 10s., Stately £20 9s. 6d. Shorthorn heifers : Princess Royal £34 13s., Alice £17 6s. 6d., Cassy £18 18s. Hereford heifers (under two years) realized from £11 to £16 each, Hereford yearling heifers from £8 to £20 each ; Hereford oxen from £22 to £55 each ; bulls £27 6s. and £21 each. Yearling Hereford steers: 1st steer £24 13s. 6d., 2nd do. £23 2s., 3rd do. £22 Is. Hereford barren cows from £15 to £20 each. Horses : Duke £42, Smiler£63,Ranger£39 18s., Mettle (in foal to England's Glory) £33 r2s., Boxer £44 2s., Trimmer £43 Is., Barney ,(in foal to Ironsides) £30 19s. 6d., cart foal (by England's Glory) £21, hackney chesnut horse £22 lis. 6d. Pigs from £3 to £9 10s. Wool 47s. 6d. pei tod. THE SWEDE TURNIP CROP. Mr. S. Piuder, junr., in a letter to the Nottinghamshire Guardian, says : There ia an old adage, viz., " What is the use of a cow giving a good deal of milk, if she immediately kicks it all down ? " The like question may be now raised re- lative to the growing of swede turnips ; that is to aay, " What is the use of producing such larjre quantities of swedes, to be reserved in he^ps for spring use, by the application of Peruvian guano, when they are found to rtt by wholesale, while those produced by the simple application of farmyard manure are generally found to be sound ?" If the evidence of the farmers themselves and others interested in the growth and production of large quantities of swedes is to be relied on, the farmers of Laxton, although not extensive growers, and other farmers living in a considerable circle of country round Laxton, arelars-e sufferers by|the Peruvian guano-grown swedes again this spring. Numbers of persons who have heaped with care for early spring use have found, to their great mortifica- tion and loss, their heaps more or less affected with decay and rottenness. But, notwithstanding their loss, they have yet an opinion that Peruvian guano cannot easily be beaten; whereas it has been shown in the Guardian that Bolivian, Saldanha Bay, and Patagonian guanos are much more advan- tageous for the turnip crop, as they contain more phosphates and much less per centage of ammonia than the Peruvian, and the subjoined list by Dr. Volcker will show that superphosphate of lime is superior to any one of them : — " Table showing thejiroduce of trimmed Swedes of experimental plots of one-eighth of an acre, and weight of cropper acre : i Acre. Per Acre. Plot- tonscwtlb tonscwtlb. 1. Guano yielded 1 9 7 . , 11 12 56 2. Guano and dissolved cooro- 1 , , „ „ lites yielded ". ... j ^ ^2 2 .. 12 16 16 3. Bone dust yielded 1 2 0,. 8 16 0 4. Bone superphosphate yielded. . 1 14 2 .. 13 12 16 5. Economical manure yielded .. 0 15 2 .. 6 0 16 6. N\it refuse yielded 1 5 0.. 10 0 0 7. Dissolved coprolites yielded .. 1 9 0., 1112 0 8. Nothing yielded 0 13 0.! 5 4 0 9. Commercial dried night soil 1 , „ „ yielded..... j 1 3 0 .. 9 4 0 10. Mirture of soot, guano, dia- "1 solved coprolites and bone I 1 5 1 , , 10 8 0 superphosphate yielded . . J " Table showing increase per acre and cost of one ton of increase, in ten experimental trials of Stvedes : — No. tonscwtlb £ of increase. 1. Home-made superphopshate . . 8 8 16 .. 0 4 2 2. Dissolved coprolites and guano 7 12 16.. 0 5 3^ 3. Guano 6 8 56 . . 0 6 2^ 4. Dissolved coprolites 6 8 0.. 0 6 3 5. Mixture of guano, soot dis- "1 solved coprolites, bone and I- 4 16 8 ... 0 8 3\ superphosphate J 6. Nut refuse 4 16 0.. 0 8 4 7. Commercial night soil 4 0 0.. 0 10 0 8. Bone dust , 3 12 0.. 2 11 IJ 9. Economical manure 0 16 16 .. 2 9 6| 10. Nothing 0 0 0.. 000 "Natural produce, 5 tons 4 cwt. " These tables deserve a careful examination, for there is an immense difference to the grower betwixt increasing hia produce at a cost of 43. 9d. a ton and 493. 6|d. a ton. " The above experiments were tried on a naturally poor, shallow soil, resting on limestone rock, from which it was separated by a clayey subsoil of considerable depth, " The value of guano is principally regulated by the pro- portion of ammonia it contains or furnishes on decomposition, and ammonia does not benefit root crops in an equal degree as white crops, whereas phosphate manures exercise a specific action on roots, which causes them to swell and thus to increase the crop." Uuery for our Royal Agriculturists. — As ammonia does not benefit root crops in an equal degree as white crops, is it injurious to the root crops, and a forerunner to rottenness in turnips ? AGRICULTURAL MEETINGS IN 1857. APRIL 6, 7, AND 8. — International Fat Cattle Show, at Poissy, ten milea from Paris. Particulars, prize lists, &c., to be had of, and entries made by March 10 to, Mr. Brandreth Oibbs, llalf Moon-street, Piccadilly, London. APRIL 21,22,23, and 24.— Royal Dublin Society.— Sprinp Cattle Show, at Dublin. Entries close March 26. Secretary, Mr. E. Steele, Kil- dare-street, Dublin. MAY 22. — Royal Agricultural Society of England. — General Meeting in Hanover-square, at twelve o'clock. JUNE 3, 4, AND 5.— Bath and West of England Society.— Meeting at Newton, Entries close April 5, Secretary, Mr. St. John Maale, Pultney-street, Bath. JUNE 10. — Oxford Amalgamated Agricultural Association. — Meeting at Oxford. Entries close May 1. [Secretary, Mr. G. F. Druce, Oxford. JUNE 24. — Norfolk Agricultural Association. — Meeting at SwafiFham. Entries close May 30. Secretary, Mr. E. C. Bailey, Orford-street, Norwich. JULY 3.— Suffolk Agricultural Association.— Meeting at Ipswich. En- tries close June 14. Secretary, Mr. Manning Kerr, Framlingham. JULY 21, 22, 23, AND 24.— Royal Agricultural Society of England.— Meeting at Salisbury. Entries for iropleroents close May 1 ; eittries for stock, June 1. Secretary, Mr. J. Hudson, Hanover Square, London. JULY 28. — Northumberland Agricultural Society. — Meeting at CornhiU. Secretary, Jlr. W. Johnson, Gateshead. JULY 30.— North Lincolnshire Agricultural Society.— Meeting at Louth Entries close July 15. Secretary, Mr. J. Hett, Brigg. JULY30.— Ryedaleand Pickering Lyth Agricultural Society.— Meeting at Helmsley. Entries close July 11. Secretary, Mr i. H. Phillips, Helmsley, Yorkshire. AUGUST 5 AND 6.— Yorkshire Agricultural Society.— Meeting at York. Entries close July 22. Secretary, Mr. J. Hannam, Kirk Deighton, Wetherhy. AUGUST 6 AND 7.— The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- land— Meeting at Glasgow. Entries close June 18. Secretary, Mr. J. Hall Maxwell, Albyn Place, Edinburgh. AUGUST 19, 20, and 21.— Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland. — Meeting) at Waterford. Entries close July 25. Secretary, Captain Croker, Upper Sackville Street, Dublin. SEPTEMBER 10.— Manchester and Liverpool Agricultural Society.— Meeting at Warrington. Entries close August 29. Secretary, Mr. T. B. Ryder, Elliott Street, Liverpool. OCTOBER 2.— Bedfordshire Agricultural Society.— Meeting at . Secretary, Mr. T. W. Turnley, Bedford. DECEMBER.— Birmingham Cattle and Poultry Show, at Birmingham (time not yet tixed; but probably the week previous to the Smith- field Club Show.) Secretary, Mr. J. Morgan, jun., Bennett's Hill, Birmingham. DECEMBER 8, 9, 10, AND 11.— Smithfield Club Cattle Show, at the Baker Street Baiaar, London. Secretary, Mr. Brandreth Oibbs, Half-Moon Street, Piccadilly, London. DECEMBER 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11. —Various Meetings of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, of the Smithfield Club, and of the Farmers' Club, at their several Offices in London. ^*ilf On the Jirst Monday in every month up to June, and recommeucing in November, there is a Discussion Meeting of the Central Farmers^ Club, at 39, New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, at half-past five o'clock. On Ihe Jirst Wfdnesdaij in every month — excepting January, Septem- ber, and October — there is a Council Meeting, conhned lo Members of Council and Governors of the Royal Agricultural Society, in Han- over-square, at twelve o'clock ; and on every other Wednesday an open Meeting for all Members of the Society, at twelve o'clock. On the Jirst Wednesday Evening in April, May, June, and July, at sight o'clock, a Lecture, by either Professor Way or Simmonds, at the Society's House, in Hanover-square. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 365 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE. DURING THE PAST MONTH. The course of the weather in March has been vari- able, commencing unusually mild and closing with some occasional severity, and on the whole being deficient in the amount of sharp dry breezes, though the fall of snow and rain has been light. But slight impediments, therefore, have been found to plough- ing and field operations ; and the sowing of spring corn has proceeded favourably, it being completed in many southern and eastern districts, with the exception of barley. The young wheat has passed through the winter well, being little injured by the fluctuations experienced, there being a very even plant on the ground, with very few gaps in the rows, and the over-luxuriant pieces having received a timely check by the frosts. The anticipated im- provement in the samples has not been realized, the mild and damp atmosphere having prevented it, but a slight'amelioration is everywhere admitted ; and the fact that, with constantly dull reports, the general averages are only shghtly reduced, and those for London have improved, is sufficiently convincing on this point. The show of English wheat in the country has been liberal, and the sales beyond those of last year at the same period, while foreign supplies |have been on a limited scale ; but the granaries remain well stored, from the previous early shipments from America, so that millers have found no difficulty in manufacturing flour of first- rate quality. Fine English wheat in the course of the month has receded in value about Is. to 2s. per quarter, but secondary and inferior sorts have de- clined about 4s. per quarter, with avery dragging sale. The stocks in the country hold out well, and there are no indications of exhaustion in any localities, but with from four to five months yet to provide for, before the new harvest is gathered, it would forebode danger to have any appearance of scarcity at so early a period. The opening of the Baltic shortly may bring considerable supplies ; but as the stock of old wheat there is exhausted, and the new is held at prices too high to meet present rates in England, it does not seem probable that the impor- tation thence will be very large. Stores in the Black Sea are also too high-priced. The Mediter- ranean has wants of its own. Spain and Portugal, though less in need, must still be supplied till harvest,thoughthe rapid growth of esculentsin those countries will reduce the demand for corn. The American markets remain too high to expect much thence at present prices, while their stocks remain low in shipping ports : but the breaking up of frost, and the reopening of the canals, are likely to cause a large influx of arrivals, much beyond local con- sumption; and should orders fail from this side, which they must do, unless at lower rates, shippers there are very likely to make consignments freely to this country. Potatoes have kept much better than they once promised, and their comparative abundance has helped to keep down the price of corn ; so that we see no prospect, for the present, of any advance in prices ; but one thing is certain, that it will require a good and a great crop, over all the world, to put the stack-yards or granaries well in stock to meet the claims of its growing millions. As respects foreign prices, the most recent advices give the following : At Madrid, sales were still making in retail at 90s. to 100s. per qr. ; and at Lisbon, 72s. to 87s. per qr. At Paris, the best new native wheat was 6Gs. per qr. At Rotterdam, white Zealand prime wheat, GOlbs. per bushel, brought 62s. per qr. ; Upper Rhine red, G2lbs. per bushel, being the same price. Hambro' quotes red Saale at 57s. per qr. Red at Rostock was worth 50s. per qr. ; at Stettin, 5 Is. per qr. ; Stockholm still quotes 70s. per qr. At Danzic a local trade kept prices high, and till the arrivals of the Upper Pohsh and Bug wheat came to hand, no profitable shipments were likely to be made, 63s. being quoted for fine quahty. Petersburg prices for Cubanka were 54s. 2d., for Sa.xonska 56s. 7d. Soft wheat at Odessa was worth to 51s. 6d., hard to 64s. Quotations at Alexandria for the inferior produce of that country, for delivery in September and October, were 35s. to 35s. 6d. per qr. At New York, red Missouri wheat was quoted 1 dol. 57c. per bush. = 53s. 6d. per qr. English ; white, to 1 dol. 70c. per bush, = 58s. per qr. English ; white southern, to 1 dol. 76c. per bush. = 60s. per qr. Enghsh. The prospects of the growing crops throughout France, Spain, Algeria, and Italy, were good. In the Australian colonies, where full harvest had commenced, a considerable abatement on the expectations was occasioned by the damage of former floods and present violent storms, as well as by rust and the ravages of in- sects ; but it was hoped the acreable increase would meet the void. The first Monday in London opened on moderate supplies, with but a limited show for the morning from Kent and Essex, the condition of the latter I being very inferior ; what little fine appeared was 366 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. taken oft' by millers at former rates, but the remainder was scarcely saleable. The want of fine samples rather increased the consumptive demand for good foreign, and picked qualities commanded full terms. The country markets generally, through the week, quoted either former prices or some improvement, but Liverpool was an exception both on Tuesday and Friday, which severally noted a decline of id. to 2d. per 70 lbs., making an average abatement of 3d., or Is. 6d. per qr. The second Monday exhibited rather increased arrivals, the home-grown and foreign being equal, with a small show again from the near counties in poor condition ; this day, therefore, remained without improvement, the market being a mere repetition of the previous week. The country advices follow- ing, lost the previous buoyancy, and generally came dull, Liverpool continuing the downward movement to the extent of 2d. to 3d. per bushel, and on Friday 2d. less was quoted, making another decline of about 2s. 3d. per qr. in quotations. The third Monday was also moderately supplied ; but there was a visible improvement in the con- dition of the Kentish and Essex samples ; the trade, however, ruled in buyers' favour, say to the extent of Is. per qr., the business in foreign con- tinuing retail. In the country the same feeling prevailed ; nearly all the principal places quoted a like reduction, Norwich and Newcastle being Is. to 2s. down. Liverpool was no exception this time, the Tuesday's market being 3d. per 70 lbs. lower, or another Is. 6d. per qr. The fourth Monday, though still without the usual average supplies, continued to show an improvement in the condition of the Kentish and Essex wheat ; but it was not enough to sustain the market, the best selected qualities being taken somewhat in buyers' favour, and factors would willingly have conceded a re- duction of 2s. per qr. generally to clear their stands even of marketable quality, but in vain. No fall was quoted in foreign, the absence of any large demand leaving prices nominally unaltered. The week closed in London very dull, but at unaltered rates ; the country generally quoting heavy mar- kets at Is. per qr. less money. The supplies in London during the four weeks referred to have been — in native wheat 25,198 qrs.; in foreign, 28,425 qrs., making the weekly supply larger than in February by 6,694 qrs., chiefly occasioned by better supplies from the Mediter- ranean and India. The general averages com- menced at 55s. lOd., and closed at 55s. 6d. in the period, being only 4d. per qr. less. Those of Lon- don, at the opening, were 59s. 5d., closing at Gls. 4d., being 2s. id. per qr. higher, for v/hich we have accounted in the improved condition of the sam- ples ; though, had the past month shown its char- acteristic dryness, the improvement would most likely have been over 5s. per qr. The shipments from America, fiom the 1st of January to the 28th of February, to Great Britain, were about 50,000 qrs. The London exports in four weeks have been 12,409 qrs. wheat, and 8,867 sks. flour. The flour trade has been, like that in wheat, excessively dull, with a downward tendency, though with but little ac- tual reduction in value. The beginning of the month found Norfolks quoted 41s., and on the last Mon- day they were quoted 40s. per sk, American bar- rels have lessened in value at the same rate ; but town-made samples, the quality of which is only kept up by the purchase of the best lots of English and foreign wheat, have remained throughout at 56s. per sk. The choicest American flour being still quoted 8 dols. 50 c. = 35s. per brl., or 50s. per sk., shows there is little margin for such between New York markets and those of London, where useful sorts have been selhng at 29s. and 30s. per brl., and fine at 34s. per brl. The English supplies from the country have been much as in February, viz., J 7,645 sks. on the average per week ; from America supphes have been less abundant, the number of barrels in the four weeks being only 21,976, against 39,897 in February, with 916 sks. of foreign, against 237 last month. The shipments from New York to this country, from the 1st of January to the 28th of February, were 204,851 brls. Barley through the month has httle varied, though supplies have increased ; the first Monday found the top quotation of fine malting sorts 49s. per qr., and the fourth Monday quotes the same price— a fluctuation of Is. first up, and on the last day as much down, being the history of the month. A large quantity o^ this grain is already sown under very favourable circumstances, as picked sam- ples have neared wheat prices in their value, and but for more liberal arrivals from abroad lately received, higher rates must have been paid, as the limited growth of last year begins to be felt over all the country; and, though the trade has finished heavily, the scarcity both on the continent and here seem likely to keep it at a high price till next crop, the low rates of beans and maize alone acting as a check. Inferior eastern qualities have been greatly neglected ; but, on the disappearance of the stouter kinds, must come into freer use. The exports in this kind have been, in four weeks, 5,334 qrs. ; the imports into London in the same time in Enghsh were 12,058 qrs., in foreign 39,567 qrs., giving a weekly average of about 5,000 qrs. over February. Oats, like other grain, have been a dull sale through the month. The first and second Mondays were lifeless, without altered quotations ; the third was 6d. per qr. cheaper, and the last nearly Is. per qr. lower, making a decline of about Is, to Is, 6d. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 367 per qr. in four weeks on a comparatively low price at the commencement. The early opening of the near ports bringing unexpected supplies has doubtless occasioned this reduction; and, as Ireland has not yet sent much corn, dealers have acted as though liberal stores were in reserve there, which we, however, doubt, as the acreable growth was considerably reduced, and though the quality last year was fine, the quantity has not been well re- ported. Ultimately, we think this grain must be dearer, as the good crop in Holland can scarcely be thought to make up for Irish deficiencies, and Russian supplies in quantity cannot reach here till late in the season. The receipts in London during the four weeks have been in English qualities 7,436 qrs. J Scotch, 6,049 qrs. ; Irish, 11,355 qrs. ; foreign, 64,307 qrs. This shows a large increase as compared with last month, but only makes a weekly average of 22,287 qrs., or below the usual receipts of ordinary seasons; and the granaries having lately been well drawn upon, there will not be much stock should there be any falling off in future receipts. Beans have been liberally furnished, and, though the prices commenced very low, have still shown a downward tendency, as the consequence of a limited demand. The reduction has, however, not ex- ceeded Is. per qr., and seems unlikly to go further, as, comparing weight with weight, they are already below barley, and in many cases have been used as its substitute, from this cause. The soundness of the English crop has been remarkable, and the new corn being now fit for general use, and com- paratively cheaper than the Egyptian sorts they will gradually work off. The circumstance, too, that the last crop of beans in Egypt is a short one, will tend to keep up the value. The exports have been during four weeks 2,656 qrs. Peas throughout the month have been much neg- lected, though in very limited supply. Boilers have been nearly passed by, and their prices scarcely exceed those for hog feed, the value of which has been steady. It is too late now to expect a re- action in white or blue sorts, and the grey and maples are not likely to be of less value. Linseed, with only moderate arrivals, has received a somewhat unexpected check to its advance. The price has not receded, but the demand has become less, and the roots for cattle feed holding out well, cakes, which till of late have commanded high prices and sold well, have become neglected. A great business has been doing in red clover- seed, prices having risen 5s. per cwt. ; but the close of the month found business past its maximum; and the holders of foreign, though the quantity is limited on hand, begin to be desirous of realizing. "White seed has been little in demand, and its value reduced 3s. per cwt. Trefoil has become difficult to sell. Tares have been almost unprecedentedly neglected — a large quantity of the winter kind being sown in autumn, from their then cheapness and the young plants promising well. Foreign spring tares have therefore cheapened, and fair quality small were to be had at 36s., large at 44s. per qr. Canary-seed, though dull, has maintained its price ; so have mustard-seed and hemp-seed. The seeds used in confectionary have not varied in their quotations. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, new .... 50 to 60 extra Ditto, red, , 49 56 Norfolk, Line, and Yorks., red, new . . 48 56 B ABLET, new, malting ... . 39 to 42 Chevalier.... DistilUng 36 38 Grinding Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ...%., 68 73 Kingston, Ware, and town made.. .. 70 74 Brown 63 64 Rte — — Oats, English, feed 23 25 Potato Scotch, feed 2C 29 Potato Irish, feed, white 21 23 fine Ditto,black 20 23 „ Beans, Mazagan, new ... . 31 33 Ticks, new.. Harrow 34 36 Pigeon Peas, white boilers .. 39 42.. Maple .. 39 40.. Grey Floctr, per sack of 280Ibs., Town, Households. .52s., fine Country 40 41 Households.. Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship Quarter. 63 to 63 58 60 Shillings per Quarter. 78 extra — 75 — 76 — — 58 73 71 — 69 63 61 58 fine.. 58 FOREIGN GRAIN. WHEAT.Dantzic, mixed..72 75 high do. - Konigsberg 71 75 ,, — Rostock .....62 74 fine.... — American, white ....62 68 red.... — Pomera., Meckbg.,& Uckermrk, red 59 Silesian, red 64 69 white.. — Danish and Holstein 58 St. Petersburg and Riga 52 Rhine and Belgium — — Russian, hard 56 70 French.... Barley, grinding 26 32 Distilling.. Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands.. 23 29 Feed 20 Danish and Swedish, feed . ..24 27 Stralsund.... 24 Russian 22 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 37 Konigsberg 37 42 Egyptian .... 35 Peas, feeding 37 38 fine boilers.. 39 Indian Corn, white 36 40 yellow 37 Flour, per sack French — — Spanish .... — American, per barrel, sour.. ..24 26 sweet 30 (none) 35 37 24 26 24 40 36 41 40 33 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Foe the last SixjWheat. Weeks: s. d. Feb. 7, 18.57 .... 56 6 Feb. 14, 1857 .... 5C 5 Feb. 21, 18.57 .... 55 10 Feb. 28, 18.57 ....l 55 5 March 7, 1857.... 55 4 Marchl4, 1857.... 55 6 Aggregate average 55 10 Sametimelastyear' 70 4 Barley s. d.' 45 9 44 11 45 4 45 3 45 8 46 1 45 6 36 4 Oats. s. d. 23 0 23 6 22 10 23 8 22 8 24 4 23 4 23 10 Rye. I Beans. 8. d. I 8. d. 39 3 , 39 6 44 4 37 7 39 1 41 8 39 6 39 8 38 11 39 4 39 10 39 4 40 4 39 5 47 4' 41 10 Peas, s. d. 88 10 COMPARATIVE AVERAGES— 1857-56. From last Friday's Gaz. a. d. Wheat 109, 123 qrs., .55 6 Barley 55,912 .. 40 1 Oats 18,076 .. 24 4 Rye 200 .. 39 10 Beans 7,105 .. 39 4 Peas 1,388 .. 39 7 Yrom Gazette ot n^a. g. d. Wheat 03,601 qrs., 67 11 Barley. 07,59:) .. 36 3 Oats 20,298 .. 23 2 Rye 122 .. 43 2 Beans 5,157 ., 41 0 Peas 1,340 .. 40 3 368 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FLUCTUATIONSiNTHE AVERAGE PRICEOF WHEAT Pricb. Feb. 7. Feb. 14. Feb. 21. Feb. 28. March 7.i 66s. 6d. 56s. 5d. .• k -j^^T .. 658. lOd. .. >- m ., 55s. 6d. ,, • • r 55s. 5d. .. .. "- M___^ _^l.j 55s. 4d. • • •• .. *• MONTHLY RETURN. An Account shewing the Quantities of Corn Grain, Meal, and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom, and admitted to Home Con- sumption, in the month of February, 1857. Specips of Corn, Grain Meal, and Flour. Wheat Barley Oats Rye Peas Beans Maize or Indian Corn .. Buck Wheat Beer or Bi^'g Tutal of Corn and rain Wheat Meal and Flour Barley Meal Oat Meal Bye Meal Pea Meal •.... Indian Meal Buck Wheat Meal Total of Meal and Flour. T„ ,,„j Impoited Imported fro^'^British rom foreign possessions Countries, out of Europe qrs. bush. 101694 1 • 42707 7 319;8 2 : 547 5 i 22-25 6 I 18693 7 SS630 8 i 13 0 qrs. bush 6658 2 239505 7 Total. qrs. bush. 1073.'i2 3 42707 7 84988 2 547 5 2225 6 18098 7 38630 3 13 0 5658 2 '<;45I64 1 cwts. qr.lb., cwts. qr.lb.j cwts. qr.lb. 155764 111 267 1 14 15(061 2 25 10 0 .. j 10 0 0 0 26 1 0 O' 1 0 26 1 2 C 11 3 61 U 0 0 1 2 0 14 3 6 110 0 155822 3 16' 263 1 14 I56C91 1 1 QUANTITIES OF CORN IMPORTED into LONDON, LIVERPOOL, HULL, NEWCASTLE, BRISTOL, GLOUCESTER, PLYMOUTH, LEITH, GLASGOW, DUNDEE, AND PERTH, IN THE WEEK ENDED MARCH 11. Cora, Flour, and Meal. Wheat Barley ...i Oats Bye Peas Beans... Indian Corn ..., Buck Wheat ..., Bere Quantities Imported. Foreign. Colonial. Qrs. Bush. Qrs. Bush. 34686 I 814 1 27087 5 17346 5 1190 0 140 6 6464 4 11.571 7 •• z 98487 4 814 1 Amount of Duty. Foreign, Colonial. £ s. d. £ ». d. 1885 0 9 40 14 3 1354 8 1 867 6 10 59 10 0 7 0 9 323 4 10 ,, .578 12 5 •'• 5075 3 8 40 14 3 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloveeseed, red, per cwt 50s. to 908. Ditto white ,, 56s. to 80s. Tkefoil, per cwt 27s. to 35s. Tares, per bushel 5s. 6d. to 6s. Gd. Hempseed (none) — s. to CoRiANDEE, per cwt 20s. to 248. Cabrawat, per cwt., new — s. to 50s. ..old — s. to — s Canary, per qr 70s. to 72s. Linseed, per qr., sowing .... — s. to — s. . . crushing 7 1 s. to 73s Linseed Cakes, per ton £11 Os. to£ll 10s, Rapeseed, per qr., new 8Gs. to 88s Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £5 IOp, FOREIGN SEEDS. &c. Cloverseed, red, French 70s. to 78s. ..American.. 78s. to 80s Ditto white GOs. to 80s, Tares, per bushel, new 5s. Od. to 5s. Gd HEsrpsEED, small, per qr —s. to 42s Do. Dutch 44s. Coriander, per cwt. 15s. to 20s Carrawat „ 42s. to 46s Linseed, per qr., Baltic ....67s. to 70s Bombay 70s. to 723, Linseed Cake, per ton £\l Os. tojeil lOs Rapeseed, Dutch 768. to 80s, Rape Cake, per ton £i 0B.to£5 lOs HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, March 23. — In the absence of any change from last week, our market continuea firm with a steady demand for the choicer descriptions of hops, at the cur- rency of last week. Hart & Wilson, POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK waterside, Monday, March 23.— During the past week there have been very few arrivals coast- wise, but still more left from former arrivals than the trade required, which has been dull at the following quotations : York Regents .... per ton 903. to llOs. Kent and Essex do 90s. to 120a. Lincolnshire do 80s. to 903. East Lothian do 90s. to 1203. Do. reds SOs. to 903. Perth, Forfar, & Fifsh.Reg. 703. to 85s. Do. reds 703. to 75s. Irish whites 60s. to 703. German do 503. to 703. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS, LONDON, Mon- day, March 23. — The supplies of potatoes on sale here are tolerably good. For most kinds t!ie demand is steady, at about stationary prices. Last week's imports were 255 tons from Rotterdam, and 160 tons from Harliugen. York Regents per ton 90s. to 1203. Kent and Essex ditto 903. 1203. Scotch ditto 80s. lOOs. Ditto Cups 803. 90s. Middlings 603. 703. Lincolus 803. lOOs, Blues 803, 903. Dutch 65s. 753, COVENT GARDEN MARKET. LO.NDON, Saturday, Makch 28. — Forced Strawberries may now be had at moderate prices. Among early Grapes are some from Jersey of fair quality. Some Pineapples have arrived from Sierra Leone ; they are, however, mucli inferior to those which come from tiie West Indies. French salading, consisting of Endive, Lettuces, and Barbe du Capucin, continues to arrive. Visitors passing through the market during the last niohtii or so must have been struck with ttie beautiful samples of large wliite Broccoli, which have been and are still exposed fiir sale by the cratelul. These are furnished from Cornwall weekly by the waggon load, and realize 2s. Cd. per dozen. Inferior samples may be had cheaper. Forced vegetables com- prise French Beans, Seakale, Asparagus and Rhubarb. Cucum- bers may also be obtained. Kent Cob Nuts fetch 140s. per 100 lbs. ; Barcelona Nuts, 20s. per bushel ; New Spanish and Brazils, 188. do.; and Chestnuts from 14s. to 2(s. ditto. The supply of Oranges is limited. Portugal Onions fetch from 28. to 8s. per dozen. Tl:e Potato trade is heavy, except for best samples, which are a little more in demand. Cut flowers con- sist of Orchids, Chinese Primulas, Cinerarias, Gardenias, Helio- tropes, Jonquils, Lily of the Valley, Tulip;:, Camellias, Geraniums, Violets, Mignonette, Heaths, and Roses. Pineapples, per lb 6 Grapes, per lb 12 Oranijes, per 100 5 Lemons, per dozen 1 FRUIT. 1. s. d- B OtolO 0 Pears, per doz 8 0 20 0 1 Apples, per half sieve... 6 0 12 0 Kent Cobs, per lOOlbs. IW 0 2 0 Strawberries, per oz.. , 1 VKGETABLES. d. 8. d. d. e. d. OtolO 0 0 8 0 Cabbages, per dozen .. .. 1 Oto 1 9 Broccoli, per bunch.... 10 16 B. Sprouts, p. halt sieve 2 0 2 6 Asparag-us, per bundle .. 6 0 9 0 Rhubarb, per bundle ... 0 6 13 Seakale per punnet 16 3 0 French Beana, per 100... 2 0 2 6 Potatoes, new, per ton . .60 0 140 0 Do. per bush 2 0 2 9 Carrots, per bunch 0 5 0 7 Turnips, per dozen 2 0 3 0 Spintich, per sieve 2 0 2 6 Cucumbers, each 2 0 4 0 Beet, per dozen 10 2 0 Celery, per bundle 0 9 19 Leeks, per bunch 0 1^ 0 2 Oniona,g:reen, per bush.. 2 Artichokes, each 0 Ditto, per half sieve . . 1 Shallots, per lb 0 Garlic, per lb 0 Lettuce, Cos., per score . 0 Endive, per score 1 Radishes, long", per bun. 0 Small Salad, per punnet 0 Horseradish, per bundle. 1 Salsify, per bundle 1 Scorzonera, per do 1 Mushrooms, per pottle.. 1 Parsley, per bunch 0 Marjoram, per bunch ... 0 Savory, per bunch 0 Mint, green, per bnuch.. 0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 369 PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. BUTTER, per cwt.- s. a. Friesland 112toll8 Kiel 112 120 Dorset, new 120 126 Carlow 100 110 WBterford — — Cork, 108 116 Limerick 90 100 Slifro 104 114 FKE9H, per dozen.. 14s. Od. to IBs. Od. CHEESE, per cwt.: s. ». Cheshire 64 74 Cheddar 74 84 Double Gloucester 60 74 HAMS, YorklOS 112.. new 90 100 Westmoreland 90 100 Irish 86 95 BACON : Wiltshire, dried 72 78 Irish, g-reen 64 70 ENGLISH BUTTER jMARKET. LONDON, Monday, March 23.— Since this day week we have had a serious decline in the price of Butter: our quotations are nominal. Dorset, fine new milk , per cwt. 1248. to 126s. Ditto, middling 1043. to lOSs. Fresh per doz. lbs. 12s. to ISs. GLASGOW. — There were five carts of cheese, and six tons passed the weigh-house. The market was somewhat duller than this day week. 1st class, new, 69s. ; 2nd class, 62s. CHIPPENHAM. — Broad doubles, COs. to 663. ; cheddar, 653. to 74s.; thin, 54s. to 60s.; loaves, 633. to 7O3.; skim, 243. to 323. per cwt. About 100 tons were pitched, at)d the whole of the best articles speedily changed hands. The loaf trade was, as at our last market, rather dull. SALISBURY. — The supply exceeded 200 tons. Tue de- mand was animated for half-cowards, at 573. to 60s., at which prices nearly the whole of that kind soon changed hands ; for better sorts the inquiry was not so great; on the whole, prices must be quoted fully 23. dearer than at the last marktt — say, Cheddar, 723. to 78s. ; Somersets, 643. to 703.; doubles, 6O3. to 648. ; half-cowards, 569. to GOs. ; skims, 34s. to 40s. SHREWSBURY. — Good cheese realized 65s. to 70s., selling readily immediately unloaded. Middle-class lots 60s. to 653. Skim cheese sold off quickly at 38s. to 453. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter: Shipping price, 1043. tol20s.percwt. ; firkins and crocks, ll^d. to 122d. per lb.; Bacon, 60s. to 66s. ; Hams, prime, 8O3. to 863., second quality 70s. to 763. ; prime mess Pork, 953. to 963. per brl.; Pork, 548. to 608. ; Beef, lOOs. to 1203. per tierce ; Irish Lard in bladders, 763. to 8O3.; kegs or firkins, 683. to 703. per cwt. LONDONDERRY, (Thursday last.) — Butter rather cheaper; firkins, per lb., first Is. OJd. to Is., seconds Is., third IHd., fourth lO^d., fifth 9|d.; butts, fine Is. Id. to Is. 2d., good Is. to la. Id., middling lid. to Is. Pork, 583. to 6O3. per cwt. CHICORY. LONDON, Saturday, March 28.— The week's imports are under £0 tons, and the su] p'.y of most kinds in the marktt is very inodi-rate. A fiiir average business is doing, at OHr quotations. ENGLISH, per ton.. flO lOtojEll 0 I HAMBURG XII OtojE 0 0 HARHNGEN 10 10 11 0 BELGIUJH 11 n 1110 FLANDERS 11 0 0 0 GUERNSEY 10 10 0 0 HAY MARKETS. Saturday, March 28.— SMITIIFIELD. — Both liay and straw sold slowly, at late rates. CUMBERLAND. — A moderate supply, and a fair demand. WHITECHAPEL— Suppli moderate, aand trade rather dull. At per Load of 36 Trusses. MEADOW HAY . CLOVER STRAW .Smithfield. 708. 100s Cumberlanu. 523. to 84s. 70s. lOOs. Whitkchapbl SOs.to 803. 70s. 1058. OIL MARKET. OILS. Olive, Florence, ■) ^1 „, half-chests .../■*-' '' ' Lucca 8 0 ( Gallipoli(252gals) 60 0 ( Spauinh 59 0 ( Linseed (cwt.).... 2 0 ; Rape, Pale 2 14 ( Brown 2 11 I Cod (tun) 48 0 I Seal, Pale 48 0 Do.Brown,Yel.&c 41 0 Sperm 99 0 Head Matter 104 0 Southern 44 0 I Cocoa-nut (cwt.). 2 9 Palm 2 2 RESIN. Yellow (per cwt.) £0 5 Traneparent 0 5 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 15 0 0 0 0 0 ; 10 0 : 0 0 I 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 10 6 i 4 6 I 6 6 I 6 6 7 0 PITCH. British (per cwt.)£0 6 9 Archanfrel 0 10 6 0 00 Stockholm 0 12 0 0 00 TURPENTINE. Spirits (per cwt.)jei 19 0 2 10 In Puncheons 1 19 0 0 0 0 Rough 0 10 0 0 10 6 TAR. American £0 18 0 0 18 6 Archangel 0 18 0 0 18 6 Stockholm 0 18 0 0 00 WHALEBONE, Greenland, full 1 .353 . „ ,» siie(j>erton). J-*"'^" " " " " South Sea 325 0 330 0 0 TIMBER. LONDON, Saturday, AIarch 28. — We have no change to notice in the value of any kind of limber this week. The deliveries have betn on a full average scale, ^but the stocks con- tinue very oxtensive. jE a. jE 8. jE 8. £ s. 3 10 to 4 10 Deals, Yel. Pine, perreducedC: 3 10 4 15 Canada, 1st quality. 16 0tol6 1P 6 0 7 0 Do. 2nd do. 11 0 11 10 5 0 6 0 Archangel Yellow.. 21 0 23 0 5 0 5 10 Memel 15 10 19 0 5 0 6 0 Gothenburg- Yellow. 14 0 16 0 3 10 4 10 Do. White 110 13 0 2 17 3 5 Getle Yellow, 14 ft.. 30 0 32 n 6 0 9 0 Christiania,perC.12ft.bv3by9in.: 5 0 8 0 Yellow 26 0 30 0 9 10 10 0 White 22 0 26 0 9 0 9 10 Deck Plank, Dantzic, 5 0 6 10 per 40 ft. by 3 in.... 10 110 3by9in.: Slaves, per Standard M. : 16 0 19 0 Quebec Pipe 85 0 90 0 17 0 26 0 Do. Puncheon.... 22 0 24 0 15 10 18 0 Baltic Crown Pipe. 130 0 135 0 Per load- Quebec, red pine .... Yel. Pine Quebec Oak, White.. Birch Ell. Dantzic Oak..... Memel Fir Swedish Masts,Qubc. Red Pine Do. Yellow Pine.... Lathwood, Dantzic fm Do. Memel Do. Quebec Deals, per C. 12 ft. by Quebec Wh. Spruce. Do. Red Pine St. John Wh. Spruce LEADENHALL LEATHER MARKET. LONDON, Saturday, March 28.— Our market continues to be only moderately supplied with Leather, and the demand is steady, at very full prices. CROP HIDES. HORSE HIDES. ENGLISH. lbs. lbs. d. d. lbs. lbs. 0 35 d. 18 to d. 19 28 t Do.without butts 9 14. .13 16 36 40 18 20 Spanish salted, 8.d. 8.d 40 45 18 21 without butts, > 6 9. .12 0 17 6 46 50 19 22 per hide. 50 55 19 22 Do. do. do. 9 11. .14 0 20 0 55 60 19 22 Do. do. do. inferior.. 9 0 12 0 BUTTS. Do. dry do. 6 8. .10 6 16 0 IhH. ENGLISH. lbs. d. d. Do. do. do. 9 11. .12 0 18 0 Do. do. do. inferior.. 8 0 11 0 14 16 24 26 CALF SKINS. 17 20 24 26 21 24 24 26 lbs. lbs. d. d. d. d. 25 28 20to28 20 to 24 .... 24 to 32 29 32 . 30 35 21 26 .... 24 31 33 36 35 40 21 27 .... 25 32 FOREIGN. 40 45 22 27 .... 25 33 14 16 23 25 45 50 22 27 .... 25 33 36 45 21 26 50 55 22 26 55 60 21 25 60 70. 70 80 19 23 80 90 18 22 45 50 22 26 OFFAL. d. English Shoulders 17 Do. Cheeks and Faces 10 Do. Bellies 11 Do. Middles 14 Foreign Shoulders 14 Do. Necks 11 Do. Bellies 10 Do. Middles do 13 Dressing Hide Shoulders. 13 D. do. Bellies .. 10 Kip Shoulders 5 Do. Bellies 4^ DRESSING HIDES. 13J Hi lbs. lbs Common 20 to 24 Do 26 28 Do 30 34 Do 35 40 Saddlers 30 d. 38 to 19 .36 50 Bulls 15 .20 Do 24 28 .. 18 19 Scotch do 16 24 .. 18 22 Coach, per Hide 358. to40s HORSE BUTTS. Shaved d. d. d. d English 16 to 18 ..17 to 19 Spanish 16 171..17 19 90 100 18 21 .. 100 120 17 20 .. KIPS. lbs. lbs. Petersburgh . Do. Do. Do. 4 to 7 .. d. d. 21 to 25 .11 E.Ind.drysltd. 5 7 ... 23 Do. do. 7 9 ... 22 Do. seconds 20 Do. thirds 17 Do. inferior 13 SUNDRIES. 3. Hog Skins, best each 12 Do. seconds... ,, 8 Seal Skins, split, per doz.. 64 Do. for bindings ,, 40 Calf Skins, Sumach, tanned ,, 50 Do. white ,, 30 Horse Hides, white, each.. 8 Sheep Skins — d. Basils, unstrained, per lb. 9 Do. strained ,, 9 Do. facing, per doz.... 03. Tan,Sheep,&Lambs„ 10 White Sheep, per 120 ... SO Do. Lambs, „ .. 60 Do. Sheep & Lambs, strained, per doz 7 Sumach Roans, per doz. 20 Do. Skivers, ,, 10 Bark Skivers, „ 9 Hide Splits, per lb 9 t( 15} 22 110 110 HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS. LONDON, Saturday, March 28. MARKET HIDES, s. d. b. d. Bfito641b3 per lb. 0 5ito 0 53 64 to72Ibs 0 5| 0 6 72to801bs 0 6 0 6J 0 61 0 7 0 7J 88 to96Ib8 0 96 to 1041b8 0 7i 101toI12lbB 0 0 HORSE HIDES.eachlO 0 to 0 CALF SKINS, light. 3 0 6 Do. full 9 6 0 SHEEP, Polled 10 0 11 Kents and Half-breds. 8 0 9 Downs 6 3 7 Shearlings 14 1 370 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. BIRMINGHAM, Saturday, March 28. HIDES. ». d. 951bB. and upwards.. 0 0 851bs. to941bs 0 0 751b3. to 841b8 0 0 65Ibs. to 741b3 0 6| 561bs. to 641bs 0 0 551b8. and Tinder.-... 0 0 Cows 0 5) Flawed and irregular 0 5f Horse each 0 0 Bulls 0 0 CALF. B. d inbs. and upwards.. 0 10 12Ibs. to 161bs 0 ' 91bs. to lllbs 0 Liffht 0 7 I .. 0 0 Flawed and irregular 0 7| Al. A. WOOL SKINS U 9 0 lOJ .. 1 4J 0 4? FAT Mut.&beef,mixed,45d.to 5Jd Bamford Brothers, Brokers. BARK, &c. LONDON, Saturday, March 28. £ English per loadof451j3 jp j^ jp cwt., del. in Loudon J Coppice 14 0 ■" " Dutch, per ton 5 0 Hambro' 4 10 Antwerp Tree 5 0 Do. Coppice 6 0 French 0 0 Mimosa 8 10 Do. Ground 10 10 £ »-l 15 10 j Ifi 0 h s 5 5 ti 0 6 10 1 0 () 10 10 11 0 CorkTree, Barbary ... 7 0 7 10 Do. Leghorn 6 0 7 0 Valonia,Smyrna,p.ton 13 0 16 10 Do. Camata 15 0 16 0 Do.Morea 11 0 13 0 Terra IGambier... 17 0 17 10 Japonica jCutch 50 0 52 0 DiviDivi 10 0 11 10 Myrabolama 8 0 13 0 Sumach, Sicily, p. cwt. 0 13 0 15 FLAX, HEMP, COIR, &c. LONDON, Saturday, March 28.— We have had a moderate inquiry for Flax, at about stationary prices. Most kinds of Hemp support previous rates. Petersburgh clean £35 10s. to £36, outshot £33 to £34, and half-clean £31 to £31 per ton. Jute is fully 10s. per ton dearer than last week. Coir goods are steady. MANURES. LONDON, Monday, March 23. — The imports of Peruvian guano into London last week were 2,480 tons, and 140 tons exported. There is no alteration to notice in the market for artificial manures this week. Linseed-cakes have been sold freely at a slight decline. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO, &c. PERUVIAN GUANO,(perton,for 30 tons)nominal£I3 6 0 to jE 0 0 0 Do. Do." (under SOtons) 14 15 0 IS 0 0 BOLIVIAN GtJ A NO 12 0 0 12 10 0 ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c. Sulph.ofCopper^j jEs.d. jK s. d- Nitrate Soda (per ton) Nitrate Potash ■> 29 0 0 or Saltpetre jT Sulpht. Ammonia 18 0 0 Muriate ditto... 22 0 0 Snperphospht. 1 g 0 0 of Lime.... S Soda Ash, or! 0 0 0 Alkali / Gypsum 2 0 0 Coproljte 3 16 0 ^£19 10 0to£20 0 0 30 0 0 8 0 0 or Roman trioljforWheat i steeping J Salt 1 Bones, Dustjperqr- 1 Do. J-inch 1 Oil Vitriol, 1 concentrated, \ 0 per lb ) Do. Brown 0 42 0 0 to 43 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 03 2 0 0 16 0 15 0 2 10 0 4 0 0 OIL-CAKES. Mav.seilles £9 0 Oto £9 10 0 Euglish 10 10 0 110 0 Rape-cakes,prton 6 5 0 6 10 0 Linseed-cakes, per ton — Thin American,! ^^ „ g^^j 15 q inbrls. orbags J Thick do. round 10 6 0 10 10 0 John Keen, 3.5, Leadenhall-street, (Late Odams, Pickford, and Keen.) Williams & Co., 24, Mark Lane— Azotic £6 10 0 Manufactured bv Hodgson & Simpson, Wakefield, and Matthews & Co., Driffield. Ammonia-Phosphate and Nitro-Phosphate per ton £8 0 0 Superphosphate of Lime ,, 7 0 0 Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suifolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops perton£8 10 0 Prentice's Turnip Manure ,, 7 0 0 Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime ,, 6 10 0 Lancashire Manure Company, Widnes, near Warrington. J. Knight & Co.'s Nitrogenized Bone Manures per ton £8 15 0 Manure Works, Grovehill, Beverley. Tigar & Co.'s Celebrated Turnip Manures per ton £7 10 0 WOOL MAKKETS. BRITISH WOOL MARKET. Monday, March 23. — Our market, under the influence of a tight money market, has become heavy, and some forced sales of skin combing have been made at a reduction in price of fully Id. per lb. In the value of other wools we have no change to notice, and demand is very inactive. Holders, how« ever, are firm in their demands. Per pack of 2401bs. Fleeces— Southdown Hogs £21 10to£-22 0 Do. Half-bred Hogs 19 10 20 10 Do. Kent 17 10 18 0 ,, Do. Southdown Ewes and Wethers 18 0 19 0 i' Do. Leicester do 17 0 18 10 I Sorts— Clothing, picklock 22 0 28 0 *' Do. Prime and picklock 20 10 21 0 Do. Choice • 18 0 19 0 Do. Super 17 0 18 0 Do. Combing— Wether matching ... 23 0 24 0 Do. Picklock 19 10 20 0 Do. Common.. 16 0 17 0 Do. Hog matching 24 10 25 0 Do. Picklock matching 20 10 2110 Do. Superdo 17 10 18 10 LEEDS WOOL MAKKET, March 20th.— There has not been any chauge of ruomeut in this branch of trade this last week. Sales of combing wools have been flat, the manufac- turers (who are all working full time) continuing to use from their recent purchases. Prices are firm, but in actual sales are a turn in favour of the buyers. Down clothing sorts are in steady demand, and have ready sale at last week's rates. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, March 21. Scotch Wool. — The demand for Laid Highland is only fair; the manufaclurers only buy for their immediate wants, but stocks were never known to be so light at this period of the year. White Higliland is scarce and inquired for. Cheviot and crossed of a good class are still in moderate request at rates rather in favour of the buyer. s. d. 8. d. Laid Hiehland Wool, per 241bs 16 0 17 0 White Highland do 18 6 20 0 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed .... 18 0 20 6 Do. do. .washed 20 0 31 6 Laid Cheviot do.. unwashed 23 0 22 6 Do. do.. washed. „ 23 6 28 0 White Cheviot do. .washed 32 0 40 0 Foreign Wool. — The London sales having closed with less spirit, aud for fine wool at some reduction, has to a certain extent had an influence on our market. Low wools beiog light in stock, and no immediate prospect of fresh supplies, are less affected, aud late rates are fully supported. The alteration in the American tariff will considerably influence all low wools. Imj-orts for the week 7,987 bales. Previously this year. 30,52S FOREIGN WOOL MARKET. Per lb. Duty Free. s. d. s. d. German, ( 1st and 2nd Elect 3 4 to 4 6 Saxon, jPrima 2 4 3 0 and j Secunda > ,, 2 0 2 4 Prussian. (Tertia 18 110 Australian&V.D.Land— Combg.&Clothg 14 3 2 Do. Lambs , , .... 1 8^ 2 2i Do. Locks and Pieces 0 10| 2 I| Do. Grease , 0 10 1 Si Do. Skin and Slipe 14 2 IJ S.Australian&S. River— Combg.&Clothg 16 2 6 Do.Lambs 1 6i 2 2* Do. Locks and Pieces 1 ll ^ "ii Do. Grease ,. 0 7| 14 Do. Skin and Slipe 18 2 2j Cape — Average Flocks., 10 2 fj Do. Combing and Clothing 11 2 l| Do, Lambs 1 4J 2 IJ Do. Locks and Pieces 13 1 lOi Do. Grease 0 8j 16 LEEDS FOEEIGN WOOL MARKET, March 20th.— The supply of wool from the sales is now rapidly coming to hand, and though it is not moving off in large quantities into consumption, there seems to be little doubt that the compara- tively light stock will be barely suflicient to meet the demand, with the probability of a fnir spring trade. Prices are not materially altered. Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 346, Strand, London. -^■^^.Su "i^a ,-feOT a.TnJ}tof' ZcmdarL. JhobU-shed iy Rogerscm, &■ Tiuc/brd, Z4S, Stran3,.28S7 THE FAHMEE'S MAGAZIIiE. MAY, 1857. PLATE I. PORTRAIT OF THE LATE MR. HENRY CHAMBERLAIN. PLATE 11. GRAND TURK; A Roan Bull. THE LATE MR. HENRY CHAMBERLAIN. To select men of any class as examples to their fellows requires great care and discrimination, as our aim should be only to pay honour where honour is justly due ; and to hold up the cha- racters of those whose consistent conduct through a long life supplies a moral and an example which all may do well to follow. In carrying out this principle, we are induced to point to men whose private acts, which are often known only in their own parish or neighbourhood, are more highly valued than even those which gain the admiration and applause of the many. This may be truly recorded of the late Mr. Henry Chamberlain, of Desford, near Leicester, who had for a lengthened period been an eminent member of the agricultural community. The position which he reached and long occupied cannot be ob- tained by one lucky hit or brilliant thought, but only by a long course of useful conduct directed by the soundest discretion and highest principle. His success as a breeder and feeder of stock has been of no common order. In the numbers of this Magazine for May, 1839, and May, 1840, will be found some account of Mr, Chamberlain's prizes as then gained, with portraits of his animals. In one OLD SERIES.] year he took five premiums at the Smithfield Club Show, amounting to £70, besides three silver medals and one gold medal. At the Leicester Show, which has been considered the best local exhibition in the kingdom, he took thirteen prizes in one year. In giving an account of his stock, it was then stated that " no observations which we could make would prove the celebrity of Mr. Chamberlain, as a breeder, so conclusively as these facts." In short, he carried away so many prizes that his table became loaded with these honours, in the shape of silver tankards and cups, gold and silver medals, in addition to some hundreds of pounds received in money. It is a matter of com- parative ease for a gentleman to purchase first-rate animals, and then win with them ; but the great merit in Mr. Chamberlain's case was the fact that he was the breeder of all his prize animals. The following remarks on his character as a breeder are from an excellent notice which appeared, imme- diately on his decease, in the Leicester Journal ■ — " He was pre-eminent in his herd of Hereford beasts, and perhaps no breeder out of that and the adjoining counties ever attained such excel- lence in this breed of stock : certainly no one 2 B [VOL. XLVI.— No. 5. 372 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ia the midland counties could compete with him with any chance of success. He introduced the llerefords into Leicestershire about thirty years since, and by a judicious selection of stock from the best herds in that county, and by great care and judgment in breeding, he succeeded in pro- ducing animals equal to any which it possessed. It will be recollected that some years back he ex- hibited many Herefords at the Smithfield Show, arid carried away prizes when competing with animals sent from their native county by the most celebrated breeders. Not only was he famed for his breed of beast, but his flock of New Leicester sheep v/ere in high repute, and they also took seve- ral premiums at Smithfield. He selected his sheep from those flocks which ranked high as retaining the pure Dishley blood ; and, though not an ex- tensive breeder of rams, he always had some to let in each season, which did him great credit, and were anxiously sought after by those who knew his flock. The excellent animals which he exhibited for many years gave a character of celebrity to the Leicester- shire Society, v/hich was a great cause of its subse- quent success ; for in its early years the show would have been but a sorry affair had his stock been absent, and, in all probability, v/ould not have ar- rived at that degree of excellence which it has since attained. For several years he was the most suc- cessful candidate, and carried 08*80 many of the prizes that his buffet became loaded with silver, in the shape of cups and tankards, which he won on those occasions." Mr. Chamberlain was an active member of the Smithfield Club, and so lately as last December took a leading part in its proceedings, when he was the cause of about £350 being added to theprize sheet for this year — to be appropriated in increasing the number of prizes, and making new classes for the Sussex, Long-horn, Norfolk, Scotch, and Irish breeds. He also, in conection with other gentle- men, assisted Lord Berners in forming the Leicestershire Agricultural Society, of which he continued an active member to the time of his death. Mr. Chamberlain was one of the chief founders of another most useful societj^, that has risen to great eminence and been productive of much good — the Sparkenhoe Farmers' Club, which was originated by a few farmers in the neighbour- hood of Desford, and over the interests of which Mr. Chamberlain was often called upon to preside. His services as one of the judges at the meetings of the R'jyal Agricultural Society v/ere often soli- cited, as well as at Birmingham, and many other places throughout the kingdom. There was, too, another public capacity which Mr. Chamberlain filled for twenty-one years, to his own credit and the entire satisfaction of his colleagues, arid that was the vice-chair of the Market Bosworth board of guardians. The Earl Howe was chairman the Vv'hole of that time, and always acted with Mr. Chamber- lain in the most cordial manner, jointly adminis- tering the law v/ith as much kindness towards the poor as was consistent with their duty towards the ratepayers. Mr. Chamberlain v/as on his way to attend a meeting of this board, when it pleased Providence to visit him with a sudden illness of so severe a nature that in two days he quietly yielded his spirit to him who gave it, to the deep and sincere regret of all his friends, in the 66th year of his age. His knowledge of the Poor Law was of no common order, and his great application to this business for so many years eminently ([ualifiedhim to take a leading part in matters of this kind. Mr. Chamberlain farmed his own estate of about 650 acres of land, and he ranked amongst the highest in the class of " substantial, honourable, and hospitable Old English yeomen." He was a compeer in agricultural improvement with such men as Jonas Webb, Charles Hillyard, Messrs. Gibbs, Thomas Chapman, Thomas Umbers, Charles Stokes, &c.; and he also enjoyed the esteem and friendship of noblemen and gentlemen in various parts of the kingdom, including the Duke of Rich- mond, the Earl Howe, the late Earl Spencer, Lord Berners, and others. Whether we view the character of the late Henry Chamberlain in a public or pri- vate capacity, we cannot but come to the conclusion that he had been a most useful man in his day, and donemuchgood in his generation. May his excellent example and consistent conduct through life, whe- ther as a public man or a private gentleman, be emulated by the very many who have met him, or at least have been familiar with his name and suc- cesses. It was only at the last show of the Midland Counties Society, at Birmingham, that we met Mr. Chamberlain busy on his round of inspection ; and it is only within these few weeks that the members of that Society have publicly testified to his worth. At a meeting held at Birmingham on the 15th of March, the following resolution was entered : — " That this meeting desires to record the deep sense which they entertain of the loss experienced by the Society and by the agricultural communify gene- rally in the lamented death of Mr. Henry Chamber- lain, of Desford, who had been a member of this council for the last three years, and who had also from the first institution of the Birmingham Cattle Shows constantly afforded most valuable advice and assistance in their management." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 373 M-. iibaio as rr,,,,,. ,,,p afi-v }£(fJ has, aloffv/ 9fli ni;n .,9.fa,.rr GRAND TURK, '^ii4"B THE PROPERTY OF HENRY AMBLER, ESQ., OF WATKINSON HALL, HALIFAX, YORKSHIRE, Grand Turk, a roan bull (12969), bred by Mr. S. E. Bolden, of Springfield Hall, Lancaster, and calved Dec. 13th, 1852, is by Grand Duke (10284), dam (Young Rachel) by Leonard (4210), g. d. (Rachel) by Young Red Rover (4905), gr. g. d. (Rally) by Rowton (5019), gr. gr. g. d. (Young Carnation) by Admiral (5), gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Carnation) by Pilot (496), gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. (White Rose) by Albion (14), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. (Hainaby) by The Lame Bull (359), gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. gr.g. d. by Easby (232), K'*- S'"- gr. gr. gr. gr. gr. g. d. by Suworrovv (636). At the Carlisle Meeting of the Royal Agricultu- ral Society of England, in 1855, Grand Turk, then only two-years-and-a-half old, was highly com- mended in the All-aged class —Mr. Booth's Windsor taking the first premium, and Lord Feversham's ^"Gloucester the second. ''' In April ,1856, Grand Turk took the second pre- mium at the Spring Show of the Royal Dublin Society. In July he took the second prize of £15, at the Chelmsford Meeting of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England; Mr. Towneley's Master Butter- fly receiving the first. Ill August, at the Rotherham Meeting of the Yorkshire Society, he took the first prize of £25, again beating Gloucester ; only highly commended at Chelmsford, and here receiving the second pre- mium. In the same month at the Athlone Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, he took the first prize of £20, and the gold medal, as the best Bull in the yard, beating Lord Clancarty's Pro Bono Pubhco, which at the Spring Show at Dublin took the gold medal against Grand Turk. In September he took the first prize of £5 and the medal, as the best Bull, at the Preston Meeting of the North Lancashire Society. He also took the first prize at the meeting of the Durham Agricultural Society. Grand Turk is a noble animal, uniting size and quality in a very remarkable degree. He is beautifully proportioned, and his general frame denotes great substance. His girth is 8 feet 11 inches, and round his flank 9 feet 6 inches ; his length from horn to tail 8 feet 5 inches, and his height in full keeping. His head is very fine; his neck, perhaps, a little too thin, but with a deep, full, and prominent bosom. His shoulders are full, well out, long and deep ; and, as we have al- ready stated, he has great depth of girth. His ribs though very long are scarcely rotund enough, nor is his back quite level. He has a broad loin ; very long full fat rump ; good hips, well covered ; deep thighs; a deep, somewhat hanging, heavy flank ; tuts good, with tail hanging well between them ; twist full, and oflfal fine. He is in colour a good roan ; stands and shows very well, and is, in short, a magnificent specimen of the Improved Shorthorn. At the sale of Mr. Ambler's herd, on the 1 st April, Grand Turk was bought by Mr. Strafford for Mr. Thorne, of New York, at 300 gs. A report of the sale will be found at page 438, in the present number. THE FREE ACCESS OF AIR TO THE SOIL. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S. At a season when so many of my readers are employed in draining operations, it will be useful to refresh our memories with the suggestions of the chemist; and it may not be without its use, if at the same time we recur to some of the great objects 'jn this way to which the men of the past genera- tion of farmers had their attention directed. Many of the eflbrta, indeed, of the great agriculturists who flourished at the close of the last century (attempts in which they failed, chiefly for want of science to aid them) might be renewed now with a much better chance of success than in their days. I have on a recent occasion glanced at the unsuc- cessful endeavours of Arthur Y'oung to apply mineral acids as a manure, and we have seen how very near he was to the discovery of superphos- phate of lime, and I will now show how he laboured to apply various gases, or airs, as he called them, to the roots of plants. Y'oung evidently had the sagacity to perceive that if the atmospheric air 2 B 2 374 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. could be applied into and under the soil in which the growing plant was placed, very beneficial results would arise ; he had noted the effect of the atmosphere in places where plants were placed over dry drains, and in other situations the most ex- posed to the breezes, and he began therefore a series of experiments in June, 1782, upon the fer- tilizing effect of various gases applied to the roots of plants. Arthur Young, in reporting the results, frequently speaks of " phlogiston," which it may be well to remind the reader was an imaginary substance, conjured up by the chemical philoso- phers of that day, which they deemed tobe the essence of the food of plants, and who thus regarded it useful to explain unknown things by giving names to imaginary substances. The detail of Young is entitled, " Some attempts to apply Air as a Manure to the Soil" [Annals of Agriculture, Vol. i., p. 169). In this, after telling us truly enough, " It has never been my conduct to abandon to speculation that which can be brought to the test of experiment," he describes his experiments with some barley planted in pots, and subjected to the action of car- bonic acid gas, hydrogen gas, and comm.on air; and he adds (z5., p. 185), "Had not inflammable air been tried, the leading feature for selection would have been the effect of the volatile alkali (ammo- nia) which is universally excellent; and as putrefac- ion is known in common practice to yield admirable manure, it might have been concluded with great propriety, that the volatile alkali is the food of plants, a theory for several years the favourite de- duction of my practice." And in another place he remarks — 70 years before covered homesteads were advocated— (i&., p. 187) " I have a standing sheepfold, part covered and closed, and part of it un- covered ; the whole is littered equally, but one load of the dung in the covered part is worth two in that uncovered. When the carts go in to be loaded, it stinks much more offensively, and makes the men's eyes water that move it. This shows that the volatile alkali and phlogiston are retained, and that the action of the sun and atmosphere is to carry them off." It is curious to read these saga- cious remarks, and to think of Lawes and Liebig three-quarters of a century afterwards discussing the claims of ammonia to the position to which it was elevated by poor Arthur Young. " No day passes," he sorrowfully concludes, " without my regretting my insufficient ability to pursue the hints which arise. Time is precious : life flies fast away, and leaves one little more than wishes to execute what fortune forbids." These attempts to apply air to the soil long ceased after the days of Young. Then arose the drill hus- bandry, and the beneficial horse-hoeing stirrings of Holkham. The air, it was soon found, did good. It was then remembered that the atmosphere ,w^8., charged with insensible moisture; it was long afterwards shown, that this vapoury portion was not pure water — that it held ammonia and nitric acid in solution ; and attempts have even been made to promote the free access of these watery vapours to the soil, by means not only of deep stirrings of the soil, but by causing a flow of air through the common land-drains. It would be useful if such trials were extended ; and it would assuredly be attended with an increase of our knowledge, if some small trials were instituted upon the effect of passing a gentle steadily-con- tinued current of air through the soil in which plants were growing. This would be valuable, not perhaps as being in this way generally applicable to our fields, but as showing by the results whether more extended and more practical applications might not be desirable. If the reader will refer to the ninth volume of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, he will find (p. 340) some striking examples of the good effect produced by facilitating the entrance of air into the land by means of air drains constructed by Mr. S. Hut- chinson, of Grantham, in Lincolnshire. Amongst other trials, he describes one in a field consisting of ten acres of strong loamy soil upon a clay sub- soil. " It was under-drained in 1843, by twenty-five parallel drains, two feet deep and five yards apart, each discharging into a covered outfall at the bot- tom of the field. In the autumn of 1846, it oc- curred to me that this being a shallow-drained field presented a good opportunity for experiment. I divided it into five compartments, each containing five of the drains. With the two outside and cen- tre compartments I did not interfere. In the two other compartments I introduced what I call an air-drain across the tipper end of the five drains in each case, to join them together. I then connected the air-drain so cut with the adjacent open ditch at the top of the field, in order to increase the natural current or circulation of air through the ordinary drains. In the following table the pro- duce of an acre of both the air-drained and the non-air-drained land is given — TURNIPS. Skirving's. Pine-apple. Wheat. Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. Bush. Air-drained 16 4 10 8 28f Non-air-drained 13 12 6 16 21 In another experiment — Air-drained 35 Non-air-drained ^ . . . . . 30 In the windy or breezy weather Mr. Hutchinson adds that a draught of air through drains is always perceptible at the outlets ; and at other times, after THE l^ARMER'S 2.'iiAi 375 ^i^if'l^Qni'f wate'rliasceasea to be discharged, a hazy evapo- ration is frequently visible. Many incidental cir- cumstances, therefore, tend to confirm the opinion that if by any artificial means we could make the atmospheric air gently filter through the soil, its beneficial influence in promoting the growth of plants would be very considerable. The good effect indeed of land drainage, which we are too apt to explain entirely by the removal of the stagnant water, should to an equal extent be assigned to the warming and fertilizing eflfect of the air which diffuses itself through those cavi- ties and pores of the soil previously filled by the water. The results, like those to which I have al- luded, have been very well shown in the observa- tions made by Mr. Henry Stephens, and recorded in his work on the Yester Deep Land Culture. To give an instance — Six thermometers were placed in the soil, at a depth of 18 inches. This distance from the surface was chosen, since at that depth they were found not to be sensibly aflfected by the changes of the temperature of the atmosphere. Observations were made, to ascertain the tempera- ture of the ground before and after it was thoroughly drained and subsoil-ploughed. In the following table 'column I. gives the month; II., the mean temperature, in 1849, of the soil of a field at Yester Mains in its undrained state; III., that of another field in the same year, after being thorough- drained; IV., that of No. II. in 1850, after thorough draining ; V., that of the soil of the south border of a garden at Yester, in 1849 : — Ulbjiiu-' ! VEGETATING SEASON. March April May June , July August September October . Mean of vegi-tating season II. III. IV. 36 37 37 40 38 39 48 47 42 54 53 54 55 54 59 56 46 54 50 54 55 35 37 50 46.75 45.75 48.75 V. 42 43 51 58 62 62 59 50 53.37 NON-VEGETATING SEASON. I. November December January February Mean of non-veg. season Mean of both seasons . . . II. III. IV. 34 37 44 34 36 39 32 32 32 34 38 36 33.5 35.75 37.75 42.33 42.42 45.08 V. 46 41 43 53 45.75 50.83 The celerity with which thorough draining may affect the temperature of the surface soil was observed in one instance at Broadwoodside. A thermometer placed one foot under the surface, on the crown of an 18-feet ridge, before a drain was cut, indicated a temperature of 48 deg. ; after a drain had been cut to the ordinary depth on each side, in the open furrow of the ridge, the tempera- ture rose to 49.5 deg., that is li deg. in 6 hours {A(/ri. Gaz., 1855, p. 651). It would, indeed, be an incorrect conclusion that the cause of the increase of temperature is assign- able to the mere removal of the land water, since in well-drained land the temperature at 18 inches keeps pace with that of the atmosphere. In my own observations, the thermometer is placed in thoroughly-drained land, in fact a porous rock sand ; and here the thermometer placed at 18 inches from the surface commonly rises and falls with another thermometer placed immediately above it, about five feet from the surface. The advantages then of a more extended supply of air to the soil do not appear to have any attend- ant drawbacks. The attraction of the soil for the insensible moisture of the air, and for its am- monia, is so considerable, that no fear need be en- tertained of its want of power to separate them from the atmospheric gases. The same power which enables the soil to abstract the volatile alkali from rain-water, is exerted in absorbing it from the air with whicli it comes in contact. " Every acre of ground," observes Professor Way, " which allows water to percolate freely, be- nefits equally by the nitric acid and ammonia of rain. But whence comes the additional luxuriance which vegetation puts on when the land is abun- dantly worked ? whence the Lois Weedon crops ? Obviously Mr. Smith cannot be satisfied with the ammonia of rain, he must have some from the air also; and begets it from the air in a far greater quantity than the rain could furnish." " In fact (adds Mr, Hoskyns), he habitually expresses his obliga- tions to the dew, as a more steady benefactor than the rain, in much the same terms as might express the relation of ' daily bread' to an occasional feast." Any improvement in the drawing nourishment to our lands in this way has a great and paramount advantage; that it is deriving our supplies from an ever present fountain ; no river waters are taken— no vested rights are trenched upon. Such a retrospective glance at the labours of past agriculturists, and of the illustrations which science has since afforded, will hardly fail of being useful to us in the drainage improvements in which, at this period of the year, most cultivators are engaged. The advances in science, too, which we have been tracing since the time of Arthur Young, and the noble little band of farmers who graced the close of the last century, should cheer us on in the path of improvement. They laboured from enlightened convictions which they were con- 376 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tent to explain by mystic phrases. We, it is true, sometimes rather too closely imitate this amusing example; but then we have the aid of advanced knowlege — the progress of agricultural chemistry, a science whose first germs were hardly formed when Priestley was experimentalising in his laboratory, and Arthur Young amid the barley soils of his own good honest Suffolk. GREAT SPRING CATTLE SHOW OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY. The Royal Dublin Society and the Royal Agricul- tural Improvement Society of Ireland are to the Sister Kingdom very much what the Smithfield Club and tlae Royal Agricultural Society of England are to us on this side of the Channel. They are supjiorted by the same classes, directed very much by the same men, but are still kept entirely distinct in their arrangements and organization. The Dublin show, moreover, like the London Club, is to some extent at least a fat cattle show; while the two national Societies very pi'operly restrict their entries and premiums to breeding animals. It might, perhaps, be advisable, in some respects, that the line between the two should be a little stronger than it is just at present. To accomplish this, how- ever, the Dublin Society would have to change its spring meeting into a winter or Christmas one, when prize beef and fat pigs are more legitimately in season. But this is a point we should be by no means in- clined to press. At present the Dublin Society em- braces in its operations both the feeding and breeding of animals. It has long continued to do so with much success ; although, of course, a fat beast can only rank second in use and importance to one destined for breed- ing purposes. The Dublin spring show is consequently, par excellence, but another national display of breed- ing stock. You find many of the same animals at the metropolis in April as you do in the provinces in August. Only last year one of our best English bulls, " Grand Turk," and one of the best of the Irish, " Pro Bono Publico," bad each in his turn the call on these two several occasions. This is all as it should be. As we have already said, we have no desire to press for any alteration, or for any more distinifuishing difference between the two exhibitions— the one of fat and the other of breeding animals. It is palpable enough that a change — of time say — might be made with advantage to the former. It would be a question, though, whether this would be commensurately a national advantage. Comparatively siDcaking, a young country in the art of agriculture, Ireland cannot seize too many oppor- tunities for disseminating the best sorts, so long as such occasions are well supported and appreciated. So far the thing is by no means overdone. Both the spring and autumn anniversaries are well supported, and both more and more by the Irish themselves. The time has come when the Emerald Isle can from hej. own resources find the material not only for a becom- ing meeting on her own ground, but even to well main- tain her credit elsewhere. She has now herds of Short- horns that would be but very rarely surpassed either in England or Scotland ; famous flocks of Leicester sheep, and pigs as good as they once were bad. If there are people still who question the real use of these agi'icultural associations, they have only to turn to such examples as these. We believe that much of the improvement that has already been accomplished in Ireland, with the yet more good seed that is now taking root, may be traced directly to the influence of these two associations. Land- owners, compelled as it were in the first instance to attend and support such gatherings as a matter of duty, have gradually warmed to them ; while a spirit of emulation has been diffused amongst the agricultu- rists themselves that is perhaps only still in the gei'm of its intent and effect. The same man, whose aim and pride a few years since would have been to breed a winner of the Angleseas, or to be first home for the Farmers' Cup, has now as strong a feeling to be " famuus" for a short-horn heifer, or a long-woolled ram. Although not so far as generally distributed as they will be, it is remarkable and encouraging to sec liow strong a hold Ireland has gradually obtained on some of our best sorts of stock. For the Shorthorn, more particularly, she is especially formidable; while such good judges as Mr. Torr have over and over again borne testimony to the excellence of her Leicesters. In the whole of our rounds last year, we were nowhere more impressed with " the character" of the Shorthorn, the best points best developed, than we were with what we saw at Athlone. Nearly all the first animals, too, at this Dublin Spring Meeting, the best bulls and best cows, Mr. Owen's, Mr. Barcroft's, Mr. Turner's, Mr. Campion's, and Lord Clancarty's, were shorthorns. Their quality may be estimated by the very capital prices they brought, particularly from the agents of our American and Australian friends, who were ready buyers. Indeed the sort have succeeded so well here, that breeders have at length, with the aid of the Irish Farmers' Gazette, established a sort of '' Shorthorn Herd Book" of their own, with quarterly returns from the length and breadth of the land. If we are to judge from the entries and the names of the exhibitors, this year's show was very successful. This, of course, is the first and best test. As a popular gathering, however, the weather was against it. During the whole of the first day it rained, as it will rain occasionally in those parts, and the company was consequently very select. The list included his Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, who may be supposed to take something more than a merely ex-ofiieio interest in such matters. Lord Carl- isle is himself a successful breeder of stock, and we THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 377 have heard liiru as eloquent as a private gentleman at an agricultural meeting ia England, as we ever have during liis supremacy in Ireland. The chief feature in the after-proceedings on this oc- casion was a paper road by Mr. Foot, on the Paris Inter- national Cattle Show of last year. This is embodied in our report ; and from it the reader will observe the good position maintained by the Irish exhibitors at an unusually strong meeting. In simple fact there is no stronger proof of her " regeneration" than can be deduced from the interest the sister kingdom is now evincing in the art of agriculture. When she does full justice to her own soil and capabilities, then we take it is she interpreting as best she could the rallying cry of '' Justice to Ireland." This Spring Eshibiiion of stock and agricultural im- plements took place on Wednesday, April 22, on the pre- mises adjoining the Society's House, Kildare-street, Dublin. Its success was considerably marred by the rain, which continued throughout the whole day. As regards the quality of the show itself, it is extremely creditable, and in some departments, particularly the cattle, the reputation which the Society has hitherto obtained is fully maintained. LIST OF PRIZES. BREEDING STOCK. Judges: — Scorer, T. Trotter, J. Wright. Steward — I?. Collins, M.D. SHORT-HORN BULLS. Best, calved in 1855, five sovereigns, T. L. Norman, Ardce. Sec-.)H;i best, three sovs., Richard Cbalnner, Moynalty. Third, larsc silvtr roeJal, Jonathan Richardson, Liaburn. Best, calved iu 1855, five sovs., Thomas Ball, Malahlde. Secuuii best, three sovs.. Lord Talbot de Malahide. Best, cslvt J in 1854, i;ve sovs., C. P. Leslie, M.P. Second best, t',vo sovs., Ambrose Bole, Tashiuuy. SHORT-UORN COWS AND HEIFERS. Best hfifer, calved in 1856, large silver raedal, JalTray Bar- croft, Csbinteely. Second best, small silver raedal, Thomas Bari!C3, Moynalty. Best heifer, calved in 1855, iu calf, or producing a live calf within twelve months sub3equent to date of show, large silver medal, Earl of Chncarty. Second best, small silver ,iiedal, John J. Turner, Kilcullen. Best Heifer, calved in 1854, giving milk, or in calf, large silver medal, Viscount Monck. Secoud best, small silver medal, John J. Turner. Best Cow, of any age, ia calf, or having had a live calf within twelve mouths preceding the date of the show, large silver medal, Rowland Campion, Sbanballyraore. Second best, small silver medal, Mrs. AVilliam Garrett, Moynalty. DEVON BULLS. Beit, calved in 1856, three sovs.. Earl of Charlemont. Best, calved in 1855, three sovs,. Earl of Charlemont. Best, calved in 1854, three sovs., Wm. Coppinger, Carrig- twohill. DEVONS. Best heifer, calved in 1855, in calf, or producing a live calf within twelve months subsequent to the date of show, large silver medal, Earl of Charlemont. Best heifer, calved in l!;54, giving milk, or in calf, large silver medal. Earl of Charlemont. Best cow of any age, in calf, or having had a live calf within twelve months preceding the date of the show, large silver medal, Wm. Walsh, Balbriggan. Beat Ayrshire Bull, large silver medal, Hon. Thorn aa Preston. Best Alderuey Bull, large silver medal, IColonel Hill, Castlekuock. Best Kerry Bull, larj^e sdver medal, Wm. 0»en,B!es3intou. Best Bull, of any breed, calved prior to 1854, large silvir raedal. Earl of Charlemont ; highly commended, Wm. Owci , Biessintou. Sd-ond best, large silver medal. Earl of Clancartj ; commended, Jaffray Barcroft. Best of all the prize Bulh, the gold medal, Wm. Owen. Second best, large silver medal, C. P. Leslie, M.P. WEST HIGHLAND. Best heifer, calved in l;!.56 ; best heifer, calved in loo-f, giving milk, or in calf ; and best cow of any age, in call, or having had a live calf within twelve months preceding the date of the show, large silver medal, Wm. S. Trench, Mountrath. SCOTCH POLLED. Best heifer, calved in 1856, largo silver medal, Lord Talbot de Malahide. Best heifer, calved in 1854, giving milk or in calf, large silver medal. Lord Talbot de Malahide. Best cow of any age, in calf, or having had a live calf within twelve months preceding the date of the show, large silver medal, Edward Atkinson, jun., Donabate. AYRSHIRE. Best cow of any age, in calf, or having had a live calf within twelve months preceding the date of the show, largo silver raedal, A. B. Cane, Clondalkin. ALDERNEV. Best cow of any age, in calf, or having had a live calf within twelve months preceding the date of the show,larg-! silver medal, Alex. M'Neale, Artane. KERRY. Best heifer, calved in 1854, giving milk, or in calf, large silver medal, P. J. Kearney, Clonmellon. Best cow of any age, in calf, or having had a live ciilf within twelve months preceding the date of the show, large silver medal, J. C. Stronge, Donnybrook. Best of all the prize breeding heifers, giving milk or in calf, the gold medal, Earl of Clancarty. Best three heifer; nmlcr four years old, in calf, or having had live calves witliin twelve months preceding the date nf show, and bona fide the property of the exhibitor, John J. Turner. Best of all the prize milch cows, the gold medal, Row- land Campion. Best three milch cows, in calf, or having had live calves within twelve months preceding date of show, and boiiafidc the property of exhibitor, Mrs. William Garrett. Best ot all the prize animals, the Farmer''s Gazette chal- lenge Cup, Jaffray Barcroft, heifer, " Maid of Kilbogget.'j FAT STOCK. Judges (and for mixed breeds: J. Borthwick, H. Croker, C. G. Grey. R. W. White. Steward— J. Bayley, D.L. FAT OXEN. SHORTHORN. Best fat ox, calved prior to 1854, large silver medal, Nathaniel Barton, Straffan. DEVON. Best fat ox, calved prior to 1854, large silver medal, Eail of Shannon. WEST HIGHLAND. Best flit ox, calved in 1854, large silver medal. Earl of Dunraven. Best pair of fat oxen, of any breed, tiiat have been fairly and bona fide worked as plough bullocks up to May, 185f, large silver medal, Nathaniel Barton. Best of all the prize fat oxen, honorary certificate, Earl of Shannon. FAT COWS, of any age. For the best shorthorn, large silver medal, Thomra Barnes. For the best Devon, large silver medal, Edward Rother- hani, Oklcastle. For tlie best West Highland, large silver medal, J. 0. G. Pollock, Nav.an. For the best Kerry, large silver medal, Samuel Garratt, Navan. 978 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. For the best of all the prize fat cows, honorary certificate Thoraas Barnes. For the best fat heifer, of any breed, large silver medal, John J. Turner. For the second best, lesser silver medal, Francis Donagh, Drogheda. SHEEP. Judges : C. Going, R. Holmes, P. Thomalin. Steward— R. C. Wade. LEICESTERS. For the beat one shear ram, three sovereigns, George Thunder, Navan. For the best two shear ram, three sovereigns, John La Touche, Newbridge. Best three hogget rams, never clipped, two sovereigns, George Thunder. For the best five ewes with their lambs yeaned in 1857, or in lamb, two sovereigns, Wm. Owen. Best five ewe hoggets, never clipped, two sovereigns, Wm. Owen. LONG--WOOLLED, Not qualified to compete as Leicesters. For the best one shear ram, three sovereigns, James Kerr, ^ Edenberry. For the best ram of any other age,"three sovereigns, Tho- mas Brown, Cheltenham. Best three hogget rams, never clipped, two sovereigns, Richard Byrne, Dundalk. For the best five ewes, with their Iambs yeaned ia 1857, or in lamb, two sovereigns, Thomas B.Brown. Best five ewe hoggets, never clipped, two sovereigns, Richard Byrne. SHORT-WOOLLED. For the best one shear ram, two sovereigns, Charles Ha- milton, Dunboyne. For the best two shear ram, two sovereigns, Peter Brough- ton, Kells. ^ For the best ram, of any other age, two sovereigns, Hon. J. H. King, Harman. Best three hogget rams, never clipped, two sovereigns, Peter Broughton. For the best five ewes, with their lambs yeaned in 1857, or in lamb, two sovereigns, Edward Atkinson, jun. Beat five ewe hoggets, never clipped, two sovereigns, Phineas Riall. CHEVIOTS. For the best one shear ram, two sovereigns ; for the best ram, of any other age, two sovereigns] best three hogget rams, never clipped, two sovereigns ; and for the best five ewes, with their lambs yeaned in 1857, or in lamb, two sove- reigns. Marquis of Conyngham. Best five ewe hoggets, never clipped, two sovereigns. Lord Clermont. FAT TVETHERS. For the beat pen of five long-wool fat wethers, not ex- ceeeding two shear, large silver medal. Sir Richard Pakeii- bam, Bart, For the best pen of five short-wool fat wethers, not exceed- ing two shear, large silver medal. Major Tottenham. For the best pen of five Cheviot fat wethers, large silver medal, George Kinahan, Newport, Tipperary. SWINE. Judges : Hon. Captain Arbuthnot, Captain Croker, H. Ed- dison. Steward— H. Battersby. COLOURED BREEDS. For the best boar, six months, and not exceeding twelve months old, three sovereigns, F. W. Tomkinson, Kinnegad. For the second best, two sovereigns. Lord Clermont. For the third best, the honorary certificate, Alexander Mont- gomery, Balliver. For the beat boar, exceeding twelve, and not exceeding twenty-four months old, five sovereigns, A. D. Chaigneau, Athlooe. For the second best, three sovereigns, Robert Collins' M.D., Navan, ' For the best boar, exceeding twenty-four months old, five ^overei?n8, Thomas Rutherfoord, Ardee. For the second best, three sovereigns, George Roe, Donnybrook. For the il.irdbe&t, the honorary certifirae, Robert Collins, M.D. For the best breeding sow, in pig, or having had a litter within six months, three sovereigns, Capel F. Adey, Cardiffe's Bridge. For the second best, two sovereigns, Gustavus R. Jouea, Athlone. For the third best, the honorary certificate, Lord Talbot de Malahide. For the best three breeding pigs of the same litter, under ten months old, three sovereigns, Thomas Rutherfoord. For the second best, two sovereigns, George Roe. For the third beat, the honorary certificate, William Jameson. For the best litter of pigs, not exceeding five months old, ac- companied by the sow, three sovereigns, J. C.Metge. For the second best, two sovereigns, Robert Collins, M.D. WHITE BREEDS. For the best boar, six months, and not exceeding twelve months old, three sovereigns, J. H. Peart, Fiuglas. For the second beat, two sovereigns James CuUen, Navan. For the third best, the honorary certificate, Thomas Rutherfoord. For the best boar, exceeding twelve, and not exceeding twenty-four months old, five sovereigns, Lord Lurgan. For the second bes't, three sovereigns, Wm. Boyle, Glasnevin. For the third beat, the honorary certificate. Colonel Hill, Oatlands. For the beat boar, exceeding twenty-four mouths old, five sovereigns, Thomas Rutherfoord. For the second best, three sovereigns, J. H. Peart. For the best breeding sow, in pig, or having had a litter within six months, five sovereigns ; and also for the second best, three sovereigns, AVilliam Bayle. For the third best, the honorary crtificate, Thomas Rutherfoord. For the beat breeding sow, in pig, or having had a litter within six months, three sovereigns, Charles L Ellison, French Park. For the second best, two sovereigns, J. C. Metge, Navan. For the third best, the honorary certificate. Lord Lurgan. For the best three breeding pigs, of the same litter, under ten mouths old, three sovereigns, Thomas Eutherfoord. For the second best, two sovereigns, William Bayle. For the third best, the honorary certificate, Thomas Rutherfoord. For the best litter of pigs, not exceeding five months old, accompanied by the sow, three sovereigns, Thomaa Ruther- foord. For the second best, two sovereigns, James L. Naper, Ohicastle. THE FOLLOWING ANIMALS WERE COMMENDED: BULLS. Shorthorned, calved in 1856: John Kealing's, Jona- than Richardson's, Lord DufFerin and Clandeboye's, and Richard Chaloner's. Calved in 1853: Hon, L. H, King Harman 's. Major Quentin's, and P. J. Kearney's. Calved in 1854 : C. L. Ellison's and F. W. Cusack's. Alderneys: Earl of Charlemont's. Best Bull of any Breed : Jatfray Barcroft's. COWS AND HEIFERS. Heifers calved in 1856: Henry Strafford's, J. Richard- son's, Lord Dufferin and Clandeboye's, Thomas Barnes's, R. W. Reynell's, Lord Lurgan's, Viscount Monck's, Thomas Ball's, and George Perrin's. Calved in 1855 ; Earl of Clancarty's. Calved in 1854: Hon. L. H. K. Harnian's. Scotch Polled, calved in 1854: A. Barcroft's, and Lord Talbot de Malahide's heifers. Ayrshire — Cows of any Age : Hon. Thos. Preston's. Fat Stock— Cows of any Age : J. F. H. Briscoe's, P . J. Kearney's, and H. B. Coddington's. SHEEP. Leicesters : C. P. Leslie's one-shear ram, J. Barcroft's two-shear ram, W. Owen and R. W. Reynell's three-hog- get rams, and P. Riall and John T. La Touche's five-ewe hoggets. Long-woolled : Hon. L. H. R. Harman'a five-ewe hoggets. Short-woolled : George Lambert's ram. Cheviots : Lord Clermont's ram and his three hoggets. Fat Wethers : Sir Edward M'Donnell's five loug- woolled. PIGS. Coloured Breeds: Thomas Rutherford's boar, the Rev. .T. Warburton's breeding sow, and Robert Collins', M.D., litter of pigs. White Breeds : William Boyle, for sow in pig and his best litter of pigs. vooiii ^uj THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 379 isJJil a bad an«#jito^ A' correspondent.) B'ahib-iB'J .x^bJC .3 AnsHii^Ivale, this show must be considered somewhat 'ftift?i6r to any of those of the last four years; but, though the number of bulls is less than on former occa- sions, still the general qualitj' of the classes is not inferior, as it is in the worst class of animals the numbers are deficient. Still it is a total want of any one or two of those extraordinary animals that, even when put in any class, will at once be seen to be possessed of extra- ordinary merit, that this show falls so much short of former ones, as in the bull-classes there is not a single animal of this description. During the first day, and for the greater part of the second and third, the rain fell incessantly, and threw a complete dulness on the proceedings. When we add to this the dissatisfied faces of the exhibitors, and the tho- roughly soaked-through appearance of those that were trying to get about to make purchases, it is not be won- dered at that even the fair ones who came fortvard during the few dry hours of the second day failed to produce the slightest resemblance to the gay and animated scene that on former occasions have crowned the meet- ings of this Society. As to the real business character of the meeting, any- thing second class was a drug, but for real good animals there was a brisk demand, and we have never seen more good animals sold for high prices. This was in a great measure attributable to Mr. Strafford, with his three Illinois friends, Messrs. Brown, Johns, and Jacoby, being present, as well as Mr. Greene, from Australia, who, in the quietest possible style, were not long in taking off the cream of the yard. In looking over the show, in order of the catalogue, the very first animal is a good and commended one, bred by Mr. Richardson, and by Mr. Towneley's Valiant. No. 2, bred by same and by same bull, is third prize in the class, and is an animal of very good quality (as are all the Valiant stock in the yard), but there is an openness between his ribs and loins, a straightuess of the shoulders, and a plainness about the tail, that make us think he was put a little too forward in the position of third. Passing on to No. 4, we come to Lord Duft'erin's entry. This animal is by Valiant; is a good red loan of capital quality, level back, and even flesh, we thought he deserved at least a com- mendation. No. 5 is a commended animal, bred by the same exhibitor, and got by same bull. Passing on to No. 12, we come to Mr. Thomas Lee Nor- man's bull. This is the first prize of the Yearling class, and in many respects is a very extraordinary animal ; his large size for a yearling, his wonder- fully well-covered back, and the great amount of flesh he carries for the age, fully entitle him to the position he holds, which is quite as much as we can say for him. At 27 we find a full brother to the celebrated yearling of last year : this one, though a good animal, is far short of the mark. At 28 Mr. Chaloner has also a commended animal; indeed a first-class beast— we have seldom seen better quality, or finer fore shoulders. Such veins and clust, wonderfully good behind the elbows (or lower part of girth), good ribs, grand loins, well covered pins, well furnished to the tail, with a regular Booth pair of quarters and flank, make this, indeed, a nice animal, but those shoulder-tops a little behind them, and extraordinary forelegs, so peculiar to Hopewell and his stock, are doubtless what made the judges leave him with a mere commendation. At 29 Mr. Chaloner has also the second prize bull, a good animal, by Emperor (a son of Hopewell's). At 41 is a nice red animal, bred by Mr. Topham, has capital ribs, loins, and hind-quarters, and very good head and chest. This animal we understand goes to America. At 63 is a nice animal, of very good quality and beautiful hair, and has been very justly com- mended. Among the other entries are many fine ani- mals, but time will not permit our particularizing them. , In section 2, for bulls calved in 1855, there are but few good animals except those which are commended. No. 107, Major Quentin's, a good lengthy animal; No, 109, Mr. P. J. Kearney's, a nice compact animal ; and , No. 121, the Hon. L. H. King Harraan's, a very good animal, but with a want of coat aTid light twist, which obliged him to succumb to No. 130. Tiie second prize a very grand red bull, with capital loins, well-spread pins, and nicely finished to the tail, but stands a little high on his legs ; but being but a late two-year-old, we think this a fault he will soon overcome. He is by Phoenix, and the property of Lord Talbot de Malahide, and is now, we understand, purchased to go to America. At No. 131 stands the first prize, the property of Capt. Thomas Ball, is a very compact well-covered animal, with good quality and good substance. In section 3, for bulls calved in 1854, the first prize awarded to No. 138 — a well covered animal, with a great number of good points about him ; and has also been awarded the silver medal as second best of all the prize bulls. He is also purchased for America. He was bred by Mr. Cruickshank,and exhibited by Mr. C. P. Leslie. No. 145 is a white animal, by Valiant, of good quality, has been commended, and is the property of Mr. C. L. Ellison. No. 147 is the second prize in this class, and is the well-known bull Jacob, bred by Mr. Ambrose Bole : he has a great many good points about him, and is doubtless a good animal, but his shoulder-tops, head, and horns are not those a first- class Shorthorn should have. No. 148, exhibited by Mr. W. Cusack and bred by Mr. W. Coppinger, is one of the best fleshed and covered animals we ever saw, and fully deserves being highly commended as he is. He is also to go to America. In the Hereford class there are no entries. In the Devons there are some very good specimens of that breed, especially No. 155, the property of Mr. W. Coppinger, which is one of the best animals of the breed we have ever seen. In the West Highland and Scotch polled there was no merit. A few nice Alderneys and Kerrys. In class 10, for the best bull of any age first prize (o the well-known bull Gainford the 4th, who also got the gold medal as best bull in the yard. He is still the pro- perty of Mr. W. Owen. No. 176 is the Earl of Clai - 380 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. carty's bull, Pro-bouo-publico, bred by Mr. A. Cruick- shank ; he is a very large animal, but far too lumpy even to have filled the place he did last year. la this class is also the vrell-known bull Matadore, and many other good animals. We next come to class 10, section 10, for the best heifer calved in 1856. Without doubt this is the first class in this year's show, and is the only one that can he considered quite up to the standard of former years. In it we have, beside the first and second prizes, and a highly commended, no less than eight com- mended animals, any one of which is well deserving of a prize. The class commences at No. 183, in which number stands a beautiful white heifer of Mr. Richardson's, by Valiant ; nothing could be better than the quality and hair of this animal : the shoulder points being a little coarse, and her tail not being well set on, soon put her, that she could but get a commendation in this class. At No. 185, Lord DufFedn has also a good heifer, by Valiant, which fully deserved its comcaendation ; but at No. 187 we dbme to Mr. Barne's second prize heifer; she is by Hopewell, and is a very beautiful heifer ; her great length, rich colour, and a sweet Short- horn style all over her, carried her through to second place, after a very close competition with Mr. H. Strafford's heifer No. 190, which animal, for general depth of flesh, well and evenly-furnished back, great hind quarters, and wonderful twist and dug, no animal in the yard could compete with ; but a plain red colour, a short neck, and consequent want of style, combined with a slight lameness, obliged her to yield second place to Mr. Barnes' heifer, notTrithstanding her great substance and depth of flesh. Both heifers, we understand, go to America. At No. 188 Mr. Barnes has also a very nice htifer, which was commended, and, together with No. 187, fully sustain the high character of that gentleman as a breeder of Short-horns. No. 196 is Mr. J. Barcroft's heifer, the Maid of Kilbogget. To this anim'd is awarded, not alone the first prize in her class, but also the 100 guinea cup, as the best animal in the yard of the breeding classes. She is perhaps one of the best-shouldered heifers that Las been seen here these many years, with a general even caixase, combined with a nice colour, and the gayest and most stylish carriage when taken out we ever saw : all fully entitle her to go first of her class, notwithstanding there being a considerable falling off in her hind quarters ; but we think it something of a mistake to give her the cup before Mr. Campion's cow Jenny, as few men of judgment will pronounce her a heifer ever likely to grow as good a cow. At No. 205 we have Capt. Ball's commended heifer, with good quality and flesh. In this class there are some other very good animals, and even a few more commended, but, in comparison with those we have mentioned, they scarcely deserve the honour. In section 11 we have No. 213 taking first prize and the gold medal for breeding heifers, a compact, close heifer, with great substance ; she is the property of the Earl of Clancarty. No. 210, the property Mr. J. J. Turner, iook second prize in the class— a compact, well- fleshed heifer, but a great want of style makes but an ordinary animal of her. No. 212 (the Earl of Clan- carty's) was commended, but is something the same class of animal as the second prize. In section 12, No. 216, the Hon. L. H. King Ilar- man's is commended. No. 219, Mr. Turner's heifer, got second prize ; and she and No. 218 and No. 210 of section 11 were awarded the gold medal as the three best breeding heifers, one property (no competilion) j and No. 220, Lord Monck's, has been awarded first prize in this class, and is a heifer that promises well to make a good large cow. Ill section 13, for the best cow of any age, No. 223 got second prize, a very good animal, and with No. 224 and No. 225 was awarded the gold medal, as the three best cows, one property, and are Mrs. W. Garnett's : they are three very pood quality cows, and not in high condition. No. 228 is Mr, R. Campion's cow Jenny, and is far beyond anythinr; in this class ; and. in fact, beyond anything in the yard : the grand length, broad, level back, even flesh, and beautiful style of this cow cannot every day be equalled : she is indeed a grand specimen of tie Bates' stock, from which she conies. In this class none are commended; but we think the judges need not have been so severe on No. 226, the Hon. L. H. Harman's cow, as she is rather a good animal. In the other breeding classes there was nothing of ex- traordinary merit, though in many of the classes there were some good animals shown. In the fat stock there were some good animals, but time will not permit to go into details of them. The Sheep show this year was by far the best the Society has had, but they could not be seen to advan- tage, the ground about them was so cut up, and they were so drenched with rain. The pigs were a good average show, and many fine specimens were purchased to go to America. Tiie show of horses was a vast improvement on former ones, but still far short of what it ought to be. Poultry, a good average. Farm implements, one of the best collections ever seen in this country, most of the first English makes being present. THE EVENING MEETING. The following paper was read by Mr. L. E. Foot, one of the honorary secretaries of the society, on " The Paris International Cattle Show of 1856 : — " The recurrence of our Annual Spring Cattle Show has appeared to the Committee of Agriculture to afford an appro- priate opportunity for givinsr soaie account of the part taken by this society in the great French International Cattle Show, and, as oue of the secretaries, I have been requested to under- take that duty. It is, no doubt, in the recollection of niaay I have the honour to address that the French Government iii- cliideii iii its world- wiJe invitation to a competitive display of aniiaals, agricultural produce .".ud implements, to be held iu Piri^, the two societies in Ireland labouring, in friendly rivalry, to promote agriculture as a means of national improvement — I m«an our own and the Royal Agricultural Improveraent Society. At the jmiicious suggestion of M. de Fiurggraffe, the respected and well-known Consul of France resident in th's city, through whom the invitation of the Minister of A r-ri- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 381 culture was forwarded, the two societies agreed to give their cordial co operatioji by nscaas of a joint committee, and to defray the necessary expenses, this society giving the accom- modation of its premises and the services of its officers in furtherance of the common object. Independently of its uuiverial character and variety, the Paris Cattle Show pre- sented other distinctive features from those held in the British domiuious, In Great Britain and Ireland the progress of agriculture has been the result of individual enterprise and experience, encouraged, it is true, by voluntary association, but left by the state to find its own reward in the skill and public spirit with which it is prosecuted. In France, on the contrary, agriculture is a state interest, conSded to the super- intendence and solicitude of a separate goverument depart- ment. Through the Miuister of Agriculture and Commerce the state con'rols, sanctions, rewards, encourages, or prohibits all matters relating to the soil and its products ; there we find established by government, in great numbers. ' Fermes-ecoles' (Farm or Model Schools), with a code of rules and regulations, for the instruction of pupils in agriculture. (See ' Compte Keudu,' 3rd October, 1848). Also goverument ' Vacheries,' or cow parks ; goverument ' Bergeries,' or sheep walks ; govern- ment ' Haras,' or stud houses, for the breeding and preservation of stock. In fact, in all matters relating to the encouragement of agriculture in France, the government makes the rules, controls the proceedings, pays the expense, organises and directs what in these countries is left to the option of indi- vidual will and enterpris?. (See ' Le Tattersall Francais.') It may, therefore, easily be imagined that the most celebrated of our voluntary associations, even the Highland Society of Scot- laud, or the Sinithfield Club, must have ' paled ibeir ineffectual fires' before an exhibition which had a palace, with aa area of 30 acres, for a cattle yard, the resources of a nation for its treasury, and the munificence of an Emperor in the profusion of its rewards ; no less a sum than £2,300 being given in prizes among the English, Irish, and Scotch exhibitors of stock and implements, exclusive of gratuitits to herds and caretakers. Now, bearing all this in mind, it must be gratifying to learn that the agricultural character of Ireland in the eyes of the world was worthily upheld upon an occasion so trying, and I accept the duty of satisfying my hearers on this poiut by a brief snalysis ot the entries and prizes in those descriptions of stock most highly esteemed in these countries with which we are most familiar, and in which alone we competed. The first bection of the first class consisted of improved shorthorns, bred or imported by foreigners, and the property of foreigners, or Frenchmen. The prizes in this section were numerous and liberal, ranging from 1,000 to 200 francs, or from £40 to £S of our money. Of 119 entries in this section which actually exhibited, the prizes aud commeudHtions were as fol- lows :— 20 to England, 9 to Ireland, 3 to Scotland, 3 to France, and I to Belgium. Ens;land and Scotland exhibited 78 ani- mals in the short-horned class, and obtained 20 prizes, or less than one fourth ; Ireland exhibited 21 animals, and got 9 prizes, or nearly one-half. There was a fine class of Ayrahires, comprising 97 eutries, in wliich, as may be supposed, the Scotch were most successful, carrying off 21 prizes. One com- ■ petitor, however, from Ireland was successful. Dr. Kirkpatrick, of the Model Farm, Glasnevin, whose very fine bull received honourable mention. In Polled or Augus cattle, out of 39 entries, Scotland took 25 prizes and commendations, Ireland one. Lord Talbot de Malahide the third, and a bronze medal for a fine heifer, and France one. To Lord Talbot de Malahide belongs t!ie credit of being the first to introduce this breed to the notice of the Paris public, having exhibited an Angus bull in 1855, which won for him a gold medal. In the West Highland breed the Scotch exhibitors bad it all to themselves, having taken 12 prizes out of 31 entries — the Duke of Suther- land obtaining first prize for a five-year old cow from Drumolin. However, Mr. William Stewart Trench, of Cardtown, sustained the credit of Ireland by exhibiting in this class one bull, three cows, aud one heifer. But now we find Ireland pulling up. In Kerries there were 23 entries, and 11 prizes were awarded to Irish exhibitors. The prize-takers in this class, which seemed to be specially encouraged by French authorities, were, for bulls. Lord Talbot de Malahide, Mr. George Roe, and Mr. Edward C. Irvine, of Hampton, Drumcondra; for cows, Mr. O'Reilly Dease, Mr. George Roe, Mr. William Stewart Trench, Sir Percy Nugent, Mr. William 0*eu, and Lord Talbot de Malahide, who obtained a gold medal for the best Kerry bull. When speaking of the foreign breeds as not necessary to be particularized, I except certain French breeds — some of which, as the Normanders, were remarkable for their fine appearance, and looked like good milkers. Of these there were (51 entries, Normandy excels most parts of France in the beauty aud rich- ness of its pastures. I have seen it stated that the large-boned Normand auimals, the best of the French breeds, cannot be transplanted, because they require better grass than most dis- tricts afl'ord. Hearing this, it may occur to some present to ask the question — To what purpose, then, do Frenchmen pur- chase our Durhams, Devons, and other first-rate stock, if they have not good grass to give them ? This obvious questiou need not be asked of an English or Irish breeder; for with us high farming and root cultivation, in addition to a cooler and moister climate, have put almost all countries on a par. And here we arive at a marked distinction between our agriculture aud that of France. We cultivate and improve the land, with reference to the sustentation of the best stock ; in France they seem desirous to improve their stock, neglectful in agieat degree of the conditions on which their nourishment and growth depend, viz., abundance of nutritious food, only to be extracted from laud naturally good or artificially iiii proved. A number of the Royal At/ricuUural Society's Journal, published about the time ot the Cattle Show, contrasted French and English farming. In some remarkable particulars, amongst other things, it states that the Englishman, by devoting a con- siderable area to green crops and the raising of cattle, not ouly maintains the fertility of his fields, but produces more wheat from a smaller surface. England, it seems, is not larger than a fourth of France ; yet the writer, who is a Frenchman, avers that, taking all products into account, animal and vegetable, the produce of England per ' hectare' nearly doubles that of France, The French ' hectare' contains two aud a half English acres. Such, however, were not the breeds to which our French friends attached most importance ; they boldly entered tl.e lists in our favourite stock, and fifty-five entries of Durhams, by French owners, evinced the estimation in which the high bred short-horns are held in France. The animals exhibited were, generally speaking, considered well bred, aud most of them had been obtained from the best English blood. Inde- pendently of the several French and foreign puie breeds to which I have hitherto been adverting, there was catalogued a separate category of what were denominated ' sub-races' pro- duced by crossings, principally with the Durhams, and in- tended, no doubt, to illustrate M. St. Marie's doctrine of this method of improving native races. The Emperor exhibited an Ayrshire bull and heiler Irom his farm at Villeiicuve ; also a Durham cow called 'Duchess,' from Prince Albert's herd. These, with some good animals reared in the different agricul- tural schools and establishm'enrs of the state, were not entered for competition. I pass now to sheep. The cxhilitiou was rich in this class of animals— the English and Scotch owners of some fine specimens of Cotswold, South Downs, Hampshiie Downs, Leiceaters, and black -faced Cheviots, were very suc- cessful in obtaining prizes. Nor was Ireland without a share of credit, the Honourable King Hanuan having obtained a prize for a pen of hogget Leicester ewes, aud Mr. William S, Trench, Cardtown, a priz:i for a Cheviot ram 15 months old. The sheep sent from Ireland, as might be expected, were few, aud confined to the above-named spirited gentlemen. Of foreign breeds there were about 1,500 ewes and rams, of which the pure Merinos of Saxony attracted most notice. A ram belonging to Prince Esterhazy took the first prize in this class. The best English aud Scotch breeds, in order to make two-year- old mutton, take the place of that fabulous article, which our butchers persist in assuring us has survived four summers. Foreigners are beginning to find out this secret, and now give large prices to British breeders to improve their long-ueckca and long-legged breeds, hitherto valued almost solely for their wool. In the same journal, already quoted, I find it stated that the weight of au English sheep is twice that of a French sheep ; and that au English farm on an equal surface gives six times as much mutton as a French farm. On pigs I do not intend to dwell; there were about three hundred exhibited, of which the large Yorkshire were the most conspicuous, I shall not trouble my hearers with any description of the five hundred lots of poultry which were e.xhibittd, very fine and interesting, but not exceeding in any particular that I am aware of, those }. eneral characteristics with which we are here familiar. Some information respecting ihe French judges, and their mode of proceeding, may prove interesting. It waa the wish of my brother secretary and myself to cbtam 382 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. a series of reports for the iuforiuation of the society, from such of our members aud others as were juniors or exhibitors, au'l we have been favoured with some communicatious, which, coming from practical men, possess great value. The first I shall submit to you is from a geutlemaa well knowa as a jii ige at our shows, Mr. Charles George Gray, of Ballykisteen. He writes, in reference to the Paris Exhibition — "As a judge, and not an exhibitor, horned cattle came more especially lu.der my notice. Of this, as of many other shows, it may be said, that there was a fine collection of animals ; but the most striking feature to my mind was the manner of making awirds. Having been accustomed to act as a judge in ELijland, Scotland, and Ireland, where I was generally asso- ci;i'ed with one or at most two colleagues, aud to discuss calmly aud slowly the different merits and deficiencies of different animals, returning again and again to the same animal, I was utterly confounded, on finding myself one of a jury of twenty members, running hastily along the line of auimals, and being required almost before I had seen them all once, to give a vote in favour of one or another of them, when several serious m'stakes bad been made in the judgment of shorthorns. I, V, ith my fellow jurors from England and Scotland, requested nil explanation of the principles on which we were to frame onr judgment, as it appeared to us that the French jurcrs looked at the auimals solely with a view to their milking quali- ties. This explanation was not allowed to be made, aud we were hurried on in our decisions, in which we British were in- variably in a minority. Mr. Gray is of opinion, the Paris Ex- hibition was deficient in not having had a show of horses, of which there are some remarkable breeds in France. Major Q-ientin was one of the jury on shorthorns; he has favoured the society with some observations, in which we find a perfect identity of opinion with Mr. Gray as to the unsatisfactory composition of the juries. Our Vice-President, Lord Talbot do Malahide, was not appealed to ia vain for a report on the de- partment in which he acted as a juror; that was section 3, embracing vegetable, animal, and mineral productions. Time rices not allow me to give this valuable document in extenso; l.nt it will not be withheld from the public, whom it cannot fill to gratify and instruct. Lord Talbot expressed regret that there were no samples of Irish wool, butter, bacon, honey, oit- meal, porter, beer, preserved meats, to be seen; aud although a couple of Limerick hams, and as many bottles of Irish whis- key, were on the counter of the exhibition, it cannot be said that theae most important branches of Irish industry appeared iu the most favourable light. An analysis made by Lord Clancarty shows that Irish exhibitors obtained a prize for every third beast entered ; those from Great Britain obtained one prize for every (our beasts ; those from Scotland cue for every eight beasts; and those from the Continent one for every tenth beast. His lordship states that there were exhibited at Paris, from Holstein, sheep of the mo>.t extraordinary size,-jj fecundity, and power of rearing their offspring. Three ewes were shown, each rearing three lambs, and three more, each rearing four lambs, all apparently doing well, aud the lambs of great size and promise; judging from the geographical posi- tion of Hohtein, Lord Clancarty thinks the climate of Ireland well suited for the Holstein breed, which, either pure or crossed wilh our present race of sheep, would be a valuable acquisi- tion ; his iateutiou was to have imported some, but for the disease before alluded to. The implements of husbandry were numerous and varied; no less than 2,107 lots were exhibited — of these 371 belonged to the United Kingdom, the supe- riority of which was conspicuously demonstrated all throui;h the prize list ; thus out of 15^^ prizes awarded, although British exhibitors had only 371 lots out of 2,107— that is, little more than one-seventh — they gained 58 prizes, or more than one- third of the whole. Having now given an imperfect review of this memorable exhibition, principally wilh reference to the part taken by this society, I feel that I should very inade- quately fulfil my task did I not briefly allude to the great obli- gation the society is under lo its noble president, his Excel- lency in the chair, for the cordial assistance rendered by him to your deputation in the important matter of presenting our address to the Emperor of the French.' ' I conclude by tdking this public opportunity of expressing for myself, my colleague, the members of the deputation in Paris, and for the society collectively, our united acknowledgments to his Excellency for' the kind interest taken by him ou an occasion so important t&-B the prestige of the society, the result of which has tended to ii uphold its position abroad, and increase its influence at home; * thereby securing, we venture to hope, to future times, a loiig' course ot that usefulness and public good which we have this'* day witnessed, and are now assembled to rejoice over.' " THE PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF IRELAND, Relative to the Exporting Power' of that Country as compared with the Past. Sir, — I shall now consider the third proposition of the " Waterford Mail," namely, that " the decrease in the population, by emigration or otherwise, between IS16 and 1851 is an evil, because less corn has been exported from Ireland in the five years from 1850 to 1854, than in the same period from 1840 to 1844 in- clusive." By a reference to the census of 1841, I find the population of Ireland then stood at 8,174,031. Nothing occurred the following five years to arrest the natural increase, which should have been according to the previous rate ; but we also find that in 1851 the census exhibits an actual decrease of 1,623,821 : and even these figures do not give the whole extent of the loss. There must be added to it the increase by births, which if we estimate only for the five years from 1841 to 184G at 1^ per cent, per annum, the amount will stand as follows : — Census of 1841 8,174,031 Increase ia five years, at 7i per cent. . . . 613,052 Population in 1846 8,737,083 Census of 1851 6,550 210 Actual decrease . . .V?.' .'."/. ?;'.*.' .".' . . 2,236,873 This remarkable decrease in the population of Ireland in five years arose from three distinct causes, namely, famine, fever, and emigration. I have taken some pains to ascertain, as near as circumstances permit, the actual j proportion which each of these bore in the work of de- !J cimation ; but whilst the last item is clearly defined, anit determines the combined amount of the first and second, * the entire absence of a register of births and deaths in Ireland makes it impossible to establish a satisfactory basis on which to form even a proximate estimate of the proportions which famine and pestilence respectively bore. I have, however, reasons to believe, both from personal observation and from authentic reports, that the number which died of actual starvation was small compared with that which was subsequently carried off by the fever, superinduced by insufficiency and unwhole- someness of food. In 1848, too, the cholera appeared, and for two years made dreadful havoc amongst the poor, whose physical energies were already reduced by their previous privation of food. In estimating, therefore, the proportions, I am compelled to class the famine and pestilence together, and obtain the following re- sult:— j.-u li-^d: io •I'^iiS'^'' l^fiJ .10" THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 -, Emigratiou returns from 1841 to 1851.. 1,430,524 1). Migrations to England, Scotland, &c., say 169,476 -L'j ' i)- Total 1,600,000 10 ' Loss by famine, fever, and cholera 636,873 Total lo3s as above 2,236,873 The writer in the Waterford Mail confines himself, in his strictures, to emigration, to which he gives the popular names (with Irishmen at least) of " exportation or transportation." A celebrated divine, who had a very inquisitive wife, was sitting in his study one day in deep thought, when the lady knocked at the door. "Well, my dear, what do you want?" said the divine, who was not unused to these interruptions. "I want to know," said the lady, "the difference between being exported and transported." " Now, pray go away, and don't trouble me with such silly questions, when I am busy." " But I must know, and won't leave till you have told me." " Well, then, the difference is this — if you were to be exported, I should be transported." This closed the colloquy. And this too is precisely the case with the Irish emi- gration— a voluntary affair, however, although the Waterford Mail seems disposed to throw the onus upon some unnamed party ; probably the Government, as having the broadest back to bear the load. In oppo- sition, however, to the writer, I maintain that emigra- tion has benefited Ireland in an extraordinary degree, and that the landed interest in particular has abundant reason to be satisfied with the decrease of population from this cause, by the removal of a dead weight of pauperism which weighed down three of the four pro- vinces of that country ; and I further assert that that pauperism was the direct result of the political state of the country up to the year 1848, and the means used by the O'Connell party to obtain the ascendancy in the representation in Parliament. For this express purpose the forty-shilling voters were created ; and as the sub- division of the land, as practised in Ireland, made almost every peasant a land-holder to that extent, the object of the party was thus far successful. But what was the consequence.' Destitule of the means of cultivating the land in a proper manner, they resorted to that de- scription of crop which yielded the largest produce at the least expense of labour and outlay ; and the potato was the uuiversal crop and the exclusive food of the peasantry. The con-acre system, too, was carried to a great length, and added to the amount of poverty by the high rent — frequently ten pounds per acre— given for land under it. The well-known system in Munster and Connaught was for the occupier to prepare his land in the spring, and plant it with potatoes. He then left his family to manage the hoeing and weeding of the crop, whilst he migrated to England, to procure by his labour, at haytime and harvest, the means of paying his rent. In the mean time the family at home sub- sisted on the remains of the previous crop ; and if that held out till the new one came in, all well and good. If not, they begged of their neighbours, who, to do them justice, are always willing to share the last potato or cup of milk with those who are more destitute than themselves. That up to 1846 there was an injurious surplus of labour in Ireland is proved by the enormous amount of migration to England and Scotland at certain seasons, and by the extremely low price of labour at home, at all times. I have myself known able-bodied men hired by the hundred, in some of the remote districts, at S^d. to 4d. per day ; and in many cases in which the proprietor was poor, the labourers were uniformly paid in potatoes or oatmeal and buttermilk, and scantily enough of that, not seeing the colour of money from one year's end to another. Thus, it was as plain as the sun at noon-day, that the land, which was the sole resource of the pea- santry, was overdone with population, and that either emigration or disease, or both, must soon come in aid, to reduce it within those bounds which the well-being of the country demanded. ; The annihilation of the staple food of the people in 1845, and two following years, suddenly brought on the catastrophe. They were too poor to resort to better food, and there was no worse description for them to fall back upon ; consequently they died by hundreds and thousands of starvation, and that notwithstanding the large grants, both national and eleemosynary, that were distributed throughout the country, in money and food. The pestilence followed close in the train of famine, and completed its work. It will give some idea of the extent to which fever prevailed at that time, when I state, that in 1846 and 1847 seven-hundred and fifty medical men were carried off by it in that country. I shall now endeavour to show the effect produced, by the loss of the potato, on agriculture generally, and the corn-exporting power. It is self-evident that such a loss, amounting as it did to more than twenty millions ster- ling, must have impoverished the landed interest. Many of the estates were deprived of the whole of their tenants, partly by emigration and partly by the famine and pestilence, and the land lay waste. I travelled a good deal through the country at that period, and had an opportunity oi seeing to what an alarming extent this was the case. The small cottiers, occupying from one to ten acres, of which the majority was composed, were sunk in such hopeless despondency, that even their patches of garden-ground lay neglected and waste. In the richest districts, such as Tipperary, West Meath, and Limerick (counties), the land which had previously j)ro- duced 20 barrels of wheat per Irish acre — equal, at 60 lbs. per bushel, to 62 bushels per English acre — fell off more than half, owing to the disuse of lime, which the farmers were no longer able to purchase. On the other hand, the emigration-fever had set-in ; and in pre- paring for this, the land was run out by repeated crop- ping without manure, until it would produce nothing. Three English farmers I am acquainted with, took land in Roscommon, which, naturally, [jossessed a deep alluvial staple ; but so completely was it worked out, that it was more than three years before they could bring it into even a tolerably productive state. This f know to have been the state of the land in every part except the north, 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. where a different race prevails ; and it continued until the Incumbered Estates Court began to operate, and the land got into the hands of a new proprietary, who pos- sessed both the means and the inclination to restore it to fertility and productiveness. But now came a question, which in it's solution mate- rially affected the corn- exporting power of Ireland — namely, which will pay best, cattle and sheep, or corn ? Owing to the low price of corn from 1848 to 1852, and with the fear of free-trade before their eyes, the decision was generally in favour of the former : large tracts of land were converted into pasture, and the breeding and feeding of cattle and sheep became the order of the day ; whilst that portion still under tillage for corn crops was comparatively small to what it formerly was. This alone will account for the decrease in the export of corn be- tween 1850 and 1854, as compared with that between 1840 and 1844. Grazing and breeding paid better than corn growing, and was therefore better attended to. But another cause has also operated, and will continue to operate more and more every year. During the famine the peasantry were compelled to resort to the use of cereal food ; and having acquired a taste for it, they continue to use it now that the increase in the value of labour enables them to do so. We may hope in future to find the condition of the peasantry gradually ameliorated by the infusion, through the Incumbered Estates Court, of that yeomanry class, the want of which has been one great cause of Ireland's misery. Destitute of manufacturing and mining industry (except in the north), the land was the sole support of the rural popu- lation. Badly cultivated and badly arranged, it was incapable of supporting more than a certain amount of population, in a condition fit for human beings, or con- sistent with civilization. If any one is disposed to dispute this assertion, let him account otherwise for the extremely low value of labour, the large amount of it transferred annually to England and Scotland, the miserable fare on which the peasantry subsisted, and the universal mendicancy that prevailed throughout the country. All these evils are disappearing in consequence of the emigration. A mass of humanity has been removed, worse than useless, on account of .the constant state of discontent and disaffection which such a condi- tion of misery produced ; the Irish labourer now is well paid ; the pauperism, which at one period threatened to overwhelm the whole of the landed interest in one common ruin, has disappeared ; a spirit of improvement has arisen in the agricultural body ; and, if agitation can be held in abeyance, we may yet see Ireland rise from her degradation and calamity, and become, what she is well calculated for— a help instead of a hindrance, a blessing instead of a bane, to her sister England. Yours truly, London, 3Iarch, 1857. S. C: IMPROVEMENTS IN TREATING FLAX, HEMP, &c. Among the more important novelties in the march of progress which the Chelmsford Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England produced was Burton and Pye's proposition for the manufacture of flax, hemp, and like fibrous products. In all ages of the world the cultivation and first process in the manu- f:icture of the flax plant (linum usitatissimum) have engaged the special attention of the agricultural interest ; and although in this country much prejudice has existed to its growth, yet of late years, owing to the rapid pro- gress made in agricultural chemistry, that prejudice has been fast giving way, and now the last objection has all bat been removed. The discovery merits the special attention of the readers of the Mark Lane Express, as the samples of flax and cattle food exhibited in all the stages of manufacture proved. The proposition has a two fold object — first, to obviate the objectionable process of retting ; and, secondly, to work up the bolls and boon or woody part of the plant into food for cattle ; both divisions coming in as an adjunct to Davy's system of separating the boon from the flax by mechanical means without the old method of steeping in water. It is thus interesting to review the different links in the chain of progress; and to comprehend the real merits of the project before us, it will be necessary to take a retrospective glance at the whole. Of the old process of steeping in water, spreading on grass, lifting, drying, breaking, and scutching, we need say little to those who have been engaged in it, it being from first to last objectionable in every sense of the word. At every stage of the process, for example, the waste of flax is incalculable, while manual labour is dirty in the extreme, subjecting the labouring population to filth and slavery of the most degrading kind ; while ponds, streamlets, and rivers are so polluted as not only to destroy fish, but to be unfit for being used by cattle, and while the atmosphere of the couctry during the period in question is pestilential to its whole population. Among the first improvements from this state of things was that made by M. Schenk, who accelerated the process of fermentation in the separation of the flax from the boon by heated water, the water being gradually heated by steam in large vats, into which the flax is steeped. When removed from them, it (the flax) is dried in a " hydro- extractor" by means of centrifugal force. The hot water, however, reduced the strength of the fibre, while the drying process allowed ofi'ensive gummy matter to adhere to it. To obviate these, Mr* Pownall, instead of drying the flax after fermentation, subjected it to mechanical pressure while in a wet state, and the action of a stream of water for removing the deleterious adhesive mattsr. Mr. Watt followed by a still more successful process of maceration. According to it, " the flax straw is delivered at the works by the pro- ducer in a dry state, with the seed on. The seed is THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 385 separated from the straw by metal rollers, and after- wards cleaned by fanners. The straw is then placed in cast-iron close chambers, with the exception of two doors, which serve for tha purpose of putting in and discharging^ the straw. The top of these chambers serves for the purpose of a condenser. The straw is laid on a perforated false- bottom of iron, and, the doors being closed, and made tight by means of scre^^-s, steam is driven in by a pipe round the chambers and between the bottoms, which, penetrating the mass at first, removes certain volatile oils contained in the plant, and after- wards is condensed in the bottom of the iron tank, and de.scenis as a continuous shower of condensed water, saturating the straw. This water is a decoction of ex- traction matter, to which attach the fibrous and more porous portions. This liquor is run off from time to time, the more concentrated portions being used along with the chaff of the bolls for feeding cattle and pigs. The process is shortened by using a pump, or such an arrangement ai rapidly washes the mass, with the water allowed to accumulite. In about eight or twelve hours, varying with the nature of the straw, it is removed from the cliambers, and having been robbed of its extraction matter, it is then passed through the rollers, for the pur- pose of removing the epidermis or skin of the plant, and of discharging the greater part of the water contained in the saturated straw ; and while in a wet and swollen State, splitting it up longitudinally. The straw then being free fiom all products of decomposition, is easily dried, and in a lew hours ready for scutching." The Society for the Promotion of the Grov/th of Flax in Ire- land appointed a committee to investigate Watt's pro- cess thorouglily by experiment, and their report speaks in the most favourable terms, as the following results show ; — Tons of Fibre. " 100 tons of straiv by Sclienk's process yielded . . 590 100 tons of straw by Watt's process yielded .... 1220 " Bat great as these results are, Mr. Davy, by the mechanical means already stated, greatly shortened the process, increasing at the same time the quantity and quality of the flax. Mr. Davy's process has been so recently discussed in the columns of the Mark Lane Express, that we need not enter upon its details. Lastly, we come to Burton and Pye's improvements specially under investigation. Under this practice, the flax is harvested under what is technically termed the " Courtrai" system — i. e., after being pulled, it is dried in the field, and then stacked up till the following spring, after which it can bo used as required for market. When taken from the stack, the boon is separated from the flax by Davy's machiiie. The boon usually considered refuse, or waste, is then ground into meal, under the first head of the in- vention, mixed with linseed, boiled in water, and formed into cakes similar in size and shape to oilcakes, and used in the same manner as they are, for feeding cattle. The patentees believe that ordinary millstones are the best adapted for grinding the boon into meal ; and, when found serviceable, other substances than those mentioned may be mixed in the compound. The second part of the project consists of treating the fibrous part of the flax-plant with fuller's-earth. For this purpose, the flax is subjected to the action of water impregnated or combined with this well-known bleaching substance and with steam, and then boiled in water. Duiing this latter process, it is alternately closely pressed together, and allowed to expand. The water being now drawn off, the flax is allowed to stand for a time under pressure, after which it is passed be- tween pressing and crimping-roUers, the process finish- ing with pressing-rollers, for the purpose of removing the effects of crimping. During these pressing and crimping processes, the rollers are wiped by felts or cloths. The flax is then ready to be sent to the hackler. Two kinds of machinery and apparatus are required for effecting these results, under the second head — the former for steeping and boiling, and the latter for press- ing and crimping. Both deserve notice. The first consists of two rectangular vessels, or vats, the one within the other, an open space being between them, for the admission and removal of water and steam. The interior one has a perforated bottom, and into it the flax is placed for being operated upon by the bleaching- water and steam. Above the flax is a com- pressor, or, as it has technically been termed, a " follower," worked by means of screws, and the necessary machinery in framing over the inner vessel. Between the two vessels pipes for the steam run along both sides and bottom of the interior one for heating the water. From this description of the apparatus the details of the modus operandi may be thus stated : The flax is first put into the vessel, and the follower placed above it. Water is then poured into the empty space between the two vessels until it rises up to the foUov^er through the perforated bottom. Steam is next turned on to heat the water, which is gradually done, raising it to 100° Fahr., at which temperature it is kept until the epidermis of the fibre separates, and as much of the colouring matter and albumen are extracted as such will effect. The water is kept at this temperature by a fresh supply mixed with fullers* earth flowing in at one side, while the dirty water is discharged at the other by the over-flov/ pipes — thus keeping-up a washing and bleaching process until the outer-skin of the fibre comes off easily by drawing a portion of it through the fingers. When this result has been obtained, the fibres, of course, are boiled up in the hquid. Tiie boiling is accomplished by admit- ting steam to flow more freely into the lower part of the vessel. During the boi'ing the follower is kept alter- nately moving up and down, while a flow of clean water is permitted to run into the vat at the bottom, causing an overflow which carries into the waste pips all the gummy and other matters pressed- out from the fibres, so that they are not allowed to absorb the impurities again, which they would do were they allowed to remain in the vat. Fine flax fibres do not require boiling, and the temperature need not be raised higher than 180° Fahr. — applying the pressure as it rises to 150° Fahr. After the mass is sufficiently boiled and washed, the water is drawn oft' — the follower screwed down upon the flax, expressing therefrom the principal portion of the water remaining ; and in this compressed state it (the flax) is kept for four hours or more to soften, after which it is ready for the pressing and crushing rollers. The machinery for this second process is more simple, consisting of five pairs of rollers in a frame, with the necessary gearing to give them motion. Two of these — a pair at each end — are plain for pressing, and the other three pairs fluted for crimping. The flax is fed in to the first pair, and passing on through the second, third, and fourth pairs, comes out from the fifth ready for the hackler. Such is a very condensed review of the Messrs. Burton and Pye's proposition. The idea of working uj» the whole of the flix plant into food and clothing is cer- tainly a laudable one ; and we hope the project before us, which has this for its object, will meet with what it merits — a most rigid experimental investigation at the hands of flax growers. The samples botli of food and flax in every stage of their manufacture were promising in a very high degree. The quantity of fine flax, and the almost entire want of waste tow, require special notice. In point of fact, it may justly be said that the whole goes to the hackler as fine flax, the quantity of tow is so 386 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. extremely small. Another consideration also deserves special notice in connexion with the manufacture, for the manufacturer has entire control over the article, being manufactured at any stage of the process ; thus en- suring, with proper attention, uniformity of quality— a result which cannot fail to be duly appreciated both in the flax market and subsequent stages of manufacture, as in the spinning and weaving. It was otherwise under tlie old processes of fermentation and maceration, espe- cially the former ; for under it, it was hardly possible to preserve uniformity of quality in the process of retting, fermentation being greater in one place than in another. Now every farmer who has any experience here, must be aware how largely a difference of fermentation adds to the quantity of waste tow, diminishing in a still greater dogree the quantity of fine'flax. Retting, grassing, and scutching are three distinctive processes, all of which are avoided by the combination of the systems of Davy, Burton, and Pye. In one respect it falls short of Mr. Watt's process, for in the latter the nutritive matter contained in the steep -water was economized for food, whereas in the former it is lost. A question, therefore, may arise as to whether Watt's process should or should not be added to the combination, and this extractive matter drawn off by steam prior to the admission of water containing fullers' earth. In this liquid from time to time drawn off in Watt's process, the linseed could be boiled, thus making a richer cake for cattle. We throw out this suggestion not by way of finding fault, but, if possible, to advance the interest of the exhibitors. The practical question at issue is probably one of ex- pense, and they are the best qualified to answer this by having recourse to experiment. THE DRAINAGE OF LAND AT HINXWORTH. The works of draining executed by Mr. Bailey Denton, on the estate of Robert Clutterbuck, Esq., at Hinxworth, Herts, were inspected on Saturday last by a party of agriculturists interested in this important subject. Between 30 and 40 gentlemen were present, including Mr. Francis Pym, the Hon. Capt. Cust, Mr. Harrell, Col. O'Duncombe, M.P., Major Wilkinson, Mr, Bidvrel), Mr, Bul- lock Webster, Mr. Corbet, Mr. St. Cluintin, Mr. Morton (of Rugby), Mr. J. N. Foster, the Rev. G. B. Blonafield, Mr. Veasey, Mr. Proctor, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Swift, &c., &c. The Hinxworth estate lies at the junction of the lower chalk formation with the gault of the greensand. It embraces a considerable portion of mixed porous soil and of stiff gault- clay. The whole was surcharged with water ; the former by the outflowing of the water, which, having travelled through the higher chalk region, saturates its lower bed, and the latter by its own naturally absorbent and retentive nature. To effect the perfect and economical drainage of soil, differing so much in character though all equally wet, it was determined to adopt " occasional" drainage — i. e., few and distant drains — for the porous soils, and appropriately close — i.e., the gridiron drainage — for the clay soils. The extent of land already drained at Hinxworth is 672 a. 0 R. 30 p., at an actual cost of £2,674 Qs. lOd., which is rather less than £4 per acre. The " occasional" work has cost from £1 15s. 6d. to £3 Qs. per acre ; the " gridiron" from £4 I83. 6d. to £6 13s. 6d. In the former case some half-dozen drains from 4| to 7^ feet deep have frequently drained twice as many acres, while iu the latter the drains have nearly uniformly been placed 25 feet apart. Mr. Denton showed by a map the posi- tion of every drain on the estate, and the line of demarcation between the geological formations referred to was clearly indi- cated by the different modes of draining the distinctive soils. Thus a glance at the map showed the observer where the green sand outcropped, separating the lower chalk from the gault. It is on this margin that Mr. Denton is raising coprolites in (jiiautity about 250 tons to the acre. These works are quite worth a visit, independently of the drainage. Mr. Denton has proved the effect of his two modes of draining by a series of observations, commencing on the 1st of October hist. These observations, besides giving the daily rainfall and discharge from the drains, .include a daily record of the water standing in muddy testholes dug midway between the drains both in the "occasional" and the "gridiron" work. It is there- by shown that the few drains in the one case and the nume- rous drains in the other have a like effect in lowering the water in the soil to an ordinary miniiman depth of 4 feet from the surface. The observations show, however, that the water will rise in all the holes after a fail of rain, and gradually sink with a sympathetic refjularity. On Saturday last the test- holes on the draiued land showed that the water standing in thn soil was on a level with the drains, except in the instance of the most recently drained land, in which the water stood six inches above the drains. In the adjacent undrained land — both the mixed porous soil and gault — the water was stand- ing, in similar test-holes, within 18 inches of the surface. To judge of the heavier soil the drainer has here had to contend with, and the importance of their improved condition by drain- age, we should mention that Professor Way having analyzed several specimens of the gault has shown the proportion of clay (agricultural) to vary from 43 to 63 per cent. A large proportion of carbonate of lime exists, varying from 30 to 35 per cent., which of course favours the passage of water through the soil, and will help to maintain its future disintegration. Mr. Denton's recorded observations show with what rapidity the rain falling on the surface findsits way outofclay soil, by the drains. He gave the following instances. The clay land outlets began to run on the 27th Nov. On Dec. 12th, the outlets were running 3 J gallons per minute ; on the 13th they ran 19i gallons per minute, after a fall of rain of nearly half an inch on the previous day. In January, which was a wet month, and the tubes and pores of the soil were filled, the increase of discharge, resulting from a heavy fall of rain, was much greater. For instance, on the 9th, the outlets were running steadily 3 gallons per minute, and on the 10th, after a rain of more than half an inch, they suddenly increased to above 100 gallons per mmute. The laud in question had been drained twelve months. Bat the most remarkable fact Mr. Denton has recorded, in corroboration of opinions he has before expressed, is that, without any fall of rain on the surface of these clay lands, the outlets have been found to increase their discharge. At such periods of increased discharge, it has been clearly demon- strated that the barometer has suddenly fallen. For instance, Mr. Denton shows that, on the 6th March, after several days without rain, the outlets throughout the estate increased their discharge from 110 gallons per acre ^'f (Z/f/n to 150 gallons ; and on that day the barometer exhibited a remark- able fall. These observations require corroboration by re- peated instances ; and they will afford a singular proof of the sensitive nature of clays 4 feet below the surface. On the poiat of temperature of soils, drained and undrained, Mr. Denton's tables also show a remarkable fact, although practically there may be but little value in it. It is this, that whereas the undrained land in January exhibited a tem- perature as low as 30 degrees at 18 inchts below the surface, the drained land never reached so low as freezing point at the same depth, although the temperature of the air above was recorded at 16 degrees below freezing point. The work was generally pronounced to be particularly well done, while the improvement to the estate promises to be extraordinary. There was, of course, the customary discussion as to the depth really recjuisite, Mr. Bullock Webster heading an opposition, who still consider three feet in many districts quite enough, Mr. Denton being as determined for nothing uniler four. There will be another open day on Saturday next, and considering how easily accessible Hinxworth is, we should re- commend all who can spare the time to make so instructive an inspection. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 387 ifAPPLIGATION OF THE SEWERAGE OF TOWNS TO AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. "~ By Mr. Jas. D. Ferguson. A meeting of the Newcastle-npon-T3'ne Farmers' Club was held on the 7th March, 1857, at the Library of the Club, in the Literary and Philosophical Society's Build- ings, in Westgate-street, when there was a considerable attendance of members, including Mr. G. H. Ramsay, Mr. Amos, Mr. Dunn, Mr. Chrisp, Mr. Glenton, Mr. Robert Ormston, Mr. Dobson, Mr. J. D. Ferguson, Mr. James Bell, Mr. W. Bell, Mr. Weeks, Mr. Glover, &c., &c. Mr. Ramsay was called to the chair, and said they had met to hear a paper from Mr. Ferguson on the application of the sewage water of towns to agricultural purposes, with refer- ence more especially to that town, and he had no doubt it would be well worthy their attention. Mr. J. D. Ferguson was then introduced by the Chair- man, and read the following paper : — Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : In appearing before you for the first time at this club, of which I have lately become a member, I fear it may be thought presumptuous in me to address you on a subject so comprehensive and important as the application of the sewerage water of towns, particularly that of Newcastle, to agricultural purposes. Having, how- ever, the pleasure of being acquainted with your respected secretary, he some time ago paid me the compliment of ask- ing me to write a paper on that subject, and, believing that I would have some spare time on my hands, I readily com- plied with his request. As this matter, gentlemen, is not new to me, I shall, in addressing you, do myself the honour of stating, first, the effect of various experimentswhich have been made by, and plans which are proposed for, the appli- cation of liquid manure, and then point out the method which, in my opinion, might be adopted of applying for agricultural purposes the sewerage water of Newcastle. In respect to the drainage of farm steadings, on which I may be permitted to say a word, and applying it to the soil, I have had ample practical experience, I have also often seen, and thoroughly understand, all the plans which have been adopted for irrigation introduced on some farms in Ayr- shire, and also on a large farm near Glasgow, by the appli- cation of manure in a liquid state ; and the effect on the various crops, but particularly on grass lands, was certainly wondertul in all. I mj'self made several experiments about nine years ago, on a farm near Glasgow, to prove the value of the drainage of a farm steading, which was chiefly com- posed of the washings of dung-heaps and urine of cows, &c. ; and having written a paper on the subject, which I sent to the committee of the Highland and Agricultural Society in Edinburgh, they thought it of so much importance at the time, that they awarded me their gold medal, and the paper was afterwards published in the " Quarterly Journal of Agriculture." We have also abundance of evidence on the continent of the astonishing effect on all kinds of crops by the application of liquid manure. In Holland and Flanders they are fertilizing every year many hundreds of acres of poor worthless soil, which after a time produce the most astonishing crops of all kinds of corn and potatoes. Even the poor labouring men in that country so thoroughly .ap- preciate manure in a liquid state, that if one can keep a cow, and rent, as some of thera do, three or four acres of land, he every morning is seen collecting, with the utmost rare, the urine of his cow, and the night urine of his family, putting both into a small cask, and, filling it up with water, slings it on his back, which he carries to his little field, and irrigates with the utmost patience, day by day, and piece by piece, his scanty crop by a small hose, which is fixed to and hangs from the cask. Mr. Mechi, too, an excellent authority on this subject, and who has done an immense deal for agriculture, has made his farm of Tiptree, which formerly was worth little more than 10s. or 12s. per acre per annum, now produce, by the liberal application of liquid manure on the Ayrshire system, as good crops as can be seen on the best land in England. It is not necessary, I apprehend, to give details of the various methods adopted for applying to the soil the drainage of farm steadings. These, with the results, have been stated again and again in several publications, particularly in the " Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society," and in the " Edinburgh Quarterly Jour- nal of Agriculture," and to those periodicals I beg respect- fully to refer you. Now, when we know that the drainage of farm steadings (which is almost wholly disregarded by farmers) is so valuable as food for plants when applied to the soil, we cannot be surprised at the fact of the much greater value of the sewage water of towns, which consist chiefly of the exuvife of the inhabitants. Every person is aware that an immense sum is paid every j'ear by this coun- try for guano, which is gradually getting more expensive, while, at the same time, an incalculable loss is sustained at our very doors, by the total neglect of a manure equally valuable, and which in almost every city and town is allowed to run to waste into the nearest river or stream in the neigh- bourhood, in place of some means being adopted of applying it to the soil. This subject has more or less engaged my attention for the last ten or twelve years, and the more I have reflected on the immense national loss this country sustains by the total disregard of the sewage water of towns, the more I am convinced of the general practicability of applying it. The question then arises, how is that to be done in the best and most economical manner .' Is it by forcing the sewage through pipes, and then throwing it over the soil ? or should it be precipitated and deodorized as is done at Leicester, and proposed at other places, and the depositor silt (which, in truth, is often little else than the detritus of streets) sold to farmers for manure ? These are questions of no little importance, and I shall venture to offer my opinion on both systems. Several years ago, when I practised in Glasgow as an agricultural engineer, I took considerable interest in this matter, and was most anxious to get up a company to carry this important improvement in respect to agriculture into effect, by introducing the system of forcing by the power of steam-engines the sewage water through pipes to a considerable distance, and then distributing it over the land by hose and jet. I found, however, very great difficulty in convincing people, particu- larly commercial gentlemen, who could not be expected to have much practical knowledge on the subject, of the great value of the sewage water of towns, and therefore the scheme of getting up a company at that time was ahan- 2 e 38S THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. doned. Beinsr, however, somewhat enthiisiastic in the matter, and believing that one day or other the subject would be taken np and carried into effect, I proposed to one or two of mj- h'iends (being anxious to show to com- mercial gentlemen especially, by ocular proof, the great value of sewage water) to join me in taking a small farm in the neighbourhood, on. which to made experiments. I proposed, after getting the farm made dry by drainage, to manure the fields with nothing but the sewage water from one or two of the city sewers, which was to be carted out every day by water carts. It was to be carefully analyzed once or twice every week, the quantity put on each acre accurately ascertained, the expense per acre, the quantity of com, &c., sown and reaped, and a correct statement and price of every crop made i^p at the end of each year ; for it was proposed that the farm should be thoroughly cropped for several years before any statement was made public. I am sorry to say, however, that I found my friends to whom I proposed my scheme somewhat sceptical on the subject, for the matter was at that time comparatively new, and having soon thereafter obtained an appointment in this part of the country, the proposition was abandoned, and I have not heard that any experiments were made, or that it has been carried out by any one. In all likelihood I would have experimented myself; but being often engaged and from home, I found that a careful interested person was necessary to superintend these experiments in my absence, and at any rate, in making my calculations, I ascertained that the cartage of the sewage water about two miles into the country in sufficient quantity every day, by five or six water-carts, would have been a serious item of expense, and therefore the scheme was given up. It is worthy of con- sideration whether or not some such experiment should not be tried here, if doubts are entertained by any one of the value of the sewage water. For a Farmers' Club, the sub- ject I think would be a proper one to encourage, and, in the minds of such persons, would set the matter at rest. With reference to the application of the sewage water of New- castle to agricultural purposes, in respect to which I have lately been taking a narrow survey, I can see no engineering difficulties whatever but what might be overcome by a spirited public company, because without commercial enter- prise the scheme could not be properly carried into effect, as the expense which would necessarily be incurred would be far beyond what any private company or corporation ■would be willing in which to engage. Before I state my views, however, on tliis subject in respect to Newcastle, I shall mention some plans and experiments which have been carried out at other places, as well as the method which was proposed ten or twelve years ago in Loudon, of applying part of the sewage water of that city to agricultural pur- poses. At Edinburgh the sewage water, but in a very con- centrated form, is used extensively; and land on the sea- side, which I have seen and travelled over, and formerly was almost worthless, being rented at no more than 3s. or 43. per acre, now lots at £20 and £30 per acre, and up- wards, in consequence of part of the drainage of the city flowing by gravitation over the grass lands. This land is let in portions to the cow-keepers, and it is not uncommon for them to cut the grass six and seven times in one season. In the neighbourhood of Stirling, the late Mr. Smith, of Deanston, tried an experiment with the sewage water of the town. He laid out portions of land of a light loamv soil in equal divisions. The first portion he manured with ashes and farm-3'ard dung at the rate of twelve tons per acre, which cost 48s. The second portion was done with compost at sixteen tons per acre, which cost 64s. The third division was manured with two c^^•t. of guano, which cost l6s. A fourth division with four cwt. of guano, which cost 32s. ; and a fifth division was manured with sewage water alone, at the rate of sixteen tons per acre, which, if calcula- ted at 4d. per ton, the expense would be 5s. 4d. The average produce of the first four divisions manured with farm-yard dung, compost, and guano, was at the rate of forty-six bushels per acre of marketable bai'lej'. The divi- sion dressed with the sewage water alone produced nearly forty-three bushels per acre ; and although this division was manured twice with the same quantity (t. e., sixteen tons per acre) which cost little more than IDs., yet the produce was nearly as much as the others at three and foiu: times the cost. At Clitheroe, in Lancashire, Mr. Thomson was induced to try the effect of the sewage water of the village, mixed with the soap-suds of 3, bleach work in the neighbourhood, on some of his pasture land. He also tried three cwt. of guano ; and the divisions being of equal extent, he found on the portion dressed with the sewage very ncarl}' double the quantity of grass than that done by guano. It has been proved that the night urine of tv/o adult persons, mixed with ashes to make it applicable, is sufficient for an acre of land ; for an experiment having been tried, it was found, on making the calculation for one year, that one acre would produce 27 tons of turnips, while 4 cwt. of guano applied to the same quantity of land would produce only one ton more, or 28 tons. At the town of Mansfield, the population of which is about 10 or 12,000 inhabitants, very extensive experiments were made some years ago by the late Duke of Portland, and the results were wonderful, as land in the neighbourhood of that town which at one time would not let for more than 5s. or 6s. per acre per annum, now lets at from £12 to £14 per acre, in consequence of the sewage water being diverted by gra- vitation over the grass lands. About 12 or 13 years ago a company of gentlemen made application to Parliament for a bill to enable them to apply part of the sewage of the city of London to agricultural purposes. Their plan was, I believe, to make a tank or well on the side of the Thames, into which one or two of the principal sewers at the west end of the city were to be discharged. At the side of this tank a powerful steam-engine was to be erected, to force the sewage over a building of considerable elevation, to obtain sufficient altitudinal pressure, so that it would flow ten or twelve miles into the country, along a horizontal main pipe. From this main pipe branch pipes were to be laid in all directions, from which the farms and market- gardens were to be irrigated. A great deal of valuable evidence was collected from some of the most able chemists, engineers, and agriculturists of the day, in reference to this scheme ; and as the bill was favourably reported upon and recommended by a select committee of the House of Commons, it was thought, in consequence, that there would be little difficulty in obtaining an act of Parliament to carry it into effect, although, at the time, considerable op- position interposed; but in 1846 and 1847 the extreme panic in the money market completely paralj'zed the com- panj' ; and, there being great difficult}'- to get gentlemen to go on with the undertaking, the whole thing was aban- doned; and, I believe, nothing further has been done. Various schemes are, however, again in agitation in respect to this matter, some gentlemen proposing to carry sewers parallel with, and on each side of, the Thames, to the sea, and there discharge the whole sewage-water of the city of London. Others propose to carry it only fifteen miles THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 389 down, and then discbarge it into tbe river; while others, again, maintain that, in a sanitary point of view, the whole sewage ought to be precipitated, and the refuse or inso- luble matter dried, and then sold to farmers as manure, the liquid, after precipitation, being allowed again to flow into the river. The two first schemes will not, likely, ever be carried into effect, being scarcely practicable, unless the sew.age is used at intervals of every three or four miles, for agricultural purposes; and this could be easily done, by allowing the liquid to flow into large tanks at these places, and then, by the force of powerful steam-engines, carry it in pipes to a distance, and then throw it over the surface. This plan would, no doubt, considerably lessen the expense of such an undertaking, as from 2d. to 3d. per ton would cheerfully be paid by farmers for such manuring, and, consequently, a much lower rate (if, indeed, a rate would be necessary) would siifiice to defr.ay the expense in carry- ing out the scheme. To the precipitating process alone, I fear, great opposition would speedily spring up, because, as it is believed very little profit would arise from the sale of tile refuse, a heavy rate would have to be levied to cover the expense of the process. Lately, a Treasury Commis- sion has been issued, appointing several scientific gentle- men to investigate this important matter, and to report on the best means of applying the sewage of towns to bene- ficial purposes. It ma}% however, be some months before tliey make up their report, which, no doubt, will be valu- able, when it appears; but, in the meantime, we may form our own opinion on the subject. I can scarcely believe that they will recommend the method by precipitation, unless combined with the irrigating process — i. e., preci- pitating and deodorizing what may not be wanted by farmers; and this method is what, in my opinion, ought generally to be encouraged and adopted, because, in the end, it would not only be a profitable speculation, but Avould be equally good, in a sanitary point of view, as if the whole were precipitated and deodorized, as it is done by Mr. Wicksted, at Leicester. In respect to the value of the solid part as manure, there are various opinions, some maintaining that it is worth from 30s. to £'2 per ton, while others, again, state that its value is not more than 10s. or r2s. per ton at the works, the process of drying, to make it portable, after being removed from the tanks in a state of sludge, being an expensive undertaking. Professor Anderson, the able chemist of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, says, after a most careful analysis of some of the Edinburgh sewers, that "little more than one-sixth of the whole value is contained in the insoluble parts of the sewage, the other five-sixths existing in solution ; and it is, therefore, obvious that, unless the jilans by which the sewerage- water is to be rendered avail- able make use of that part which exists in solution, they must be of little value; and a very little consideration will enable us to see that it is exactly in this respect that all tlie plans for converting it into a dry and portable manure are defective." He also says, in another place, that " ummonia, the most valuable constituent of a manure, cannot be precipitated by any process whatever, except such as are altogether precluded by their expense : still, now patents are constantly being taken for doing what is impossible." The same gentleman alludes to the subject again in another paper, in these words : " I have seen no reason to alter the opinion expressed in a previous number — that, if sewage is to be employed at all, it must be used in tolo (IX liquid manure.'''' Professor Way, the distin- guished chemist of the Royal English Agricultural Societ.v, confirms the abovo'in every particular, proving, without the shadow of a doubt, that the insoluble or solid part of the sewage of towns is of little value, when compared with the supernatant water, or what is held in solution ; and he says, in an essay recently published by him : " in neglect- ing the liquid, we lose by far the largest proportion of manuring matter; and I think itjDossible to show that the collection of the solid matter will not, at the price which the product is agriculturally worth, be a payiwj specula- tion.'''' A Mr. Oliver, a noted farmer near Edinburgh, who tried the solid manure of the sewage as an experiment, after being precipitated, wrote to Dr. Granville in London, some years ago, these words : " I care nothing for the solid — I would not give a fig for all they could give me in Edinburgh ; but the water containing the soluble parts is of great value." These are opinions from disinterested parties, founded on facts, and which ought to carry con- viction to the most sceptical mind. In respect to New- ' castle, on which. I now venture to give my opinion, the all-important question arises, How is this manure, which is proved so valuable, to be applied to the soil in an econo^ mical manner, in place of polluting, as it does at present, the finest river in the north of England.' Had there been a tract of country within moderate distance, on a lower level than the outlet of the sewers, then the application of the sewage-water to the soil, by gravitation, would have been a simple and an easy matter; but the district to be irrigated being on a higher level, it is obvious that me- chanical means must be used before the sewage-water can be applied to agricultural purposes. In this, however, I do not apprehend there would bo any insurmountable difliculties to encounter. The town, which is exceedingly well situated for house-drainage, is built on a steep, sloping bank, on the N.W. of the Tyne, and at present, it is understood, contains a population of about 90,000 inha- bitants ; the houses and streets occupying an area, ex- clusive of the suburbs, of about SiiO acres. From this area there will be an annual average flow of sewage-water to the Tyne of nearly 3,000,000 tons, taking London as » guide for my calculation ; for it was proved some years ago, by the surveyor of the commissioners of sewers of that city, that, from a population of about 175,000 inha- bitants, and an area of 1,753 acres, where the streets are wide, nearly G,000,000 tons of sewage, including land- drainage, were annually discharged into the Thames. Many of the houses, however, in Newcastle may not as j'et have the convenience of water-closets, though these will be gradually increased ; and, therefore, looking at the drainage of part of London, I compute the quantity yearly of sewage discharged into the Tyne at only 2,G00,000 tons, irrespec- tive of the water used for public works, &c., and which (if this scheme was carried out) ought to be conveyed direct to the Tyne, in drains made for the purpose. This quan- tity of sewage, I shall show by-and-by, will suffice for thoroughly manuring 13,000 acres of land. From the careful survey which I have lately taken, I am of opinion that this immense quantity of sewage of the town ought to be conveyed to one place ; and one feasible method onlj' presents itself of doing it, and that is, by intercepting the sewers near their outlet, by making a large main sewer parallel with, and at ten or twenty yards from, the river, as may be practicable, into which all the others would flow. At present there are eight large sewers, made and to make, which flow into the Tyne, and no less than twenty small ones ; .and in order that these might be intercepted, I would begin with the head or upper end of 2 c 2 390 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the main sewer, at a point five hundred yards above the Shot-tower, lead it down the street called " The Close," and past the back or south side of the Town's Hall, then down the Quay to a point about two hundred and fifty yards below the confluence of the Ouseburn with the Tyne. There, three large tanks ought to be made, into which this main sewer, which would be three thousand five hundred yards in length, would discharge itself; and at this place a powerfid steam-engine would require to be erected, for the purpose of lifting or pumping the sewage lip the bank, along an iron pipe, which would be laid under the surface, and which would lead up to Byker Hill. That knoll (only 1,270 yards from the tanks), though of considerable elevation, is not of sufficient altitude to com- mand the district northwards -, and thcreiore the windmill building at that place, which is about fifty or sixty feet in height, and which would answer the purpose admirably, would be bought, on two sides of which pipes of the same size as the main pipe would be fixed. The sewage would be forced up one pipe into a small tank at the top, and then, by its own gravitation, flow down the other, so that suflicient head-pressure would be obtained to deliver it by jet six miles to the north of Newcastle, and, by small pipes diverging right and left, upwards of two miles on each side of the Newcastle and Berwick Railwaj', along one side of which the main pipe might be laid. The small tank on the top of the windmill-tower would be provided with an overflow-pipe, leading to a waste-pipe, so that, when the sewage was not drawn away, it would flow down into the tanks below, in which there would be sufficient side- sluices, so that in the time of heavy rains the sewage, when too much diluted, would be made to flow into the river. By this plan, there would at times be considerable waste wiien the sewage was not freely drawn away, or when repairs were necessary ; but that could not be provided against, unless a large reservoir on Byker Hill were made, with an auxiliary engine, to keep the pipes always charged. This certainly would be a great advan- tage, and would be exceedingly desirable ; but, unless arched over, it might be considered a nuisance by the inhabitants in that neighbourhood, and, moreover, would entail considerable additional expense. The distance of six miles into the country, by upwards of four broad, would comprehend an extent of twenty five square miles, which would be fully more than sufficient to consume all the sewage of Newcastle, according to the present popula- tion, allowing annually two hundred tons, in which there would be about eight cwt. of rich manuring matter, to each acre of arable land ; but the pipes would be so laid that they could afterwards, when the population increased, be extended to a greater distance. On the service-pipes hydrants or stop-cocks would be fixed, at suitable places, by which the fields could be irrigated by hose and jet; and the tanks would be made in such a way that, at night, when the engine was not going, they would be filled in succession. The first, when full, would overflow into the second ; and the second, in like manner, into the third. If the precipitating and deodorizing process was introduced, this method, in conjunction with the irrigating system, would allow one tank to be emptied of its deposit while the others were in use. In the sewage-water of towns there is often a good deal of what I may call brick-bats, as well as flocculent matter, which would be screened or intercepted by vertical gratings, in its way to the tanks, and that would be taken into the company's works (which would be built at the place), and partially dried, and afterwards put into small vessels on the river, and sent to various places, for sale as manure. From the careful inspection I have made of the country to the north of Byker Hill, and the general equality and flatness of the surface, there would be very little friction in the pipes by the flow of the sewage along them, and, therefore, less fear of derangement and fracture of the pipes than if they were laid in a surface more undulating. For such a scheme as this, the assent and co-operation of the pro- prietors and farmers of the district proposed to be irrigated would be necessary before anything was done ; but there is scarcely a doubt that all would be willing to take a liberal supply at, say at least 2d. or 2|d. per ton ; the soil, which is generally of a clayey nature, being very suitable for it ; for Professor Way says " that clay soil has the power to remove from solution almost every ingredient which is of any value in agriculture, and the soil, when fullj' charged with the soluble ingredients of sewage, would, of course, be extremely rich for all purposes of vegetation." I apprehend, therefore, the farmers would soon find it was not only the best, but cheapest manure at that price they could purchase, provided the soil on which it was used was in a dry state. If the gentlemen appointed by the Treasury to report on the best means of applying the sewage of towns to agricultural purposes, recommend the precipitating and deodorizing process alone, in preference to any other method, and in the event of an Act of Parlia- ment being obtained for the sanitary improvement of towns, a heavy rate in many places would require to be levied from the inhabitants, to bear part, if not the whole, of the ne- cessary expense incident to such a plan ; and, consequently, opposition to such a bill might be anticipated, for it would appear that from the comparative little value of the solid manure, scarcely any profit would arise from its sale, whereas if the sewage is used in a liquid form, the very reverse would be the case, for Professor Way, whom I am glad again to quote, states — " I do not doubt that if the liquid sewage could be properly distributed over the extent of surface which it is capable of fertilizing, a revenue would be forth- coming towards the reduction of the town rates.'''' I am of opi- nion, however, there could be no difficulty in carrying on both plans simultaneously, by having sufficient works at the place, so that at times the sewage which might not be wanted by the farmers, particularly during the time of snow, might be precipitated and deodorized, and afterwards sold as manure at what it would bring. It is said that this fertilizing but neglected manure, when thrown over the surface, is intole- rable from the effluvia which arises from it. This, however, is a very serious mistake, for it is a well-known fact that common farm dung, when laid upon the soil, emits a much more unpleasant odour, and that the sewage of towns, if sufficiently diluted, is not nearly so permanent, as it soon sinks into the soil, which is an excellent deodorizer, and becomes evanescent in a short time. Great objections have often been made to various obstructions in the Tyne, which partially prevent the salmon from getting up to the spawn- ing beds ; but we may rest assured that if Newcastle and Gateshead together progress in population and public works in the same ratio for the next thirty or forty years as th«y have done during that period, the sewage water ofboth, all the while, running into and polluting the river, we may be certain that not a single salmon or fish of any kind would swim in it, for it would then, when the tides are low, be often little better than a great black ditch churned to and fro by the constant and increasing traffic of steamers, and would be perfectly poisonous to all kinds of fish, aa well as THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 391 BufFocating to the unfortunate inhabitants living on its banks, and compelled to breathe noxious emanations arising from the debris left by the tides. Gentlemen, any estimate that I can give of the probable expense which would be in- curred b}' this undertaking must be understood as only an approximation, for without an actual survey and proper plans and specifications it would be scarcely possible to arrive at an exact estimate. The following, however, which I have taken every pains to obtain, may not be far from the truth, Tiz. : — Main sewer parallel with the Tyne, 3,500 yards in length, including slight alteration of the present sewers which would flow into it, at £4 per yard at a:n average £14,000 Three large tanks, each 45 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep, at £1,300 each 3,900 Houses, sheds, and works 2,300 Steam engines, boilers, and pumps 3,100 Windmill tower on Byker Hill for stand pipes, with alterations 1,000 Main and distributing pipes, &c , say 37,000 Land and house property to be bought, act of Par- liament, &c., say 5,000 Contingent charges at 5 per cent 3,315 £69,615 The above is a large sum ; but, I believe, this extensive scheme could not be carried out for less, especially when we consider that proprietors and farmers to the north of the town, occupying an extent of nearly 25 square miles or 16,000 acres, would have the advantage of getting their land liberallj' dressed with this valuable and fertilizing manure. From that extent, however, I deduct 8,000 acres, which, I assume, may be occupied by plantations and roads, &c., leaving 13,000 acres fir the sewage manure; and suppose each occupier took only, at an average, 200 tons per acre annually for his land and to throw over his dung heaps (that being scarcely one-half which Mr. Smith, of Deanston, reckoned sufficient for gi-ass lands), and calculating that quantity at only 2d. per ton, there would arise the yearly revenue of upwards of £21,600, and that without taking into account the value of the silt or solid manure, which, I assume, may be equivalent in price to the yearly waste of the sewage. The yearly working expenses, however, must be deducted from the above sum, as well as 4 per cent, on the capital. These I estimate as follows, viz: — Amount of yearly revenue as above £21 ,600 Steam engine, fuel, &c £2,120 General repairs, &c 1,700 Attendance and management 3,300 Depreciation of works, pipes, and hoses, &c 2,L'00 Rates and taxes, &c 1,200 4 per cent, interest on £69,615 2,7fi4 13,304 £8,296 It appears, therefore, that the sum of £8,296 would be the clear yearlj- revenue which would arise from this scheme, which is upwards of 1 1 ^, per cent, on the capital, and which by good management I have no doubt after a time might be realized. Were such a project carried into effect, the ad- vantage to the town in a sanitary point of view, and to agri- culture, would be reciprocal •, for while the river would be relieved of a great deal of offensive matter wiiich flows into it, and the town made more healthy for the inhabitants, a large district of country in the neighl)ourliood would be made to yield probably more than double the quantity of produce than it does at present, particularly of grass, seve- ral heavy cuttings of which might be obtained in one sea • son, and for that in the large and populous towns of New- castle and Gateshead there will always be a great demand. Like every improvement comparatively new, there would no doubt be many difficulties to encounter and overcome in carrying out such an important scheme as this. One of the greatest would be, to induce the farmers to appreciate and use the sewage freely, which at first many might be scrupu- lous to do, but were a few of the most enterprising in the different districts to get it without cost for the first year, the whole would very soon find it to be their interest to use it extensively for every crop, although many for a time might suppose that the half quantity per acre which I have named would suffice. In the neighbourhood of London, proprie- tors, farmers, and market gardeners, occupying about 25,000 acres in extent, agreed generally some years ago to take part of the city sewage at 2d. and 3d. per ton ; and the farmers here, who are I believe no less intelligent and enterprising, would I have no doubt very soou appreciate such valuable manure, delivered to them at such a price, and that without any trouble or care. Permit me now, gentlemen, to offer you my sincere thanks for the kind and patient attention you have given me, while stating my views on this impor- tant subject. Mr. Ferguson resumed his seat amid much applause. The Chairman having invited discussion on the paper, Mr. Dunn said he had turned his attention to this sub- ject, but with a different object, and it had reference more especially to the sewage of London. His object was to cleanse the sewers by supplying them with water to take away their contents, so as to prevent them filling up and becoming a nuisance in dry or warm weather. He described the mode of proceeding which he had suggested, and then proceeded to observe that he quite agreed with Mr. Ferguson that if the sewage could be applied to land in a liquid state it would be a great advantage. One of the difficulties would be that it would be constantly altering its condition between wet and dry weather ; but no doubt valuable and fertilizing substances were contained in it. Mr. DoBSON said he had looked through Mr. Ferguson's calculations, and considered them extremely able, aud the estimates very correct. He saw no engineering difficulties in the way whatever, and if a company of sufficient enter- prise could be formed to get up the scheme, he had every reason to believe it would pay. But this morning he had taken some consideration about the levels of the town, and it appeared to him that Mr. Ferguson's plan might be im- proved by an addition being made to it in this way. Take the level of Neville-street, and the sewage from that part of the town above it might be conveyed by the side of the rail- way to Shields and Morpeth, and save a great deal of piping ; this, it struck him, would improve Mr. Ferguson's plan materially, and the sewage thus taken down could only be applied in the form of irrigation. They could not use the jet and hose here. He suggested that Mr. Ferguson should take this feature iuto consideration, and he considered that, if it were adopted, the scheme would be more likely to suc- ceed. He saw no difficulty in it whatever. And by not taking the sewage above the level of Neville-street down by the main pipe, it would save a great deal of pumping, as the sewage .above would be conveyed down by railway through pipes. This addition to Mr. Ferguson's scheme was well worth consideration. He thought if it were gone into care- fully it might be done. He would not advise Mr. Ferguson to be disheartened by the cost, for he thought it would be a payable undertaking if it were properly gone iuto. 392 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The Chairman — Eleveu-and-a-half per cent, was a very good return. Mr. DoBSON — Six per cent, would do very well. He did not know whether it would be applicable to tillage as well as for grass lands. 5Ir. Ferguson said that sewage water was applicable for tillage as for other purposes ; he had several times seen beautiful crops of turnips and corn produced by its applica- tion, no other manure having been applied. Among other purposes, it was a capital thing for flowers, and a great many of the nurseries and market gardeners around London had it carted out. Mr. DuNX— Had it been tried a good deal at Leicester.^ Mr. Ferguson replied in the affirmative, and said that it was kept there in large tanks. The Chairman— The land was irrigated at Rugby by pipes on this system. Mr. Amos said he could state from his own personal knowledge that the system ofirrigation adopted in Scotland had been found to be the most economical and profitable system yet introduced. He knev/ that near Edinburgh, on Jlr. Oliver's farm there, and also on the Craigmillar estate, the land had risen from a state in which it was worth nothing till they could get £25 to £30 an acre for it. That of itself was quite sufficient to recommend it to the agricul- tural interest of this county, and if they could get a ton of liquid manure for 2d., or even for 6d., it was a mere nothing for thegood that would accrue from it either in tillageor grass. Mr. Weeks said that at Ushaw, near Durham, they were making a very large tank to receive the liquid manure from the farmyard and irriga'tc the land in the waj- now suggested_ One of the professors of the Ushaw University had, he said, been down to Scotland inspecting the system, and was so much pleased with it that he determined immediately to have it at Ushaw. The Chairman said he felt pretty certain they would all feel impressed in the same way as himself with Mr. Fergu- son's very able paper. He was sure the manner in which it was got up, and the candid way which he told where he had got his information, evidently from the best sources in this country, rendered it additionally reliable. The next question was as to the pounds, shillings, and pence part of the affair. He hivd no doubt of the soundness of Mr. Fer- guson's views, and was quite certain, if any thing of the kind could be done, it would be advantageous to the agriculture of the district. At Edinburgh and some other places, some very poor lands had risen in value till the grass crops were most enormous. He did not know that it was of such qvta- lity as they would give to their pet animals, but still it would feed a great deal of the run of animals. There was very little difference of opinion as to the value of this ma- nure among various chemists. Mr. Herapath stated that it was from 2^ to 3 per cent, more valuable than farmj^ard dung. His opinion was that where sewage could be applied to land of whatever quality, it was the best plan that could be adopted. To show the importance whicli was attached to the application of fertilizing manures to land, he cited the prize offered by the Royal Agricultural Society for the best artificial manure as a substitute for guano ; but this prize was not to be given unless it could be sold in imlimited quantities at £5 per ton. Now, if any man could discover a manui'e worth that, he would not go to the Agricultural Society, but would make a hundred thousand pounds in an- other way, and the Society had to withdraw the prize. But it just showed the enormous extent to which fertilizing ma- nures were applied in the cultivation of the land. He had heard it said that the liquid manure in sewers was so weak that it would not pay to take it out; but there was no doubt that if distributed over the land it would be most valuable. There was no doubt that the paper of Mr. Ferguson would make a sensation, and the club would take care that it should be published. He remarked that the scheme had a sanitary as well as an agricultural bearing, and would ena- ble the country to meet the town half way in a work that would tend to cleanse the town and fertilize the land. For his own part, he felt much obliged to Mr. Ferguson, as they must all, and he would ask them to pass a vote of thanks to him for his valuable paper. The vote of thanks was carried by acclamation, the Chair- man observing that he hoped it would not be the last time they should have such papers from him. Mr. Dunn — It would be very important to ascertain the difference between the sewage of Newcastle, and that of Edinburgh and Loudon. The Chairman — Professor Way had said different parts of London produced different kinds of sewage water. Mr. Ferguson observed, with respect to this point, that they should, perhaps, analyze it two or three times a week, BO that it might not be conveyed to the fanners in a weak state, and the sluices should be opened to let it run into the river when it was in a weak state, or when it happened to be in a weaker state they could take a lower price. He concluded by acknowledging the vote of thanks, and the Club then separated. LIQUEFIED MANURES. The late discussions at the Central Farmers' Club have awakened a lively interest in our several branches of agriculture, and their prospective future for the fuller development of their resources for an increasing popula- tion upon the given acreage of our water-bound lands. Mr. Thomas has called attention to the over-abundance of straw, produced by excessive manurings and high farm- ing, and asks for a remedy. Mr. Baker has given an able paper on farm and artificial manuring ; and subsequently the consideration of extending our modern arts to the wild and unreclaimed waste lands of England has been iatro- duced to general notice by Mr. Smith. These are alike both important and interesting subjects in " progressive England" ; but there yet remain many other subjects, amongst them that of " liquefied manures." The collection, distribution, and fertilizing properties of sewage manures have long engaged attention, and remain in statti quo ; but the liquefyiug of portable and artificial manures for root crops, top-dressings of seeds, the purposes of irrigation, &c., requires to be better known by the general public, and at once ; that the full benefits of liquefication may be accepted at this difficult THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 393 moment as a part substitute for the short importation and enormous price of Peruvian guano. In saying this we speak advisedly, and feel it a duty we owe to our agricultural friends to remind them of the happy effects produced by liquefied manures. In speaking of these, let it not be understood that we write upon liquid or sewage manures, but liquefied portable agents for the purpose of accelerating the quick and easy growth of our green crops, especially roots. Liquid manure is that class of fertilizer which is collected in tanks, from manure heaps, yards, folds, urine, &c., in a fluid form ; while liquefied manures are those which are subjected to a process of liquefication by water, that they may be so diluted and liquefied as to be applied by a water drill or cart for forcing our plants at the earliest stage of their growth. Water is the cause of fluidity in both, and by this combination they are brought into a soluble state for decomposition, never to be separated but by filtration through the soil, or taken up by the spongioles of a plant, in search of food (in a soluble state) for the quick structure of the plant. If this be true — and true it is — how essential, then, to aid this natural process, by liquefying our artificial agents before applica- tion to the crop ! Superphosphate, guano, nitrate of soda, S-ilt, rotten dung, &c., are all readily dissolved, or divided into minute parts, and held in suspension for the plants. In fact, eve;y portable manure, except long dung and lime, may be so converted and applied in a liquefied form, the bulk of water being regulated by local circumstances. Since the publication of Professor V/ay's paper " on the power of soil to absorb manures," no fear need be entertained as to the safety of entrusting our manures to admixture with water. The filtration and separation are complete when applied to the land. The liquid in passing through the soil deposits all minute particles held in suspension, and the land imbibes the qualities that are in solution. By this process, no loss by evapo- ration takes place, as it is immediately confided to the soil, as a store-room for the plants, to be drawn upon as their subsequent growth shall direct. We now come to the application of liquefied manures to our root crops. Experience by successive experi- ments has shown that "water drills" have been mainly instrumental in introducing this new process. These experiments afford a striking proof of the advantage of supplying dissolved manures to the growing turnip plants, especially to push them past the fly. An extract from Mr. Ruston's report contained in the Mark Lane Express, in November last, may again be quoted as evidence in support of liquefication : — No. 1. Water drill, 1^ cwt. Lawes superphosp. Dry drill, do. do. No. 2. Water drill, do. do. Dry drill, do. do. No. 3. Water drill, do. do. Dry drill, do. do No. 4. Water drill, do. do. Dry drill, do. do. No. 5. Water drill, do. do Dry drill, do. do. 3. d. Ids. dung. 11 3 13 11 3 13 11 3 13 11 3 13 15 0 13 15 0 13 11 3 13 11 3 13 11 3 10 11 3 10 t. cwt- St. lb: 18 2 4 0 8 10 5 10 19 2 6 12 13 15 0 0 19 2 G 12 12 15 5 10 27 5 5 10 16 10 0 0 30 0 0 0 20 13 4 8 To this we may brif.fly add anotler experiment, by the late Mr. Pusey : — Water drill, 6 cwt. superphosphate 13^ tons Dust drill, ditto ditto 6^ Mr. Pusey then adds, " I cannot account for this enormous difference ; I never saw so great a difference before : and after some years' experience of the two drills, I have determined to abandon the use of the dust drill, and to use the water drill only." Mr. Pusey then goes on to say: "There is, firstly, the advantage that you can drill in dry weather at once ; secondly, that the manure is better diffused in the soil, for each plant to feed upon; thirdly, that you save the expense of the ashes required by the dry drill; fourthly and lastly, that much less labour of horses and men is required with the water drill." From these and other practical results, we feel justified in calling attention to so important a branch of our progressive agriculture, feeling a conviction that the. use of liquefied manures will become more general as they become better known. If liquid manure from the farmyard or tank is selected for application with the crop, more than ordinary care must be had to its dilution with water before use, or serious consequences may follow, especially if the liquid manure be applied in a too highly concentrated form. There is an interesting paper on this head by Dr. Sprengel in the Royal Agricultural Society's first Journal, which may be consulted to advantage, Sprengel says " that diluted liquid manure contains nearly four times as much ammonia as urine left to putrefy in its natural state." CAUTION TO FARMERS.— CATTLE POISONED BY SPURIOUS RAPE CAKE.— At the recant County Co\irt at Grantham, Mr. S. Faulkner, of Walcot, sued Mr. Richard Branston, of Spittlegate, for £50. Faulkner bought what was represented as rapeseed caiie (two tons), and gave it to his cattle, on the recouimeudation of Branston, who sells it for that purpose. He gave a quantity, averaging 2^ lbs. each, to ten beasts.^, three of which were taken seriously bad, and died within twelve hours. Four of the others were very bad, bat recovered, although they had not yet got their flesh. He claimed £14 each for the three beasts, and £5 each for the others but reduced his claim to 50?., to bring it within the jurisdic- tion of the court. The contents of the stomach of one of the beasts were sent to Mr. Herepath, the eminent chemist, of Bristol. He found black mustard-seed in the stomach, and in the cake, and stated that black mustard-seed is poisonous to cattle. For the defence, witnesses were called to prove that other cattle liad eaten the cake without injury ; but Mr. Grummitt, of Elathorpe Lodge, proved that he, knowing of the above case, and being a friend of Brauston's, gave some of the cake to his beasts cautiously, and in rather smaller quan- tities, and lost three of them. Verdict for the plaintiff for £42, the vahie of the three beasts that died. 394 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. DISEASE IN SWEDE TURNIPS. Sir, — I fear there is much truth contiined in Mr. Finder's letters in last Thursday's Guardian — that there has been a great and serious loss from decay among the roots of Swedish turnips this season (which is undciiiable), and that the too free use of guano, or other strong ammoniacal manurial agent, in their production has something to do with it. I have held this opinion for the last two or three years — even to the length that turnip seed, generally speaking, has likewise become deteriorated from being raised from over-stimulated guano- manured bulbs. Every turnip seed grower knows how exten- sive has been the loss from the decay among the roots intended to be saved for the growing of seed the last two or three sea- sons ; and where there has been such extensive loss, I think it not unreasonable to suppose that the quality of those bulbs that survived to mature their seed may have materially suf- fered, to the great detriment of it, and so failed to produce seed " good after its kind." To obviate this, I would recom- mend parties to endeavour to procure sound and healthy seed grown on well-drained strongish clay land with farm-yard manure, from carefully selected and transplanted bulbs. Both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms we universally find the seed or produce weakened and injured (and even destroyed) by an unnatural forcing of their functions. I think from the time Liebig first made known the valuable properties of guano, there has been too great an inclination to rely upon it in the growing of roots — more especially Swede turnips — the last few years. As the experiment quoted by your correspondent shows, superphosphate of lime is superior for this purpose, or, at all events, it may be said to be equal to guano in producing weight per acre. (Superphosphate I con- sider ought only to be employed as a supplementary aid to farm-yard manure, if this latter is to be had — say 4 cwt. of superphosphate of lime to a half dressing of dung). A great many experiments have been tried, both in England and Scot- land, and have clearly proved that turnips grown by the aid of dissolved bones are more healthy and robust in constitution, as well as superior in feeding qualities, to those grown with guano. A most successful grower of turnips — a friend of mine, a large Yorkshire farmer, who generally has from 100 to 150 acres annually — tells me that he never yet has had any serious loss among them ; he has been in the habit for ^(lany years of using superphosphate of lime and bones to a very large extent, and he is obliged occasionally to use them alone, instead of as an auxiliary to his farm-yard manure, as he prefers and usually practises, finding a better proportionate return from so doing. Here 1 may be allowed to say — beware of the numerous adul- terated samples of superphosphate there are now in the market. Never was the warning of " Caveat emptor !" more needed than at the present time. Let farmers buy with caution, and not without having an intelligible analysis showing what they are getting for their money, otherwise they may easily lose both their money and crop. My Yorkshire friend (who is very particular about his turnip seed — generally growing his own, but occasionally procuring a change of seed from the north of Scotland, grown on strong clay or " kerae" land), in addition to purchased superphosphate, uses a quantity of home-prepared bones with charred clay, ashes, and other vegetable matter. A heap of the latter is formed, and half-inch bones well saturated with water or liquid manure placed in the centre of it, well covered up, and left for a few weeks, when the bones are found perfectly dissolved, or rather digested, being reduced to a sort of pulpy powder (easy for assimilation by the organs of the turnip plant) ; the whole mass is then well mixed together, with the occasional addition of a small quantity of common salt, and drilled in with the seed, or rather under it. This system combined with deep culture (the first ploughing of his fallows being as deep as pos- sible), has always given him good healthy Swedes of an extra- ordinary weight per acre. I am not writing against the utility of guano, inasmuch as I consider it a most valuable fertilizer in certain cases and con- ditions ; but, as Ovid says, Nil enim prodest, quod Icedere non liossit idem — there is nothing advantageous which may not be converted to injurious purposes — and I think guano has been in many cases injuriously applied to the turnip crop, by over- stimulating and forcing the growth of certainly large crops, but I fear quantity at the expense of quality, so that should any external influence, atmospheric or otherwise, act upon the crop so as to produce a diseased condition, decomposition of vegetable fibre ensues, and rapid decay takes place, there being no stamina left to fall back upon. Now, although we are un- fortunately much in the dark respecting the cause and cure of such disease, it is plain to me there is a remedy to be found 3ome;vhere, aud that, if we fail in discovering it, it is owing to our being ignorant of the laws regulating the healthy growth of the plant, and of the injurious influences that interfere with the natural and regular operation of these laws, forming that beautiful adjustment of our system, and conducing to the well- doing of every individual that is found in the entire vegetable and animal kingdoms of the world. One thing appears plain, that in the growth of turnips we do not require ammonia so much as we want the inorganic constitueuts — phosphates (phosphorus) and sulphur — so essential to its perfect develop- ment. Now, Peruvian guano contains about 20 per cent, of phosphates, and 16 of ammonia; fresh ground bones contain 60 per cent, of phosphates (sheep bones 70 per cent., horse bones 67, ox bones 58, calf and pig bones 51 per cent.), and about 6 per cent, of ammonia. On the other hand, allow me to observe ammonia is a most essential ingredient in a manure required for plants of the natural order of graminese, such as wheat, barley, oats, and the pasture grasses, but even here it requires using with care, and it is found guano applied in combination with common salt, or the nitrate of soda, acts more beneficially than when used by itself. The action of ammonia upon vegetation appears very pecu- liar, and is, I think, but little understood at the present time. It may, perhaps, be interesting to some of your readers to re- mark th.it a valuable paper was a short time ago communicated to the Royal Society by Mons. ViUe, of Paris, called " Re- searches on Vegetation." The author gives a long account of the influence of ammonia on vegetation, which causes the latter to become remarkably active. Besides this effect, Mons. ViUe says there are others which are more variable, which depend upon particular conditions, but equally worthy of consideration — that we can, in fact, by means of ammonia not only stimu- late vegetation, but, further, we can modify its course, delay the action of certain functions, or enlarge the development of certain organs. The author further remarks tiiat, if its use be ill-directed, it may cause accidents. Those which have occurred THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 395 n the course of his experiments appear to him to throw unex- pected light on the mechanism of the nutrition of plants — that they have, at least, taught him at the expense of what care ammonia may become an important auxiliary of vegetation, adding that there are periods to be selected for the employ- ment of ammonia during which it produces different effects — that, if we commence its use when several months intervene before the flowerin;^ season of plants, it produces no disturb- ance ; they follow the ordinary course of their vegetation — if its use be commenced at the time of flowering, this function is stopped or delayed, the plant covers itself with leaves, and, if the flowering takes place, all the flowers are barren. However interesting and remarkable the facts arrived at by such able researches may be, I feel I am, as the lawyers say, " travelling out of the record" in some degree, and that it is time to close these lengthened but hastily written " thoughts on turnips," the growth of which, together with the perusal of this week's Guardian, has served at all events to beguile a couple of hours' " waiting for the train" — the up-mail at Derby Station this morning — by yours very truly, C. Nicholson, Land Agent. NollingJmm, March 2lst, 1857. — Nottinghamshire Guardian. WHY LAMBS DIE WHEN FED UPON COW MILK I observed some time ago, in the JVorth British Agricul- turist, a letter from a correspondent making inquiries regarding the nutritive properties of ewe and cow milk, and the reason why so many lambs die when fed upon the latter. From the analysis of their constituents given in the "Agriculturist" of March 4th, it is evident that their feeding qualities very nearly approach each other, and plainly point out that the reasons why lambs do not thrive when fed upon cow milk, and so fre- quently die when the ewe's milk has to be supplemented by it, must be sought for apart from any peculiarity in the quali- ties of the milk itself; and I consider that the remarks given along with the analysis fully embody these reasons, which I shall only attempt to give more at length, as the views there stated are (as far as they go) exactly those which I have adopted after giving the matter all the attention which I was capable of exercising, and for which my occupation as a shep- herd has afforded abundant opportunities. The lamb draws its nourishment from the dam in very small quantities at a time, and receives it at a temperature corres- ponding to the heat of its own body, and suitable for its ten- der stomach. Now, when ewes do not yield a sufficient quan- tity of milk for the support of their lambs, and cow milk has to be resorted to, the lambs are allowed to follow the ewes in the field, and except in cases where the ewe yields very little, they are fed only twice a-day, morning and evening, and at these times are filled as full as they can hold. The milk is given either warm from the cow, or heated upon the fire, and where there is a good number of lambs to feed, the milk is often almost cold before they are all served, while in no case can it be given to them in the exact temperature in which they draw it from their mothers. This has a most injurious effect upon them; as those who have fed lambs in the open air, and even in houses, will have observed that they never fail to tremble for a long time after receiving a full feed of milk. This I consider is occasioned by the withdrawal of so much of the vital heat from the body to the stomach, where it is required to raise the temperature of the large quantity of food which has been poured into it in a state not corresponding with its natural heat. It is easy to conceive the effect of this during cold weather, and especially during cold nights. A part die, and others become lame from swelled joints — a spe- cies of rheumatism occasioned by cold, and improper food ; and it has often been remarked at the end of a cold lambing season, during which a large quantity of cow milk had been given, and no small labour spent in the giving of it, that it was " all lost." The large quantity of milk given to a Iamb at one time is CTen more Luctful than the temperature that it U in. The stomach sours owing to the quantity of whey upou it at once^ the curd hardens, and after death lumps of it may be observed, apparently of different ages ; the bowels get inflated with wind, and debility and death ensues. Lambs that are fed entirely upon cow milk, when they get it regularly, and at short inter- vals, and have room for exercise, thrive much better than those who follow their dams, and are assisted in the manner de- scribed. During severe seasons, and when the weather is stormy, there is often a great number of lambs not following ewes, and which have to be fed in the house. These are made up of twins, where one has been taken from the ewe, who often at those times can barely maintain one — those whose mothers die, or have no milk for them. And it is too often the practice to put a number of these into a small confined place, where they have neither light nor exercise, and where the strong trample down the weak. Those who are thus treated die in great numbers, and what survive and are put to ewes when their own lambs die, seldom do much good, at least if they have been kept long in confinement. But the case is very different where lambs are alluwcd to run about and get milk warm from the cow, and at regular times : then they thrive well— thus clearly indicatiug that it is the mode of treatment, and not the milk, tliat causes the difference. It is a great improvement when they are fed from an artificial teat fastened upon the spout of a tea-pot, or other vessel suitable for the purpose, as they not only thrive better in the meantime, but take more readily with a ewe, and do better afterwards than they generally do when fed in the usual manner. I have all along been taking it for granted that the cow milk with which lambs are fed is good ; but this is often not the case, as its suitability for lambs depends not a little upon its age, the kind of food supplied to the cows, and other causes. What I mean by age is from the time of calving ; for the newer the milk is, it is all the better for Iambs. It is fre- quently given to them when it is too old in another sense ; for it often happens that there is no milk to be had at the shepherd's house, where the lambs requiring it are collected, aud consequently it has to be carried from a distance, and in cases of necessity is sometimes given to them when it is more than twenty- fours hours old ; while, from being carried, and its qualities changed by the churning which it has undergone, it is otherwise far from being in a fit state for feeding a young and tender animal, and there is no doubt but that numbers of lambs die from this cause, although I consider it no argument against the wholesome nature of cow milk when given to them in a proper state and at proper times. It is better policy to feed the ewe in place of the lamb. It THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 like beginning at the fonndation, or filling a fountain head. It is surprising how soon a few feeds of oatmeal prrridge or gruel will bring a flow of milk upon a ewe when not entirely reduced in condition, and will enable hel: to keep her lamb alive without assistance; and whenever a ewe can do this, and the weather moderate, the lamb is better without any cow milk. It is a great improvement to put ewes having weakly lambs that require cow milk under cover during the night, as the lambs are often by this saved from perishing by the cold, while the milk comes more quickly upon the ewes when they are sheltered from the weather. Individual cases of lambs requiring to be fed with cow milk will occur in any season, and in any situation ; but the demand for it would be greatly lessened, if not altogether superseded, were there a greater extent of cultivated land interspersed throughout the hilly districts. James Cowan. Glasr/ow, March 20, 1857. " FACTS CONCERNING THE Yv^ORKPEOPLE OF EUROPE. For the adjustment of labour and capital each man has a different theory, according to his temperament. The political economist, who cares raiher for law than humanity, proposes entire self-control, the annihilation of all natural instincts, and profound acquiescence in the present state of things, as the labourers' only means of salvation and advancement. The liberal politician trusts to an enlargement of tlie representative basis, and vote by ballot. The believer in the Divine institution of social castes would throw back the workman to the same dependent condition as that in which he lived in the old feudal times. Whatever difference of opinion may exist in this re- spect, this we know of a surety— thsjt if morals and christian truth be not at the basis of the social welfare of a nation, all economic e.xpcdients will prove to be ineffective. And we are certain upon this other point : If the accumulation of capital, and consequently of power, has destroyed the spirit of fraternity and the spirit of slavery, the good with the ill that characterised the feudal times — if machinery has changed the character of human labour, and large associations have swamped individual efforts— if all these new phases are in positive existence, then the solution of our present difficulties must be made to agree with our present requirements ; we must find a remedy for the existing evil that shall accord with the existing regime. There is no reason why we should stick by the for- mulas of political economy if they are wrong. It may be difficult to return to better, but the difficulty of the task ban never be a valid plea for not attempting it. It is the short-sighted who shirk a less diflSculty to incur a greater. Everything which is in opposition to the nature of man, and to the law of God — everything which is contrary to moral order, is more contrary, more preju- dical to external order, than any reformation which should bring men back to the truth, even though it should be by means of a most violent tempest. Anybody who has studied the social history of Eng- land in the sixteenth century must have seen a state of things in which the principles of political economy were consciously or unconsciously contradicted, where an attempt more or less successful was made to bring the production and distribution of wealth under the moral test of right or wrong, and where this law of supply and demand, which we are now taught to regard as immuta> ble ordinances of Nature, were absorbed and superseded by a higher code. Though we have reviewed most of the systems in which labour contracts arc now made in Europe, and traversed back to those which did regulate our relations of capital and labour in England in times gone by, we have said enough to screen ourselves from the charge of desiring to revert to serfdom. It would be a folly to hold up the sixteenth as a mod.,1 for the nineteenth cen- tury. The population has become too large, and em- ployment too complicated and fluctuating, to admit of such control ; while, in default of control, the relapse upon self-interest as tlie one motive principle is certain to ensue, and when it ensues is absolute in its opera- tion. But, as even with us, these so-called ordinances of Nature in time of war and national danger consent to be suspended, and duty to his country become with every good citizen a higher motive of action than the advantage which he may gain in an enemy's market. So it is not uncheering to look back upon a time when the nation was in a normal condition of militancy against social injustice, when the government was enabled by happy circumstances to pursue into detail a single and serious aim at the wellbeing — wellbeing in its widest sense — of all members of the Commonwealth. There v?ere difficulties and drawbacks at that time as well as this. Of liberty, in the modern sense of the word — of the siipposed right of every man " to do what he will with his own," or with himself, there was no idea. To the question, if ever it was asked, " May I not do what I will with my own .-"' this was the brief answer, " No man may do what is wrong, either with what is his own or with what is another's." The Irishman's laisscr-faire ideal seems now to be very popular, wherein " every man should do that which was right in the sight of his own eyes — and lorong, too, if he liked." Producers in those times, who v.'ere not permitted to drive down their workman's wages by competition, could not sell their goods as cheaply as they might have done, and the consumei paid for the law in an advance of price. Thus the poor were not degraded, and the rich paid a less sum in indirect taxation than they do now in direct taxation. For our part we do not see much, save the name, in what is called the extension of the workman's liberty. To us it appears that the tendency of overstimulated in- dustrial and commercial enterprise is to degrade and en- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 397 slave the masses more than ever they were enslaved uader the law of the guilds. It is true that England hag gained the markets of the world ; but how ? Why, she has undersold all competitors, by loading her labourers with excessive burdens, and reducing their subsistence to the lowest standard of necessity. We abuse the tyranny of feudalism— we look with horror to the vassalage of the Russian serf; but no tyranny is more galling in its exactions than that which is hourly press- ing men to pauperism and crime, or more chary of con- cessions and indulgencies than that of our great manu- facturing cities. Why, our poorest population too have borne, like the French tiers d'etat during the cen- tury that preceded the revolution of '89, the heaviest weight of taxation in proportion to their means. Such a state of things as this calls loudly for remedy ; it is discreditable to civilization, and is a practical dis- proof of our Christianity. The wide gaps that exist between the higher and lower classes ; the want of pro- per sympathy between masters and servants, public charities ; poor-laws ; large families and sensuality — this is the concrete cause of all our social misery. The isolation cannot be bridged over by the condescending patronage of the rich, and whoever knows anything about "charities'" abhors them as the source of greater miseries than they cure. They are wrong, because unjust and insufficient — because men who work ought not to need charity — because almsgiving to those who by nature and right ought to be independent of all but their own industry is in itself an engine of de- moralization, and the confession of a social wrong. A low range of education is consequent upon a low rate of wages; and a low rate of wages springs from the non- recognition of the Divine truths, that labour has the right of its full reward, and that men have the right to labour. We require to inspire a spirit that shall com- pletely destroy the tendency to regard present social conditions as unchangeable — a spirit that we must even go back to the better forms of feudalism to find, and which " absorbed in a higher code " those principles of political economy which v.ere found not conducive to the interests of the working people. It is strange to see how oblivious we are to truths that appear to wound our self-interest. The history of France furnishes us with an illustration of this fact. The expenses of making and maintaining the king's highways were entirely thrown upon the peasantry. And this strange notion, that the cost of the roads was to be defrayed by the poorest persons, and by those who were the least likely to travel by them, though of recent date, took such root in the minds of those who were to profit by it, that they imagined that the thing could not be done differently. There is one great fundamental truth that alone would, without difficulty, determine all the doubts and cases in social morality — one that would efficiently regulate all human society : I mean our Saviour's great rule— " Thou shall love thy neighbour as thyself." The observance of this rule is quite consistent with a continuance of the two classes, rich and poor — quite consistent with the gradations of rank. To obey another man, to labour for him, to yield reverence to him or to his place, is not slavery ; it is often the best kind of liberty — liberty from care. To yield reverence to another, to hold ourselves and our lives vt his disposal, is not slavery ; often it is the noblest state in irhich a man can live in this world. There is, indeed, a reverence which is servile — that is to say, irrational and selfish; but there is a rational, loving reverence, and a man is never EO noble as when he is reverent in this kind. And where we see workmen animated by this spirit, we may always know that the master observes the great rule above cited. Wo must not return to serfdom, but we must return to humanity. A state of poverty is not inconsistent with perfect contentment. But contentment in poverty very much depends upon the manner in which poverty is re- garded by the rich, and the dignity that is attached to wealth. If it is scorned by the upper classes, if the poor are famished, if, above all, they are led to regard the means by which they obtain bread degrading, and so have no pleasure in work, they will be taught to look to wealth as the only means of pleasure. This is a terrible lesson, and one which religion does not teach. The French Queen who, when told that the poor people must live, replied naively, " I do not see the ne- cessity," did not apparently consider the Scripture rule — " The poor shall ye always have with you." This is a necessity. But the poor wretched is one thing, and the poor happy is another ; the poor contented is one thing, and the poor disaffected is another ; the poor a broad national rock foundation is one thing, and the poor a rotten pile-driven basis is another. And accord- ing as we masters read the scripture rule, so will be the condition of the poor ; for God has purposely made a state of poverty consistent with a state of happiness. He has ordained a beneficent law, which equalizes to a degree beyond what most people imagine the happiness of the different classes of mankind. A man in the middle classes, surrounded by luxury, may, jutlging by his own feeling, consider poverty as the climax of human woe. But the ruder habitations, the coarser fare, the bodily toil of the poor, are not ungrateful to them ; and it is only when they drop below their average condi- tion that their suiTorings commence. They may, like richer men, be troubled by the cravings of discontent; but their senses are not afflicted by circumstances which custom has rendered natural to them. The effect of custom is well illustrated by the sensations experienced by Captain Ross and his crew when taken on board the Isabella, after their Polar wanderings. Accustomed to lie on the frozen rock, the accommodations of a whaler were too luxurious for them, and Captain Ross was ob- liged to exchange his hammock for a chair. When, however, the workmen are condemned to suffer from those intense forms of dislress and wretchedness which are unfortimately too well known to them in our cities and rural districts, they lose their pleasure in work, and with it the spirit of contentment; and another spirit subversive of all good relations and feeling, sub- Tcrsive of the very instincts of nature, steps in, and agitates the breast with thoughts and purposes antago- 398 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nistic to the weal of the " good estate." Richelieu boldly maintained, by his policy, the idea that the peasantry would not work without the constant stimulus of neces- sity—an idea which was profitably handled by the aristo- cracy and middle classes of France for a time. It led to their shifting almost the entire burden of taxation, and the burden of military service, on the peasantry. So great an injustice could not be endured without building up a massive barrier of hate and suspicion between the lower and higher classes. The upper classes thought the peasantry contented because they were comparatively merry. But they wore merry only while their calamities seemed inevitable; when they saw a way of escape, they burst through it with relentless fury. M. de Tocque- ville says with great truth, upon this subject — " It is always with great difficulty that men belonging to the upper classes succeed in discerning with precision what is passing in the mind of the common people, and espe- cially of the peasantry. The education and the manner of lite of tlie peasantry give them certain views of their own, which remain shut to all other classes ; but when the poor and the rich have scarcely any common inter- ests, common grievances, or common business, the dark- ness which conceals the mind of the one from the mind of the other becomes impenetrable, and the two classes might live for ever, side by side, without the slightest interpenetration. It is curious to observe in what strange security all those who inhabited the upper or middle storey of the social edifice were living, at the very time when the Revolution was beginning, and to mark how ingeniously they discoursed on the virtues of the common people, on their gentleness, on their attachment to them- selves, on their innocent diversions ; the absurd and terrible contrast of '93 being already beneath their feet." All history is given to warn and counsel. From the annals of the past we gather weapons and armour for ■ the present. Let us be warned. For the sakes of those * lower in the social grade than ourselves, let us be warned ; for our own sakes, let us be warned ; and girding ourselves as champions against those social wrongs that are at enmity with our domestic peace and national prosperity, let us march forward, with the grand assurance that God will defend the right. F. R. S. PROFESSOR WAY'S LECTURE ON GUANO. On the first Wednesday evening in March the first of the series of Lectures for this season was given by Professor Way, at the House of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, in Hanover Square. Such an opening could not, unfortunately, have been made under more inauspicious circumstances. The whole country was just in the height of a general elec- tion. Landlords especially, and tenants in some degree at least, partook of the excitement ; and the worthy Professor and his lecture were, no doubt, altogether forgotten by many a man who at any other time would have taken care to make a note of the occasion. The night, too, was stormy and wet, and " the first Wed- nesday" of the month happened inconveniently for other Societies, which found their first Monday and Tuesday a week further on. The attendance, conse- quently, was but small; being remarkable for the absence of many Members of Council who could attend the meeting in the morning, but who did not counte- nance the Lecture of the same evening. Mere numbers, however, would be about the worst test of a metropolitan meeting of agriculturists. A large or small company, indeed, could have but little effect upon such a man as Professor Way and his course of proceeding. With his material already pre- pared he might go through his discourse almost as advantageously to "dearly beloved Roger" and the corps of reporters, as even with the sympathy and at- tention of a crowded audience. It is but fair to say that he performed his duty on as honestly for the benefit of the fourteen or fifteen members present, as if they had come in scores or hundreds. And all this was, remember, for their particular benefit only. The reporters, again, -were not admitted, and unl&ss these fourteen or fifteen enlightened gentlemen tell the story viva voce each in his own district, nobody will know what Professor Way thinks of the guano difficulty, or how he would help us out of it. The lecture, we repeat, was a most useful, and we may add a most encouraging one. It struck in every way against the present monopoly. It leads us to be- lieve and hope that, in the Professor's own words, "we may be in perfect ignoranceof large deposits of guano." It teaches us to look to many other, which if not quite rainless regions, might still furnish us with manure " highly valuable for agricultural purposes." It shows us, on the otlier hand, that, although only so far found in small quantities, there is guano yet better than the Peruvian. Mr. Way supported and illustrated his po- sition with a number of maps of the districts he referred to, as well as by occasional quotation from the many dispatches received on the subject through the Foreign Office. The information so derived, is not? as might be supposed, of a very definite or reliable character. The chief conclusion, indeed, to be drawn from this official correspondence is, that a more diligent investigation should be entered upon by gentle- men better qualified to undertake the duty. Such a search, moreover, says Mr. Way, should not be con- fined, or merely directed to guano, but miglit be ex- tended inland for nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash. These communications are so far useful that they may point the way to other possessions, if but properly pur- sued ; while that information they do contain could hardly be made too public. Mr Fisher Hobbs, at the meeting on Wednesday, suggested that they siiould be at once published in the Agricultural Journals, instead of being locked up for months in the Society's office. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 399 unhonoured and unknown. So far we only hear that they are " important." Then, again, though scarcely yet at liberty it would seem to give a full analysis, Professor Way assures us the Kooria Mooria deposits are "very valuable;" while he calls our attention to a kind of petrified guano as something more than a mere curiosity. It contains, in fact, in this state, many valuable properties, not hitherto always appreciated. " That stuff of any use V asked a merchantman to whom it was shown; "why I have thrown ten thousand tons of it into the sea !" — when he was digging for the softer, or guano proper, beneath it. There is something, surely, of a lesson in this anecdote. With all this to encourage us, and to warrant the pursuit of our inquiries, the Professor dwelt on the increased competition likely to be for what guano there was now in the market, pointing par- ticularly to America as an eager customer. The discussion which followed, thanks chiefly to Mr. Hudson of Castleacre, was equally interesting. He entered at once on a very vexed question. From Mr. Hudson's own experience farmyard manure, exposed for two or three months on the land, is better for wheat than that of the same quality at once ploughed in. The reason of this is still something of a mystery. At a recent discussion of the Farmers' Club there was quite as much urged against as in favour of the " bleaching" process. Mr. Hudson proceeded from this to two or three questions as to thfe production of nitrate of soda, stating that if he could obtain it at a third cheaper rate he should use three times as much as he now did. Mr. Fisher Hobbs dwelt on the value of fish as a substitute for guano ; and embodied in his remarks, as we have already stated, the desirability of the information possessed by the Society being at once disseminated. We do not know whether we are liable to any special indictment for saying what we have. We, however, trust not. There were two or three important facts in Professor Way's lecture that struck us as being parti- cularly cheering, and as such we have ventured to whisper them to our readers. The lecture, wo repeat, is another blow against the guano monopoly. The Farmers' Club, as a body of practical men, advises our resisting this by making the most of what we produce. The Royal Agricultural Society, with more sources of information, goes far to assure us " there is as good fish in the sea as ever came out of it;" and that some of these good fish may be landed even elsewhere than in Peru. JRemember the captain throwing his thousands of tons away. Ponder over what else, the Professor tells us, we may discover in our researches; and we need not quite despair of getting something more than the Messrs. Gibbs' next consignment. It is gratifying to see the Society thus usefully em- ployed, and so keenly alive to the passing business of the day. The guano question was not the only one considered on this day. That of the murrain was again entertained, and a decisive and altogether ener- getic step determined on. Professor Simonds is at once to proceed to the Continent, accompanied by some other professor, who, in the quaint wording of the re- solution, " will smooth the difficulties of the German language." There is no question but such a course should have been the first duty of the Government. In default, we can honestly congratulate the Royal Agricultural Society of England on coming so readily to the rescue. The Highland and Irish Societies share in the credit of this resolve, which it is right to say emanated in the first instance with our friends in Ire- land. On the first Wednesday in May we hope Mr. Simonds may be able to give us the results of this investigation. THE APPREHENDED MURRAIN. (From the Supplement to the London Gazette of Friday, April 3 — Saturday. April 4.) At the Court at Buckingham Palace, the 2nd day of April, 1857. Present, the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council, Whereas it has been represented to Her Majesty that certain contagious or infections disorders are now prevalent among cattle in certain countries or places bordering upon the Baltic Sea, and that there is danger of the said disorders being intro- duced into this country by means of cattle, and horns, hoofs, and raw or wet hides, or skins of cattle, from such countries or places ; now, therefore. Her Majesty, by and with the advice of her Privy Council, doth order, and it is hereby ordered, that from and after the date hereof no cattle and uo horns, hoofs, or raw or wet hides, or skins of cattle, sliall be imported or introduced into the United Kingdom which shall come from or shall have been at any place within those territories of the Emperor of Russia, or of the King of Prussia, or of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg- Schwerin, which respectively are in or border upon the Gulf of Finland, or any other part of the Baltic Sea between the Gulf of Finland and the territories of the Free City of Liibeck, or which shall come from or shall have been at any place within the territories of the Free City of Liibeck ; and also that, from and after the date hereof, no cattle and no horns, hoofs, or raw or wet hides or skins of cattle, shall be imported or introduced into the United King- dom which shall be, or shall have been, on board any vessels at the same time with any cattle or horns, hoofs, or raw or wet hides or skins of cattle, which shall have come from or shall have been at any such place as aforesaid. And Her Majesty, by and with the advice of her Privy Council, doth hereby further order, that all cattle, and all horns, hoofs, and raw or wet hides, or skins of cattle, the importation or introduction whereof is so hereby prohibited as aforesaid, and also all hay, straw, fodder, litter, or manure, being or hav- ing been in or on board any vessels at the same time with any such cattle, or horns, hoofs, or raw or wet hides or skins of 400 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cattle 83 aforesaii], shall, upon their arrival in this country, be destroyed, or otherwise disposed of, as the Commissioners of Her Majestv's Customs may direct. AuJ the Kight Hon. the Lords Commiasioners of Her Ma- jesty's Treasury are to give the riece3sary direciions herein accordingly. C. C. GREVILLE. The following well-digested article on the subject is from the Times, April 6 : — Precautions have at length been taken agaiuat the intro- duction into England of the infectious disease which is destroy- ing the cattle of the Baltic countries. Au Order in Council was published on Saturday, prohibiting the importation of cattle, or ef horns, hoofs, hides, or skins, from those territories of Russia, Prussia, or Mecklenburg- Schweriu v/hich lie on the Gulf of Finland, or between the Gi.lf and the city of Liibeck. It cannot be said that this prohibi- tion is too stringent, or cornea too early. Certainly an order which limits the supply of h.uuian food is a strous: measure, but the case admitted ueiiher of com- promise nor delay. It was ntcessary to exclude rigidly and at onre anything which could bring on the country so terrible a calamity as a mortality among the animals used for food. Tbe disease which has secessitated these precautious has ravaged Silesia, Mecklenburg, and a part of Holsteia for two or three years, and has latterly assumed a type so deadly as to rouse the apprehension of the principal Governments of the conti- nent. The Governments of France, Prussia, and some of the smaller Grrmau States have already made regulations for the exclusion of the tainted cattle, or any part of their carcases. Our insular position gives us greater chance of immunity, but does not free us from the necessity of taking some precautions. The exclusion of cattle coming from Baltic ports will, no doubt, tend to raise in some degree the price of meat, but this evil is not for a moment to be balanced agaiust tl:e de':iverance from the scourge of murrain within these islands. The im- portations from abroad, thoagh they seem large in returns, form but a very small part of the supply necessary for the population, England and Ireland are pre-emineutly grazing countries ; the meat they produce is far superior to that of the Continent, and the quantity beyond all comparison greater than anything that the German ports can furnish. In fact this country is, after all, mainly supplied by the produce of its own territory. It is, therefore, sound economy to take any steps which may tend to preserve our herds and ilocks untainted. Temporary dearuess of meat, of leather, or of tallow, is but a small evil compared with the in- troduction of a malady which may sweep tS thousands of our cattle, from Hampshire to the Highlands, and perhaps, after ravaging the country for years together, end by permanently deterioration the various breeds. In our damp climate, where a large supply of animal food is necessary forkcepinguphealthand strength, the consequences of such a calamity as a general de- struction of animals can hardly be contemplated without the deepest apprehension. No sr.ch event has happened in our own day, or even in the present age, but iu former times such disasters were far from uucoramou ; and in the last cen- tury Europe was more than once swept by murrains which de- stroyed the animal food of entire nations. We think, there- fore, that the Goverameut has only done its duty in prohibit- ing all importiitions from the infected districts. But there is probably more to be done than merely to search Baltic traders for cattle or hides. This disease, no doubt, has its causes and its cure, like those of human kind. The words " infectious" and " coatagious" are very loosely used. It is probable that this malady is pro- pagated chiefly wliere the state of the animals is gene- rally unhealthy, or where, through want of proper cate, or through insufficient food or shelter, their phy- sical condition is weak. We may further assume that a disease of this sort ij epidemic, and likely to break out in moro than one place, without atiy intercommuni- cation. Both these considerations point to the necessity of increased care in the treatment of cattle at home. It is not impossible that the disease arises from natural causes, and cannot be averted solely by quarantine regulations. No doubt, infection from abroad would cause it to assume a still more deadly form, but yet the seed may be already sowu among us, and favourable circumstances may cause it to take dimeti- siona of a great national calamity. Our agriculturists and breeders should therefore take their precautions in time. While Government is watching the outports, they should do all that science can suggest to stop the progress of the disease, or remove the causes which may lead to its appearance. If the crowding of cattle-sheds, and the want of ventilation and cleanliness have a tendency to encourage the epidemic, as cer- tainly seems likely enough, no time should be lost in remedy- ing defects which may be productive of such incalculable evil. REVIEWS. THE CATTLE PLAGUE AND DISEASED MEAT, IN THEIR RELATIONS WITH THE PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE INTERESTS OF AGRI- CULTURE. BY MR. GAM6EE. The rumour of the murrain, beyond the di.s- cussiou it has given rise to in the House of Com- mons, at the Royal Agricultm'al Society, the Farmers' Club, and elscwiiere, has also led to the pub- lication of a i)amphlet which must command attention, and which should not be without efTect. It is called " The Cattle Piag-ue and Diseased Meat, in their Rela- tions with the Public Health and the Interests of Agri- culture," addressed to Sir George Grey, and written by Mr. Sampson Gamgee, a gentleman of the medical profession, who appears to have had very great and varied experience both in his own and the veterinary art. However correct the conclusions he may have ar- rived at, there can be no question but that he has taken up this subject with immense zeal and industry. We know nothing more of Mr. Gamgea than we gather from'the work he has sent us; but we are inclined from this very nmch to respect his opinions, and at least to appreciate the motives which have led to their publication. We shall let our readers in some degree judge for themselves, at the same time that wo strongly recom- mend them to procure the work from which we quote. In the first place, as to the evil existing amongst us : — " It is a publicly notorious fact, repeatedly verified by my THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 401 brother, that diseased beasts, in very considerable uumbcra, are sold iu the New Cattle Market at Isliujjtoii, which I in- spected on Monday morning the IGih inst. The live beasts were generally extremely well-conditioned f.nd thoro;ighly sound ; but standing amongst them were three diseased beaata. One of tlieae waa emaciated and hide-bound, with abcerses iu varioua parts of tlie body, puticu'arly over the region of the head and neck. From the clinical observatioua I made on dis- eased cattle iiihe years aa;o, I believe this case was most pro- bably one of pyceaua follovi-ing tjphoid fever. A second b;:ast was in dl healUi, viz., tiiin and feverish, hut I could not make a precise diagnosis. The third diseased beast was a fat one : it was l>iug down, moaning, looking round anxiously at its flauks; pulse, 110; respiration, 45; pleuro-pueumouia." And again : — " On Frid-y, tha 20th inst., I several times visited the Is- lington market, and found in it many diseased beasts. The most remarkable example was a row of tweutj-oue very small and very old and emacintcd cows; Eeversl of them bore un- mistakable signs of old disease ; one of them v,as moribund ; it was standing in the throng, leaning almost its whole weight on the beast iiear it, str;ki::g out iis head, panting for breath at the rate of forty times ; er minute, emitting If-rge volumes of hot vapour f.fm iLe hii'^s : its eyes were fixed and staring in the lean and deepened sockets ; in the arteries of the ex- tremities the pulse had ceased to beat ; and out of two large ulcers the hinder extremities of ti'.e hip-bones protruded through tl c skin, which scemoJ attifjcially stretched cvrr a!;d bound down to a lifeless skeleton. From numerous inquiries in the market, I harued that such a state of thines is by no mcsiis uiiiro;uent. In reply to roy enquiries, an official in the admiidstrative departme: t mads the followitig statement : — 'It is notorious abont diseased beasts iu the market : r:ever a ma:ket without thnm; often beasts are disgraceful to look at, — certainly uuSt for human food ■ could not say why the in- spector did not seize them.' " Mr. Gamgee's researches and knowledge led Iiim not only to detect many diseased animal^:, but yet more diseased meat. Still confining him to our great Me- tropolitan Market, he says : "So far as I have been able to ascerlain, the slaughter- houses in the new cattle market are exempt from iuapcction : the clerk of the market so informed me, and he added that he regarded those establishmCits as private, inasmuch as though the buildings formed part of the puhlic market, they were let to private iiidiviJuds. If such I.e the fsct, and I believo it practically is so, a premium is offered to sendiog diseased beasts to the cattle market ; for the inspection of live stock being lax, and the slaughter-house exempt from supervision, the greatest faciUty is cffered for disposing of diseased beasts and prepari.'ig their cnrcases for the butc'ner, with all those arts of trimming, dressing, ana polishing, which arc well known to veil appearancea of disease, so as to beguile the in- expert, to facditate a commercial fraud, and introduce the seeds of disease, and not unfrequently actual poison, into the unhappy individuals who unconsciously partake of the meat for the sustenance of their lives." Mr. Gaiiigee appears to be aboldaswellasanencrgetic man. He not merely denounces tiie inefficient inspection of our markets and slaughter-houses, but ho further triicos the abuse to the insufficient state of knovvlcdpe on caltle diseases, due, as iie declares, in a great mea- sure, to the non-observance of the very wise regula- tions framed by the founders of the Royal Veterinary College. After, moreover, carefully inspecting in per- son the great veterinary schools of other countries, he comes to the conclusion, and is prepared to prove, " that whereas England's wealth in animals by very far exceeds tliat of any other ration, it Is very far in- ferior to all the countries of continental Europe, in knowledge of the diseases of animals, and in means for instruction in that all-important i)ranch of science." We must by no means be understood as endorsing all Mr. Gamgee's statements and opinions. In this very matter of our veterinary standing wo do not go with him. No ai't has advanced so certainly amongst us of late years as that of veterinary science ; while we could point to members of the College who would cope with their brethren from any country. Still nearly ever;, thing Mr. Gamgee advances is suggestive, and it is a grave qucition wliether wemakc all the use we might of the ability we have amongst us. We advise the members of the Veterinary College, too, not to over- look this pamphlet. Our extracts have already run to some length, and we must stay our hand at least for the present, with one appropriate to the threatened visitation : — " A regulation has provided for the sanitary inspection of foreign cattle ou landing on our shore?, but it is possible beasts and persons may, fcr the time, be in apparently perfect health, and yet be the hearers of the see.^s of contagion. It is estab- lished, that the contagious typhus haa an incubative staje of several days' duration. Under such circumstauces it would aj-pear as if perfect impunity could only le purchased by abso- lute prohibition of cattle imports, a measure which, however laudable in its aim, would be productive of serious consequences, by necessitatliig a very considerable rise iu the price of animal food. Cheapness of food is manifestly a desideratum of great importance, and no eflfort should be spared to secure it, con- sistently with safety to oue of the greatest sources of national wealth — the live stock of the agricultural community. I would recommend that uo ship should be allowed to land cattle on our shores without producing a clean bill of health, iu form of a ceitificatfifrom the Brit^^h consul at the port of export, that no epidemic or contagious disease prevailed among the cattle of that neighbourhood. As the Spariish cattle are very good, and there is every reason to believe that the supply could meet a much greater demand, sanitary regidatious might render ad- visab'e, and economical reasons not oppose, the propriety of prohibiting for a time the importation from Holland and Northern Germany; for certain it is, that thence did the contagious typhus pass over to England in the last cntury, and that the greatest fears are now to be dreaded from that quarter. The value of these suggestions must depend npou aecnrate knowledge of the state of the disease all over the continent ; which inform.ation once acquired, it would be very easy to keep up to the level of the cay." A Minister can scarcely be expected to con over the lucubrations of every pamphleteer who chooses to ad- dress him. It would be a hard place if he did. Wo do trust, though, that Sir George Giey may think and act a little on what Mr. Gamgee has to say. A COLLECTION OF THE CUSTOMS' TARIFFS OF ALL NATIONS. BY C. N. NEW^DEGATE, M.P. John Murray, Albemarle Street. A few weeks since we had the pleasure of referring to a gentleman to whom an honourable compliment had been paid by his tenantry, on account of his uniform consistency as a member of the Legislature in support of the agricultural interests, and his liberal conduct and sterling integrity in his private capacity as a landlord and country gentleman. It is an equally pleasing duty to associate his name with one of the most useful com- mercial works that has been publislied of late years. We allude to the Book of Tariffs,''^ compiled by Mr. C. N. Nowdegato, the Member for Nortli Warwick- 402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Bhire ; a work which, independent of its great practical utility in a commercial point of view, possesses a more general public interest, as exhibiting the various phases under which commercial intercourse is entertained by the different nations of the world. The principles of commerce have, of late years, be- come the subject of universal attention and discussion in all countries, in consequence of the changes that have taken place in the fiscal regulations of the United Kingdom. Whatever differences of opinion may exist amongst the various classes of society, both here and abroad, on that subject, it is of manifest importance that in the community of nations by whicli the present age is characterized, the most perfect understanding should exist, and the utmost publicity be given, re- specting the terms on which each nation thinks proper to conduct its own commercial intercourse with others. Without a knowledge of these, no merchant is safe in pi oposing to trade with a foreign people ; and such has hitherto been the confusion and intricacy of the fiscal regulations and scales of duties adopted and pro- mulgated by most other nations, and so difficult were they to be ascertained, that it required no small amount of study and tact to render oneself acquainted with them, so as to steer clear of losses and prohibitions, not to say fines and confiscations, from committing breaches of, or infringements upon, custom-house regu- lations. It is therefore of no small importance to a merchant to be assured that the information he has hitherto so anxiously wished, but found so difficult to obtain, is to be procured at a comparatively trifling cost ; and that from one volume he may now ascertain the precise terms on which he can conduct his commerce with safety, and dispose of his merchandise in any part of the globe, without danger of loss, so far as fiscal ar- rangements are concerned. Nor is this Book of Tariffs of less value to the political economist and the member of the Legislature, both of whom must have often felt greatly at a loss, when treating upon commercial affairs, for want of that specific knowledge which Mr. Newdegate's work imparts. This elaborate compilation does the author the more credit that it has been accomplished without the aid — might we not say, in face of the negative opposition ? — of his own Government. The idea, it appears, is no new or undigested one with him. So long ago as 1847. Mr. Newdegate moved in the House of Commons for returns bearing upon the subject; and not being able to obtain the information he wanted, owing to the indif- ference and indolence of those whose duty it was to grant it, he began to collect the materials himself; and as a preliminary (we presume), published in his letters on the balance of trade, the real value of the exports and imports of the United Kingdom. These letters, commenced in 1845, were now continued down to 1861, in the sessions of which year he made an attempt to induce the Government to furnish the House of Commons with a compendium of the tariffs of foreign nations, which they had ample means of procuring through the various British Consuls at the different ports, &;c. But " red tapism," and a want of interest in the subject, prevented them from making the neces- sary inquiries ; and the little that was done was just sufficient to exhibit that ignorance of commercial affairs and of practical business for which, as a general rule, men high in office in this country are so notorious. Fortunately, in 1852, a book of Tariffs of all Nations, compiled by M. Otto Hubner, was published by order of the Prussian Government; and Mr, Newdegate pro- posed to the respective Governments of Lords John Russell and Derby to have this work translated and published by the Board of Trade, but without success. Nothing therefore remained for him but to do it him- self, and to make such alterations and additions to the original as the completion of his design required, bringing it down to the period (1855) at which the work went to press. Thus an important national work, which it was incumbent on the Government to under- take as soon as the necessity for it was made apparent, but which they had neither the tact nor the industry to accomplish, has been effected by the persevering efforts of one man, at a great expense of time, money, labour, and health. The work which is the result stands at once a monument of the indefatigable industry and the talent of the compiler, and a reproach to the Go- vernment who refused either to undertake it them- selves, or furnish the materials to the man who sup- plied their deficiencies. We have gone through the book, and in doing so have felt really astonished at the mass of information it con- tains, and at the determined perseverance the writer has evinced in the collection and arrangement of dry and multifarious details. We know something of the diffi- culty of collecting statistics of the same nature, on a smallscale, andcanfully appreciate the completeness dis- played in the execution of Mr. Newdegate's work. With such aid as the work of M. Hubner afforded, and his own untiring industry, he has produced a volume which will prove of inestimable value, as a book of reference, to the merchant, the manufacturer, and the politician. Alterations will of course be required as the policy or the caprice of a government may suggest new tariff regulations; but the work will still remain as the basis, if not the standard, of universal taxation on imports, until the example of the United Kingdom has met with a reciprocal feeling in other nations. In glancing over the pages, we could not but notice how far both the commercial and agricultural nations with whom we have intercourse are fi'om recipro- cating the principle on which the commerce of the United Kingdom is conducted. France, by turns, pro- hibits the import or export of corn, according to the exigencies of the country ; or, in ordinary years, lays on a sliding scale of duty on foreign produce ; largely increased on cargoes imported in foreign bottoms. The duty on wool also ranges from 15 to 30 per cent, ad valorem; whilst all manufactured goods pay heavy, and some of them prohibitory, duties upon importation. The same attempt at virtual exclusion of foreign manu- factures prevails in all the continental States, except Sardinia, which has adopted the same commercial priu- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 408 ciples as those of the United Kingdom . The United States of America have a tariff ranging from 15 to 100 per cent, ad valorem, whicli, at a moderate estimate, gives an average of 25 per cent. It is fortunate for our manufacturers that the abundance of fuel supplied by the coal mines enables them, by the use of machinery, to compete successfully with those of every foreign country, however low may be the rate of hand-labour in the latter. The struggle has been more severe with the agriculturists ; but even here, such has been the energy and perseverance displayed in the improved cultivation of the soil, and in calling science to the aid of Nature, that the difficulties which at first appeared insurmountable have given way, and increased pro- duction, encouraged by incrensed consumption, gives our farmers the advantage over those of every other country. No one has viewed with more anxiety the changes that have taken place than Mr. Newdegate. No one has been more steadily and consistently the friend of the farmer, as a landlord, or more vigilant an advocate in his capacity as a member of the Legislature. In the work before us he has evinced an equal degree of zeal in promoting the safety and prosperity of commerce, by dispelling tlie ignorance and uncertainty under which it has hitherto been conducted with foreign nations. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 25th of March. Present : The Rev. Leveson Vernon Harcourt, in the Chair ; Mr. Beale Browne, Dr. Camps, Mr. Maddison, Mr. Scott, Professor Simonds, Mr. Vines, Professor Way, and Mr. Wrench. Forty-three candidates were announced as standing for election at the next meeting. Cattle Murrain. — The Earl of Shelburne trans- mitted from the Foreign Office, by direction of the Earl of Clarendon, the following copy of an extract from the despatch. No. 44, of Lord Howard de Walden, her Majesty's Minister at Brussels : " On the receipt of your Lordship's despatch. No. 33, of the 14th instant, respecting epidemic disease among horned cattle, I immediately made inquiries as to the existence in Belgium of the disease referred to. I am assured by one of the prin- cipal veterinary authorities in the country that at this moment the only complaint which is at all prevalent is an affection of the hoof, which is easily cured by cleanliness and the use of astringents ; that the disease called Peripneumonie, which at times has caused such ravages among the cattle in Belgium, though occasionally appearing, has not at present anything of the character of an epidemic." The Council having expressed their thanks for the favour of this communication, remarks were offered to the meeting on the following points, by the Chairman, Prof. Simonds, Prof. Way, Dr. Camps, Mr. Scott, and Mr. Vines : 1. On the importance of the information just received, that the Russian murrain had not passed over from Meck- lenburg, whence comparatively few importations of cattle were made for this country, into Belgium, whence our largest supplies were derived. 2. On the fact that, while cows going off their milk were most liable to the attack of pleuro-pneumonia, disease in the London dairies is at the present time not only at its lowest amount, but its results less fatal than ordinary. 3. On the probability that there is no specific remedy for pleuro-pneumoiiia, and that but few cases occur in which it is profitable to attempt a cure of the malady. 4. Ou the peculiar condition of the lungs in the animals dying of pleuro-pneumonia, and the advantage of an early application of the stethoscope for the purpose of ascertaining the first indications of disease. 5. On the probably sound (though less nutritious) coudition of the flesh of animals slaughtered while suffering from pleuro-pneumonia, especially after its having been thoroughly cooked. 6. On the absence of any apprehension that the flesh of animals slaughtered while suffering from the Russian murrain could be brought into the markets, as rapid decomposition would ensue not only immediately after death, but in many cases even before death had taken place. 7. On the mischievous tendency of attempts made at the present moment to confound typhoid forms of disease generally amongst cattle in this country, with the con- tagious typhus now raging among the cattle of the north of Europe. The Council were also favoured with a communica- tion from Mr. Horsfall, referring to papers he had published in reference to the theory of pleuro-pneumo- nia and its cure. — Mr. Vines took that opportunity of presenting to the Society copies of his work on the most important Diseases of the Horse, and of his Veterinary and Physiological Essays ; which were received with the thanks of the Council. Potato Disease. — Mr. Blanchard transmitted from Guernsey, as the result of his experiments, a statement that a stock of healthy Potatoes could be derived only from planting whole and perfectly sound tubers ; while cuttings gave an inferior stock. — Prof. Way referred to some experiments he had made on sound and unsound Potatoes. He found that if fresh slices of Potatoes, in each of these conditions, were placed in separate por- tions (about a quarter of a pint) of nevf milk, and kept warm for three or four hours, the milk in which the sound slice had been put would remain perfectly fresh and sweet ; while that in which the unsound shce had been put would have become curdled. In many cases it was difficult to detect by the eye a sound potato from an unsound one ; whereas this test at once decided the inherent qualities of each. Malt, he remarked, had the same effect on milk ; and he attributed the effect of diseased potato on that fluid to the same cause, namely, to the presence of a peculiar fermentative principle. — 2 D 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The Chairman referred to the effect of diluted sulphuric acid in hardening the substance of the potato ; and to the presence of a central c ivity in diseased tubers so steeped, containing a liquor of most offensive character. Adjourned to April 1 . A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday, the 1st of April. The following members of Council and governors of the Society were present: — Mr. Evelyn Denison, M.P,, President, in the Chair; Earl Spencer, Lord Walsingham, Lord Feversham, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Cavendish, Mr. Druce, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Wven Hoskyns, Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), Mr. Kinder, Mr. Lawes, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Milward, Mr. Allen Rausome, Mr. Sbuttleworth, Professor Simonds, and Mr. Burch Western. Algernon Perkins, Esq., of Harley-strect, Cavendish- square and Hanworth Park, Middlesex, was elected a Governor of the Society. The following new members were elected: — AJkins, George Caleb, West Ho., EJgbastoD, Birmingham Arnold, Lowia, Tormarton, Chippenham, Wilts Barratt, Jobn R., Oakley House, Fallowiielcl, Manchester BarriDgiOD, William, Thorney, Isle of Wight Beale, W., Larkiug's Farm, Chiddiiigstone, Edeabiidge, Keut Box, John (civil engineer), Brussels, Bdgium Breach, J. G., Pelhaai Place, BromptoD, Middlesex Cabrera, Gea. CouLt Deraorella, V/entworlh, Viigiaia-Water Child, Williao], Buraham Manor, Audover, Hants Clark, John, The Hague, Chesterfield, Derbyshire Clarke, Henry James, Burley, Oakbam, Rutlandshire Cleasby, Tliomas M., Wiltou Grange, Redcar, Yorka'uire Fairbairn, George, Holmes-Chapel, Cheshire Fawcett, Wm, jun., Burton-Salmon, Mdford Juuclion, York Findlay, Ji.'hn, Garnstone, Hereford FoTster, Edward, Salisbury Hall, Chingford, Essex Fox, Alfied Lloyd, Falmouth, Cornwall Gleaton, Frederick, Bensham, Newcastle-ou-Tjne Gregory, John, Shavington Park, Msrket-Drayton Harris, Wm., Wollaston, Welliugboroiigb, Nojtbamptoushire Holbeacb, Rev. Charles William, Farnborough, Oxfordshire Jones, W. Cove, StratforJ-oa-Avon Kelsej', E. E. Peach, The Close, Salisbury Lowe, John, Wheelock Heath, Saudbach, Cheshire Mu'ton, Curteis, Smithfield, Stratforl-on-Avon Petty, W. Edwin, Southampton Plowman, Jo;eph, Oxford Rea, Thomas, Weitonbury, Pembridge, Herefordshire Shittler, William Rowden, Bishopstone, Salisbury Simpson, Samuel, North-Laith?, Rufford, Notts Sflckett, Richard, Dagenham, Essex Stanley, Henry, Upton, Shiffnal, Shropshire Tanner, Henry, South Hill Farm, Southmolton, Devon Terry, Rev. Stepheu, Dunsraore, Basingstoke T;ioraa3, L. H., Caerfynnon, Harlech, South Wales Thonaas, Gecrg3 Treherne, ChateiuHard, Thurgovie, S.vitz, Thomasson, William, Baruby Moor, East-Retford Wheatley, John, Neswick, Driffield, Yorkshire Whitehead, Charles, West-Farltigb, Maidstone, Kent Turner, Philip Henry, Shapwick, Bath Taunton, William, Redlyach, Salisbury Wiiliaias, Rev. Walter Joues, Brecon, South- Wales. Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee, presented to the Council the monthly report on the accounts; from which it ap- peared that the current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers on the previous day was 1,025Z. Mr. Barker also presented reports from the House, General Salisbury, and Implement Committees, which were adopted. Mr. Brandreth Gibbs reported the comple- tion of the Andover and Salisbury Railway. Members of Cooncil. — In the unavoidable ab- sence of Mr. Thompson (High Sheriff for the county of York), Mr. Milward moved, and Mr. Raymond Barker seconded, Mr. Thomson's nomination of Mr. Paget, M.P., of Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham, for the vacancy in the general list of Council occasioned by the transfer of Mr. Bramston, M.P., to the class of trustees. Mr. Paget was duly elected. Cattle Murrain. — The Earl cf Clarendon fa- voured the Council with the following communica- tions : — " Foreign Office, February 28, 1857. "Sir,— With reference to Mr. Hammond's letter of the 12th of June last, I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit to you, to be laid before the President and Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, the accompanjing copy of a despatch from the British Vice Consul at Luleck, stating that the murrain having again broken out at Mecklenburgh, the Lubeck authorities had prohibited the introduction of horned cattle from that state, unless provided with a certifi- cate declaring them to be free from the disease. I am. Sir, your most obedient humble servant, " Shelbubne. " James Hudson, Esq." "Lubeck, Feb. 20, 1857. " Sir, — I have to report that in consequence of the murrain described in my despatch of May 30, 1856, having again broken out in Meckleiiburgh, the Lubeck Government by a senatorial decree published this day have renewed the decree of May 14, 1856, prohibiting the entry of horned cattle into the Lubeck territory from the Duchies of Mecklenburg- Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strehtz, unless they are certified by the competent authorities to be entirely free from the disease. I have, &c., (Signed) " J. A. Blackwell. " Colonel Hodges." " Foreign Office, March 10, 1857. Sir,— I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit to you, to be laid before the President and Trustees of the Agricultural Society, a copy of a despatch from her Majesty's Minister at Berlin, relative to the disease in cattle. I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, " Shelburne. " J. Hudson, Esq., Agricultural Society." " Berlin, March 6, 1857. " My Lord, — Having observed that mention has been made in the House of Commons of the rapid spreading of the cattle disease, I have the honour to report to your lordship that ac- cording to the latest accounts received here, it does not appear to have crossed the Russian frontier ; but al*rm has been caused by its ravages in the neighbourhood of Tauroggen. Precautionary measures have been taken by the Prussian au- thorities to endeavour to arrest its advance into this kingdom . I have, &c. (Signed) "Bloomfield. "Tbe Earl of Clarendon." "Foreign Office, March 23, 1857. "Sir,— I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit tojou, for the information of the President aud Trustees of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 405 the Royal Agricultural Society, an extract of a deapatch from her Majesty'a Minister at Brussels, relative to epidemic dis- eases among horned cattle in Belgium. I am. Sir, your moat obedieut humble servant, " Shelburne. " The Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society." " (Extract fron\,Lord Howard de Walden's despatch. No. 44.) " On receipt of your lordship's despatch. No. 33, of the 14th inst., respecting epiJemic disease among horned cattle, I im- mediately made inquiries as to the existence in Belgium of the disease referred to. I am assured by one of the principal veterinary authorities in the country that at this moment the oiily complaint which is at all prevalent is au affection of the hoof, which is easily cured by cleanliness and the use of astringents; that the disease called Peripneumonie, which at times has caused such ravages amongst the cattle in Belgium, though occasionally appearing, has not at present anything of the character of an epiJemic." "Brussels, March 27, 1857. " My Lord, — With reference to my despatch, No. 44, of the 20th iust., in which I transmitted to your lordship a ccpy of the Arre'e of May 22, 1854, 1 have now the honour to add one o( the first copies of a work which has just been printed under the authority of the Department of the Interior, which contains a full recapitulation of all the laws and regulations which bear upon the general veterinary service in regard to sanitary questions connected with the diseases of animals. In respect to the statement I made in my despatch, that no special disease, presenting anything of the character of an epidemic, is now prevalent in Belgium, I have since received full confirmation of the correctness of that information from the Department of the Interior. No law exists under which diseased cattle can be excluded at the frontier ; a project of law with a view to such sanitary precaution was presented to the Chambers two years ago, but was rejected; and therefore the only resource lies in the activity of the Burgomasters in frontier localities, by enforcing the general regulations in regard to animals while within the range of their jurisdiction. I am, &c. " Signed) Howard de Walden & Seafokd. "Lord Clarendon." "Foreign Office, March 28, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit herewith, for the information of the President and Trustees of the Royal Agricultural Society, a copy of a despatch from her Majesty's Minister at Berlin, repofting the appearance of the cattle disease in the Prussian dominions. I am to add that this inforrastiou was ccmmuuicated to the Beard of Trade immediately upon its rcci^.ipt. I am, Sir, your most obedient humble servant, "E. Hammond. " The Secretary to the Royal AgriculturalSociety." " Berlin, March 25, 1857. 'My Lord, — I regret to have to inform your lordship that the cattle disease has appeared in the neighbourhood of Berlin. Every precaution was supposed to have been taken to prevent its arrival in the Prussian States, and measures have now been adopted to endeavour to arrest its progress. Having alluded to the subject this morning in the couise of conversation with Baron ManteulFol, his Excellency read to me a communication which he had just received from Mon- sieur de Ilaumor, stating that the disease had been traced to some cattle lately arrived from Gallicia, and that those which had not died had been killed by order of the magis- trates, and that, further, all the cattle Irtiovvn to have been in contact with them had been destroyed. Baron Man- tewffel appeared to be under considerable alarm that the disease would reappear, notwithstanding these precaution- ary measures and the utmost vigilance of the authorities. "Ihave, &c., " Earl of Clarendon, K.G." (Signed) " Bloomfield. " Foreign Office, March 30, 1857. "Sir,— I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to trans- mit to you, to be laid before the President of the Royal Agricultural Society, the copy of a despatch from her Majesty's Charge d'Aflfaires at Hamburgh, forwarding a coyjy and translation of the decree issued by the Liibeck Government on May 14, 1856, relative to diseassd cattle. " I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " Jas. Hudson, Esq." " E. Hamond. [Translation.] No. 14. "May 14, 1856. "Notification relative to the pulmonary disease that has broken out among the horned cattle within the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, published on May 15, 1856. " The Senate, being officially informed that several cases of pulmonary disease have occurred among the horned cattle within the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, think it proper to republish the regulations directed to be observed by the notification of tVe 7th of August, 1852, in order to prevent the spreading of this dangerous and con- tagious disease. 1. Every owner of cattle is required, in case any disease should break out among the same, to sepa- rate the diseased from the other cattle. The symptoms of the disease are a hoarse coughing, that increases particu- larly after the cattle have drunk or moved about ; less in- clination for food, indiff"erence as to chewing the cud, dul- ness of the hair, and its rough appearance in particular places, and fever after these symptoms have continued for some time. 2. On the appearance of this disease, or even in cases when it is suspected to exist, the owners of cattle are required, under a penalty of a fine of 20 dollars (about £3 10s.), to give immediate notice to the chief of the police (or to the bailiff at Travemiindo), who will take further steps. 3. The bringing in of cattle into the Liibeck terri- tory from the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, shall only be permitted when the cattle are accompanied by satisfactory certificates of their being free from disease. 4. All veterinary surgeons are directed, in case this disease should break out within the Liibeck territory, to adopt the necessary sanitary pre- cautions according to the instructions of the police. The directions of the veterinary surgeons are implicitly to be obeyed under penalty of heavy fines and imprisonment. 5. Finally, all police officers, bailiffs, and gens d'armes are hereby directed to give notice to the respective police- offices in case any horned cattle should be attacked with the pulmonary disease, or even in cases where it is sus- pected to exist. Given at Liibeck in the Assembly of tho Senate, this 14th day of May, 185G. " (Signed) C. Tn. Overbeck, Dr., Secretary." " Hamburgh, March 20, 1857. " My Lord,— In compKance with the instructions con- tained in your lordship's despatch, Consular No. 7, of the 14th instant, I have the honour to transmit three copies of original, and translation of tho decree of the Liibeck Go- ver°iment, dated the 14th of May, 18.5C, relative to dis- eased cattle. I have, &c., " Earl of Ciarcndon." " G. LtovD Hodges. " Foreign Office, April 1, 1867. ««.,>,- 'With reference to my letter of the 23rd ult., | 2 D 2 406 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to traasmit to you for the information of the Council of the Roj'al Agricultu- ral Society, a copy of a further despatch from her Majest3''s Minister at Brussels, containing particulars as to the dis- ease amongst horned cattle. I am, sir, your most obedient humble servant, " Shelburne. " The Secretary to the Royal Agricultural Society." "Foreign Office, April 1, 1857. "Sir, —I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to state to you, for the information of the President and Trustees of the Royal Agricultural Society, that her Majesty's Minister at Dresden reports, in a despatch received this day, that ' at this moment the only existing cattle disease in Saxony is of the horns ; that of the lungs, called in French " Epizootie," does not now exist.' I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant, "J. Hudson, Esq." "Shelburne. " Foreign Office, Mai-ch 30, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to trans- mit to you, to be laid before the President and Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, copies of telegraphic de- spatches from her Majesty's Consuls at Danzig and Stettin, stating that the murrain does not exist amongst the cattle in the neighbourhood of those cities. I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant, "E. Hammond. "Jas. Hudson, Esq." " From Consul St. Plaw to the Earl of Clarendon, dated Danzig, March 29, 1 857. " No information to give as to cattle disease has at all appeared in this neighbourhood, it having been confined to East Prussia and Lithuania. The authorities here have in no case been called upon to give any directions or instruc- tions." " From Consul Blackwell to the Earl of Clarendon, dated Stettin, March 29, 1857. " Murrain does not prevail here. Regulations against it rescinded. Full account of disease given in my despatch of May 30, 1856. (Signed) " Blackwell." " Foreign Office, March 30, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to trans- mit to you, to be laid before the President and Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, copies of despatches from her Majest3''s consuls at Warsaw and Konigsberg, re- porting on the cattle disease. I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " E. PIammond. " Jas. Hudson, Esq." " Warsaw, March 9, 1857. " My Lord, — I have the honour to report to your lord- ship that the cattle disease, which has caused such ravages in the farms of the landholders in this kingdom, is still pre- valent, though not, so far as I can understand, so much so as it was during the autumn. Within the last fortnight a gentleman of my acquaintance, lost nearly every beast he possessed^ in ; the' neighbourhood of Warsaw. The infection is so virulent that it is '.said "'a farm servant, who has been in attendance "on sick cattle,' may carry it in his clothes, and impregnate other ' beasts with the fatal distemper. The measures adopted to stop the spread of the disease are very summary, the most indiscrimi- nate slaughter of the beasts affected being ordered and carried out. In Prussian Poland, where a more stringent execution of these measures has been enforced than has been the case in this country till a late date, it is said 'that the evil has been nearly, if not wholly overcome. I am not aware whether an exportation of cattle takes place from Dantzic for the British ports. If there should be such a trade, it might be advisable to subject all beasts imported either from that town or Konigs- berg to a lengthened quarantine, as there seems to be no doubt that the disease occasionally breaks out in herds some time after they have been domiciled in their new quarters. The disease originally comes from the Steppes of the Ukraine, whence vast numbers of cattle are yearly driven westward. It would appear to commence with violent fever, which rapidly degenerates into acute dysentery, the animal dying in a few days after the first appearance of the disorder, of intestinal ulceration. I have &c. (Signed) " W. W. Mansfield. " The Earl of Clarendon." " British Consulate, Konigsberg, March 11, 1857. " My Lore!, — I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of Lord Shelburne's despatch. No. 2, of 7th March, and to re- port that since 1854 rumours of a murrain or cattle- plague in Volhynia and Podolia were current, and that since that time the disease has been advancing in a northerly and westerly di- rection, and that most distressing accounts have been received of the ravages amongst the cattle, and of the disease spread- ing till close upon the Prussian frontiers. The Prussian Go- vernment during the years 1855 and 1856 took great precau- tions to prevent the disease from entering Prussia, by detach- ing parties of military at all the points of egress from Poland below Thorn. In the autumn of 1856 until now the disease has continued its march, and at last reached Kowno and Tau- roggen. The Prussian Government has now enforced most stringent measures all along the borders; and no hides, calf- skins, wool, rags, or any article which is likely to have been in any way connected with cattle, and all Jews and other persons who are in any way suspected of having transactions with cat- tle or any of those articles, are permitted to cross the borders, and when any such attempt is made the articles are imme- diately burned. By these means the disease has up to the present time been kept out of Prussia, and the greatest vigi- lance is observed to destroy and bury any animal when a sus- picion of iufection exists. The dealers have for some time past avoided the Prussian route, and take their goods to Kussian ports, particularly to Libau for shipment ; and Russian hides and calf-skins which formerly went through the Prussian portf> all go that way now. I may add that the hide and calf-skin export, which was formerly of great magnitude to Great Britain, has now taken a different channel. The skins go now almost all to Liibeck, and from thence to Fraukfort-onthe- Maine, or to Stettin, and from thence to Berlin, &c. ; and it is not impossible that the infection may be carried to the heart of Germany by these means, although the precautions of the Prussian Government may have warded it off from the eastern frontiers. I have never heard that live cattle have been shipped from the Baltic ports. The disease is reported to be a violent purging and sudden death. I have, &c. (Signed) " W. J. Hertslet. " The Earl of Clarendon." " Foreign Office, March 31, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit to you, to be laid before the President and Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, copy of a telegraphic despatch from her Majesty's Consul at Metnel, reporting the symptoms of the murrain amongst the cattle. I am, sir, your most obe- dient humble servant, " E. Hammond. "Jas. Hudson, Esq." " From Cousul Campbell to the Earl of Clarendon, dated Memel, March 30, 1857. " Animal loses appetite. Body trembles. Gums inflame. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 407 Eye dull with diacharge. Food becomes powder in stomach. Severe diarrhoea. No cure discovered. Eight days dead." " Foreign Office, April 2, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit to you, to be laid before the President and Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, copy of a despatch from her Ma- jesty's Charge d'Aflfaires at Hamburg, stating that the im- portation of horned cattle from the Duchy of Holsteininto the Duchy of Schleawig has been prohibited. I am. Sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " Shelburn. " James Hudson, Esq." " Hamburg, March 21, 1857. " My Lord, — In the Hamburg Nachrichten of this morn- ing there is a paragraph relating to the pulmonary disease that prevails among the horned cattle in these parts, which may be deserving of your Lordship's notice. This paragraph states that the Minister for the Duchy of Schleawig has issued, under date of the 14th inat., a notification that " 'As several cases of a dangerous pulmonary disease among the horned cattle atili occur at various places within the Duchy of Holstein, and as the measures directed to be taken in , the notification of the 28th of July last have proved in- sufficient, the importation of horned cattle from the Duchy of Holstein into the Duchy of Schleawig is prohibited till further notice.' I have, &c., (Signed) " G. Lloyd Hodges. " The Earl of Clarendon, &c., &c., &c." " Foreign OflSce, April 4, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit to you, to be kid before the President and Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, copy of a despatch from her Ma- jesty's Consul-General at Warsaw, reporting on the cattle diseaae in Poland. I am, Sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " E. Hammond. " James Hudson, Esq." " Warsaw, March 29, 1857. " My Lord, — In reply to your Lordship's telegraphic message received this morning, I have the honour to forward the in- formation of which I am in possession regarding the cattle- disease, or murrain, now prevailing in Poland and the conter- minous countries. " The Inspector-General of Hospitals and Health, in this country, published an official report on the subject in the course of last year. " I find from this authority that the cause of the disease is contagion. It is carried by farm-servants who may have been employed in tending diseased cattle ; by dogs which may have had access to their stalls, or have been used in driving them ; in short, by any means which would be suggested by a prac- tical farmer. There is a special dread of old hides and hair. "The disease was never known to originate in Poland. It has invariably been brought by the herJa coming westward from the steppes of Russia. It has been known to break on? among cattle which were apparently in good health at the end of their journey. " The symptoms may be stated as follows, although much variation has been remarked in them : " Cough, gnashing of the teeth, irritation of the skin, staring coat, great irritability of the back. As the disease ad- vances, a thin matter issues from the nostrils and eyes ; the irritability of the back increases to excessive pain when the latter is touched. About eight days after the appearance of the disorder, the animal i% affected by violent fever-paroxysms, which recur frequently during the twenty-four hours. Dysen- tery then atts in, the diacharge from the eyes and nose be- comes thicker, but juat before death constipation foUowa, This last symptom does not always present itself. " Sometimes the disease lasts for aa long a period as three weeks ; but an animal rarely dies before the eighth day from the first appearance of the disorder. " It sometimes happens (but the instances are very rare) that an animal may recover, but such cases do not exceed one per cent. " After death, the aecond and third stomachs are found in a most inflamed condition, ulceration is apparent, and the foreign matter discovered is quite dried up. " I learn from the Official Almanac for 1857, published at Warsaw, that large rewards have been offered by the Govern- ments of Austria, Prussia, and Holland for the discovery of a specific to meet this fatal disorder; but hitherto no success has attended this movement. Nearly every remedy has been tried, including salts of different kinds, antimony, mercury, soda, saltpetre, cold water, nux vomica ; but all have failed alike. " The consequence has been the institution of the most stringent Government measures, as I have already brought to the notice of your Lordship (No. 19, Consular, dated March 9, 1857), for the indiscriminate slaughter of all beasts exhibiting a symptom of murrain. " I am not acquainted with what has been done in this respect in the provinces of Austria ; but in Prussia the regu- lations have been severe, and most sternly executed. " By a report this day brought to my notice, I am informed that twenty thousand beasts have been sacrificed in Poland since the regulation was published on the 9th of May, 1856, " Under certam rules a compensation is allowed by Govern- ment for each beast so slaughtered. " Independent of these measures in the interior of the country, quarantine-stations have been established on the Russo-Polish frontier, where beasts coming from the East are detained for three weeks. "Fat beasts ready for the market may, however, be passed, as I am told, under certain licenses and supervision, along the road. But with regard to this exceptional rule my information is open to doubt. " Both in Poland and in the Prussian provinces there is a great disposition to exaggerate the reports showing a decrease of the evil. I observe in the German newspapers articles thrown out, from time to time, with the view to influence both imports and exports. " It is impossible to be too careful when considering this matter, the more particularly as regards all the ports of the Baltic as well as those of the Black Sea, including Odessa. " It is probable that hides should be viewed with almost as much suspicion as live beasts corauig from the countries in- fected. So strongly is this point regarded by the Russian and Prussian Governments, that the regulations prescribe the burial of the slaughtered animals, quick-lime being thrown into the pits. I have, &c., (Signed) "W. R. Mansfield. > "The Earl of Clarendon, &c., &c., &c. «' PS, I observe that I have accidentally omitted that one of the symptoms of the disease is the loss of the faculty of rumination." " Foreign Office, April 4, 1857. " Sir, I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to acknow- ledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd instant, acquainting his lordship with the intention of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in conjunction with the Societies of Scotland and Ireland, to send Professor Simonds to those districts abroad where the diaease among cattle is at 408 THE FARMER'S MAiGA^INE. prescut rsging ; and I am to enclose a Ictier whicli has been addressed, by Lord Clarendon's direction, to the British con- sular agents in Northern and Central Europe, instructing them to afford to Pfofessor Simonds all the assistance in their power in carrying out the objects of his mission. " I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " Jaa. Hudson, Esq." " E. Hammond. " Foreign Office, April 9, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clareudon to trans- mit to you, for the information of the President ani Trustees of the Royal Agricultural Society, the accompanying copies of despatches relative to the cattle disease, which have been received from her Majesty's Ministers at Vienna and Berlin, and from her Majesty's Charge d' Affaires at Copenhagen. " I am, sir, your most obedient, humble servant, " J. Hudson, Esq." " Shelbuen. " Vienna, April 1, 1857. " My Lord, — With a view to avoiding references and to shortening official delays, I have not hesitated to allege the urgency of the case, and to address myself to the Minister of the Interior, with a view to obtaining all the information which his Excellency could afford respecting the nature aud treatment of the cattle disease which his exercised such fear- ful ravages in Germany. " Baron de Bach entered very kindly into my views, and in great haste caused the collection of papers* to be made, which I beg to forward to your lordship. " As days and weeks would be required to translate these documents, I have no Blternative bat to forward them, with the Minister's letter, as they reached me yesterday evening from his Excellency. " The attention of the Minister of the Interior having been much turned to the cattle disease, I was eager to converse with him on the subject. The following are the heads of his explanations : " The disease comes invariably from Bessarabia, where it appears to have its permanent seat. It is in the rature of consumption, is very dangerous, and is in the highest imaginable degree contagious. A man passing from a dis- eased to a healthy stable would carry the disease with him, though himself in no way affected by it. The same observa- tion applies to any animal, as a dog or cat. They equally would transport an infection which has no influence upon them. Such, indeed, is the disposition of the disease to com- municate itself, that it has been ascertained that cattle have become infected from treading, on the high-road, upon the dung of infected heists which had passed some time previously. The malady is found in a considerable degree amenable to medical treatment ; but, in the first instance, the best course appears to be the free use of the knife and hatchet as soon as the disease is perceived at any poiut. The infected animals should be instantly burnt, as well as despatched, the skin and hair being certain to carry infection with them. If, in despite of precautions, the disease should spread, then, of course treatment must be substituted for the axe ; but, equally, the stables in which the sick animals are placed must be at a distance from all others, and the persons charged with their care not permitted to visit any other. With vigilance, and the adoption of prompt measures in the first instance. Baron de Bach is of opinion that no great anxiety need be felt, even if the disease should be introduced into England. " I have, &c., " (Signed) G. H. Sbymour. " Earl of Clarendon, K.G." " * Sent to Board of Trade." "Vienna, 3rd April, 1857. "My Lord, — I beg to notice'to your Lordship the following statement, which I translate from a newspaper of this date : — " ' The murrain which lias been introduced into Silesia by means of a diseased herd is confined as yet to the oxen which have been bought from among this herd. " ' As the v/hole of these beasts are put into the strictest quarantine, and as the axo is resorted to as soon as there is any appearance of disease among them, well-grounded hopes exist of its being found possible to destroy the pestilence in the bud' (Keimen). " I have, &3., (Signed) " G. H. Seymour. "Lord Clarendon." " Berlin, April 4, 1857. " My Lord, — With reference to your Lordship's telegram, recorded in your despatch No. 146, of the 31st instant, I re- gret to say that, notwithstanditig my reiterated endeavours to obtain the detailed information as to the cattle disease, re- quired by her Majesty's Government, I am as yet unable to forward it. It is promised to me shortly, and I hope to re- ceive it in a very few days. " I cannot learn that any remedy is known against the malady, and am assure! that the course here pursued, on its appearance, is to kill all the cattle that have been in contact with the diseased animals, and to bury them 8 feet under ground. " I have, &c., (Signed) " Bloomfield. " Lord Clarendon." "Berlin, April 4, 1857. "My Lord, — Since addressing to your Lordship my de- spatch. No. 183, of this day, I have received the enclosed com- munication from Baron Manteuffel in reply to my pressing demands for information relating to the cattle disease in Prussia. " His Excellency states that the disease has shown itself in the district of Breslau and of Appoln, but that up to the pre- sent moment no case of disease of any sort aoiong horned cattle has occurred in any other Prussian province. His Ex- cellency further states that, as regards the two localities above named, the most effective measures have been taken to arrest the disease, and that, judging from the experience of last year, there is every reason to hope that its propagation will be pre- vented, and its extinction finally secured. " In his second note Baron Manteuffel states that, as some time may elapse before he is enabled to furnish me with all the detailed information on the subject which I have requested, his Excellency transmits vrithout delay the official regulations which have been published by the Prussian Government at various periods, for the prevention of the propagation of the disease among cattle, and which have only reached me in original fo your Lordship by this messenger. — I have, &c., (Signed) " Bloomfield. "Lord Clarendon." (Translation.) No. 186 (1).— The Baron Manteuffel to Lord Bloomfield; BerUn, April 4, 1857. " Your lordship having on the 23rd of last month expressed £ desire to obtain for the Board of Health, in London, official information on the contagions diseases vrhic'i are at the pre- sent time raging among the cattle of Prussia, I have the honour to state to your Lordship, in reply to this request, that the epizootic has recently been annouuced as existing at Fiirstenau, a locality within the circle of Neumarkt, in the district of the regency of Breslau, and at Pouischowitz, a village within the circle of Tost-GIeiwitz, in the district of the regeucy of Oppeln. lu no other province of the Prussian THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 409 monarchy, as far as is kaowa at the present moment, does there exist any devastating contagious disease among the horned cattle. In reference to the ne* appearance of the epi- zootic in the two localities mentioned, the most effective mea- sures have been taken to combat the evil ; auii, after the ex- perience gained during the past year, there is also every reason to hope that success will continue to attend those measures, and that the propagation of the disease will be prevented." (Translation.) No. 186 (2).— The Baron Manteuffel to Lord B'oomfield, April 4, 1857. " la referring to my letter of this da}', in'reply to the one which your Lordship had the goodness to address to me on the 23rd of March, I have the honour to state that your Lordship's communication of the 3rd of March — in which a desire is ex- pressed to be informed of the progress of the epidemic in Prassia, the measures which have been taken against th^t scourge, and the result with which those measures have been attended — has been enclosed to the Minister of Public In- struction and of Medical Affairs, with a request that he. will direct the requisite information to be obtained on the subject of your Lordship's application. As some time, however, must necessarily elapse before this information reaches me, I at once enclose to your Lordship two important documents which have reference to this subject : namely, (1), The Patent of the 2nd of April, 1803, and the Ordonnance of the 27th of March, 1836 (which forms a complement to it) ; and (2), a copy of the Cabinet-order of the 15th of November, 1844, enacting, for wild-breed cattle onlj', ths precautionary measures prescribed by § 14 of the Patent of 1803, for the introduction of horned cattle into Prussia. " For the purpose of combating the epizootic, the Govern- ment has ordered every animal to be at one?, killed on its being actually attacked by the disease, or suspect d only of its having taken it. The carcases are buncd, and covered over with dry lime, after the skin has been cut i^to pieces iu such a manner as to prevent its being used for any ordinary purposes. At the same time all communication with the infected localities is suspended, interdicting even cattle markets to be held in their vicinity, as well as every other kind of cattle ssk. " On the frontiers of Poland, where the epizootic caused great devastation iu 1855 and 1856, the Government has esta- blished a sanitary cordon, authorizing, should the case again recur, the suspension of all intercourse with the infected foreign districts ; and a similar cordon exists at the present moment in Silesia, for the purpose of isolating the communes of Fiirstenau and Ponischovritz, the only localities in Silesia where the malady has re-appeared. " By the aid of these measures, by great circumspection and a constant anxiety on the part of the Ijcal authorities, the Government has attamed the object of restricting the con- tagion within narrow limits, and preventing its propagation towards the centre of the kingdom. " I will not fail, as soon as I shall have received the details I amexpectingfroraM.de Raumer, to communicate them, without delay, to your Lordship." " Copenhagen, April 3, 1857. "My Lord,— In compliance with the instructions conveyed to me by your Lordship's telegram of the 23th ult., relative to any information v.-hich might be procurable here respecting the disease among cattle, I have applied to the Government, and the veterinary school of this town, for any data which they might be able to furnish me with ; but I am assured on all sides that there are little or none to be obtained on this subject. "The disease, which is c&Wti" lunge ser/ge" (pulmonaiy fever) baa only appeared oucc, and that not to a great extent. in this psrt oi" Denmark, in 1843, and has baffled all attempts to cure it ; few if any remedies have been applied, and the most cfS:acious and the only means of checking the complaint, which is highly contagious, has been immediately to destroy the cattle- not only those attacked, but all those suspected of being under its influence. Dr. Fenger, an eminent medical man of this town, and at the head of the veterinary school, tells me that these preventive measures were considered suc- cessful at the period above referred to, when the disease broke out iu two large farms on this is'aud ; but of course when it becomes widespreai and general these measures can scarcely be persevered in. In Holstein, where the disease rages to a greater extent at the present moment, there exists the same ignorance as to any medical remedy to combat it ; and so much is this felt to be the case throughout the country, that a lav/ was proposed in the Rigzraad, last year, to make the immediate destruction of cattle attacked compulsory, witli an indemnity to be granted to the owners. Dr. Fenger tells me that iuocu- latlcu has been tried, but with no particularly satisfactory re- sults as yet. " I have, &c., (Signed) " F. Orme. " Lord Clarendon," Communications were then read from Mr. Hall Maxwell, C.B,, Secretary of the Highland and Agricul- tural Society of Scotland, and from Captain Croker, Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Improvement So- ciety of Ireland, expressing their willingness to concur with the Royal Agricultural Society in arrangements for despatching a Veterinary Inspector to districts abroad where the cattle murrain is at present raging. The Council agreed to the following resolution : — " That it is expedient to send a competent Veterinary Pro- fessor to examine into the nature of the cattle murrain on the Continent. That the Society gladly accepts the co-operation of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland and the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland in this step. The Saciety ventures to recommend that Professor Bimonds, of the Royal Veterinary College, be commissioned to this task. That he be empowered to take with him a German Veterinary Professor, established in London, quite competent for the business, and who would smooth the difficulties of the German language. It is supposed ihat about three weeks would be required for a satisfactory examination. That the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland be informed that the Royal Agricultural Improveme;it Society of Ireland propose to share the expense of this mission with the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; and that they be asked to join in the same manner." Polled Bull. — The Council accepted M. Dutrone's ofifer of a gold medal, to be awarded under the regula- tions of the Society, as a premium for the best polled bull exhibited at the Salisbury Meeting. Country Meeting of 1858. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Brandreth, Mr. Cavendish, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, and Mr. Milward, were requested to form an In- spection Committee, for the purpose of visiting the lo- calities proposed for the Society's country Meeting of 1858 in the North-Wales district, and of reporting to the next Monthly Council on their suitableness, or otherwise, for that puqiosc. Guano Deposits. — In the evening Professor Way, the consulting chemist of the Society, delivered an in- teresting lecture on the localities where deposits of guano 410 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. had been discovered, and on the conditions under which they were found to occur. The lecture was illustrated by numerous physical charts, showing the direction of the winds, the currents or' the ocean, and the limits of the rainless regions : on which he pointed out the va- rious districts referred to in the series of important despatches forwarded to the Society from the Foreign Office, through the instructions of the Earl of Claren- don. He exhibited curious specimens of guano in the progress of conversion from an organic into a mineral substance,— On the motion of Lord Walsingham, se- conded by Mr, Fisher Hobbs, the best thanks of the meeting were voted to Professor Way for his useful lec- ture, with a hope that it would call public attention more strongly to its important subject, and produce a full effect in that direction. On the motion of Mr. Dfuce, seconded by Mr. Ramsay, the best thanks were also offered to Mr. Lawrence, for his kindness in presiding on that occasion.— Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre) called attention to the obscure but important subject oi nitri- fication. He found in his own practice, that farm-yard manure exposed on the land for a few months, acquired either from the atmosphere, or from some chemical change going on among its own elements, or from some other source or cause to him unknown, a remarkable addition to its manuring properties, as evidenced by the resulting crop to which it was applied, in comparison with the same manure at once ploughed in without such previous exposure.— Mr. Fisher Hobbs hoped the day was fast arriving when farmers would be more alive to the value of their home-manure, particularly to the im- portance of fish, especially that from the Irish coasts, applied to the land as manure in a prepared dry state. — Professor Way remarked that guano was only the di- gested carcases of fish. DiscovEKY OF Guano.— The Earl of Shelburne, by direction of the Earl of Clarendon, transmitted to the Society the following communication :— "Foreign Office, March 31, 1857. " Sir, — I am directed by the Earl of Clarendon to transmit to you, to be laid before the President and Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, copy of a despatch from her Ma- jesty's Consul at Porto Rico, reporting the discovery of 25,000 tons of guano in the Island of Mona. " I am, sir, your most obedient humble servant, "Jas. Hudson, Esq." "Shelburne. "Puerto Rico, Feb. 16, 1857. " My Lord, — In the Island of Mona, situated about fifty miles nearly due west of the town of Mayaguez, at the western extremity of the Island of Puerto Rico, some deposits of guano have been discovered, and according to the report of the surveyors appointed by this government to inspect the deposits, a copy of which I have obtained, the guano is situated in three caves., and the quantity is said to amount to 23,525 tonsi I regret that I am unable to state the proportion per cent, of ammonia contained in this guano, as I have not yet succeeded in procuring a sample, nor have any steps been taken by the government to ascertain this fact, upon which the value of the discovery depends, the samples brought by the surveyors having been forwarded to Madrid. A tolerably cor- rect estimate of its properties, however, may be formed from the circumstance that a cargo taken by the master of a mer- chant vessel under the flag of the United States, who was the discoverer of these deposits, realized at New York the sum of 20 dollars, or £4 23. sterling, per ton. The governor of Puerto Rico is awaiting instructions from the authorities at Madrid as to the manner in which he is to dispose of the guano, which in the meanwhile has been protected against further depreda- tions. I have, &c. (Signed) "Lennox Hunt." Adjournment. — The Meetings of the Council stand adjourned over Easter week to Wednesday, the 22nd of April. THE TURNIP BEETLE. LOUGHBOROUGH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. At a meeting of the Loughborough Agricultural Society, at the Plough Inn, on Thursday, April 2, S. B. Wild, Esq., the president, occupied the chair, and there were also pre- sent Messrs. T. Allen, Thurmaston; C. Stokes; T. Morris, Bunney ; Garton, Cotes ; Eaton, Donington ; Shepherd, Nottingham ; T. Parr, Nottingham ; T. B. Miller ; W. Humphreys ; Rowbottom, Charley ; Nicholson, Notting- ham ; J. Buckley, Normanton ; Cumberland, Charley Knoll ; T. C. Angrave, East Leake ; T. and H. Burrows, Remp- stone-, Gill, Burton; W. Henson, Hoton; Nuttall, Ragdale; W. H. Briscoe, Broombriggs; W. Hatton, Stanford ; T. Marshall, Rempstonc ; and W. Lowe, Normanton, &c. On the removal of the cloth, the Chairman proposed the usual loyal toasts, which were duly responded to. Mr. Thomas Morris, of Bunney Grange, then read a paper on " The Turnip Beetle," or, what is commonly called, " The Turnip Fly," with a suggestion as a means for preventing its destroying the young turnip plant. Mr. Morris spoke as follows : — The subject appointed for con- sideration to-day commands our earnest attention, for I believe it to be of immense importance to all those who may be interested in the cultivation of the soil ; because this troublesome insect in its busy work of destruction has baffled not only practical farmers, but put to silence the theory of scientific men. In opening this discussion it is my intention to cite observations from Messrs. Curtis and Le Keux — who have made entomology their study through life — in order to render us better acquainted with thenatuial history of the turnip beetle. I shall also make a few remarks upon the habits of this pest, which have come under my own immediate observation, and afterwards suggest a means for preventing its destroying the j'oung turnip plant. Ac- cording to the entomologist we are instructed that there are at least two species of the turnip beetle, viz., the Sti-iped, and Brassy or Tooth-legged : the latter is not so common as the former, and it appeaj-s that scarcely anything is known of the economy of this insect; but it is the striped beetle with which we, as farmers, are so familiar, and upon which I desire more particularly to claim your attention. It has various names in this country, such as the beetle, fly, black-jack, flea, &c., but upon close examination there can be no doubt that it is a beetle, for it has two sets of wings THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 411 —the outer ones, like all other beetles — being of a horny nature ; and to distinguish it from others of its order, I may observe that its colour is a bright-black, with a light-yellow coloured stripe down each outer wing. Mr. Curtis, who has so ably contributed to tlie Journal of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, in his observations on the natural history of insects affecting the turnip crop, informs us that this beetle belongs to the order Coleoptcra, from its wings being folded beneath two horny cases ; it is included in the family Chrysomelidte or golden beetles, for certain scientific reasons in conformity witli its structure, and is one of about one hundred species forming the genus Altica, so called from the great powers they have of leaping ; it is readily known by the thickness of its thighs, which give it the power of leaping, like fleas, to a prodigious dis- tance, considering its small size. Eighteen inclies is about the greatest extent of its leap, which, in a straight line, would be, averaging its stature, two hundred and sixteen times its own length ; and, when it is remembered that this leap is performed in a curved line, it must be admitted that a considerably greater distance is achieved. Mr. Le Keux states that " the female, which is lai-ger than the male beetle, lays but few eggs, compared witli other in- sects; and that it requires a period of about thirty days to carry the animal through its various stages up to the time when it becomes a perfect beetle again— viz. : It remains an egg ten days, a maggot six, and a chrysalis thirteen days. The eggs are deposited on the under-side of the turnip-leaf; and when they become maggots, they imme- diately begin to eat through the lower skin of the leaf, and form winding burrows — as will be seen from the drawings on the table — by feeding on the pulp. They are full fed in about sixteen days, when they desert these burrows, and bury themselves not quite two inches below the surface of the earth, where they become immovable chrysalides, which are brought to maturity in about a fortnight, when the beetle — or fly, as it is called — emerges from its tomb again, to fulfil the laws of Nature." One pair of these in- sects produces five or six broods in a season. They are rather long-lived, and are found, during the inclement months of winter, under the bark of trees, and similar shel- tered places, in a torpid state. It is a perfect wonder, to the naked eye, how this pest can, in a short space of time, commit such destruction on the turnips, because its dimen- sions are so small -, but when highly magnified, this idea is at once dispelled, for it is then seen that Nature lias pro- vided it with formidable weapons, whereby it is enabled to obtain its sustenance. We are told that it is found in most parts of the United Kingdom, and in many countries on the Continent; indeed, I have been informed that it has been known to destroy turnips in North America. The general habits of this beetle appear to me to be most re- markable and eccentric ; for when the weather is exces- sively hot, with a bright sun, it is then in a very lively and active state ; and it is at this time that it commits such fearful ravages upon the young turnip-plant. Again, if the •weather should change, and become cold, cloudy, or stormy, its activity ceases, it then sheltering itself either under the leaf of the plant, or in the crevices in the ground, where it is found in almost a torpid state ; but, upon a burst of sunshine, it quickly returns to its work of destruc- tion. The voracity of tliis insect is incredible ; for in some seasons it has visited the turnip-fields in such countless numbers, that it has been known to entirely destroy a crop of tiirnips in a few hours. There is a very strong odour proceeds from the young turnip-plant ; and, the olfactory members of these beetles being very acute, they quickly discover the field where they are growing, frequently against the wind. To corroborate this, I will repeat what is recorded by Mr. Le Keux, who states that " in May, 1 036, when the thermometer was at 75 degrees in the shade, during a south wind, great numbers were on the wing, and all proceeding southward ; and, again, that eight acres, forming the summit of a hill in Devonshire, were sown with turnips, and when the young plants were just rising above the ground, the wind being for more than a week at south-east, wafting the scent to the north-west, they were so destroyed on this side that nearly an acre was bare, whilst the south-cast side was not touched until the plants had attained a size to render the attacks of the beetle of little consequence." This extraordinary insect attacks the turnip plant from the earliest stage of growth, continuing its ravages until the two first leaves are destroyed, leaving only the bare stem ; and it is an undisputed fact that when the first-sown turnips are taken, those sown afterwards scarcely ever thrive so welb unless the ground undergoes the usual system of ploughing, &c., which in most instances would be impracticable, for it would become so late in the season as to render a crop of swede turnips very uncertain. The turnip is the most expen- sive crop a farmer cultivates, and I may add the moat valuable; yet there is no crop which he produces that is liable to so many enemies (Hear, hear), and amongst these none so destructive as the beetle in question (Hear). It is recorded, on the autho- rity of Arthur Young, that in 1786, in one county alone (Devon) turnips to the value of £100,000 were destroyed by this pest : at the period just named very little was known of the Swedish turnip, and as the culture of this root has increased to a great extent, it would be difficult to estimate the value of turnips destroyed by the beetle at the present day. I believe I may assert, without fear of contradiction, that this insect will attack turnips sown in any part of the summer, sown upon all descriptions of soil, and no matter how highly it may be farmed. Yet there is good reason in having the land in a high state of cultivation ; this, with a proper amount of humidity in the atmosphere, is what is most essential for the rapid and healthy growth of the plant (Hear), quickly forcing it into rough leaf, when it would be out of further danger from the beetle ; and it ia my opinion that turnips sown upon laud in bad condition, or not properly drained, scarcely ever recover from the ravages of this insect, because they cannot make that advancement which otherwise in many instances would effect their safety. There are very few farmers whose crops of turnips have not to a greater or less degree suffered from this plague ; hence the desirability of consulting together to devise some means for preventing its destroying the young turnip plant. Many and varied have been the attempts made to preserve this plant from the attacks of this insect. I will relate a few which have been tried by others to endeavour to effect this purpose. Some of my friends have steeped the seed, a few hours prior to drilling, in a mixture of the tincture of assafcjctida and urine, believing that the plant will be impregnated with the abomi- nable odour proceeding therefrom ; but although this has ap- peared to succeed in some instances, yet I know that there have been seasons when the beetles have entirely destroyed the crop. For my part, I cannot conceive this plan to answer, for if you drill the seed after saturation it will no doubt vege- tate ; but if the weather should prove dry and the soil like- wise— which frequently occurs at this period of the year — it would then cease to grow. I have heard of fanners mixing the turnips with radish seed, expecting the beetle would prefer the latter, and whilst feeding upon it the former slips by into rough loaf and escapes. My opinion is that there is no plant 412 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in cr.iatiou whicU the beetle would prefer to the turnip, and ns this wary iu?cct ia found in most psrts of tliis Ciuntry, how is it that we do not hear of the radishes being destroyed by them in the gardens, &c.? Some farmers drill every alternate row of swedes with common or white-top tuvcips, believing the beetle to prefer the common turnip, and, whilst feeding upon them the former would grow out of their way. In ad- vocating this plan it would add expense and trouble, aud in my opinion no beneficial result would ensue. Again, others adopt the following : after the plants are up they apply either Boot, lime, or chalk; this I do not coiisider a practicable remedy, for when a heavy thunder-storm comes, these applica- tions would be washed off the plants and tbe effect forthwith destroyed; and, moreover, either of the befure-mentioned, on being sown broadcast, and alighting upon the leaves of the plants, checks the growth of them materially, and we are instructed by Mr. Le Keux " that if the upper portion of the leaves could be poisoned, the beetle would feed on the under Bide of the same with impunity." In many parts of the country, farmers drill a double, and in some instances a treble quantity of seed ; these advocates say " Sow plenty of seed, aud you are sure of a crop." I have permission to mention that last season Mr. Thos. Dickens, a very practical farmer, residing at High Oakham, near Mansfield, drilled 41b3.of seed per acre, and his crop was eiitirely destroyed by the beetle. I have been informed that l«st season also, an eminent agriculturist in the neighbourhood of East Retford, whose general practice is of drilling 61bs. of seed per acre, bad his crop destroyed by this insect. The quantity of swede turnip-seed generally sown per acre is about 2^1bs., but lib. of ciesn, good, new seed is ample to produce a fair crop, providing it can be preserved from the enemies which affjct that plant. Practical farmers well know the disadvantages attending drilling too much seed ; first, the plants always grow weaker, aud, being so very thick, it readers the operation of singling them out much more ex- pensive; and secondly, the tap-roots entwining round each other, it is rery difficult to cross them properly with the hce. I will alluo'e to another remedy which is spoken of by Mr. Curtis : he states " that if a field sown with turnips is sur- rounded by a bed of mangold-wurtzel, the beetles would not fly near the field." I presume that it is supposed by the entomologist that this plant is offensive to the beetle. In reply to this I \arting kiss ! Then the winter evenings with their social joys — Bless me ! they are pleasant, spent vnt]x fanners' boys. — Merry'' $ Museum. 2 F 2 43S THE F^*RM61R'§ 'k'ltik'ztNE.' ' irt'j.r/ IMPORTANT SALES OF SHORTHORN STOCK. However great the political agitation iu which the country has been placed since the dissolution of parlia- ment, it is remarkable to note how insignificant its influence has been upon the breeders and fanciers of Shorthorns, On Thursday, April 2, on the occasion of Mr. Ambler's sale at Watkinson Hall, Halifax, the attend- ance of buyers included gentlemen from all parts of the United Kingdom, as well as from France, Germany, the United States, and Australia, These came not merely as idle spectators, but bid against each other with a de- termination almost unprecedented, to possess them- selves of some of this celebrated breed. On the follow- ing day Mr. Strafford, the same auctioneer, sold off the herd of the Rev, T, Cator, at Skelbrook Park, Doncas- ter, and again ran his lots up to very good prices. We attended these meetings with a view of judging for ourselves of the importance in which these herds were held by the Shorthorn world. Without advancing anything in disparagement of those important sales which already form a page in our agricultural history, we must say that we never witnessed so large and at the same time so select a company, or one more really in earnest, than we did on Wednesday, April 1, The world- wide celebrity that Mr, Ambler as a breeder has for many years obtained, would naturally, under ordinary circumstances, ci'eate a sensation when such a herd was announced for sale. When, however, our readers are informed that fifty animals, many of them young calves, one only two days old, realized an average of about .£84 per head, they will be enabled to form some idea of the determined competition and thorough apprecia- tion this celebrated herd has maintained to its disso- lution. The proceeds of the sale amounted to the extraordinary sum of four thousand one hundred and sixty four pounds, being a slight advance per head on that realized by Sir Charles Knightley in the spring of last year. It has often been declared that the best blood of this country has been reduced by the constant export of our highest bred animals to our colonies, the " States," and the continent. But here, at least, it will be seen, that buyers from those distant regions had to succumb to the spirited enterprize of our own countrymen; while it is, further, highly satis- factory to note that it was not England and Ireland alone in the market, but that the same active spirit of improvement in breeding has extended itself in a most remarkable manner both to Scotland and Wales, Many of the best animals were knocked down to noble- men and gentlemen resident in those quarters, -i,-_Amoiigst_others were Sir Robert Pigot, F. Cross- ley, Esq., AI,P.7 E. Akroyd, Esq., M.P,, Colonel Pollard, Dr. Wright, Dr, Paley, Rev. W. Gillmor, Illingworth; J. Appleyard, Esq., J. Whiteley, Esq., M, Stocks, Esq., Catherine Slack; G. Haigh, Esq., J. Bould, Esq., F. Hardcastle, Esq., W. Posgate, Esq., Skircoat ; T. Turney, Esq., T. Milne, E-q., Warley; James Aked, Esq, Kershaw House; Wm. Holland, Esq., Lightcliffe ; T. Edleston, Esq., Halifax; W. Edleston, Esq., Sowerby Bridge; W. Murgatroyd, Esq., Luddenden; D. Carter, Esq., Lightcliffe; J. Ambler, Esq., Peel House; J, Charleswortb, Esq., Thornhill Lees ; James Douglas, Esq., Athelstaneford, Edinburgh ; M, S, Stewart, Esq., Southwick ; Jas. Mar- tin, Esq,, Clayton West; R, Booth, Esq,, Warlaby ; G, Bland, Esq., Lincolnshire; J. Thompson, Esq., near Hull; — Goldthorpe, Esq., Cleckheaton; William Torr, Esq., Aylesby Manor, Lincolnshire ; H, Smith, Esq., S, E, Bolden, Esq., J, Brook, Esq., Brighouse; W. Verner, Esq., Ireland; A. H,W, Farrell, Esq,, Lanark- shire; A, Young, Esq,, Perthshire; D. Peacock, Esq,, near Harrogate; J. Jolly, Esq., James Sutcliffe, Esq., Great Alderley, Chester; J. Brigham, Esq., near Malton; C.Taylor, Esq., Cumberland; W. Hether- ington, Esq., Brampton, Cumberland; A.Wood, Esq., Wigan ; G. P, Tuxford, Esq., London; F, Holroyde, Esq., steward for Miss Clara Thornhill; Wm.Wetherell, Esq. ; J, Woods, agent for the Earl of Balcarres ; J, Scott, agent for F, H, Fawkes, Esq., Farnley Hall ; W.Carr, Esq., Settle; Thomas Chrisp, Esq., Alnwick; J. Atkinson, Esq., Newcastle; — Brodie, Esq., Australia; Mr. Wood, Halifax ; and Mr. Roper, Halifax. We dwell with more than common interest upon this, illusti-ative as it is of the growing intelligence of the age in which we live. When we consider the in- creasing millions of our population, and the enormous amount of animal food essential to their very existence, we hesitate not to say that no man who has the welfare of his country at heart can do better than by dis- seminating such specimens of well-bred animals. Fur- thermoi'e, we believe that no gentleman, however elevated his position, can set any example to his fellow- man, tenant or otherwise, that is better calculated to elevate him in public estimation, than by thus devoting his means, and affording his support. It would be not well to pass over the gratification we realized on looking over the stock and premises of Mr. Ambler. Of the former we have already spoken. The premises are constructed of stone ; and better buildings, whether in design or arrange- ment, it has rarely been our fortune to inspect. We believe Mr. Ambler was his own architect; and cer- tainly the premises do him the highest credit. The successful competitors included the following no- blemen and gentlemen : — Mr. G. Townsend, Hinck- ley ; Mr. J. Wood, Wigan ; Mr. James Sutcliffe, Great THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. d39 Alderley, Chester ; Mr. Foljambe, Osberton, Eetford ; Mr. George Bland, Colby, Lincolnshire ; Mr. John Peel; Mr. W. Hetherington, Middle Farm, Brampton, Cumberland ; Mr. W. G. Jolly, agent for the Duke of Montrose ; Mr. C. Taylor, Crossliill, Wigton, Cumber- land ; Hon. Col. Pennant ; Mr. Torr ; Duke of Mont- rose ; Mr. D. Peacock, near Harrogate ; Mr. Campbell, Aberdeen; Sir Robert Pigot, Cambridgeshire; Wm. Stirling, Esq., M.P. for Perthshire ; the agents of the Illinois Agricultural Company, United States ; Alfred H. W. Farrell, Esq., Lawrencekirk ; D. S. Wemyss, Esq. ; Mr. Charlesworth ; Mr. John Yorke, near Ripon ; Mr. Carter ; Mr. Ferrand ; Mr. Metcalfe, York; Mr. Verner, Verner's Bridge, Armagh ; Mr. James Douglass ; the Earl of Burlington ; Mr- Abbott, Newark ; Mr. Thorne, Thorndale, New York ; Mr. James Dickenson, Leeds ; Mr. Mark S. Stewartj Edward Akroyd, Esq., M.P., Denton Park ; Mr Armstrong, Chesterfield ; Mr. Brigham, Slingsby, Malton. Mr. Torr, of Aylesby, was the pur- chaser of the highest-priced cow " Britannia," which realized 270 guineas ; and Mr. Thorne, of the United States, the celebrated bull, " Grand Turk," for 300 gs. On the following day the herd of the Rev. Thomas Cator, of Skelbrook Park, near Doncaster, were also submitted to competition by Mr. Strafford. The weather was extremely unpropitious ; the company was, how- ever, large, and withstood throughout the whole of the sale the pelting rain, which continued without iu- termission. The number of animals offered for sale amounted to 58, out of which 57 were sold at prices averaging about £56 each. Mr. Eaton bought the highest-priced cow for 100 guineas, and Mr. Towns- liend the next highest for 85 guineas. The bull "Duke of Cambridge" was knocked down at 180 guineas, to Mr. Holland ; and " Schamyl Bey" was purchased by Mr. Wentworth at 135 guineas ; " Duke of Welling- ton," by Mr. Bell, for 105 guineas. In concluding our remarks, we have to congratulate the breeders of short-horned stock upon the i-esult of these sales; evidencing as they do the increasing value of this breed of animal, and which cannot fail, in our opinion, to stimulate the owner of every herd in the United Kingdom to improve as far as possible, by judicious care and crossing, his own tribe. It is due to Mr. Strafford to state that he discharged the onerous duties of his office in an able and gentlemanly manner, which ensured for him general approval ; giving satis- faction alike to those who employed and those who supported him. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMERCE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE. We have long stood on very fair give-and-take terms with om' friends over the water. We have learnt to appreciate to the full the excellences of each other. Here we prize French cooks, French wines, and French milliners. There they delight in English horses, English hounds, English grooms, and all the English customs of the course and the chase. We have gradually got even further than this. If France supplies cooks England supplies meats ; and so we can still extend our exchange and barter, and still, too, with mutual advantage. Within this year or two Monsieur has had many a cut at a well-fed haunch or noble sirloin ; gradually, with his increasing experience, becoming reconciled to that once-terrible sight to a Frenchman's vision, " the gravy that followed the knife." Our agri- culturists, on the other hand, who have supplied these prime pieces, have improved wonderfully in matters of taste since their sojourn in Paris. They incline now to boeuf'a la sauce piquante," with pommes-deterre " a la deuced good ;" suggest omelette and cotclette at market ordinaries, and prefer sparkling Moselle to home-brewed beer. We know one who has been able to face nothing heavier than hock or claret since his summer of 'fifty-six. Indeed, if this kind of thing goes on, it will be all " au naturel" in France, and all " k la carte" in England. And we really see no reason why it should not. In 'iiii lOiiil jJiiM uvv^iuu fact, it is going on. We are not merely helping our French friends to breed good stock, but we are showing them how to feed them. Now, feeding stock in France is even less understood than the more important science of producing it. The sauce piquante has rendered our neighbours indifferent to really good meat. An artiste who could manufacture three or four famous dishes out of a pair of old boots would never be very particular about his materiel. With the command of good stock, however, they will come to appreciate good beef ; and a few yeai's hence the very Parisians who shuddered last summer at the fat " monsters" brought over, will be fattening and prizing such "monsters" themselves. It would be idle to suppose that the French and English International Fat Cattle Show is likely to be- come an annual exhibition. We regard that just celebrated as something of a first lesson for France, which she should at once get off by heart. It could never pay our breeders and feeders to send stock so far. As it is, our own correspondent records the meeting as a very successful one ; although we confess we miss many a name, amongst the English exhibitors especially, that we had thought might have been well represented. The time of year, to be sure, is rather against a fat stock show ; while highly fed animals arc very ticklish goods to hazard on a rough journey by land ami by 440 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. water. AVe repeat, the experiment is a laudable and an interesting one ; at the same time that it would be worse tliau folly to persuade either ourselves or our allies that its success can be ensured hereafter. To be mutually advantageous, the exportation of stock from this country to France must be in breeding animals, and not with fat cattle. It will then remain with our customer to decide whether his Shorthorn cross shall appear before him as bceuf Ella mode, or, trusting simply to its o.vn merits^ as roast or boiled. There will be some rare quality at any rate to begin with. Three or four of the most distinguished visitors at Poissy have already been equally distin- guished in England. There was Mr. Stratton's white short-horn, the gold-medal beast at Birmingham j Mr. Heath's Devon, the selected at Smithfield; Lord Hatherton's Hereford; the Duke of Beaufort's short- horn, and other as noble animals from over the Border. One test of the Poissy show will be the prices the stock fetch as butcher's meat. We have only to hope that none of ours will be allowed to return. They have many of them been far too long in the stall as it is ; and would no doubt have been slaughtered for Christmajs beef but for the announcement of this spring meeting. Let them now by all means fulfil their mission. Indeed^ when we come to reflect on " early maturity," " return for outlay," and other farmers' questions, one gets rather tired of seeing a full aged, full fed animal at a succession of fat stock shows. " Confound you ! " said the dandy to the sponge-cake elephant, that he knew by a notch in his tail as having had the pleasure of meet- ing on many previous occasions. " Confound you I " — and here he smashed his head with a spoon—'" I suppose you are meant to be eaten as well as looked at." When one finds Mr. Stratton's or Mr. Heath's fat cattle at Gloucester, Birmingham, Smithfield, and Poissy, we begin to question with the exquisite, whether they axe really meant to be eaten, or only looked at. We shall leave our correspondent to tell his own story. We may, however, di-aw a deduction or so from the facts he reports, and these must bear chiefly on the exhibition of native stock. They would appear to have been of the most primitive kind. That is, they were of all sorts and sizes, bred with but little care, and showing few characteristics to be depended upon. Still, from all this chaos we gather some satisfactory evidence of the progress France has already made. In doing so we once more raise a good genius that is now continually appearing before us — a calm, mild-eyed beauty that looks like a modern personification of the Goddess of Plenty. For these last few years past more especially, there has been nothing so highly praised as the short-horn. People are perpetually declaim- ing on its virtues, and we om'selves, perhaps, amongst the first open to an indictment. Fortunately, however, and strangely too, it would seem worthy of all that has been said of it — and that is saying some- thing. What the short-horn has done for America or what it may do for Australia, it is not om- purpose here to discuss. Let our correspondent declare its influence in France : — " By the side of these numerous breeds-, one was pleased to observe througbout all the regions a large proportion of animals which, although they still possessed some faint characteristics of the breed fi-om which they sprung, yet manifestedly be- trayed the blood of their sire, namely, the Durham. It is indeed a pleasing and especially a hopeful fact to record, that all the cross-bred animals exhibited had, more or less, the Durham element iu their blood; and whilst so large a share in the prizes was given to the local breeds of the various districts in which the show is divided, no less than .53 Durham or cross-bred Durhams were exhibited by the French — about one- fourth of the whole exhibition. This fact plainly shows that French breeders not only are on the right track, but, by the generally excellent quality of the stock thus improved, it proves also that they have 'made rapid strides in the arduous way of progress." We may take a very practical comment from this. It is now some twelve years ago that the Minister of the In- terior of France spoke at a cuttle show held at this same Poissy. In his remarks apropos to the occasion, he said, that although the French agriculturists had imported the best bulls and cows from England, they were obliged to keep up the supply of imports, as other- wise the stock again deteriorated in three generations, and he attributed this greatly to the bad pasturage. There was evidently a desponding tone at that time, which exists no longer. The Shorthorn has outlived the three generations, and the seeds of the breed are now diffused through various parts of France. As our rei>orter says, " the French breeders are on the right track," while there is every encouragement for them to persevere. Let them but continue to cross with our pure-bred animals, and they must continue to progress. There is even a chance now of the pasturage bemg im- proved ; and the day is not far distant when they may leave the sauce piquante to Jonas Webb and Brandreth Gibbs, proudly content themselves with the plain joint of Merino mutton, or Shorthorn beef. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 441 THE POISSY FAT CATTLE SHOW. PABIS, April dth, 1857. It is ofk'n au arduous task to report an agricultural meeting to agricultui'al readers. The object of these celebrations being always the same — prizes, things ex- hibited, show-yards, the individuals who make it their business or pastime to be present, the si^eeches de- livered, and so forth, bear such analogy with those of similar occasion, that one has frequently enough to do to interest the keenest of readers upon such topics. We are, however, relieved of any such difficalty on the auspicious occasion of the Poissy Show. Its novelty and vast importance as regards the future intercourse of our agriculture with that of France, are suggestive of so many reflections — have given rise to so many inci- dents, that our narrative, however imperfect it maybe, cannot fail to command some interest and attention. Let us premise by saying that England and Scotland have come forward in a manner worthy of both to sus- tain the character of those breeds of animals which are their pride and their boast, and which, Ijy means of a comparison as complete as it was splendid, have esta- blished in the eyes of the world that pre-eminence in the ai-t of agriculture the great Paris Show of last year rendered so manifest, either for breeding animals or agricultural implements. England contributed at Poissy 4 specimens of short- horns, 7 of Devons, 8 of Hereford, 6 of Scotch breeds, and 1 of the Hereford and shorthorn cross breed : in all 26 heads of cattle. Our Scotch neighbours had of our breeds only 2 shorthorns ; but they came out strong and gloriously in their own races. They conti'ibuted 11 heads of polled cattle, 9 of West Highlanders, and 9 of cross breeds : in all 31 heads of cattle. In the sheep classes we had 4 pens of Cotswold, 2 of Southdown, 2 of Cheviots, and 3 of cross breeds: in all 11 pens. Scotland had sent 1 pen of Southdowns, 3 of Cheviots, 2 of black-faced, and 3 of cross breeds : in all 9 pens of sheep. Thus the English and Scotcli contributions to the great Poissy Show comprised in all 57 heads of cattle, and 20 pens of sheep. Before we speak of the respective merits of these animals, and chronicle the impression their portly ap- pearance has made upon the French agriculturists, and other visitors, who crowded around them to criti- cise and to admire, let us retrace our steps a little, and give a short narrative of the journey to Poissy. The village of Poissy — for we can hardly give the name of town to the dirty enclosure of crooked streets and uneven, dingy-looking habitations, in which the Show took place — is situate on the Paris and Havre line, about 21 miles distant from the French capital. It lies at the western extremity of the pictures(iue and beautiful forest of St. Germain, and the iumiediale neighbourhood by which Poissy is encircled greatly contrasts by its charms and beauty with the filthy in- terior and wretched houses of the town. Poissy being a station on the Havre railway, it was evident that the shortest and altogether the most eligi- ble route to reach it with cattle was by way of South- ampton and Havre; and it was by that route that the bulk of the English exhibition travelled. On Friday morning, 3rd of April, a steamer, espe- cially hired for the purpose, embarked the beasts in the Southampton-docks, where they had been detained one day by the stormy weather that prevailed all the week in the Channel, and were safely landed at Havre, where they arrived the same evening, after a beautiful passage of about 12 hours, early on Saturday morning. By the evening of the same day they were snugly con- signed to the stables which had been prepared at Poissy by the French Government; thus accomplishing a safe and comfortable journey from Southampton to Poissy in little more than 30 hours. Owing to the special arrangements which had been carefully made at Havre, the steamer was enabled to reach the eastern extremity of the docks, and to dis- charge her precious cargo within a few yards of the railway goods' station; thus sparing the cattle a fatiguing, nay impossible, walk of nearly three miles. The Scotch animals had arrived in London so early as the middle of the previous week, and selected the route via Newhaven and Dieppe, where they experienced a safe but stormy passage. Another small lot of English arrivals crossed by the more fashionable, but we must say less expeditious and more dangerous passage for fat cattle, of Folkestone and Boulogne, and had to come round by way of Paris. At all events, with the exception of one or two sheep lost on the way by an exhibitor who went from London- bridge to Calais in a perfect storm, all the cattle, their owners, and attendants, reached Poissy in safety. So that on Monday last, when the signal for bringing the cattle into the Show-yard was given. Old England drew up by the side of her allied and friendly hosts, under a profusion of tricoloured flags, in the maze of which we were rather disappointed not to observe the blue waves of the union-jack. Such a glorious sight of beef and mutton never before greeted the marvelling eyes of a Frenchman. The show was held in the market-place, Poissy being the Smithfield of Paris. Canvas canopies had been erected over the pens ; and we could not help remarking that the cattle, with plenty of air, plenty of light, and plenty of space, looked to infinitely greater advantage t; :,/i when collected beneath tlio dingy galleries of the Bazaar in Baker-street. Although this season of the 442 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. year is by uo means a favourable one for holding a show of fat stock, it was noticed by everybody how fresh and well the animals looked, notwithstanding the never-ceasing poking and handling of the Paris butchers, who attended in crowds. Tlie operations of the judges lasted two dajs, during which, through the kindness of M. de Ste. Marie, the Commissioner-General of the show, we were enabled, in company with several other representatives of the English Press, to take a quiet survey of the whole ex- hibition before it was thrown open to the public. The French exhibition was divided into regions — that is, districts of the country comprising a certain number of departments competing among themselves. Thus the first region embraces the Northern depart- ments and the neighbourhood of Paris, the second com- prises the Western districts, the third the Central and South- Western, the fourth the Central proper, the fifth the Central and Eastern, and the sixth the whole of the South. Each region is divided into categoi ics, the first em- bracing animals of all breeds, and the other the respec- tive breeds only peculiar to each region. Besides these divisions, there are also prizes offered to what are called bandes de hceufs — that is, lots of four bullocks; and then, as is the case in our English exhibitions, there is a prize of honour given to the best animal in the bovine, ovine, and porcine races, respectively. There were exhibited in the first region 25 oxen, 45 in the second, 45 in the third, 12 in the fourth, 16 in the fifth, and 24 in the 6th— in all, 167. There were, besides, 48 oxen in lots of four, and 16 fat calves- making a total of 231 head of cattle of various breeds. In glancing over the catalogue, one was forcibly struck with the diversity and numerous varieties of the French breeds of cattle ; and in looking over the show-yard, this diversity was fully borne out by the alternations of character, colour, and shape, typified in the most unmistakeable manner. By the side of these numerous breeds, one was pleased to observe throughout all the regions a large proportion of animals which, although they still possessed some faint characteristics of the breed from which they sprung, ye,t manifestedly betrayed the blood of their sire, namely, the Durham. It is indeed a pleasing and espe- cially a hopeful fact to record, that all the cross-bred animals exhibited had, more or less, the Durham ele- ment in their blood; and whilst so large a share in the prizes was given to the local breeds of the various districts in which the show is divided, no less than 53 Durham or cross-bred Durhams were exhibited by the French — about one-fourth of the whole exhibition. This fact plainly shows that French breeders not only are on the right track, but by the generally excellent quality of the stock thus improved, it proves also that they have made rapid strides in the arduous way of progress. But at the same time we cannot conceal from ourselves, and we tliink it our duty to tell them, that they are still far behind in the improvement of their stock, and the comparison they have had so happy an opportunity of making between their breeds and ours, between their modes of fattening and ours, between the results of their skill and ours, must have plainly and forcibly reminded them of their marked inferioi'ity in those respects. We can scarcely think that the encouragement appa- rently given by the Fi-ench Government for the preser- vation of thrir many breeds of cattle in all their native purity can be conducive to progress — with the exception only of a few which might be easily improved, such as the beautiful Charalais and the picturesque Cotentin, so remarkable for their milking qualities — and perhaps one or two others. The generality of the French breeds of cattle are incapable of improvement while kept to them- selves. Their characteristic peculiarities are essentially bad, and so strongly typified, that they must of all neces- sity reproduce themselves in the offspring, however comparatively good the genitors may be. In England we have reduced our principal breeds to three — the Shorthorns, the Hereford, and the Devon ; and by thus concentrating skill and patient perseverance upon these breeds we have been enabled to bring them to the very acme of animal perfection. With the advantage of our experience and knowledge, we cannot but think that the French might do likewise ; they have in their Government a strong and powerful lever which can centre the efforts of all towards any given aim, while it is only by such a united effort towards the same end that success can be secured. If the cattle portion of the French Exhibition was far from being remarkable, and powerfully contrasted with our own, we feel injustice bound to say that their sheep beat ours in condition and quality, although de- cidedly inferior in symmetry. The cross between the Merino and the Leicester sheep was beautifully repre- sented by the pens exhibited by Messrs. Fournier and Pilat, the latter of whom was most deservedly honoured with the silver cup. That gentleman purchased last year at the Great Paris Exhibition one of the best tegs entered by Mr. Sanday, of Holme Pierrepont. So spirited a breeder justly deserves the success he has ob- tained. May he find many imitators in this country ! Among the French cattle we observed some very good shorthorns. One lot of four, exhibited by the Count de Torcy (who gained also the prize of honour for a shorthorn) was very remarkable, and clearly showed what imjirovcment can be attained by a judicious crossing. We now come to the appreciation of our own exhibi- tion, and the award of prizes. Among the shorthorns exhibited the Duke of Beaufort gained the first prize for oxen under three years old, and also the prize of honour — a gold medal in his Grace's case ; as not being the breeder of the ox he exhibited, the 120-guinea cup could not be awarded to him. The animal was indeed a worthy offspring of the celebrated Oxford THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 443 tribe, from wliicli he is descended by his sire, the Fourth Duke, and was highly admired by the French breeders for his quality and symmetry. He was sold to one of the principal butchers of Paris for £80. The second and third prizes in the same class were gained by Messrs. Beveridge and Gulland, for two ex- cellent beasts, which, however, did not sell quite so well. The first prize in the older class was awarded to Mr. Richard Stratton, of Broad Ilinton, for the same white ox that obtained a similar distinction at the late Smith- field Club Show. This ox, already well known to most of our readers, was subsequently sold for £G8. The second prize was awarded to Lord Leigh for an ox four years and two months old, which fetched £56 j and the third prize to Mr. Tuck, of Strumpshaw, Nor- folk, for a five-year-old ox, which was sold for £G-k. In the Devon classes the Earl of Leicester exhibited four very beautiful animals, three of which gained prizes. Mr. Heath, so well known by his success at our own exhibitions, sent two oxen of that breed, which gained a first and a second prize respec- tively. The Gold-medal Ox of last year's Smithfield Show was also exhibited at Poissy by its present owner, Mr. Potter, of Witton, and, as a matter of course, gained the first prize of its class. A mistake occurred in the sale of that beautiful animal through the imper- fect pronunciation of the French interpreter employed by Mr. Potter, an error which implied no less a difi"er- ence than £36 in the alleged amount of the purchase. Mr. Potter thought he had sold it for £65, and the buyer being under the impression that he had bought it for ^29 : the bargain was of course cancelled, and the ox sent back to England. The Hereford classes were as well represented as the most enthusiastic admirer of that beautiful breed could wish. On the occasion of the Paris Exhibition of last year, we exclaimed, What have the Hereford men been about ? The scanty number of animals in that class were actually lower than the number of prizes ofiVred. The excuse some of our correspondents gave was a good one. In the year previous, their best animals were discarded and disqualified for showing too manifestedly their tendency to fatten. The Poissy Show was a favour- able opportunity for them to redeem their character, and triumphantly establish the excellence of their breed, which a hasty judgment had somewhat underrated in 1855. We must say that the eight animals exhibited in that class, and particularly those entered by Lord Hatherton, which gained the first prize in the young class, and by Messrs. Heath, Powell, Naylor, and Shaw, who divided the other awards, were as good specimens as have been produced in any English show. The sell- ing price of those that were sold was exceedingly good, and showed how highly they were esteemed by the Paris butchers. The Scot breeds were most numerously and admira- bly represented at Poissy. Our readei-s will recollect how the foreign breeders and visftor^ to |J^c Pivris Sho]y, of last year were taken with the blitck-polled cattle, and how readily they were disposed of by their owners. At Poissy they were not less admired; and we think that Messrs. Mc Combie and Stewart have every reason to be pleased both with their success and the price they obtained for their animals. These two gentlemen di- vided the rewards in both classes. Here, however, it is our painful duty to notice a most unpleasant incident which occurred about the award of px"ize' in the young class of the Black Scot breed. Mr. Heath had exhibited a very perfect animal, to which the judges awarded the second prize. An objection was raised, however, as to the purity of its blood, and letters were put in, one of which, written by the breedei', positively stating that not only that the ox ex- hibited by Mr. Heath was the produce of a cross between a Shorthorn bull and a black polled cow, bu t that Mr. Heath having written to him to ascertain the age of the animal, he had in his reply plainly stated the fact of its not being a pure-bred Angus ; thus implying that Mr. Heath had wilfully made a false entry. So serious a charge could not well remain without being fully investigated. Upon informing Mr. Heath o^ what had occurred, he indignantly denied having ever been told that his ox was by a Shorthorn bull. He had bought it on the London market, and had merely written to the breeder to ascertain its exact age, but in the reply no allusion whatever was made as to the purity of its breed. We cannot help thinking that the protest came in rather late ; and that it would have been more according to the rules of fair play to have protested before. It is quite possible a mistake may have occurred. Mr. Heath thought he had bought a thorough-bred Scot; and every one with whom we have spoken upon the subject has assured us that to all ap- pearances he is as pure-bred as any they ever saw. Yet as the breeder declares it is descended from a Shorthorn bull, his assertion, of course, must be at once received. It is right to say that Mr. Heath duly received the other prizes he gained ; whereas, if he had been convicted of a wilfully false entry, he would have been disqualified altogether. The question now rests between him and the breeder; and Mr. Heath must produce the letter he received in answer to his inquii-ies about the age of the animal, in which reply the breeder declares he duly informed Mr. Heath of the fact that his ox was by a short-horn bull. In the West Highland classes, Mr. Knowles was awarded the first and second prizes for oxen under four years old, and the Duke of Beaufort the first prize f(n' oxen above that ago. The animal exhibited by his Grace was certainly one of the most perfect animals wo have ever seen, both in symmetry and quality : it was sold for the table of the Emperor for £45, and weighed alive sixteen cwts. and a quarter. The principal object which the French Government had in view in inviting s])ecimens of our breeds to their country, was avowcdlp^r to compare th^ir quality, and 444 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. the net produce of their carcase as compared with their live weight. A strict reguhition was published, bind- ing both sellers and buyers to make it a condition of the bai'gain that the prize animal should be slaughtered at the abattoir Du Roule, in order that the committee of Rendement, as it is called, whose object is to aseer- tain the returns iu meat and ofFal, might have eveiy opportunity and facility for their operations. These returns will be highly important and particularly in- teresting, and we shall not omit, in another communi- cation, to give to our readers a full report of those re- turns, as well as of those of the French prize animals of various breeds. In the sheep classes the prize takers were Mrs. Sarah West, who gained the first prize for Cotswolds, and the prize of honour, a silver cup worth £50, for the best pen of sheep in the sho^. Mr. King Tombs gained the second, and Mr. John Tombs the third. In the South- down classes Lord Walsingham took the first a:id second prizes ; and Mr. Sandbach first and second in the Cheviot. In the cross breeds Messrs. Joseph Druce first prize, King Tombs second. In order to decide to whom the prize of honour should be awarded, by the direction of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, who acted as English judge, all the sheep were placed together, and, as we have stated, Mrs. Sarah AVest's Cotswold's were unanimously selected as the best. They were subserpiently sold for ^4 12s. a head. The English and Scotch j udges were Mr. William Torr and Mr. Harvey (N.B.) for the cattle, and Mr. Fisher Hobbs and Mr. C. Stevenson (Edinburgh) for the sheep and pigs. More conscientiousj udges could not have been selected; and, when we consider that, with the in- tegrity of men of honour they possess that keen appre- ciation and sound judgment as to the merits of animals which a long and continuous i^ractical expei-ience alone can give, we cannot wonder at the satisfaction they seem to have given to all parties, and the deference with which their opinions were listened to by their nu- merous colleagues, even when they had to judge ani- mals of foreign breeds. On Wednesday, the 8tli of April, the show-yard was thrown open freely to the public, aud first and fore- most a crowd of butchers litei-ally invaded the stalls, and commenced ijrobing, handling, and pinching their unconscious victims. On that day the sales of prize animals were brisk, and liberal prices freely given. In our I'cturns hereafter we shall state the price the animal was sold at, and all tlie other interesting data connected with the operations of the French committee. The Minister arrived about eleven, and, surrounded with a guard of honour, who kept the way clear from the crowd, he minutely inspected the animals ex- hibited, attended by the Judges, who gave Mm every information he desired. At one o'clock, the inspection being ended, the distribution of the prizes took place. The Market House had been decorated for that pur- pose, and long before the hour appointed every avail- able seat was occupied . The Minister was accom panied by the Prefect of the department of Seine and Oise, the ■ Mayor of Poissy, M. Lefebvre de Ste. Marie, Inspector- General of Agriculture, M. de Monnyde Mornay, Chief Director of the Agricultural Department, Mr. Wm. Fisher Hobbs, and the other members of the jury. The bandof the 1st Regiment of the Cuirassiers of the i Guard were in attendance, and enlivened the proceed- fl ings by their performances. M. RouLiER, the Minister, rose, and delivered an excellent address, a translation of which we shall pub- lish hereafter. The prizes being all distributed, the Minister withdrew; and thus ended a celebration, the remembrance of which will long live in the memory of those who witnessed it, and the consequences of which can hardly be appreciated, so important are the results that are likely to be derived from this international show of fat stock. The crisis which now exists in the meat trade, when important sources of importation have been closed, from fear of that dreadful scourge which is now inflicting such a devastation in Central Europe, invests this meeting with an additional interest. The question of food is now the question of the day, and the peaceable battle which is fought in the arena of an agricultural show is not merely aquestion of merit and pride between breeders, but one of a much more serious import ; for on its solu- tion greatly depends the well-being and prosperity of many communities. Beyond a purely agricultural interest, the Poissy show evinced another very great feature, which we cannot overlook, and that was the genuine good feeling shown towards English exhibitors. At the close of the Minister's speech, by his special directions the excellent band of the 1st Regiment of Cuirassiers played the national anthem, " God save the Queen," the whole of the immense assemblage standing— a compliment to our national custom which the Mioister elicited by his own example. On the same evening an agricultural banquet reunited, in one of the rooms of M. Champeaux, in the Place de la Bourse, all the leading agricultural celebrities of the continent. This banquet was given by the writers of the "Journal d' Agriculture Pratique," and was pre- sided over by Monsieur Gareau, who acted as a French judge at the late show at Chelmsford. On his left sat Mr. Stephenson, who had acted as a judge at the Poissy Show, and on his right that well- known friend of agriculture, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, who, in one of the happiest speeches we have heard, worthily expressed those sentiments of good-will and sympa- thising interest which English agriculturists sincerely feel for their French brethren struggling in the cause of agricultural progress — a progress identical with that of morals and civilization. The compliment paid to Eng- land by the worthy president was delicate and feeling in the extreme ; and it is not saying too much to state that Mr. Fisher Hobbs responded to it in a manner THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 445 that reflected credit to himself, and ioaparted delight and enthusiasm to his audience. M, de la Trehonnais, who was also present, repeated in French what had so eloquently fallen from the lips of Mr. Hobbs in English. Those who know M. de la Trehonnais will readily con- clude that he did it well, and conscientiously. A mournful incident had, to a certain extent, marred the pleasures of this event: one of Mr. M'Combie's Scotch servants was taken ill at Poissy, and died there on Thursday morning. It is not often that the Parisian butchers have had the opportunity of decorating their stalls with such a display of beef and mutton as they have done this week. Wreaths of laurels adorned v*ith small, tri-coloured flags, plates bearing the descriplion of the prize gained by the slaughtered animals, are everywhere conspi- cuous ; and the gourmets of the fashionable restaurants never fail to order an " entre-cote" or a " filet" of the " boeuf Anglaise." One fact is certain — that, however prejudiced Freucli graziers and butchers may be — and we have taken some trouble to ascertain their senti- ments — they unanimously express their unqualified admiration of the oxen we have exhibited, and readily acknowledge not only their superiority as to symmetry and perfection of fattening, but also the excellence of the meat they have produced. We did not fail to visit the Abattoir du Roule, where all the prize animals were taken first, to be photo- graphed and then slaughtered, under the immediate inspection of gentlemen especially appointed by the Government to have every part of the carcase carefully weighed, and make a return according to breeds and ages of the prize beasts. Considering the great importance which the produc- tion of meat is daily assuming, from increasing con- sumption and gradual rise in the price of the supply, such returns will be highly interesting. The French minister, M. Rouher, in his excellent speech at the distribution of prizes, spoke at some length upon this subject. Knowing that a transla- tion of that speech will be highly interesting, we con- dense so much of it as bears upon topics possessing importance to English agriculturists : — " Gentlemen, — The general exhibition of fat stock for the year 1857 opens a ne^v sphere to your studies, and points out a new aim to your cflbrts. ' ' Last year we gathered together, in the Pal of Industry, the most varied races of breeding animals ; and that agricultural festival has propagated and diffused the best instruction. On this day, in this place, prepared by a municipal administration ever hospitable, we have been enabled to invite to a new celebration those whose progress we had for a long time watched from so great a distance. " For the first time, we can subject to a comparative examination the animals prepared for the French markets, and those fattened for English consumption. This comparison will produce some information, and a useful emulation. We must, then, thank the breeders of Great Britain for their cordial readiness to respond to our invitation. They have already seen with what admiration, free from envy, we have examined the magnificent specimens of their beautiful ra^s : we shall soon give them a new proof of our sympathies, with our hearty cheers when they come to receive the legitimate rewards which have been av.arded them by the jury. *' Let us be permitted to think that they have also rendered justice to the spirit of our efforts, the rapidity of our progress, and the beauty of our races. . . . "The consumption of meatin Paris, which in 1846 was 1,240,000 cwts., in 1851, 1,440,000 cwts., had risen in 1855 to 1,680,000 cwts. The period of the last five years, as compared with the five preceding years, pre- sents an increase of consumption of 24 per cent, for Paris; and the individual consumption, allowing for the increase of population during the same periods, has risen from 1361bs. to 1601bs., that is from 16 to 17 per cent " These statistical data are an element to re-unite to so many others, in order to quiet that uneasiness awakened by the last census, and refute the assertions, erroneous as they are, and tainted with ingratitude, of certain pas- sionate and unjust party-men. Although certain grievous but purely accidental causes have slackened the increase of population ; although the activity of our great public works has caused a displacement of labour- ers ; although certain districts have undergone the tem- porary excitement of the spirit of emigration ; never- theless the movement of agricultural production has not ceased to be progressive. " In this community, all the strength of which is put in motion, interests may experience rapid transformations, but they cannot long remain in a state of depression. If agricultural labour became more scarce, inanimate instruments would soon be substituted for animated ones. Do not already agricultural implements occupy an important place in our cultivation ? Capital seems to be exclusively invested in industrial undertakings ; but if public credit, which diftuses through our country so much vitality and riches, has its preferences, do not think it guilty of blind injustice. Industry, by deve- loping the floating riches of a country, is the most powerful auxiliary of agriculture. Wherever capital becomes abundant, it is not long before it seeks, by its incorporation with the land, the best conditions of sta- bility. It is capital which will stop in our country the excessive parcelling out of the soil, and will gradually, and in a useful measure, reconstitute large properties. Look to England, and see all that which the prodigious prosperity of her industry has enabled her to do for the prosperity of her agriculture. Look nearer to us : are not the most perfect cultures to be seen in the imme- diate vicinity of great industrial centres of population ? "The mission of the government placed at the head of that prosperous nation, has been defined with one word by the Chief of the State, * Enlighten and direct ; be- hold its duty,' said the Emperor. Thus it has appeared useful to the Government to judge the different methods, not only by their produce, but still by inquiring what care, skill, and expense they have required. " Expensive successes would never succeed in pro- moting abundance. It is then necessary to examine the 446 THE {"ARMER'S MAGAZINE. operations from their beginning, ami in all their details, to know thoroughly the means employed, to open at last a grand inquest about the most commendable agricul- tural undertakings. I have endeavoured to achieve this by granting important, premiums to those agricul- turists who have distinguished themselves by their success. " A large production is, no doubt, the first cause of cheapness ; but it is not the only one. The facility of transport must also concur in it. A bad commercial system might render it impossible. These considerations have brought me to submit to a new study the ques- tions relative to meat taxation, and to the organization of the Paris meat trade, about which I spoke to you last year. The Council of State are deliberating upon the question. They will weigh the advantages and incon- veniencies of liberty — the advantages and inconveniencies of restriction : they will examine all the systems in their full independence, without any preconceived idea — without any arbitrary theory — in aiding themselves with the data of experience, and the facts established by time. They will allow for the diverse, but not contradictory, interests of the breeders, intermediaries, and consumers, and will prepare the most prudent solutions with the profound sagacity that presides over thsir deliberations. " By prescribing these investigations, the Government of the Emperor has only one aim, which is also yours, because it is that of all good citizens — to prevent or alleviate sufferings — to insure to all intelligent labourers and honest men that comfort which they would demand in vain from barren agitations, but which they must ob- tain by labour and honesty. " This end shall be attained, gentlemen, be certain of it. The chief of the State has placed your interests under the direct protection of his vigilance and his genius, when he said at the opening of the last Legislative Session, ' The progress of agriculture must be one of the objects of our constant solicitude, for its progress or decline deter- mines the prosperity or the fall of empires.' " We have thus given at some length this remarkable speech, because it will remain as a test and a declaration of principles, the sincerity of which will be further tried in futurity. We say futurity advisedly, for the present state of things is in direct opposition with all these high-flown declarations. French agriculture, incited by our example, is making the noblest efforts to emancipate herself from the trammels of routine and ignorance. During our stay here we have visited farms which, by their excellent management, would do honour to the best of our agricultural districts, and leave far behind the average skill of some farmers. But would any- one believe, after speeches of the Emperor and his ministers, that the greatest obstacles to agricultural pro- gress come from the Government themselves? No one in England can have a conception of the vexatious obstacles which beset an agriculturist who wishes to avail himself of the means which science, by its precious discoveries, puts at his disposal. We all know that salt, for instance, has become one of the most important auxiliaries of good farming. We lately ad- vised a French agriculturist, who complained to us that he lost full one-third of his cereal crops yearly by the lodging of his corn, to use salt, assuring him that it was a never-failing remedy ; but the difficulties to obtain the quantity he wants from a monopolizing Government are such that he must either give it up altogether, or else buy it at the Government price, fixed by a mono- poly, which would be ruinous. We advised another to try superphosphate mixed with salt for his mangolds. ■ The superphosphate was sent from England, but i stopped at the Custom House on its arrival at Havre, and notwithstanding the most strenuous efforts to obtain its free admission, it is still in the clutches of the officials, where it is likely to remain until it goes back to England. The same gentleman applied also for salt ; but owing to similar vexatious and senseless formalities, he had been obliged to give it up in despair. Our readers are aware, besides, at what difficulties and expense English implements are admittted into France. Let our readers add to all these drawbacks the heavy duty on iron, which keeps up the price of the material so extensively used in agriculture almost to that of a luxury, and they will come with us to the con- clusion that before we can give credit to the French Government for the sincerity of their good intentions, so grandiloquently expressed, we must witness a com- plete leversal of the policy of their fiscal laws and re- gulations concerning the raw materials of agricultural production. We omitted in our report to mention an interest- ing feature of the banquet which took place after the show. On the right of M. Barral sat a Russian gentleman, the owner of the very ground upon which the allied armies pitched their tents and unfurled their glorious banners before Sebastopol. The gory fields where Inkermann, Balaklava, and Traskir were fought, the bloodstained trenches where so many of our country- men found a shroudless grave, and the mournful en- closure on Cathcart hill, beneath the surface of which so many heroes sleep the sleep of death, are his. His numerous herds and flocks are now peaceably grazing the green turf which Nature, heedless of men's strife, silently lays over the ruins now restored to peace and solitude. \(, af.-tjco 9r('< CATTLE-BREEDIiVG IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND. (From the Slide.) la both countries an equal number of sheep is bred ; this number is about 35,000,000 head. The 35,000,000 in the United Kingdom live on 31,000,000 hectares (2^ acres), while the 35,000,000 in France live on 53,000,000 hectares. It therefore results that on an equal extent of territory the English breed two sheep where we only breed one. This is not the sole difference. In many of our departments the pro- duction of fine wool has been encouraged to the detriment of the production of meat. The English have sent their fine merinos to Australia, where they prosper adtnirably, and their whole attention is devoted to the production of meat. It thence results that the 35,000,000 French sheep produce annually 60,000,000 kilogrammes (2 lbs.) of wool, and 144,000,000 kilo- grammes of meat ; while the 35,000,000 English sheep prodnce THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 447 a&nualty 60,000,000 kilogrammes of wool, ar.d 360,000,000 kilogrammes of meat. The proportion of rauttou produced in France and England exists in the very disproportionate figures of 144 to 360. And in these figures we have compared France with the British isles, thus comprising the hilly regions and moors of Scotland, as, likewise, the poorer districts of Ireland- Were we to confine ourselves to England proper, the contrast would be even greater. England breeds two sheep per hectare against two-thirds of a sheep bred by France ; the produce of an English sheep is more than double that of a French one. So much for the ovine race. In England the consumption of milk is considerable, and cheese forms an important article of food. The county of Cheshire alone supplies cheese of the annual value of £1,000,000 sterling. Milk is sold dearer iu England than in France. Our cows produce 1,000,000,000 litres of milk, which is sold at an average price of 10 cents, the litre ; the English cows produce double the quantity, which is sold at double the price — consequently the English agriculturists derive a profit four times larger than the French farmers. The English breed 8,000,000 head of cattle on 31,000,000 hectares; the French breed 10,000,000 on 53,000,000 hectares. Therefore the English, on an equal sur- face given, possess more cattle than the French, The butchers' trade of France slaughters annually 4,000,000 head of cattle, which produce 500,000,000 kilogrammes (2 lbs.) of meat. The English slaughter annually 2,000,000 head, and yet obtain above a quarter more meat than the French. Whence proceeds this immense difference ? In England very little veal is eaten ; it is not considered as meat in proper condition to be slaughtered, and the farmers are aware that in killing a calf a source of capital is destroyed. In France, out of 4,000,000 head of cattle slaughtered, calves figure for 2,500,000. Veal is a poor article of food, butVe do uot possess sufficient forage to allow our calves to reach their maturity. In England oxen never work in the fields,' and they attain considerable fatness. In France cattle are slaughtered after several years' labour ; they are fatigued, exhausted, and afl'ord relatively a scanty supply of meat. It will be said that our cattle give in labour what they lose in flesh, but the compensation is not equal, as the following table shows : French cattle give annually — In milk 1 00,000,000 f. In meat 400,000,000 la labour 200,000,000 Total .. .. 700,000,000 f. The cattle of England give each year — In milk 400,000,000 In meat 500,000,000 In labour Total .. .. 900,000,000 f. A cow in England produces, therefore, more by its milk and meat than the same animal in France by its milk, meat, and labour. SALTING-IN GRASS— COPROLITE— HAIR AND BLOOD MANURE. 1. Sai.ting-in Grass. — How far the Prussian method, given in your last, may answer in this country, in competi- tinn with hay, may be best ascertained by doing it in wet or precirious seasons, when the hay might be in danger ; thus saving it from spoiling, and enabling the grazier to com- pare its feeding power with that of a like crop made into hay — so profiting by Prussian experience to guide us in an experiment likely to be of considerable importance in our capricious climate. 2. CopROLiTE,— In reply to " A. G.," respecting copra- lite, it is worth, accordiog to the prices of manures in your paper, £3 15s. to £4 10s. per ton. It is largely found in England, consists of impui-e phosphate of lime, and thus forms a substitute for bone, both in dressing pasture and turnips, and making superphosphate ; but for the latter purpose consumes much sulphuric acid, and for dressing tur- nips or permanent pasture needs to be thoroughly crushed, as it is hard and insoluble. It may be made more tendtr bj' heating just dull red in a kiln, or heap, and quenching suddenly in cold water. The manure dealers understand the management of it; but perhaps the best way the farmer can use it is, when crushed in compost with roots, weeds, and other vegetable matters, with salt enough to kill the roots, seeds, and vermin : the acid generated in such a compost will help the solubility of the coprolite. But dung or lime must not enter into the compost, as their alcaline tendency would go to neutralize the acid. 3. Blood and Hair as a Manure. — The inquiries about blood and hair are three weeks old ; but having not been answered since, I take the same opportunitj'. Blood is a powerful nitrogenous manure, containing three percent, of nitrogen. Its use is well understood by the manure makers, one firm of which, in London, consumes 2,500 gallons per day. In Northamptonshire, the farmers com- post it with peat ashes and charcoal powder, about 8 bushels to 50 gallons blood for turnips and j'oung wheat ; for tur- nips 48 bushels an acre (or 16 bushels, with dung) ; for top dressing young wheat 20 to 30 bushels an acre. They keep the compost a year or two (Johnston) ; but five or six months would probably answer, if turned well up once a month, or oftener. Hair is about the richest material in nitrogen that we possess, containing, when dry and clean, 16 per cent, (more than the best Peruvian guano) ; but when damp and dirty, the nitrogen must be, of course, proportionately less, perhaps not half in the state of fellmonger's refuse. From its difficulty of decomposition, however, its fertili- zing action is slow, unless the solubility be promoted by other agents. There is a patent for reducing it with sul- phuric acid ; but the farmer may probably use it best by working well in a hot compost of dung and urine, with a vegetable absorbent of dead leaves, tan, bark-refuse, or peat earth, to retain the ammonia. The other " tanner'^ refuse" included in the same inquiry, if of animal matter, may be chopped up and treated like the hair, if hard aild horny ; or if soft, mixed in the yard-dung heap ; the bark refuse is of little value, except for working nitrogenous matters and retaining the ammonia. J. Prideaux. JOHN TOWERS, ESQ.-On Saturday, April 1 1 , at his house at Croydon, at the good old nge of 70, died John Towers. In him the agriculturists of England lost one of their oldest and most indefatigable writers. For a long series of years he had been a contributor to the Quarterly Journal of Edinburgh the Farmer''s Mafiazlne,ani Mark Lane Express. He laboured almost to the last for the acqui sition of knowledge with all the buoyancy of his earlier jears. His industry in advocating, and assisting in the application of science to agriculture, his long pilgrimages amid the Surrey hills, his useful meteorological records, marked this thirst of knowledge. If our readers could have seen him in his well-stored library carrying on his scientific manipula- tions, and recording the result of his observations, at a time when he was nearly fourscore years of age, they would have felt with us that the farmers never had a more zealous or untiring friend than the late John Towers. 448 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, THE ACREAGE DUTY ON HOPS. PUBLIC MEETING AT TUNBRIDGE. On Tuesday, April 14th, a meeting of the hop planters, resident iu Tunbridge and its neighbourhood, was held at the Town Hall, " for the purpose of taking into consideration the propriety of petitioning the Chancellor of the Exchequer for an acreage duty, in lieu of the present excise duty," There was a very large attendance, and considerable inter- est appeared to be taken in the proceedings. The Rev, W. M, S. Marriott, rector of Horsmonden, presided ; and among' those present were the Rev. G. S. Woodgate, Messrs. Carneli, S. Monckton, J. Waite, Ashby, J. M. Luck, Tompsett, John- son, Cox, Twort, Thirkell, Waterhouse, J. Holmden, Austen, Cronk, Wilfoar, Wheeler, Chatfield, Fagg, Ranger, Masters, II. Simes, Children, H. Edwards, Wightwick, Harris, T. Par- ker, Skinner, Phillips, Spencer, Maplesdcn, &c., &c. The Rev. Chairman, in commencing the proceedings, said, when several gentlemen called on him the other day at Horsmonden, and requested that he would preside on the pre- sent occasion, he informed them that he should be most happy to do so. He had stated to them his own opinions upon the subject, and he had been informed that this meeting was to be called with a view of seeing whether some agreement might not be entered iuto, to which the hop planters might assent, so that the case might be brought before the Ch?,ncellor of the Exchequer with some hope of a satisfa-'tory sr ttlemeut of the matter. They would excuse his presumption in appsaring there as chairman of that meetinpr, as he was not at present a hop planter himself, although at the time of the alteration of the corn laws, when a number of farmers were thrown out of occupation, he then, for some time, had experience as to what the difficulties and anxieties of a hop planter were (Hear, hear). Though not now a hop planter, yet as a landlord in this county, he was as much interested in and identified with the question as any hop planter might be. He thought it would, perhaps, be right for him to state, at the outset, his own opinions upon this subject, as chairman of the meeting. lie had always, in considering this subject, felt it would be a matter of very great loss to the hop planters generally if the cnstoms duty were abolished (Hear). He was aware that thore were persons who vi^ould be willing to sacrifice the cus- toras duty, provided they could get a general rtpeal of the hojt duty, and so have free-trade in hops; and every man cer- taiiJy had a right to entertain whatever opinions he chose on the.'ie matters. But in his humble opinion, if such a resolu- tion were come to, it would prove most detrimental to the interests of the hop planters (Hear). He was of opinion that they would then be exposed not merely to competition from abroad, but to competition from many parts of this country where hops had been hitherto grown only to a limited extent. He believed if a total repeal of the hop duty were effected, they would be exposed to two great dif- ficultf.cs. They would not merely have the option of falling into Scylla in order to avoid Chary bdis, but as the Irishman said, f;hey would fall into Scylla and Charybdis at the same time ('Hear, hear, and laughter). There was another question conne jted with this •, he alluded to the duty upon hops. He had long felt that they were labouring uiuler a most grievons and intolerable injuaticcgl/fhey had been, as hop planters, paying for the past forty years a war duty iu the time of peace (Hear, hear). While other classes were enjoying the advan- tages and blessings resulting from peace, the hop planters were unable to say " Peace, peace ;" there was no peace while they were obliged to pay a war duty (Hear, hear). It had been said by his (the chairman's) worthy and excellent friend, Mr. Masters Smith, whose absence from the House of Com- mons was a subject of great regret, not for his own sake, but for the sake of the hop planters, whose interests he (Mr. Smith) had watched over with the greatest possible anxiety and vigilance ; and he (the chairman) was afraid Mr. Smith's absence would be much felt in that respect in the forthcoming parliament: It had been said by him, that, upon a late occa- sion, when he went into the same lobby with the Chancellor of Exchequer, he took the opportunity of pressing upon that hon. gentleman the claims of the hop planters; and in the course of conversation, Mr. Smith pressed upon the Chancel- lor's attention the war duty on hops, and the propriety of its abolition. The answer of the Chancellor of the Exchequer was that he was not then contemplating taking off the duties of a former war, but merely those imposed during the late war in which we were engaged. He (the chairman) thought a rnoY^ unjust answer could not possibly have been given, as if the length of time during which an injustice had been inflicted made it at all more bearable ! The rev. Chairman next spoke of the acreage duty, which came upon them with some peculiar claims, supported and encouraged by a gentleman for whom they allentertained'thc'highest respect — he meant Mr. Thomas Law Hodges (cheers). Mr. Hodges had now advanced to a late period of life, and, of course, the infirmities of life came with length of years. Notwithstanding this, however, his raind was as energetic and active as ever; and whenever the subject of the hop duties was discussed, he (Mr, Hodges) was like an old war-horse, when he hears the war trumpet (cheers). Mr. Hodges had been recently engaged on a bill, which had been drawn up with great care, and of which he (the chairman) had seen a draught. With regard to the customs duty he pro- posed to diminish that duty from £9 53. to £1 5s., and he farther proposed that foreign hops should pay an immediate duty upon coming to this country, and that they should not be bonded at all. It had been said that it was impossible for the hop planters to agree oa the subjects more immediately interesting them ; but he (the chairman) hoped and trusted, as it was iu no way a party question, that every one Would admit a little on the one hand, and permit a little on the other, so that some resolution might be come to, which would have the effect of taking away from the Cimncellor of the Ex- chequer, and from those who might succeed him, the excuse they had hitherto made, that they would do something for the hop planters when they had agreed together among themselves (Hear). Let ^them, upon questions concerning their interests quote the poet who said — " Our doubts are traitors, and make us often lose The good we'd have by fearing to attempt" (cheers). The Rev. Mr, Woodgate proposed a resolution to the effect that this meeting was of opinion that it would be con- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 449 ducive to the interests of the hop planters to petition the Chancellor of the Exchequer to have an acreage duty of £3 in lieu of the present excise duty. He was not at all surprised to see so large a number of hop planters present to-day, as they must all feel that they were placed in a most unfair posi- tion (Hear), He thought, when they recollected the past two years, and the duty they haci had to pay upon their crops during that period, they must feel that it was quite time that men of all political opinions should combine to carry out the object they had in view (Hear, hear). He thought that the prospects of the British farmer were extremely gloomy and diacouragiiig ; that now the war was over there would be large importations of corn from Russia, from the provinces cf the Danube, and from other sources. The rev. gentleman next glanced iit the facility with which corn and other com- moditie!) might now be transported from one country to another in consequence of the rapid extension of railways, and went en to remark that it well became them to consider how these difficulties in prospect might be met practically (Hear.) There were two modes of meeting this question — one of them popular in Mid Kent — that they should do away with the war duty of 5 per cent.; but he (Mr. Woodgate) was of opinion that no such thing as a war duty existed, as he considered that Sir Robert Peel, v/hsn he revised the excise and customs duties anew, in connexion with his free-trade tariff, had been under the impression that he had set the matter at rest for ever by assigning a cuatoms duty of £2 Ss., and leaving the excise duty where it was previously. One mode was the substitution of an acreage duty of £3, in lieu of the excise duty which was now being paid. He (Mr. Woodgate) hoped that the Kent and Sussex planters would know their interests sufficiently to be of opinion that if they could gain this point from the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer, it woulii meet their difficulties, and enable them to persevere in the cultivation of hops. He thought it was right to mention to them that Mr. Hodges had been preparing a bill, in which he proposed that there should be an acreage duty of £3, and he further proposed that the customs duty should be reduced from £2 5s. to £1 5s. If that proposition were carried, were they prepared to say that that would be equiva- lent to their expectations and wishes (No, no.) Clearly not. Then, the last proposal which existed, if they sought an acre- age duty, either of £3 or any other sum, and it was not granted to them, would be free-trade in hops; he did nit see how they could meet the case otherwise. He did not see how they could go on with the cultivation of hops if there were no alleviation in the duty which was now paid. It would then become a question with the Kent and Sussex plav.ters to say whether they were prepared for free trade or otherwise, or whether they could grow hops in the present state of things at a commensurate profit. Mr. Woodgate concluded by again reading the resolution ; and remarked with regard to the re- daction of the customs duty, proposed by Mr. Hodges, that they did not meet at all to entertain or discuss that question. Mr. Children seconded the resolution, and expressed a hope that the hop-planters, and all those interested in the cultivation of hops, would be unanimous on the subject, Mr. Meades opposed the proposition with some warmth, remarking that they grew in Timbridge pariah double the quantity cf hops per acre that they could do in his locality [A.S we understood, in Sussex]. It would be most unfair that they should be called upon to pay the same duty as such dis- tricts as Riverhead, Sevenoaks, Maidstone, Cranbrook, the Weald of Kent, &c. He would rather submit to a further imposition of lOs. more on the duty than endorse an acreage duty of £3, Mr. Thirkell combatted Mr. Meades's views on the sub- ject ; and remarked that he cultivated hops in several different parishes in Kent, and he was satisfied that the largest crops of hops could be grown on the poorest land. He then con- trasted the produce on some comparatively rich land, for which he paid £6 per acre, and some popr land, for which he paid 15s. per acre — land which some persons would not have taken at all ; and he found that the greatest crops were grown on the poorest land, as the subsoil was brick-earth, and it grew the largest crops. Mr. Thirkell also said they had been paying a war-duty for 35 years, through being divided, as it appeared they were now. If they would not give a long pull and a strong pull together — if private interests could not be waived — the truth was, that they would still have to endure the same impost as they had hitherto done (Hear, hear). With regard to tl;e customs duty, and a due protection of their interests, Mr. Thirkell said the hop-planters were not in a position to compete in our markets with foreigners, and that the hops of the latter were worth considerably more than the English. If they allowed the foreigner to come in free, the hop-planters of this country would have to gnib up their plantations. If the hop-planters could get an acreage-duty of £3, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer would allow the £2 5i. customs duty to remain, it would conduce to their interests (Hear, hear). Dr. S. MoNCKTON, of Brenchley, said it seemed to him that the agitation, which had now been carried on for a long period of time, had never yet had given to it a preliminary and distinct statement of the object to be attained. It appeared to him that the first resolution they should adopt .ought to embody a distinct — and it ought to be a unanimous — opinion, on the part of the meeting, that the excise duty upon hops, as now levied, was oppressive in its amount, and unequal in its pressure. If they coidd get the meeting to carry unanimously that proposition, there would be one point gained— one point so far as it regarded unanimity, at nil c-ve.ts. Dr. Monckton then proceeded to descant, at gome length, on the inequality and pressure of the tax, and then went on to suggest a resolution, to the effect he had men- tioned. Then came the second question, how could these two points ba remedied? There were three remedies as old aa Adam. The first v/as free trade — the abolition of both duties — which was the point aimed at, of course, by those who were perpetually, day and night, looking through the green spec- tadea of free trade ; for there were some who could only see an absolute remedy for anythin-j; of this description by the adoption of free trade (Hear, hear). But if they had free trade in hops, they were done. It was said to him below- stsirs, about five minutes ago, " Was not the same prediction made with respect to free trade in corn ? and had not thKt been stultified?" It had, so far; but let tl>em wait for two years longer, and then see whether these predi'.tions had been stultified or otherwise. If they had free trade, they would extend tlieir cultivation at home, as a large number of acres woidd then be planted which it was not now worth while to cultivate; and so they would increase home competition. B\it, although he did not wish particularly to broach that ex- clisive principle with reference to our own iiomo competition, how did the foreign market stand ? Many of them knew— and knew it smartly, tio— that they had active competitors to deal with there. He would ask of them, what would become of British capital— that large capital which was now in the hands of men whose interests led them directly into cheap markets and low prices for hops ? Dr. Monckton went on to say that hops would be introduced in unlimited quantities from the fertile plains of Bohemia, the provinces of France, 450 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. &c., and inquired what would then become of the British hop- planters ? At this moment, he (Dr. Monckton) had a ton of Joynes's hops in France. They had been there for the past three months, in the hands of personal friends ; and he could not get 45 francs for them. At this moment, English hops were worth only 45 Jraucs per cwt. in France ; and if they had free trade in hops, it would settle the Englisli hop- planters. It they must have free trade in hops, for goodness' sake, let them not seek it themselves ; and he thought, if it were adopted, he should go home and grub up his hops. Then, again, the next remedy was the reduction of the war-duty. There was a strong section of persons interested in the pro- diiction of hops, who went about agitating for the remission of the war-duty upon hops. But there were two important things to recollect. As Mr. Woodgate had very properly said, there was no war-duty ; and in asking for its remission, they perpetuated one grievance — namely, the inequality of pressure — perpetuating the expense of its collection. Com- mending the £3 acreage duty to their notice, as worthy of their most serious consideration, as the third remedy, and remarking that it would particularly benefit the Sussex planters. Dr. Monckton said that the duty should be paid from the first day that they planted until they grubbed. The Chairman observed that the bill of Mr. Hodges proposed that nothing should be paid the first year, half the duty the second year, and then £3. Dr. Monckton was sorry to differ with the bill brought forsvard by Mr. Hodges, and referred to the proposed reduction of the customs duty, which he did not approve of, and to which he did not believe the hop planters would assent ; it was a most dangerous thing, opening the market to intruding foreiguers, while English capital was sent abroad. One point too was of peculiar difficulty, as proposed by Mr. Hodges, introducing specialty into the case, with reference to bonding foreign hops. Tea, wine, &c., were bonded, and it would be asked why should any special favour be made in behalf of the English hop planters. All they wanted was that their pay- ments should be commuted to £3 per acre, and that the ciistouis duty should remain unchanged. Mr. TiiiRKELL : That is retaining it at £2 58. Dr. Monckton replied in the affirmative, and expressed his regret at feeling it his duty to introduce sentiments of difference in his remirks, but said he was desirous of having the questions at present agitating hop planters settled. Mr. Nash, of Rochester, as a grower of hops for many years, said he had long felt that the hop planters were suffering, and to a heavy extent, from the duty imposed upon them by growing hops. He also felt that they should be unanimous upon some point or other, and expressed the disappointmeni; he felt at the failure of an attempt to make an arrangement on the subject affecting their interests, at Maidstone, two years ago. He (Mr, Nash) was of opinion that a total remission of duty would be beneficial to the grower, and he had thought it his duty in all the votes he had given to candidates desiriug to represent them in parliament, to press the matter upon their attention ; and he was happy to inform the meeting that at Brentford, Mr. Hanbury pledged himself to vote for a total repeal of the hop duty ; and Lord Robert Grosveuor had also stated that he was perfectly sure that an alteration ought to be made, but he was not then quite prepared to say what that alteration ought to be. He (Mr. Nash) would not oppose an acreage duty if they could get it ; but if there was the least intimation from the Chancellor of the Exchequer that they were to have the customs duty taken off, he (Mr. Nash) would then say — go the whole hog, and never rest satisfied until they got every fraction of that duty repealed. Mr. Thirkell said he would rather have a double excise duty put on than that which Mr. Nash advocated should be carried into effect. Mr. Monckton also made a remark to the same effect, Mr. Nash observed that although they had lost their friend, Mr. Masters Smith, he believed that the two members for Middlesex and the members for Kent would be able to fill his place, and that they would see that justice was done to the hop planters. Mr. Nash next spoke of the hop planters as employing a large amount of surplus labour, aud referred to the paymeut of great and small tithes, which he condemned ; concluding by expressing a hope that they would be unani- mous in their decision as to the £3 acreage duty, although in doing 80 he sacrificed his own feelings ; if they could not do so, he should advocate free-trade. Mr. Thirkell was at a loss to conceive how they could be placed in a better position to compete with the foreigner by taking off the duty. Mr. Marsh denied that foreign hops were preferred by the brewers to English, but said that a system of deception was carried on by which large quantities of hops, of au inferior de- scription, were written down as " Choice Goldiuga," and palmed off on the brewers, of which they were beginning to be sensible. They did not like foreign hops, and would not touch those from America, while they turned up their noses at the hops from Belgium. But they had occasionally re- sorted to foreign markets for this reason ; When the English growers had a quantity of hops, they would not take a fair price for them, and thus drove these men to a foreign market. Thousands of pockets were offered at a long price — £23 or £24 per pocket, which they were ultimately obliged to sell for £14, and serve them right too. They (the hop planters) had driveu the brewers to look out for hops in other places, be- cause they would not grow the proper quality, or. when they grew quality, they would not sell them at a fair price. Mr. Thirkell said the fault was to be ascribed to the merchants, who endeavoured to depreciate the hops they re- ceived, when in Loudon, aud then sent them to Manches- ter, Liverpool, and elsewhere, and sold them as choice Gold- ings, Colgates, &c. The Chairman then put the resolution, as proposed by the Rev. Mr. Woodgate, and seconded by Mr. Children. Mr. Henry Edwards supported the proposition, and said that he hoped it would be carried unanimously, as well as adopted throughout Kent and Surrey, aud all other coun- ties where hops were grown. The resolution was then put and carried nem. con. Mr. Edwards proposed, and Mr. Thirkell seconded a resolution to the effect that comrnittees should be formed in the several hop-growing districts for the purpose of carry- ing the first resolution into effect.; which was adopted, and a committee appointed for the Tunbridge district. On the motion of Mr. Nash, a vote of thanks was unani- mously accorded to the Chairman, who, in returning thanks, said he wished to say one word with respect to a remark which had fallen from Dr. Monckton with regard to their being exposed to home^^competitiou. He (the Chairman) did not wish to see hops grown in other counties which hitherto had not grown them, and which would be the case, if free trade in hops were adopted, as a large population was at pre- sent supported in the hop districts, who would be materially affected if hops were grown in other districts where they were not now cultivated. The proceedings then terminated. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4.Jl THE CHOICE AND SUITABLE UTILITY OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS FOR TILLAGE AND STOCK FARMS. At a recent meeting of the Bakewell Farmers' Club, at Bakewell, Mr. B. Swaffield in the chair, at which Lord Deuman and other influential members were present, Mr. Lawrence Furniss, one of the most successful and enter- prising farmers in North Derbyshire, read the following paper " On the choice and utility of agricultural imple- ments—the description most suitable for tillage and stock farms." Mr. FuRMSs, after a few preliminary i-emarks, proceeded : I am sure you will agree with me that the subject under consideration is of considerable importance to the farmer. A good stock of implements, the best of their kind, is not only essential to good cultivation, but for economizing labour, for which reason I hold that it is as important for the farmer thus to pi-ovide himself with farm machinery, as to stock his farm with cattle and sheep. During the last ten years, great improvements have been effected in the construction of farm implements, which has been chiefly owing to the annual exhibitions of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, with other societies of a kindred nature, presenting the opportunity of comparison, and of seeing them tried in their respective classes. The result of these comparisons and trials, with the suggestive im- provements by scientific manufacturers, is, that farm machinery has arrived at such a high degree of perfection, that the fanner in making a judicious selection — that is, in purchasing the implements from the most scientific and prac- tical manufticturers — will rarely have to complain of disap- pointment. Gentlemen, I shall now proceed to introduce to your notice what I conceive to be the most economical and effective implements on the farm. I advocate iron- wheel ploughs, for various reasons— durability, the little skill required on the part of the ploughman, the ease and regularity with which the horses work the plough, the uniformity of depth and mdth of the furrow slice, the great annual saving at the smith's shop and of labour in carry- ing the irons to and from the farm. I find by reference to blacksmiths' bills the annual expense in repairs on wood ploughs to be from 35s. to 40s. ; on iron ploughs having the same amount of wear, not more than 10s. On lands un- suitable for wheel ploughs, substitute the iron smng plough. I recommend the use of iron harrows in preference to the old-fashioned wood haiTows ; there is no comparison for durability, efficiency, and dispatch. One operation with the best-constructed iron harrow, each time cutting a separate track, will be equal to two or three of the wood harrows. When worn out, they can be sold for old iron. The corn drill is a most valuable implement for depositing the various 'sorts of grain ; the result of the use of the drill will be saving of seed to the amount of from 4 to 6 pecks per acre ; the seed being sown at one uniform depth, and at any width between the drills you may desire, gives an opportunity of hoeing betwixt the rows, which is of great service in de- stroying weeds and in promoting the growth of the crop. There will be some advantage, too, in the crop arriving earlier at maturity, and being more kindly ripe. For clean- ing or fallowing the land, in addition to ploughs and harrows, the farmer should possess himself of a drag, which can be used as a stubble parer, as well as breaking up the turnip lands for sowing. One deep ploughing in theauturau in connexion with this implement, will be sufficient for the fallowing process. The size of the drag to be in proportion to the number of horses on the farm ; the larger the drag, the more effective is its operation. Drag haiTows should be had for fallowing ; they are heavier than seed harrows, fewer and longer teeth passing through the rough clods without sledging, penetrating to the bottom of the loosened earth. These two implements will bring up the rubbish on to the surface, exposing as much as possible the soil to the influence of the sun and air. In order that this important operation of the farm may be effective— that of thoroughly cleaning the land — a clod crusher must be had ; for, unlesg you pulverize and break do\vn the clods, you cannot rely on destroying the couch grass and small seeds of weeds, and except these seeds are exposed to atmospheric influences and made to vegetate, you cannot annihilate them. I would abandon the old-fashioned stone roller, and substitute in its place the metal roller, of suitable width and weight. The advantages of this change will be despatch ; one man and two horses will get over sixteen acres per day, it is less liable to breakage, and of great durability. Two kinds of turnip drills are made— one for ridge work, the other for flat. These drills should be of a character to sow the seed and manure at one operation. I am decidedly in fiivour of the ridge system. You have greater facilities for horse hoeing, a most important operation, promoting the growth of the plant, destroying weeds, diminishing labour in thinning and hoeing, and producing a heavier crop. Sowing turnips on the flat may have some advantage where the turnips are to be eaten oft' the land by sheep, as they probably will stand the winter better, being more thoroughly imbedded in the soil, the result of their being of smaller size and on the flat. The grass seed drill — a simple, inexpensive imple- ment— is of great value to the fanner. By the use of this drill, the seed will be sown with the utmost regularity, much less seed will be required, and one man will get over 18 acres per day. Barn machinery is of too much import- ance to be overlooked. On farms where one hundred acres of corn are grown, steam should be employed for thrashing, chaft' cutting, cake breaking, preparing or cooking food for cattle, &c. Where a smaller breadth of corn is grown, it is questionable whether the farmer would be warranted in going to the expense of a steam engine. Probably the interest of the money would be greater than the advantages, consequently horse power must be had recourse to. In selecting a thrashing machine, make choice of one that will not shell or injure the grain, and one that will bring out the straw as straight as if it had been thrashed by the flail. The bolting thrashers possess this advantage over the open drum machines. Great economy in labour will be the result of thrashing by power, besides enabling you to sell at a greater advantage. Certain machinery is required in pre- paring the corn for market — a winnowing machine and blower. If these implenu'uts are of the right sort and skil- fully worked, your com factor will not complain of bad dressing when your grain goes to market. The chaft" cuttd* is an instrument of great utility, if of the right sort ; worked by power, any quantity of hay or straw may be cut. The 2 G 452 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. root grater is a newly-invented implement, and one of great promise, to be used in connexion with the chaff cutter. The grated roots amalgamated with the chaff, allow it to fer- ment to a certain extent, before being given to the cattle, sheep, and horses. I need not expatiate on the utility re- sulting from the best-constructed turnip cutters ; they are absolutely essential in the proper feeding of cattle and sheep, On grass or dairy farms, the hay-maker is a desirable im- plement. This machine has been brought to such a high degree of perfection, as almost to be pronounced perfect, One of these implements, in connection with the horse rake, ■vvill, in the hay field, supersede manual labour to a consi- derable extent. The hay-maker can only, with propriety, be used on old meadow lands •, the shaking would be too severe on the artificial grasses in thrashing out the seed. I am a decided advocate for one-horse carts for all purposes on the farm. They are to be obtained at the least cost. Fewer horses will be required to get in the harvest than if waggons were employed ; less labour in driving, loading, &c., and greater despatch and conveniency. Considerable improvement has been effected in the construction and manufacture of the smaller implements of the farm, such as drag rakes, forks of various sorts, scythes, spades, shovels, edge tools, &c. Here the farmer will find it to be greatly to his advantage to be very choice in his selection. A farm labourer, with a neat handy tool, will perform much more labour and with greater ease. Gentlemen, I bave now briefly referred to some of the most important implements employed on the farm. I desire, in conclusion, again to urge the necessity of the farmer being exceedingly cautions in making his selection, always purchasing the most effective implements, which are only to be had of the most scientific and experienced makers. At the conclusion, Mr. Furniss was complimented by the members, and a rote of thanks was passed unanimously. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. Horse and hand-hoe all drilled crops : allow not a single weed to be seen. Turn over the heaps of winter-prepared dung ten days before being used, in order to promote the fermentation. Shake all the materials loosely together, and place the outside pieces of the heap into the inside of the newly-formed mass. Plant beet-root early in the month, and Swedish turnips by the middle of May; open drills at 28 inches apart, spread the warm dung from the heaps along the intervals, reverse the drills, and sow the seeds immediately in the fresh tilth of soil, and over the fermenting dung. Roll the drills with a light weight, unless the weather be damp and moist. During the month plant cabbages, kohl-rabi, savoys, and winter broccoli, from the seed beds, in drills three feet apart, and the plants two feet asunder along the drills. Apply very wet farm- yard dung in an ample allowance on stiff lands that are too clayey for turnips, and dibble the plants during the wettest weather in which work can be performed, as the plants require much moisture. Fill all blanks with fresh plants, in order to pro- duce an even crop. Sow early turnips for an early crop, as tankards and whites, and sow rape to be consumed on the ground, as preparatory for wheat. Pare and burn rough lands, and spread the ashes to cool before sowing the seeds of turnips. Pre- pare without intermission the fallows for green crops, and also clay fallows for wheat. Stall-fed cattle will now be sold away ; the fat ones to the butcher, and the unfinished animals will be sent to the pasture fields to be fattened on grass. The milch cows go to a pasture field of permanent grass, adjacent and convenient to the homestead, provided with water and shelter, and improved, if the quality be inferior, by frequent top- | dressings and sowing of clovers and strong peren- nial grasses. The oldest calves may go to the grass paddock, and if the herbage be scanty, an assist- ance must be given in vetches placed in racks. A shelter-shed and a supply of fresh water are indis- pensable. The latest lambs will now require much attention, and the best grass on the farm, in order to raise them on an equality with the foremost. The good management of animals is most clearly shown in an equality of breeding and condition. The ewes and lambs that are consuming on the ground the early vetches and rye, must have fresh food every two days. Begin the soihng of horses and cattle in the yards, and the milch cows also, if the pasture is not sufficient. Feed the store pigs with vetches, and supply ample littering to all ani- mals. As the early soiling green crops are con- sumed, plough the lands to be sown with turnips drilled with ordinary manures. Put mares to the stallions, and geld colts, though the latter operation may be better performed in the previous autumn. Finish the sowing of grass seeds on barley tilths. Sow by machine, and cover by hght harrowing and heavy rolling. Dig hop plantations, and tie the bine to the poles. Shut up watered meadows for hay. Wash sheep by hand in a clear running stream ; and to prevent the maggot-fly, sprinkle the animal from head to tail from a dredging-box, with a mix- ture of hellebore-root powder and of black brim- stone, ilb. to lllb. Weed young quicksets, but not to expose the roots in dry situations to scorching suns. Rather leave the weeds, to retain moisture, provided the upward growth be not checked. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 453 AGRICULTURAL REPORTS, GENERAL AGltlCULTURAL REPORT FOR APRIL. Notwithstanding that the weather has been veiy change- able and cold for the time of year, vegetation has made Eome progress during the month ; still the season may be termed a backward one, and not very favourable to the crops, which in some parts of England are looking far from healthy. There are, however, no serious complaints to be made on this head, and no doubt the return of more genial weather will have its accustomed influence upon the wheats. We have to notice a decided improvement in the demand for nearly all kinds of wheat, which have appeared in better condition than for several months past; and prices have had an upward tendency, the rise in them being from 2s. to 3s. per qr. The trade, however, has been far from brisk? owing in a great measure to the present dearness of money » and, consequently, to the absence of speculation both here and abroad. That we shall have a high range in the value of discounts for a considerable period must be evident to all who have watched the progress of our commercial great- ness, and that the price of corn must be influenced by the valne of money is equally clear. But even without much specialation, our importations will, no doubt, be fully equal to our additional wants ; hence, to calculate upon a high range in the price of wheat diiring the next four or five months, is to exhibit a want of business foresight. At the present moment, our stocks of foreign grain are reduced to a narrow compass, and the supplies on passage to England are limited ; but we must bear in mind that the navigation of the Upper Baltic is now re-opening, and that we shall receive fully our usual import from Russia in addition to heavy arrivals from the United States. The wants of the Peninsula are now well met, consequently we may assume that most of the vessels arriving off our coasts will enter British ports to unload. We are certainly not prepared for a decline in present rates, as we cannot get rid of the im- portant fact that a large consumption is going on, and that, in order to make good consumable flour (owing to the bad condition in wliich our last year's crop was secured), there must be a continuous demand for foreign produce. Very large supplies of barley have come in during the month ; but the quantities shown in Mark -lane have been trifling, from most of the cargoes having gone direct into the hands of the distillers, who have still a large number of orders on hand for raw spirit. As was the case last year, our Russian advices state that only limited quantities of produce will be forwarded to England this season. This is a very lame effort to keep up prices ; but the experience of last season has, no doubt, taught our importers a lesson, not to place too much reliance in circulars emanating from certain houses at St. Petersburgh. Some of the accounts from the interior of America bring unusually low prices for flour ; but at the great shipping ports — New York, Baltimore, &c. — the quotations show ,D0 margin of profit laid down here ; still, our impression is tluit quite as much food will bo received from the United States this year as in IfioG. Numerous contradictory opinions have been expressed in reference to the quantity of vrheat now in the hands of the home-growers, and the falling-off in the sales has been taken as a proof that the supplies are greatly reduced. The decline in the transactions is, no doubt, the result of the late continuous fall in the quotations, and the unwillingness on the part of farmers generally- to part with grain at pre- sent currencies. For our parts, we believe that there is now quite as much wheat in the stackyards as there was at this period in 1856, though its quality is certainly inferior. Although fair average supplies of potatoes have come to hand from our own districts, including Scotland and the continent, prices have considerably advanced, the best sam- ples having risen at the waterside in London to 170s. per ton. This high figure, however, can scarcely be supported, as extensive supplies have yet to come forward. The wool trade has been much less active during the month, and in some instances prices have given way, owing to steady importations from our colonies, the high value of money, and the commencement of large public sales both in London and Liverpool. Apparently, wocl has seen its hignest range here and on the continent, espe- cially as the prospects o future imports is certainly good. There has been much less activity in the markets for linseed and cakes. Prices have ruled rather easier, although the supplies of those articles expected here from India are by no means extensive. Guano has been disposed of at very high rates — too high, indeed, to suit the views of the small cultivators. When shall we see the end of a monopoly in an article so much required by our agriculturists ? Stock, throughout the country, is still very dear, under the influence of an immense consumption. The lambing season has gone on cxtremelj- well. The Irish and Scotch markets have been but moderately supplied with grain. In the early part of the month the trade generally was in a depressed state ; since then, how- ever, the demand has improved, and prices have had an upward tendency. Indian corn, the consumption of which in Ireland continues enormous, has advanced Is. to 2s. per qr. From Scotland, rather large quantities of wheat, in very poor condition, have been forwarded (o the south, where they have sold at very low prices. Barley and oatsj however, have been held at comparatively high rates. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The leading topic of discussion amongst graziers, as well as consumers generally, during the month, has been the probable eft'ects of the order in council, prohibiting the im- portation of stock from the territories of the Emperor of Russia, the King of Prussia, or of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburgh Schwcrin. This order has naturally led to some excitement in the trade, and prices have, as a necessary consequence, been on the advance ; but our impression i: t though it may be at variance with the opinions of many- practical men, that it will not have any great influence upm our markets. There is no question in our minds but that a virulent disease, similar in character to that which attacked the cattle in this country some fifteen years since, h.ns 2 G 2 4 4 THE FARMER' broken out in the territories referred to, and that great losses have been sustained bj' the graziers : still, to pro- duce important changes in our markets, it must be shown that we have hitherto drawn largely from the countries in- dicated, and that importations will almost wholly cease. It is well known that, since the passing of the new tariff, we have drawn our foreign supplies of stock principally from Denmark, Harabro', Holland, Spain, and Portugal. At one period we received a few beasts from Prussia and France ; but latterly those supplies have wholly ceased, owing to the great demand for them at home. As regards Russia, our sole dependence upon that country has been confined during the last twelve years to 40 oxen, which were sent here at a considerable loss: indeed, we may safely state that we shall never receive importations from the Upper Baltic, for the all-important reason that the stock is wholly unsuited to our markets, and from the high cost of freight. The principal port through which disease in sheep may be imported into this country is Hamburgh, from whence we are now importing a few hundred head per week, and which are composed of merinos in very poor condition, chiefly bred on the borders of Mecklenburgh Schwerin. From that portion of Europe, we occasionally receive a few oxen, originally the produce of Prussia, iudging from their frames and colour. Without entertain- ing any feelings of alarm on the subject, it is quite apparent that too much caution cannot be shown in the inspection of slock received here, prior to being landed ; and, even in the event of disease escaping the eye of the inspectors, it is not very apparent to us that the contagion will rapidly extend itself throughout the country in the present state of the trade, as it is well known that foreign beasts and sheep pass nlraost immediately into the hands of the butchers, and are not sent into our marshes to fatten, and where contamination would be highly probable. This, indeed, is the most serious point to be considered ; yet, as all efforts hitherto, to im- l)rove the weight of the foreign stock imported into England, have turned out a complete failure, the change of food and climate having been most prejudicial to health, it is scarcely i;ossible that breeders and feeders will be disposed to enter into a speculation of this nature, which can onlj' lead to a heav}' sacrifice of capital. The leather trade is not likely to be greatly influenced by a prohibition of an import of raw-hides, as the article of leather will be allowed to arrive as usual, even from infected countries. The present dearness of animal food in this countrj- has oiled forth a number of opinions in reference to the causes which have lately governed our markets. In one quarter, wc are informed that "the supply of stock has not kept pace with the increase of population, in other words, with the demand;" and we have been referred to the unusually small supplies shown in the Great Metropolitan Market, compared with former seasons. Let us briefly examine this important question, in order to discover whether our graziers — men renowned for their enterprise, skill, and in- telligence— have failed to produce the usual amount of food to meet the consumption. In the observations just quoted there is a much wider difference than the writer imagines. Population is one thing, demand another matter of striking importance. It is no proof that because the London market, which rules the value of meat throughout the United Kingdom, has been scantily supplied, production has fallen oft"; and why should it have declined? For some years we have had no serious disease to carry off stock prematurely ; prices have been unusually remunera- tive, and, although the demand has been extensive, and S MAG.\ZINE. ' '"■ >=''' "■* ^?* .sb ,Jcr7r which has resulted in high quotations, we maintain that production has fully kept pace with the population. The prerent enhanced quotations are the result, then, of an in- creased demand for food, and the limited supplies of stock which have lately reached us from abroad. Let those sup- plies increase — which by the way we can hardly anticipate, as the demand on the Continent is very extensive, and as prices there are on the advance, especially in France — and our quotations will speedily recede to nearly their former level. We are told again that the available supply of stock in the United Kingdom has considerably declined of late }'ears. Upon this point, however, we entertain an opposite opinion ; still, whatever may be said upon this question, it is clear that the great activity in the trade and commerce of the country, and not an increase in the population, has led to an improved demand for food, and with it high quo- tations. The health of both beasts and sheep, throughout the United Kingdom, has been remarkably good ; and as the stocks of winter food have lasted well, the breeders and feeders, notwithstanding that oilcake has ruled high in price, have possessed advantages in this respect not ex- perienced in the two previous seasons, when hay was ex- ceedingly scarce and dear. In a comparative sense, the condition of the beasts derived from Norfolk and Suffolk, since the commencement of the year, has not been to say very prime ; but we may observe that the sheep, with very few exceptions, have come to hand in first-rate condition ; still prices have advanced, until Downs in the wool have sold as high as 6s. 2d., out of the wool 5s. 4d. per 8 lbs. The lambs received in London during the month have been tolerably good. Except towards the close of the month, when supplies generally were on the increase, the trade has been in a verj' healthy state. The imports of foreign stock into the metropolis have been as under : — Beasts 1,352 head. Sheep 2,411 „ Lambs 14 „ Calves 1,015 „ Total. 4,814 In the corresponding month in 1856, the arrivals were 1,924; in 1855, 4,253; in 1854, 4,760; in 1853, 14,787; and in 1852,5,444 head. The total supplies from all quarters, shown in the Great Metropolitan Market, were as follows : — Beasts 1 8,601 head. Cows 460 „ Sheep and lambs 92,810 „ Calves 1,240 „ Pigs 2,025 „ In April, 1856, there were shown 18,427 beasts, 482 cows, 102,030 sheep and lambs, 789 calves, and 2,375 pigs. Thus it will be seen that the supplies of beasts have been tolerably extensive during the month just concluded; but that those of sheep, compared with last j'ear, have fallen off by about 10,000 head. We believe, however, that fully 12,000 carcasses of mutton have been forwarded to New- gate and Leadenhall markets in excess of last year in the same period. From Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire we have received, since we last wrote, about 10,000 Scots and shorthorns ; from other parts of England, 2,800 of various breeds; from Scotland, 1,870 horned and polled Scots; and from Ireland, wholly via Liverpool, 479 oxen. Beef has sold at from Ss. 4d. to 5s. ; mutton in the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 455 wool, 4s. 6d. to 63. '2d. ; out of the wool, 3s. 8d. to 5s. 4d. ; lamb, 5s. lOd. to 7s. 4d. ; veal, 3s. 8d. to 5s. lOd. ; pork, 3s. 8d. to 5s. per 8 lbs., to sink the ofFal. Comparison of Prices. April, 1855. April, 1856. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. Beef, from 3 2 to 5 0 3 2 to 4 10 Mutton 3 2 — 5 0 3 6 — 5 8 Lamb 5 4 — 7 0.... 6 0 — 7 4 Veal 3 8 — 5 0 .... 4 0 — 5 8 Pork 3 4 — 4 4 .... 3 6 — 4 8 Newgate and Leadenhall markets have been well sup- plied with each kind of meat, which has sold somewhat steadily, as follows: — Beef from 3s. to 4s. 6d. ; mutton, 3s. 4d. to ^4s. 8d. ; lamb, 5s. 6d. to 7s. ; veal, 3s. 6d. to 5s. 2d. ; pork, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 2d. per 81bs., by the carcase. SOMERSETSHIRE. We have had more than the usual fall of rain this month, accompanied by heavy hail-storms ; about the 7th and 8th, we had the water higher than during the winter on the low lands liable to be flooded. This is rather later in the season than is considered beneficial. The water has greatly hindered the putting in of barley and potatoes, and sowing the grass-seed. A good deal of barley and April wheat is not yet in, and potato-setting has not been so backward for several years. Some dry weather is badly wanted. We had after the 18th some few spring days; but on that day a heavy storm of hail, accompanied by thunder, fell in some parts of the country ; and it was not before the 18th or 20th that much could be done. The 22nd and 23rd were again wet, and a stop was put to the work. On wet soils the wheat looks yellow, and there is some appearance of the wireworm. If next month should be dr^', our prospects are fair ; but otherwise, the wheat plant is too luxuriant. Beans are coming up well, also the oats ; and the few winter beans look well. Our pasture land has been so wet, that few of the cattle are turned out; but the grass will soon be fit for stacking, if it become dry. While the price of poor stock has not gone down materially, there is a slackened sale for them. Poor sheep come by no means freely to market, though equal to the demand ; while this is the case, the present high prices will be maintained — 8s. to 10s. per head higher than last year. Beef is in short supply, and obtains 10s. 6d. to lis. 6d., and even 12s., per 201b., to sink the oftal. Mutton, 8d. to 9d. per lb. in the wool. Lamb is rating very high, 30s. to 34s. each — 81b. to 101b. per quarter. Not much doing in wool — Is. 6d. per lb. The prices of corn, on the other hand, have gone down ; the best white not fetching over 7s., whilst inferior sorts have been selling from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per bush. — the latter price being paid for best 621b. red. During the past week there has been an advance on the best white of 3d., and l^d. on red. Flour, 38s., 393., to 40s. for best seconds. The milling trade is a very bad one. Bakers are doing better, the price of bread following that of flour ; whereas millers advance the prices of wheat before they can realize one on flour, which is not regulated, as it should be, by the price of wheat. Since the alteration of the corn laws, the much greater irregularity in the price of wheat is very striking, though it was contended by the advocates of that measure that it would ensure greater regularity. This see-saw state of the wheat market is very perplexing to all parties. Barley maintains its price better than wheat ; grinding 5s., malting 5s. 3d. to 5s. 9d. The supply of beans not very plentiful — 5s. to 5s. 3d. per bush. Oats, 22s. to 24s. per qr. Cloverseed has receded 10s. to 123. percwt. ; rather better rates this week (a great loss to the bu3'ers at 7.5s. to 80s. per cwt.) ; present price 60s. to Cos., extra 7O3. There is little at present for the thrashing-machine to do, and the supplies have fallen ofi^, but there are more ricks than usual at this season ; their being thrashed before harvest will depend on the price. Millers' stock moderate— little beforehand. The stock of corn generally short in second hands. Farmers complain of the yield of last year. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, EAIRS, &c. BEDFORD FAIR.— There was a pleutiful supply of stock and sheep ; but the prices demanded were exceediugly hijjh, and consequently the sale was dull. BICESTER FAIU.—The show of stock was good, and a large portion of it was disposed of at high prices. London cows realized from £18 to £24 each, and dealers' heifers from £16 upwards. Barren cows were high, and country heifers and stirks changed hands freely. Many of the pens of sheep were very superior. Couples ranged from 453. to 55s., aud tegs in the wool from 409. to 50s. Mutton in the wool 63., and out of the wool 43. 8d. to Ss. per stone. There were not many horses, but those that were useful made great prices. Store pigs very dear. Fat hogs 128. per score. BOGBAIN MONTHLY MARKET.— There was an ex- cellent show of cattle and sheep. After the high prices given at the Muir of Ord on the two previous days, and the high prices quoted at recontraarkets in the south, the expectations of the sellers were high, and in the early part of the day they stood firm for a rise in prices. Eventually, however, prices were regulated by those of the Muir of Ord, although the ten- dency was decidedly upwards, and in some cases higher prices were given. Sheep were not in eager demand, but the prices given were thoseof the Muir of Ord. Sales of cattle went on briskly, and before the market closed the greater part of the stock had changed hands. The following were among the sales effected : Mr. Fraser, Kerrowgair, sold a lot of two-year- olds at £5 59., to Mr. Barrie, Stonehaven ; Mr. Macbean, baker and cattle-dealer, Inverness, sold a lot of heifers, two- year-olds, at £4 lOs., to Mr. Wilson, Crieff ; Mr. Gair, Hilton, sold a lot 01 cross stirks at £9 ; Mr. Addison, Criiu- more, sold a lot of crosses at £6. BOLSOVER FAIR.— The number of cattle was rather over the average for this fair, and those shown were of a first-rate quality. Fat beasts were sold from 8s. to 8s. 6J. ; in-calvers aud cows in milk very dear ; there were in-calvcrs sold as high as £22 ; barren beasts very dear, and a good ahovr. Fat sheep, without wool, from 7d. to 7ad- ; stock hogs, in wool, fetched high prices ; all kinds sold. No horses shown. Pigs very few, and high prices were asked. There was a good deal of cattle changed hands, and plenty of buyers. Nearly all sold at the close of the fair. BRAMPTON FAIR. — The number of cattle and sheep was more than usually large; and from the fodder and turniys having fully met the contingencies of the season, both kint's were in good condition, and well adapted for fattening. Cattle especially had a thriving appearance, and promised with a good supply of grass to be soon ready for the butcher. Theie was a good attendance of buyers (some of them from and pur- chasing for the luxuriant dales of Yorkshire), who did not hesitate in giving such high prices as will probably lessen much the pay expected for the summer's grass. Trade was brisk, and an advance over last year's rates was generally obtained. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Sheep met with a fair demand, Bt high figurei. The prices of half-breds ruled from 283. to 46s. each; Cheviots, from 17s. to 31s. From 123. to 21s. appeared to be the remuneration which f.inuers received for keeping the lambs siuce the autr.mnal fairs. There was a small show of pigs, which met with no lack of customers at almost unprecedented prices. From 233. to 3)3. each were given, and the supply was scoa bought up. BRECHIN TRINITY MUIR CATTLE TRYST.— The number of beeves was rather under an average, but the general quality of the stock was excellent. All sorts of beasts were higher priced than last season, and comparatively few good animals reiuained unsold. One-year-old atots and queys, bred iu the district, brought £5 to £9, two-year-olds do. from £8 to £15, arid three-year-olds do. from £14 to £22 per head. The best quality of fat sold readily at 10s., while the middling kinds brought from 83. to 9s. per Dutch atone, to sink the offal. There wtre few good lean cows iu the market, which soon exchanged owners on much the same terms as the middling quality of fat. The drove cattle from the northern counties brought from £9 to £16 per head, or from 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per stone of their estimated weight when fat. The demand for small atirks, or farrow cows, in bad order, was rsither alack, and of this class a part was left unsold. All the best kind of beeves was from teu to fifteen, and good grazing animals from five to ten per cent, higher than last year ; but there was little advance in the value of small lean stock. The market, on the whole, was a selling one for everything good, both dealers and feeders appearing well pleased with the rates. CARLISLE FAIR.— There was a large show of cattle, but the quality was inferior, and the prices asked very high. CAWDOR TRYST.— The attendance of farmers and deal- ers was very fair for a first occasion, and there was also an ave- rage number of cattle on the ground, some of which were iu very fine condition. Towards evening sales were effected pretty rapidly ; and though prices did not reach the expectations of some holders, still few lots remained unsold at the close of the market. The following are a few of the sales which took place: — Mr. Wilson, factor for Glenferness, sold a superior lot of three-year-old cross stots at £19; Mr. Monro, Mains of Ardersier, a fine lot of 20 three-year-old ditto, at £18 7s. 6d. Captaiii Sharp, Newton, Cawdor, sokl a mixed lot of cross two and three-year-olds at £17, snd another lot of two- year-old cross stots at £15, v/ith lucknenny. Mr. Hutcheson, flesher, Campbeltown, a lot of three-year-old shorthorns at £14 10s. Mr. Mackintosh, Blackpark, sold cross twc-year- olds at £11; Mr. Mackintosh, Auchuacloich, ditto, at £9 153. CHESTER FAIR.— There was an absence of fat stock, but a large show of milking stock, which did not meet a brisk sale. Prices were about the same, store pigs having slightly advanced. In the horse fair the show of good sorts was small, and prices underwent no alteration. CHIPPENHAM MONTHLY CATTLE MARKET.— Heifers fetched from £17 to £26. Sheep, both fat and stock, were in good demand. One pen of 100 stock Sheep, belong- ing to Mr. John Morris, of Avon, fetched 48s. 6d. per head ; .fat Sheep were equally high in price. DERBY FAIR.— The show of horned cattle was large. Superior barren cows and milking cows were sold at high prices ; inferior of both sorts the turn lower. The sheep fair was large, and readily found customers at high prices. The horse fair was small ; very few good horses were shown, and but little business done, the prices being in favour of the buyer. DEVIZES FAIR was a very small one both for sheep and cattle ; there were about 3,000 sheep penned. Trade was very brisk, and all were quickly sold, tegs at from SOa. to 449. a-head, and ewes at from 40s. to 503. There were about 300 head of cattle; heifers sold at from £15 to £22 each; of beef there was scarcely any, price from lis. to 12s. per score. Horses were numerous, and generally low iu quality ; the best were sold at good prices. EAST GKINSTEAD FAIR.— The trade was most brisk, much More so than on any former occasion in the memory of auy of the present inhabitants. There was a fair supply of horned stock and sheep, but scarcely a lioof returned from the fair uusold. It was calculated that every head of lean stock has riiiu in price since last year 50?. a-head from six- roonths-old calves and upwards. There were some fine fatted shorthorn beasts sent in from Holly-bush Farm — a credit to the owner. There was a large supply of store hogs, and we believe a fair business done iu them. EGREMONT FAIR was supplied, as usual, with geld aad young cattle. There were very few covts. ELGIN FAIR. — The sheep sales commenced about nine o'clock, consisting of three year-old crosses (wethers) and hogs; the demand was very brisk, and a great many sales took place, at high prices. Wethers brought from 32s. to 33s., and hogs 303. to 333. The whole were cleared off by one o'clock. There was a very large show of cattle, and fat stock was much in request. Prices were very stiff at the commencement, but holders of stock yielded a little, and a great number changed hands. EVESHAM FAIR.— There was but little fat stock, but cows and calves were more plentiful, as also sheep and lamhr. The demand was good. Everything fit for the butch.er met with a ready sale, at prices in a^-ivauce of last fair. Beef 7f d-, mutton from 7^d. to Sid. Mr. Smith sold several pens at satisfactory rates. There were a few good horses of the cart kind ; prices ranged high. FENWICK HORSE MARKET.— There was a large number of superior animals on the ground, and a good attend- ance of farmers and dealers. Sales were in general brisk, there being a good demand, and many animals changed hauds. Prices ranged much the same as at previous markets this sea- son. Good animals brought from £40 to £55, and inferior from £25 to £35. GRANTOWN CATTLE TRYST was well attended both by sellers and dealers, and fully au average stock appeared on the ground, notwithstanding that a good many lots had been picked up in the district previous to the market. Sales com- menced briskly early in the day, and continued so throughout. The prices realized on good cattle would be about 20 per cent, above the corresponding market of last year, and inferior stock about 10 per cent. The following are a few of the sales reported : Captain Grant, Congash, sold a lot of two-year-old Highland queys at £8. The rev. Mr. Stewart, of Abernethy, sold three two-year-old cross stots to Mr. George Grant, of the Richmond Arms, Tomintoul, for £36 ; and two Highland tirks to Mr. Stewart, Toracrocher, for £11. Mr. Grant Clashncer, Glenlivat, bought a lot of nineteen three-year-old. Highland stots, being the top of the market, from Mr. Low, Ballimore, at £14 a-head. LINCOLN FAIR. — First-rate horses soon found eager purchasers; many fetched from £100 to £200. A thorough- bred horse was sold for the latter sum to Mr. Percival, of Peterborough. Really good saddle horses were worth from £50 to £80, according to breed, size, and qualification. Mr. Gelhing, of Newark, stabled a splendid dozan at the Queen Inn, one of which was sold on Monday afternoon for £185. Mr. Robinson, of Manclicster, who for some time past has been a recognized agricultural dealer, had a string of forty splendid animals, wh'.ch were o-i!y parted with for the best prices. On Tuesday morning strings of dealers' horses, brought from the neighbouring fairs, came into the town, and business was very brisk. The fair on Wednesday was very slack for the better class of horses, the dealers asking much more money than the purchasers were inclined to give. Good hacks made from £30 to £40, though they were to be found at a much smaller sum. M. Bamberger, of Berlin, bought two entire horses for the sum of £250, for Russian studs. M. Sohmity, of Brunswick, and M. Donatto Grefswald, of Prussia, each purchased a dozen splendid hunters and chargers. Cart horses, upou the whole, sold for £10 less than what they would have fetched the previous year. There was, however, such a large show of horses that buyers were not over anxions to purchase. The Sheep Fair. — The show was a larger one than baa been seen in Lincoln for some years, if ever such a one was seeu before. It is estimated that at least seventy thousand sheep have been penned ; and early in the morning sellers asked heavy prices, from 70s. to 80s. being demanded. Although there were plenty of buyers, purchasers were rarely to be met with at tliese extravagant rates, aud prices may be quoted at from 4s. to 5s. per head decline. The ruling price for hogs seemed to be from 403. to 50s. and SSs., some prime lots of lamb-hogs fetching as much as 663. The prize for the beat pen of twenty hogs has again fallen to the lot of Mr. Battersby, of Scotherue. The prize is a silver cup given by Messr?. Smith, Ellison, and Co., of Lincoln. The sheep were disposed THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 457 of at 903. per head. The only competitor agaiast Mr. Bat- tershy was Mr. Hayward, of Welliogore. The quality of nearly all the sheep penned waa remarkably good, and we did not ste one pen of poor hogs. NEWARK FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— There was a large number of sheep, but only a limited number of beasts. The prices of beef were similar to last week, viz., 7s. 6d. to Ss. 6d. per stone ; mutton in the wool, T^d. to 9d , naked, 7^d. to 8d. per lb. There were 1,220 sheep aud 41 beasts penned. PENRITH FAIR.— The Scotch breeiers exhibited a very large quantity of stock. It was computed that the total num- ber shown would be about 25,000. One pea of Leicester hogs sold for 553. each. Mr. Gray had about 5,000 half-breda. The price asked in the morning was 60s., but the top price at which sales were effected was 58s. ; great numbers were sold at considerably less prices. Grey-faced hogs would run from 35s. to 45s. each, and small country hogs were sold from 18s. to SOs. each. Upon the whole, it has been considered a slow and dear market. The dealers had bought at high prices, aud were anxious to keep as much up to the mark as possible. A great number of sheep remained unsold. SOUTHWELL FAIR was well attended. A good busi- ness was transacted. TIVERTON GREAT MARKET.^There was a fair show of stock. Although prices ruled excessively high, the beasts exhibited met with a ready sale. The weather being fine, we had a large number of visitors. Fat bullocks, lis. per score; cows and calves, £12 to £23 each; barrenera, 78. to Qs. per score ; working steers, £26 to £32 per pair. The supply of sheep was not a large one. Fat wethers (with their wool on) 8d. to 8|d. ; fat ewes (in wool) 7d.to 7id. per lb. ; store hogs, 403. to 503. each ; ewes and lambs, 453. to 553. per couple ; fat lambs, 9d. per lb. ; rearing calves, 35s. to 40s. TOWYN FAIR. — The supply of stock was very small, no doubt owing to the scarcity of cattle in the country, as well as many being sold at Machyllneth on the Monday previous. A great many farmers were present as drovers. Steers, rising two years old, fetched from £8 to £9 per head. Cows in calf £12, aud a few changed hands ; but the lean stock were almost all taken away unsold. WORCESTER FAIR was tolerably well supplied with beasts, both fat and store, of good quality, but iu consequeiice of the presence of many anxious buyers, a complete clearance was effected. Fat beef brought from 7cl. to 8d. per lb. Good stores fetched great prices ; the leaner were rather slower of sale. Of fat sheep the supply was good, and a ready sale was effected ; prices varied from 7d. shorn, to 9d. in the wool. Stores were abundant, and tegs sold for 323. to SOs., couples 48s. to 603. There was no veal in the fair. Fat pigs were numerous, and went at lis. per score. Stores were a good sale, at very remunerative prices. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE. DURING THE PAST MONTH. The month of April has been characterized by- unusual changes of temperature, the first fortnight being warm and rainy, followed by cold ; then an almost summer-heat; and, lastly, a return to cutting wind and occasional sleet. Rapid progress was made, in the earlier part of the month, in all vegetation; and though a check to its progress must finally have been given, it may prove service- able to the wheat-plant, by preventing a premature development of the ear, as well as to the corn- ricks, by improving the condition of the grain. The markets have not been so well supplied as in the previous month, or as in the same time last year ; and foreign arrivals generally have continued on a limited scale. The condition of the samples has slowly improved ; and the inferiority of the bulk in this respect has deprived the trade of elas- ticity, and the usual tendency to speculative pur- chases. The absence, however, of large foreign arrivals, has afforded an opportunity to foreign holders to reduce their stocks in granary, and enabled growers more readily to place their bulks ; and the downward aspect with which the month commenced has given place to an improved tone ; the loss in price sustained in the first fortnight being recovered, leaving the value about one shilling improved in the course of the month. Everywhere, the growing crops, hitherto, have been well spoken of, the plant being mostly even, with fewer gaps than usual, the seedtime having been very favourable ; but, with four months to elapse before harvest can be gathered, and the most critical periods to pass, it will not be safe to reckon on a superabundance. The same favourable ap- pearances obtain in foreign countries. Spain has every prospect of passing from great scarcity to a bountiful supply, though the fact that less has been sown in consequence of unfavourable seedtime must make some abatement in the prospect. Large foreign shipments from all parts to that country have enabled it to pass a crisis of great anxiety. In all her towns prices have been rapidly falhng ; and the Government has greatly contributed to the movement by forced sales, so that prices are without any dependence. The expected permission to export from the Roman States has not been granted, the last crop being deficient, though that on the ground looks fine. At Genoa, where a fall was constantly expected, a large demand for the interior has advanced rates Is. per qr. Hard Taganrog v/heat there was worth about 7Ss., and soft Berdianski GQs. In France the crops look well . but the northern departments have somewhat ad- vanced prices. The best wheat, at Paris, was still worth about 65s. per qr., and the best flour about 49s. per sack English, against our town price of 52s., though 9s. above Norfolks. In the south, however, markets have been rather lower, in consequence of large arrivals at Marseilles. In Belgium, good native wheat is worth 57s. per qr. ; in Amsterdam, fine white Zealand about G2s. The Baltic markets, under the influence of our late de™ 458 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cline, have been giving way : the new shipments, and arrivals of vessels frozen in, may bring sup- plies thence, by the end of next month, to the ex- tent of eighty or ninety thousand qrs. The best wheat, at Dantzic, was worth about 56s.; at Stettin, 51s, per qr. Rostock quotes 49s. 6d. per qr. for the best red. At Petersburg, good soft wheat for August delivery was 44s. 7d. per qr. : for Saxonska, deliverable in May, 54s. 6d. was de- raanded. Ghirka wheat, at Odessa, was quoted at 41s. 6d. to 44s. 6d. ; soft PoUsh, 43s. 6d. per qr. At Berdianski, rates were still 52s. 6d. per qr. for wheat on the spot; but there was scarcely anything passing. The Danubian markets were declining. Wheat, at Galatz, was 32s. to 43s. 6d. per qr., with a freight of about 8s. 6d. per qr. to England. The canals in North America not being free. New York possessed but a very limited stock, and was sensitive upon the reception of European advices, being as yet more aflfected by a rise than by a de- cline. The quotation for red wheat, taking the weight at 62lbs., was — red Southern, 48s. 6d. ; red Western, 49s. 9d. per qr. White Canadian, 54s. per qr. As some time must elapse before large supplies arrive per canal, the probability was that prices would improve till arrivals were in excess. At New Orleans 62 lbs. wheat was worth 53s. for red, and white 56s., free on board. The last accounts] from Chicago quoted 102c. to 106c. per bush., (equal to 34s. per480lbs.) for winter red wheat, 121c. to 125c. for white (35s. 6d. per 480 lbs.) The stock was 10,000 qrs. With English stocks reducing, and passing into firmer hands, there does not now seem much probability of declining markets, especially as no very large supplies can come from abroad for the present; but on the other hand, should fine weather set in, the fact that we are at peace with Russia, should that country and America be blessed with the prospect of fine harvests, may operate as a check to any material im- provement. The wheat market in London com- menced on the first Monday with fair supplies, and the previous week having been universally dull, with lower rates, the appearance of a rather larger quantity before a complete clearance was made of Friday's samples renewed the feeling of depression, and millers were only tempted by a further abate- ment of Is. to 2s. per qr. from the previous rates, but a small business being done at this reduc- tion, Kentish factors making the decline still more. Holders of fine foreign not being disposed to press sales, prices were nominally as before for the best quality, but inferior new was quite as diflScult to quit as English at an equal reduction. The country did not fully respond to this dulness of the metropolis. Leeds, Wakefield, Boston, and some other places made no concessions. Birmingham and Newcastle did not yield more than 1 s., but Lynn and Bristol coincided with London. Liverpool, though dull, made no change in either of her markets. On the second Monday the supplies were not so good, and there was a better demand for the best qualities, both English and foreign, at fully the previous prices. This improved tone was answered in the country by a general improvement of Is. to 2s., the weather turning bad, Louth realizing the extreme advance. Liverpool on Tues- day made no change, but on the closing market reported a lively trade at 2d. to 3d. per 70 lbs. ad- vance. The third Monday gave but a limited show of samples, both English and foreign, and though the weather became favourable. Is. to 2s. more was obtained for fine English, though secondary and inferior sorts were not improved ; the foreign trade participating in the advance, but on the whole, business was far from brisk. Cold and rainy weather set in on the following Wednesday, which added to the improvement in the country. Most of the markets quoted an equal improvement with London, with more doing, Spalding, Bristol, and Hull, being fully 2s. higher, and Liverpool quoting a rise on Tuesday of4d. to 6d. per 70 lbs., but without any further increase on Friday. The fourth Monday gave supphes of much the same amount ; but for the morning's addition from. Kent and Essex there was a better show in im- proved condition. Factors, influenced by the severely cold weather and country advices, as well as good attendance, commenced by asking 2s. to 3s. more, but found they could only establish an improvement of Is. per qr. on the previous week, and that not readily, fine foreign occasionally realizing the same advance. The supplies as com- pared with March last show some increase, viz., about 1,000 qrs. weekly, averaging 7,776 qrs. English, and 7,483 qrs. foreign ; but last year at the same time the foreign was double as much. The general averages during the month have fallen 2s. 6d., commencing at 55s. 6d., and closing at 53s., which is probably the lowest point; they therefore seem to contradict the general report of a rise; but it must be remembered that these sales include all the low sorts, the prices of which are not regarded, only fine samples serving as a standard of value. The sales noted during the month show a fall- ing oflf, as compared with 1856, of 36,789 qrs. in the course of the month. The London averages passed their lowest point on the third Monday, when they were 56s. 5d., commencing at 59s. 2d., and closing at 58s. The cessation of the demand for wheat for the Spanish Peninsula has reduced the quantity exported, (which in March was 13,609 qrs.,) to the small quantity of 1 48 qrs. ; and in flour it has fallen from 8,867 sks. to 766 sks. In flour there have THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 459 been but ^sligbt alleralions thioiigb tbe montb. Town-made samples bave not varied tbe price, 52s. remaining uncbanged. Norfolks, wbicb com- menced at 38s., closed at 40s., the rise taking place on the last two Mondays successively. American have also participated in a like improvement. The weekly supplies average much as in March, but showing a moderate decrease, both of country and foreign. Tbe receipts bave been in country sorts 68,73] sacks, in foreign 796 sacks and 20,0'21 barrels. The rates in New York for tbe best extra quality Genesee were 34s. per barrel, f.o.b., which equals 4Ss. 7d. per sack, making tbe price, freight and insurance included, on nearly a parity with our own town-made quality of 52s.; but this fine sort is seldom shipped except specially. Fair Ca- nadian may be bad at 26s. 6d. per barrel. Super- fine Ohio and St. Louis, at New Orleans, were 27s. 6d. per barrel. Barley, during tbe month, has passed through some fluctuations, leaving prices much as they were. Had not the malting season been declining there is no doubt fine samples, from their scarcity, would have commanded great prices ; but a consi- derable quantity of foreign has been used for this purpose, and, by report, answers pretty well. The first Monday having a large importation of foreign, the market renewed a shock, and prices gave way Is. to 2s. per qr. On the second Monday, with an equally large quantity of foreign, no further decline was noted. On tbe third Monday, with very limited supplies of English and some abate- ment in tbe foreign arrivals, there was a recovery of Is. per qr. : and on the last Monday there was an improved feeling, from the known exhaustion of the stocks of English, and an active demand for malting and distilling, from the return of cold weather, wbicb favoured tbe manufacture of malt, which is but in limited stock. Tbe weekly average supply of English this month has only been 1,151 qrs., while the foreign has reached 26,6 1 4 qrs., being nearly 10,000 qrs. weekly beyond the supply of March. The fact of tbe exhaustion of the English crop appears in the weekly sales for tbe whole country, which bave been brought down to 22,428 qrs., at 44s. 7d. In the last week of December they were 107,336 qrs. It is doubtful whether foreign supplies will make up tbe void between this and harvest; and therefore it seems unbkely that rates can be very low, though substitutes be used. A great breadth appears to be sown ; but some is not yet in the ground in Ireland. Tbe sowing both of this grain and oats has been greatly hindered by wet weather. Malthas scarcely varied through the month, having improved only about Is- per qr. Large foreign arrivals throughout the montb bave reduced the prices of oats about 2s. 6d. per qr,, but there were symptoms of reaction at the close. The first Monday had tbe heaviest supply, and as tbe trade had previously been dull, prices wwe reduced Is. to 2s. per qr,, a great many cargoes of foreign being in very bad condition. The second Monday was plentifully supplied, though not so extensively, and tbe prices further gave way 6d. to Is, per qr. On the third Monday they were also liberal, but the trade partially rallied, and 6d, was recovered. The fourth Monday was a repetition of the third in quantity and the ad- vance made. The quantities received in the month have been, in English only 1,421 qrs., in Scotch 2,297 qis., in Irish 25,467 qrs., and in foreign 127,306 qrs., giving a weekly average of 39,121 qrs., or half as much again as in March. It does not seem likely that lower prices will obtain, as the Irish market has improved, and tbe sowing there has been hindered. Beans and peas have been by no means plenti- ful. Of the former only 1,389 qrs. foreign and 3,399 English have been received in the month. The first Monday noted a fall of 1 s,, and the last an equivalent advance, leaving prices as at the commencement. Of peas the quantity has been quite trifling, viz,, 280 qrs, English and 60 qrs. foreign. Yet tbe trade having been excessively dull, and demand unusually limited, they partook with beans in the fall and rise to the same extent. Linseed has declined about 2s, per qr,, with limited arrivals, the price having checked the con- sumption, but cakes bave continued to sell well. The seed season has been passing, and prices of cloverseed gradually receding, till they have become nominal, the inquiry having been unusually small. Tares have been unprecedentedly neglected, good foreign being offered, with little custom, at 35s, per qr. Mustardseed has improved Is. per bush., stocks being small, Canaryseed has had a sudden start, at the close of tbe month being 10s, per qr. dearer, the quotation for tbe best quality having touched 80s. per qr. Hempseed has been dull, without change. Carraway, coriander, and other seeds bave not materially varied, COMPARATIVE AVERAGES— 1857-56. From last Friday's Oaz. s. d. | From Gazette of 1856. s. d . Wheat 114,384 qrs., 69 0 Barley 50.354 .. 39 2 Oats 12,281 .. 23 7 Rye 85 .. 44 7 Beans 5,968 .. 41 9 Peas 768 .. 37 4 Wheat 84,689 qrs., 53 Barley 22,428 .. 44 Oats 7,973 .. 23 Rye 110 .. 36 Beans 6,184 ,. 40 Peas 7G9 .. 39 FLUCTUATlONSiNTHE A. VE RAGE PRICEOF WHEAT. Pricb. Mar, 14. Mar. 21. Mar. 23 April 4. April 11. 559. lOd. 55s. ed. 548. 8d. 539. ltd. 53s. Od, --Hi .. 1 '"!n. ""nj April 18. 460 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillings per Quarter. ■Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, new .... 48 to 59 extra 62 to 67 Ditto, red, „ .... 47 53 56 59 Norfolk, Line. andYorks.,red,new.. 46 53 56 59 Bablet, new, malting .... 40 to 4 1 Clievalier.... 42 46 Distilling 37 39 Grinding 26« 32 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 07 72 — 77 Kingston, Ware, and town made.. . . 69 73 — 78 Brown 62 63 — — Rye — — 30 36 Oats, English, feed 20 22 Potato 22 28 Scotch.feed 20 24 Potato 24 30 Irish, feed, white 19 21 fine 23 27 Ditto, black 18 20 „ — 21 Beans, Mazagan, new.... 32 35 Ticks, new.. 34 35 Harrow 34 36 Pigeon 40 42 Peas, white boilers .. 38 39.. Maple .. 38 39.. Grey 36 37 Flour, per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households.. 48s., fine 50 52 Country 40 41 Households.. 44 46 Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship 39 40 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings per 72 high do. — 76 extra 71 „ — 73 68 fine.... — 74 65 red. 63 "Wheat, Dantzic, mixed. .70 Konigsberg 68 Rostock .....52 American, white ... .58 Pomera., Meckbg.,& Uckermrk, red 56 Silesian, red 52 56 white.. — Danish and Holstein 52 St. Petersburg and Riga 50 Rhine and Belgium — — Russian, hard 54 64 French.. Barley, grinding! 26 31 Distilling Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands. .20 25 Feed Danish and Swedish, feed . ..19 22 Stralsund, Russian Beans, Friesland and Holstein , Konigsberg 32 Peas, feeding • 35 Indian Cokn, white , 36 Flour, per sack French — American, per barrel, sour... .24 56 56 fine . . Quarter. — 78 — 76 — 76 54 60 66 69 65 71 56 60 54 60 . (none) 35 38 37 Egyptian... 36 fine boilers. 39 yellow — Spanish ... 26 sweet IMPERIAL AVERAGES. Fob the last Six Wheat. Weeks : ' s. d. Marchl4, 1857 55 6 March2l, 18.57 55 10 March 28, 18-57 55 G April 4, 18.57.... 54 8 April 11, 1857 53 11 April 18, 1857 .53 0 Aggregate average 54 9 Same time last year 68 8 Barley s. d.' 46 1 46 8 Oats. s. d. 23 11 23 1 Rye. 1 s. d. Beans, s. d. 39 10 'SO 4 38 10 39 8 40 9 39 6 37 8 39 8 38 9 36 3 38 8 39 10 40 0 39 8 44 0 41 1 Peas. s. d. MONTHLY RETURN. An Account shewing the Quantities of Corn Grain, Meal, and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom, and admitted to Home Con- sumption, IN the month of March, 1857. Species of Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour. Wheat Barley Oats Rye Peas Beans Maize or Indian Corn ,. Buck Wheat Beer or Bi^g Total of Corn and Grain Wheat Meal and Flour Barley Meal Oat Meal Rye Meal Pea Meal Indian Meal ■ Buck Wheat Meal ■ Total of Meal and Flour Imported from foreign Countries. Imported from British! Possessions out of Europe Total. qrs. bush. 1559.50 6 1 172080 1 ; 109329 5 ! 3349 7 5.379 6 24962 7 80382 3 49 0 , 497 2 1 qrs bush. i 0 0 4 1 4 552281 4 3760 0 qrs. bush. 159738 S 172080 1 103629 5 8349 7 5380 8 21D64 3 80382 8 49 0 497 2 558071 4 cwts. qr.lb. cwts. qr.lb.! cwts. qr.lb. 141712 2 15 408 1 16 142121 0 3 27 S \\ 2 0 Ol 10 2 5 11 2 1 5 2 14 Itn70 0 8 411 2 30 3 22 2 0 0 10 2 5 11 2 1 5 2 14 142181 2 17 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Cloverseed, red, per cwt 46s. to 72s. Ditto white „ 50s. to 60s. Trefoil, per cwt 27s. to 30s. Tabes, per bushel 4s. 6d. to 5s. Od, Mustakdseed, per bushel 12s. to 13s. Coriander, per cwt 20s. to 24s. Carrawat, per cwt., new — s. to 508... old — s. to — s. Canary, per qr 72s. to 80s. Linseed, per qr., sowing .... — s. to — s... crushing 68s. to 70s. Linseed Cakes, per ton JEO 10s. to £10 Os. Rapeseed, per qr., new 86s. to 88s. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £5 lOe. FOREIGN SEEDS. &c. Cloverseed, red, French 70s. to 78s. ..American., 703. to 743. Ditto white 50s. to G3s. Tares, per bushel, new 4s. 3d. to 4s. 6d. Hempseed, small, per qr — s. to 40s Do. Dutch 42?. Coriander, per cwt. . , ,.i 15s. to 20s . Carrawat „ 423. to 468. Linseed, per qr., Baltic ....65s. to 683 Bombay 68s. to 70s. Linseed Cake, per ton £10 Os.to Jll Of. Rapeseed, Dutch 76s. to 80f. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £5 IOf. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, April 27.— During the past week there has been a more active inquiry for iine Hops of all de- scriptions. Susses samples with colour have also been in good demaud at an advance ou last quotations. Inferior qualities are dull of sale. Hart & Wilson. CHELSFIELD AND HALSTEAD, (April 21.)— Poliug is going on as vigorously in the Hop plantations as it has been of late at the elections, and the bine looks clean and healthy. SHOREHAM, (Kent.)— In the Hop gardens men are busily engaged poling, and we shall soon have to report the progress of the plant. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. Monday, April 27.— During the past week the arrivals coastwise have been mo- derate, and best samples of Regents made more money, but second-rate and reds were rather duller. The following are this day's quotations : — York Regents .... per ton 1403. to ISOa. Lincolnshire do 1203. to ISOa. E«9t Lothiau , 140s. tolSOs. Do. Reds llOs. tol20a. Perth, Forfar, & Fifsh.Reg. I2O3. to ISOs. Do Reds lOOs. tollOs. German whites lOOa. to 105s. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. LONDON, Mon- DAY, April 27. — Since Monday last the arrivals of home- grown Potatoes, coastwise and by land-carriage, have been seasonably good. The imports have been rather extensive, viz., 20 tons from Ireland, 7 tons from Leon, 300 tons from Har- liugeu, 63 tons from Ternengen, 1,339 sacks and 345 bags from Schiedam, 1,529 batji from Hambro', 329 sacks 1,158 bags and 88 tons from Rotterdam, and 11 tons from Medemblik. A moderate business is doing, at our quotations :— York Regents per ton lOOa. to 1553. Kent and Essex ditto 953. 1358. Scotch ditto 903. 1259. Ditto Clips 853. 953. Middlings 6O3. 758. Lincoln^ 85s. llOs. Blues 853. IOOr. Foreign 8O3. IOO3. COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, April 18 : We had a fair show of Potatoes, which sold at from lOd. to 12d. per peck, and from 03. to 4s. per bushel. — Leeds, April 21 : We bad a fair show of Potatoes, which aold at 14d. to 15d. wholesale, and 15d. to 16d. per 211bs. retail.— Richmond, April 18: Potatoea 43. per bushel.— Manchester, April 11 : Potatces 12s. to I83. per 2521b3. 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 461 COVENT GARDEN MARKET. s. d. Piu(>applf3, perlb 6 OtolO 0 (Jrapes, per lb 12 0 20 0 Oranges, per 100 5 0 12 0 Lemons, per dozen 10 2 0 FRUIT. . d s.d. s. d. Pears, per doz 8 OtolO o Apples, per half BievR... 6 0 8 0 Kent Cobs, per lOOlbs. HO 0 0 0 Strawberries, per oz... 0 9 10 Cabbages, per dozen .. Broccoli, per bunch..,. 1 B. Sprouts, p. half sieve 2 Asparagfus, per bundle . . 8 Rhubarb, per bundle ... 0 Seakale per punnei 1 French Beans, per 100... 1 Potatoes, new, per ton , .80 Do. per bush 2 Do. per punnet 2 Carrots, new per bunch.. 1 Turnips, per dozen 2 Spinach, per sieve 1 Cucumbers, each 1 Beet, per dozen 1 Celery, per bundle ...... 0 VEGETABLES. . d. 1 9 B. d. s. d. Onions, per bush 4 Oto 6 0 Leeks, per bunch 0 1.^ 0 8 Artichokes, each 0 6 0 0 Ditto, per halt" sieve ,. 1 6 2 9 Shallots, per lb 0 6 0 8 Garlic, per lb 0 6 0 8 Lettuce, Cos., per score .06 06 Endive, per score 1 6 4 3 Radishes, long-, per bun, 0 6 1 2 Small Salad, per punnet 0 2 0 Q Horseradish, per bundle. 16 4 q Mushrooms, per pottle., 13 1 q Parsley, per bunch 0 6 0 q Alarjoram, per bunch ... 0 2 0 9 Savory, per bunch 0 2 0 g Mint, green, per bnnch., 0 6 0 g CHICORY. LONDON, Satttrdat, April 25.— Our market is but mode- rately supplied with most kinds of Cliicory, in which about an average business is doing, at our quotations. The imports this week are 20 tons. ENGLISH, per ton.. XU OtojE 0 0 I HAMBURG £12 10 to £14 0 HARLINGEN 10 10 0 0 BELGIUM 10 10 11 0 FLANDERS 10 10 0 0 | GUERNSEY 0 0 0 0 PRICES OP BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. BUTTER, per cwt.; b. s. Friesland 108toll4 Kiel 112 120 Dur3et, new 114 120 Carlow 100 110 Waterford — — Cork 100 110 Limerick 90 100 Sliffo 98 106 FHE3H, per dozen.. 12s. Od. to 14s. Od. CHEESE, per cwt.: s. s. Cheshire 68 78 Cheddar 74 84 Double Gloucester 60 74 HAMS, York— —....new 90 100 WeBtmorcland 90 100 Irish 90 92 BACON : Wiltshire.dried ..74 78 Irish, green 70 72 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.— April 27. Our trade is slow this day at 4s. to 6s. per cwt. less money for Butter in casks, and Is. per doz, lower for Fresh Butter. Dorset, fine per cwt. 1 16s. to 118s. Ditto, middling. 100s. to 104s. Fresh per doz. lbs. 10s. to 143. BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter: Shipping price. 104s. to 114s. per cwt.; firkins and crocks, ll^d. per lb,; Bacon, 63s. to 683. ; Hams, prime, 848, to 90s,, second quality 703. to 76s.; prime mess Pork, lOOs. per brl. ; Pork, 56s. to 61s.; Beef, lOOs. to 120s. per tierce ; Irish Lard in bladders, 763. to SOa.; kegs or firkius, eSs. to 703. per cwt. LONDONDERRY, (Thursday last.)— Butter sold fully higher than last week :— firkins, per lb., first lid. tolled,, seconds 10|d. to lid., third 9Jd. to lO^d., fourth Sfd., fifth 8d.; butts, fine lid. to la., good lOd. to lid., middling 9d, to lOd. Pork, 583. to 6O3. per cwt. HAY MARKETS. Saturday, April 25.— SMITHFIELD.— A full average supply, and a sluggish demand. CUMBERLAND.— Both hay and straw moved oflf slowly, at our quotations. WHITEGHAPEL.— Supply tolerably good, and trade firm. At per Load of 36 Trusses. MEADOW HAY. CLOVER STRAW Smithfield. 50s. to 808. fiSs. lOOs. 249. 2Us. CUMBEaiJlNU. 528. to 80s. 70s. lOOs. 24s. 298, WnrrECHAPBt 50s. to 80s. 70s. 100s. 245. 28b. BARK, &c. LONDON, Saturday, April 2.^. t. EnKli8h,perl..adof45-»i3 jgj^jg jg cwt., del. in Loudon ) Coppice 14 0 16 0 Dutch, per ton 5 0 5 6 Hambro' 4 10 6 5 AntwerpTren 5 0 6 0 Do. Coppice 6 0 6 10 French 0 0 0 0 Mimosa 9 0 11 10 Do. Ground U 10 13 0 Cork Tree, Barbary ... 7 0 Do.Leifhorn 6 0 Valonia, Smyrna, p. ton 13 0 Do. Camatn 15 0 Do. Morea U 0 Terra IGamhier... .18 0 Japonica JCutch '60 0 DiviDivi 10 0 Myrabolams 8 0 Sumach, Sicily, p. cwt. 0 13 18 10 53 0 11 10 LEADENHALL LEATHER MARKET. LONDON, Saturday, April, 25.— Our market continues to bo fairly supplied with most kinds ol' Leather; and the demand generally is steady, at full quotations. CROP HIDES. ENGLISH, lbs. lbs. d. 55 .... 19 60 .... 19 BUTTS. ENGLISH, lbs. d. FOREIGN. 14 16 .... 2 17 20 .... 2 21 24 .... 2 25 23 .... 2 29 32 .... 2 S3 36 .... 2 36 45 21 46 50 .... 22 S OFFAL. d. English Shoulders 17 Do. Cheeks and Faces 10 Do. Bellies 11 Do. Middles 14 Foreig:n Shoulders 14 Do. Necks 11 Do. Bellies 10 Do. Middles do 13 Dressing- Hide Shoulders. 13 D. do. Bellies... 10 Kip Shoulders 5 Do. Bellies IJ V'h DRESSING lbs. Common 20 t Do 25 r HI lbs. 0 24 28 34 40 35 60 DES. d. .. 18it . ISi . 18| . 181 .. 19 . 19 . 16 .. 20 .. 20 . 19 . 19 . 19 35s. t Sha d. ol9J lyj 194 Do. .. ....30 Do. .. ....35 19i 20 21 Saddlers . Do. ....30 ....36 Bulls .... 18 Shaved .. ....14 ....17 16 19 23 28 24 22 21 Do. .. ....20 20 20 Scotch do. Coach, per HORS] ....16 Hide.. 22 E BUTTS. VED. d. d. d. d. English 17 to 18 ..18 to 20 Spanish 17 18 ..18 20 HORSE HIDES. lbs. lbs. d. d. sh 13 to IS. .16 tol8 ithout butts 9 14. .16 s.d. s.d 9. .12 0 18 0 Spanish salted, without butts, per hide. Do. do, do.' 9 11. .14 0 20 0 Do. do. do. inferior.. 9 0 12 0 Do. dry do. 6 8. .10 6 16 0 Do. do. do. 9 11. .12 0 18 0 Do. do. do. inferior.. 8 0 11 0 CALF SKINS. Av. weight. Unrounded. Rounded, lbs. lbs. d. d. d. d. 20to28 20 to 24 .... 24 to 32 30 35 21 26 .... 24 32 35 40 21 27 .... 25 32 40 45 22 27 .... 25 33 27 .... 25 33 50 55 22 26 65 60 21 25 . 60 70 20 24 ., 70 80 19 23 ., 80 90 18 22 .. 90 100 18 21 . 100 120......17 20 . KIPS. lbs. lbs. Petersburgh .. 4 to 7 . d. d. 21 to 26 Do. .. 9 10 20 23 Do. ..11 13 19 22 E.Ind.drysltd. 5 7 ... 23 26 Do. do. 7 9 ... 22 25 Do. seconds 20 23 Do. thirds 17 20 Do. inferior 13 16 SUNDRIES, s. f. Hog Skins, best each 12 to 20 Do. seconds... ,, 8 12 Seal Skins, split, per doz.. 64 80 Do. for bindings „ 40 81 Calf Skins, Sumach, tanned „ 50 60 Do. white ,, 30 45 Horse Hides, white, each.. 8 14 Sheep Skins— d. d. Basils, unstrained, per lb. 9 I5J Do. strained ,, 9 IS Do. facing, per doz.... 6s. 18s. Tan, Sheep, SiLambs ,, 10 22 White Sheep, per 120 ... 80 110 Do. Lambs, „ .. 60 110 Do. Sheep & Lambs, strained, per doz 7 13 Sumach Roans, per doz. 20 38 Do. Skivers, ,, 10 31 Bark Skivers, „ 9 16 Hide Split3,per lb 11 to 16 HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS. LONDON, Saturday, April £5. MARKET HIDES, s. d. s. d. 6fi to 641bs per lb. 0 5ito 0 o\ 64to721bs 0 5i 0 6^ 72 to 801bs 0 53 0 6 80 to 861bs 0 6 0 fi 88 to 961bs 0 6i 0 64 96 to 1041b3 0 fii 0 6| 104toll21bs 0 0 0 0 s. d. e. d. HORSE niDES,eachlO 0 to 0 0 CALF SKINS, light. 3 0 5 0 Do. full 9 6 0 0 LAJIBS 2 6 3 9 Kents and Half-breds. 8 6 9 6 Downs 6 0 7 6 Shearlings 15 16 BIRMINGHAM, Saturday, April 25. Per lb. HIDES. s. d. s. 951bB. and upwards.. 0 0 .. 0 851bs. to941b3 0 0 .. 0 751bs. to 841h3 0 0 .. 0 651bs. to 741bs 0 5i .. 0 561h3. to 641bs 0 0 .. 0 551b3. and under 0 0 .. 0 Cows 0 4J .. 0 Flawed and irregular 0 48 .. 0 Horse each 0 0 .. 0 Bulls 0 0 .. 0 ■ii CALF. B. d. 171b3. and upwards.. 0 7fc 121bs. to 161b3 0 8| 91bs. to Ulbs 0 8i Light .. ■ -■ Flawed! 0 Sg U 7t .. 0 0 regular 0 6|[ .. 0 0 7 9 1 6 12 0 1 7| FAT Mut.&beef,inized,41d.to SJd Bamford Brothers, Brokers. FLAX, HEMP, COIR, &c. LON0ON, Saturday, April 25.— The Flax market has been very inactive this week, but we have no change to notice in prices. Hemp moves off slowly, at barely previous rates. Petersburgh clean £35 to £35 10s., outshot £33 per tnn. Jute is 10s. per ton lower ; but Coir goods support former terms. 462 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. OIL MARKET. OILS. Olive, Florence,') -„ ,(, half-chests ...j"-*^" " Lucca 6 16 Gallipoli(252gal3) 59 0 Spanish 58 10 Linseed (cwt.)-.-- 2 0 Rape, Pale 2 13 Brown 2 10 Cod(tun) 48 10 Seal. Pale 48 0 Do.Brown,Yel.&c 41 0 Sperm 93 0 Held Matter 100 0 Southern 44 0 Cocoa-nut (cwt.) . 2 8 PalmJ 2 3 RESIN. Yellow Cper cwt.) £0 5 Transparent 0 5 6to£l 1 0 0 7 0 0 0 .".9 10 0 0 y.t 0 0 0 0 0 0 n n 0 0 H 0 0 0 0 » 0 0 n 4« 10 0 0 45 0 0 0 OS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 n n 0 2 10 0 0 2 6 0 9 Q 0 n 6 6 6 6 1 PITCH. British (per cwt.) £0 6 9 0 70 Archanfcel 0 10 6 0 0 0 Stockholm 0 12 0 0 00 TURPENTINE. Spirits (per cwt.)jei 18 6 2 0 „ In Puncheons.... 1 18 0 0 0 „ Rough 0 10 3 0 0 Q TAR. American £0 18 0 0 18 6 Archangel 0 18 0 0 18 6 Stockholm 0 18 0 0 00 WHALEBONE. Greenland full 7 ^jjg „ ^dO size (per ton). J South Sea. 0 0 335 0 0 TIMBER. LONDON, Saturdiy, April 25.— Several vessels laden with Timber have arrived from the Lower Baltic, and their cargoes have been mostly disposed of on lower terms. Otherwise, the trade is heavy. Per load — Quebec, red pine ..... Yel.Pine Quebec Oak, Wtite... ,, Birch 5 £ s. £ e. 3 10 to 4 10 3 10 6 0 Eln 5 0 6 0 5 10 DantzicOak 5 MemelFir 3 10 4 10 Swedish 2 17 3 5 Masts, Qubc. Red Pine 6 0 9 0 Do. Yellow Pine.... 5 0 8 0 Lathwood, Dantzic fm 9 10 10 0 Do. Memel 9 0 9 10 Do. Quebec 5 0 6 10 Deals, per C. 12ft. bySby 9in. : QuebecWh. Spruce. 10 0 12 10 Do. Red Pine 11 10 19 0 St. John Wh. Spruce 12 0 15 0 £ B. £ s. Deals, Yel. Pine,perreduced C. : Canada, 1st quality. 15 10 to 17 0 Do. 2nd do. 11 0 11 10 Archangel Yellow.. 20 10 22 10 Memel 15 10 19 0 Gothenburg- Yellow. 14 0 16 0 Do. White 11 0 13 0 Gefle Yellow, 14 ft.. 30 0 31 0 Christiania,perC. 12 ft. by 3 bv 9 in. : Yellow 26 O' 30 0 White 22 0 26 0 Deck Plank, Dantzic, per 40 ft. by 3 in.... 10 1 10 Staves, per Standard M. : Quebec Pipe 85 0 90 0 Do. Puncheon.... 22 0 24 0 Baltic Crown Pipe. 160 0 155 0 WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH WOOL MARKET. BERMONDSEY, Saturday, April 25.— We are at pre- sent ia a state of suspense, and ignorant of the value of fleeces and fleece sorts, as there is no supply from the farmers, and a very small supply from the dealers ; and it may also be said with equal truth that there is no demand on the part of the manufacturers, who are using up their stocks at this dull season of the year, which is between the two seasons that are usually characterized by an active demand for goods. The May series of colonial sales, which commences on the 30th of April, will most likely decide as to whether prices of our descriptions of wool will be maintained or not. But little business doing, and prices nominal. LONDON, Monday, April 27. — As dealers generally are disinclined to become buyers until after the commenceir.ent of the Colonial wool sales — fixed for Thursday next— our market is exceedingly heavy : indeed, so little business is doing in it that the quotations are almost nominal. The supply of wool here is by no means extensive, yet town prices are anticipated. Per pack of 2401bs. Fleeces— Southdown Hoss £2! 10toie;2 0 Do. Half bred Hogs 19 10 20 10 Do. Kent 17 10 18 0 Do. Southdown Ewes and Welhers 18 0 19 0 Do. Leicester do 17 0 IS 10 Sorts— Clothing, picklock 22 0 23 0 Do. Prime and picklock 20 10 21 0 Do. Choice 18 0 19 0 D3. Super 17 0 18 0 Do. Combing— Wether matching ... 23 0 24 0 Do. Picklock 19 10 20 0 Do. Common 16 0 17 0 Do. Hog matching 24 10 25 0 Do. Picklock matching 20 10 21 10 Do. Superdo 17 10 18 10 LEEDS WOOL MARKET, April 24.— Sales during the present week have been limited to a supply of the immediate wants of the manufacturers, and have not been large. Prices are quoted about the same as last week, bnt where sales have been made the rates have been rather in favour of buyers. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, April 25. Scotch Wool, — There is a fair demand for Laid Highland from the trade for their immediate wants, at about late rates. If any diflerence, it is in favour of the buyer. White High- land is in fair demand. Cheviots and Crossed is, however, in more limited demand, and do not maintain late rates. s. d. s. d. Laid Highland Wool, per 241b8 16 0 17 0 White Highland do 18 6 20 0 Laid Crossed do.. unwashed .... 18 0 20 6 Do. do. .washed 20 0 31 6 Laid Cheviot do. .unwashed 23 0 22 6 Do. do. .washed 23 6 28 0 White Cheviot do.. washed 3 J 0 40 0 Foreign Wool. — The near approach of the sales here to commence on the 29th instant, as well as those of London ou the 30tb, has tended for the moment to check business by private contract, but as they are all working on light stocks, there does not seem much cbauce of any great alteration in price. LEEDS FOREIGN WOOL MARKET, April 24.— The announcement of the public sales somewhat earlier than was generally expected has had the effect of checking the demand, and until it has been ascertained whether or not any reduction in prices will take place, there will probably be no improve- ment. BRESLAU WOOL REPORT, April 2.— If business in the first days of the last two weeks had been very insignifi- cant, owing to the interceding holidays, it became the brisker towards the end of the closing month, attaining almost its former extent, and embracing chiefly the better descriptions. The whole amount of sales arises to nearly 1,200 cwts , con- sisting for the greater part of Silesian Fleeces, at from 963. to 106s. per cwt. ; ditto skin- wools in bundles, 883. to 96s. ; ditto slipea, 763. to 863.; fine PoHsh and Posen one shearing, 85s. to 92s. ; Russian scoured, IIO3. to 1153. Besides a number of home manufacturers and dealers, as well as Berlin and foreign commissioners, we had some French manufacturers in the market, who, visiting for the first time our place, availed themselves of the present extraordinary choice of fine Wools at the current comparatively advantageous prices. In the mean time there has been exhibited a greater activity in the dealings on contract, and a great many flocks of fine and middle fine quality have been acquired on the sheeps' back, most part at the average prices of last year's spring fair. In general business is in a very healthy state, as millers at the actual moderate rates of the rough material, and the high value of woollen manufactures, are enabled to work with good profit, which situation has been recently still fortified by the favour- able result of the last Leipzic cloth fair. — Gunsburg, Wool Broker. MANURES. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO, &C. PERUVIAN GDANO,(perton,for 30 ton3)nominal£13 6 0 to X 0 0 Do. Do (under SOtons) 14 15 0 16 0 BOLIVIAN GUANO 12 0 0 12 10 ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c. i)"^^}-^'^ 10 otoi:2o 29 0 0 30 Nitrate (per ton NitratePotash \ or Saltpetre S Sulpht. Ammonia 17 10 0 Muriate ditto . Superphospht. of Lir Soda A Alkal Gyp: 0 0 :} 8 0 0 Coprolite 3 15 0 Linseed-cakes, per ton — Thin American, \ in brls.or bag's ) Thick do. round er^ i- ( Sulph.oflCopper or Roman Vi- triol,forWheat { steeping J Salt 1 Bones, Dust, per qr. 1 Do. J-inch Oil Vitriol, ; concentrated, per lb. Do. BroWD 0 42 0 0 to 43 0 0 i,> 0 4 0 0 I 0 0} 2 10 0 4 0 0 OIL-CAKES. Marseilles £9 0 Oto £0 English 10 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 Rape-cakes,prton 6 5 0 6 10 0 £9 10 0£10 0 0 8 10 0 9 0 0 John Keen, 35, Leadenhall-street, (Late Odams, Pickford, and Keen.) Williams & Co., 24, Mark Lane— Azoti^. £6 10 0 Manufactured bv Hodgson & Simpson, Wakefield, and Matthews & Co., Driffield. Ammonia-Phosphate and Nitro-Phosphate per ton £8 0 0 Superphosphate of Lin " Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops per ton £B 10 0 Prentice's Turnip Manure ,, 7 0 0 Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime ,» 6 10 0 _ any, Widnes, near Warrington. J. Knight & Co.'s Nitrogenized Bone Manures per ton £8 15 0 ' Manure ^orks, Grovehill, Beverley. Tigar & Co.'s Celebrated Turnip Manures per ton £7 10 0 -^^^^"°^-™^^^^^~"^™™"*™'— — ^"^^^^"^^^^^""'^^'^ Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, ondon. Iks, ^ « N, -N^ V^S 4^ ^^ In i ./ i 1 >a/iiii,J',iL-^,C^^ iwwHWWMSi iwf « I ' «f 1 wra'sm'il THE FARMER'S MAGAZII^B. JUNE, 1857. PLATE I. A SHORTHORN OX, THE PROPERTY OF MR. RICHARD STRATTON, OP BROAD HINTON, SWINDON. This famous white ox, bred by Mr. Stratton, and calved the 2nd of February, 1853, was by Mr. Stratton's Clarendon (12605), dam Marcia by Kenilworth (7118). Clarendon himself won no less than fourteen premiums, amounting in all to £150. In December, 1856, at the Gloucestershire Agricultural Association this beast took the prize of Six Sovereigns as the best fat steer of any breed. In the following week, at Birmingham, he took the first prize of Ten Sovereigns as the best of his class, with the Silver Medal to the breeder, and the Gold Medal as the best ox or steer of any breed or age in the Exhibition. In the week after this, at the Smithfield Club Show he took the first prize of Twenty-five Sovereigns, with the Silver Medal to the breeder. At the Poissy Show in April, 1857, he took the first prize of Forty-eight Sovereigns, with another Gold Medal. He was sold here for the butcher for sixty-eight sovereigns; at Birmingham, in December, eighty sovereigns having been refused for him. This was altogether a very capital ox, and in almost every respect quite a first-class animal. He had an extraordinarily full and prominent breast, deep girth, chine rather plain, shoulder well-formed and admirably thrown out. His loins were rather high ; but he had a good, full, fat purse. His girth was 9 feet 1 inch, and his estimated weight at Christmas 22 scores a quarter. Mr. Stratton, the breeder and feeder of this ox, has long been distinguished as one of the most cele- brated and justly successful of our short-horn men. Indeed, as a public exhibitor of the sort, there are few that can vie with him. In a career of fourteen years he has taken four hundred premiums, amount- ing in hard money to near upon three thousand pounds, in addition to seven Gold , and fourteen Silver Medals. PLATE 11. "A BRITISH YEOMAN." A British Yeoman, bred by the late Mr. Blakelock in 1840, is by Liverpool, out of Fancy, by Osmond, her dam, sister to Countess, by Catton, great grandam by Hambletonian — Shuttle — Drone, &c. Liverpool, by Tramp, dam by Whisker, out of Mandane, by Pot-8-o's, ranks as one of our very best stallions. In addition to the Yeoman, he is the sire, amongst many others, of the following well-known winners :— Lanercost, Calypso, Broodwath, Lady Liverpool, Wee Willie, Naworth, Malvolio, Messmate, Queen Bee, Moss Trooper, Bee's-wax, Sir Abstrupus, Espoir, New Brighton, Everton, Hippora, Isabella, Full Sail, Jamaica, Mocha, Panther, Plantagenet, Brush, and Princess Alice. Fancy, the dam of A British Yeoman, is also the dam of Commodore, his full brother, sold by Mr. Blakelock to the late Duke of Cleveland for 3,000 gs., and never beaten. A British Y^eoman is a brown horse, standing sixteen hands high. He has a remarkably good head, OLD SERIES.] 2 H [VOL. XLVL— No. 6, 461 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, a thin, muscular, and bloodlike neck, and a firm crest. He has a compact body, well ribbed up, with immensely powerful hind-quarters, famous hocks, and good, broad, well-shaped feet. He stands a little over from age and work, but is still a most magnificent horse. When stripped and brought out, as we saw him at Chelmsford, what with his beautiful coat, grand way of showing himself, and fine symmetry and power, he is about as attractive a specimen of the thorough-bred horse as it would be possible to find. Honestl}', the portrait hardly does him justice. A British Yeoman was put to the stud in 1845, and that very year we find him taking the premium for the best thorough-bred stallion shown at the East Cumberland and Westmoreland Society's Meet- ing, held at Carhsle. Since then he has been awarded similar prizes : — at Carlisle, in 1846, given by the East Cumberland Agricultural Society; at Appleby, in 1848, given by the Cumberland and Westmore- land Society; at Carlisle, in 1849, by the East Cumberland Society; at Carhsle, 1851, by the East Cumberland Agricultural Society; at Cockermouth, in 1851, by the Cumberland and Westmoreland Agricultural Society; the East Cumberland Agricultural Society in 1853; at Carlisle, in 1856, by the East Cumberland Agricultural Society; and the Royal Agricultural Society at Chelmsford, open to all England, and the East Cumberland, in 1857. As a stud horse, A British Yeoman may be estimated equally well by his stock. At the great Agri- cultural Meeting at Carlisle, two of his produce out of the seven shown look first prizes, while, as we wrote at the time, a " more promising lot from one horse has seldom been brought together." A British Yeoman himself only stood second here to Ravenhill, but the whole entry of thorough-bred horses was very good. This included The Era, St. Bennett, and The Cure. At Chelmsford the show was not so strong, and the Yeoman had it all his own way. He is, perhaps, more particularly famous as'a hunter- stallion, but the following winners are enrolled in the calendar to his credit : — Blood Royal, British Farmer, Bourgeois, Brother to British Farmer, Bridekirk, Baroda, Coomburland Stathesmon, and Little Jack. Of these. Bourgeois has pi'oved himself a very useful nag, having, up to the end of last season* won no less than nineteen times. A British Yeoman is the property of Messrs. Moffat. He visits during the week Carlisle, Penrith, Wigton, and Aspatria. His price for thorough-bred mares is five guineas, and half this for half-bred ones. ROOT CROPS. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESa., F.R.S. In the last number of this valuable magazine, I endeavoured to show the important use which might be made of the atmospheric air in increasing the productiveness of our soils. It is far from impro- bable that at no very distant period the surround- ing atmosphere will in this way be brought still more into the service of the farmer. If so, v^e shall have another instance, amid many, of the advantages, in such practical efforts, of following in Nature's footsteps, watching her proceedings, and promoting her marvellous manipulations. When \\'& are thus glancing at the powers of atmospheric air to sustain vegetable life — when we are detecting the mode in v.'hich one of its gases supplies the growing plant v/ith its carbon, another with its oxygen — when we find in the ammonia which that atmosphere contains one perhaps chief source v.'hence the same plant derives its nitrogen — while engaged in such rather startling reflections, may v.'e not, in this month of turnip-sowing, profit- ably ask ourselves if the atmospheric gases are the only main sources whence our crops derive these matters of their purely vegetable portion ? if water, for instance, does not perform as highly im- portant a part, and whether those services might not be rendered more extensively and generally useful ? And if such should prove to be the fact, we have here a source of fertility whose powers are, like the gases and vapour of the atmosphere, well worthy of a more extended practical examination. In this time of turnip-sowing, then, let us examine together a few facts which serve to illustrate the results obtained from enlarged supplies of water to turnip-lands. We are all aware that the turnip will bear a more considerable amount of moisture than in our climate usually falls to its share. We find, in fact, that in the moister climate of Scotland much greater v/eights of turnips are raised on a given extent of land than in England, and that too in a mean temperature rather lower than with us. The report of the Lockerbie Farmers' Club indicates this clearly enough. They give in their report {Trans. Hirjh. Soc, 1856, p. 231), the ave- rage weight of turnips per imperial acre produced THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4C5 during the seven previous years on thirty farms 6f the district of Annanclab. This '.vas in tons afid cwts. as follows : — ^^ ' Swedes. Yellow. Common. S 0*'1849..21 16 20 10.. ....22 7 1850 ..24: 9 19 14 25 14 1851 ..19 19 17 0 21 1 1852.. 23 7 17 7 33 14 1853.. 21 19 23 4 27 3 1854 . . 20 8 18 13 22 0 1855.. 24 7 20 17 25 12 To produce these large crops, the skilful farmers of Dumfriesshire employed no other means to ensure success than such as are commonly adopted by the best English farmers ; they used the same kind of dressings, farm-yard dung, Peruvian guano, crushed bones, and superphosphate of lime— grew the same vai'ieties of the turnip; and yet in what equally extensive English district can we find an average produce of either swedes or ordinary tur- nips equal to those on the thirty Dumfriesshire farms ? AVe must seek, then, in the greater mois- ture of their climate for an explanation of the sources of the Scotch farmer's greater success. J^ow, of the comparative extent of that moisture, the rainfall tables give us considerable information. The table I will here refer to is that by Mr. H. AU- nutt, and from this we find that in the turnip- growing months of 1856 (a period unusually dry in that year, I believe, for Scotland), the following was the average English and Scotch rainfalls given in inches and tenths of an inch : — May. June. July. Aug. Sep. Oct. England 3.0 1.6 1.9 2.9 3.5 2.4 Scotland 2.5 3.2 2.2 3.0 4.3 1.4 Difference in fa- vour of Scot- land 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.3 1.2 1.0 On another occasion we noticed the good effect produced on well-stirred soils by the free and co- pious introduction of the insensible moisture of the atmosphere, and it is probable that more water might be profi:ably added by artificial means to m.any turnip soils than we are always ready to believe. The water-drill in this way promises well, and at this opportune season I should be glad to find that more extended and varied trials were made with it. In the trials of Mr. Chandler only about two tons of water per acre were used; the result was very decidedly in favour of the water- yrill. it is true that two tons of v/ater are only ^eijual to a depth of about 0.02 of an inch per acre ; |)'ut then, from the mode of applying the water down the drill coulter, under the surface of the soil, protected from the sun and wind, such an amount is probably as powerful in its effects upon the 'yo\ing turnip plant, as a shower of rain twenty tinfles Ue weight, which merely in a dry period moistens the avrfacs of the land. The effect of adding a larger proportion of water per acre would probably be much more considerable, arid I feel this conviction, although I am aware that Mr. Chandler {Jour. Roy. Aff. Soc, vol. ix., p. 522) tells us that in the same year he employed (with crushed bones) both two tons and four tons of water per acre, and that he found "no perceptible difference" in the produce from employing two tons and four tons of pond water in his drill. He finds that with three water barrels, two on the road, and one filling (which may be accomplished with two horses), v/ater sufficient for a one-horse drill to put in five acres per day can be brought the distance of a mile. It is certain, however, that the beneficial effect of thus applying water is not entirely owing to the mere amount of water added to the soil, but tliat much benefit is also derived from the soluble portion of the manure being in this way more imme- diately diffused through the soil, and rendered available for the roots of the plant. The advan- tage of even so small a weight of water as that applied by the drill is not confined to the turnip crop. A fen farmer, Mr. A. Rushton, of Chatteris, has published the results of his trials in 1854 and in 1855 with mangold wurtzel, turnips, and cole- seed. The result per acre of his trials in 1854 will be found in the following table. The seed was sown in April, and the mangold roots were weighed in October, 1854. The soil is a light sand, and on such 5oiIs the ridge system will not answer : — Dry-drill, tons. cwt. Mam 9 "Water-drill tons. cwt. l^cwt. superphos.ofhme ( 20 ifi 15 16 loads of dung i li cwt.superphos.of lime > „„ ,„ tc -.r -.r 1 J e A t 20 19. . . .15 16 16 loads of dung. . ..c S 1 cwt. superphos. of lime \ ,^. ^ 12 loads of dung.. .... i ^' /....i.i u 1 cwt. superphos. of lime ^ ,„ ,„ .„ _ 13 loads of dung S Turnips. 2 cwt. superphos. of lime ^ jg ,q ,<, ^ 10 loads of dung S In 1855, in his trials with mangold, 13 loads per acre of farm-yard dung were added, except on No. 5, which had only 10 loads : — Sup. Sown. Drill. Phos. Produce. Cwt. tons. cwt. 1. April 26 Water.. lA 18 2 Dry.. .. \h 8 10 2. „ 25 & 26.. Water. . 1^ 19 2 Dry ]h 13 15 3. „ 24 & 25.. Water. . 2 19 2 Drv 2 12 15 4. „ 21 Water. . 1 i 27 5 Dry 1^ 16 10 5. „ 27 & 23.. Water. . 1| 30 0 Dry U 2t) 13 2 H 2 466 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, Again, in January, 1856, he observes, "I have found the water-drill simple, easy of management, and highly advantageous. The coleseed put in by it appeared four or five days earlier than those drilled dry, with a much fuller and more level plant. It secures, too, an equal distribution of the manure. In dry summers and soils it frequently occurs that there is not sufficient moisture in the soil to dissolve the manure; now the artificial manure being put into the cistern of the drill with the water is ren- dered much more beneficial, because its most fer- tilizing portions become quickly dissolved, and in consequence you have a rapid early growth of the plant, for its action upon it is immediate." There are certain variations in the mode of applying the water by different drills. In the drill of Mr. Spooner, the water and the manure are delivered down separate channels, with great neatness and success. On his own land, in 1855, he grew 28 tons of mangold wurtzel and 12 tons of carrots per acre, in alternate rows, from seed put in with his water-drill, at one operation, with water and dry artificial manure, without the use of any dung what- ever. Upon the whole, we may fairly conclude that the result of these trials give every reasonable assurance that the application of water with the manure-drill is likely to be productive of very good results in the cultivation of root-crops. It is also reasonable that by the application of manures in this way, there will be considerable saving in the expense of manures ; rather less proportions may very probably be employed j for it is certain that by applying fer- tilizers in a state of solution, they are more readily mixed with the soil, and are moreover presented to the roots of the growing plant in the only form ia ^ which they can be absorbed. That small additions I to the soil are productive of very considerable results, is shown in the case of other supporters of vegetablelife,asintheinstanceof ammoniaand other m soluble manures. In the case of ammonia, for in- .i stance, lOOlbs., added to an acre of soil which weighs 4,000,000 lbs., would only increase the amount of its ammonia by 0.0025 per cent., or about 1 part in 40,000, and yet every farmer is well aware that by such a small addition to the majority of soils, their productiveness is very largely increased. We may hence, perhaps, draw the reasonable conclusion, that as small additions of certain substances to the soil are found thus largely to add to their productive- ness, so it may be found that the application of a very moderate amount of water to the land, in the way I have been tracing, may yield much greater results than we might have been inclined to expect after we have learnt the large proportion which is ever present in all cultivated soils. The suggestion of these kind of inquiries will be the more readily entertained when we are, as at present, experiencing rather a deficient supply of certain artificial dressings, such as guano and superphosphate of lime. It is then indeed that we feel the most decidedly the advantages of strengthening our supplies from sources which, iu the cases of the atmosphere and of water, are ever ready for our use, and silently render, or proffer services of which we are only now beginnmg to understand the value. GUANO-ITS COMPOSITION— AND THE AVAILABLE SUBSTITUTES. What shall w« do for guano ? From the replies to some questions lately put to the Government in the House of Commons, it appears that there is little to be expected fi-om that quarter. The question having been asked whether Her Majesty's Ministers intended to send out some small vessels of war for the purpose of search- ing the rainless coasts of Africa, and some other locali- ties, for supplies of guano, Sir Charles Wood replied in the negative. Orders, he said, had been issued in 1844, again in 1852, and 1853, to the commanding officers on the different stations, including the west coast of Africa^ to take every opportunity of ascertaining whether any guano, or places where guano was likely to be found, existed on the coasts visited by them. A variety of reports had been received, but he was sorry to say there was nothing satisfactory in them as to the existence of guano in any great quantity, or of any great value. He took this opportunity, he added, of answering another question which had been put on the paper by Mr, Caird, Tlz., whether a search for nitrates and guano, or other sources of manure, formed part of the instruc- tions to the naval officers at present engaged on the survey of the coast of Egypt, the south-east coast of Africa, and the south-west coast of the Pacific, and the River La Plata, the cost of all which surveys was in- cluded in the estimate ? The answer to one part of the inquiry had reference to physical geography, the know- ledge of which renders a search for guano hopeless in some of the quarters referred to. There was no hope, he said, of guano being found on the low-lying shores of Egypt, or the shores of La Plata. The survey of the south-east coast of Africa was a mere land survey, but with respect to the coast of the south-western Pacific, orders had been: ± given to the surveying officers in that quarter to ascer-' ■ tain, if possible, the existence of guano. These disap- pointments will not, however, have been without their use, if they only teach us to utilize instead of wasting our home supplies of guano, and to economize what we im- port, . Wjtti reg§nd tathfijftst point, there js^carcely. oaa. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 467 apeaker in the discussions which have taken place on this subject, who has not frankly declared that the facility with which guano has been obtained, had led to a wasteful use of it, which he exemplified by reference to his own practice. In the course of our experience, we have found the same to prevail with respect to mineral manures. If they are near the surface, and on the farm itself, they are used in large quantities : if there is a deep cover to be removed, or they are bur- thened with distant carriage, the opinion prevails that small dressings of them often repeated do the most good. The importance attached to guano has its ad- vantages and disadvantages. The latter consist in its letting those who possess a virtual monopoly of guano into the secret of its importance, and setting all the world to draw on a limited supply. The advantages will be somewhat similar to those described in the fable of the dying farmer, who desired his sons to dig over a certain field for a pot of gold buried there. They did not, as is well-known, find the gold, except in the abundant produce of grain which the digging produced. Let us consider what guano is ; for we often appear to lose sight of that. In the first place, then, it is the dung of birds J and, secondly, it owes its value to the large quantities of phosphates and ammonia which it contains, in consequence of their feeding on fish ; and, thirdlj, from the liquid and solid excrements being united in the dung of birds. Have we no dung of birds at home? Have we no supply of phosphates and am- monia, in fish and fish-refuse, now wasted ? Have we no streams of human guano, in the sewage of towns, turned into our rivers to pollute them, or going to be turned into the sea to be wasted ? In a recent article we adverted to the lecture given by Mr. Ferguson, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and his plan for applying the sewage of that town to the improve- ment of the soil, together with the favourable reception the plan experienced from his audience — awakened to the importance of the subject by the falling-ofT of our guano supplies. On the present occasion let us direct attention to the two former sources of supply from which home-made guano may be obtained, namely, the excrements of birds, and the phosphates and ammonia contained in fish and fish-refuse. First, as to birds. The value of bird-dung wa* well known under the old common-field system of husbandry, when dovecotes were more common than at present, and the lord of the manor was privileged to keep pigeons, to be fed by his neighbours. Happily the number of these strongholds of winged free-bootery has become greatly diminished. The keeping of poul- try for sale has likewise greatly diminished as the size of farms has increased, the occupiers of which seldom keep more poultry than is required for their own con- sumption. This is a favourite grievance with those who declaim against the large-farm system, which, whether for good or for evil— for good, we believe, in some respects, for evil in others — has extended, is ex- tending, and will extend, in Great Britain and Ireland. The cheapness of poultry in Ireland used formerly to he a favourite source of declamatioQ mth the grum* biers of the school we have alluded to. It was, how- ever, a cheapness dearly purchased by the evils which attended it, and which the failure of the potato is clear- ing away. The decline of poultry farming may be traced to the fact that land, labour, and capital, applied to the rearing of beef and mutton, makes better returns than when employed in the rearing of ducks and fowls, geese and turkeys. Nevertheless, there is a certain amount of poultry kept on most farms. What becomes of their dung ? In most cases— and, we are free to confess, this was the writer's own practice— it is wheeled out to the dung-heap, there to undergo the usual washing process, with the accompanying discharge of its phosphate and ammonia into the ditches, where they betray their presence by the luxuriant growth of the grass and weeds which they produce. The farmers of the old school, whether for better or ^vorse— now nearly extinct — allege that "the new lights," as they call them, only do in a dear way, by means of their expensive drains, what they efitcted at a much cheaper rate. This reminds us of another home-source of phosphates and ammonia which we had nearly overlooked, namely, the husbanding of that which now escapes through our drains. Let us pass this over, however, for the present, without inquiring how much of this waste arises out of the new doctrine of the percolation of water through homogeneous clay; confining ourselves to the question of our poultry and their droppings. Why should not that source of manure be economised ? Why should it not be preserved, to be drilled, mixed with ashes, charred peat charcoal, or even loam, which the farmer not unfrequently buys in his artificial manures ? For those who like the water-drill better than the dry-drill, why should not the manure of the hen-roost be dissolved, and administered in that form? The quantity of phosphate and am- monia derivable from that source may not be considerable, but there is the old Scottish proverbs about " littles and mickles;" and the profits of farm- ing, we are told, depend entirely on attention to minutite, which is the reason gentlemen farmers are generally so unsuccessful. Then, again, there is pig- dung. Oh, but pig-dung breeds nettles ! There can- not be a stronger recommendation, for nettles are a sign of richness in the land. Pig-dung afi'ords the prospect of a large supply of home-made guano. We have lately met somewhere with a statement made by a farmer of how he saved the dung of his pigs separately, mixed it with ashes, and converted it into a drill- manure equal to guano. There cannot be the least doubt on this point ; and that there are many ways of economizing pig-muck without putting the pigs on boards, which, if we rightly remember, was the prac- tice in the case to which we allude. We have got to the end of our limits, and have yet to enter on the fish part of the question, together with the guano resources of that description now wasted round our coast. , i^-5 ;;*i5 ^Zii'Mii TO* AnS^i.B T9jaJcf^ >.i rioidw ,8noillim 'h&aa JBdi awoai Ksw ei it iaSL 5i3.'-'or' moisjjii deiaaqH adi baaasq lavaa baaisi !39iib 9dl ^d YiJaaoo adJ 1o iuo bdl-g^umB 8bw iad THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 475 >fti oJ Jbaifqqfi od -fiW (8I9qB9'l bns ,sj7ri- A TlIl$,T9:li.^.rOF PRICES AND THE STATE OF THE CIRCULATION n'iw: '"■ DURING THE NINE YEARS 1848-1856, We have recently received two volumes of a work of considerable public importance at the present moment, namely, the fifth and sixth volumes of '• A History of Prices and the State of the Circulation during the nine years 1848-1856" ; by Thomas Tooke, F.R.S., and William Newmarch. ■ The high public character of these two gentlemen is a guarantee for the care and attention that have been bestowed upon this elaborate compilation. Two events have transpired in the last ten years, which, from the universal influence they exercise over the trade and commerce of Europe — we might say the whole world — will beyond a doubt be pointed at as form- ing an epoch of momentous importance in the history of prices. The first of these is the adoption of free trade by the British Parliament, a measure which has yet to receive its full development. The second is the dis- covery of the gold fields of California and Australia, by which the supply of gold in Europe has been more than tripled. It is therefore at a most opportune time that these two volumes have made their appearance. In order to form any correct idea of the probable eflfect of the enormous influx of gold into Europe during the last ten years, we must refer back to the period of the discovery of America and the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru. Before that event, the supply of the precious metals in Europe was very small indeed, probably not exceeding, in gold and silver, three mil- lions per annum. It must be recollected, too, that there were no banks, and consequently no paper circulation at that period ; the quantity of specie in circulation, therefore, was necessarily all that the people had to de- pend on for a medium of exchange in commerce, and prices were proportionately low. For instance, in the fourteenth century a grass-fed ox was sold for 16s., and a corn-fed one for 24s., a three-year-old hog for .3s. 4d., and a shorn fat sheep for Is. 2d., &c. In the following century the entire expense of a dinner given by the " Worshipful Company of Waxchandlers" amounted to only 10s. Wheat was frequently as low as 2s. 6d. per qr. in a plentiful year, although in seasons of scarcity it was extravagantly dear. But after the discovery of the Mexican and Peruvian gold and silver fields, the influx of these metals into Europe, according to Humboldt, amounted to nine-and-a-half millions sterling per annum ; that is, in 356 years, from 1492 to 1848, the entire quantity poured into Europe was 3,204 millions sterling. Mr. Tooke makes it only amount to 1,813 millions, which is perhaps the custom-house return. But it is well known that nearly half the amount ob- tained never passed the Spanish custom-houses at all, but was smuggled out of the country by the direct con- nivance of the officers appointed to prevent it ; so that the official returns were no criterion whatever of the real quantity raised. The eff'ect of this increase of the precious metals upon prices was immediate and permanent ; and we find that the average value of wheat and other grain acquired a fixity or steadiness of price never known previously. Instead of averages of Is. 6d., 3s. Id., 13s. S^d., 15s., and lis. 9d., which had been the former rates, we find they soon rose to 34s., 39s., 44s., 51s., and so on, per qr. ; and but for the civil wars which prevailed at short intervals, there would have been but little fluctuation in prices, except in cases of deficient harvests. Judging there- fore by analogy, we have from the first discovery of the gold fields of California, and subsequently those of Australia, looked for advancing prices of all kinds of produce, nor have we been disappointed. According to our authors, the quantity of gold since impoited into Europe— say in nine years, from 1848 to 1856 — has amounted to 174 millions, or upwards of 19 millions per annum on the average, the last year (1856) bringing it up to 32^ millions. Now, it is morally impossible that such an additional supply of gold, any more than that of any other com- modity, can be thrown into the commerce of Europe without producing an efi"ect upon prices. It may be alleged that it has not such an effect because it does not remain in this country, but passes over to the continent. The operation upon prices, however, is not less certain, and the process by which it is efi'ected is perfectly simple. For instance, the gold received from Australia represents the goods (manufactures) sent out to pay for it; for we can only buy in proportion as we sell, or sell only in proportion as we buy. The manufacturing of those goods employs an extra number of hands, and, moreover, yields the operatives remunerative wages. This creates an extraordinary demand for all the neces- saries of life, and that demand occasions advancing prices. To be convinced that such is the actual opera- tion of the influx of gold, we have only to look at the enormous increase of our exports in the Board of Trade returns, and then at the state of the manufacturing dis- tricts. For the last four years we have, from one cause or another, had extraordinarily high prices for all kinds of agricultural produce, notwithstanding that for three years at least we have had full average crops of wheat. Still, with these high prices, we have heard no complaints from the operatives in the manufacturing districts, nor has the consumption at all diminished in consequence, but rather the contrary. The fact is, the production of gold has furnished full employment for the manufactu- rers at remunerative wages, and they have not felt the high prices oppressively. 47(3 THE FARMER'S UM^'^^ZiiM.^ With respect to the disappearance of the gold as soon as it arrives — as we are circumstanced, this is of no vital importance. Were we, like Austria or Spain, destitute of public and private credit, it would, indeed, be a heavy calamity — not being able to retain it. But, whilst the credit of England — both public and private — continues intact, we do not want the gold. Any man would rather have a Bank-of-England note for ^^1,000 in liis pocket than a thousand sovereigns ; and, pro- vided he has gold or silver enough to make his minor payments, it is far more convenient either to hold or pay, or carry about, notes or bills than cash. We, there- fore, without any misgivings, receive the gold from the diggers, take the profit upon it iu the shapa of manu- factures in the first instance, and in the second of the extra prices for produce occasioned by the extra de- maud. We then pass the gold to our needy neighbours, at a profit upon the import price. This we conceive to be the simple working of the influx of gold from Cali- fornia and Australia. We see the proof of it ia the increased price of meat, butter, cheese, and, above all, corn of every description, and, lastly, of land, as a natural Consequence. If other productions of an exotic growth — such as tea, coffee, rice, &c. — have not ad- vanced ia proportion, it is because the supply has in- creased with the demand, so that no room existed for a rise in price. We have thought it right to commence our notice with these explanatory remarks, fully borne out by the work before us, ia order to show the importance of the two events which are now, and have been since 1848, in operation upon the prices of the neces- saries of life ; and at the same time to point out to our readers the value of the publication Mr. Tooke has pro- duced, and which we now proceed to notice more par- ticularly. It is impossible to give even a slight analysis of a treatise containing upwards of sixteen hundred pages. We shall, therefore, take aglanceat the several divisions of the work, which consist of seven parts : 1st, A narrative of the seasons, and of the state of the corn trade, 1847-56. 2nd, On the general course of trade and prices in the markets for manufactures, and for commodities other than corn. 3rd, On the progress and effects of the railway ex- penditure, and of the railway system as now developed. 4th, On tl^e progressive application, from 1820 to the [jiesent time, of the principles of free trade to the commercial legislation of this and other countries. 5th, On the management and policy of the Bank of England during the period 1844-56. 6th, On the policy pursued in France, since 1847, relative to finance and to banking and credit institu- tions. e 7th, On the order, extent, and character of the changes which have been produced by the new supplies of gold from California and Australia. To these is added (Appendix 2), ati inquiry relative to the influx of the precious metals iu the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Part I. is divided into 32 sections, the first seven of which, after the introduction, exhibit a detail of the meteorological phenomena of each month and year from 1847 to 1853, showing the influence of the weather upon the prices of wheat, as afTectiug both the amount of produce and the quality. This was particularly the case in 1852-3, in which season not only was a large breadth of land unsown that should have been cropped with wheat, but the excessive wetness of the time, from September to May, injured the plant to such an extent, that not more than four-fifths of an average was pro- duced, whilst the deficiency in the breadth sown raised the actual deficiency of the crop to one-third of the usual average. The following year was as productive, both from the extra breadth sown as from the extra- ordinary yield, as the previous one was defective; but the influence of the latter ui'on prices still continued. We notice that the month of Mas, 1854, was dry and cold, wiih easterly winds until the 22nd, and the foliage of the trees was greatly injured, yet no mischief was sus- tained by the wheat crop ; and we refer to it as forming a counterpart to the present month, so similar iu its features. During the nine years (from August 5ch to August 5tb) from 1845-6 to 1353-4, the quantity of wheat en- tered for consumption amounted to 40,258,000 imperial quarters, or sn average of 4,473,000 qrs. per year. Dill'erent reasons are adduced by different persons for so large an importation ; but we cannot stop to stat;e them, and must refer the reader to the work for informa- tion. One thinpr, however, is specially noticeable, namely, t^at the whole, or nearly so, was consumed up to the harvest of 1854 ; and, that notwithstanding the largest crop that ever was reaped, there was no great surplus left at that of 1855, the effect of the wet weather of 1852-3 having thus spread itself over a series of several seasons, and is, in fact, felt in prices to the pre* sent time. We pass on to section 15, " On the relative produc- tiveness of the harvests in England during: the forty years 1815-1854, and on Mr. Jacob's researches in 1826-8." This is an interesting portion of the work, and contains valuable information to tiie merchant as well as agri- culturist. Sections 18 to 23 treat of the vexed question of statistics ; and the failure of Government to establish the principle, Mr. Tooke very properly ascribes to not confining their inquiry to the quantity of the land under tillage and in pasture in the first instance, which would not have alarmed the agriculturists or given them tlie idea of a " troublesome, vexatious, and alarming inquisition" into their private concerns. " It is exceed- ingly desirable," says Mr. Tooke, " that the breadth and species of culture should be ascertained ; and means will probably be found of accomplishing that object. But the " Estimates" of produce proposed by the bill could scarcely be expected to answer any useful pur- pose." Section 26, " On the import of foreign grain during the 35 years 1821-55, &e., &c.," will be found im- portant ; as well as sec. 29, " On the probable future range in this country of the prices of corn," &c., and sec. 30 and 31, " On the character ot the seasons and harvests 1855-50, and the prices and estimated produce of wheat. Section 32 is a sumniary of conclusion;;, &c., from which we select the following as peculiarly import mt : " 16. — That as this country under the existing system of free- trade is open to importation from all tbe corn- exporting countries in the world, and is equally free to exi)ort to all ports abroad which are open to imports of foreign supplies, it is clear that the prices of the United King- dom, allowing for expenses and delays of transits, must be European prices ; or rather prices of the com- mercial world." iVlr. Tooke might have added, that the effect will be greatly facilitated and promoted by the operation of the electric telegraph. We shall hereafter re£ume^,pi^]^jjOt^f^jati(j!p^,, upon these important volumes. -'>-.-.'->- ^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 477 iavoai,. REARING AND TRAINING COLTS, I have of late noticed in your paper a number of views in relation to training colts, and if the subject is not already exhausted, I will cast in my mite with the rest. Commencing at the foundation : select just such a mare for breeding, as above all others you would prefer to u&e yourself; sufficiently compact to keep easy, and perfectly sound, wind, limb, and body — without fault or blemish. If you have a mare that has any faults or blemishes, and wish to try her as a breeder, do so. If her colts prove number one, keep her ; if not, let her pass into the hands of dealers in second-hand horses. If j'our mare is mild and tractable, as she should be, she might be judiciously used (not driven too fast,) until three weeks before foaling. 1 have v/orked them to within two days without injury. If work is an im- portant part, let them foal about 1st of June; then you can work them at your spring farm work until middle of May, when they should be turned out to grass. In selecting a sire, choose one of good size, all other tilings being equal ; every one hundred pounds above one thousand, added to the weight of a good three or four-year-old colt, will add 5 gs. to his selling value; but know that he is sound every way ; round proportions, that will keep easy, broad between the eyes, a show of courage, with an Inviting, intelligent countenance. Let his pedigree be good, and find it out. If he is advertised for what he is not, that is, with a design to deceive in pedigree, reject him, even if he is the best horse you ever saw, and tell the owner plainly the reason — that honesty will answer your purpose, and a forged pedigree will not. Now, presuming you have a good colt, do well by him the first winter; the second and third win- ters he will bear coarse keeping as well as any stock you b.ave. Should not approve of too much strav/, and sheep and oxen orts ; coarse hay fodder will do; and if the colt gets thin there will be no per- manent injury, provided his hair keeps a thrifty look; he will come up in four weeks at grass. Always give good pasturing in summer. Summer feed is too cheap to keep any stock short. Halter-break any time from, three weeks to three years old, as you find for your convenience. Take him into a small yard free from stone ; put on your halter, one he cannot break; take a small stick in your hand, that he may be afraid to jump on you ; be gentle, and not frighten or hurt him. If the colt runs back, follow him ; you can run forward as fast as he runs back. If the colt runs forward, hold on ; do not run, but pull him round ; a man can pull round a large colt ; do not get behind him, but keep at the side ; learn him to lead by pulling sideways ; in that way yon have the advantage; he will very soon follow you around, and soon after that forward. In hitching, hitch in a way they will not be tempted to pull, and continue it. Hitch them in the stable with a few oats or some good hay in the manger, or hitch to the old mare's neck, with not more than one foot of slack halter. Be gentle, and your colt will be halter-broken in less time than I have been writing how to do it. Now allowing the colt is well halter-broken, and has come to the fall or winter past three years old, and is in good spirits and good condition, put on your bridle; buckle it rather light on the top of the head, as that will draw the bit so far into the mouth as to prevent their throwing the tongue over the bit. Let them stand with a bridle on some two or three hours at three or four different times. I have known colts with a loose bridle, and put at once into the bitting-machine, to throw the tongue over the bit and ever after carry it there ; and if they carry the tongue over the bit, they will be most likely to carry it out of the mouth. Put on your bitting-machine; draw your coil's head in but little at first ; turn him into a j'ard where the fence is smooth, that his bridle may not get caught. The colt may be bitted some half-a-dozen times — two or three hours at a time— drawing his head in a little more each time, but never unnaturally close, or so as to sore his mouth in the least. If he begins to sweat and becomes very uneasy, you may con- clude he is too tightly bitted and should be released. The reason v,-hy I should wait till the fall or winter after the colt is three years old, before beginning to break, is, that I should never conunence to break before the colt is old enough to work, and all the work a colt does before that age will be done at the expense of bis groivth ; besides, at and after that age, a colt will bear considerable strain and effort without aifecting his shape or future good ; while, ])revious to that age, some uncalled for effort in breaking may for ever atFect his goodness. If you wish to teach him to follow you, now is the lime ; it can be done in half-an-hour while he iy in the bit. If you have always been gentle with him he will not avoid you, but come up to you, and, by rabl'ing against you, indicate that he wants the bridle off. Get a few oats in a measure and a stick in your hand, shake the measure that he may hear the sound of the oats, and say " come here." When he has eaten a few oats, raise up your stick and go away from him ; keep your stick in a way that he will not dare come very near for fear; then put down your stick, shake your measure, and say " come here," and you will see him coming. When 478 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. he has eaten a little, raise up your stick and drive him away; when he shows a disposition to come back, drop your stick, exhibit your measure, and say "come here;" you may start and walk off — he will be at your heels. You may now practise with your oats and without, as you find necessary ; he will understand your language if he is not hurt or scared. Now if you wish to ride him with the least trou- ble, take him into the stable, shut the door, hitch in the stall (presuming it is not less than five feet wide, and ten feet in the clear overhead), lay your breast upon his shoulder, next jump so that your body will lie across him ; do so several times ; now bring yourself around astride him ; get off and on as many times as you please ; now open the door, unhitch your colt, and ride where you please. If he is not inclined to stand for you to get on, make him stand while you get oft' and on two or three times before starting. Now put on an old harness, hitch him in the stable, with the traces tucked through so that they will dangle about his hind legs, and let him stand some three or four hours ; then take him out, and either lead or drive him in the harness, enough to feel that he is not to be hurt. If you have a steady horse it will be the least trouble to put your colt in at the side of it ; but if not, turn your waggon or sleigh into fair sailing; let some one take the colt by the head while you hitch him to the waggon and get in ; hitch him to no two-wheeled affair unless you want your neck broke, nor to any go-round process. If there is much fear that the colt will kick, check him up pretty close at first, and he will not be likely to get his heels very high. Be gentle and patient ; have no sharp bits on him from the first, and do not hold him too tight ; let the other man lead him a short distance, and then do up the hal- ter. If he jumps and plunges, keep in the waggon and be patient ; I never get out, so long as colt, waggon, and harness hold together. Do not let him go out of a walk, nor even know that he can trot, until you have driven him several miles up hill and down on a walk, and then not until you can say he drives as kind and nice on a walk as an old horse. After the first day get into your wag- gon to back him ; drive any and everywhere you would an old horse ; only be gentle and patient, and very cautious how you use the whip. And now that he is fine, fat, and sleek, keep him so ; feed a little grain, and use him carefully every day until he has become accustomed to the harness, and you feel safe with him anywhere. Never drive him so but that you know he will be as well off the next morning as the morning previous. Three- year-old flesh on a horse seven years old is worth a dollar a pound, and like old cheese growing bet- ter every year. If your colt is inclined to shy in the harness, drive up to the object, or as near it as practicable ; stop him, and let him stand awhile ; practise it invariably, and you will soon have a gentle horse. Do not brag how fast he can go until he is seven years old ; do not trust your boys out of sight with the colt ; let them take the old horse ; if he has been managed upon my principle he is a good one ; and if not, your|colt will soon be no better. If you have a good colt that you wish spoilt, send him out to a reputed colt-breaker — one who will bit him square to the mark, and with whip and spur push him right to the point, so that in three weeks you will have a colt broke scientifically, ^Ay- sically, and constitutionally ; flesh gone and going, mouth raw, appetite gone, spirits gone ; will have the scratches, from derangement of system, for the rest of the winter, and if in the spring you turn him out to grass, he may come up in the fall to half the value he had the fall before, less 15 dols. paid for breaking. We hardly realize how easy it is to spoil a good colt, and the good ones are the easiest spoiled. I have seen many one-hundred-and-fifty- dollar colts in six weeks time brought down to 100 dols., and never again get above that price, all from not knowing hov/ they should be treated and what they can bear. I find, when I go out to buy, only about one horse in seven, among horses over seven years old, that can be relied upon in every point. In reply, " Is your horse sound and right?" "Y-e-e-s, for any- thing I know. He had the horse-distemper last year, since which he has had a little cough some- times, or he has a slight bunch on one joint ; was a little lame at first, but have seen nothing of it of late ; or he favoured one fore foot a little some time ago; or he bites the manger a little; or he ran away and broke my waggon, since which I hardly dare trust my children with him. Now I think the horse worth 140 dols. ; yet as I wish to dispose of him I will take 125 dols." While the fact is hardly admitted that he is wind-broke, heavey, foundered, spavined, or run away, and ten chances he has two or three of the above complications or others worse, which induce the owner to dispose of him 15 dols. less than the price of a sound horse. Now when you go to buy, if the horse is admitted to have now, or to have ever had the least fault or blemish, leave him for the next man, even though you can buy him at half-price. I dare not trust myself to buy amongst strangers, and rather buy a colt and work him into a horse than buy among acquaintances. And if you get a horse on your hands that is not what he should be, no matter what you paid, sell him to a dealer in second-hand horses, and not try to palm him off for what he is not. Do not sacrifice your reputation as an honest man by a few dollars on a horse ; as if you sell under any want of true colouring, the man to whom you sell and his friends will carry just as good an opinion of you as you will of the man of whom you bought. And will you be likely to buy of him again a horse or anything else ? What I have said is designed for those who buy horses out of necessity, and for those who make the rearing and disposing of colts one branch of an honest living, and not for jockeys or horse specu- lators. I should like to say more in relation to feeding and driving horses of different ages, &c., but am getting tired of it, and, had I supposed I should have written so much, would not have undertaken it ; and fearing the reader has become tired before the writer, I close. C. O. Perkins. Becket, Berkshire Co., Massachusetts, U, S. — The Country Gentleman. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. *?^ THE COMMERCE OF CHICAGO IN 1856. We must take the credit of being the first periodical ill thia country that brought the vast capabilities of tlie port of Chicago, as a grain depot, before the notice of our merchants. We have had for the last five years an intelligent and influential shipper as our correspondent there, who has periodically — indeed, with almost every mail — sent us a market note from that city. In the month of January, 1855, he forwarded a communication, in which he gave proofs that went far towards establishing his opinion, that " Chicago was the greatest grain port in the world." On the 29th of last September we announced the ar- rival, at Liverpool, of the *' Dean Richmond," a vessel of 387 tons burden, direct from Chicago and Jlilwaukee, through the Welland Canal, which, were it but enlarged to the requirements of the trade between that city and this country, would go far towards enriching the mer- chants and shippers of that locality. The Welland Canal is the passage from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and thence into the St. Lawrence the navigation to the Pacific Ocean is free. That such improvement must be ultimately effected in that canal from the result of the trade springing up in the prairie city of Chicago is as clear a deduction as facts and figures can give us. Ten years ago there were not ten thousand people in the whole territory of Illinois. Twenty years since Chicago was a small village at the southern end of Lake ISIichigan, where at night the howl of the prairie wolf might be heard from all parts of its dwellings. In 1857 it is a city of more than one hun- dred thousand inhabitants. Then, the little village that bore the germ of a large city in its bosom, imported her beef, her butter and her flour, although growing corn more than enough for her wants. Now, the city though only budding into life, gives forth for exporta- tion twenty million bushels of grain ; while her beef, in the markets of the world can compare in weight, and bears in price as high a value, as that of any other nation. At the former period railways were unheard of, and even five years since there was but one (about forty miles in length) connected with the town. In 1857, ten trunks and a great number of branch lines, counting more than three thousand miles of railway, arc centred in that vast gi-ain emporium. Who then can pronounce the extent to which such a city may spread? The agricultural resources of the country in connection with it are exhaustless and wonderful; the climate is well suited to our hardy Saxon race ; its mineral deposits of lead, iron, copper, and coal are reputed to be unsur- passed in richness and extent, and all are well qualified to call forth the energies of an cnterprizing and greatly- increasing population. If, then, wc look at the ad- vance made by the city of Chicago in twenty years, it shows clearly the immense progression which is going on in the AVestern World. Our correspondent has now forwarded us a re- view of the commerce of Chicago for the year 1866, but its great length precludes the possibility of its in- sertion. Yet so marvellous is its history, that we can- not pass it over in silence. We will take a glance at the figures given in connection with its corn trade, and, drawing a comparison from previous years with that of the past (185G), by such means- give our readers a general view that we trust will prove interesting. It must be remembered that the year 1855 was peculiarly favourable to the export of grain from America, as well as to its enhancement in price, in consequence of the belligerent attitude of the great nations of Europe, which, by thus employing the human material in the fearful strife of that year, caused increased demand from the United States for their breadstuff's and provi- sions, while all other branches of business immediately attendant on trade were similarly benefited. Yet, still, theyear of peace 185G shows, in contrast with its stormy predecessor, a vast increase in the trade of Chicago. We find that the exports of flour in the year 1855 were 103,419 brls. ; in 1856 they increased to 210,389 brls., and that in the face of a great decline in prices, as in Christmas, 1850, flour was only 3 d, 75 c, to 5 d, 50 c. per barrel, while at the same period in 1855 it was 7 d, 25 c, to 8 d. per barrel ; and the decline was gradual and rapid from the Christmas of 1855 to the latter period. The enormous quantities of wheat produced in the country tributary to Chicago, and the superior facilities afforded to millers for making choice selections, must have a continued tendency to increase the investment of capital in the flour trade, and consequently multiply its shipments to an unknown extent. The wheat trade of Chicago is reported as im- mense. No better evidence can be given of the growth and prosperity of the Illinois district, than the rapidly increasing quantity of this cereal annually poured in upon its market. In 1852 the total ship- ments were less than 1,000,000 bushels— last year they were nearly 9,000,000 bushels. The receipts of this grain in 1856 averaged 28,000 bushels every week-day; while its shipments were 26,000 bushels per day. But the figures of the statement before us for the last four years will speak for themselves. There were shipped from Chicago in the year Bushels. Bushels. 1853 .. .. 1,685,796 1855 .. .. 7,535,097 1854 .. .. 3,038,955 1856 .. .. 8,767,760 The change from the high prices of 1855 to the lower ones of the past year ihay account for the small increase in the shipments of 1856-55, as compared with those of 1855-54; for we find that whereas in Dec, 1855, wheat ranged from 1 d, 30c, to 1 d. 35c., and red and white winter from Id. 65c. to Id. 75c. per bushel; in the same month of 1856 it was only 77 c. to 78c., and red and white 90c. to lOOj. per bushel. 480 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. But large as have been the shipments of wheat, they have been gTeatly exceeded by tliose of Indian corn. In Illinois alone the estimation of the produce of this crop is almost fabulous. 180,000,000 bushels were reported as having been well ripened and harvested In a good condition in the year 1855. On the growth and good harvesting of this crop often depends the price of wheat and other corn, and in reviewing the pi'ospects we have of wheat and flour from America, we must not overlook either the failure or the bountiful supply of Indian corn. The shipments of that grain from Chicago for the year 1855, were 7,517,625 bushels; in 1856 they increased to 11,129,688 bushels, and that in the face of falling prices, as at Christmas in the former year it was 50c., while on the 1st of December last year it only stood at 35c. to 36c. per bushel of 601bs. The oat crop has been declining, as there seems to be an indisposition amongst producers to give attention to its cultivation. Little more than sufficient for their own immediate wauts is grown — hence the prices are in contrast with other grain, being dearer in 1856 than in 1855; in December of the former year, 32c. to 33c., against 28c. to 30c. per bushel in 1855. We congratulate the citizens of Chicago upon their extraordinary progress in commerce, and consequently in civilization; which, from the peculiar position of their city, must go on improving to an extent almost in- calculable, from their immense and illimitable resources. Truly does the report say, " the history of the world fur- nishes no parallel to it, and hence all estimates based on past experience respecting the results to be here worked out must necessarily fall short of the actual fact." How- ever, there cannot be any reasonable doubt, from the experience of the last four years, that the future pros- pects of the lake-bound city will not fall short of its past history. On the contrary, from the benefit to be derived from its great coal beds, situated within a few miles of Chicago, and the consequent importance of the cheap and plentiful supply of fuel for mills, fac- tories, and railway?, a further i mpetus will be given to her trade and commerce. For those who are better acquainted with M'Cor- mick's reaper than with the manufacturer or his work- shops, we condense the following details of his large manufactory, near the city of Chicago, which may be found interesting and suggestive. It covers four acres of ground on the main branch of the Chicago river, near its entrance, and consists of several substantial buildings. The main building is 240 feet long by 40 feet wide, and four storeys high ; beside this is a foundry, blacksmiths' shop, and other buildings of similar capacity. It was established in 1847. In the year 1854 the number of reapers manufactured was 1,550, and in 1 855, 2,658, the cost of the raw material for the latter being 103,786 dol- lars. I n the year 1 856 the number manufactured in creased to 4,060 reapers, of the value of 629,300 dollars, the cost of the rawmaterial being 157 ,000 dollars. All thosehere manufactured are exclusively for the farmers of the west, esjiecially of Illinois, and none of them are sent to this counti-y. The increased demand for Reaping JIachines shows forcibly the value set by the farmers of America, on any means by which the labour of the harvest -field can be cheapened ; at the same time it points with a true index to the increased and increasing quantity of land that is brought into tillage by the immigrants that are continually pouring in on the New Western, from the overgrown and unemployed population of the Old Eastern World. THE PROPOSED PLAN FOR USING THE NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. SEWAGE OF The reception experienced by the paper which Mr. Ferguson lately read before the Farmers' Club of New- castle-on-Tyne, on the application of the sewage of towns to agricultural purposes, gives some hope that we are approaching the solution of a long-debated question — the application of manure in a liquid form by means of the steam-engine and underground pipes. The above mode of applying the sewage of towns to the land has repeatedly been urged in this Journal as the most, if not the only feasible method. One obstacle to this mode of utilizing the sewage has been the prevalent feeling in favour of solid manure in the established form; and though there has been abundance of writing and speaking on the subject, the facts have not been sufficiently brought before the farmers' eyes by ocular demonstration. We ought long ago to have had some experiments in different parts of the country on this mode of collecting and distributing the sewage of centres of population of moderate extent. The agriculturist would thus have become familiarized with this form of manure, and we should not now be bewildered as to the best method of dealing with such a gigantic enterprize as the utilizing of the sewage of London. We lately gave a full report of Mr. Ferguson's paper. As, however, some of our readers may like to see the substance of it in a more condensed form, we will en- deavour to lay before them a brief summary of its most important contents. The subject is introduced with a statement of the various experiments which have been made in the application of manure in the liquid form, both the manure of our farm-yards and the sewage of towns. This is followed by an exposition of the plans suggested for utilizing the latter, and by details of that which Mr. Ferguson proposes to employ in the particular instance of Newcastle-on-Tyne. As regards the experiments which have been made in the ajjplication of farm-yard manure in the liquid form, their value may be considered to consist chiefly in the light which they throw on the practicability of apply- ing the sewage of towns in that form. The propriety of reducing all the manure of a farm to the liquid state THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 481' is very questionable. We are not certain that the attempts which have been made to do this have not had a share in retarding the application of the sewage of towns. Farmers might have been convinced that the liquid form was the best way of applying the liquid manure of towns, who have become alarmed at the project of converting all their solid muck into liquid manure. On every farm, however, where a steam-engine is used, whether fixed or porta- ble, there should be a small portion of land near the homestall having pipes laid under it, communicating with a tank, by which all the liquid manure at present wasted may be distributed over some land near the farm buildings, to be cropped with Italian rye-grass, which seems to be the crop best adapted to this kind of cultivation. As manure judiciously applied invariably reproduces manure by increasing the quantity of live stock the land can maintain, this kind of cultivation will invariably extend itself by increasing the quantity of land capable of being dressed in that way. The same may be said of the sewage of towns. We can only expect its use to come into operation gradually. Farmers can scarcely be expected to revolutionize their whole practice— rushing at once into its exclusive use. They may, however, take a portion from those companies who undertake to convey it to them, and the advantages resulting from it will lead to its gradual extension. The expense of laying the pipes down need be considered no obstacle. Let people once make up tlieir minds to the use of sewage, and there will not only be companies ready to lay mains for conveying it into the country, but to lay down the ne- cessary pipes for its distribution over the land. The expense of this per acre will uot be much greater than that of draining, and there will be companies as willing to undertake the one as the other, to be paid for by a terminable rent- charge. In the present state of the question the farmers cannot use the sewage because it is not brought down to them. The greatest objection raised against the practicability of applying our town sewage is the state of dilution in which it will be. The reply is, then, let it not be so much diluted. Let there be separate drains to carry off the storm water. The extra expense necessary for this purpose is no objection, if by so doing it will convert into a source of revenue what would otherwise be value- less or a source of expense. This is part of the plan proposed by Mr. Ferguson at Newcastle ; and though he has no faith in the deodorizing plan as ever likely to produce a valuable manure, since, as every chemist knows, after all the deodoi'izing the most valuable por- tion will remain in the liquid, he proposes nevertheless to apply that process to such part of the sewage as the farmers do not take. His plan is this. Had there been a tract of country within moderate distance to which the sewage could have been conducted by gi'avi- tation, the application of the sewage of Newcastle would have been comparatively easy. This not being the case, he proposes to make the discharge from the main sewer into a tank, where a powerful steam-engine is to force the sewage to a certain elevated point. That however not being of itself sufficiently high to com- mand the whole district, he proposes to fix to the two sides of a certain building, which he points out, pipes of the same size as the main pipe. The sewage would thus be forced up one pipe to a small tank at the top, and then by its own gravitation flow down another ; so that sufficient head pressure would be obtained to de- liver it by jet six miles to the north of Newcastle, and by means of small pipes diverging right and left, to carry it upwards of two miles on each side of the New- castle and Berwick Kailway, along which it is proposed to lay the main pipe. It is proposed that the small tank at the top of the tower should be provided with an overflow pipe leading to a waste pipe, so that when the sewage was too much diluted it would flow into the river. By this plan there would be considerable waste, unless a large covered reservoir were made, with an auxiliary engine to keep the pipes always full. The area through which it is proposed to lay the main would comprehend an extent of 25 square miles, which is estimated as sufficient to consume all the sewage of Newcastle with the present population. This it is cal- culated would be sufficient to manure, allowing annually 200 tons to the acre, in which there would be 8 cwt. of such manuring matter. It is proposed to intercept any solid matter which may be in the sewage-water by ver- tical gratings in its way to the tanks. This would be taken out at the company's works, partially dried, and put into barges on the river. It is remarked that for such a scheme as this the co-operation of the farmers and landowners would be required. Mr. Ferguson, however, appears very sanguine that they would readily take the liquid at 2d. or 23d. the ton. On the other hand he points out that if the deodorizing l^rocess alone shall be adopted, in consequence of the commission recently appointed deciding in favour of such a mode of dealing with the sewage, which he does not anticipate, a heavy rate will be necessary for sani- tary purposes in consequence of the small value of the precipitated matter as manure. On this point the opinion of Professor Way is cited, that if the liquid sewage could be distributed over the extent of surface which it is capable of fertilizing, a revenue would be forthcoming towards the reduction of the town rates. Mr. Ferguson further gives it as his opinion that if, contrary to expectation, the commission should decide in favour of the deodorizing plan, the two processes might go on together, by having sufficient works at the place ; so that when the sewage was not wanted by the farmers, it might be precipitated and deodorized, and the solid precipitates sold as manure. Objections have been raised to the employment of the sewage in a liquid state, that the fertilizing fluid when thrown over the surface emits an intolei-able stencil. This, however, he contends is a mistake. Farm-yard manure when spread on the surface emits a much greater and more enduring stench ; wliile the smell arising from sewage-water is much less perma- nent, soon sinking into the soil. The following is given as an approximate estimate of the cost and returns of the plan, as far as possible^ 2 I 2 483 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. without making an aciual survey. Passing over details, the general results of this calculation appear to be as follows : Tor the construction of sewers, three large tanks, each 45 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep, houses, sheds, works, steam engine, main and distributing pipes, together with land and house property, to be bought, it is calculated tliat £60,000 would be re- quired. The returns for this outlay are estimated on the supposition of the sewage being rendered available for an area of 16,000 acres. From this 3,000 acres are deducted for woods and other lauds to which the sewage would not be applied. This leaves 13,000 acres for the sewage manure. And assuming each occupier to take on an average 200 tons per acre annually for his land, and to throw over his manure heaps (which is only half what Smith, of Deanston, reckoned to be re- quired for grass land), this at 2d. llie ton, would pro- duce a gross revenue of upwaids of £21,600. This is exclusive of the sale oi' solid matter, to be obtained by the intercepting gratings. The working expenses are calculated at £13,200, including 4 per cent, on the capital embarked. This calculation would leave a net revenue of £'8,290, or an additional lli per cent. The plan appeared to have met with general appro- bation from all the audience who spoke on the subject. Some had looked into the estimates, aud approved of them • others considered the plan would answer if it only paid 6 per cent.j others bore testimony to the value of liquid-manure, and the irrigating process as practised in Scotland; while some declared that the sewage would pay tVie farmers even at 6d. instead of 2d. the ton. Upon the whole it may be hoped that the plan of applying sewage in the liquid form will receive a fair trial at Newcastle. Much will depend upon the farmers, and their disposition to avail themselves of the liquid manure when brought to their farms. The great work of all, however, will of course rest with those who undertake the supply — the economy and convenience with which they can carry out their arrangements. CATTLE AND HORSE DEALING— SHEEP AND PIG JOBBING. I am ever anxious to advance the prosperity of agri- culture in every department of its practice, but my shortcomings often perplex me, and my misgivings trouble nae, lest I write to little purpose ; and casting about to find something approaching originality, worthy to bring before a reading and discerning agricultural public, adds to my anxiety. At the risk of exposing myself to no little censure, both from dealers and far- mers, I have chosen the subject included in the heading of this paper {Cattle and Horse Dealing — Sheep and Pig Jobbing) upon which to make a few observations, chiefly with the view of showing that the system has not only become universal, but that it has established itself so firmly amongst the farming community as to inju- riously engross nearly the whole trade connected with the grazing department of a farmer's business, i. e., that the purchase and sale of his horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs is now the business of the intermediate dealer and jobber, rather than between the breeder, feeder, grazier, and the consumer or user ; and of course the profit is thus divided. I am well aware that I have selected a complex and somewhat difiScult subject, taking it in its most compre- hensive sense as applied to a large trading and commer- cial country like Great Britain ; hut viewing the question as a simple act of transfer between the breeder and grazier, i. e. those whose business it is to breed and rear animals for grazing, and those whose business it is to graze and fatten or otherwise prepare these animals for sale or use, the difficulty in a great measure vanishes. That an intermediate agent or middle-man acting be- tween the producer and consumer, even in the business of a farmer, is often advantageous no one will deny. The corn merchant can readily obtain a fair profit or remuneration for his skill and labour by making pur- chases in the country market— collecting in bulk from numerous sources the many small parcels to make up a quantity most likely to meet a ready sale at the con- suming markets. This he can do at a less cost propor- tionately than the farmer, who would entail a like per- sonal expense upon every small parcel without making so good a sale ; as millers doing a considerable business are not ready purchasers of small parcels. So alao is it often advantageous to the grazier occasionally to sell his fat and other stock through the medium of a salesman. It would not be a profitable course for him to undertake to accompany his stock — every small lot of cattle, sheep, &c., to the distant market; and, as the system of good grazing requires a very gradual reduction in the number of depasturing animals, it is far better to employ a salesman, both for convenience in grazing and profit in business. Intermediate agents, i. e, salesmen, dealers, and job- bers, are undoubtedly a useful class of men to a certain extent in promoting a farmer's progress in business ; but the engrossing of the whole trade in horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs, by dealers and jobbers, cannot fail to be detrimental to him, and ultimately a loss has to be sus- tained conjointly by the breeder and feeder on the one hand, and the consumer on the other ; the dealer or jobber taking the profit which otherwise would accrue to one or other of these parties. That this system of dealing and jobbing as now carried on, and all-prevalent in every district, is injurious to agriculture, is, I think, unquestionable : but, admitting it to be questionable, it is not a legitimate and proper course. Why are the producers and consumers called upon to support an intermediate class of men who have no right or title to an interest in their business respectively ? and yet this very class of men are becoming exceedingly numerous, and more wealthy than any similar order of men. Their doings and operations affect very materially THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 48^ every order of agriculture. They are ever ia the market. The grazier seldom experiences the chance of a cheap bargain from the breeder, nor does the breeder ever find a good customer in the grazier. The dealer is always at his elbow, and such is the infatuation of farmers generally, that they always prefer a sale to the dealer, under the impression that he best knows, and will give the fairest value for the lot on sale. And the grazier in his turn has the like preference ; he will gene- rally give the dealer a higher price than he would offer to his fellow-farmer. Moreover this class of men, from either being so wealthy, or in possession of unlimited credit at their banker's, carry on a large credit business with the graziers, and many a large holding is partially or wholly stocked upon this credit. Again, many large and wealthy graziers widely employ this class of men to " look out for them," and purchase as their judgment dictates ; and when grazed or fatted, the same men are employed again as salesmen, to dispose of them. An- other great feature connected with this class of men is, that the greater proportion of all kinds of stock an- nually brought into the market is either the property of these men, or placed in their hands by breeders for sale, so that in fact nearly all the business of the fair or mar- ket is in the hands of dealers. You must buy of them — you must sell to them — without them you cannot move — your legitimate business is in their hands — the profit is theirs, the loss yours. Should you feel determined to make your own purchases, you are beset by parties who, professing to serve you, actually take bribes for intro- ducing you to the dealer, of whom you make your pur- chase. The unwary are often practised upon by dealers in concert. In horse- dealing this is notorious, and yet farmers derive more benefit, and on the other hand suffer less loss, from this class of men than any others, and as the transfer of horses is generally to a great dis- tance, when sold, which a farmer could not well accom- plish, it is to his interest to deal with them. Jobbers iu pigs, again, are relatively more useful to the farmer. Pigs are generally sold in small lots, and for the most part retailed out individually, every poor man buying his pig. This order of sale would not greatly benefit the farmer ; but the great lots of cattle and sheep which are matters of every-day sale is a totally different thing. It greatly behoves every grazier and breeder of these two important classes of stock to look around him, and ascertain if any course can be adopted to save to himself the handsome profit pocketed by this intermediate class. It ought to be done. Agriculture was never designed to yield three profits ; it will scarcely yield two, and those not overwhelming. Something must be done. I coun- sel you (both breeders and graziers) to discard and dis- countenance the whole class, and deal fairly between yourselves. You only want confidence. It is mani- festly the dealer's operations in the market that at the present time are keeping up and enhancing the price of all grazing stock, otherwise they would partake of the general depression experienced in the corn-trade. " Down corn down horn'' is England's oldest proverb ; besides, this unnatural state of pricesonly makes matters still worse: when the change does come, as come it will, it will be the more rapid and fatal. These men being loath to lose, strive " with might and main" to uphold prices fictitiously, and which they have thus far in this season succeeded in. Graziers should look to this. P. F. GRAZING versus CORN-GROWING. Dear Sir, — The new phase in agTicultural affairs, produced by the apprehension of the approach of the murrain iu cattle, demands a passing notice, involving, as it does, considerations of great importance to the British farmer. For the last four years the prices of wheat and butchers' meat have kept tolerably side by^ side, and it was a matter of indifference, so far as profit was concerned, whether a man grew corn, or reared and fed stock. The case, however, owing to the cir- cumstances resulting from the apprehended danger, has assumed a new feature, which is likely to give an enormous preponderance of profit to the grazier over the corn-grower in future. I will endeavour to point out those circumstances which, iu my opinion, are likely to produce this change. Previous to and during the late war with Russfa, unfavourable seasons — first in England, secondly in tho United States, and thiidly on the Continent of Europe— had so far exhausted the stocks of wheat in all those portions of the world, that the price rose con- ^"^iderably above the common average. Even with the larg§s|;^(iro^ev^r ^yown^in this country— ^ha^ of 1854, — the effect produced upon prices was only to keep them from attaining a still higher range. This was aggravated by the large increase in the consumption, owing to the flourishing state of the operative manu- facturers, consequent on the influx of gold and the abundance of money, which gave a stimulus to trade. Then came the war itself, with its waste and privation of import — all which circumstances combined to keep up prices for wheat under the otherwise depressing in- fluence of a heavy crop at home, and a moderate ira- portalion from those countries not affected by tho war. This state of tilings has continued now for four years ; but gradually, by mi ans of improved and increased cultivation, and two plentiful seasons, with a largo im- ])ortation in 185G, the exhausted stock in this country has been replaced in a great measure ; and so far, at least, the future will be left to take its natural course, de- ])endiny upon the fruitfulness or otherwise of the seasons. It is not likely that such a succession of unfavourable harvests in the wheat-growing countries should again occur, to cause such a general reduction of the stocks, as topk place iu the years 1853, 1854, and 1855, which 484 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. threw the corn trade throughout the world out of its natural course, and in this country produced the anomaly of excessive prices with abundant harvests. During those four years the price of meat, as we have said, kept even pace with that of bread. The consumption of neither has been, apparently, sensibly affected, either during the war, or before or after it. There cannot be a better proof of the healthy state of trade and manufactures in the United Kingdom than the fact that under the pressure of such high prices of bread and meat, and indeed all kinds of provisions, no serious complaints have been heard in the hives of industry in the north. The cause for this is, that the operatives have been in full employment at remunerating wages ; and, when this is the case, no class of men spend their money more freely, or with less grumbling at prices. Latterly, however, the markets have given way, and the price of wheat has been greatly reduced : and with declining prices for bread, we might also naturally look for a corresponding reduction in beef and mutton. Owing, however, to the stoppage of the importation of cattle, a temporary scarcity will be produced, and, very possibly, an export trade will arise, to meet the demand on the Continent, where the loss of cattle by the mur- rain has been very great. All this, with an enormous consumption at home, has already begun to take effect upon prices, and will, in all probability, do so to a much greater extent in future. I fully expect to see butcher's meat at a price we have not known for upwards of forty years, or since the war with the first Napoleon, everything being now at work to produce such a result. On the other hand, the increasing im- portations of wheat, and the increase 'of produce thereof in the United Kingdom, will tend still further to lower prices in ordinary seasons, or at least to keep them within bounds ; for I certainly do not expect to see the average price the next ten years so low as it was pre- vious to 1847. Under these circumstances, the most judicious course for the farmer to pursue is plain enough. Let him apply himself more sedulously than ever to the breed- ing and fattening of cattle and sheep, which are certain of bearing a high value for some years to come. At the same time, let him strive by all the means in his power to increase the acreable pi'oduce of wheat, so as to make ten acres produce in future as much as fifteen do now. I feel persuaded, from what has been already effected in this respect, that such an increase may be obtained if the proper means are pursued, em- bracing deep tillage, a more perfect comminution of the soil, thorough draining, earlier, deeper, and thinner sow- ing, and abundant hoeing. Our farmers have yet much to learn in all these respects, or rather have got to be more fully impressed with their impoi-tance, and the direct bearing they have upon production, and the evil effects of neglecting them. I may probably recur to this subject on a future opportunity, as I consider it to be one of great importance to the future welfare of the agricultural interest. Yours faithfully, An olb Norfolk Farmer. London, April 10, THE ABUSES OF THE LIVE AND DEAD MEAT TRADE. We are proverbially prone to overlook evils imme- diately before us, and from which we are daily and hourly the sufferers, while we zealously guard against others we have hitherto had but little experience of. Habit is after all our great ruler. We patiently continue to endure all the ills of bad ventilation in our customary homes, as if to more especially prize the few weeks' "fresh air" we breathe when abroad. We virtuously declaim against the impurities of foreign cities, as we calmly sanction the uncleanli- ness of our own. Wo have a wholesome dread of cholera, and at the same time a gradual habituation to typhus. It is the man who coolly put his head into the lion's mouth because he was used to it, and who never felt the danger he incurred until he fell a victim to it. We give, in fact, almost too literal a reading to the poet's lines, thinking it everywhere " better to bear the ills we have," and only to arm ourselves against those " we know not of." We are forcibly illustrating such a precept just at tliis present. There are rumours of a very fatal mur- rain amongst cattle— a disease with which for a long period we have happily had but little acquaintance. Sooner or later we become keenly alive to the subject. We talk it over one with another amongst ourselves. We stir up the Government. We increase the vigilance of the Executive . We even send out embassies to report on the nature of the evil, and the best means for still keep- ing us uncontaminated. The great impressible point is, we must not have diseased cattle nor diseased meat in this country. We must and we will do everything to prevent such a calamity. A very laudable resolve, no doubt. But what further are we doing ? Simply bear- ing the ills we have as passively as we are energetically combating those we know but little of. We may suffer no diseased meat to come in upon us from abroad, while we systematically sanction the use of it here at home. [ A large proportion of the lower classes of this metro- polis live on scarcely any but diseased meat. There are hosts of shopkeepers who as a rule trade in nothing else. Diseased animals are openly driven into Isling- ton market, and diseased meat is as publicly sold in Newgate market. We are insisting on the most active and searching inspection of all cattle that come into our ports. We are sending our own veterinary surgeons to the continent. We are discussing the evil in the most practical and determined manner — And all this time what are we doing to correct our own more immediate evils ? What are the inspectors seizing ? What are the veterinary surgeons reporting on ? What is the Govern- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. m ment doing ? Nothing, or next to nothing. We repeat the trade in diseased cattle and meat is well known to be an established business in the city of London. The artisan takes the first of it as his family joint, and the mysterious calling of the sausage maker answers for the rest. It is only a few weeks since that we called attention to a very able pamphlet by Mr. Sampson Gamgee on the cattle plague and diseased meat. This is now fol- lowed by a second letter to Sir George Grey, only just published, and which only further confirms tlie writer's views and statements. In this second communication Mr. Gamgee more immediately confines himself to our home trade in the metropolis, the abuses of which be appears to be following up with great energy and de- termination. Here is the description of a recent sally into what, we can only hope, is one of the worst of such marts : — "I entered Newgate Market at a quarter before twelve o'clock on Saturday night, the 28th March. Numerous little shops were open, aud with solitary exceptions, a large quantity of diseased and putrid meat was exposed in them for sale : stiuking legs of mutton, sour-smelling fragments of slipped calves, large quantities of beef and pork only fit to be buried. The buyers were a number of poor people; the very appearance of the sellers was such as would be expected, in men living by such disgraceful traffic. I saw a leg of mutton weighing eight pounds four ounces, sold for 2s. lid. : it had apparently belonged to a good sheep, but was obviously in an advanced stage of putrefaction. The salesmen were lustily crying out, ' Buy me out,' ' buy me out ;' and the little throng of ragged and filthy poor tendered at the extempore auction, until the number of pence seemed to the unprincipled vender a sufficient temptation. I sought about the market for officers ; but the beadle's closet was closed, aud no beadle or inspector of meat anywhere to be found. I represented these facts to City po- liceman No. 287, on duty in the market. He had not seen the meat inspectors ; the beadle had left at eleven — the appointed hour. On my pointing out to the policeman the large quantity of meat in the market unfit for human food, he stated that he had no power to interfere ; that business belonged to the meat inspectors. He repeatedly saw the market in such a state on Saturday night ; sometimes the stench from the shops was so great that he did not like to walk past them." All this is in some measure explained by the facts that " eleven o'clock at night is the time appointed for the beadles and inspectors to leave off duty," while *' business is carried on until long after midnight." Let us borrow a companion view of Islington, the new market, the great object of which was to correct the abuses of Smithfield : — " On Friday morning, the 3rd April, I eutered the Islington Market at four o'clock, and remained there till five. The droves were coming iu, aud business was active in the Ram Inn Yard slaughterhouse, but not an officer of the market was on duty, either to inspect the meat which was being carted off to New- gate Market in large quantities, or to restrain the brutality of the drovers — many of whom are respectable men ; but the conduct of others calls for rigid discipline At ten minutes past seven, the carcases of two sheep, bearing unmistakable signs of general disease, were carted off from the slaughter- bouse of the market. From the manner in which the two sheep were trimmed and dressed, there could be no doubt that they were destined for sale as human food. Tdey were un- questionably unfit, but they might have been ten times worse without the least chance of tlie disreputable practice being checked ; it would never have been discovered but for my un- expected investigation We found the slaughter-houses iu a most filthy state; we ascertained that horses are habitu- ally stalled where the bullocks are killed aud dressed — a prac- tice, to say the least, moat filthy. Waiting to be slaughtered vas an old cow, extraordinarily emaciated and iu an advanced state of disease. The clerk of the market and the inspector alleged themselves unable to interfere with the slaughter- houses because destitute of authority. A Mr. Thatcher, keeper of one of the gates, stated that he sometimes looked to the slaughter-houses, but did not conceive that part of his duty; he admitted the state of filth, and to my remark that in plain English the market is badly managed, he rejoined, 'I know it is.' " There is one point in both Mr, Gamgee's letters, and in either an equally prominent feature, in which, we confess, we can scarcely at present follow him. We had supposed that for some years the veterinary pro- fession was surely, and not slowly, rising in rank, ability, and education. From what we have seen of the professors or heads of this college, and still more from the pupils they have now for some time been establish- ing throughout the country— from the good manner, intelligence, and apparent knowledge of their business, we had thought there was some reason to congratulate ourselves on the progress of tiie veterinary art. Certain it is that the " passed " practitioner is a very different man from the knowing village farrier with his won- drotis drenches and curious panaceas. There is some- thing, however, radically wrong yet. We admit we do not know exactly what this is j but of late, according to Mr. Gamgee, we have been going back instead of forward : — " As subsidiary to agricultural interests and to the public health, it is of the first importance that the present unsatis- factory state of veterinary science and education iu England should cease. I state my deliberate conviction that there is scarcely an institution in Europe in which wise laws are so violated, means of learning and instruction so neglected, as in the Veterinary College of London. I cannot make this state- ment, prepared as I am to substantiate it by (acts in every particular, without expressing deep regret for being obliged to cause temporary pain, by unjustly reflecting on some deserving persons. But exculpation of some would demand inculpation of others, which at this stage would prejudice discussion on the public requirement, by introducing incidental considera- tions." Our case here at home, then, may be thus summed up : — Our live and dead meat markets are grossly mis- managed ; the common form of inspectorship is little more than a farce ; the wise regulations of the original founders of the Veterinary College are generally neg- lected, and the further interference of the Legislature is urgently demanded. So at any rate argues Mr. Gam- gee, and be it understood he is a gentleman who argues well, brings strong facts to support his argument, and declares that "none of these material facts have been denied." PROPOSED TESTIMONIAL TO MR. VALEN- TINE HARFORD, op Foscote, Northampton- shire.— The friends of this celebrated sheep-breeder, who has now for sixty years been gradually improving upon Eakewell's experiments, have resolved to offer kim some tangible token of their appreciation and respect. During the last week we have received a letter from " One of his Customers " on the subject, very warmly expatiating on Mr. Barford's services to the agriculture of bis country. It is proposed that the testimonial shall be a painting, embodying portraits of Mr. Barford with three of his sheep ; and that every subscriber shall have an engraving after the picture. There is good precedent for this ; perhaps the best form of testimonial that could be decided upon. ;, ^ -j^^ ,, ,v iNif) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE IfOlfs 9V7 d' THE BAROMETER AS A DRAINAGE TEST. The recent attention devoted to the subject of land- drainage by practical men has brought to light many wonderful facts, and has given rise to many ingenious explanations of them. Among the most remarkable of these may be mentioned the running of drains before approaching rain after tliey had ceased to run during a continuance of dry weather, and the rise and fall of water in test holes accompanying the rise and fall of the barometer. The last phenomena are said to have been proved by the experiments of the late Mr, Livesey, at Orton, which, we were told on high authoritj , seem likely to be confirmed by some experiment now in pi'o- gress. Having formed our own opinions on the subject, and having consulted some of those most celebrated for their knowledge of physical science, we have no hesita- tion in declaring that there are fallacies connected with both statements. 'J'o begin with the case of ^drains which had ceased to run after a continuance of dry weather, recommencing a discharge before approaching rain : two explanations of this fact occur, which deprive the subject of all mystery. One of these explanations connects the fact with the water held in the soil by capillary attraction, the other witli hygrometric moisture condensed from the atmosphere in the drain-pipes. Those who ex- plain the phenomenon by capillary attraction say that the last drops are retained when the drains cease to run, and that a weeping takes place fiom the same cause which makes the mercury to sink in the tube of the barometer. Tliey illustrate the fact by the fol- lowing experiment. Take, they suy, a number of glass tubes of small bore j let water be poured into them. It will not all run out; a small portion will be retained in the tubes. When the barometer falls, a weeping, from the cause before mentioned, will take place from these tubes which represent the interstices between the particles of soil ; and if the extent of drain be large, sufficient discharge will take place for v/orkmen to col- lect water for drinking from the outlet of the drains, which is stated to have been the case. This is one explanation. Tliat, however, which finds most favour with tlie majority of the phi/siciens whom we have consulted, derives the water not fi'om the soil, but from the atmosphere. The atmosphere before rain, they say, has become highly charged with moisture. If it comes in contact with a colder surface this mois- ture becomes condensed on it ; the surface of (he drain pipes is such colder surface, and produces a weeping from tlie atmosphere, not from the drains. This explanation may be illustrated as follows : Let us suppose a party travelling by an express train, among whom is a most enthusiastic drainer of land, who, if he could have his way, would not. leave a drop of water in the country. The compartment of the carriage is full, and much agreeable and instructive conversation takes place. It takes the turn which we have often known it to take. The state of agriculture in the district through which the train whizzes along is discussed : the shortcomings of farmers in not fol- lowing the advice which all are so ready to give them gratis, the advantages of land-draining, the neglect of it — the necessity of improving outfalls. The day is cold, and all the windows are closed by mutual con- sent, after many polite inquiries. The glass soon becomes so covered with dew, condensed on its cold surface from the breath of the party, that their agri- cultural criticisms on the district which they traverse are brought to a close, and they have recourse for con- versation to the usual topics of the day — the last terrible murder or the last great fraud in respectable life. Should the journey bo at the present time, the topics would be the Chinese war, and tlie results of the appeal made by her Majesty's ministers to the country'sjudgment. The moisture exhaled from the lungs of the party, which had condensed on the glass, collects into drops of water ; these gravitate into larger and larger globules till they glide in a stream down the glass. None of the party, however, not even the enthusiastic drainer, sup- poses that the moisture comes out of the glass, even though ho may have been descanting before on the sensitiveness of well-drained land, asjirovedby the rur^- ning of drains before rain. The rise and fall of the water in the test-holes at Orton does not admit of a similar explanation. That the water may have been rising, and the barometer may have been falling simultaneously, we do not pretend to deny ; while we question the existence of any relationship of cause and eifect between the two facts. We question it because it is so opposed to the analogy of what takes place in wells, and these test- holes arc but wells on a small scale. It is a known fact that the water of wells is highest at raid-summer; not at mid-winter, as many would suppose. The explanation of the fact is, that it takes six months for the rain-fall to percolate through the soil, subsoil, and substrata, to the wells. But the test- holes at Orton rose before rain, whose approach v/as indicated by the fall of the barometer. If, then, there is any connection between the two facts, we must suppose that the rise of water in wells at mid-summer takes place, not in consequence of the rain-fall of the preceding winter, but of that which is going to fake place during the next, quod plane (ihsurdum est, as old Euclid v/ould say. The truth of a theory may often be tested by carrying it out to its consequences. In this manner we submit that the rise and fall of the water in the test-holes at Orton having any connexion with the rise and fall of the barometer is disproved, although the two events might take place simul- taneously. There are many persons, however, wlio, wliile they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ^87 glory in the title of practical men, are very much ad- dicted to theories, provided only they be theories, or rather assumptions, of their own. Probably there are no men, whose opinions as practical men ought to have more weight on subjects connected with the percolation of water through the soil, and its collection in pits or wells, than those of brick-makers, well- sinkers, and navvies. From these practical authorities we have frequently heard a very remarkable fact : it is no less than this — that water accumulates faster in such excavations during the night than during the day. If the fact is remarkable, the explanation of it is still more so; and who should know so much on the subject as men practically engaged in making such excava- tions? Their explanation of the asserted fact is neither more nor less than thisj expressed in the very words which v,e have repeatedly heard from their own mouths : " The earth," they say, " turns over at ■ night, and the water naturally runs to the lowest side." Whether this explanation will apply to the case of the water in test-holes rising before approaching rain, is very doubtful. The explanation which we should offer of the accumulation of water in holes during the night is this : In the day-time the workmen bale it out by little and little, and are not aware of the amount. la the night, during the cessation of their work, it accu- mulatesj astonishes them by its quantity, and gives rise to the novel and ingenious theory above-mentioned. We commend it, however, to the serious consideration of those who are disposed to experiment on the subject. After all, however, supposing the facts established of the connection of the rise and fall of the barometer with the rise of water in test-holes and the running of drains, it is very questionable whether it could be turned to practical account. It is true we might render it available in practice if we could discover the art of making the barometer rise and fall at pleasure, and thus setting our drains running, when our theories break down and our drains will not run. In no other 1 way docs it appear that the discovery can be turned to I account in practice. RECLAIMING WASTE LANDS. Tlie di3ca:;3ioi!3 tliat take place at the Central Farmera' Club ia LonJou — very mauy, or most of them — end iu a con- clusion that is well known before the subject is mooted, and make a statement that is told like truth iu a small compass, and not requiring any circumlocution or demonstration to establish the certainty. The latest statement on the reclaiming of waste lands is seli-evif'cnt — that in addition to admixture with earths and earthy matters, waste lands will be well managed ia green crops raised by artificial manures, and con- sumed ou the ground by sheep. Against this conclusion no voice can be raised. Waste lands adapted for turnips will be covered with a thin vegetable sward, which is best fallowed into the land by workings, and immediately sown with turnips. In other cases of all rough grassy surfaces on lauds clayey or loamy, and on which much inert matter has accumulated, paring and burning is by far the most effectual mode of re- ciamatioi!,the effect proceeding from the increased temperature of the ground by the heat of the flames, and from the ashes produced by the reduction of the eartliy and vegetable sward. Wherever an earthy thickness is found covering the subsoil, and with a covering of grassy herbage, paring and burning wdl produce a great elfect, as the upper stratum of exuvial vegetable aud Ruimal matters has a powerful tendency to imbibe and retain caloric from the heat of the flames, and to husband it for future nse ; but when the upper stratum ia very thin or none, little effect will be produced. Sand imbibes ciloric very rapidly, aud parts with it a3 speedily ; it is soon heated, and as quickly cooled, and is very unsuitable for a con- ducting medium. Clay is a very bad conductor of caloric, aud is at the bottom of tbe scale of graduated bodies ; but is bitter than sand, aud is more benefited by paring and burning. Lime acts, like paring aud huiniug, by imparting calorie, and raising the temperature of the ground ; and the small benefits conferred by its action ou sandj and clays are accounted for by the al)ovc reasons. Clay denies access to caloric; sand ri-ceivca and transmits it without retaining the element. But when vegetable and animal remains form an upper Btialum of some thickness, both apphcations iu lime and paring and burning will act with certainty. Thin light waste lauds of all kinds are improved by earthy applications and immediate fallowing, for green crops, with artificial manures, the crops being con- sumed by sheep on the ground. My own experience iu reclaiming waste lands of various kinds would state the average expense at £S or £9 an acre, including the fencing, which is seldom mentioned. When draining is required, an additional sum is necessary. Mr. Smith's statement is too little varied, and suited only to hia own locality. The highest expense of £15 and £18 ia a land- lord's performance ; but no length of lease is mentioned in the case of a farmer undertaking the improvements. The rotations of cropping are somewhat fanciful — mustard and wheat are not generally suited for waste lauds. I recommend the first crop to be turnips or rape in every case, aud consumed ou the ground by sheep ; second crop, oats with cloverseed ; third crop, clover consumed on the ground ; and fourth crop outs or wheat, as the laud may be a loam or a clay soil. Afterwards put under the regular rotation of the farm in five years : first year, fallow or green crops ; second year, oats, barley, or wheat ; third year, bay or pasture ; fourth year, pasture ; fifth year, oats. This course of cropping needs no variation for any locality iu the United Kingdom. The great objection is removed, of being confined to one district. IJo laud need remain waste, if the known means are applied for the reclamation. It is true that the term conveys the meaning of inferior circumstances, which only removes to a greater distance the term of remuneration. Any lands may be rendered productive that are situated under a climate that permits the maturation of crops ; it is the ruling power, aa no alteration can be made. Wherever the whirling progress of a railway places a station of convenience, buildings arc erected with cottage-gardens attached, of which the deep dig- ging and constant manuring with vegetable dung show the gradual formation of producing grounds from any quality of nataral deposit, even from pure chalk itself. These important 488 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. leisons are a national concern, and are far beyond the farmer's employment ; and even exceed the landowner's sphere, though his position certainly does embrace such objects, as there is certainty of inheritance for the issue. But few minds can rise beyond the idea of speedy gain, and rarely can any eye extend its Tiaion to an object that is not nearly to be ob- served; calculations wholly fail, and resolutions are defi- cient. J. D. THE BEST METHODS OF GROWING AND PREPARING FLAX, WITH A COMPARISON OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MODES OF STEEPING. One of the "subjects" on the Society of Arts' Prize- sheet, is " For an Account of the best Methods of Growing and Preparing Flax, with a Comparison of Natural and Artificial Modes of Steeping." And we anticipate some valuable information in the essays which have no doubt been sent in for competition. It is certain that very great progress has been made in the preparation of flax-fibre within the last few years. In the two essays on flax which appeared in the Royal Agricultural Society's Jour- nal in 1847, no mention is made of artificial steep- ing; the comparisons there being confined to dew- retting, and different methods of steeping in pits or running streams. The only processes described as ca- pable of being performed in "mills" or " works," are the mechanical breaking and scutching by steam or water-power. In a paper on Claussen's flax-cotton, in the Journal for 1851, allusion is made to hot-water steeping, and a new artificial process is proposed. Tliose of us who knew from experience what a drawback to the extended growth of flax existed in the carriage of so bulky a crop to a distant market, were led to expect great things from the machine, by which the farmer could separate the useless straw from the fibre, without steep- ing, and thus have a less weight to transport to a mill or factory, where the after-chemical operations could be carried on. Again, Claussen's method of boiling the flax for some hours in a weak solution of caustic soda was entirely to supersede the fermentation by hot or cold water previously practised, and produce a better fibre for the machinery of the linen manufacturer. By washing the flax after the boiling, soaking it in a solu- tion of carbonate of soda, and then in a weak solution of acid, effervescence was caused in the hollow cylinders of the fibres, which, being split by the expansive force, were rendered fine enough for cotton machinery. However, in spite of discussions, experiments, patents, Sec, and promised advantages, this proposal did not have the effect of spreading flax cultivation over the kingdom. Hot-steeping, patented by Schenck in 1846, obviates the irregularities both of time and effect produced by the cold "steeping. The first rettery on this prin- ciple was established in Mayo, in 1848 : now there are a great many at work in different provinces of Ireland, and several in England, consuming, perhaps, 50,000 or G0,000 tons of straw annually. In this the principle of fermentation is the same as in the old process, but is placed under the control of the operator, who can regu- late the action of the steep according to the quantity of the flax, or the article he wishes to produce. There is, however, the same destructive fermentation at work as in the ordinary steeping, and generating the same foul and offensive gases. In 1852 we had a new process introduced— that of simply steaming it, which requires only a few hours, instead of the three or four days as by the hot-water steep, or the two or three weeks by the old method ; and requires no expensive apparatus, or costly and dangerous chemical solvents. Watts's process of forcing a jet of steam upward through the flax, and allowing the condensed water to percolate downwai-d through it, carrying away the extractive matter dis- solved out of the straw, is being largely practised, we believe, in Ireland. It is certainly a gi'eat improve- ment upon Schenck's system, inasmuch as it involves great saving in time, economy of fibre, less risk of in- jury, avoidance of any nuisance, and beneficial applica- tion of the waste products. Very speedily Buchanan patented an improvement upon Watts's method; a beautifully simple and perfectly automatic apparatus, causing the flax to be subjected to repeated immersions in heated water, arrangements being made by which the temperature is never allowed to exceed a certain degree — a point of great importance, both as regards the abstraction of the azotized extractive matter, and also the quality of fibre produced. A drawing and de- scription are given in the Jt.A.S. E. Journal for 1 853. Drying the steeped straw, prepai'atory to scutching, has always occupied much time and proved a costly process as regards labour. The ordinary mode is to place the flax, thinly spread, between two wooden laths, which, when closed (by means of hooks or rings over their ends), firmly hold the stems; about fifty-six of these are required for a cwt. of flax. They are then carried to the drying-shed, and suspended from frames, where they remain for the air to dry them — which it does in three or four days to as many weeks, according to the weather. Watts dries the flax in a steam-heated chamber. Buchanan drives dry warm air through the flax, the air being readily obtained in the desired state by causing it to pass through jaorous earthenware pipes set across the lower part of the chimney. These com- municate on one side with a blower (driven by the engine), and on the other side with a pipe which con- veys the heated air to the chamber containing the flax. By Buchanan's process it appears that the entire operation of converting the straw into dressed fibre may be effected in one day ; the apparatus and ma- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. chinery are not such as to involve a gTeat outlay ; the cost of labour is very small indeed, and the waste pro- ducts are in a form to be readily utilized. At Chelmsford, last year, Mr. George Pye, of Ipswich, exhibited specimens of flax and feeding-cake, illustrating a still newer process of manufacture. The flax-straw, after the farmer has taken the seed, is passed through a machine, which yields a product of broken straw and bark, which are afterwards made into a most nutritious feeding-stuff. It is then placed in a vat holding six or seven tons ; a pipe, under a false bottom, introduces a solution of Fuller's earth and water; this is gradually heated by steam, made to boil, and the solution then escapes. The flax is next pressed with a great weight, again washed with the solution, again pressed, washed. Sec, and at last pressed very hard to expel the moisture. It is then steamed for four hours, and is a vei'y fine product, with none of the loss which arises in scutching, and with a very small proportion of tow. A more detailed account of this process (patented by Messrs. Burton & Pye) was given in our number for last month. We suppose that the Society of Arts' essays will com- prise full details of these and still more novel processes. with their economical and practical results. It has been clearly shown, over and over again, that the demand for flax-produce is greatly in advance of the supply, and that the ratio of difference is annually increasing. Land-owners and farmers know very well that flax is not an " exhausting" crop, and that its peculiar suita- bility to different soils and climates, the short period it occupies the soil, and the market-returns of an average crop, render it a valuable addition to the ordinary rota- tions. Improvements in the modes of preparation are enabling mills to be established in rural districts, with a certainty of good profit to the speculators; and as further advances are made in the treatment of flax- straw, larger prices will be afforded to the farmer for it ; so that we may expect to see the cultivation of this raw- material amazingly extended throughout the country. Depend upon it, should the corn-market sink to a low level, the subject of flax-culture and the building of retteries (or whatever they may be called under the new processes) will be taken up in a practical manner and on a national scale. We are certainly far better prepai'ed for such undertakings than we were a few years ago, owing to the late progress in inventious to wliicla we have been alluding. THE TURNIP FLY. Sir, — As the most useful commonwealth-man is he who can cause two blades of grass to grow where one grew be- fore, so it must be equally admitted, upon the same grounds, that that individual, who can save and rescue the crops which have responded to his labour, toil, and ex- pense, from a perilous and destroying blight, is a useful and serviceable commonwealth member of society. 1 am led to make the above remarks from the circum- stance of your highly-prized agricultural journal having afforded a full and copious report of a meeting held, I think, at the Leicester Agricultural Society, about three weeks since, whereat the subject of the turnip-fly formed one of the chief topics of attention bestowed upon that occasion. This pest (the turnip-fly) has caused consider- able anxiety among farmers, ever since the Swede turnip has been introduced into, and been encouraged in this kingdom ; and, although numerous attempted remedies have been entertained and ell'ected, to obviate the above destructive nuisance, yet nothing has up to the present time been found to repress the obstinate evil. A friend of mine, Mr. George Rumsey, who held a farm of about 250 acres, at a rural village known as Shipton Bellinger, in tlie county of Hants, assured me that, by spgnkling coal-tar over his young crops of swedes, he found the same prove highly serviceable to his views. The system adopted by tlie gentleman who addressed the Leicester agricultural assembly upon the subject, appears to ihave been a plan much in accordance with that pur- sued by Mr. Rumsey ; but, in addition to the mere casual application of the adhesive fluid, lie (the former) "en- nets," as it were, the victims of his object— and his objec- tion— by causing sheets of canvas, well coated with a chemical preparation, of an adhesive and attractivo na- ture, to drag them off the leaves of the plant, thereby freeing the tender crops from the destructive incubus. Both these expedients are very feasible, and are highly creditable to the sagacity of the gentlemen who have purposed them ; but the nuisance does not lose its baneful Spell under the adoption of the above well-devised regula- tions. It appears to me (and it is very humbly submitted) that a physiological view of this serious blight should be considered. We can catch and destroy tiie fly in its full and vigorous stage of existence ; but the effect of this course of procedure does not interfere with the cause which generates it. To what class of insects in entomology does it pertain? Is it of the coZeo^J^era order (beetle tribe) ? Or, as old MoutTat, the uaturalist, affirmed it to be, is it of the ichneumon class (he styles it curvicauda tnusca) ? Then, by arriving at riglit premises in this particular, we may deduce right conclusions; but without them, we can arrive at no decisive knowledge of the character of tliis beetle or fl\' ; we shall re- main at a loss how to deal with it effectually to our advan- tage. Is it indigenous? Is it idiosyncratic with the turnip itself — as is the morbus pedicularis in the human constitu- tion ? It is the Swede turnip alone it appears to infest, just as the cochineal insect affects the cactus opwn/jn( prickly pear) only,abandoningevery otherplant belonging to thatcxtensive family. Fifty diiVerent species of cactus may grow conti. guous to each other, but the cochineal blight will infix and feed on none but tlie cactus opunlia. Again, when the seed of the turnip was first introduced into this country from Sweden, was that seed occupied by the larvae of the fly, which might have been suffered to propagate by existing upon its natural and appointed food ? Before the swede turnip was encouraged in this kingdom, was the tumip-fly 490 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ever recognised ? Is it migratory at certain seasons ? and whence does it come ? Is it recognised in Sweden ? and if so, what effect has its presence upon the turnip crops of that country ? What becomes of the larvaj of the fly during the Siberian months of winter, when the ground undergoes tillage, and the earth is thrown into fallows? All these separate interrogatories are worthy of respect, simply because we have as yet discovered no remedy against the destructive innovations of this truly obnoxious nuisance. Latterly reports have reached us that the swede crops upturned last year are beginning to rot. It is highly requi- site that they should be scrupulously examined, and it should be ascertained whether any traces of the larvae of the fly can be detected in the tubers. I am, sir, your obedient servant, 22, Albany-street, RegcnVs Park, D. G. London, April 22, HIGH FARMING AND MODERN MEAT. Sir, — I have just been reading the following remarks on " high farming and modern meat " in one of the leading medical journals of the day, and I think they are worthy a place in your valuable paper, and will interest many of your readers. " I am, yours truly, " Gnoll Castle, Neath, " W. BUU.OCK Webster. "Maylst.liSl," " Veal and beef were formerly two very distinct things, both good in their way, and one the boast of old England. The practice of modern farming has, however, condensed these two articles of manufacture into one villanous compound, having too close a resemblance to the Gallic ' rcs-bif,' for any Englishman to acknowledge with satisfaction. Rich, full- flavoured, mature beef is becoming an extinct thing ; and our tables, instead of groaning under the burden of a baron or sirloin, groan at it, or, at any rate, echo our groans and com- plaints. But this question has other bearings than upon our gustatory pleasures. It has its influence upon the health and vigour of the people, especially upon that of our town popu- lation. Let us see how this statement is to be made out. It involves a tale of agricultural economics which every physiolo- gist and sanitary reformer .will admit as demonstrative. The farmer fattens cattle not as we citizens in our self-complacent and patronizing moods are apt to imagine when we read the long figures of arrivals at the markets every week, for the mere sake of feeding us and getting a fortune out of our car- nivorous propensities, but coupled with a very different object. The modern farmer also looks upon a beast as machine for manufacturing manure. This in some shape he must have. The corn crops, on which his main prosperity depends, crave it imperatively in some shape, and nothing now known answers so well as the home-made product. Guano, superphosphates, and the thousand-and-one delusive compounds puffed with all the quackery of pseudo-science, are not to be trusted ; and until modern chemistryproduces something better than has yet been forthcoming, the farmer must trust to himself and his beasts. But the thing must be done cheaply. And how? Why, by taking the youngest possible stock, and forcing them most unnaturally. Under the present management it takes about nine months to bring a bullock into a fit state for slaughtering, and in that time it acquires an average increase of about twenty stones in weight. It is now difficult to find lean stock of anything like mature age in the markets, and they are com- monly bought in for the fattening, at something like two years old. Home-breds, ot calves weaned on the farm, are taken up much earlier, and are often ready for the butcher long before t!iey have reached the end of their second year. We all know taat these young creatuies gain a much larger proportionate increase of bulk from a given quantity of food, and in a given time, than older cattle would ; and we all know, too, the cha- racter of this fast-grown flesh, and the evils attending it. But the oilcake, turnips, beet, hay and straw are passed through the machines, and kept under the macliines, as well as if they were good six-year-old bullocks, and if they endure the ordeal without becoming the subject of disease that calls for imme- diate execution, they make beef of a quality up to the present standard. Still every farmer will admit that the great risk and loss in this process of manufacture arise from deaths by disease, that the sale of the beast does not make a sufficient return for the cost of feeding and tending, and that the profit comes largely out of the application of the manure accumul lated and rotted in the yards to the lauds destined for corn crops. " It is impossible to estimate the mortality or the amount of disease arising out of these circumstances, for there are no returns to appeal to. However, every man who has had the opportunity of looking into such matters is well aware that it is far beyond even the imaginings of the most horror-stricken vegetarian. Let any person, familiar with the laws of life and health, but who only knows a bullock in its relation to the metropolitan markets and the shambles, picture to himself a young creature, whose natural term of existence runs over a space of some fifteen or more years, suddenly taken in its first or second year, and confined in a small close yard, there fed to its utmost capacity upon the most nutritive of food, debarred from anything like reasonable exercise, and allowed to stand or lie night and day upon a fermenting and putrefying mass, generally on an average some two feet thick, of its own excre- ment, straw, and other refuse of the barns and fields, not made the better, though perhaps more sightly, by a fresh layer of clean litter thinly laid every day or two upon the surface. Let him say what plain common-sense, as well as his philosophy, dictates must be the result, and he will only be describing every- day occurrences. Early and late it is necessary to watch these teuder,hot-bed, fungoid growths. Diseaseisconstantly springing up spontaneously; the most trifling accident tends to afatalissue; doctoring won't answer with such material, and the butcher's knife is the remedy to save the beast for the market. The most prosperous result is, that the animal, when it has done its allotted work of manure makmg, finds its ways to our tables just at that stage of its development when it is naturally most prone to disease, and less fit for consumption or food, even il healthy, than at any other period. This unquestionably is an evil, "and one which our officers of health have not inves- tigated. We throw out the augiiestion for their consideration ; and we may also venture to hint an opinion, founded upon strictly true physiological principles, that our graziers who pursue these practices are in the end their own enemies. " We have upon our table the answer to a aeries of questions THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 491 relating to this subject, by a most iutelligent, practical Nor- folk man. lu them we find all that have said fully borne out, regrets that no other course should be open to the farmers, and proof that the true solution of their diflSculty, as well as of ours, consists in the economical use of the refuse of our towns for agricultural purposes." CHEESE-MAKING: BY T. ROWLANDSON, C.E,, F.G.S. Historical Notice. — Cheese, and the curdling of milk, are mentioned in the Book of Job. David was sent by his father, Jesse, to carry ten cheeses to the camp, and to look how his brethren fared. " Cheese of kine" formed part of the supplies of David's army at Mahanaim during the rebellion of Absolom. Homer states that cheese formed part of the ample stores found by Ulysses in the cave of the cyclop Polyphemus. Euripides, Theocritus, and other early poets, mention cheese. Ludolphus says that excellent cheese and butter were made by the ancient Ethiopians ; and Strabo states that some of the ancient Britons were so ignorant that, though they had abundance of milk, they did not under- stand the art of making cheese. There is no evidence that any of these ancient nations had discovered the use of rennet in making cheese : they appear to have merely allowed the milk to sour, and subsequently to have formed the cheese from the caseous part of the milk, after expelling the serum or whey. As David when too young to carry arms, was able to run to the camp with ten cheeses, ten loaves, and an epah of parched corn, the cheese must have been very small. Preliminary Remarks. — As butter is formed from the oily part of milk, cheese is composed of the curd or caseous portion. The perfection of cheese- making consists in separating the curd and butter in one mass from the water and sugar : these last ought to be wholly taken out in the whey. In well-made cheese, such as the North Wilts, Cheddar, and some double Gloucester, this is effectually performed — as may easily be tested by toasting : whereas in many Cheshire, and particularly rich American cheese, the casein and butter are found to part when toasted. Age also causes this separation. The strong flavour of Cheshire cheese is attributable to the whey not being so well expressed as in the North Wiltshire, Gloucester, Cheddar, &c. Using too strong rennet, or putting the latter to the milk whilst too hot, produces the same effect. It is acknowledged by all who are acquainted with the subject that the quality of cheese is not wholly dependant on the richness of the soil nor the fineness of the herbage, for cheese of the first quality is sometimes made from inferior land, and by no moans unfrequently from coarse herbage; neither does it depend on the breed of cows ; differences of attention to the milk in converting it into cheese, and subsequent treatment, also having regard to the quality and quantity of food given to the cows, are the main sources of diversified flavours. It is injurious to the quality of cheese to allow cows to feed on rotting grass and ill-flavoured hay, or permit- ting them to run and heat themselves, driving them far to be milked, and allowing it to stand long after bei milked before it is set with rennet. Everything in cheese-making depends on the dairy- maid, and should in all possible cases be executed or superintended by one of the family — the farmer's wife or daughter. The management of the dairy should be conducted with the greatest regularity, every operation being performed at the proper time ; hastening or delay- ing any matter may cause an inferior cheese to be made from milk of which, with proper attention, one of the best might have been made. The mode of making cheese in different districts, though in the main points apparently the same, is subject in practice to a greater variety of minor details than anything formed of one material ; thus, many different qualities are brought to market, each bearing some distinctive character. Composition of Milk and Cheese. — Milk con- sists principally of casein (or cheesy matter), butter, and sugar. The following is the composition of fresh milk obtained from three domestic animals : cow. EWE. MARE. 44-8 31-3 47-7 6-0 8702 1 450 420 500 68 856-2 162 Butter trace. 87-5 Salts I 896-3 Water 10000 ! 1000-0 10000 SKIMMED MILK, ACCORDING TO BERZELIUS, CONSISTS OP Water 928-75 Curd not free from butter 2800 Sugar of milk 3500 Lactic acid and lactate of potash 6-00 Phosphate of potash 025 Phosphate of lime and magnesia, with a trace of iron 0 30 1000-00 COMPOSITION OF FOUR DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE. Milk" Dunlop. Cheddar. Ewe Milk. Water 4382 38-46 3604 28 98 30-40 4-58 40-13 4504 5-98 5-16 25-87 31-86 3 81 33-48 Butter 19-80 Ash or saline matter 6-59 100 00 1 100-00 10000 10000 • The quantity of casein in milk appears to be intimately connected with the nature of the food given to the animal, and as it, or the butryaceous portions prepon- derate, will the resulting cheese be found rich or poor ; it is not, therefore, surprising to find good toasting 492 THE 'fAIIMER'S 'magazine. cheese produced from comparatively poor pasturage, as well as from rich herbage: as examples may be adduced the Derbyshire and North Staffordshire cheese. It has been remarked in Cheshire, and, I believe, in other extensive cheese districts, that it is impossible to make cheese of the first quality of milk obtained from cows fed upon tares and clover ; notwithstanding which I had pointed out to me a farm on which the whole of the cows were fed almost exclusively during the summer on tares and clover, the entire produce of which dairy was converted into cheese, and that of a quality so excellent, that it always obtained the highest price from the London dealers at the Chester cheese fairs. The cir- cumstance was mentioned to me as an illustration of what could be accomplished by management, the dairy- woman being esteemed one of the best hands in that celebrated cheese-making county. My own convictions are that mere manipulation had little to do with it. The best cheese is a compound of cheese and butter. When the cattle were fed at large on leguminous food, rich in casein, that substance greatly preponderated in the milk, the butter being partly consumed by the animal in the course of the exercise requisite to procure its food, &c. ; when fed in the house with the like food the butter was necessarily yielded in a greater propor- tion, and consequently formed a rich fat cheese. Rennet is the substance with which the cheese- maker " breaks" the milk. It is formed from calves' stomachs, technically termed " vills;" those obtained from Ireland are preferred. The reason for this pre- ference is not generally known, and may therefore be here stated. The greater part of the calves in Ireland are killed before they are three days old, the stomachs of these " slink calves" are said to be much more pow- erful in breaking the milk than if older. Vills of more mature growth are however used. Colouring. — Cheese is coloured by using a sub- stance called annatto ; the kind called roll annatto is that which ought to be employed : the quantity is regu- lated by the richness of the milk, and the height of the colour desired. If much cream has been taken from the milk, a proportionate additional amount of annatto will be required to obtain the required colour. In Cheshire one pound of good annatto is deemed sufficient for a ton of cheese ; in Gloucester double that quantity is used. It would be well if public taste would so far change as to prefer uncoloured cheese, as the Cheddar, Stilton, &c. When colouring is used, a piece of annatto of the re- quired size is folded in linen, and placed over-night in a half or quarter of a pint of warm water, to dissolve ; this infusion is poured into the milk ; the linen bag ig also dipped in, and squeezed until the colouring is dis- charged. Annatto is the produce of the Bixa Orilana of Lin- naeus. It is manufactured in two forms, one in flags o^ cakes of 2 to 3 lbs. each, of a bright yellow -col our, soft to the touch, of good consistence, and comes from Cayenne wrapped in banana leaves, and is much used in giving a fugative orange tint to silk and cotton goods ; the other kind is called roll annatto, which is small, not exceeding 2 or 3 oz. each, hard, dry, and compact, of a brownish colour outside, and red within, is brought from Brazil, and is the kind which is, or rather ought to be, used in dairies. Cheshire Cheese. — The county of Chester has been famous for a long period for its excellent cheese. It is stated that the Countess Constance of Chester (reign of Henry II., a.d. 1100), though the wife of Hugh Lapus, the king's first cousin, kept a herd of kine, and made good cheese, three of which she presented to the Arch- bishop of Canterbury. Giralders Cambiiensis bears honourable testimony to the excellence of the Cheshire cheese of his day. Mode of Manufacture. — The colouring and ren- net having been put in the milk, it is well stirred, and left to coagulate. The tub is now covered up, either with a wooden lid, or with cloths supported by the cheese ladder; this preserves the heat of the milk, and protects it from dust and dirt. The coagulation or " coming" is generally eff"ected in an hour or an hour- and-a-half. The " breaking" and " gathering" of the curd is the next process ; this is now generally done by the curd-breaker, made of wire-work of an oval form, and has a tin rim round it about an inch~and-half broad. The wire-work cuts the curd, by being passed through it perpendicularly in different directions, extremely gently at first, to separate the mass into very small portions. The length of time required depends upon the quantity of curd ; for a 601b. cheese it occupies from 20 to 25 minutes ; after this the curd is left for a quarter of an hour to separate from the whey ; if the weather is cold the tub is covered to retain the heat ; the curd being separated and a portion of the whey taken out, it is gently broken by the dairy-maid and her assistant, by passing their hands to the bottom of the tub, buoying up each time a portion of the curd, and using the curd- breaker. This operation occupies half-an-hour. At the expiration of another half hour, (or as soon as the curd is sufficiently settled,) it is drawn as much into one- half of the tub as its loose texture will admit. A semi- circular board adapted to the size of the tub is now placed in the curd, to which a weight of about 30 lbs. is added. This board is perforated with holes, about half- an-inch in diameter, to allow the whey to escape. The tub is then set a few inches " a-tilt" to drain the whey more readily. The whey is passed through a sieve to collect any curd which may remain in it. The weight and board are shortly taken off, and such part of the curd that has been squeezed under them is collected at one side, and a heavier weight of 50 or 60 lbs. applied. In the course of a quarter of an hour the board is again re- moved, and the curd cut across at 6 or 8 inches apart, to assist the discharge of the whey, and heavier weights (112 lbs.) added ; these weights are sometimes increased, always observing that the pressure is gradual and regu- lated by the compactness of the curd, otherwise a por- tion of the butter will be squeezed out. The curd is again cut into square pieces, taken out of the cheese-tub and broken a little by the hands as it is passed into the " thrusting-tub," when the extraction of the whey is contiaued by the application of the screw or lever press. To assist still further the discharge of the whey, long THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 498 irons skewers are introduced through the perforations in the tub, with their points directed upwards, so that when the skewers are withdrawn there remains an open- ing for the whey to drain. The curd is now cut through by intersections of 2 or 3 inches apart, drawn by a large dull knife, so as not to injure the cheese-cloth, and the edge or corner of the curd is cut off all round and placed in the centre. After this the pressure is again applied and skewered as before ; at the lapse of 15 or 20 minutes the curd is taken out of the tub, cut into 4 or 5 pieces, each piece broken separately by the hands into pieces 2 or 3 inches square. These operations are repeated until the whey is sufficiently extracted to admit of salting. Pre- vious to salting the curd is cut into three or four equal sized pieces, each of which is broken into smaller pieces by hand, or passed once through the curd-mill, the salt is then scattered over it, and the " breaking" continued either by the hands, the curd-mill, or both, until the salt is well intermixed, and the curd perfectly crumbled; as broken it is placed in the cheese-vat and comparted as much as possible by the hands, lo be properly pressed ; the vat should be overfilled and rounded up a little in the middle. The vat is again placed in the press and skewered. In the course of an hour it is taken from the press and turned, after which the pressing is continued for half-an-hour or an hour; it is now fit for removal to the stone or most powerful press, in which it is occa- sionally skewered and turned for about three days, after which a pressure is imposed equal to 30 cwt. to 40 cwt. On the fourth or fifth day it is usually removed to the salting and drying room ; here salt can only be applied externally ; after some time it is removed to the drying- room. Cheshire retains its celebrity for cheese-making ; the pride of its inhabitants in the superiority of its cheese may be gathered from the following provincial song relative to the subject: — A Cheshire-man sailed into Spain, To trade for merchandise : When he arrive'd from the main, A Spaniard him espies, Who said, " You English rogue, look here — What fruits and spices fine Our land produces twice a year ! Thoii hast not such in thine." The Cheshire-man ran to his hold, And futclicd a Cheshire cheese. And said, " Look here, you dojr ! behold. We have such fruits as these ! " Your fruits are ripe but twice a year. As yon yourself do saj' ; But such as I present you here, Our land brings twice a day." The Spaniard in a passion flew, And his rapier took in hand : The (yhcshire-man kicked up his heels. Saying, " Thour't at my command ! " So never let a Spaniard boast, While Cheshire-men abound, Lest they should teach him, to his cost, To dance a Cheshire round ! The above song, with the music prefixed, was pub- lished about the year 1746, during the celebrated Spanish war in the reign of George II. .Glqijcester-cheese making. — The processes adopted in the manufacture of every variety of cheese are necessarily much alike ; yet upon very minute differences of details, important results follow. The following resume of the Gloucester mode will, no doubt, prove interesting : The cheese-tub being put in its place in the dairy, the ladder is placed across it ; and a large thin canvas cloth is thrown over the tub and ladder, so as to cover both, in order to catch any milk which may drop from the pail, and to prevent dirt fall- ing into the tub. Above this, and upon the ladder, is placed the sieve through which the milk is strained. If the milk should not be of a temperature of 85 deg., a portion of it is placed in a deep tin kept for the pur- pose, and placed in a boiler used as a hot-water bath, by which means the whole is warmed to a proper de- gree. It is considered of the utmost moment to attend to this ; for if the milk is not warm enough when the rennet is put into it, the cheese will be " tender," and bulge out at the edges, which spoils its appearance ; and a great quantity of sediment of small curd will subse- quently be found in the whey-leads, being so much curd lost. If, on the other hand, the milk is too warm, it will cause the cheese to " heave," or ferment, which is injurious both to its quality and appearance. When the milk is sufficiently warm, the colouring and the rennet are put into it. One pound of annatto is consi- dered sufficient for half-a-ton of cheese. The rennet is added immediately after the admixture of the colouring ingredient. The tub is then covered with a woollen cloth for at least an hour. When the curd is sufficiently firm for breaking, it is gently and slowly cut across at right angles with a three-bladed knife, about fourteen inches long, close to the bottom of the tub, and around its sides. The cuts should be about an inch apart. When it has stood five or ten minutes, to allow it to sink a little, that the whey may come out as clear as possible, some of the whey is taken out with a bowl, and the curd is cut a second time — very slowly, to be- gin with. If the cutting is done hurriedly, a consider- able sediment of very small curd will pass through the sieve, and be found in the whey-leads: at the same time, a quantity of butter will escape, thus impoverish- ing the cheese. As the operation proceeds, the cuttings are made more rapidly, and at a less distance. Lastly, one hand, with the skimming-dish, keeps the whole in motion, turning tip the lumps suspended in the whey, while the other, with the knife, continues cutting them as small as possible. This continues until no more lumps are brought to the surface, the whole mass being reduced to one degree of firmness. This occupies about a quarter of an hour. The curd being now allowed to "stand" for a quarter of an hour, to settle, and the whey being in a great measure taken out, the dairymaid commences folding over a portion of the curd, be- ginning at one corner, also cutting the curd info lumps, and laying them on the principal mass; by which means the major portion of the remaining whey exudes from between the cut portions. From time to time, as it accumulates, the whey is taken from the tub. The curd is now placed in vats, and pressed with the hand, these vats being, in the first place, covered Trith fine 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. canvas, are placed in the press for half-an-hour, at the expiration of which period they are taken out, and the curd cut into slices, and put into a mill fixed on the top of a tub, which tears it into particles as small as vetches. Some scald the curd in this pulverized state with hot whey : others at once place it in the vats, pressing it closely with the hand in filling, in order to squeeze out any remaining whey, the vat being filled with curd, and rounded up in the middle, as far as the whole can be pressed into the vat. Cheese-cloths are then spread over the whole, and a little hot water sprinkled over the top. This operation has a tendency to harden the outside of the cheese, and prevents it from cracking. Tiie curd is now turned out of the. vats into the cloths, and the vats are dipped into the whey to wash out any crumbs of curd which may cling to them ; the curd with the cloth around it being inverted, is again placed in the vat. The cloths are then folded over, and tucked in, and the vats, as they are filled, are put into the press one upon another. The bottoms of the vats are smooth, and a little rounded, so as to answer the purpose of churn- boards, which are only wanted for the uppermost vats, or when the other vats are not quite full. The vats are allowed to remain under the press about two hours, when they are taken out, and dry cloths are applied, which with double Gloucester cheese should be repeated some time during the day. In this state they are re- moved to the salting press ; they are generally salted at the end of twenty-four hours. The salting should not commence until the skin is all closed, for if there is a crack in the skin of the cheese at the time of salting it will not close afterwards. The salting is performed by rubbing both sides and the edge of the cheese with finely- powdered salt ; after which they are returned to the vats and put under the press, the newest cheese being placed lowermost and the oldest uppermost. The salting is repeated three times with the single, and four times with the double Gloucester, twenty-four hours elapsing between each salting. After the second salting, the cheese are returned to the vats without .cloths, so that the marks of the cloths may be effaced. Double Glou- cester remains ia the press five days, and the single four, but in damp weather they should remain longer. The quantity of salt used is about three pounds and a-half to one hundred-weight of cheese. When taken from the salting process, they are placed on a shelf in the dairy for a day or two, prior to removal to the cheese-room. In the cheese-room they are turned once a-day on the floor, or on the cheese-rack. In about a month they are ready for cleaning, which is done by scraping both sides and edges ; after which it is covered with red paint, made of Venetian red and small beer. It is rubbed on with a woollen cloth ; they are subsequently turned twice a week, and ofterjer in damp weather, until fit for market. New Cheese, in some places called " slip-coat," is only made in the early part of summer, when the cows are turned out to grass, and is formed entirely of new milk, with a portion of warm water added before the rennet is put to it. The whey ia then gently pourel off, and the curd is carefully kept entire until put into a chopart of considerable diameter, but only one or two inches in depth ; it is very gently pressed with a weight of two or three pounds for a few hours only, and when removed from the vat is covered with a cloth which is frequently changed. As soon as the skin is formed, it is considered fit for use. This kind of cheese is known in the London market as " Cottenham Cheese." Skim-milk Cheese is made of milk from which the whole of the cream has been taken. It is more or less palatable according to the time the milk has been allowed to stand ; for if deprived of the whole of the butter, the cheese becomes exceedingly hard in a short time j when consumed before it becomes very hard, it forms a whole- some food for working men. Cream Cheese ought to be made from the entire cream, but this is seldom the case, the greater part of the cream. cheese usually sold being made in the same manner as the new cheese already described, and often of the overnigTit's milk with the cream taken off. The finest cream-cheese we ever met with was made in the East Riding of Yorkshire. Parmasan Cheese. — The country between Cre- mona and Lodi comprise the richest part of the Mila- nese. Irrigation is here brought to the highest state of perfection. The grass is cut four times a year as fodder for the cows, whose milk is converted into the well- known Parmasan cheese. The cows are kept in the stall nearly all the year round, and are fed during the summer on two of these crops of grass or clover, which are cut green, and in the winter on the hay made from the other two cuttings. The milk of at least fifty cows is required for the manufacture of a Parmasan cheese. As one farm rarely affords pasture for such a number, it is usual for the farmers or metayers of a district to club together. The milk of fifty, sixty, or even one hundred cows is brought to the farm where the dairy is fixed ; the person on whom devolves the task of making the cheese keeps an account of the milk received, and the produce of the cheese is afterwards proportioned accordingly. In this fertile plain, a farm of sixty acres is considered a large one. These farms are divided into fields of three or four acres, for the convenience of irri- gation, a practice which in the course of a few years im- pairs the quality of the grass to such a degree that it becomes necessary to discontinue it. The ground is ploughed in autumn, and in the following spring sown with hemp, which grows luxuriantly. After the hemp is pulled, leguminous plants are sown, which is followed by oats, wheat, maize, wheat. The richness of the soil being now sufficiently subdued, the ground is left to it- self, and is immediately covered v/ith herbage, and is again continued in grass for about fifteen years. Neufchatel and Gruyere Cheese are manufac- tured in a similar joint-stock manner to the above. Gouda, Eidam, ano Frieseland are Dutch cheese manufactured in the same way that English cheese is made. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 44: THE LINCOLNSHIRE SYSTEM OF HOUSING YEARLY AGRICULTURAL SERVANTS. It is a coiiiiijeiitlable feature in the proceedings of the Loudon Farmois' Club that the members are con- tinually considering the case of the Labourer. In November last they once more met to discuss his moral and social condition ; while two subjects on the card for the present year are devoted to his interest. It would be idle not to suppose but that these re- peated deliberations must gradually result in some good. It is not merely the immediate influence on the speakers and members themselves. The strength of the Club lies rather in its reports, by means of which the whole country becomes alive to the matter in liand. If at any of the meetings a man make a good suggestion or a telling point, it is almost certain to be taken up, in some way or other. On the other hand, if he make a mistake, or advocate a false prin- ciple, he is nearly as sure to be taken up himself. The Club works, in fact, with the eyes of England upon it. The May discussion was, or should have been, confined to one especial phase in the life of a labourer. It was that of the single man — the hind, or annual servant, who yeai's back lived in the house of his em- ployer, and, for the time being at least, regarded the farmstead as his own home. Under any circum- stances or in any calling there is no period at which a man is more difficult to manage. With his passions in their full force, without the hold of a wife and family to steady him, and in some respects his own master, he is just in the position to be tempted. At the uni- versity, in civil, military, and mercantile life, it is still a grave question how we shall best deal with young unmarried men ? How shall we make or mar them at this turning point of their career? It is precisely the same with the agriculturist and his young unmarried men. The custom of providing for them in his own house has gradually, and perhaps wisely, been aban- doned. Where else can they be provided for ? How can they be weaned from the attractions of the public- house, and be brought to identify their own interests with that of their employer ? The difficulty is, of course, susceptible of some very varied solution, ac- cording to the usages and relative advantages of dif- ferent districts. It is only fair, however, to say that it appears to have been very successfully met by the gentleman who introduced the subject at the Farmers' Club. His paper was almost entirely confined to the details of his own practice, and that of the neighbourhood in which he resides. Nothing could have been written in better taste. It was concise, clear, and all to the point. A common but fatal mis- take is, that these opening addresses are too long and discursive. That of Mr. Marshall was a very model of what they should be ; and it was something more. His plan was practical, reasonable, and alto- | gether encouraging. It will be found that the Club at once adopted it as their ownj and we really cannot see why a system carried out with so much mutual advantage in Lincolnshire should not be more gene- rally pursued elsewhere. The well-paid and well- fed labourer in Lincolnshire lives cheaper after all than he could in Essex, and many other counties where any plan for boarding, lodging, and maintaining yearly agricultural servants is comparatively unknown. We shall leave this plan to speak for itself, only con- curring with the resolution in "recommending it to the best consideration of landlord and tenant." It ajipears after all to be the only really feasible means for dealing with the single man's position. As a rule he must not be the one lodger in another labourer's cottage. Nothing leads to so much immorality. In fact, there is a wholesome proviso fast coming to be recognized, that a cottager shall not take lodgers. As another rule, or something very like it, the agricultural servant does not aifect model lodging-houses. In meeting his case they have been, so far, almost everywhere failures. Mr. James speaks to one at Clevedon, in Somersetshire, with accommodation for eleven men, and not a farm- servant in it. Mr. Baker refers to one in Essex, erected at gi'eat expense, which was " altogether unsuccessful ;" as well as to others in the same county which were "totally useless." Even Mr. Cheffins, who very kindly designed and submitted a plan of a La- bourers' Lodging-house to the meeting, could show so far but little evidence of their approval by those for whom they were intended. His chief reference, Mr. Bramston, has room for eleven, " but at present only three lodgers;" while Mr. Baker anticipates that Mr. Bramston will eventually do no better than others have done before him. The single man. then, is not to live with another labourer, and he will not live in a lodging- house. What good scheme is there beyond these to compare with Mr. Marshall's ? We repeat that we do not see that difficulty in introducing it in other quar- ters which some speakers at the meeting appeared to entertain. Wages may not, perhaps, be so high as in Lincolnshire, but then there is no necessity for carrying the thing out on so high a scale. Mr. Marshall's men by comparison, with their meat three times a day, live like princes, while many who earn within a shilling or two of what his do, live like paupers. It is the system, the principle, which is the secret of success ; and it is this which we want to see tried elsewhere. Let it be remembered the labourers themselves take kindly to it; and there is no one, after all, more delicately sensitive than the country working man. Ho lias an especial horror of being made a show of, and exhibited in his own homo, like the hounds in the kennel, or the children at the schoct), by the good Lord or Lady Boun- tiful. This we believe to be one great cause of the 2 K 496 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. non-success of tlie model lodging houses. We won- der how often, on the other hand, Mr. Marshall's men have been turned out for inspection ? Not a great many times, we will answer. We could almost wish the discussion had been con- fined a little more to the subject as it stood on the card. Of course, everybody has something to say about the working classes, particularly people who talk for the sake of talking. The yearly agricultural servant, how- ever, is one whoso case is well worth individually con- sidering. It has many advantages for both master and man, even beyond the living and lodging. The two under this agreement must come to a better under- standing and appreciation of each other. Mr. Trethewy touched forcibly on this point : — " He thought it very unjust to treat a labourer just as you would treat a tool. One often found laliourers taken on for two or three days, and then dis- charged. The effect of this was, that they lost all interest in their employer." Of course they did. But Mr. Mai'shall's practice remedies this. Such annual hirings make a man feel that he will be cared for and respected. As conducive to such a feeling, we would still prefer seeing a man standing with a knot of whip- cord in his hat, to having him " treated as a tool," and j ust put on and off for the job of a day or two, or a week or two, as he may be wanted. The discussion, often irrelevant enough, was toler- ably well sustained. At the same time its value is chiefly dependent upon Mr. Marshall's excellent paper. ON SOME POINTS IN THE COMPOSITION OF WHEAT GRAIN, ITS PRODUCTS IN THE MILL, AND BREAD. By J, B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. H. Gilbert, Ph. D., F.C.S.^' This paper discussed an extensive seiies of experiments, in which wheat-grain and its products were traced from the field to the bakery, the resiilts being given in numerous tables. The first of these gave a summary of the results of the growth of wheat for ten years consecutively, on the same land, and illustrated the influence of variation of climatic circumstance from year to year in one and the same locality upon the general character and composition of the crop. The conclusion the authors arrived at was that, within the limits of their ovm locality and climate, the season yielding the admittedly best character of grain, also aftorded a high per-ceutage of dry substance in the gr.ain, and comparative!}^ low per-centages both of mineral matter and of nitrogen in that dry substance. The straw showed variations in these same points of composition generally somewhat in the same direction as the grain, but subject to a wider range of exceptions than the hitter in this respect. The influence of various conditions of manuring upon the character and composition of the crop was next considered. With this view, the results obtained upon individual plots during the same ten years v/ere now given, instead of the average from many plots in each year, as whea the eflfects of sfason alone were to be discussed. In the experiments illustrating the effects of manures, there was pretty gene- rally a slight increase in the per-centage of nitrogen in the grain grown by an annual excess ofammoniacal salts, com- pared with that grown by its side on laud which was con- tinuously unmanurcd. In the average of the seasons, however, there was a somewhat lower per-centage of nitrogen in the grain, where there had been a liberal supply of the required mineral constituents also, than where the tmmoniacal salts were used alone. The range of difference in the per- centage of nitrogen ia the produce in one and the same season was, however, even witli these extreme variations as to the available supplies within the soil, not nearly so great aa it was in different seasons with one and the same condi- tion of manuring. Twenty-three analyses of wheat-grain ashes were next 1 [* Quarterly .Tournal of tlie Chemical SociPty, April, 1P57, R?fi(1 Januarv I9H), 1857. recorded ; nine referring to grains grown by different ma- nures in 1844, eight to similarly varying specimens the produce of 1845, and six to ss many of lo4G. From these it did not appear that the per-centage of any particular con- stituent of the ash of the ripened grain was divectl^^ affected by the liberal use of it in manure. At any rate the differ- ences, if any, due to this cause, were within the limits of the ordinary errors of analysis. Here again, however, the efi'ects of varying season were more marked than those of various manuring. Thus it was shown, in a summarj'-table of the results of the ash-analysis, that the difference in the per-centage amount of almost every constituent was much the greatest among the several grain-ashes of 1845, \vhich was a very had ripening season, and much the least among those of 1846, which was the best maturing season of the tlirce included in this comparison. It wculd thus appear that, other things being ecpial, the more favourably and perfectly matured the grain, the more constant v/ould he the composition of the ash, and the less any direct effect upon it, from the mineral supplies by manure. Taking tc- getlier the mean of the twenty-three analyses of the ashes of grains grown at RothamsteJ, and that of twenty-six analyses of wheat-grain ashes published by Mr. Way, it appeared that this ash consisted essentially of phosphates of potash, magnesia, and lime. The phosplioric acid amounted to nearly 50 per cent,, the potash to about 30, the magnesia to from 10 to 12, and the lime from 3| to 4 per cent, in the crude ash. The remainder, excludiug ad- ventitious sand and charcoal, consisted of small but variable amounts of soluble silica, peroxide of iron, and soda or chloride of sodium, with, according to Mr. Waj', occasional traces of sulphuric and caibonic acids also. Soda or chloride of sodium seemed to abound much more in the ash of the less favourably ripened specimens ; and the results afforded no reason for supposing that soda could take the place of potash as a constituent of the ash of fully-developed grain. In selected cases, cpiantities of the experimentally-grown grains— namely, seven lots from the produce of 1840', nine- teen from tliat of 1847, and two from that of 1818— were carefully watched through the milling process, In some of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49? the cases nine, and in others seven, different products of the dressing apparatus -srere separately taken. Tlie propor- tion of eacli of the several products in the respective grains was ascertained and recorded ; and the per-centages of dry substance and mineral matter were also in every case de- termined. The three first wires of the dressing machine gave, on the average, rather more than 70 per cent, of the grain as ilnc flour; but in practice, about 10 per cent, more would be obt iii);', lud ( 9i'n iiaa^ 500 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PLOUGHING BY S T E A M P O V» E II. On May 7tli, ejcjieriinenta of ploughing by steam power were made in a field near Thetford. Handbills having been extensively circulated announcing' the experiments, a great concourse of people came from all parts of the county to the scene of operations. The morning trains from London and Norwich brought nMmbers of farmers and others, who were set down at the level crossing about two miles on the Brandon side of Thetford, whence they walked to the field, belonging to Craske Roper, Eeq., of Croxton Park. For some years past Mr. Boydeli, an engineer, has eiidea- •»oured to construct locomotive engines available for dragging hea»y weights on common roads and for agricultural opera- tions. Originally he intended his engines for military pur- poses, to drag heavy guns over difficult ground, and the first of his engines having been purchased by the Governraent is now at Woolwich. The second engine that he had built was exhibited, last 'July, at the Chelmsford show of the Royal Agricultural Society. He had provior.sly obtained a patent for the invention. The engine was inei with new ploughs invented by Mr. Coleman, of Chelmsford ; but the ploughs did not answer, and in fact would not do the work at all. By request of the Emperor of Russia, the engine was eent to that country, but was lost, with the ship in which it was sent, in the gulf of Finland, last October. A company has been formed in London, called the " Trac- tion Engine and Endiess Railway Apparatus Company," to promote the use of Boydcll'a patent engine and apparatus. Mr. Biirrell, of Thetford, has built two of the engines with some improvemoTits, and both of them were exhibited at work. The new engine is like a railway locomotive, but with the ad- dition of an apparatus, which answers the purpose of a railway attachfd to the wheels. Distinct from the eiiginc, and in front of it, there u a steering apparatus. The endiess rail- way consists of a series of flat boards, six in i^nmbev, plated with iron on both pides of each wheel, equal in length to the radius of the wheel, and from 10 to 16 innlies in width, loosely attached to the felloe of the wheel, in such a raauner that they are carried round with it as it revolves. Each in succpssion is laid fla'. o;i the ground in fro;;t of the wheel, and lifted again in its rear as soon as passed over. On the surface of the boards next the periphery of the wheel, an iron rail is fixed on which the wheel runs, the boards thus correspoudiiig to the sleepers of an ordinary railway, so that the wlieds carry their own rails and sleepers with them, laying down a literally endless railway whenever they are 5et in motion. Mr. Bur- rell's engines are larger than the previous ones. The boiler has a greater heating surface, thus increasing the power, and the steering apparatus is more compact. But the grtatest improvement that has been made (patented by Mr. Burrell) is the application of the new wheels with their endless railway to the common portable engines, thus making them locomo- tives capable of going any distance on roads frotn place to place, instead of being dragged as hitherto by five or six horses. This improvement is so obvious and important that it is likely to be universally adopted. We saw one of the usual portable engines, with the new wheels, &c. attached, going along the roads in Croxton at a good pace, clamp, clamp, shrieking and snorting like a mad elephant, to the great amazement of the peasantry. The drivers of gigs had to get quickly out of the way, and the horses seemed inclined to bolt, or to keep at a respectful distance. The first experiment with the great engine was drawing an immense weight, a timber gill with a great load, on the com- mon rocd. This was accomplished for some distance, not far from the railw.iy. The driver of a passing traiu set up a long whistle, which was well answered by the steam-horse on the road. No doubt the steam horse is well adapted for any roads, even the worst, and it has gone over soft and marshy ground where no roads exist, as proved be-'ore a Government Coiumittee. This adds to the importance of the invention, as it removes one of the difficulties hitherto experienced in making road locomotives profitably availabb?. In the southern coun- ties they have been frequently tried, but nev; r with any profit, as they could only be used on very good level roads. But Boydell'a steam horse has gone over swampy places, up and down hill, and over rough uneven ground. The steam horse being ready for use, with more than snffi- cient power for ploughing purposes, the next thing was to in- vent suitdble ploughs. It has long been admitted that the greater portion of the ploughing in this country might he done by steam-power, and the only question has been whether this should be accompUshed by means of statiotiary engines and ropes or by dir-cct traction. Both systems have been tried, but the question of expense still remains unsettled. At the Chelmsford show Mr. Fo'vler's plan was the most successful, but now Mr. Burrcll has constructed an entirely new descrip- tion of ploughs, they being double ploughs, taking two furrows at a tioie, and in the experiments tried they were ackiiowledged to do the work admirably well. The leading feature of these ploughs is that, instead of its being necessary to throw thorn down on one side, ihey can be lifted up by levers at the end of the furrow with rapidity. The same ploughs can be worked with horses, but their chief merit is, thst they can be adjusted to a steam-engine. The field selected for the ploughing operation waa about SO acres in extejt, and a sandy soil. A wider space would have afforded greater scope for the engine and ploughs, and better tested the utmost quantity of work that could be done in a given time. A great deal of time was lost in continually turning the engine and ploughs at each side of the field. At the time appointed the engine started, dragging after it three double ploughs, guided by three men. The ploughs were so placed that they made six furrows close together from 12 to 13 inches deep, and the farmers who closely inspected the work allowed that it was doue well. The engine went at the rate of nearly three miles an hour, and allowing for the stops at the turnings, an acre was ploughed in 5i minutes, or at the rate of 10 acres per day. The engine might have been driven at a greater speed but for the multitude of people col-- lected round, and who would not keep off the ploughed land at a proper distance. The ploughmen could scarcely see what they were doing on account of the crowd. The trials could not be scientifically conducted, but it was generally admitted that if ploughing by steam could be done well in so limited a space at the rate of 10 acres per day, it might be done far better in a wider space, and at the rate of 15 acres per day. Whether this can be done at less expense by steam-power thm by horse-power is a matter of calculation. " The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ml Engineer" journal thus states the daily expense of the eu- giue : £ s. d. Engiue-mau at 4s. per day 0 4 0 Steersman and fear ploughmen at 2s. 6d. 0 12 6 Ten cwt. of coals at Is 0 10 0 Wear and tear, say 0 10 0 £1 16 6 Tills does not include interest on the capital, or hire of the engine. A ploughman, with two horses, will plough 1 J- acres in a day, and sis ploughmen, with 12 horses, will therefore plough nine acres in a day, and the estimated expense is £1 IGs. ; con- sequently all the gain ia steam-ploughiug is in the quantity over nine acres, without taking into account the cost or hire of tV.c engine. It should be remembered, however, that the engine is equally adapted for all the purposes of any portable or stationary engine of a similar power, possessing this great advantage over all other engines, that it can speedily convey itself to any scene of operations without the aid of horses. The other experiments were made with Cotgreave's subsoil aad draining ploughs. The work wai fairly done, but the soft sandy soil was no test at all, either of the engine or ploughs. Very likely the engine, if tried, would have drawn the ploughs through stiffer 6oi!», and at a greater depth if required. As the engine went along, a great amount of manual labour was required to keep the ploughs down. Soon after four o'clock the experinteuts were concluded, and the people rapidly left the ground.— Norwich Mercury. BREEDING OF LONDON DRAY-HORSES. Sir, — The speculatioa of breeding horses of gigantic sta- ture, calculated for the Loudou drajs, ia always surrounded with considerable uncertainty. It is true that, in breeding all kinds of animal3,there is an acknowledged principle — that " like produces like ;" and so far as species, and to a certaiu extent character, is considered, this may apply : yet stature is often governed by circumstances which the most astute judgment can neither foresee nor control. There are two very important points in dray-liorsea — namely, size, and a disposition to accumulate fat ; and this lattar property is as essential as it is in cattle or sheep. To breed horses of gigantic proportions, the first impression that naturally arises, with the uninitiated, is that of procuring mares of great size, and selecting for them partners of still greater magnitude. There is nothing, however, more uncer- tain in this respect than the produce of very large mares. It not uufrequently occurs that a medium-sized —ana sometimes, indeed, a small-sized — mare breeds very large foals, and, in the event of one of such offspring being employed as a brood- mare, in the hope that her progeny will be equal to, or perhaps exceed the proportion of the dam, that she gives birth to mean, insignificant foals. It often happens that her produce will in this respect follow their grandam, such is the propen- sity of Nature to go back to originals. Very large mares will frequently produce one or two foals of great size, and many of insignificant proportions. Hence it is desirable to ascertain the stature and propensities of the family; but that cannot in all cases be accomplished. Good keep — that is, an abundance of rank pasturage — has a great effect on the size ; and this is more essentially under the control of the breeder. The heavy -heeled, lethargic mare, of elephantine proportions, is far from being likely to produce foals that will realize great prices as dray-horses in London : but one with a roomy frame ; a great body, on short, clean legs ; strong shoulders ; and vast development in the loins and quarters— put to a stallion of adequate proportions — will probably produce what is required : but, with the utmost caution, success is by no means certain. Some remarks on this subject will be found in the last edition of Youatt on "The Horse," published by Messrs. Routledge. There is another class of horses iu great request ia London, commanding high prices, of lighter make, the breeding of which is less precarious ; aad they are annually becoming more and more ia demand, while the dray-horse is becoming less in vogue. These are employed for working luggage-vans, in connexion with the railway stations, and for other purposes of heavy draught in which great power is required, and, to meet the usage of the times, more activity and pace tiiau the heavy dray or common cart-horses possess. To produce this description of horse, a good-shaped active cart-mare, or a, powerful mare of lighter make, is crossed with a sire of the Yorkshire or Cleveland breed. They must have action, and be able to trot at the rate of seven or eight miles an hour. Their height should not be less than sixteen hands. For farming operations, iu which they may be advantageously em- ployed prior to the time when they have attained an age to command the top price of the Loudou markets, they are incal- culably superior to the huge lumbering dray-horses, which, for agricultural purposes, conducted as they are at the present a year, luiwieldy, slow, and useless brutes. They consumed an enormous quantity of food, without which it is futile to expect that their gigantic frames can attain their proper growth; and to make them fat for sale— the indispensable property they must possess — involves an outlay th-»t leaves but an insignificant margin for profit. Yours, &c., Cecil. A large supply of cotton-seed, with exact instructions as to the course to be observed in order to insure its successful cultivation, has been obtained from the great cotton-growing State, Georgia, by his Excellency Sir William Denisoii, and forwarded since to Lieutenant-Colonel Gray, to be distributed among such of the settlers in the Moreton Bay districts as desire to compete for the prizes of land proposed by the Government to be awarded for the encouragement of cotton-growing ia that portion of New South "^tXca.-— Australian and New Zealand Gazette, mtUsUlflot >it>:)l V 502 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. BEST TENURE OF L AND.-PE M B RO K E FARMERS' CLUB. The usual quarterly meeting of this flourishing Society was held on Saturday, the 7th of February. Major Leech (the Chairman) said that at their last meeting it had been moved by Mr. Lewis that they should discuss at this meeting the subject of the best tenure of land : whether it should be leases or yearly tenancy. He had great jjleasure now in calling on Mr. Lewis to open the discussion. Mr. Thojias Lewis said he had the honour that day of introducing this infant to their notice — this offspring of hfs own — the best tenure of land. He thought it was a very beautiful baby, and if they would only deal tenderly with it, he had no doubt that it would ultimately prove of very great benefit to the community. He should, in the course of his remarks, quote at some length certain extracts from a "Journal of the London Central Farmers' Club" of last year, giving a report of a discussion on " Farm Agreements," which was a subject very much akin to that which they were about to discuss that day. It might not be out of the way for him to read from the " Journal" a few extracts from a speech by Mr. Jackson as to the best "Farm Agreements;" not that he (Mr. Lewis) agreed with the speaker on all points, but he thought that some of his remarks were most important. That gentleman said — " In endeavouring this evening to solve the great agricultural problem, 'the description of farm agreements best calculated to give a stimulus to agricultural improvement,' we stand on a fine elevation between the past and the future. Experience has lit up for us many valuable beacon- fires to warn us of danger; and science, our Trinity House, has provided us with many aids for future navigation. Without advanced age, our recol- lections carry us back to the period when agricul- ture lay apparently neglected in the cradle of its infancy, as though unconscious of its destiny. The babe was, through the ignorance of its nurses, kept in the dark, lest the light of dawning day should cause it to squint ; ricketed with tight ban- danges, for fear it should begin to 'step in life' with crooked legs ; but, like a second Whittington, catching prophetic inspiration from the nursery jingle— ' There was an old woman, and what do you think ? She lived upon nothing but victuals and drink,' it was, in spite of bad nursing, roused into being, and the ' bairn' lives, but has sadly out-grown his legal attire, except in the estimation of a certain Northumberland dame, who fancies he could be improved by tight-lacing, and strut nicely if his feet were forced into a pair of old-fashioned ladies' shoes, freah imported from the Celestial Empire. Time was when ' thumb-screws,' ' manacles,' • pro- scriptions,' * pains and penalties,' were implements of agriculture not unbenefitting the feudal condition of serfdom and slavery; and had it not been for ' Moore's New Edition of Vox Stellarum,' we were in danger of concluding that these noble engines of antiquity had all been consigned to the ' Old Curiosity Shop' in the 'Tower,' and the march of intellect and modern science had invented better legal instruments for causing two blades of corn or grass to grow where only one grew ' in the olden time.' " The remarks which are made in this speech as to the best form of agreements apply with very great force to the subject which they had met there to discuss — the best tenure of land. It might not perhaps be unimportant to glance for a moment at the tenure of land in other countries, and in times long gone by. In Russia — from the earliest dawn of her history, even to the present time — both the lands and the serfs on those lands belong to the nobles : the one is as much property as the other. This was also the case in their own country in for- mer days, even before the time of the feudal system. Amongst their Anglo-Saxon ancestors the tenants of the soil belonged to the owners of the soil. The land and the persons who inhabited it were alike the property of the possessors of the soil. In America it was different ; there the land belonged to the parties who either cleared it by their own labour, or bought it from those who had done so. This, as had been proved, was not the best tenure of land ; for, although the land belonged to the parties cul- tivating it, they had not given that care and attention to it which were needful, and so the lands in a few years were run out, and produced very in- ferior crops indeed. However, reverting again to their own country, and to the time of the Norman Conquest, they found that the Conqueror himself allotted to his followers the lands of the country for service rendered. But this was purely a feudal tenure; there was no rent paid; the land was held in lieu of service rendered, until about the 15th century, when the feudal system was being gradually destroyed, and the present arrangement between landlord and tenant commenced. He could not take a better opportunity than the pre- sent of reading a few extracts from a letter from a friend in town, who, having seen it in print that this discussion was to come off", had written to him (Mr. Lewis) giving him some valuable information on the subject. His friend said : — " The subject for discussion at the next quarterly meeting being the ' Tenure of Land,' it has just THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 603 struck me a few remarks on the subject may not be misplaced. " In regard to tbe origin of farms, experience soon showed that the owner of a large tract of land, even when he has the requisite capital or know- ledge, could not successfully become the great farming merchant of his own acres, or employ them so advantageously as by letting them in sul)- divided portions to others. The land was long held by payment of services and of produce, and the feudal dominion existed over the goods of the tenant in liability for the debts of the possessor of the soil. This state of things was not removed till near the end of the fifteenth century, when the goods of the tenant were declared not liable for the debts of the landlord, and a tenure for a specified number of years was held good against the successors in the properly. These two acts fixed the basis of the position of the tenant, and conse- quently of the success of British agriculture. " In thecultivationof land theoccupier necessarily employs a capital that is at first floating, and gradually becomes fixed by means of being invested in the soil by increasing its productivenesss from operations more or less permanent in their nature. The tenant of land who employs these means most naturally looks to the landlord for the security of enjoying the reward of his labours, and which he cannot with any justice refuse to grant; for he will not himself build a house, make a road, or plant a tree, till the rights of i)roperty are securely granted him, and he cannot with any reason ex- pect others to do what he will not do himself under exactly similar circumstances. "The security should be extended over a time that is sufficient for the development of the intended purpose, which must be calculated in strict relation with the elements on which the action will be exerted. The nature of the pro- ductions of land require a much longer time than many other employments in which to repay the cost of cultivation ; years are required for each kind of produce to contribute a share of the outlay that has been made. Hence a short tenure is nothing better than a yearly holding ; if there is more time to expend, there is very insufficient opportunity to reap the fruits that are grown. ' Give a man the secure possession of a bleak rock,' says Arthur Young, ' and he will turn it into a gar- den ; give him a nine years' lease of a garden, and he will convert it into a desert.' It is not possible to banish from the mind of the tenant-at-will the palpable truth that every improvement he makes on the land is producing a value to others, and, in all probability, raising the rent against himself; he may have a well-grounded and unbounded confidence in the owner of the property that he will not be disturbed, nor denied the fruits of his labours ; but he has no knowledge of the suc- cessoi' — a widow in straitened circumstances, who may be compelled to use every means to raise money— a minor under unscrupulous guardians who will stickle at no point in order to accumulate the wealth of their charge — or some prodigal slave of the card table, the dice box, or the turf, who, in order to gratify his passion, cares not for the mor- row, nor even for the afternoon of the present day. " Not only the landlord but the country suffers by the less improved condition of the public terri- tory, from the want of just and fitting tenures on his estate. " Much land remains uncultivated, or is kept in a very inferior condition of growing grass, which renders security of comparatively less value, as the land requires little expenditure that cannot be replaced within the year. "The only fitting security for a man who ha8 capital to employ in the cultivation and improve- ment of land is a written covenant subsisting for a definite and adequate period. The term must be defined in order that thfe property may not seem alienated, and the period of time must be adequate to draw back, by periodical returns in the lapse of years, the capital that has been expended. " In a well-considered contract the expression must be so pointedly obvious in the meaning that no doubt can arise on the construction. Two faults are usually committed ; a mass of cumber- some and useless restrictions fetter the farmer and cramp his energies, preventing the exercise of judg- ment, and the power of adapting his jjractice to the circumstances that may arise. The other omission consists in leaving to the farmer an unrestricted power of proceeding to a degree of management very hurtful to the landlord, and, on every change of tenant, tending to a deterioration of the farm. The midland and western counties of England are oppressed with clauses and enactments that have descended from the practice of olden times, and which either remain a dead letter, or kill the free- dom of action that is demanded by an improving condition of the tenant. In Scotland the lease of land has wrought miracles of the kind ; a remark- able degree of laxity prevails, and whole estates are managed on a simple letter or a memorandum, with constant reference to the custom of the country. " If good farming cannot be introduced by the stipulation of a lease, it may at least prevent much that is bad, and, by wholly omitting the notice of exploded practices, room is left to mention the bet- ter rules, and to render them compulsory when time has fully sanctioned the superiority. " The practice of agriculture clings so very tenaciously to old customs, that every possible means must be used to unfetter the bonds and loosen the grasp, and many very useful notices may be made in the small compass of a lease. " The most eligible duration for a lease has now been fixed by the best experience in the term of twenty-one years. This period has been reckoned a very long term during which to part with the control of property, and lose the advantages that may happen of an increased value, but it has been proved to be in fair accordance with the interests of both parties to allow the possessor to adopt, and use a profitable system of management, and the landlord to derive an adequate rent. " Trusting the preceding observations, which I have collected from an authentic source, will coincide with your ideas on the subject, believe me to remain yours very truly," &c. In that county, however, he was sorry to say that there was no fixed custom that they could 604 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. possibly allude to, in any case of farm agreement. It would be of considerable advantage to the coun- ty if, in any case of dispute between landlord and tenant, the decision could be referred to the cus- tom of the country ; but at present there was no such arrangement between landlord and tenant, and they had no fixed custom to refer to. They had, as he said, no such custom nowj he hoped they would have it hereafter. But it is a fact that the land in Pembrokeshire wants to be improved ; it is capable of being improved, and being improved greatly ; but this cannot be done without the mutual co-operation of landlord and tenant. He (Mr. Lewis) had been brought up a tenant farmer, and had spent the greater part of his life amongst tenant farmers, and he knew (he thought so at least) as well as any man what are the necessities of tenant farmers and what they desire. He had also associated extensively with farm agents, and had been honoured to some extent with the con- fidence of gentlemen — owners of the soil, and he knew therefore what they thought on this question, and what they also desired. He came therefore to this discussion not partial or prejudiced, and should be exceedingly sorry to jeopardize the interests of either landlord or tenant, or place one in opposition to the other. He did not think, however, that that could be done ; for their interests are mutual, and by benefitting the one they would necessarily benefit the other. He had been saying that the land of that county was capable of very great improvement, and of great increase in value. Referring only to the estate with which he had the honour to be connected, he could assert that by judicious management it had considerably increased in value of late years ; and he had no hesitation in saying that a young man coming into the possession of an estate, say at the age of 28 years, and who might chance to live to the age of 70, would, by granting two leases on his farms each of 21 years' duration, nearly double the value of his land before his death, and leave a much more valuable estate to his successor. By doing this he v/ould confer a more valuable and lasting benefit to those who came after him, than if he had expended half his income in buying up more acres and thus extending his estate. He (Mr. Lewis) contended that more money could be made by improving the lands which gentlemen now jiossess, than if they were to lay out heavy sums in widening the extent of their ])roperty. On this part of the question he would quote from the writings of a gentleman who wrote on the tenure of land some years since —Sir John Sinclair. He said — ■ " In feudal times, the connexion between a landlord and his tenants was of a military de- scription. The proprietor of an estate was himself a warrior, and those who possessed land under him were his soldiers, who were bound to military service, and who paid him hardly any rent in money, but only some personal services, and a moderate quantity of some articles in kind for the maintenance of his family. "When the feudal system was abolished, the landlord, at first, still considered himself as the patron of those who were placed under him. The rents continued low; the occupiers of the estate claimed, from generation to generation, under the name of 'kindly tenants,' a sort of tacit patrimonial interest in their respective possessions ; and as they paid very inadequate rents, and had no permanent security in their possessions, nothing could exceed their indolence, their ignorance, and of course the poverty of their condition. " The connexion between the two classes is now of a description totally different. The landlord considers himself as the owner of an estate, of which he must make the most he can for the benefit of himself and family. He lets it for a certain number of years, to persons possessed of skill, integrity, industry, and capital, under the obligation of ]5aying him annually a specific share of the produce converted into money, besides being bound, if not to improve the value of the property, at least that it shall not be deteriorated during the currency of the lease. " The contract becomes of course more of a mer- cenary nature, without, however, totally destroying ties of a more pleasing kind ; for the landlord, on the one hand, must feel himself deeply interested in the success of his tenant, on which his own income and prosperity materially depend ; while the tenant, on the other, looks u}) to his landlord as a friend, whose interests are necessarily interwoven with his own, and who will naturally be inclined to give an industrious and improving tenant a preference when the farm is to be relet. " Under this system, it is essential both for the landlord and tenant that the connexion between them should be established on just and liberal principles, so as to induce men of knowledge, enterprise, and capital, to devote their attention to the art of husbandry. That can only be expected where leases are granted. These furnish the most beneficial species of encouragement to agricultural improvements; indeed, if any great exertions are necessary, they are not to be attempted without that security. Where a proprietor, therefore, does not incline to occupy his lands himself, he naturally resolves to surrender the temporary possession of it to others, under such conditions as may be mutually advantageous. " A lease, indeed, is proj)erly a cont-f-act, founded on the principles of equity, between two men for their mutual advantage. The one possesses an absolute right in the proj)erty of a certain tract of land and its produce; the other purchases the tem- porary jirivilege of appropriating the produce of that land to himself at a certain stipulated price. The proprietor of an estate may thus be considered as in the possession of a certain fixed capital in land, which is capable of producing, when duly cultivated, a certain annual value. The cultivator of the soil, on the other hand, possesses a move- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 505 able capital, consisting of the necessary funds for stocking a farm, his knowledge in the art of agri- culture, and his industry. Thus situated, the par- ties, like other men who wish to enter into a joint concern, are induced, by the prospect of mutual advantage, to agree to unite their capitals, for the purpose of assisting Nature in producing human subsistence ; and their respective interests having been mutually considered, their agreement con- stitutes the terms or specific articles of the lease. On this plain principle depends the connexion between landlord and tenant. The capital invested by the cultivator, the rent he pays, his skill and labour, the contingencies and chance of loss that may arise from the inclemency of the seasons, must all be compensated by the value of the produce of the soil. Where these principles are fully under- stood and acted upon, both proprietor and tenant will be placed in the inost favourable situation of which the nature of the transaction admits ; but where these are departed from, the interest of the one or of the other, or perhaps of both, must suffer, in proportion to the degree of aberration from that equitable line, which so distinctly marks their respective rights and obligations." And as to the terms, he says that 21 years is about a fair term for a lease. His words are — " On the whole, experience has fully demon- strated that short leases, and those whose duration is imcertain, are injurious to improvements, and that a period of about 20 years is a fair term, in an improved country, for all parties, securing to the proprietor the jjrogressive improvement of his land, and a periodical addition to his income, while it rouses the energy of the industrious farmer, from the certainty of his reaping the profit of his labour, skill, and ca])ita], in consequence of his having a certain interest in the soil he cultivates. The suc- cessful practice and experience of Mr. Coke of Norfolk has ])ut this question beyond all doubt, whose rent-roll has been increased, within the memory of man, chiefly by the system of granting judicious leases, from £5,000 to £40,000 per annum, taking into considertUion, at the same time, the rise in the value of money for the last 30 years. A prejudice against the granting of leases, there- fore, if not removed by the good sense of the land- lords, will injure, beyond all calculation, the agriculture of the kingdom. The difference between a lease and no lease, and between a long and a short lease, affects almost every operation that takes place on a farm. Vv'here a regular system of leasing does not exist, not only all improvements are neglected, but a gradual deterioration of the land is the consequence. " It must not be imagined, however, that leases ought to be indiscriminately given : they certainly ought not to be granted but where a farm of a proper size is put into a shape fit for profitable cultivation. The im])rovement of an estate may be retarded, instead of being promoted, if leases are given of ill-arranged occupation.s, and to ignorant, slothful, and needy farmers, not entitled to the confidence of their landlord ; nor ought they to be granted without proper covenants to protect that property from waste." After a variety of other matters of not so much importance, he says, " ' Hence tenants, hke kings,' as Lord Kames remarks, ' ought to be fettered, but not so fettered as to bar improvement, nor left at liberty to do mischief.' Then as to the form of the lease, he discusses this at some length, and he came to the conclusion, with which he (Mr. Lewis) agreed, that there ought to be a certain fixity of tenure, and that there should be certain positive conditions to prevent a tenant doing damage to the land which he occupies. At the Central Club to which he had already referred, there was a great deal of discussion as to the beneficial character of an agreement from year to year between landlord and tenant. A Mr. Jackson thought that upon the whole leases were not so beneficial to the tenant as tenant-right agreements, because the profit in im- provements is made more secure to the tenant by this agreement than even by lease. The value of unexhausted improvements is then received by the tenant, not by the landlord. As to the land with which he (Mr. Lewis) had the honour to be connected, all the agreements were of this nature, and tenants receive all the benefit of unexhau.sted improvements. He might say that tenants never go away ; but if they should chance to go, they are always secured from loss by unexhausted improve- ments ; for these they are allowed full compensa- tion. He (Mr. Lewis) thought that whatever be the terms of tenure, no improvements should be allowed to go on at the end of the terra. The improvements, as they are called, at the end of the term is styled by the tenant preparing the farm for the landlord. Now this kind of im])rovement ought not to be attempted on the part of the tenant, because this is one reason why there is shown such great disinclination on the part of the landlords to grant leases. Wherever they saw lands ignorantly, slovenly, or unskilfully cultivated, they may rest assured that in numerous cases it arises from the absence of security to the tenant that he shall receive the value of his improved labour. Now he submitted that this ought not to be on the part of the landlord, and such jiernicious farmer might easily be prevented by making an allowance to the tenant for the value of all unexhausted improve- ments. He had been talking of the beginning and the end of a lease; but they did not practically know much about this in their neighbourhood ; for leases in this county are, as a rule, granted for a term of life or lives. The most of their county leases are of old date, and were granted toward the latter end of the last century, and were consequent on the rise of agricultural produce during the wars of Napoleon. But this kind of lease for three lives will not again, save under peculiar circum- stances, be granted in the county, for it does not THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. at all conduce to the improvement of the landlord or the tenant. The term of 20 or 21 years seemed to him (Mr. Lewis) to be about the proper duration for a lease; for it is undoubtedly right that the tenant should have returns out of his improvements of the soil three or four times over, and it is but equally fair that the landlord should in his turn be benefited for a similar period. He (Mr. Lewis) had no doubt that if a tenant, during the term of liis first lease, had done justice to the soil, his land- lord would willingly grant him a fresh lease according to the then value of the land. As to leases, the gentleman (Mr. Jackson) from whose speech he had already quoted said that there are some parties who think that a mere verbal agreement is much better than any written document : "There are some 'old-school' farmers who will coolly tell you that they prefer a verbal to the most liberal ' black and white' agreement. Their father, and grandfather, and great grandfather, they will tell you, had no agreement ; and they want none. Of course they do not ; they have no capital in- vested in the improvement of their farm which — come death, or come what will — they fear to lose. Nor are verbal agreements less congenial to the antiquated notions of unimproving landlords. Take the case of the young man full of the desire to make improvements, who asked his landlord for permission to remove some obnoxious hedge-rows, and got the reply, ' Why, my dear sir, I would not have them touched for all the world : I am nearly eighty years of age, and I want to leave my estate as I found it.' " We have, however, many of us found, both as regards landlord and tenant, that this verbal- agreement lease is bad, and it is to be hoped that the system will speedily die out, for there is no good in it. He remembered that in the leases granted towards the end of the last century the old notions of feudal tenure still remained ; they had not died out. Hence the tenant was required to covenant to give his landlord a certain number of fat hens at Christmas, to supply men to do his landlord's work on particular occasions, and other services equally absurd. This only shows what were the notions produced in the minds of the men who drew up these leases, and who, as Sir John Sinclair said, was ignorant of the principles of agriculture. Mr. Baker, of Writtle, Essex, observed at that Central meeting : — " With regard to leases, they were so influenced by custom that they would not suit all districts alike ; but no well-intentioned tenant, who was desirous of investing his capital for the improve- ment of the property and the benefit of his family, would ever consent to take a farm upon a yearly tenancy if he could obtain a lease upon any terms." He further said — " ' The form of farm agreement best calculated togive a stimulus to agricultural improvement' would be that which would give the tenant sufficient interest in the soil to induce him to invest his capital therein — that would give him sufficient time to make a return upon it, so that, at the expiration of his term, he should not feel compelled to withdraw his capital with the knowledge that if he did not withdraw it he would not be paid for it, but that compensation should be secured to him, in propor- tion to the amount of capital he had invested over and above what was invested under the ordinary modes of farming, and over and above what he might have extracted and returned to his own pocket. He (Mr. Baker) should say that that would be best effected by a running lease extended from 10 to 15, 20, or 25 years, and terminable by either party giving to the other five years' notice in writing to that effect ; but no tenure of land should be commenced without a written agreement. Everything should be reduced to writing, which would prevent a vast deal of trouble in the end ; and as the stamps on leases were reduced, there would be no difficulty in effecting it on that account." Now he (Mr. Lewis) thought that any agreement so important as this between landlord and tenant ought to be reduced to writing ; and as to the terms and form of the lease, these ought to be left to be arranged by the owner and the party purposing to occupy. He thought it was impos- sible to make any general rules on this aspect of the question. As long as the landlord and the tenant agreed, they would work together very well ; and if they did not agree, the sooner they parted the better for both of them. As to the question whether it is at all desirable to grant leases, Mr. Mechi observed at the meeting before referred to, that " There were two or three considerations which were suggested by common sense in the discussion of this question. And first, he felt that if he had happened to be a tenant farmer, he would have found himself in a very awkward position, had he introduced his improvements in cultivation without a lease up to a certain period. For it was quite possible that in Essex a man might spend £6 an acre in tile-draining its heavy lands, £5 an acre in chalking, and incur a serious outlay in the improve- ment of roads, the removal of extra fences, and other things which were requisite ; and yet, if he were snatched away by death, or circumstances obliged him to resign the occupation, not a shilling of compensation would be obtainable from either landlord or incoming tenant. Such a state of thiugs as that was in no respect consistent with the encouragement of improvement ; and he thought if custom recognised a certain amount of compen- sation to the outgoing tenant for improvements of a permanent character, it must tend to a larger investment of capital on the part of the tenant. He was well aware that there were good landlords and good tenants, and bad landlords and bad tenants ; but what they wanted was a ' custom of the county' that would so adjust the matter between well- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 507 meaning parties, that each might have a fair and proper interest in the progress of agricultural im- provement. The evidence they had, particularly as to Lincolnshire, showed that that might be accom- plished. But the combination of a fair and moderate valuation of improvements with a lease was, perhaps, the most desirable arrangement that could be made ; and, of course, if custom recog- nised that practice in a particular district, it had in effect the power of a law. At the same time it would not interfere with the general right of individuals to make their own agreements. Prac- tically, at present there was nothing like harmony of action throughout the kingdom ; for while in many parts of the country — in Lincolnshire, Nor- folk, and Bedfordshire — liberal and enlightened arrangements were carried out, in others the whole system was so backward that they were really not in a condition to avail themselves of the improve- ments of the age ; and if an attempt were made suddenly to force upon some miserable districts the high notions and progressive sentiments prevailing in others, the results would be anything but satis- factory. He had often heard landlords complain of the difficulty of getting tenants with capital ; but his answer to that was simply that it was their own fault, and that to obtain men of capital for tenants they should offer them advantages which would compensate them for whatever investments they might make in improving the cultivation of the Boil." He (Mr. Lewis) ought to have said a few minutes before, while speaking of the three-life leases com- mon in Pembrokeshire, that the necessity for them only had arisen from the circumstance that there was a large quantity of undrained, unenclosed land in that county, unfit for farming purposes, with no farm buildings and conveniences. The landlord himself did not feel disposed either to improve the soil or to erect farm buildings, and to do so he gave them three-life leases. He (Mr. Lewis) could fancy that under such untoward circumstances such kind of leases were very desirable, but under no other circumstances whatever. He would now give them a short extract more. The subject they had met to discuss was a most important one, and his reason for reading those extracts was to show what was the opinion of other men — practical men in different counties on this question. If they con- fined themselves exclusively to their own county and its practice, they might rely upon it that they would not very much improve. The last extract he should read was from the speech of Mr. Thomas, of Lidlington, made at the Central Farmers' Club. He said — "That he recognised much truth in the remarks which had just fallen from Mr. Mechi, of Tiptree Hall ; but he did not think the club could take upon itself that evening to lay down a code of rules applicable to every variety of circumstances in the letting of estates. The question had hitherto been argued simply as one of pounds, shillings, and pence— as a question of remuneration for this or that outlay, upon the tenant quitting his farm; and not one word had been said respecting association, where he had invested his capital, where he had formed social and domestic connections, long lived, and had hoped to die. But this he (Mr. Thomas) maintained, that if they wished to have an honest, independent, persevering, wealthy, and intelligent tenantry, they would never obtain them, in the long run, under the system recommended by Mr. Jack- son—that was, a yearly tenure determinable at the will of the landlord or a crusty or bilious agent, even though, on leaving, the tenant had an un- doubted right to claim a money compensation for the outlay he had made in the soil. There were higher and more generous feelings than those which originated in pounds, shillings, and pence, which ought to dictate the arrangements between landlord and tenant. It was not right that the latter should be in continual dread lest he should be turned out, with a present in money, or what he had invested during the last two or three years of his tenancy ; but, before agricultural improvement could be pushed forward at an accelerated pace, mutual good feeJing should be established between proprietor and occupier, and that could only be effected by the former giving such a tenure as would attract the best men to the land, and encourage them to lay out their capital, with the prospect of its being returned to them tenfold. In the remark attributed to the Earl of Leicester, who had observed to one of his tenants that, two or three years before his lease expired, he must begin to think of giving a fresh one, he (Mr. Thomas) recognised a correct principle, and the right of the landlord to improve his rent-roll at the termination of a long lease, during which the land had pro- gressively improved, and farm produce generally had been greatly enhanced in value. He had seen many improvements introduced in the cultivation of the soil, and such an extraordinary increase of stock bred upon it— on the Duke of Bedford's and the Earl of Leicester's estates — as would be sufficient, if universally practised, to banish want from our door, even though we were altogether debarred from foreign supplies. Moreover, in the Lothians, in Berwickshire, and other parts, leases had been literally the initative of good farming; and if they turned to the ' Scottish Husbandry' of Sir John Sinclair, and the ' Journal of the Agri- cultural Society of Scotland,' reported by Stephen- son, they would find cases upon cases where, under a lease of 21 yeais, the tenants drained with their own tiles, and, upon the exi)iration of that lease, took the land for a fresh term of the same duration. Such he knew to be tlie case also on the estate of Lord Leicester, and on the estate of a portion of which he (Mr. Thomas) had the honour to be tenant. He could not, therefore, discard from his mind that, in order to ensure the improved cul- tivation of the land, they must look to a fixed tenure, and the establishment of a generous confi- dence between landlord and tenant. Still, he should be sorry if the club arrived at a decision to- night that long leases were best, because he knew it to be a vexed question, and one that should, therefore, be left open for the present." 608 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINF. With that opinion he (Mr. Lewis) fully coincided ; and having thus fairly introduced these facts to the notice of the Club, he would leave the members to decide on the question as they thought proper and good. Mr. Robertson expressed himself much pleased with the interesting account which had been laid before the meeting by Mr. Lewis, and was in hopes to hear the opinions entertained by the tenant far- mers present. Mr. Lewis had very properly stated what he wished was the practice in their county, and he hoped that that gentleman would advise the owner of the Bush estate, when he came of age, to adopt the practice of giving beneficial leases to the tenants occupying farms upon that estate. As he had said, he hoped the tenant farmers v/ould get up and state their knowledge of the benefits which would accrue from such an alteration in the present method of letting lands, for no remarks upon the subject would be considered at all personal to any gentleman present. He (the speaker) happened to be a tenant upon the Bush estate, and lie believed that if any man had notice to quit, he should be the first man to receive that notice. Tliere was nothing, he was convinced, tended more to the interests of agriculture than leases ; those leases ex- tended themselves over a period of 21 years. He sincerely hoped that some of the gentlemen present would step forward and express themselves upon this important subject ; and although not possessed of the same eloquence as many he saw around him, yet he sincerely hoped that the practice of granting long leases would shortly be put into execution. Let them have proper leases, the landlords would become benefited by the improvement of their lands, and the tenants would at the same time become prosperous farmers. Mr. Williamson would be glad to hear the opinion of the landlords upon the subject as well as the tenants. Mr. Robertson : Yes, I quite agree with you. Mr. G. LoRT Phillips did not intend to take any part in the discussion, for, as he had stated at the last meeting v»'hen the subject was mooted, he did not consider it one fit for discussion at these reunions. He was now more fully convinced than ever by what had fallen from the speakers. If their meetings, which had hitherto been conducted in a friendly spirit, were to be made the arena for bringing forward grievances which might exist between landlords and tenants, all he could say was that their present position would be materially deteriorated. The question was purely a private one between the landlord and his tenants, and therefore he (Mr. Phillips) did not agree in the propriety of its being made a subject for discussion amongst the members of the Perabrcke Club. After referring to the many questions which were involved in the letting of farms, such as delapida- tions, &c., he regretted that landlords did not attend their quarterly meetings in greater numbers, for the tenant farmers were so numerous that they were something like the bull in the China shop — they had it all their own way. He would just ex- plain two or three reasons why it was very undesirable to grant leases. There v/ere many reasons ; but he would not detain the meeting by recapitulating them, but would merely state two or three cases, showing why he objected to Mr. Lewis's views. If the state of the law was always stationary, it might not perhaps so much matter whether they granted leases or not ; but they all knew how the lav/ changed in the course of 21 years. Mr. Phillips, in corroboration of his views, referred to a case where by granting a lease to a tenant the game on the land came into the possession of that tenant, so that he could now warn his landlord off his land if he ventured on it in pursuit of game. Such is the state of the law at this very moment. Another reason against grant- ing leases is that it is a one-sided bargain. The tenant may at any time throw up his bargain, and the landlord may have no reeompence ; but the landlord is tied neck and heels. He might have a very disagreeable and worthless tenant ; but he is nevertheless bound to his bargain, and cannot act as the tenant might under similar circumstances. He thought that the matter could be easily agreed upon, and that it may be as well for the tenant, and much better for the landlord, if he does not grant leases, but remunerates the tenant for his outlay. Mr. Williamson thought this question was of great importance to farm.ers. It is, however, at present only in its infancy, and will . become a prominent one before long. He was very glad to hear the subject so ably opened by Mr. Lewis, and fully agreed with every single word of it ; but Mr. Phillips, it seems, did not agree with him. Now, it is well known that the soil in this county is very badly cultivated ; but on lands well cultivated, tenants will not be kept down as serfs. As the land improves, so does the condition of the tenant improve with it, and then they cannot, as he had said, be kept down. They will improve their position and their means. It is a well-known fact that there is not fair play given to tenants in Wales. Those long leases, to which reference h^id been made, were, he thought, injurious; but he con- tended that there should be some proper fixed tenure for the tenant ; for is it likely that they vv'ill bring the property of other parties into cultivation unless they have some security for the outlay of their own money ? With respect to the terms and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 509 conditions of a lease, he would not tie down tenants by obsolete covenants ; he would give free scope to his capittil and skill. The only thing on which he thought it advisable to bind the tenant was that he should not take two white crops out of the soil successively. Then with respect to farm buildings, they knew how badly off they were for these. lie desired not to say a word against the landlord, because he contended that the interest of landlord and tenant was mutual. If there be buildings already on a farm, of course the tenant would take them with the farm at the full value; but if the landlord subsequently built houses, let the tenant pay him an additional 5 per cent, for his outlay, and then, at the end of 21 years, let a new lease be granted at the then value of the farm. He could not agree with the yearly tenancy question, because it did not give a man fair-play for his capital, and they may rely upon it that no man in his senses will expend his money to improve another man's land, unless he is protected by some kind of lease. Mr. Davidson thought that there could be only iOiie opinion as to the tenants' view of this question. They are ready to take leases for 21 years. Now, the only question is — are the landlords willing to grant these leases ? if so, no more need be said about it : the whole question is at once amicably settled. He was quite willing to take a lease of his farm — will his landlord grant it ? He thought that leases were the best form of tenure both for landlord and tenant; for, as had been said, no man v/ill take a farm and improve that farm to its utmost without a sufficient security for his outlay. The tenant will not lay out his money on his land- lord's property without he has a certainty of being benefited by it : it is not right that he should. Let them go to Scotland, and see the kind of farm- ing there, and where they will not find a single farmer without a lease; and where is land more improved, or where does it yield better, than in Scotland ? There the sysctem of leases works well both for landlord and tenant. They certainly do lay out more capital on their farm.s, because they have more money than farmers down here. There, farms of from three to four hundred acres are occupied by tenants with a capital of from £3,000 to £4,000, and they outlay their money upon their farms l)ecause they are protected !)y lease. Now, this he thought was much better both for landlord and tenant than the system in this neighbourhood, and he could only sa\', in conclusion, that if land- lords will give leases, tenants will take them. -- Mr. Williamson said that there was one thing which fell from Mr. Phillip;-; that he should like to notice. Mr. Phillips had said that a lease is a one- sided thing, because the tenants may throw it up when they like, and there is no remedy, for the tenants are so poor. Now he (Mr. Williamson) thought that it was as bad for tenants to live under a poor landlord, as for landlords to have poor tenants. Mr. Rogers (Middle-hill) said that as Mr. Davidson had justly remarked, there is on this question only one opinion among farmers. Now, he thought that by discussing this subject at one or two such meetings as this, there would be only one opinion amongst landlords. He could men- tion farms on the estate on which he was a tenant, which had been reduced in value by the plan of tenantry quitting them year after year, and now these farms are let to good tenants at a much reduced rent, in order to induce them to bring these farms up to their former value. Now, if these farms had been first let to good tidy tenants under lease, they would have been improved instead of diminished in value. He thought that money was not everything that was wanted in a tenant : they wanted energy and perseverence quite as much as money. He knew a man who took a .'"arm, and all he possessed in the world was 40s. and a horse. He by his energy and industry soon got on and stocked his farm, and at last was compelled to take a larger farm. He soon improved this likewise ; and on his son getting married, he gave up that farm to him, and took a larger one still, and he is now going on well and making money; so that it is not money only v/hich the landlord needs in a tenant ; he wants energy and perseverance in the tenant even as much as money. He himself did not complain of his landlord ; he was very fairly treated ; and he did not say that if he had a lease he should farm the land that he did farm any better; but this he would do, he v.ould reclaim more land — would bring at once some 30 or 40 additional acres into cultivation, and so leave his farm at the end of much more in value. Mr. Clarke, of Bullwell, thought that Mr. Rogers had spoken to the point, and very well, as he always does. Energy and perseverence will doubtless do a great deal ; but it is not every man who can get on with 40s. and a horse. Money is very essential, he thought. They had been some- what theoretical in their discussion ; let them become more practical. He should like to hear from Mr. Williamson how much cajjital a tenant ought to have before a landlord is justified in letting him a lease. Let them leave these exceptional cases of Mr. Rogers, and come to facts. How much capital is requisite ? Is £10 an acre suflicient ? Mr. Williamson said that it was impossible to enter into such details ; these must be left to the parties themselves to decide. There was no doubt but that capital was needed in a tenant; but there is another thing equally wanted, and that is skill. ^1^0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. He would rather let his lands to a man of skill than to a man of money. He thought that £6 an acre would be ample ; but it is impossible to fix any general rule for this, as the capital will vary with the nature and quality of the soil. Mr. Cooper was very much pleased with the manner in which Mr. Lewis had brought the sub- ject forward, and he quite agreed with him in everj'- thing he had advanced. He had seen a great deal of agriculture in England, and some little in Wales ; but in the whole course of his experience he knew of no county which had improved in agriculture under the system of letting from year to year, but he could mention many which had so improved under leases ; he would, however, mention only one instance. At Botley, in Hampshire, there was a large extent of land in a very wretched condition. The lands were apparently valueless; the hedges were down, and the whole thing was entirely neglected. It came into possession of a gentleman, who very wisely let it out upon leases, and now there is not a better-farmed district in England than that. With respect to the question proposed by the gentleman who last spoke, he (Mr. Cooper) would reply that the cajjital of a tenant would necessarily vary with the differences of soil. The expense of farming one kind of soil is much greater than in farming another kind. They must take into consideration whether the farm is heavy or light land, because to farm heavy land would require a heavier stock of horses, and there are many other things to be taken into account before they can say what capital a tenant ought to have. But he would again say that he never, in the whole of his experience, knew a district well farmed where the system of tenancy was from year to year. Con- fidence is wanted, both in the landlord and tenant, and leases give that confidence. Mr. John Sime, of Kilpaison, on rising, said that in his opinion leases were of great advantage to the tenant farmer, and of greater advantage and profit to the landlord. What he had got to say was not merely his own supposition, but a system he had seen working, and giving great satisfaction to landlord and tenant ; that system was a lease of 19 years, the tenant being bound to a rotation of crop- ping. He did not mean to say that there was no better way of letting land ; but he did mean to say that under that system the greater part of the landed proprietors in Scotland had improved their estates considerably, and added very much to their income. It might be considered somewhat difficult for the landlords in that county to lay down a sys- tem of rotation of cropping, the land in general being so intermixed, and the soil varying to a great extent. To surmount this difficulty the landlord should lay down a system on each farm calculated to soil and circumstances. He thought it possible to draw out a lease equally advantageous to landlord and tenant, giving the tenant a chance to go a-head, and at the same time binding him from injuring or running out the farm. Pembrokshire had advantages now which it never had before for farming, that was, a market for all farm produce. In his opinion, if leases were granted, they would act as stimulants to farmers to improve the land, knowing they had security for their outlay. A farmer going on from year to year, and per- haps improving the farm, would think his landlord dealt hard to raise his rent ; but at the end of a 1 9 years' lease, the case would be different : there would be a new taking, and it would be only what every tenant might expect — the land to be let according to its value. The chairman shortly after vacated the chair. THE MORE RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN AGRICULTURE, In contemplating the progress of agi'iculture during the last twenty years, we cannot fail to be struck with its magnitude, and at the same time astonished at the irregular rate of its advance — the rapidity with which some impi'ovements are adopted, and the slow rate at which others make their way. If we may judge by the many quarters in which wc know trials of the steam- plough to have taken place, that would appear to be one of those improvements which, however far removed from perfection at present, and however foreign to existing practices, appears to be tlie favourite innovation. This is the very last thing we should have expected. Then, again, guano is another pet. At the beginning of the period we mention, the difficulty was to persuade farmers to use ic. It appears now to have become an agricultural necessity ; and it would hardly surprise us — such undue importance appears to be attached to it — if some of our friends were to relinquish farming altogether if the guano supply were exhausted or rendered unattainable. At the same time the manures which exist in the sewage of towns are neglected. Liquid manure, we have been told, is a i)retty play- thing, but solid manure is for real farming. Strange as it may sound, this proceeded from one who was the most strenuous advocate of the liquid manure di'ill, and who did not hesitate to declare that it would pay to cart water two miles in order to dissolve guano and superphosphate, and distribute them by the water drill. To what are we to attribute this apparent inconsistency ? Is it that the distribution of liquid manure by under- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 511 ground pipes requires capital, and the liquid manure drill can dispense with it ? If that, however, is the only objection, it is one which may be overcome, as we lately endeavoured to point out. Then, again, it is difftcult to account for the different estimation in which the steam-plough and the reaping machine are held. We have known the former eagerly patronized by those who do not even use that common implement, the steam thrashing machine. We have heard them eulogize its work as being the best ploughing ever done on their land. This was in a district and on a farm where our ears were gladdened by the sound of the flail. Economical or not, as may be, the flail is doomed. The labourers will not use it — they will no longer submit to be poisoned by constantly inhaling the dust of the barn. Wliile the steam thrashing mill, however, meets with such general favour, how is it that the reaping machine makes so little progress? In our humble opinion it is a far greater boon to the farmer than ever the steam-plough will be. And yet what a time has elapsed since the American reaping machine was first exhibited to the British farmer at the Crystal Palace, in Hyde Park! and how little progress has it made ! It involves less expense in the purchase than the steam-plough, and its advantages ai'e less questionable. Like the steam-plough, it requires level lands and large fields, though the latter is not so essen- tial as it is with the steam-plough. Oh ! but then the Koyal Agricultural Society have decided that it has not yet been brought to perfection ! They have come to the same decision with regard to the steam-plough, and yet that does not deter from the use of it on hire, and even the purchase of it. We know districts of level lands and large fields where the reaping machine might be employed with advantage, but where it makes no way. The farmers say, in the districts to which we allude, they can mow their wheat as cheaply as they could reap it by the machine. That, however, is not the question. The great advantage of the reaping machine is the command it gives the farmer over his crop, and the advantage which it enables him to take of a few days of fine weather in our uncertain climate. We have seen farms in districts where they broadshare immediately after harvest, in which it was very evident that enough grain to have seeded the ground had shed, all which might have been saved by the use of the reaping machine. As to its work, the worst work we ever saw performed by any of the reaping machines left far less rakiogs than the best mowing. But there are so many reaping machines, it is said, that the farmers are bewildered in their choice. If wc may judge by a recent challenge from Canada, there is to be one forthcoming which is to be superior to them all. We can only say that the worst of the existing reaping machines would be a great boon to the farmers. Let them, we would say, buy th^m all, and give them a fair trial this harvest, and then make their election between them for general use hereafter. Such pur- chase of all the existing reaping machines would cost less than that of one steam-plough or steam thrashing mill. Such a trial by the farmers of au entire district, through a whole harvest, would be far superior to any verdict pronounced by the judges of any agricultural association. It would not, as we have said, he too expensive an experiment of any of our large farmers, still less for a combination of the farmers of a given district. Let them make trial of all the reaping ma- chines now in existence, and make their election between them. It would be very singular if, among all the difference of opinion which prevails on every agricultural question, the farmers of a whole district should be unanimous in favour of any one ; so that the least favourite implement would have some purchasers, and the cost of the experiment, even cheap as it is, would thus be reduced by the sale of the rejected im- plements. Perhaps, after all, the secret of the slow progress of the reaping machine lies in the dread of its unpopularity with the labourers. That may, as we said on this subject last year, be easily obviated. They may be enlisted on the side of the implement, by agreeing with them for reaping by the acre at the ordi- nary price, and letting them have the use of the machine at a small price per acre. It is also well worthy the consideration of the reaping machine makers, whether it would not be worth their while to appeal to the labourers by sending machines into dis- tricts in which they are not in use, under the direction of a man experienced in their management, letting them on hire to labourers by the aci-e. We shall con- clude, as we concluded on a former occasion, with the statement that in the year of the Crystal Palace Ex- hibition, we knew a farmer holding 250 acres, who reaped his entire crop with it, and declared that he saved more than the purchase-money in one year. He has the same machine in use still. THE MANGEL-WURZEL CROP. I cannot let the present season tor putting in this crop pass without again calling attention to its in- creasing value and importance. The immense crops of the past year have been almost in- valuable during the late cold and most ungenial weather; and as at this period of the year very much of the watery character of the root is dissipated, it becomes a truly valuable and highly nutritive food, an admirable substitute for the early grass, and if cautiously sup- plied to stock on their pastures, is a great aid in pro- moting their fatting. The danger is in permitting either cattle or sheep to partake unreservedly of " mangold" without a corrective in the form of dry food — i. e., hay, straw, corn, nv meal. The wi'iter's ■2 [, 312 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cowri have, in this cold season, suffered severely from voraciously eating these roots on grass, although sup- plied with hay and a warm hovel every night — first looseness, then chilliness, and constipation followed. The cows drove the sheep away, and ate the allowance intended for both. In all and every county or district possessing a toler- ably loamy soil, this crop ought to be extensively culti- vated ; and on soils of truly inferior quality it would be quite right to attempt its culture. The great thing is to acquire a rather deep, loose, and open soil, perhaps the finer the mould the better : this can often be obtained on the most tenacious clays ; but on the very shallow soils, with scarcely an inch above the stone, it should .be attempted. Ridging in some degi-ee might provide a seed-bed, and well-rotted dung, with superphosphate, guano, &c., the power to produce the crop. On these inferior soils the Globe variety is best adapted, and the seed should be chosen from the largest-sized stock known. The rule, however, is the long varieties for a plenteous mould, the Globe varieties for a thin or shallow mould ; so that, should the cultivator succeed in obtaining a good depth of free open soil, he may safely adopt whatever variety he may prefer. In preparing the soil for this crop, I need not again repeat that it should be well and deeply worked till a fine free clean tilth is obtained. In the early part of May the crop should be put in. This should be upon ri('ges twenty-five inches apart, plentifully manured with rich wtil-rotted dung, and rolled down. The seed is best, most advantageously, and most economically put in by the common dibbing irons, thus : The dibber making the requisite holes about twelve to fourteen inches apart along the ridge, is followed by a lad, who deposits at least one good seed in each hole ; another lad follows with a mild mixture of superphosphate and couch, twitch, or turf ashes, and deposits upon the seed about a tablespoonful in each hole, and all is either lightly rolled again, or brushed, or otherwise covered in. The seed, of course, should be steeped twenty-four hours before sowing. I have never known a failure when this system has been carefully pursued ; but when the soil and season have been favourable, the most splendid crops have been the result. One great advan- tage from this plan is owing to the forcing of the young plant by the artificial manure applied (for on some soils superphosphate is not the best aid, and others are adopted with equal benefit), so that it speedily comes to the hoe, which for this crop is of prominent import- ance ; indeed, so important is early hoeing, that it may be desirable to drop in the holes an occasional grain of barley, just to mark the line of holes, so that horse- hoeing may be proceeded with long before the raangel- murzel plants appear to any extent above the surface. A careful hand-hoeing may succeed as soon as the plants are fully developed, because it is the habit or nature of this plant, particularly of the long varieties, to send their roots deeply downwards ; so that no damage will be done by exposing them, but their growth will by the operation be rapidly advanced. The economy in the artificial manure used is very considerable : something less than 1 cwt. of Lawes' su- perphosphate, or similar manure, per acre will suffice. It is not desirable to apply a very strong dressing ; the judg- ment of the farmer will soon decide his course in this re- spect. The liquid manure drill effects a great saving in artificial aids to cropping, but it cannot equal this system if properly carried out, for much depends upon careful mixing in fine particles the manure to be applied : every lump must be broken to powder, and all be nicely sifted through a rather fine sieve. The proportion of ashes should be about from 10 to ! 2 to 1 of superphosphate. The economy in seed is of itself worthy of considera- tion : from 1 J to 2 lbs. of well-grown seed per acre is a good and sufficient seeding, care being taken that the lads do their work properly. My own practice is to employ two dibbers, each working a pair of irons, and as usual walking backwards, carefully making holes of moderate de'ptb, about 12 to 14 inches apart, along the rows. Eight boys follow each dibber, two on each row to drop in the seed, and two to drop in the manure. A deposit of manure, prepared as above, is provided at convenient distances along the work, and is either put into tubs, or in heaps on the ground; a strong lad is in attendance to supply the droppers. In this way the party will put in from three to five acres per day readily. The ridges are highly ma- nured with good fold-yard dung, so that the young plant has an ample supply of rich food at command, as soon as the superphosphate has forced it into growth strong enough to receive it. The addititmal vigour thus imparted speedily places it beyond the reach of harm either from a hot sun, drying winds, or drenching rains, your crop is safe if thus managed. It is a question often put — What provision can be made for stock in the month of April and May, before thegrass is fully ready ? This season has given a decisive reply : Preserve your mangel wurzel ! I repeat, it is an almost invaluable crop, and will bo found so the more it is cul- tivated and its best uses proved. Thousands of tons are now in grave as good in quality — nay, better than when first put in, and if partially uncovered and plenty of air is admitted, wi)l keep so for many weeks to come. Culti- vators in this district always make a reserve for pigs ; and ram-breeders, and others who are desirous to bring up their stock in great perfection, keep a supply during the summer, which is eaten with great relish and benefit. Growers should make this a point in their calculation as to its consumption, and provide for a quantity not to be touched till after some specified time, say 25th March, otherwise all is consumed during the winter or early spring. A portion of the crop should be purposely grown for late consumption, and set apart accordingly in the autumn. The Globe varieties, are perhaps best adapted for keeping, but the long sorts keep exceedingly well. f imt for a. LA iMBms^ 'Emm ELEVATION OF THE LABOURERS LODGING HOUSE. Jjedroom *^ At a^ Discussion at the Central Panmers duL, May 1857. BED ROOM PLAN OF LABOURERS LOOSING HOUSE. GROUND PLAN. W/aiAM CHeFFINS. THE FARMER'S MAGAZIiNE. 513 n ... THE LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. -a^HE BOARDING, LODGING, AND MAINTAINING YEARLY AGRICULTURAL SERVANTS "' THE BEST AND CHEAPEST MODE OF DOING SO. The monthly meeting of the club was held on Monday, May 4, at the Club House, Blackfriars. Among those present were — Mr. Owen Wallis, of Overstone, Northampton, in the chair ; supported by Messrs. J. Marshall, Robert Baker, James Wood, Henry Trethewy, T. Owen, (Rev.) C. T. James, W. Gray, T. W. Granger, W. Cheffins, Spencer Skelton, C. J. Brick- well, J. Cressingham, John Thomas, J.Wood (Croydon), L. A. Coussmaker, H. H. Tatam, F.J.Wilson, Captain Heath, S. Sidney, R. B. Hammond, J. B. Spearing, J. C. JMorton, C. Hall, H, Kail, R. P, Browne, E. B. Acton, T. Hatfield, J. G. King, &c., &c. The subject for discussion — introduced by Mr. J. Marshall, of Riseholme, near Lincoln — was: " The boarding, lodg- ing, and maintaining yearly agricultural servants : the best and cheapest mode of doing so." yji-Aftera few introductory remarks from the Chairman, i Mr. Marshall read the following paper: — Mr, Chairman and Gentlemen, — When in December last I was appealed to, by our secretary, Mr. Corbet, to pro- pose to the committee of the Central Farmers' Club a subject for discussion at one of our monthly meetings, I scarcely anticipated that I should have been selected to appear before you this evening as the originator of that discussion. I am, gentlemen, a perfect stranger to most of you, and altogether unaccustomed to public de- monstrations of any kind, and so far I may be presumed to labour under difficulties which would not apply to many other members of this club. Indeed, I very much regret that it has not fallen to the lot of some one whose peculiar habits and experience would have fitted him far better than myself for the exposition of so important a subject as the boarding, lodging, and maintaining yearly agricultural servants, and the best and cheapest mode of doing so. This would have relieved me of a duty I have somewhat reluctantly undertaken, and which, I fear, it will be found I shall but inadequately perform. I must, therefore, claim your indulgence, and beg of you to bear with me for a short time, and pardon me even should I fail in the attempt to exemplify a system which varies so materially in its customs and bearings in almost every agricultural district in England. Scarcely any two counties, I believe, adopt the same method. I shall now endoavour to explain to you what I consider, and what the experience of past years h=:s proved to me, is the best and cheapest mode of keeping farm servants ; and I will here remark, that in carrying out any system which may be hereafter deemed most desirable, it will in- variably be found that the best plan is in the end the cheapest, and that the cheapest is not always necessarily the best to be adopted. In taking a number of young men into your farmhouse as yearly servants, I consider the greatest difficulty we have to contend against, in the present day, is the deplorable state of ignorance in which we commonly find them. This may be traced in most instances to the entire neglect of an early and useful education, and which I regret to say is rather the rule than the exception among the greater portion of those with whom it has hitherto been my province to come in contact. To this cause I must attribute many, if not most, of their misfortunes, and as a necessary conse- quence, idleness, insolence, and drunkenness, with all their concomitant evils. One great advantage, however, may be said to arise from these yearly hirings, which is this, that it furnishes constant employment, good wages, ample provision, and comfortable lodging : the men have nothing to seek, no legitimate rea- son for absenting themselves at any time for any purpose ; and as they are usually allowed a certain quantity of good sound home-brewed ale day by day, they can have no reasonable excuse for going to a public-house. In all thinly-populated districts espe- cially, I fancy but one opinion can be entertained as to the expediency of the plan I am about to illustrate, by means of which you at once supply yourself with any necessary amount of labour at any time, and to any extent you may desire. So far this is alike advantageous to master and servant. Another great desideratum in hiring these men by the year is that they are always on your premises, early and late, and are responsible for everything that is due to the feeding and care of your farming horses, among which they are expected to spend the whole of their time. In some of the southern, as also in the midland counties, the custom prevails of hiring by the year at a certain sum per week, which is regularly paid every Saturday night, a small deduction, say about 28., being kept in hand to ensure the service to the end of the contract ; the servant in all cases engaging to board and lodge himself at his own expense. This he usually does with the foreman on the farm , who undertakes to supply him with bread, meat, milk, and vegetables, at a fair market price; but which is, 1 believe, very generally considerably exceeded, and, in the majority of cases, very badly carried out, and great imposition practised. In addition to the cost of pro- vision, Is. 6d. per week is charged for lodging and cooking ; no beer whatever is allowed, except during the time of hay and harvest, when four pints per day are commonly given. The greater portion of the ser- vant's wages is thus absorbed, or spent in some less creditable manner ; and the only accumulation he can boast of, at the end of the year, is that of the 2s. per week retained in his master's hands, and which he will require for the purchase of clothes, shoes, &c., leaving little w 2 i 2 6U THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. nothing as a fund for the savings' bank, to fall back upon when his iucrcased expenses or infirmity of any kind may render it necessary that he should avail him- self of what he may have been able to save out of his wages in his early life. Tn some of the northern counties, and also in North Lincolnshire, with which I am more immediately connected, it is the custom to employ a large number of unmarried servant-men and lads, who are regularly hired by the year at the various statutes held in the district for that purpose, from Old May-day to Old May-day. At the present time wages vary from £b for lads who can plough and go with horses, to £20 for head w-ggoners, who are also drill men, and stack during harvest. Some few years since (I believe in 1849) Mr. Acland was good enough to favour the public, through the medium of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, with Mr. So- theron's method of boarding and lodging his farm servants : our plan here differs but little from it, and it is now generally adopted throughout the agricul- tural part of the county ; and, taken as a whole, is perhaps in principle as little open to objection as it can ■well be. On a farm of 500 acres of turnip land it is cus- tomary here to work about 14 horses, for which five farm servants, under the superintendence and control of a married foreman, with whom they reside, are considered sufficient. The first and second waggoner are wholly employed from four o'clock in the morning until eight in the evening in feeding, and in the care of seven horses each, whilst the three younger are in the morning, till half-past five (when they go to breakfast), assisting in cleaning and gearing them for their day's work, which they commence at six, and discontinue at three o'clock, when they dine. After dinner, these three lads, with a 10/. 'Richmond and Chandler' chaff machine, improved by ' Simpson,' of Lincoln, cut what chaff the 14 horses require, and which they are generally able to accomplish between four and six o'clock in the afternoon. Our horses here are commonly fed on cut oatsheaves, of v?hich they consume about 361b. or 401b. per day, con- taining probably about 121b. of oats of an 8-quarter crop per acre, or nearly three stones per horse. As the lads can cut (two turning and one feeding) nearly 30 stones per hour, no difficulty whatever is felt in getting 42 stones in two hours. In addition to this allowance, IJ stone of bran and 1 J- stone of split beans are given weekly to each horse, without any rack meat or other provender whatever. The foreman with whom these men reside is of course a responsible person, and undertakes to provide them with everything that is requisite as far as board and lodging are concerned. He also sees that they do their duty during the week, and that they invariably go to church with him on a Sunday once at least. In the parish of Riseholme, in which I reside, they have also the kindly assistance of the rector one evening during the week, who teaches them to write, explains to them the Scriptures, and lays down a course of duty for their , guidance and adoption. This has the very best possible effect : it teaches them self-respect, and softens their J naturally rough, uncouth manners, and is in the end conducive in every way to the best and happiest results. An ample house, and garden for vegetables, are provided rent free ; £50 a-year in wages is given to the foreman, who has also the produce of two cows for five, or one cow for three men ; 26 stones of bacon (i.e., a fat pig weighing 26 stones) for himself, and 26 stones for each of his men ; he has further 40 stones of flour, 20 of best seconds for puddings and pies, and 20 best thirds for bread for each man, one quarter of malt for himself and the harvest men, and one sack for each man-servant (equivalent to one pint per day and four in harvest). He brews himself, and has five tons of coals for the year's consumption ; he finds candles for the stables and chafF-house, when required ; and has Is. per day for all casual boarders, such as additional harvest men, black- smiths, carpenters, &c., who work by the day, and have their board. The men have three meals per day. For breakfast hot bread-and-milk, and cold meat; for dinner, hot meat, pies and puddings, vegetables, and one pint of ale; for supper hot meat, bread and milk, or pea soup. By this means they have always meat three times a day, milk twice, and beer once. They pay for their own washing, and are allowed an interlude of three or four days as a holiday at some fitting period during the year, which always expires on the 13th of May. I believe the quantity of bacon allowed is always consumed, but the flour is a little above what is re- quired. The ordinary consumption of a man, his wife, a servant maid, and five men, usually averages about 30 stones for each person per annum. The annual ex- penses of their board and wages may be set down as follows : Foreman's wages £30 0 0 26 stones of bacon, at 73 9 2 0 1 quarter of malt 3 12 0 2 cows, at 33. 6d. each per week 18 4 0 130 stones of bacon, for five men, at 79. .. .. 45 10 0 200 stones of flour at 23 20 0 0 5 sacks of malt at 9s 9 00 5 tons of coals at 12s 300 2 waggoners' wages at £12 ., 24 0 0 2 middle men at £10 20 0 G lboyat£6 6 0 0 £188 8 0 In addition to the above, the foreman's wife shares largely in the profits of this system, inasmuch as she has the butter and superfluous milk from two cows to dis- pose of, valued at £20 to £25 per annum ; the pri- vilege of raising poultry of every description, and gathering eggs. For these she receives a certain price per couple and per score, out of which she pays her maid servant, and retains the residue as her own per- quisite in return for her vigilance and labour. Upon her good management very much depend the comfort and well-being of the whole establishment. These items amount to £188 8s. for six men, namely, one foreman and five farm servants, the yearly average for each being £31 8s., or within a very trifling sum of 12g. per week. Now, if it be taken into consideration that the ordinary wages of a daily labourer (whose day begins at six o'clock in the morning, and finishes at six o'clock in the evening) are 15s. per week, exclusive of a very considerable increase during harvest, I think THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 515 it must in justice be conceded to me that I have at least pointed out to you not only a far cheaper, but in every other respect a far better plan ; such a one as, moreover, may at any time be made available in any county, or in any locality, and one that is equally advantageous to master and servant. It has, too, the acknowledged authority of one of the largest and best cultivated districts in England to confirm its practical utility, and to warrant its more general adoption. Mr. Cheffins (of Moorgate Street) said : I seldom tnke part in the discussions, because I feel that an effective participation in them requires a practical knowledge of the subjects brought before us ; and as these generally refer either to the theory or practice of agriculture, I prefer to listen to those whose greater experience entitles them to our attention. On this oc- casion, however, I am better qualified to express an opinion on the subject on the card for this evening's consideration. I shall not look at it from that point of view which Mr. Marshall has so well explained ; but, feeling a deep interest in the well-being of the labourer, a feeling nourished and strengthened by many years' experience of his wants and habits, I propose to submit to the notice of the Club a few remarks on that special phase of the labourer's life, the Lodging-house, which has of late attracted public attention, partly from its comparative novelty, and partly from a conviction that much good may be done by these means. Apart from the model lodging-houses in London, Glasgow, and other large towns, which, however well adapted for handicraftsmen and mechanics, do not find much favour with our country labourers, I find that Mr. Beckett Denison, in January, 1852, published in the Mark Lane Express the detailed workings of a lodging- house for single men in Leeds, which certainly exhi- bited very favourable results, though I suspect that the agricultural element formed but a small part of the suc- cess there shown. Mr. Spearing, in his lecture in November last, spoke of an establishment near Bristol, I think, which seemed to approach nearer to what was required; and last year I observed that a lodging-house was opened at Parndon, in Essex, which was built -under Mr. Clark, the diocesan architect. Since then the Rev. John Bramston, of Witham, has opened a labourer's home at that place, which is fully described in the Chelmsford Chronicle, of January 23, in the present year. The Mark Lane Express of the same week has also a telling article on this subject. I have written to Mr. Bramston for the results of his under- taking, and before I sit down I will read you his kind and polite reply. In contributing, then, towards this desirable work, I shall not so much urge the establishing lodging-houses upon philanthropic grounds, but will approach it from a lower height, viz., that of self- interest ; and divesting it still further of the advantages which must and will arise from the improved habits, and consequently increased value of the labourer, I propose to show that even as a speculation and investment, it is a safe o.ie ; and I hope to prove to the satisfaction of the Club that any proprietor or occupier of land, who has six or eight single labourers in his employ, can greatly improve their domestic comfort, and materially advance their moral elevation, not only at a certain mo- derate cost, but with a safe and sufficient return for the capital invested in such a praiseworthy undertaking. I have, therefore, prepared a sketch of a building, which can be put up on any convenient spot, either on or near the farm or in the village. A small barn or a good-sized cottage, if available, might be altered to answer the pur- pose, but I prefer now to describe a building which is specially designed for a " labourer's lodging-house." This plan takes up the common type of a cottage, either in a town or village, as containing two upper and two lower-rooms, to which is added a ground-floor wing on either side, to contain three single beds. The dimensions correspond pretty closely with those usually found in cottages, but the arrangements are slightly varied, to meet the peculiar requirements of the case. The plan provides for the accommodation for six or eight single men as lodgers, under the care of a steady labourer and his wife, to whom they will pay a weekly sum for washing, mending, cooking, &c., in addition to the weekly rent of Is. or Is. 6d., as shall be fixed by the proprietor. On entering the house, there is a closet on one side for such lighter tools and implements as a la- bourer will naturally keep in his own charge, and on the other side a similar closet for outer coats and garments, leggings, boots, &c. The room is lighted by a window on each side the front door, and is warmed by a cottage range with oven and boiler ; a large closet fills up one side of the fire-place, and fixed and moveable seats, a plain strong table, a clock, and a few bookshelves com- plete the furnishing of the room. On either side is a door opening into a bed-room with boarded floor, well-lighted and ventilated, containing three single iron bedsteads, with plain but sufficient bedding, and a closet for clothes, apportioned to each lodger. The washhouse has a fire- place for wood, a sink and dresser, and a set of lockers for food, &c., one for each lodger. The wood and coal- house might be entered under the stairs, and part of it could be used by the master as a storeroom for table- beer, potatoes, and other articles, which he might supply to the lodgers. The front bed-room is exclusively for the master and mistress, and is sufficiently large to allow a small room to be enclosed from it for children if necessary. The back room contains two beds, and can be kept as the "sick-room," and when not so required can accommodate two additional lodgers or two mechanics or artificers, who would gladly prefer a lodging like that to the more expensive one at the public house or beer-shop. In the yard are two open sheds, with washing sink, privy, &c. ; these sheds may be used for recreation, bowls, smoking, or any oc- cupation which the lodgers may choose for their leisure. A garden, not exceeding 20 perches in extent, should, if possible, be attached to the lodging-house ; it would probably be cultivated by the lodgers, who would share in its produce in return for their labour. I shall not touch upon the rules and regulations, or system of management ot a lodging-house, because these must vary according to circupMtances ; and the experience of ] o .i:r^,ii , ,j , '^i-jyy 111 jfvooljxio? 316 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. those who have had the control of the few which are siie&dy established will, I am sure, be cheerfully im- parted to others, who may wish to advance with them in this desirable work. Having briefly enumerated the accommodations of our lodging-house, I will now speak of the most important part of my subject — the cost of erecting and furnishing the same, according to the plan and foregoing description. I have gone carefully into the details, and find that, from an average of prices in different districts — The building will cost about, iucludmg sinks, cisterns, stoves, &c £170 0 0 To furnish the house with eight iron bedsteads and bedding, tables, chairs, forms and seats, shelves, cloclf, the necessary crockery and cook- ing utensils — everything, in short, except for the master's bed-room, will cost about 40 0 0 Making a total of £210 0 0 The annual expenses of the establishment may be esti- mated as — Rent for the 20 perches of ground for the site of the house and garden £ 0 10 0 Interest at 8 per cent, on £170 13 12 0 Ditto at 10 per cent, on £40 0 8 0 £14 10 0 The annual income to be derived from eightlodgers and the master, at Is. per week each, is £23 8 0 This is assuming an extreme case, that every bed would be occupied for every week during the year ; but we shall allow, I think, an ample margin if we anticipate that five beds out of the eight, besides the master's, will, after the first year, produce the weekly shilling, and this will make a rental of ^£"15, and so provide for the annual expenses. In some cases Is. 6d. per week may be readily charged ; and if the home be a private one, as it were, and confined to the labourers on a farm or estate, no diflficulty need be found in making it, not only self- supporting, but also, as it ought to be, sufficiently remunerative for the capital invested in it. I will now read the letter of Mr. Bramston, to which I have already alluded : — " Dear Sir,— I am sorry that I cannot yet give 3'ou any results : the house was only opened in February, and I have at present only three lodgers ; but I did not expect to fill up my rooms except by slow degrees. I have room for eleven beds, and were I to obtain eight or nine lodgers, the lodging-house would be self-supporting. Those who have lodged at the house express themselves perfectly satisfied, and in truth they could not get the same comfort elsewhere for the same money ; but lodgings at the public- houses have attractions still which I cannot ofter, and the poor people, thougli they have not decent accommodation even for the members of their own family, do not like to give up a lodger who helps them to make up their rent. " I think that in most cases a person who sets up a lodging-house must be prepared for the first year or two to be out of pocket ; but after that, I am of opinion that the thing would pay itself. " I am sorry that I cannot give you more information. I enclose our very simple rules ; and I can onlj' hope that your discussion may lead to the more general experiment of lodging-houses for young men, whicli everybody must acknowledge are really wanted, if the character of our working population, male and female, is to be improved. " I am sorry I shall not be able to be in London to listen to your discussion, and am much obliged to you for your invitation to be present. " I am, dear sir, yours faithfully, " WIthani, April 25," •' .luiiN Bramston, Mr. Cheffins also read the rules of the Chipping Hill Lodging-house, established to provide comfortable lodgings for respectable single day labourers ; namely, a separate bed for each lodger, and a common room for all. The main provisions were that no lodger could be admitted for a less period than one month ; that the house should be locked up at, and that no admission should be obtained after, a quarter to ten o'clock at night ; that the charge to each lodger for bed, fire, and light, should be a shilling a week, or 3s. 9d. a month, paid in advance ; that drunkenness and disorderly conduct should be followed by immediate expulsion, and that no person be admitted as a lodger without the permission of the Rev. Mr. Bramston, or continue as a lodger if that permission were withdrawn. Mr. Cheffins then continued : Although I have alluded to the moral advancement and mental improvement of the labourer as the certain result of a well- ordered lodging-house, I do not propose to enter into the means by which they are to be effected, nor shall I mention the many inducements which may lead the young labourer to prefer the lodging-house, as 1 have described it, to the deep-rooted allurem.ents of the public-house and beer-shop. These higher motives I leave to abler advocates ; but I am at the same time fully convinced that, where the attempt is made in earnest, ample and judicious assistance will readily be found, and I cannot for a moment doubt, if you can offer to the single labourer or mechanic a clean and separate bed, a warm fireside, with such sources of amusement and improvement as his tastes may incline to, at a cost not exceeding, but below, what he must pay for inferior comfort elsewhere, that he will hesitate to choose that home which will best secure both his present and future welfare. Gentlemen, I fear I have wearied you with so much detail, and I will only detain you by this concluding remark, that I will most cor- dially give my aid in assisting, by plans or otherwise, any member of this club, who may wish to establish a labourer's lodging-house. Mr. Tatam (of Moultan, Spalding,) could not un- m derstand how cows were to be provided for at 3s. 6d. a- I week. Mr. Marshall. — They would not cost 3s. 6J.a week in summer on grass : that Mr. Tatam must concede. Mr. Tatam. — How much less in such a season as during the last two or three weeks ? In your district ^ you would have very little grass, and they would not be " provided with it in a way to satisfy your foreman. Mr. Marshall. — It would be a half-crown in sum- mer, and 4s. 6d. in winter, giving an average of 3s. 6d. Mr. Tatam. — How much cake do you give ? Mr. Marshall. — Three pounds a day, with barley, oats, straw, and turnips ; unless you can keep them cheaper than that. Mr. Tatam. — No, I can't keep them so cheap. Mr. R. Baker (of Writtle), having briefly alluded to the able manner in which Mr. Marshall had treated the subject, said he was sure that if a system which had proved so beneficial in that gentleman's district could be intro- ducod into others, vast advantage must accrue to the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 517 labouring classes. But, unfortunately, old habits and customs were not easily eradicated, and to endeavour to introduce it into Essex, for instance, would be a mott difficult matter, even if the attempt were made by gen- tlemen as independent and persevering as his ueiglibour, Mr, Bramston. Some years ago Mr. Fortescue, a gen- tleman well-known in Essex, made the attempt on a farm at Southminster, where labour was very scarce. He went to great expense in erecting a lodging-house, much upon the principles described by Mr. Cheffins; but, though there was a lack of lodging-house accom- modation in the district, and every indacement was held out to the labourers, the experiment was altogether un- successful, and at this moment, upon the farm of North Wick, in Southminster, in the occupation of Mr. John Kemp, the lodging-houses were totally useless, and he anticipated a similar result with those of Mr. Bramston. In his (Mr. Baker's) district there was an abundance of la- bour at all times except during the harvest months. In the district of the Chairman, on the other hand (Northamp- tonshire), there was a deficiency of labour ; and it be- came necessary to hold out inducements to obtain la- bourers to carry on the cultivation . Wherever that was the case, the labourers would be sure to be benefited to a considerable extent by receiving better wages. But having heard the statement of Mr. Marshall, it would appear that in Essex the farmers were paying a larger sum to their labourers than was paid in Lincolnshire, where the advantages enjoyed by the labourers were so much greater ; £31 8s. a-year seemed to cover the whole expense of a labouring man in Lincolnshire, whereas he (Mr. Baker) could not make out that his labourers cost him less than from £35 to £37 on an average. He made his calculations thus : — £ s. d. 48 weeks at lis 26 S 0 4 weeks in the harvest and hay season . . 6 0 0 Beer for 48 weeks 1 16 0 Beer in the harvest and hay season .... 1 0 0 Total £35 4 0 Horsekeepers, in Essex, were generally paid from Is. to 2s. a week more than the ordinary men, either in money or rent, besides having other advantages which he had not enumerated. He (Mr. Baker) paid them 12s. a week for 48 weeks ; they also got £6 for the harvest and hay season ; and this, with £2 16s. for beer, brought their wages to £'37 10s. But, though he was paying more to his labourers than was paid to labourers in Mr. Marshall's district, he presumed the latter were better off, managed in the way they were, at £^31 88. than iu Essex at £37 10s. The difficulty would be to introduce the system into Essex. Mr. Bramston had laid it down as one of his rules that all the men should be in the lodging-house by a quarter to ten o'clock. Such a regulation, he believed, it would be impossible to carry out ; indeed, he remembered his own father giving up the system of boarding his servants on that very account. Old Marshall, who wrote in the year 1775, and was a farmer in Surrey, kept his farm- ing minutes for every day in the year ; and on various occasions he found him breaking out on the drunken- ness, ignorance, and carelessness of his labourers, and the great difficulty he had in managing them, espe- cially at night. He mentioned one particular occasion of their coming home half-iutoxicated, turning the v.crl^ing oxen into a field of clover, and upon rising in the morning, and finding that two or three of the oxen had died from the quantity of clover they had eaten. Most bitterly, and with good reason, did he ejaculate, " O, Ignorance, thou pander to ill luck ! " What happened then was happening now. He (Mr. Baker) did not think we had advanced one jot in improved ma- nagement of our labourers from that time to the pre- sent. In many districts where labour was abundant, advantage had been taken of it to reduce wages to the lowest minimum point ; and there the labourers were not nearly so well off" as at the period when Marshall wrote. For his own part, he could not take upon him- self to suggest anything, upon a general principle, that was calculated to improve the position of the labourer, except that he should have constant and regular em- ployment upon the farm ; that he should not be turned adrift when his services were not absolutely required, and be put on again when they could not do without him ; that every labourer should receive proper en- couragement in his work ; and that the practice of paying a uniform rate of wages to all alike should be done away with, for some labourers were worth half as much again as others, and the payment of all alike tended rather to encourage idleness and the bad execution of work (Hear, hear). A Member : How can you avoid it under the pre- sent system ? Mr. Baker : You can avoid it if you choose. Every labourer should have the opportunity aff'orded him of occupying a sufficient quantity of garden ground near his dwelling, into which he might put his surplus labour, as a sort of savings bank, to fall back upon at the end of the year (Hear, hear). That was a point of essential importance (Hear, hear). But he would take care that there should be due regulations for the management of the ground, that it should be cultivated on the gardening system, not for the growth of corn, so that the man's labour should be turned to the best account. Good home-brewed beer too, however weak it might b^, was in his opinion exceedingly beneficial to the labourer, and should be supplied to him on the farm wl are he worked. He allowed his men from four pints of table- beer a day, every day in the year that they worked for him, and this could be done for the low sum of 9d. a week ! (a laugh.) In harvest time he gave them six pints of good ale per day, with as miich table-beer as they liked to drink. That perhaps was somewhat in excess, but it was an old custom, and one that was diffi- cult to break through. He could only further say that the more encouragement the farmers gave to a well- conducted class of labourers the better it would be for themselves ; for upon every farm he could tell what the management was by a glance, first at the labourers and next at the horses (Hear, hear). Mr. Brown (of Great Hallingbury, Bishop's Stort- ford) considered it cf the utmost importance that 518 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bti. farmers should devote 'fridfe attention than they had done to the welfare of their labourers. In the county of Essex the labouring population exhibited an amount of poverty and crinae, v?hich contrasted very unfavourably with the state of things in Lincolnshire as described by Mr. Marshall, where the men were much better cared for. In the latter county, labouring men, besides being paid 15s. or 16s. a week, worked for a long period under the same masters, and there was the best understanding between employers and employed. One effect of this sympathy was to excite a desire for improvemei.t and emulation in the minds of the best class of men ; and he was informed that in many of the cottages the occu- pant was found to be desirous of taking a larger holding of garden ground. He hoped to see a better state of things extended to other counties. The Rev. C. T. James (of Devonshire) observed, that the system which had been brought under their notice that evening was one which did not generally prevail in English counties. The boarding, lodging, and maintaining of agricultural labourers was necessarily confined to those parts of England in which employment was abundant and labour comparatively scarce ; and in those districts it was exceedingly important that every effort should be made to cement good feeling between labourers and their employers, lest the former should be induced to emigrate. In looking over a Lincolnshire paper last week, he was struck with the remark, that at the hiring fairs which prevailed in that county the attendance of labourers was now much smaller than it used to be ; and in the same paper he found a statement that a large number of labourers were emigrating from Lincolnshire to our colonial possessions. He would have been glad if Mr. Marshall had explained why there should be so much emigration when there was such a good feeling between master and men. There was one part of the system described by Mr. Marshall which appeared to him objectionable ; he referred to the statement that 4s. was paid to the foreman for the maintenance of each of the young men. He was not surprised that it did not work well. That arrangement appeared to him to partake of the character of the truck system — a system which, wherever it prevailed in any degree, was injurious to the position of the labourer, and unsatisfac- tory to all who were interested in his welfare (Hear, hear). With regard to the excellent remarks of Mr. ChefBns, he must observe that in his opinion there should never be a labourer's house erected without three sleeping apartments being provided. In the existing lodging-houses there was a great deficiency in the pro- vision for cases cl Broraet, William Rhodes, Cocksford, Tadcaster, Yorks the part of William Astbury, J the Society. Mr. W. F. HoBBS observed that in the amount just presented the receipts of the Chelmsford Meeting were stated to have amounted to i,'3,261, and the payments to £5,212. He hoped it would not go abroad that that was the real state, of the case, as j^l, 200 was received independently of what was mentioned. Mr. Barker said, the statement presented was a statement of the Society's accounts for the half year. Mr. IIoBBS only wished to point out that it was not a completed debtor and creditor account as regarded the Chelmsford Meeting. Mr. Barker remarked that that would be obtained when the amounts of the two half-years were put together. Mr. HoBBS said, as the amount stood the Chelms- ford Meeting appeared to have involved a great loss, but that was not the case. The account did not show the balance of the receipts and the expenditure at Chelms- ford. The Chairman: Oh, no; it is only the half-year's account. On the motion of Lord Berners, thanks were voted to the auditors— Mr. G. R. Barker, Mr. Dyer, and Mr. Astbury — for their services. Mr. W. Astbury, in returning thanks, said the auditors had every facility afforded to them by Mr. Hudson in the discharge of their duties ; and so excel- lent was the system of accounts adopted by the Finance Committee, that their task was, in fact, a very easy one. The Chairman said, the formal business having been disposed of, he wished to know whether any Member had any suggestion to make, which he desired to have reported to the Council. It had been remarked else- where that the Society might be much improved ; and, as that was the* proper time for suggesting improve- ments, he hoped the opportunity would not be lost. He was confident that any suggestions of a u'seful character would be taken into careful consideration by the Council. Mr. Frere said he would call the attention of the Council to what he conceived to be one of the wants of the Society. The report mentioned a lecture delivered by Mr. Henfrey as having been of great advantage to the Society. Though the Society had an honorary Professor of Veterinary Surgery, and honorary professors of several other branches of science, it had no honorary Professor of Botany ; and, considering that there were such men as Hooker, Lindley, and Henfrey available, it appeared to him very extraordinary that the first agricultural society in the three kingdoms should have no one to whom it could refer when it wished for infor- mation with regard to the habits of a weed, or with regard to varieties in the formation of a flower, or with regard to the fruit of a plant. He would therefore suggest to the Council the necessity of the Society's having a consulting botanist, who might, as the occasion arose, be consulted in such matters. The Chairman observed that at the period of the 540 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. early history of the Society its publications contained a good deal of matter relating to the weeds which infest corn crops, and the habits of weeds in general. He questioned whether the appointment of a professor of botany would now confer any great advantage on the Society. While they had a veterinary professor and a chemical jirofessor, the Council had not been unmindful of botany. The contents of the Society's Journal were interspersed with papers on botanical subjects, and the committee who conducted the Journal would, he was sure, be delighted if Mr. Frere or any other gentleman would communicate to them the result of any botanical investigations which were at all likely to be serviceable to agriculture. The Rev. T. C. James said, as they were met there not to offer compliments, but to endeavour to promote the interests of the Society, he must congratulate the meeting on the infusion of new blood into the Council — a step which he believed would be gratifying to the mem- bers at large, and conducive to the benefit of agiiculture (Hear, hear). With regard to the judges, he must ex- press a hope that they would not ag dn hear of the same gentlemen acting as judges both of short-wools and of long-wools — of cart-horses and thorough-bred horses. One of the public newspapers once said of the Society that it was not advancing, either in numbers, in wealth, or in intelligence ; and that it was altogether in a torpid state. As regarded numbers, he was happy to find that it was now in an improved position, and ho trusted that such would be the aclivity and energy of its managers and members, that it would rapidly increase in intelligence and in practical usefulness. Lord Berners begged to propose that the best thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Miles, for his conduct in the chair. Mr. HoBBS said, before that motion was put, there was a most important subject relating to the next meet- ing to be brought forward, he believed, by the Mayor of Salisbury ; or, if that gentleman declined to intro- duce it, he should be happy to do so himself. Mr. Pain, Mayor of Salisbury, said he wished to suggest that the prize-list for the stock at the Salisbury Meeting should be advertised immediately in the three agricultural papers, and that placards announcing the meeting itself should be posted at the different railway stations in the district. For the last two or three weeks, he had had almost daily inquiries from the farmers in the vicinity of Salisbury, as to when the prize-list would be published. Mr. Hudson had kindly forwarded to him several prize-lists to distribute, and he had disposed of them in that manner ; but there were other districts in which there was no one to take upon himself that office, and he thought the interest of the Society re- quired that the list should be widely diffused. He had no wish to speak with anything like disrespect of farmers ; but they all knew how quiet and easy they were in reference to such matters (laughter), and how apt they were to put off everything till the last moment. Hence the necessity of reminding them, by the publica- tion of the ])rize-list, that the 1st of June was the last day for making entries. He should take an early opportunity of moving in the Council that, next year, the prize-list should be circulated at as early a period as was practicable. It should be recollected that the prize-lists issued from that place did not reach farmers who were not members ; and he was anxious that it should go forth to the agricultural community generally that there was to be a meeting at Salisbury, and that certain classes of animals would be exhibited. Mr. W. F. HoBBS entirely concurred in the remark of Mr. Pain as to the importance of making it generally known as early as possible that no animals could be en- tered for exhibition after the 1st of June. Many gen- tlemen might not be aware that a serious loss occurred at Chelmsford in consequence of very few days being allowed to intending exhibitors to produce their certifi- cates, and he thought in future there ought to be great exertions made to ensure early and extensive publicity. Last year, and in the previous one, long before the Ex- hibition at Paris, there were placards and advertise- ments, and lists of prizes, circulated about the continent and in England respecting the approaching show ; and he thought that example was worthy of imitation. Last autumn an arrangement was made in the Council that the prize list should be prepared early enough to appear in the Journal on the 1st of January, but that arrange- ment was not carried'out. He trusted that the sugges- tion now made by Mr. Pain would be adopted by the Council, and that everything that was practicable would be done to ensure the requisite publicity. As regarded placards, he himself offered, last year, to pay a portion of the expense of letting the public know when, and where, the meeting was to take place. He believed that at the Windsor Meeting a very serious loss was incurred in consequence of the inhabitants of the metropolis not having been duly informed. He felt warmly on this subject, and had felt it his duty to bring it before the meeting. It was not to be expected that, in a Council consisting of fifty members, there should be no differ- ence of opinion. Mr. R. Barker did not agree with Mr. Hobbs that the Windsor Meeting suffered for want of publicity. Sir J. Shelley, M.P., said, though he admitted that the subject introduced by Mr. Pain was worthy of con- sideration, he must say he thought it would have been better to bring it before the Council than to introduce it before a general meeting of members. In such matters as these the Council were bound to pay some attention to the question of expense ; and advertising at railway- stations could not take place without a large outlay. The great object of the Council was to make the Society popular with the members, and at the same time to show the public that, by becoming members, they would secure advantages which they could not otherwise possess (Hear, hear). The question for the Council was how they could spend the money of the Society with the greatest advantage to the Society itself. He must pro- test against the notion that there was any desire on their part to prevent the utmost publicity with regard to the meetings. Having been a member of the Council for many years, he had never seen anything that evinced a desire to crush publicity, if he might use such an ex- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 541 pression, with regard to the prize-lists ; and he believed it was the desire of all to render the meeting as popular as possible, though they must, at the same time, take into account the question of expense. Mr. Pain said he had always understood that in such matters advertisements paid for themselves ; and as to the expense of publicity at railway stations, there was no railway company in the lungdora that would not gladly allow placards to be exhibited for such a purpose. Mr. W. F. HoBBS felt bound to say, in allusion to the remarks of the hon. Baronet who had just spoken (Sir J. Shelley), that in November last he (Mr. Hobbs) pro- posed to the Council that the prize- sheet should be arranged early, in order that it might appear in the Journal on the 1st of January. He made that proposal in consequence of what occurred at the Clielmsford Meeting, and he trusted that in future it would always be published at that period. Mr. A. Hamond did not think there could be much difficulty in the case. Everyone knew the Derby Day, and if he had got a horse that was likely to win, he would take care to enter him for the race. In like man- ner, anyone who had a good animal to exhibit, would take care to place him where he was most likely to win (Hear, hear). Mr. Hudson, the Secretary, ?aid that advertise- ments had been sent to a great number of newspapers in the West of England, stating that prize-sheets could be had on application to himself. He was happy to be able to add that the applications in the case of imple- ments were as numerous as on any previous occasion, and that in the case of stock they were in such abun- dance every morning, that it was almost impossible to answer them. The subject then dropped, and Lord Berxers, after expressing his gratification at the interest which had been manifested in it, renewed his motion for a vote of thanks to the Chairman, observing that the hon. gentleman had on many occasions con- tributed greatly to the prosperity of the Society. Sir J. Shelley, in seconding the motion, said his hon. friend had acted with himself on many occasions in the show-yard, and had always evinced the greatest anxiety for the welfare of the Society. The motion having been put by Lord Berners, and carried by acclamation, The Chairman said, he regretted exceedinglythat the Speaker of the House of Commons was, owing to circumstances over which he had no control, unable to be present on that occasion ; and he was sure that, had the right hon. gentleman been present, he would not only have returned thanks for the kindness evinced towards him during the time that he had filled the office of President, but would also have expressed his regret at the impossibiUty of his being present at the approach- ing meeting at Salisbury. Though that was not the proper time for returning thanks to the President for his services, he trusted that he might be allowed to address a letter to him, stating how deeply the Society regretted that he could not now take part in their proceedings, and at the same time alluding to the benefit which he had conferred on the agriculture both of this country, and of France (Hear, hear). Mr. Denison was the chief instru- ment in obtaining an alleviation of the French tariff with regard to the importation of agricultural implements which was made some months ago, and the consequence of which had been the introduction of many of our best implements into that country — a result which, while it must be very beneficial to the agriculture of France, which stood greatly in need of such an importation, must be profitable to those implement-makers to whom that Society, and agriculturists generally, were so much in- debted. He had to congratulate the meeting on a fact which had been announced at that meeting, namely, an increase of numbers ; and, notwithstanding some gloomy reports which he had seen in the newspapers and else- where, that instead of progressing the Society was rather retrograding, he thought the list of Members showed that it stood well in public estimation (cheers). For himself he could declare that it always aff'orded him the greatest pleasure to take part in the proceedings. He had been connected with the Society from the com- mencement, and, as Sir John Shelley had intimated, he once took an active part in connection with the imple- ments exhibited jn the show-yard. That time had now passed away. He had, however, since received the greatest honour that could be conferred on him as an agriculturist — that of being elected President of the Society ; and regretting that the President of the year was not there to speak for himself, he begged, on behalf of that gentleman and himself, to return thanks for the honour which had been done them (cheers). The meeting then separated. IMPORTANT SALES OF SHORT-HORN STOCK. MR. GRENFELL'S HERD, AND A DRAFT FROM MR. BOLDEN'S. By Mr. STRAFFORD, AT BUDDING HILL. Thursday,May 2 1 ,witnessed the far-famed Budding Hill Farm under a totally new phase. Its rich horse recol- lections of Harkaway, Peep-o'-day Boy, Epirus, Tear- away, Pitfford, The Libel, Hermit, and Ethelbert, with Lottery, Duenna, and countless ex-steeplechasers, are fast paBsiag away; and Vulcan andChabron aro the only blood stock left. Shorthorns are now, in their turn, in the ascendant, and we trust that the present sales may prove the forerunners of many equally suc- ccst;ful ones to come. Great changes have taken place on the premises since the Messrs. Halls' day. The un- sightly pond is filled up, and the main avenue i8 re- 542 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. lieved of that row of boxes wliicb Cleveland Shortlegs, &c., were wont to tenant, thus adding not a little to the tout ensemble which greets the stranger as he enters the yard. The farm lies at a distance of two miles from the Kilbm-n and one from the Willesden stations ; and the approach down a rural lane past Bransbury Park, late the seat of Lady Salisbury, might well tempt a visitor into the belief that he was fifty miles away, instead of five, from the very heart of the mighty Babel. It is admirably adapted for the purposes to which Mr. Strafford proposes to put it; and Grand Turk was the first of the temporary shorthorn visitors who have stood there waiting for embarkation. Many were the inquiries for this renowned bull on Thursday, but his six weeks' stay had expired on the Tuesday previous ; and he was already housed on the deck of the ''Washington" steamer, and enroute to Mr. Thorne, of New York. The threatening appearance of the morning, up till nearly one o'clock, frightened a few away ; but long before the sale commenced there was a very fair muster, amounting to perhaps 300, and amongst them we noticed the Dnke of Montrose, Earl Lucan, Lord Feversham, Viscount Emlyn, &c. A very handsome lunch was pro- vided in a large marquee by Mr. Carr, of the King's Head, 265, Strand; and when the various dainties had been discussed, and the occupants of the boxes had been well looked over, an adjournment was made to "The Ring." It is a permanent structure, and was used in Messrs. Halls' time for lounging young stock, but seems as if " to the purpose made" for which it is to be used in future. The inner ring was marked out with hurdles ; and Mr. Strafford's rostrum was erected under a large wooden covering, whither the buyers made a precipitate reti'eat during the showers. Mr. Grenfell's herd is principally derived from Lord Ducie's, Sir Charles Knightley's, and Messrs. Tanqueray and H. Combe's. The Bates' blood is very predominantin it, and many of the cows were closely allied to the Barmp- ton Rose tribe, to which the renowned Master Butterfly belongs. It is worthy of remark that all the females of this tribe, excepting Pomp, which were offered for sale by Mr. Strafford during the week, both in Wales and at Dudding Hill, were purchased by Col. Towneley's agent, Mr. Eastwood. The above cow was the first on the list, and fetched 50 guineas, which was bid by the agent of a lady from the neighbourhood of Settle. Beatrice, the dam of the heifer Bettine, who took the second Chelms- ford prize last year to Mr. Booth's Queen of May (whom, as Mr. Strafford hinted, " 1,000 guineas would not buy"), was put in at 40 guineas, and finished at 90 guineas. She is out of Lord Ducie's favourite Bessy, by Helicon, and half-sister to Baltic, who was lately purchased for the French Government. Helen, who displayed an udder of no ordinary dimensions, then went for 63 guineas; and Darlington, whose sister was sold as a heifer for 300 guineas to Mr. Thorne last year, for 76 guineas to Mr. Peel. In consequence of Parlia- ment having had two dead calves, the bidders were not " fond," and no advance could be got on 37 guineas ; albeit her sire, the 4th Duke of York, was sold for 600 guineas as an old bull, and was the sire of a 1,000- guinea one. Pride also fetched only 100 guineas, or 55 guineas below what had been given for her as a calf at Lord Ducie's sale ; but Lizzy, a worthy daughter of the 4th Duke of York, and a remarkably gay and elegant cow, began at 40 gs., and became Capt. Spencer's at 150 gs. She had only calved a red heifer calf about 23 hours before to Prince Duke, but the Captain was determined that the two should not be separated, though he had to pay 60 guineas to accomplish his intention. " Carry it out," was his direction, when the biddings ceased, and the precious little burden departed, kick- ing, in the arms of an attendant. Claribell, one of Sir Charles Knightley's breeding, became Lord Fever- sham's at something under its Fawsley figure; the buyer of Master Butterfly made the last 67 guinea-bid for Jane ; while Pimpernel, half-sister to the Duke of Beaufort's steer, who took the 2,500-franc-prize at Poissy, and was considered by a majority of the judges to have made the best soup, but to rank only seventh to his Grace's West Highland ox on the rofls^ &ee/test, became Mr. Hoskyns's at 51 guineas. Bettine, for whom 100 guineas had been refused at Chelmsford, fell 10 guineas short at this time of asking ; but such a slight shortcoming was made up for by a great bidding for Leila, out of Lizzy, a square massive heifer, with remarkable size and development for her age. Cap- tain Spencer and Mr. II. Combe's agent ran each other up very briskly, but the Captain would not ad- vance on the latter's 200 guineas, and thus Mr. Combe had the honour of giving the top price both at Dudding- hill and the Bushey-farm. The first bull which was put up. Privilege, was deficient both in his loins and ribs, and only 30 guineas was got for him, by slow degrees. The best price was 145 guineas for the very promising Brigadier, who was purchased by Mr. Knowles. In all, the 27 cow and heifer lots realized 1,874 guineas, being an average of nearly 69^ guineas, and the six bulls 428 guineas, or rather more than 71 guineas, which brought up the general average to nearly £73 10s, Mr. Bolden's draft consisted principally of one tribo — and he still keeps three or four tribes in his herd — ■ including his celebrated Duchesses, to which his two grand 1000-guinea Dukes are so closely allied. The blood of these two bulls was, however, traceable in only four of the stock to-day, for two of which, Bijou and Asia, the biddings were lively to a degree. Mr. Banks Stanhope, M.P., secured the former at 100 guineas ; and in the case of the latter, the competition was con- fined to Lord Feversham and Mr. H. Combe's agent, who got the last bid at 91 guineas. Grasshopper did not sell very well; but Libel's shoulders were worth all the money (100 guineas) given for her by Mr. Rich, independent of her dash of the Collings, Bates, Booth, and Wiley herds ; while one of the two bull calves, Mario, became the projjerty of a tenant farmer (Mi-. Dodwell) at 70 guineas. The sixteen lots fetched 993 guineas; and considering that they were erroneously looked on too much in the light of a draft, the £65 ave- rage was most satisfactory. Thus the successful resul THE FARMER'S MibX^lN^.' of Mr. Sti'aflBi'd*s spirited experiment in having sales of this natui'e at seasons when he can command a good attendance from town, is placed by this double test beyond dispute. The following were the prices realized :— Mr. GRENFELL'S HERD. LOT , Cows AND HeII'ERS. 1. Pomp, white, calved April 3, 1848; got by Duke ofCerii- wall (5947), dam (Princess Royal) by Thick Hock (6601).— 50 gs. Purchased by Mrs. Carr. 2. Beatrice, red, calved Aug. 1, 1848 ; got by Cramer (6907), dam (Bessy) by Helicon (2107).— 90 gs. Mr. Leslie, M.P. 3. Victorine, red and vrliife, calve;! July 4, 1849; got by Usurer (9763), dam (Victoria) by 2ud Duke of York (5959) — 57 gs. Capt. Davia. 4. Helen, white, calved in 1851 ; got by Prince Albert (10636), dam (Queen) by Uncle Dan ^7656).— 63 gs. Mr. Stirling, M.P. 5. Darlington 4th, roan, calved February 26, 1852; got by Sir Hugh (12082), dam (Darlington 2Qd) by Percy (9172). —76 gs. Mr. Peel. 6. Parliameut, roau, calved June 5, 1852; got by Fourth Duke of Ycij£ (10167), dam (Pomp) by Duke of Cornwall (5947).— 37 gs. Mr. Eastwood. .7. Bibby, white, calved August 21, 1852; got by Fourth Duke of York (10167), dam (Bessy) by Helicon (2107).— 90 gs. Mr. Allen. '8. Pride, roan, calved Sept. 6, 1852 ; got by Fourth Duke of York (10167), dam (Princess Fairfax) by Lord A. Fairfax ; (4249)— 100 gs. Mr. Eastwood. '9. Lizzy, red and white, calved April 29, 1853 ; got by Fourth Duke of York (10167), dam (Louisa) by Cramer (6907).— 150 gs. Capt. Spencer. 10. Raspberry, roan, calved June, 1853; got by Buccanier (11218), dam (Ruby) by Red Rover (11982).-60 gs. Mr. Wilson. 11. Parade, roan, calved August 7, 1853; got by Duke of Glo'ster (11382). dam (Pomp) by Duke of Cornwall (5947). —82 gs. Mr, Eastwood. 12. Claribell, roan, calved Sept. 8, 1853 ; got by Earl of Dub- lin (10178), dam (Cyrilla) by Grey Friar (9172).— 95 gs. Lord Feversham. 13. Oak Bud, red and white, calved July 15, 1854; got by Duke of Glo'ster (11382), dam (Oak Apple) by Monarch (7249).— 51 gs. Mr. Leslie, M.P. 14. Venetia, red and white, calved August 14, 1854; got by Richmond (13591), dam (Victorine) by Usurer (9763).— 55 gs. Mr. Guilden. 15. Syllabub, roan, calved November 17, 1854 ; got by Puritan (9523), dam (Seraph) ty Fanatic (8054).— 60 gs. Mr. Stirling, M.P. 16. Jaue, roan, calved December, 1854 ; got by Frederick (11489), dam (Jeanette 2nd) by Prince of Denmark (10646). — 67 gs. Mr. Bostock. 17. Pimpernel, red and white, calved June 13, 1855 ; got by 4th Duke of Oxford (11387), dam (Picotee) by Percy (9472).— 51 gs. Mr. Hoskin. 18. I5ettiue, red and white, calved February 8, 1855 ; got by Richmond (13591), dam (Beatrice) by Cramer (G907) — 90 gs. Mr. Hardy. 19. Violetta, red and white, calved Sept. 16, 1855 ; got by Richmond (13591). dam (Victorine) by Usurer (9763).— 50 gs. Mr. Black. 20. Leila, red and white, calved Jan. 22, 1856 ; got by Count Glo'ster (12650), dam (Lizzy) by Fourth Duke of York (10167).— 200 gs. Mr. Harvey Combe. 21. Bonny Lass, roan, calved Nov. 5, 1856; got by Prince Duke (13507), dam (Bibby) by Fourth Duke of York (10107).— 40 gs. Mr. Strafford. 22. CXot offered.) 23. Betsy, red and white, calved January 31, 1857; got by Privilege (13526), dam (Bettine) by Richmond (13591). — 30 gs. Mr. Guilden. 24. Darhug, red and white, calved March 5, 1857; got by Fourth Duke of Oxford (11387), dam (Darlingtou 4th) by Sir Hugh (12082).— 40 gs. Mr. Gnilden. 25. (Not offered.) 26. Janet, roan, calved March 23. 1857; got by Privilege sJb Mr. (13526), dam (Jaae) by Frederick (11489).— 28 gs. Guilden. 27. Pageant, red and white, calved March 23, 1857 ; got by Count Glo'ster (12650), dam (Parade) by Duke of Glo'ster (11382).— 44 gs. Mr. Eastwood. 28. Pompous, roau, calved May 2, 1857; got by Count Glo'ster (12650), dam (Pomp) by Duke ofCornwall(5947).— 50g8. Mr. Eastwood. 29. Red calf, calved May 20, 1857 ; got by Prince Duke (13507), out of Lizzy. — 60 gs. Capt. Spencer. Bulls. 1. Privilege (13526), roan, calved December 11, 1354; got by Richmond (13591), dam (Pomp) by Duke of Cornwall (5947). — 30 gs. Lord Lncau. 2. Protector (13538), roan, calved December 29, 1854; got by Richmond (13591), dara (Princess Fairfax) by Ld. A. Fairfax (4249).— 41 23. Mr. Martin. 3. Brigadier, red aud white, calved January 30, 1856; got Count Gloster (12650), dam (Beatrice) by Cramer (6907). 145 g9. Mr. Knowles. 4. Rufus, roau, calved June 15, 1856; got by Columbus (12616), dam (Raspberry) by Buccaneer (11218).— 86 gs. Mr. Hercey. 5. Victor, red aud white, calved August 23, 1856: got by Priuce Duke (13507), dam (Victorine) by Usurer (9763). —43 gs. Mr. Christy. 6. (Not offered). 7. Prince Henry, roan, calved February 22, 1857 ; got by Prince Duke (13507), dara (Helen) by Prince Albert (10636).— 55 gs. Mr. Aylmer. 8. Sylvan, roau, calved March 20, 1857; got by The Buck (13836), dam (Syllabub) by Puritan (9523).— 28 gs. Mr. Crouch. MR. BOLDEN'S HERD. LOT Cows AND HeIFERS. 1. Dolly, red and white, calved March 27, 1847 ; got by Second Cleveland Lad (3408), dam (Dinah) by 4th Duke of Northumberland (3649).— 30 gs. Purchased by Mr. Martin. 2. Buttercup, roan, calved May 3, 1848 ; got by Homer (2134), dam (Butterfly) by Sir Launcelot (5166).— 38 gs. Mr. Slye. 3. Polyanthus, red, calved Nov. 12, 1849 ; got by 3td Duke of Oxford (9047), dam by 2nd Cleveland Lad (3408).— 47 gs. Mr. Harrison. 4. Victoria 22nd, red, calved Jan. 9, 1852; got by Lord John (11731), dam (Victoria 13th) by Comua (12625).— 81 gs. Capt. Davis. 5. Libel, red, calved Feb. 13, 1852; got by Rumour (7456), dam (Lettuce) by Leonard (4210).— 100 gs. Mr. Rich. 6. Grasshopper, roan, calved May 19, 1852; got by Mole- catcher (10537), dam (Cicely) by Mahomed (6170).— 62 gs. Mr. Woodward. 7. Victory, red, calved June 3, 1852 ; got by 3rd Duke of York (10166), dam (Vienna) by Duke of Richmond (7996). 41 gs. Lord Emlyn. 8. Apricot, roan, calved July 31, 1853 ; got by Fusileer (11499), dam (Augusta) by 3rd Duke of York (10166).— 50 gs. Mr. Slye. 9. Bijou, roau, calved Nov. 6, 1853 ; got by Grand Duke (10284), dam (Buttercup) by Homer (2134).— 100 gs. Mr. Stanhope, M.P. 10. Primula, roan, calved Sept. 2, 1855 ; got by Duke of Bol ton (12738), dam (Polyanthus) by 3rd Duke of Oxford (9047).— 60 gs. Duke of Montrose. 11. Tranquil, red, calved Oct. 24, 1855; got by Duke of Bol- ton (12738), dam (Turban) by Felix (10225).— 47 gs. A. Rothschild. 12. Peace, red aud white, calved March 30, 1856 ; got by 2ud Grand Duke (12961), dam (Dolly) by 2ud Cleveland Lad (3408).— 80 gs. Mr. Surtecs. 13. Asia, red, calved April 5, 1356 ; got by 2nd Grand Duke (12961), dam (Apricot) by Fnsileer (11499).— 91 gs. Mr. llarvey Combe. 14. Gallopade, red and while, calved Dec. 3. 1856; got by Duke of Dorset, dam (Grasshopper) by Motecatrher (10537).-63 gs. Mr. Stanhope, M P. 2 N bU THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Bulls. 1. Mario, red, calved Nov. 25, 1856 ; got by Duke of Dorset, dam (Garcia) by Graad Duke (10284).— 70 ga. Mr. Dodwell. 2. Victorious, red, calved March 6, 1857 ; got by 2ud Duke of Boltou (12731), dam (Victory) by SraOukeofYoik (101G6).— 33 gs. Mr. Bramston, M.P. MR. STEWART MARJORIBANKS' HERD. By Mk. WETHERELL, AT BUSHEY. The whole of this far-famed herd came beneath the hammer of Mi-. "Wetherell on Friday last, and achieved prices which will long make the Bushey Grove sale " a great fact" in the annals of shorthorns. Fifty-nine lots produced 5,004 guineas, of which 3,048 guineas must bo credited to the cows and heifers, and 2,01(5 gs. to the bulls. For the former the average was about £12 10s., and for the latter £149 3s., which brings up the total average to as nearly as possible £90 2s. In spite of a steady fall of rain, which continued with very little intermission until four o'clock, the com- pany began to arrive at the Bushey Farm soon after ten, and made a strong muster both from town and country. The sale, like that at Budding Hill, v.as of a. " truly British" character, as nearly all the first short-horn breeders in the United Kingdom attended, and not a single animal, that we have heard of, was bought to leave the country. All the arrangements were of the most perfect kind, and it has never fallen to our lot to see a herd " brought to the post" in a more blooming healthy state, speaking volumes for the skill and caro of Mr. Tallaiit, the bailiff, who was also most unwearied in his attention to visitors. Nearly two hours were occupied iu the tour of inspection, and although lylarmaduke's box was never empty, the splendid seven months calf. Great Mogul, by Grand Turk, was looked upon as the prime feature of the sale, and his levee never flagged in numbers for a moment. He has all the substance and robust style of his sire, with an equally i; rand coat, and showed all the fine character of the Bates and Booth herds. In fact, he was allowed to be as nearly perfection as possible in every point, except behind the shoulders, and in consequence of this defect he was not ge- nerally laid at more than 300 guineas, and not a few bets were depending both on his and Marmaduke's probable price — the latter, a beautiful specimen of the Duke of Gloucester breed, is not a very large, but a remarkably sweet bull. He was bred by Mr. Tanqueray, and purchased at that gentleman's sale, when a calf, for 100 gs. The Khirkees were also a very prominent family of the good old sort, and com- bining two crosses of Bate?. About one o'clock a general move was made to the barn, which was hand- somely festooned with flowers, and a very excellent lunch was presided over by Mr. Wetherell and Mr. Dudley Majoribanks. The health of the latter gentle- man and his venerable uncle (who was at the farm during a short part of the morning) were drunk along with Mr. Tallant's; and when the second detachment had lunched, Mr. Wetherell '•' called time," and led the waj', at two o'clock precisely, to the sale field. A ring was formed of high hurdles, round which several waggons were drawn up filled with straw ; and Mr. Wetherell took his station in one of them, under a largo sail awning, while the Dukes of Montrose and Newcas- tle, the Earl of Essex, with Mr. D. Marjoribanks and a party of friends, occupied one of the others. The ani- mals were led into the ring through a hurdle avenue, and the cows were dismissed, as soon as the hammer fell, on the opposite side, into the rich meadow, which was the appropriate site of the sale. Victoria, the twelve-year- old dam of the Greac Mogul, was the first lot ; but even the anticipated glories of her son could not force her beyond 61 guineas. There was some doubt as to whether Heroine could be shown, as she was then iu labour with a calf to Marmaduke ; and when she did come, she did not reach more than 51 guineas. The strong dash of the " old blood" of Roljert and Charles Ceilings' did not effect much more for Sunset; but the biddings for the fourth lot, Rarity, were excessively spirited, and Mr. Dudley Marjoribanks was the last bidder at 87 guineas. Khirkee was put up at 40 gs. ; and after a rapid succession of ten-guinea bids, the hai^imer fell for 130 guineas ; and Broadhooks, who had an enormous udder, became Mr. Cruikshank's for 70 guineas, which was at least 30 guineas below what he was prepared to have gone to for her. Cassandi-a, by the 400 guineas' Usurer, realized 110 guineas, or 65 guineas below what she was once sold forj and in consequence of some dispute arising as to who made a 75-guinea bid. Harmony was put up again, and finished at 06 guineas. In the first go Colonel Kings- cote went as fur as 73 guii;ea3, but rued in the second. Rhoda did honour, by her 92-gainea price, to *' Booth's btst blood;' and Ladykirk's nisic-days' calf was knocked down for 25 guineas to Mr. Welis, who had also bought the cow. Victorine, of the Robert Holmes breed, hardly came up to her original price ; and Mr. II. Combe then gave 140 guinea,s — the best cow-iJiice of the sale — for Kirkhee 2nd. Mr. Grundy aho got a very choice eighteen-months' heifer in Diamond; and the next lots. Blithesome and Doralisa (v.ho was bred by Sir Charles Knightley, and sold at his sale when a fortnight old for 40 guineas), were much admired, and occasioned some keen competition. The former fell to Lord Feversham, for 70 guineas ; and his lordship and the Duke of Montrose (both of whom bid in person) had a very spirited contest for the latter, in which His Grace just lasted the longest. Lord Feversham, how- ever, carried his point, at 96 guineas, iu the case of Symphony; and Mr. Elmore got Busy Bee at a lower figure than the first biddings promised, as the sale hung slightly at this point; and then Prince Albert se- cured Charmer at 30 guineas, through his agent, Mr. Wilson. " Who'll bid 500 first?" was Mr. Wetherell's pro- phetic query ; and Marmaduke had no sooner shown his splendid form in the ring than Mr. Duckworth put him in at 200 guineas. 300 guineas was the next bid — . THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. H^ '' Come away !" — " / loon't dwell," was Jlr.W.'s ex- hortation—310 guineas, 350 guineas, and soon by tens ^ till 400 gs. was bid in two places ; and at last came a '•'*'' clincher in tlie sliape of 500 guineas from Mr. Harvey •■'^'tombc, who found no one bold enough to cope with sp'Tiim further ; Mr. Cruiksbauks having stopped at 490 gs. The red Master Butterfly 2nd, bred by Mr. Townley, suceeeiled, aud received a 100 -guinea bid inslanter ; then came 150 guineas and 200 guineas ; and, after very little " dwelling," Jlr. Cruiksbauks was declared the buyer at 400 guineas. We may mention that all the cows in the herd had been served by these two bulls. The Duke of Sutherland, who won a prize at Paris in 1856, fetched 8? guineas, or 58 guineas less than Cobhara, who became Lord Zetland's, after a series of sbar;) biddings ; and the blood of King Arthur, by Crown Prince, out of Booth's celebrated Venus Victrix, re- ceived fair homage to its merits, in Duke Arthur ai;J Sam Siick. A slight humour on the heel rather mili- tated against Charger's price ; and as Sailor, the last lot, was withdrawn, in consequence of his being below tbe mark, the Great Mogul brought tbe sale to a brilliant finale. The bidders would hardly wait for Mr. Wetherell, and set wildly to on their own account, all round the ring. In fact, when one on the far side gravely said "70 guineas!" during a pause, Mr. Wetherell retorted with " Why, we've had 200 guineas all I'ound, long since!' A remote voice shoitly after said, "250 guineas!" and again Mr. Wetherell re- joined," You can't go the pace — I've got 300 guineas already!" After this point, several were choked off; and some steady bidding ended in favour of Mr. Duckworth, at 400 gu'neas. In reply to Mr. Wetherell's jocular challenge to lay him ^100 that his bull would win at Salisbury, against Skirmisher winning the Derby, he replied that he was no betting man, but that the bull would meet all comers at the ensuing Royal Sliow. It has since, however, been arranged th;it Mr. Marjoribanks is to retain his young prodigy, as the rules of the Royal Society would not allow of any new o-ivner exhibiting him this year in the bull calf clasi. The sale occupied, in all, nearly three hours ; and by half-past six the mnjority of the London visitors had bid far;",veli to their country cousins, and v/ere once more landed at Euston-square. The loUowiug is a list of tlie prices realized— LOT. cows AND HEIFt'RS. 1. Victoria 8tl), red, calved 1845; f;ot by Sir John Sinclair (51G5), dam (Victoria 4th) by Prikce Albert (1193J).— 61 i:3. Purchaicd by Mr. ]Moore. 2. Heroiue, roan, culled May 20th, 1848; got by Fairfax Ilcyal (G9S7), dara (Goawick 3;.]) by the Peer (5455). — 51 gs. Mr. Limhe. 3. Doturcl, roan, called February 24lli, 18J9; got by Tiie Duke (S67G), dam (Vv'heatear) by Warrior (6060).— 66 gs. Capt;iiu Ltavla. 4. Suust^t, roai), calved April 4!b, 1819 ; eot by Twilight (975B), d'.ifl (Maid of Lorn) by Aiig.istus (6752).— 62 gs. Mr. B-kcr. 5. Karlty, ruaii, calved .\pril 7t!i, ISilO; gi;t by Preston (8408), dim (Railway) by South Star (7353).— 87 gs. Mr. Dudley MaJ'.ribiinks. 6. SonKStres?, r.an.calvsd Apiil 19lb,1850; gpt b/ Uodolpb (9568), dam (13 ride; maid) by Sir Lmucelot (5166).— 60 g3. Col. Kingscote, 7. Khirkee, roau, calved November 5ih, 1850; gotby Young Fourth Duke (9137), dma (j tujiy LuiJ) by Duke w Rich- L.oud (7996).— 130 {iS. Mr. Kopii.spji. ' 8. Lnunistiiui, rouii, calve! February ISth, 1851; got by Priiice lidward Fairfax (ySOtJ), dam (B^ircli^ua) bj' Ttie Picha (7812). — 78 g3. Capt. Dtwis. 9. Fair Belle, roan, calved February 23rd, 1851 ; got by Prince Edward Fairfax 0506), dam (Eiiiiaj by While Bull (5G4;3).— i3 g3. Mr. Siu'pson. 10. Wild llo=e, roan, calved Msn-h 31st, 1851 ; got by Ca- vai;;i:ftc (10033), daai (Moss Hose) by Bflshuzzar (1703). — 70 gs. Mr. Harriir;n. 11. Br..adi,of.k3 4ih, roan, calved April Ist, 1851; got by Velvtt Jsck^t (10993). dsai (Youifa; Brpsdhooks) by Fitz Adi.lphns Fairf-.x (9121).— 70 gs. Mr. Crookshauk. 12. i;rita>.:uia 11th, red and white, calved April 18th, 1851 ; got by Lord John (U731), dam by Albion (7771).- 53 f,-s. Mr. Elmore. 13. Zvlicx, roan, calved May 6th, 1851 ; got by Duke of Rich- nioud (7996). dam (Matilda) by Lord Staiiley (1269).— 42 g3. Mr. Hall. 14. Careless 2nd, roan, calved July 22ud, 1851; got by Squire Gwynne (12140), dam (Caruliuc) by 2ud Cleveland Lid (3408).— 115 g3. Mr. Guildeu. 15. Airy Gwynne, raati, calved October 21bt, 1851 ; got by Squire G.vynae (12140), dam (Agues) by Fanatic (8054) 90 gs. Mr. Abbott. 16. llosabel, roan, calved November 6th, 1851 ; got by Fanatic (8054), dum (Rostbud) by Auld Robin Gray ((5753).— 47 gs. ]\Ir. Torr. 17. Lucy 2 id, roau, calved June 1st, 1852; got by Lord Fop- pingicu (10437), dam (Lucy) by Mambriao (7196).— 105 as. Mr. Bod^er. 18. Lady Augusta, white, cilved in May, 1852 ; got by Puri- tan (9523), dim (Lady Mary) by Lord of Gdling (6587). - 70 g3. Mr. Wool ward. 19. Verbena, red and white, calved July 25tb, 1853 ; got by The Beau (12182), dam (Violet) by Liberal (10413).- 51 gs. Mr. Byroc. 20. Casssudta, roan, calved October 1st, 18K3; got by Usurer (9763), dam (Curfew) by Benedict (7828).— 110 gs. Mr. jjfslie. 21. H.irmony, roau, calved April Is!:, 1854; got bv Matadore (11 800], dam (Heroine) by Fairfax Royal (6987).— G6 gs. Mr. V,''aili3. 22. Amazoc, white, calved April 2iid, 1854; got by Whit- tingtou (12299), d.im (Agrippiua) by Duke of Rothsay (694"^).— 50 gs. Co!. Kingseoie. 23. Rsjcda, ronu, caived Aprd 24tb, 1854;; got by Baron Albany (lUal), dam (Rosabel) by Fanatic (8054).— 92 gs. Mr. Byrcu. 24. Ladykirk, white, calved April 27th. 1854; got by Mata- d- re (11800), dim (Laurustiua) by Pnnce Edward Fairfax (9506).— 70 gs. Mr. Wells, 25. ^'icto^iue, red gui white, calved Jisvie \:->'c, 1855'; got by Baroii Martiu (12444), dam (Victcria 13;b) by Cumus (12625).- 91 gs. Mr.Gru-:(]y. 23. Khirkte 2. 'id, roan, calved January 29 th, 1855; got by Meiboune (13327), dam (Khirkce) by Young Fourth Duke (9037).— 140 gs. Mr. H. Combe, 27. Eaiafla, white, calv.cd October 7i.b, 1855; got by Kiug Arthur (13110), dam (Karity ) by Piestou (8408).— 68 gs. Mr. Tracy. 28. Dianioud, roan, calved December 1st, 1855 ; got by Kirg Arthur (13110), dam (Dairymaid) by Normanby (10573). — 125 gs. Mr. Grundy. 29. Bbihesome, red and wiite, calved February 2d, 1856; got by King Arthur (13110), dam (Broadhooks 4li') by Veivtt Jacket (10998).— 70 g?. Lord Fevtrslwm. 30. Doraliso, roan, cahed Mrreii 16th, 18't) ; got by Duke of Cambridge (12742), dam (Maiden'.i Bhuh) by Scimiter (107{;3).— 8") gs. Duke of Montrose. SI, Kbirkey 3rd, roan, calved Juno ych, 1856 ; g.-i by King Arthur (13110), turn (Khlrkw) l>y Young tourth Duke (9037).--6;ige. Mr. Grundy. 32. Jeuny Deaus, wbit.-, calved July 6th, 1856 ; got by Jock ()• Iluzledeau (l.'^OSS), dam (Ai.y Gw)iiije) by Squiie Gwynne (12140).— 30 gs. Mr. D. Majoribai ks. 33. Lass o' Gowri", red ami white, calved Aug. 23th, 1856 ; got by Duke of .Argxil (11375), dam (Latirustina) by Priuce Edward Fairfax (9506).— 70 gs. Mr. Packe, M.P. 2 N 2 546 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 34. Symphony, red aud white, calved September 19th, 1856 ; got by Jock o' Hazledean (13085), dam (Songstress) by Rodolph (9568).— 96 gs. Lord Feversham. 35. ADnie, roan, calved September 20th, 1856 ; pot by Duke of Argyle (11375), dam (Lady Augusta), by Lottery (10472).— 51 gs. Mr. D. Majoribauks. 36. Dimple, white, calved Oct. 22nd, 1856 ; got by Brigand (12494), dam (Dotterel) by The Duke (8676).— 60 gs. Mr. Simpson. 37. Verity, red and white, calved October 22ud, 1856 ; got by Cecil (12571), dam (Victorine) by Baron Martin (12444). — 46 gs. Mr. Leslie. 38. Royalty, roan, calved Nov. 19th, 1856 ; got by Brigand (12494), dam (Roguery) by Cotherstone (6903).— 52 gs. Mr. Lamb. 39. Busy Bee, roan, calved Jan. 13th, 1857 ; got by Brigand (12494), dam (Britannia 11th) by Lord John (11731).— 56 gs. Mr. Elmore. 40. Raree Show, red, calved Feb. 10th, 1857; got by Garland (12917), dam (Rarity) by Preston (8408).— 45 ga. Baron A. Rothschild. 41. Bessie Bell, red, calved Feb. 16th, 1857; got by Garland (12917), dam (Broadhooks 4th) by Velvet Jacket (10998). 37 gs. Mr. Chambers. 42. Charmer, white, calved February 27th, 1857; got by Marmaduke (Lot 1, Bulls), dam (Casandra by Usurer (9763).— 30 gs. H. R. H. Prince Albert. 43. Coquette, roan, calved February 28th, 1857 ; got by Garland (12917), dam (Careless 2nd) by Squire Gwynne (12140).— 40 gs. Mr. Aylmer. 44. Khirkee 4th, roan, calved March 23rd, 1857; got by Marmaduke (lot 1, Bulls), dam (Khirkee 2nd) lay Mel- bourne (13327).— 55 gs. Mr. Hill. 1. Marmaduke, roan, calved March 7th, 1855; got by Duke of Glo'ster (11382), dam (Minerva 2iid) by St. Martin (8525). — 500 gs. Purchased by Mr. Harvey Combe. 2. Master Butterfly 2nd, red, calved July 3rd, 1855 ; got by Master Butterfly (13311), dam (Vestris 2nd) by Valiant (10989).— 400 gs. Mr. Ciookshanks. j^rl 3. Garland, red, calved March 10th, 1854 ; get by Saxe Gotha (10786), dam (Daffodil) by The Duke (8676).— 50 gs. Mr. Sharpley, 4. Brigand, white, calved June 4th, 1854 ; got by Bushranger (li228), dam (Fair Belle) by Prince Edward Fairfax (9506).— 41 gs. Mr. Duckworth. 5. Admiral Dundas, white, calved September 28th, 1854 ; got by Duke of Argyle (11375), dam (Dotterel) by The Duke (8676).— 36 gs. Mr. Duckworth. 6. Duke of Sutherland, white, calved February 11th, 1855 ; got by Melbourne (13327), dam (Diamond) by Valentine (9768).— 87 ga. Mr. Hamilton. 7. Cobham, roan, calved July 1855 ; got by Duke of Argyle (11375), dam (Careless 2nd) by Squire Gwynne (12140). — 145 gs. Lord Zetland. 8. Dandy Dinmont, white, calved January 20th, 1856 ; got by Kiug Arthur (13110), dam (Diamond) by Valentine (9768).— 37 gs. Capt. Davis. 9. Duke Arthur, roan, calved February 26th, 1856 •, got by King Arthur (13110), dam (Verbena) by The Beau (12182).— 100 gs. Mr. Greetham. 10. Sam Slick, roan, calved March 8th, 1856 ; got by King Arthur (13110), dam (Sunset) by Twilight (9758).— 91 gs. Mr. Robinson. 11. Charger, white, calved April 20th, 1856; got by Cecil (12571), dam (Cassandra) by Usurer (9763).— 30 gs. Mr. Wallis. 12. Hero of Kars, roau, calved May 3rd, 1856 ; got by King Arthur (13110), dam (Heroine) by Fairfax Royal (6987)' 44 gs. Mr. Brooke. 13. Abelard, roan, calved July 3rd, 1856; got by King Ar- thur (12110), dam (Amazon) by Whittingtou (12299).— 30 gs. Mr. Worsop. 14. Great Mogul, roau, calved October 26th, 1856 , got by Grand Turk (12969), dam (Victoria 8th) by Sir John Sin- claire (5165). — 400 gs. Mr. Duckworth. 15. Red Calf, calved May 17th, 1857 ; got by Marmaduke out of Lady Kirk.— 25 gs. Mr. Wells. ,,^ boxini THE WHEAT TRADE— PAST AND PRESENT. A Liverpool correspondent has requested us to reply to several queries respecting the past, present, and future of the wheat trade. We insert his letter, and now shall endeavour to answer his questions, so far as existing facts, and our deductions from them, may be considered reconcileable with each other. ' The imports of wheat, and flour as wheat, for the last six years, have been as follows : — Years. Quarters. 1851 6,330,418 1852 4,164,603 1853 6,235,860 1854 4,473,085 1855 3,211,766 1866 5,207,147 6) 28,622,879 4,770,479^ qrs. Thus wo have had an average import of rather more than 4| million quarters the last six years ; and, upon a reference to the previous similar period, we find the average rather more than 4 millions : but this included two years when our ports were closed against free im- portations by the corn laws. During the seven sea- sons from 1847 to 1864, the average annual importa- tions were 4,963,000 quarters. These figures, altogetwii^ will afford correct data to form a judgment as to what the requirements of the country will be in future ; but the peculiarity of the six last years require sonie ex- planations. •-Ltnolfi The year 1851 was favourable to the wheat crop in England, and a fair average quantity was reaped. The following season was less propitious, a good deal of rain having fallen during the harvest, by which the quality of the grain was injured, and the proportion of flour per quarter reduced in both quantity and quality. The continuance of the wet weather after the harvest of 1852, and throughout the autumnal seed-time, pre- vented the low lands from being sown with wheat. The same cause continued to operate in the following spring, allowing the farmers no opportunity of supply- ing the deficiency with spring wheat. The consequence was, that not more than four-fifths of the average breadth was sown that year ; and not only this, but so saturated was the land with moisture, that the growing crop was materially injured, so that at harvest (1853) the estimated result was, that a deficiency had arisen in the annual produce, of 6,857,143 quarters— namely, 3,200,000 quarters in breadth sown, and 3,657,148 quarters in the acreage yield, rendering (when added to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 517 the average importations) an import of nearly 12 mil- lion quarters necessary, unless a substitute could be found. Fortunately there was a heavy stock of old English and foreign wheat on hand, probably to the atBOunt of between six and seven million qviarters, Which, with an import of 6|^ millions in 1853-4, enabled us to drift through the worst season we have had for forty years. But this left us, at the harvest of 1854, wholly destitute of stock, and dependent upon the new crop for the next year's consumption. That crop, how- ever, was as large as the previous one was deficient, both in breadth sown and in yield ; and to this may be ascribed the circumstance that no deficiency arose at the latter end of the previous season. So anxious were the farmers to clear out the stocks of wheat, under an apprehension that, with a heavy crop, prices must come down, that the markets were well supplied up to the harvest. We all know the result — that the following year prices were well sustained, the crop being just sufficient, with a small importation, to meet the con- sumption, and no more ; leaving us at the harvest of 1855 nearly as bare of stock as at that of 1854. The crop of 1855 was a moderate one j but the know- ledge that the stocks, both Avith us and on the conti- nent (where a partial failure had occuri-ed in the crop of wheat), were exhausted, induced the farmers not only to sow their usual breadth of wheat land, but also to prepare their root-crop lands for a spiung sowing of wheat to an extent never before attempted. The season proving propitious, especially for the light and mixed soil lands, the crop of 185G is believed to have fallen little short in the aggregate of that of 1854, although the acrea;:e yield was not so large as in that year. Up to the pi-esent time the quantity of English wheat brought to market, although not overwhelming has been sufficient for the consumption ; and, with a full average importation, has occasioned gradually de- clining prices. We do not apprehend that there will be any deficiency in the supply between the present time and the iiarvest, which will probably be at least a fortnight earlier this year than that of 185G. With respect to the supply of foreign wheat from the 1st of September to the 1st of January, the imports for those four months, in wheat and flour, amounted to 2,109,405 quarters, a large proportion of which came from the United States. During the first three months of the present year we have imported only 779,871 quarters, of which 428,485 quarters, or more than half, came from the States. It appears, however, by letters received from thence this week, that they have been exporting too freely; so that wheat and flour have risen above the price at which it can bo exported at a profit. Added to this, the accounts of the growing wheat crop in that country are very unfavourable ; and as a defi- ciency of one-sixthj or about 2^- million quarters, loould leave them no surplus to export, wo may form an opinion how far we can depend on the Americans ibr a supply next season, supposing the apprehensions about the crop should bo realized. 4 Looking at the imports the first three months of this year, ; and compai'ing them with those of the. Bume period last year, we find them fall short to the extent of 27,283 quarters, although Russia has furnished this year 69,682 quarters direct, and through the Prussian ports 40,275 quarters ; whilst last year we received none from the former, and only 4,864 quarters from the latter source. This would look more serious were it not that the Russian ports will be open to us in future, and that we shall in all probability have increasing supplies from thence every year. It is, in fact, to Russia, especially Southern Russia, and the Danubian Princi- palities, that we must look with any certainty for our European supply of bread-corn. Although we are by no means disposed to take a gloomy view of our future prospects, yet we cannot shut our eyes to the following facts, which lie even on the surface, without taking into account with them the contingencies which may occur to disturb still further the relations between demand and supply. First, as our correspondent states, we have a yearly increasing popu- lation to provide for; secondly, grazing is likely to pay so well, for the next few years at least, that it is probable more land will be devoted to the breeding and feeding of cattle and sheep than has been known of late years. Thirdly, as our correspondent again observes, the losses in the corn trade have been heavy and nume- rous enough to annihilate speculation, and throw a damp even upon regular trading in coi-n. We again repeat that we do not apprehend any serious deficiency on this side harvest, although, if the American accounts turn out to be correct, the manufacturing districts, which depend a good deal upon that country for a sup- ply, and Liverpool, which is the emporium of the Americau trade, will probably experience some incon- venience and difficulty in obtaining the requisite quan- tity. But we look further, and feci some apprehension lest, with reduced stocks of wheat in all the cereal districts of the world, and without an increasing, rather a decreasing produce in many of them, the failure of a crop iu America, Russia, or any of the principal wheat-growing and exporting countries, should leave us with such a deficiency of supply as would drive up the price beyond due bounds. We im- ported from the United States last year 2,105,184 quarters. The stoppage of such a supply from one quarter — and we have shown what would do this — would indeed be a serious evil. Any such danger as this we must prepare against,, by striving to accumulate a stock in the country sufficient to meet such a contin- gency, and thus avoid those extreme prices which are always attended by distress to the consumer, and are most fi-equently followed by ruin to the merchant. GOOSEBERRY BUSHES.— To prevent the goose^ berry from being attaclced by mildew, cover the soil around the roots with a stratum of salt hay, two or three inches thick, and allow it to remain tlirough the season. Irriga- ting once a week with soa]) suds, tailing care to sprinkle all the foliage with the lluid, will also be beiielicial. One thing, however, should be observed in the cultivation of this fruit, and that is, never to plant the bushes under treea or ia the bkatle*— iVfw Engluud. Farmer,-. ,i&31 jJ \kdi xuou is:c? 648^'^ THE FARMEirS MAGAZINE. iforrfw BSohq CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. Sow turnips in succession — swedes till the middle of the month ; then green rounds, and ultimately white globes. Turnips are mostly finished in sowing during this month. In sow- ing turnips with all pulverulent and auxiliary manures, use Hornsby's drop-drill, which sows two rows, and deposits, at regular intervals of nine inches, the manure and the turnip-seeds mixed together, which secures a ready food to the young plants. Plough pared and burned lands with a light furrow, and produce a fine tilth by means of ample harrowing before sowing the seed towards the end of the month. If the land be clayey and stiff, sov/ on the furrow-slice well harrowed ; if it be loamy, reduce the land and drill it, which will pro- duce a good mixture of the land and the ashes. Sow rape and cole-seed for winter food. Plough lands from which winter tares are consumed ; har- row it well, and sow the seeds in rows by a machine with lengthened coulters to make ruts in the ground. Sow in broadcast the headlands of turnip fields, and use short dung to be easily covered. Horse and hand-hoe beet-root, carrots, and parsnips ; allow not a single weed to be seen in any green crop cultivation. Harrow potato-drills with the light harrows, plough the intervals of the drills deepl)^ scufiie repeatedly the hollows during summer, break the drills and all clods with the hand-hoe, cut every weed, and produce a fine tilth of soil, that is so essential to green crops. Continue the feeding, in the yards, of cows and horses with clovers and vetches ; feed them amply, provide abundant littering, and convey the liquid excrements to the tank. Cut all weeds from among the grain crops ; allow not any weeds to perfect the seeds on pastures by fences or on road sides. Many seeds are winged, nnd are carried by the wind to a distance, and propagate very rapidly. Finish the shearing of sheep by the end of the month ; examine the animals closely as they pass through hands at this time in the month — the shape, the quality of the v/ool, and in the general appearance. An inspection of the animals at this time, and putting on them distinctive marks, will very much assist the sorting of the ewes for the tupping season in October. Put mares to the stallion every fortnight. Yv^ean lambs by placing them beyond hearing the bleating of thecwes,and give them the best grass on the farm. Hay-cutting will commence this month. Ted the swathe quickly behind the mowers, cock the grass, spread it abroad, cock it again, and carry it to the rick: employ plenty of hands — at least six to a mower. Turn clovers in the swathe without tedding, as much shaking loses the leaves, which are the best part of the plant : put it into large cocks, which may stand in the field for a time. When hay is damaged by rain, the quality ig^ improved by mixing salt in the ricks — 30 lbs. to a load. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MAY. Although we have had rather a long continuance of easterly winds, the weather during the month just concluded has been seasonably fine and somewhat vegetative ; still, in a comparative sense, the season is somewhat backward, es- pecially in the southern portion of the island. In the early part of the month rather large quantities of rain fell in the north, as well as in Ireland and Scotland ; since tlien, the Bouth has received its fair share of moisture, but without adding much to the supply of grass. A few weeks, how- ever, will, no doubt, make a great change in this respect, especially in the event of the weather proving mild, and at present there are indications of a good hay crop. Considering the amount of consumption going on, the wheat trade has heen in an inactive state, but all spring com has sold steadily at full prices. Both holders and importers or produce, as well as the large buyers, are likely to ope- rate with more than usual caution for some time, and it is possible that present quotations may be fairly supported. For some time our farmers have thrashed out large supplies of whe'at, under the impression that prices have not seen their lowest point. Whether they are justified in taking such a step remains to be seen, but our impression is that the chances are more in favour of firm than drooping cur- rencies. Upon the subject of the supply of grain in the hands of our farmers opinions arc much divided, and it is boldly asserted in more tlian one quarter that it is unusually small. Wc, however, hold a contrary opinion, because we are perfectly satisfied that more wheat was grown in the United Kingdom in 1856 than in the previous year ; its quality, we all know, was very inferior, but there is a large supply of food yet to be worked off. These remarks may serve as a guide to the growers, and they may farther pro- duce less confidence on the part of the speculators in for- warding ordpr.", to the continent and the United States at THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 549 prices which leave no margin of profit. With the exception of beans and peas, the suiiplies of spring corn are worked up to a narrow compass, and we may fairlj' conclude that prices generally will rule stead}' for a considerable period. The month's importations of wool have been on an exten- sive scale, viz , over 20,000 bales. This large arrival, added to the high value of money iu the discount market, has had rather a depressing intiueuce upon the trade, and prices have given waj' from Id. to 2d. per lb. This decline i>', we ini- a'gin?, likely to be followed by anotlier fall, as apparent!}' most parties have wholly miscalculated the power of the supply to meet the trade. The unfavourable news from Australia, in reference to the import trade of the colony, has chocked the demand for wool, and the absence of active speculation on the continent has, no doubt, tended to lessen confidence here. Unquestionably, wool, both home and co- lonial, has seen its highest point of value, and there is now ample room for a further decline in it. The advanced rates now paid, compared with two years since, are quite justified by the late continuous demand and the decline in the im- portations. Bttt matters are now wholly changed ; from the Cape, as well as from Australia, we are now receiving additional supplies, and we are likely to receive further im- ports of an important character. The young wheat plants are looking remarkably strong and healthy — the exceptions of these important points being unimportant— and the fine rains have been productive of an immense amount of benefit to barley, oats, beans, and peas. The pastures are fairly covered with grass both in the north and south, whilst green food has become somewhat abundant and cheap. These are all favourable features at this mo- ment, and thej' must have considerable influence upon demand and value during the coming month. Certainly, there is nothing to complain of : prices generally are remunerative) imports are only moderate, and the consumption is large, though, perhaps, in the manufacturing districts, the demand for the better kinds of food is not quite so active as was the case at this time last year. Home-grown potatoes have advanced considerably in price of late, and the rise in the quotations has been followed by an import of nearly 3,000 tons from the Conti- nent. We learn that our stocks are now much reduced, and that a large quantity of the potatoes on hand will be found unfit for human consumption. Linseed has been in moderate demand throughout the month ; nevertheless, prices have continued steady. Both descriptions of cake have sold slowly, yet we have very little change to notice in their value. The consumption of these articles is still very large, but we believe that we are justified in saying that it is not in excess of our importations. Throughout Ireland and Scotland wheat has sold on easier terms, but spring corn has changed hands steadily, at very full prices. Fat stock has been in good request, at high rates; yet the quantities of produce forwarded to England have not increased. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Owing to a somewhat important increase in the supplies of both homo and foreign stock exhibited in the metro- politan and the leading provincial markets, the cattle trade generallv, during fully the first half of the past month, was heavy, at drooping prices. Since then, however, the receipts have fallen off, and the demand has ruled brisk, at an important improvement in the quotations. The return of fine mild weather has caused the arrivals of Scotch and country-killed meat up to Newgate and Lcadenhall to fall off, and bene the live trade has been thus benefited to some extent. The imports of stock from the Continent have been on the increase, though only moderate for the time of year ; and the recent order in Council in reference to the so-much- complained-of disease in some parts of Germany has not had any effect upon our trade, and this was to be expected —indeed, we fully explained this matter in pur last month's review— because we have never been dependent upon Ger- many for the bulk of our importations. The sheep which have reached us from Hambro' within the last few weeks — wholly ^lerinos— bear no traces of disease ; .and it must be gratifying to learn that throughout Holland the stock is healthy. We use the v/ord "gratifying" in a strictly economical sense ; in other words, for the purpose of showing that it would be the height of folly to calculate upon prices here ruling much above those now current in our markets. A deficient amount of home supply frequently leads to the most exaggerated notions as regards the future ; but every OTie must admit that price must have a limit, that is to say, j'ou may import a large amount of food, but the whole will be consumed at moderate rates, because the power of con- sumption here, if prices be onlj' moderately low, is enormous. Advance the quotations some 20 or 30 per cent., and you check consumption immediately : you deprive the butcher of the opportunity of getting rid of his inferior joints, except at a loss, and you produce a great amount of fluctuation in price. The jobbers lose money, the stock masters are disappointed, and the carcase butchers are sorely puzzled to know how and to what extent to operate. We therefore are glad to find that there is a prospect of fair importations of foreign stock, and we hope that they will have the effect of keeping prices free from severe fluctuations ; not that we anticipate any material change in price ; certainly we do not think that anj' great fiiU will result from even a moderate increase in our impor- tations, as France is still purchasing stock in Holland and Belgium, as well as in Sp.ain and Portugal. From the two latter countries we are likely to draw some rather large sup- plies of beasts during the summer, as the arrivals during the present month have, we understand, turned out somewhat profitable. The supply of winter food has become nearly exhausted ; in some counties scarcely any remains on hand, but the abundant quantity of hay produced last year has been of immense advantage to the graziers, and the fine rains of the month, aided by a mild temperature, have produced a fair, though not an abundmt supply of grass : hence the pros- pects of the next hay crop are very favourable. The annexed return shows the imports of foreign stock into London : — Beasts 1,53.0 head. Sheep 4,749 „ Lambs 60 „ Calves 877 „ Pigs 1» „ Total 7,243 Same time in 1 BSfi .''.,.5.^6 head. 18.'.5 7,10.3 „ l)t,W 4,70(1 „ 1853 13,007 „ 11)52 H,50G „ 1051 9,214 „ 1050 (;,060 ,j 650 THE FARMER' I,-- - .1 •' I .%./-,■' ' i' Tile tulal siipijlifs ol home and I'oreign stock exhibited in the Great Metropolitan Market have been : — Beasts 1 8,7-22 head. Cows 4.50 „ Sheep and lambs 1 04,990 „ Calves 1,415 „ Pigs 2,530 „ Comparison of Supplies. Sheep May Beasts. Cows. and Calves. I'igs. Lambs. 1836.... 18,995 495 119,G40 1,260 2,545 1855 19,847 410 113,600 2,470 2,590 1854.... 20,831 576 124,824 2,146 2,435 From Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire, about 10,000 Scots and siiorthorns have come to hand. The receipts from other parts of England have been 2,600, of various breeds ; from Scotland, 1,500 Scots; and from Ireland 290 oxen. The highest and lowest prices of meat have ranged as follows: — Beef from 3s. to 5s.; mutton in the wool, 4s. 2d. to 6s. 2d. ; out of the wool, 3s. 4d. to 5s. 4d. ; lamb, 5s. 6d. to 7s. ; veal, 3s. 8d. to 6s. ; pork, 3s. 8d. to 5s. per 8 lbs., to sink the ofial. CoMPARi.sox OF Prices. May, 1854, May, 1855. May, 1856. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s, d. Beef, from 3 2 to 4 10.. 3 0 to 4 8.. 3 0 to 4 10 Mutton ..3 4 — 5 0..3 2 — 5 0..3 6—5 4 Lamb ....5 4 — 6 8.. 5 2 — 6 10.. 5 4 — 6 6 Veal 4 2 — 5 8.. 4 0 — 5 4.. 3 10 — 5 6 Pork 3 6 — 4 8.. 3 0 — 4 4.. 3 4—4 8 Notwithstanding the high value of wool in the provinces, the flock-masters have wisely forwarded a much greater number of woolled sheep to the metropolis this month than in the ordinary run of years. If they generall3' did but consider the immense disadvantage, in a pecuniary point of view, which they invariabl}' suffer from sending sheep to market deprived of their wool during inclement, or even moderatel)' cold weather, they would at once wholly aban- don the system of early shearing. Sheep in the wool on a cold morning will produce //«il weathe- we have lately had it was expected that it would be n dear fsir, which expectations, however, were not rfislized. Amongst the bred hoggs, Mr. Boyd, Doddington, sold for 455. 6'i., being, so far as we saw, the highest price in the mar- ket. Mr. James Brandon sold at 41s. These prices show a decline of 7s. and 8s. a-head be!o v last year's prices. Half- bred hoggs were bringin? from 32i. to S7s. a-head. Ewes and limb9, of which there wero ;s t^ood many small lots, were selling readily at very good prices. Queys. calved and to cclvp, were bringing from £10 to £15. There were not nisny grasiing cattle in the market ; the best lot we saw were sold by Mr. Tiios. Wi:ir.tn3an for £14 lOi. There were a few good drauiht hors°s, and a trade seem;d to be doiug in them. Some use- ful hacks avid ponies v.'er-T also on the ground. For sheep we think this was a cheap fair, end the hog?9 bought cannot fail in remunerating the purchaser. In fact there were not buyers for the quantity of hcg?a shown, eo tliat a large proportion of them were not disposed of. IRISH FAIRS— Navan Grkat Summer Fair: The greBt summer fair of Navan, established hy Mr. M*t!ie\v Kealy in 1S54, took place on Monday. Mr. Allen. Coshes- town, sold five springers frrm £14 to £16 e»ch ; Mr. Kennedy, Navan, two springers at 15 gs. each; Mr. Wilhara Weldon, Cross lane, a two-year-old spriager at £12 ; Mr. James Al'Gann, Navan, two springers at £U. Patrick Matthew, Esq. J. P., Anagore, bought 100 store heifers at a high figure. There was a beautiful lot of culves sold at SSs. to 453. each. The sheep fair was well stocked, principally with ranlton and store lambs, both of which sold extremely high. The pig fair 'T-as, as is usual in Navan, largely supplied with bacon, whic':i sold at extremely high prices, the average price was GOs. per c-st. Beef 623. 6d. per cwt.; Mutton, iu the wool 9^d. per lb. , without wool 7id. per lb. The fair was over early ia the day. REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE. DURING THE PAST MOISTH. The month of May opened with a very cheerless aspect, a sharp east wind giving a severe check to vegetation ; but i;i the course of a week a sudden change to warmth occurred, which more or less has since prevailed, with the addition on the 22nd of a heavy day's rain and subsequent light showers. The face of Nature has therefore re- gained its look of promise, and the fears of drought as respects spring corn have entirely disappeared. The vicissitudes through which the season has passed remind us of possible disasters; but it would be ungrateful and unreasonable to give way to distrust. There is no danger at present to be apprehended either of a deficient or late harvest. The upward tone \vith which April closed was somewhat abated on the first set-in of a genial tempeialure; but the dechne then experienced has since been more than recovered, leaving some gain in prices in the course of the month — say, about 2s. per qr. through the country, with a better tone evinced than for some time past. Several causes have conduced to this state of things. The cold weather which kept vegetation backward greatly improved the condition of the wheat in stack, and all the country markets noted the welcome fact. The comparative absence of foreign supplies enabled holders in granary to greatly reduce their stocks, which were constantly in demand for mixing. Growers and the mercantile interest in the grain trade were in a sufficiently healthful position to bear against the general monetarj^ pressure, and the state of foreign markets as the season advanced were found unprepared both as respects stocks and prices to send forward the quantities cxpfected. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 55 •? The immensely free contributions of America last autumn were damaging to importers ; and orders, should equal supplies have been again forth- coming, would have been carefully limited, or ex- peditions must have been made on American account; but with the navigation opening very late, and New York itself exhausted, prices have been steadily rising, with little regard to European advices, and accounts now from the sources of sup- ply, both north, west, and south, show there could be no repetition of such liberal shipments, with the most tempting prices. The rates of fine white wheat at New Yorlc have risen to 65s. per qr., and of fine red to 58s. per qr., thus showing a parity with our own quotations, and that shipments without a further advance here must sink freight and charges. Suain herself has required further imports ; and the retrograde movement in prices, helped on by forced Government sales, have given place to an advance in the face of fine weather and genial showers, so that 1,000 qrs. v/ere shipped hence to Santander last week, after a repetition of dull advices. The Baltic has little fine wheat to send, the crop generally being very light, damp, and inferior. The prices at Danzic by last accounts were for good wheat 64s. 3d. per qr. At Riga rates ranged from 52s. 6d. to 56s. Petersburg quotes for Cubanka and Saxonska about 57s. per qr. The ports in the Danube and Black Sea, till recently, were quoting lower prices ; but a general rise has now occurred through the accounts received from the South of France, Sardinia, and ports of Italy. Soft Polish wheat at Odessa has risen to about 55s. per qr. At Berdianski it was 54s. 9d. Soft quality atTaganroc, previously to last Europe an advices, was 46s. 6d., and hard to 57s. per qr. ; but these rates are no longer reliable : a freight was taken 8s. 9d. Both Galatz and Ibrail were becoming excited, and the large fleet that had passed the Dardanelles was certain to add to holders' demands; but it was doubtful whether there would be sufficient stocks to freight them. Nothing was coming from Egypt, the people being oppressed at Cairo and Alex- andria by retail prices to a degree that made it necessary for Government to interfere. Trieste quotes 60s- 6d. for Banato wheat. At Leghorn Egyptian wheat had reached 51s. 6d. per qr., and it was the same price at Marseilles. At Genoa soft Marianopoli wheat was worth 72s., and hard Taganroc about 80s. per qr. Holland, Belgium, and France have little changed since our last. At Amsterdam white Pohsh wheat was worth 64s. 6d. : native red at Antwerp brought 59s. per qr. In Paris fine white Normandy wheat was still bringing 65s. per qr., and the large sup- plies continually received at Marseilles were soon worked off, bringing higher rates than expected. African wheat at this port was worth 73s, 6d. per qr. The crops generally in Europe were promising ; but rye was less favourably spoken of in the Baltic provinces, and some heavy rains in America had done harm at Louisiana and Alabama, but not seriously. The stock of native wheat in our own country yet appears to be good, though a great portion must have gone into consumption for low purposes, from its inferiority; and those who have held out for remunerative prices through a succes- sion of dull m.arkets, are not likely in its improved condition to force it off to disadvantage — the weather, the price, and the prospect on their own grounds suggesting their course. The first Monday in London commenced on mo- derate supplies, both English and foreign. The morning's supply from Kent and Essex was fair, and in better condition ; but with a continuance of cold harsh weather factors endeavoured to establish an advance of Is. to 2s. per quarter, eventually failing to do so, though occasionally an improved sale occurred. The consequence of this holding out for higher rates was the finding nearly the whole bulk unsold at the close of the day. Holders of foreign also requiring some advance, could only occasionally obtain it. In some coun- try markets holders were more successful, but Bristol, Gloucester, and Norwich made no advance. Newcastle and Gainsborough rose Is. Lynn, Hull, and Manchester were Is. to 2s. higher; Birming- ham and Spalding quoting 2s. per qr. more. The Tuesday's market also at Liverpool was 3d. to 4d. per 70lbs. dearer, but the upward movement ceased on Friday. The second Monday had an unusually small supply of foreign wheat, and only an average one of home-growth. The morning's contribu- tions from the near counties was not large, but the previous week having ruled dull, and left part of the supply unsold, there was a larger show of English wheat on the stands than had been seen for some time. The weather, too, having changed to genial, with some rain, very few sales could be effected at previous rates, and those only to needy buyers, and a fall of Is. to 2s. perqr. would have been gladly accepted to clear the stands : the bulk, therefore, was unsold. This report upon the coun- try advance checked the rural markets and seajjort towns. Ipswich and Louth noted, however, no difference. Newark and Gloucester were only Is. down; but Hull, Wakefield, and Uxbridge an- swered the London report of a dechne of Is. to 2s., Birmingham, Bishop Stortford, and Newcastle be- ing fully 2s. cheaper. Liverpool, on Tuesday, was brought to a pause, and on Friday submitted to a fall of Id. to 2d. ])er 70lbs. The third Monday was but poorly supplied, but the feeling of the 6-54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. previous week had hardly subsided, and, to sell, factors found it necessary rather to favour buyers, the weather having been splendid. As often hap- pens at the turn of prices, the country markets differed materially in their reports : some markets were fully 2s. to 3s. dov;n ; but Bristol and Gloucester showed an upward tendency, while Bir- mingham fully recovered from the previous depres- sion, and, with Norwich and Newcastle, noted an improvement of 2s. per qr. Liverpool, on Tues- day, had a full reaction in sellers' favour from the previous decline, and on Friday a further advance of 2d. to 3d. per 70lbs. was quoted. London also recovered on Friday, and evidently pointed to higher rates on the next market. The fourth Monday came, and with it Friday's anticipations were reahzed, there being no difficulty in selling either English or good foreign wheat at fully 2s. per qr. more money. The supplies in the metropolis were less as respects foreign wheat than in the previous month by about 2,500 qrs. weekly, the English arrivals also falling short about 600 qrs. per week. The quantities received were, in English wheat, 28,600 qrs., in foreign 20,067 qrs. The sales for the last four weeks show an increase of 77,110 qrs. as com- pared with April ; but are still 5,804 qrs. below what they were last year, showing that with a fair stock on hand there has been less disposition to sell at reduced rates. The general averages com- menced at 53s, 2d., and closed at 57s. 5d., show- ing an advance of 4s. 3d., while our estimate, by reports received, has been only 2s. ; the rise to the amount of 2s. 3d. must therefore be attributed to the improved condition. The London averages put back one week, to be on a level with the general averages, show the diflference only 2s. 4d. advance, commencing at 58s., and closing at 64s. 4d. The exports all took place in the fourth week, and reached 1,950 qrs., with 1,115 sacks of flour. In flour through the month fluctuations have been inconsi- derable, and limited to country sorts and American, Norfolks on the first Monday were 40s. per sack, and closed at 42s. ; the hot weather occasioned a temporary fall, but the reduction of supplies and influence of the wheat market more than recovered the depression. Through the month, however, town millers have not varied the price, it being still 52s, per sack, the difference between the best town-made and Norfolks being now only 10s, The supply for the month from the country has about equalled the previous month, being 71,448 sacks or 2,717 sacks more ; but the arrivals from America have been quite insignificant, viz., in all but 3,761 brls., with 110 more sacks foreign. With light arrivals and advancing rates at New York there does not seem much probabiUty of abundance from this quarter till markets change, good Ohio flour being worth 33s. 6d. p^r, br|. at,ii9,pie,-5Jj:j:\i^ is equal to 48s, per sack, ,a.,3noD amos ?JoI I'to?: The barley trade having passed its zenith, !ha?t become of less interest. Prices have scarcely varied through the month, and the whole depend- ence has been on foreign supplies, our own crop being well nigh exhausted. The higher qualities of foreign, with the close of the malting season, have become less saleable, and easier in price j but those for grinding, of average weight and con- dition, as well as good barley for distillation, have all been well supported, and the month closed with sales against buyers. The low price lately obtained for wheat has stimulated farmers to sow a large breadth of this grain, as the quality of British- grown is beyond competition; but should it exceed the demand for malting, there may be some disap- pointment. As it is, there seems little probability of a decline on this grain up to harvest, as foreign markets have not been prepared for an extensive demand, and prices in all the Baltic ports have been gradually advancing. The receipts of home-grown during the month, in London, have only been 1,121 qrs., the foreign being 51,415 qrs., or only half the supply in April. Malt through the month has scarcely changed, though stocks cannot be great. The oat trade, which began to recover the last fortnight in April, has steadily but slowly pro- gressed, the improvement on prices being about Is. 6d. per qr. The first and second Monday each gained 6d. ; the third was firm, but sales were slow ; and the fourth was nearly 6d. dearer, though not so quoted generally. The favourable change in the weather prevented a more decided rise on the last market. The crops are now looking well on the ground, though recently threatened by the drying cold winds, the grass lands with very few; exceptions, being all that can be desired. The month's arrivals show a general falling off, and as we anticipated from the first, Ireland gives no promise of liberal shipment, the failure of the stock of potatoes in the west making some demand on the crop for human food; nor do we think it likely that foreign importations will be so great as to make up the deficiency, or occasion any permanently low price. The receipts in Eng- lish corn were 1,598 qrs.; in Scotch 761 qrs.; in Irish only 9,740 qrs., and in foreign 55,328 qrs. ; both the Irish and foreign receipts being less than half what they were in April. The supply of English beans had been fair, but foreign arrivals have almost failed, and the conse- quence has been a further improvement of Is. per qr. at a time of year when consumption is lessened. The advance occurred on the first Monday, and has since been steadily maintained for all good drjr THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 555 saiilples ; though at the Kentish stands, for inferior soft lots some concession to buyers has been made. The supphes for May were 4,0G2 qrs. EngUsh, which was 700 more than in the ])revious month, and in foreign 936 qrs., occurring in the fourth week. Of peas the arrivals have altogether been scanty, but the unusually small demand that has been ob- tained this season has prevented any rapid enhancement. They have, however, been selling continually in small lots, till some good advance has been established : white boilers have reached the price of 44s. ; maples and duns being also im- proved. Through the month there have been only 407 qrs. of home growth, with 1,147 qrs. from abroad, chiefly boilers from Konigsberg. The supplies of linseed continuing on a very limited scale, with but short supplies in immediate prospect, the rates have continually been tending upwards, and cake has found a ready sale on full terms. The cloverseed trade has ceased, the season closing with very light stocks : a few speculative Bales of white seed have been lately made at 50s, to 58s., but red is hardly quotable. Canary-seed has lost its buoyancy, and seems unlikely to main- tain its price, Tares have sold for feeding at low rates. Mustard-seed has kept firm. Hempseed and the seeds used in confectionary have scarcely varied from our last. CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE. Shillings per Quarter. Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, new.. .. 48 to 59 extra 62 to 67 Ditto, red, „ 47 54 57 60 Norfolk, Line, and Yorljs., red, new.. 47 54 57 60 Barley, new, malting .... 40 to 41 Chevalier.... 42 44 DistilUng 37 39 Grinding 26 32 Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 67 72 — 77 Kingston, Ware, and town made.. .. 09 73 — 78 Brown 62 63 — — Rye — — 30 36 Oats, English, feed 21 25 Potato 23 31 Scotch, feed 20 25 Potato 26 33 "^^ Irish, feed, white 19 23 fine 24 30 Ditto, black 19 21 „ — 24 Beans, Mazagan, new 33 38 Ticks, new.. 35 38 Harrow 35 39 Pigeon 42 45 Peas, white boilers .. 40 44. .Maple .. 39 42. .Grey 38 40 FLonR,persackof2801b3., Town, Households. .483., fine 50 52 Country 43 44 Households. . 46 47 Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship 41 42 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillinjfs per Quarter. 80 78 76 62 69 71 60 64 IMPERIAL AVERAGES. 63 56 58 fine Wheat, Dantzic, mixed.. 72 74 high do. — 78 extra Konigsberg 70 73 „ — 75 -■;: Rostock 52 70 fine....— 74 American, white ....60 67 red.... — ■ Pomera., Meckbg.,& Uckermrk, red 56 Silesian, red 52 56 white.. — Danish and Holstein 52 ii' Bt. Petersburg and Riga 50 Rhine and Belgium — — — — Russian, hard 54 64 French (none) BakLet, grinding 26 31 Distilling.... 35 39 Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands.. 20 28 Feed 18 24 Danish and Swedish, feed. ..19 25 Stralsund 22 26 Russian 22 26 Beans, Friesland and Holstein 36 39 Konigsberg 32 37 Egyptian .... 36 37 Pj:Aa, feeding 30 37 fine boilers.. 40 42 Ihdian Corn, white 36 39 yellow 36 39 FLooa^ per sack French — — Spanish .... — — i. American, per barrel, sour.. ..24 28 sweet 31 34 Foe the last Six Wheat. |Barley. Weeks: s. d. I s. d. April 11, 1857 ....' 53 11 45 9 April 18, 1857 ....i 53 0 44 7 April 25, 18.57 53 2 43 7 May 2, 1857 54 3 43 4 May 9, 1857 .... 55 10 43 5 May 16, 1857 ....t 57 5 43 6 Aggregate average' 54 7 ] 44 0 Same time last year 68 1 i 39 10 Oats. s. d. 24 4 23 5 22 9 23 3 23 3 24 9 23 7 23 5 Rye. ' Beans. d. 38 9 d. 39 10 40 0 39 8 39 11 41 5 42 6 40 7 41 10 41 6 Peas. 8. d. 40 10 39 6 38 7 LONDON AVERAGES. Wheat ....3,605 qrs., £2 19 7 | Rye 14qrg.,jei 14 0 Barley .... 91.. 2 1 5 Beans 549,. 2 1 1 Oats 2,418.. 1 5 6 | Peas 67.. 2 0 2 COMPARATIVE AVERAGES— 1857-56. From last Friday's Qaz. s. d. I From Gazette of 1856 Wheat 116,811 qrs., 67 5 | Wheat 126,230 qrs., 68 43 6 24 9 41 6 42 6 Barley 9,108 Oats 9,457 Rye 48 Beans 6,143 Peas. 663 .. 40 10 Peas. Barley 17,166 Oats 12,997 Rye 93 Beans 4,718 428 39 U MONTHLY RETURN. An Account shewing the Quantities of Coen Grain, Meal^ and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom, and admitted to Home Con- sumption, in the month of April, 1857. Species of Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour. Wheat Barley Oats Rye Peas Beans Maize or Indian Com .. Buckwheat Beer or Biyg Total of Corn and Grain Wheat Meal and Flour Barley Meal Oat Meal Rye Meal Pea Meal Indian Meal Buck Wheal Meal Total of Meal and Flour Imported from foreign Countries. Imported from British Possessions out of Europe qrs. bush. 159482 838837 143235 TiiO 15854 29133 93714 90 0 495 2 qrs. bush. 5305. I 3 0 1 5 Total. qrs. bush. 16-1787 2 388887 7 143235 1 7830 7 15857 4 29135 1 95714 90 495 789673 6 5309 6 794983 4 cwts. qr.lb.' cwts. qr.lb. 151218 3 10 1952 3 14 0 0 26 4 3 15 S3 0 0 4 0 (il 151258 3 23 1962 3 14 cwts. qr.lb. 153169 2 21 0 0 2(5 4 3 15 88 0 0 4 0 0 158211 S 9 PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. Tabes, per bushel 48. 6d. to 5s. Mustardseed, per bushel 12s. to Coriander, per cwt 20s. to Canary, per qr 72s. to Linseed, per qr., sowing .... — 8. to — s... crushing 70s. to Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 Os. to £9 Rapeseed, per qr., new 86s. to Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £6 FOREIGN SEEDS. &c. Tares, per bushel, new 48. 3d. to 48. Hestpseed, small, per qr — s. to 40s Do. Dutch Coriander, per cwt... 15s. to Carraway ,, 42s. to Linseed, per qr., Baltic ....678. to 703 Bombay 69s. to Linseed Cake, per ton £9 0s.to£9 Rapeseed, Dutch 76s. to Rape Cake, per ton £5 08. to £S Od. 138. 248. 84s. 71s. 10s. 888. 10a. 6d. 428. 20s. 46b. 7l8. 108. 808. I0«. HOP MARKET. BOROUGH, Monday, May 25.— The reports from the plantations state that the vermin is found in several districts, but the bine continues to make conairierable progress. The trade during the past week has been quiet, without any par- ticular alteration iu prices, Hart and Wilson. jQb THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WA.TERSIDE, Monday, May 25.— Durio? the past week the arrivals both coastwise and froDJ abroad ha^e been liberal for the season, which, coupled with warm weather, h&s caused a r?actiou in the trade, and prices looking down. The foUowicg are this day's quotations : — York Regents .... per ton 1203. to ISOs. Tincolnshirs do lOOs.tolSOa. East Lothian reds . . UOi. to 130s. Perth, Forfar, & Fifsh. Reg. llOs. to 130a. Do. Be is 110s. to 1203. Irish Whites 85a. to lOOs. German whites SOs. to 90s. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS, LONDON, Mon- day, May 26. — The supply of home-grown potatoes are only nicderate, aud the receipts from Scotland have fallej off. Tlia imports last «eek were seasonably large — viz, 275 ten i from Antwerp, 3 baskets from Emden, 97 tons fioa) Eotfercam, 25 tons from Harliugen, 90 tons from Ilambru', 15 tous fiom Oporto, 75 packages from Lisbon, 70 tons from Loiido'sdcrry, and 90 tous from Newry. The trade generally is inactive, as folUowa— York Regents per ton 100s. to 170s. Kent a-'id Esces ditto 100s. lOOs. Scotch ditto Sos. 1303. Ditto Cups 903. lOos. Middiiaga 73s. S5s. Liacclns SOs. llOa. Blues 803. 953. Forfigii feCs. 90s. COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— Yokk, May 16 —A fair show of j.otatoes, at from 12d. to 13d. per peck, and from Ss. 8d. to4d per bushel. Leeus, May 19.— A fair show of potatoes, v.hicU sold at 13|d. to 15d. wh■J'•e^ale, aud I'^.d. to 16d! per 211bs. retail. Thirsk, May 18.~Potato£S, lOJ. to 12d. per stone. RiciiiiOND, May IG. — Pot.itccs, 5s. per bushel. Manchester, May 19. — Potatoes, 123. to IDs. PRICES OE BUTTER, CHEESE, KAMS, &c. BUTTER, per cwt. ! s. s. Friesland SO to 86 Kiel 98 100 Dorset, new 11 1 9t> Carlow — — Waterford .— — Cork, 88 92 Limerick 84 90 Slig-o 80 86 Prbsh, per dozen.. lis. Od. to 133. Od. CHEESE, per cwt.: Cheshire Cheddar Double Gloucester........ HAMS, York— uev Westmoreland Irish BACON : Wiltshire, dried Irish, ^reea .............. WOOL MARKETS. BRITISH WOOL xMARKETS. BERMONDSSY', Saturday, ilay 23.— There has been a cousideiabie aaiount of business iu sorts made from, at a re- duction of 2d. to 3d. per lb. frora the highest rates by dealers, who thought it pru'.lent to lower their stocks of wool on the approach of the new clip ; the manufacturers causequcntly supplied their immediate wants, siid are now holding off, as they cotnplaiu of the uniemunerative nature of the trade, and the necessity of stopping their machinery, which great num- bers have already done to bring about a due proportion be- tween the price of wool and the manufactured article. The foiloiving are the nominal prices of new fleeces : Per pack of 'i40;bs. Fleeces— Southdown Hogs £20 lOtojEil 0 Do. Half bred Hogs 19 0 iO 0 Do. Kent 17 10 18 0 Do. Southdown Ewes ana Weihers !8 0 19 0 Do. Leicester do i? 0 18 10 Sorts-Clothing, picklock 52 0 23 0 Do. Prime and j;ieklock 19 10 iO 0 Do. Choice - 18 '< 19 0 D. Super 17 0 is 0 D... C..niljing— Wether matching .,, £2 0 23 0 Do. Picklock 19 10 20 o Do. Common 18 0 17 0 Do. Hos matching ii3 iO ii 0 Do. Picklock matching.... SO 10 21 10 Do. Superdo. 17 10 18 10 LEEDS V/OOI, MARKET, May 21.— There has been rather more done in sales of wool this week, and prices are quoted firiJi, at last week's rates. LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, May 23. Scotch Wool — There continues only a demand for laid Highland from the trade to supply immediate wants, but as stocks are in the most limited compass there is no alteration in prices. White Highland is scarce, in fact not to be met « ith. The trade having supplied themselves with Cheviot and crossed at the Is-te auction Esles here, Ihey are not niHch in- quired for. s. d, s. (1. Laid Hitthhind Wool, per 24lhs 16 0 17 0 j White Hiih'and do 18 6 20 0 Laid Crossed do. .unwashed .... IS 0 £0 6 Do. do..waslieil 20 0 31 6 Laid Chi-viot do .. unwuihei ...... n 0 ^ & ; ' Do. dcna-^hed ... 25 6 '28 0 White Cheviot do..\Ta..hed SI 0 40 0 FOREIGN WOOL MARKET. CITY, Monday. May 25. -The piiblii; tales of colouial wool have proccedeu with fctea'iuLSJ, ai.l ii: tojiit; iustaiiceg ralher more tsclivity has been apparent in the biddiu^aj especially for Sydney aiid Port Philip qualities. The 8ttet;d- ai:ce of both heme aud foreign buyers is good, and pricep generally iiad an upward tfnder.cy. LEEDS (Foreign) WOOL MAHKET, May 22.— There is very little iraprovemeot iu the demand, aud prices aie with- out alteration. Per lb. Duty Fiee. s. d. s. d, German, ( 1st ar.d tind Elect .... 3 4 to 4 6 Saxon, ) Prima 2 4 3 0 and JSecimda , 2 0 2 4 Prussian. (Tenia 1 8 1 10 Australian ocV.D. Land— Combg.ScClothi; 14 3 2 Do. Lamhs ,. 1 fi 2 Sj Do. Lucks and Pieces 0 Is'A 2 1^ Dc.Grsase 010 1 8J Do. Skin and Slipe . 14 2 1^ S. Australian icS.Hiver—Comtg.&Clotcg 16 2 6 Do.Lambs... 1 6i 2 '.^ Do. Locks and Pieces 1 ij ^ "^i bo. Grease . 0 7J 1 4 Do. t^kin and Slipe = ... 18 2 2j Cape— Average Plocks... . ., 10 2 :% Do. Cnmbint; and Clothing 11 " l| Do, Lambs , 1 4J 2 )| Do. Locks and Pieces,, 13 1 I04 Do. Orease 0 8.i 16 MANURES. PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO, &c. PERUVIAN GCANO,(perton, for 30 tons;noniinaljE13 5 0 to ;£ C 0 0 Do. Do (under SOtons),... 14 15 0 15 0 0 BOLIVIAN GUANO 12 U U 12 10 0 I £19 10 otoxao 29 0 0 30 Kitrate Soda (per ton).. . NitratePotaslj 7 or Saltpetre J Saipht. Ammonia 17 10 0 Jluriate ditto... 22 0 0 Superphospl: of Lime.. Soda Ash, Alkali.... Gyp. ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c. 6 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 30 0 0 18 10 0 8 0 0 Coprolite S 15 0 Sulph.olCoj.p triol,forWhci ^teep opper-) £ n Vi- (. £ 9. d. 0 0 to Salt. Bones, Dnstjperqr. I Do. A-inch 1 Oil Vitriol,) concentrated, > 0 ■ lb., Do. Bro%ra. 0 1 0 03 £ 5.tl. 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Linsei-d-cakeB, pt; Thin American, 1 in hrls. or t)af,-3 / ton — £9 15 OilO 5 0 2 10 0 4 0 0 OIL-CAKES. llarseiUes £9 0 Oto £0 0 0 English 10 0 0 0 0 0 Rape-cakes.prton 6 5 0 6 10 0 8 10 0 9 0 0 JouN Keen, 35, Leauenball-street, (Late Odams, Pickford, and Keen.) Williams & Co., 24, Mark Lane— Azotic £fi 10 0 Manufactured by Uodsjsuu & Simpson, Wakefield, and Matthews & Co., Driffield. Ammonia-Phosphate and Nitro-Phosphate per ton £8 0 0 Superphosphate of Lime „ 7 0 0 Ag-ricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops per ton £8 10 0 Prentice's Turnip tianure ,, 7 0 0 Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime ,, 6 10 0 Lancashire Manure Comjtanv, Widnes, near Warrington. J. Knight & Co.'s Nitroge;iized Bone Slanm-es per ton £8 15 0 Manure Works, Grovehill, Beverley. Tigar & Co.'s Celebrated Turnip Manures Jier ton £7 10 0 RND OF VOLUME XLVI. Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London. ~i- ■/ c r ..l^i .,^r^ w -r^. ^ r =*.3.,'- 1^ ; t- ^sX ;: .75^-^