MASSACHUSETTS
STATE COLLEGE

GOODELL LIBRARY

Per

Y.iS

"t i.|i"l|ii I- III! i!|i.J III )i ■!

No. 1, VoL.XV.1 JANUARY, 1859. [Third Series.

THE

FARMER'S MAGAZINE

AND

MONTHLY JOURNAL

OP

THE AGRICULTUEAL INTEREST.

TO THE

FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

LONDON :
PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

BOQUBSON AND TCXIOED,] [PBINTEBS, 246, STKAND.

BANSOMES AND SIMS,

IPSWICH.

THE :FOJjJaO'WK1XC^ XMPI.EMEWTS OBTAI]VE]> TBEE

FIRST PRIZE

AT THE CHESTER MEETING OF THE EOYAL AaRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

ENGLAND, JULY, 1858.
Root-Cutter for Power. Hand-power ChafF-Cutter. Bruisinff-Mill.

Price £5 5s. to £7 7s. Price £5:5s. Price £10.

Elliasfratea C;atalog'ues, in English, Frencb. and Qernian sent free

on application.

London Agent: SHEPPARD RANSOME, 31, ESSEX STREET, STRAND.

HAYWOOD'S T

TWO AND THREE HORSE POWER

PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES

AND

THRASHING MACHINES

ARE expressly adapted to suit the requirements of
Small Occupations.
They are the only Macliines made of these sizes that
will Thrash, Winnow, and Bag the Corn.

" Cahirconlish House, Limerick, Oct. 21, 1868.

"Sir, —I delayed writing to you till I had worked
the Two-horse Engine and Thrashing Machine lor a few
days. They have been working remarkably well since
your man left. I moved them yesierday into a field
where we had pood corn, and between one o'clock and
dark it had thrashed very close on 500 stone, cleaning
it fit for market. I consider it does as mucli work as
an Ei(iht-horse Engine and Machine which belong to a
gentleman near this. You may make what use you like
of this letter, as I really think it to be the case. Your
obedient servant, C. JMONK WILSON.

" Mr. Jas. Haywood, Jun."

Illustrated Catalogues sent free on application to
JAMES HAYWOOD, JuN., PHCENIX FOUNDRY
and ENGINEERING WORKS, DERBY.

ESTABLISHED 1812.

HAND T. PROCTORS' TURNIP MANURE.— Messrs. H. and T. P. draw
I particular attention to tliis vabiablo Manure, which contains all the elements necessary for the full development of the
Turnip Crop, so combined, that, from their chemical knowledge and long experience, they feel satisfied is most advantageous to the
consumer. It has been vfry extensively used by most of the eminent Agriculturists of the day, and has attained a high reputation
througtiout J^nciand, Scotland, and Whales, and, they venture to say, is unrivalled for the weight and quality of the Bulbs which it
and Wheat ^PP^'<=^''<"» "^ ""s Manure to the Turnips will be found to btnefit considerably the after crops of Barley, Clover,

POTATO, GRASS, BARLEY, CLOVER, and WHEAT MANURES.

BID ME DUST, PERUVIAN GUANO, AND SUiPER.PHiOSPHATE OP LIMB

. , , „ , _ „„^ WARR4KTBD OF THE BEST QUALITT. ' '

Apply to H. and T. PROCTOR, WEST OF ENGLAND DEPOT FOR ARTIFICIAL MANURES, CATHAY BRISTOL- ot
PROCTOR and RYLAND, BIRMINGHAM and 8ALTNEY, near CHESTER, »«**''*"*< , or

PATENT FISH MANURE,
THE AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS COMPANY,

3limitetr*

Incorporated with Limited Liability, under the Joint-Stock Companies' Acts of 1856-57.
CAff»iTAi^ £60,000, in 13,000 §i]mre» of £5 eacli, Ximitefl.
Witli power to increase the Capital to £100,000.

fdutl nf Dirntnts.

Sir EDMUND H. K. LAC ON, Bart,, Great Yarmouth, Chairman.

E. B. Brown, Esq., Merchant, 2, Adam's Court, Okl Broad Street.

David Coleman, Esq., Merchant, Bansha House, Tipperary.

David B. Dobie, Esq. (Messrs. Hineks and Co.), Southwark.

Alfred H. Johnson, Esq., Manor House, Gunnersbury, Eahng.

Thomas Miers, Esq., Grosvenor Villas, East Brixton.

William Hurry Palmer, Esq,, Merchant, Great Yarmouth.

SOLICITORS — Messrs. Reynolds and Palmer, Great Yarmouth.
BANKERS— The National Bank, 13, Old Broad Street, London ; Sir E. K. Lacon, Bart.

(Laeons, Youell, and Co.), Great Yarmouth.

CHEMICAL WORKS, GLOBE WHARF, ROTHERHITHE.

Offices : — 38, King William Street, London. (E.G.)

ABRIDGED PROSPECTUS.

This Company has been established to manufacture
a valuable Patent Fish Manure, proved to possess very
superior fertilizing properties, and also to manufacture
other classes of fertilizers, superphosphate of lime, &c.

Mr. Bralthwaite Poole, in his Statistics of British
Commerce, tells us that " there are annually used in

the United Kingdom 90,000,000 tons of farm-yard or
animal manure, exclusive of guano, nitrate of soda,
and other artificial fertilizers, involving a money value
of £25,000,000. Anything, therefore, that would eco-
nomize the labour of transporting and spreading bulky
farm-yard manure, by giving us a more concentrated
and portable fertilizer for our soils — anything that will
render us less dependent upon the Peruvian Govern-
ment for guano — must be hailed as a national boon."

Viscount Palmerston, in a speech made at the Romsey
Agricultural Society's Meeting, on the 9th of December,
1858, stated : — " There is one thing that I wish to press
upon your attention ; guano is a material of limited
quantity, and the regions that produce it are not likely
to be replenished when once their stock of guano is
exhausted, because the birds from which guano is
creasted are driven away; and, like coal, when it is
once dug up, you cannot expect to have it reproduced.
* * * At all events, I think that the time is not
very far distant when the foreign supply will cease,
and when domestic guano will be the source to which
the farmer must apply."

The annual importation of Peruvian guano now ex-
ceeds 250,000 tons, realizing from £12 to £15 per ton.
Fish being, to a certain extent, the source of this most
valuable fertilizer {i. e., the excrement of the guano-
bird, feeding upon fish), its manufacture into a manure
has already led to some practical research ; but, owing
primarily to the neglect of economy in its reduction,
and the complicated mechanical appliances experi-
mentally used therein, those efforts were not attended
with commercial success. This Company is now, how-
ever, in possession of a process whereby fish can be
converted into a most valuable manure, by simple and
inexpensive means.

The following is condensed from a report by Pro-
fessor Way (of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land) on fish manure : — " It is perfectly practicable to

not subject to alteration by keeping under ordinary
circumstances. There cannot be a doubt of the value
of this manure, especially for corn crops ; and the
manufacture of manure from fish offers the only avail-
able means of supplying the demand for additional
ammoniacal manure, and will, if carried out on an
adequate scale, be of essential benefit to the agriculture
of this country."

The first station for the operations of this Company
will be at Great Yarmouth, which annually affords
many thousand tons of refuse and broken fish ; but to
provide an abundant supply of material, it is intended
hereafter to establish depots at most of the principal
fishing stations on the English and Irish coasts.
Chemical Analysis op Soils.

A Laboratory will be established at the London
works, under the superintendence of an eminent che-
mist, for the express purpose of affording to Share-
holders in this Company the means of obtaining a
complete analysis, gratis, of the component parts of
their lands, and advice as to what class of manures
should be supplied to render those lands most fertile
and productive, thus presenting them with the means,
free of expense, of complying with the requirements
anticipated by Professor Liebig, who says — " A time
will come when plants growing upon a field will be
supplied their appropriate manures, prepared in che-
mical manufactories; when a plant will receive only
such substances as actually serve It for food." — Vide
Chemistry in its application to Agriculture.

The Directors will not set out an array of figures to
illustrate the profits likely to be derived by the Com-
pany, but they will undertake to supply the finest
Fish Manure, guaranteed to contain a given per cent-
age of ammonia and phosphates, at a cost which will
bear very favourable comparison with Peruvian guano,
and all other portable fertilizers, and still retain a profit
of no ordinary character.

For evidence of the great value of the Patent Fish
Manure, the attention of the Public is invited to the
detailed prospectus of the Company, which contains
copies of the certificates of five of the most eminent
agricultural chemists of the day, the average of which
yields a return of 9.84 per cent, of nitrogen equal to
12.09 of ammonia.

produce from fish a portable manure of great value.

Applications for Shares or Prospectuses may be made to Messrs. Reynolds and Palmek, Solicitors,
28, Regent-street, Great Yarmouth ; or to the Secretary, at the Company's Offices, 38, King William-
street, London-bridge, E.C.

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AND MONTHLY MAGAZINE,

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?mssii3iss^s9m

I

N^

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THE FARMEE'S MAGAZIE^E.

JANUARY, 1859.

PLATE I.

"MOSS ROSE," AND HER DAUGHTER, "YOUNG MOSS ROSE:"

PRI2E SHORTHORN COWS,
THE PROPERTY OF MR, RICHARD STRATTCN, OF BROAD HINTON, SWINDON.

" ' Do you know Mr. Stratton ? ' ' Yes, I do,'
(replied the Colonel). 'Then,' said the gentleman,
'if you belong to Wiltshire, you ought to be proud
of such a man.' ' I speak the sentiments of the
gentlemen of Wiltshire, and I trust the farmers of
Wiltshire (replied the Colonel), when I say that we
do value him ; but may I ask, said I, to what you
allude particularly in connection with Mr. Strat-
ton?' 'I allude (said my friend) to what I saw
in Baker-street. Mr. Stratton there took the gold
medal and the £25 prize; and he took that which I
believe he prizes more than all — the silver medal
for being the breeder of the animals which he
showed.' ' And may I ask, said I, whether
you had a prize ? ' 'I had, he said : I had a
medal for an animal which I brought out of
Devonshire ;' and this led him, after making some
remarks upon the Chippenham Associaiion, about
which he said he had heard a great deal, to speak
of the very unsatisfactory price at which fat cattle
is selling in the London market. In proof of which
he told me that he could not get there the same
price for the fat ox which he took to the show as
he could have obtained for it before it left Devon-
shire. I asked him how he accounted for this ?
' Why,' said he, ' the real cause of it, in ray
opinion, is the immense quantity of game which is
bred in this kingdom ; and the number of gentle-
men who sell game now in the market would, to
many persons, be almost incredible. To that
cause, and to it alone,' he said, 'I attribute the great
depreciation which has lately taken place in the
value of fat stock — the fact is, the abundance of
game which is forced into the market supersedes

OLD SERIES.]

the sale of a great deal of the best of the meat
which is sent to London.' 'But,' I said, 'every
man has a right to do what he likes with his own.'
' Yes, that is very true,' he said ; ' but it does not
alter the fact ; and, as I said before, I cannot attri-
bute the depreciation of meat in London to any
other cause than that.' "

The above is from the speech of Colonel Bold ero,
at a meeting of the Chippenham Agricultural So-
ciety, a week or two since, and details a conversa-
tion the gallant gentleman had with a stranger in
the train going down. As apropos of Mr. Stratton,
he was an exhibitor, and, as usual, a successful one
here. The extract comes quite as well home now,
for both the cows in our print have been known
by' themselves and their produce at the Wiltshire
Shows.

Moss Rose, calved March, 1838, was by Phoe-
nix (6290), from a heifer bought of Mr. Clark, a
cattle dealer, and said to be from a pure-bred stock ;
but no attempt was made to trace the pedigree
during the life of Clark, and now such inquiry
would be useless. Moss Rose, during her time,
won the following prizes : —

In 1841, when three years old, first prize and
sweepstakes, at Wootton Basset, with the calf
Young Moss Rose at her side, £3.

1842. — First prize as breeding cow, under 4 years,
at the Devizes meeting, £13; the prize at Wootton
Basset, as the best cow of any age, £5.

1843. — At Devizes, best cow of any age, £3;
Cirencester, £lO; and Bath, £5.

1844. — As best cow with offspring, at Cirences-
ter, £10; and at Bath, £5.

B [VOL. L.— No. 1.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1845.— At Cirencester, best breeding cow, £8 ;
and —

1848. — At Gloucester, best cow and calf, £10.

PRODUCE.

Dec, 1841. — Young Moss Rose, by Lottery
(4280).

Jan., 1842. — White bull. Young Phoenix, a
winner of three prizes.

1844. — White heifer, when exhibited with its
dam, won three prizes, and sold at a high price
when one year o!d.

1845. — Red heifer, a winner at Bristol and
Wootton Basset, as best heifer calf; sold to Lord
Radnor.

1846. — Red heifer calf, by Kenilworth— dead.

Jan., 1847. — Red heifer, Ruby, by Kenilworth,
winner of ten prizes, and dam of the bull Waterloo.
Her dead weight was 195 stone.

Dec, 1847. — The heifer Matchless, by Red Duke,
winner of twenty prizes, amounting to £116, dam
of Fair Maid, sold for France, at 2 years old, for
£200 ; and of Sanspareil, also sold for France, and
exhibited at both the Paris shows, winning two
gold medals and two prizes of £40 each. She also
bred Lord of the Manor, a A^ery celebrated prize
bull.

Dec, 1848. — Red bull calf, sold to Lord Bar-
rington.

1850. — Bull Clarendon. This bull won twenty
prizes, amounting to £146, and is still in use.
From him sprung the white London gold medal
ox, and many other prize winners.

1851.— Roan cow calf Matchless 2nd, winner of
twenty-two prizes ; dam of Matchless 4th, by AYa-
terloo (almost her full brother). Matchless 4th
took the second prize at Chester, and has won ten
other prizes, although only 3 years old.

1852. — 3rd Moss Rose ; was sold to go to
America, after winning first prize at Bristol as best
heifer calf.

1853.— King John, red, by Waterloo, the old
cow's grandson. This bull won ten prizes, and
was sold to Mr. Cowley, near Daventry.

1854. — White heifer (never bred), took the first
prize and silver medal at the Smith field Show in
1857.

1856. — Red and white heifer, took the first prize
at Worcester, as yearling heifer, 1857.

1857. — White heifer calf, smothered in calving.

Young Moss Rose, by Lottery (4280), calved
Dec, 1841, was not exhibited in early life, as she
produced a calf (by her own sire) at 2 years and
3 months old. She went to Cirencester, Glouces-
ter, Chippenham, and Bristol with her offspring,
and won at each occasion, in all about £40.

PRODUCE.

1844. — Roan heifer Elegance, by Lottery (4280),
was perhaps the best breeder of the tribe. She
produced three females by Red Duke, all of which
were excellen — first. Red Duchess of Gloucester
1st, still at Broad Hinton, has won many prizes,
and is still breeding, having lately produced her
seventh calf ; then, 2nd Duchess, sold to Mr. Logan,
Wales, has been most successful as a prize-taker
and breeder ; and Duchess of Glo'ster 3rd, of which
a portrait was given in the Farmer^s Magazine for
November, 1857, won many prizes and medals,
including two gold ones.

Young Moss Rose has bred fourteen calves,
nearly all of which were successful at local shows,
and one heifer took a prize at the Paris Exhibition
Victory, a two-year-old bull from her, has already
been a winner of twelve prizes.

PLATE II.
THE DOG IN THE MANGER.

At that very pleasant meeting, of the Sparkenhoe
Farmers' Club, we have witnessed one or two de-
cided novelties to the customary proceedings of
such associations. First, and best of all, the ladies
not merely honour the show with their presence,
but the dinner also ; while in the programme of the
day we come upon a class that in all our peregrina-
tions we have never seen at any other gathering of
the kind. There was a prize for Shepherd's Dogs,
and some half-dozen or so entered for it — ranging
from the useful bob-tailed breed to the more grace-
ful-looking colley. The juJges went for the latter,
but we do not know " the points" upon which they
would decide. However, Stoutness, Courage, In-
stinct, Shape, and Temper should be the chief re-
commendations of such a servant, and the last not

the least of these virtues. Either about a house or
a flock, a bad-tempered dog is a sad nuisance. He
over-worries the sheep in getting round them,
frightens the children whenever he meets them, and
keeps the stock out of their own proper rights and
places. "The Dog in the Manger " is just such
a surly cur, with not even the excuse of minding
his master's coat, for his inhospitable challenge to
that wonderfully well-painted grey horse. But no
doubt Pincher gets his dues in time — a mikl rebuke
administered on the point of a hob-nailed boot, a
crack over the head with a hedge stake, or a dig in
the side from a much-enduring Hereford. Every-
body, in short, is ready to give him a bad name,
and one adage may so correct the other.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB.
STOCK FARMING ON STIFF RETENTIVE SOILS.

The Monthly Discussion Meeting of the Central
Farmers' Club took place, on Monday, December 5, at
the Club-house, Blackfriars. There was a very full at-
tendance of members. The chair was taken by Mr. T,
Owen, of Clapton, Hungerford. The subject for discus-
sion, introduced by Mr. R. Bond, of Kentwell, Long
Melford, Suffolk, was " Stock Farming on Stiff Reten-
tive Soils."

After a few opening remarks from the Chairman,

• Mr. Bond rose and said . Mr. Chairman and Gentle-

men,— As a body of business and practical men I know
we meet here not simply with the philanthropic notion
to advance the agriculturHl interests of the kiugdom generally,
but we meet here feeling that our own individual interests are
concerned; feeling that here we may leara something which
will be to our ovrn individual benefit; something that will in-
struct U3 to increase the per-eentage of our own individual
returns ; something that will cause us either to lessen our cost
of production or to increase our pecuniary gain ; something
that will make the pounds, shillings, and pence of practical
farming less difficult. I know that it is with feelings akin to
these I always enter this room ; I know it is with feelings
akin to these that I read your monthly discussions ; and I
know it is by improving our own individual practices that we
shall best promote the agricultural progression of the kingdom
at large. Anxiously as we long for agricultural advancement,

f we cannot afford to be all patriotism. No. 1 must stand fore-

most ; and however little or much you gentlemen may have
shared in my feelings of self-interested motives upon your at-
tendance here, yet I am convinced the agriculturists of the
kiugdom have appreciated your exertions as embodied in the
London Central Farmers' Club, and the agriculture of Eng-
land has been greatly benefited by your discussions. I know
from my own experience and personal profit that your efforts
have not been in vain. I am convinced thousands and tens of
thousands have gathered many a useful hint from the expres-
sion of your opinions and the revelation of your practices ;
and if any man in the United Kingdom doubts the individual
benefit to be derived from your free discussions, I advise him
to stand in the position of an introducer of one of your monthly
subjects, and I will venture a thousand to one hs leaves this
assembly a wiser and a better man. My observations this
evening must be considered to apply generally to clay lands,
but especially to those soils of a stiff retentive character ia
Suffolk, Norfolk, and Essex. In my remarks upon the stock
farming of such districts, I will not lose sight of the profit or
loss of the question; I will give you my experience; I will
freely tell you wherein stock farming has answered my pur-
pose, and wherein it has failed to answer. I propose, first, to
show that injudicious stock feeding and stock farming may be
a losing speculation. Further, that an entire dependence
upon the corn crops for all the pecuniary returns, without stock
farming, is unpaying. I propose, also, to consider the present
condition of many farms in districts with a stiff retentive soil,
relative to stock, and to give you my experience in lamb rear-
ing, sheep grazing, rearing and fattening young beasts, fatten-
ing old beasts, cow and pig keeping, and horse keeping. I
know stock farming has been so generally applauded of late
that one might presume it to be au agricultural short cut to
riches — a certain highway to wealth under any circumstances.
We hear much that there is nothing to be done without stock,
that stock must he the mainstay of the farm, that " without
stock no manure, without manure no corn;" and all this I
fully believe and subscribe to in a mitigated sense ; but at the
same time it has been my experience that all stock farming
does not pay ; it has beeu my experience that stock farming,
on stiff retentive soils, must be carried on with judgment, or
it will not pay ; and it has been my experience that buying
dear beasts, feeding them on dear oilcake and expensively-

grown roots, may be a very losing game, with wheat at 403. the
quarter. Manure, of course, is one main point. I have heard
many a man of spirit grumbling upon his heavy loss in bul-
lock grazing, yet in the same breath declare he cannot and
will not pretend to farm without good rich bullock muck.
With such men, I must admit, I have no feeling in common ;
for though I prize the manure as very valuable, I am well
aware gold may be bought at too dear a price, and that expen-
sive manure may be produced by a very unprofitable process.
If there is a heavy loss in the manufacture of the article, I
think it very questionable whether ulterior results in the pro-
duction of corn w ill repay the first cost sacrifice. I am a great
advocate for stocking a farm to the utmost of its capabilities,
but I want a direct profit upon the animals reared or fattened,
as well as au indirect return in the growth of corn. I want
a clear balance in hand, after deducting the expenses of food
and attendance. I do not like such items in the stock account
as the following, viz.: —

Dr.

20 beasts at £15 £300

Cake, corn, & attendance 112
12 acres of mangold at £9 108

Total cost £520

Cr.
Saleof 20 beast8at£20.. £100
Loss ,. 120

£520

There has been many a stock balance sheet in Suffolk of which
this is a facsimile, and the consequent cost of the manure
from 20 beasts is £120, or, as it is more commonly expressed
in the eastern counties, " I am just paid for the artificial food,
and I have the muck in exchange for the mangold consumed
and for attendance." And what amount of muck ? Probably
just about as much, or but little more, than produced 20 acres
of mangold in the preceding year, and which will now in its
turn be used to produce 20 acres iu the following season.
Gentlemen, this is a slow way of getting rich. The system
might answer in times of extreme high prices, but it does not,
cannot, and will not answer at the present time. We must
have direct profit from the animals we feed. I have heard
men for the past twenty years vowing they will never fatten
another beast; jet, as October or November comes round,
you see them baying fine old beasts in ths market, under the
annual impressiou that this year's beasts must pay. You hear
the old question, "What can prevent meat from being very
dear in the spring ?" I have lived long enough to see that
this is a periodically recurring semi-monomania. In the aver-
age of years, bullock grazing, as practised in the eastern
counties, does not answer; and whether men take to it wil-
lingly or unwillingly, whether they do it by choice or necessity,
the sooner they alter from a losing speculation in practice the
better for the condition of their pockets and the position of
their banking accounts. I know well that buying old beasts
on Norwich Hill or elsewhere at £15 or £20 a-piece and up-
wards, and feeding them expensively, may aasist to make many
a man poor ; but it will never make one man rich, with cake at
£10 lOs. per ton, and wheat at 40 per quarter. I don't want
to take isolated years, but yet I must ask what were the pro-
fits from winter grazing last year ? We all know it was a
ruinous " get up." With dear beasts in the autumn, disease
throughout, expensive food, and comparatively cheap meat in
the spring, the losses were extreme. The average loss was not
less than 30 per cent., and I know of different cases in large
sheds of beasts where the loss exceeded GO per cent. The
facts of the case are these : — For years past we have had an
over-tsxci Jt liia-iU \ipna the supply of lesn cattle ; only take
the prices each recurring autnran on Norwich Hill. The
amount demanded per head has continued so extreme that the
general pass-words from grazier to grazier have been, " How
dear they are asking for beasts to-day," and the result has
proved that the rearer of beasts has pocketed the profits, how-
ever large or small, and the fatteuei has found his grazing in-

B 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

veBtment a lo^iug speculatiou. It is quite clear that the
supply of lean beasts has not been equal to tlie demaiul, snd a
very high price has been the cousequeut renilt ; this fact is
explainable by reason. The agriculturists of many hitherto
purely rearing districts in Scotland and England have become
fatteners of a part of their animal produce in addition to rear-
ing, whilst in other cases sheep husbandry has supplanted the
system of calf breeding and rearing. These causes have
operated to curtail the adequate supply; whilst our fattening
districts, such as the eastern counties, have gradually produced
an increased acreage, and a greatly increased quantity per acre
of roots, especially of mangold wurtzels ; therefore, with a
restricted supply and an increased demand, we have been
buying lean cattle at a dearer rate than we could have reared
them ; and I think the unsatisfactory nature of our position
calls for the serious consideration of the agriculturists of the
ea»teru counties, viz. : — Can we do belter than purchase old
beasts at a high price, subject to much disease, fattened at
great cost, and resulting in the average of years in an actual
annual loss in the transaction? I say, can we do better?
What are our future prospects? With England's wealth and
prosperity we have, and we must continue to have, a meat-
consuming population. The consumption, too, will unques-
tionably increase. Cheap bread, with an abundant demand for
labour, will render the cotton spinner, the artisan, and the
well-to-do labourer even greater meac coi sumtrs than hereto-
fore. The price of animal food is at this time dear, when com-
pared with wheat ; and meat will probably remain dispropor-
tionately high in price, in comparison with wheat; but the
heavy-land farmer in the eastern counties rtqnires to be in a
position to profit by such advantages, by such high prices, and
not annually to throw away liis chance of remuneration in an
extravagant purchase of the beasts of the rearer. I know the
system of buying beasts and fattening them at considerible
cost has long been the practice in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex ;
but time and circumstances may have iuvalidattd the sound-
ness of the custom, and rendered the position unteusble. It
is well, for us at least who are iaterested, to investigate the
matter; and do not let us cling to the notion that things will
change — that "a good time's coming" — when there is no rea-
sonable ground for fuch a conclusion. Lean beasts havy long
been at too high a price; and though we may have fluctua-
tions, yet there is every chance of lean beasts remaining at too
dear a figure for profit to the grazier in the average of years.
I am no man for clinging to a si iking ship, to an uupa3'ing spe-
culation ; and the course which would answer for producing corn
by txpensive manure at 703. per qr. will not do with wheat at
4O3. per qr. Let me clesrly see that any course is wise and pru-
dent, and I am a willing disciple ; but I am not prepared
continuously to rush into the quick-set fence of bullock
grazing blindfolded, and then annually awake to the un-
pleasiug fact that I am in e very uncomfortably losing posi-
tion. We must remember, further, that years since, with
cheap wheat we had cheap oilcake ; but now we have cheap
wheat and dear oilcake, which makes our position even
more untenable ; yet notwithstanding I meet with merchants
who assure me they are doing a good business at £10 IDs.
per ton in oilcake. By uo rule of arithmetic can I reconcile
this outlay of the grazier to any extent with common sense
under existing circumstances ; literally with wheat at a far
cheaper rate, and I believe it is a better fattener than the
adulterated or even unadulterated oilcake of the present day ;
yet men are to be found who invest in cake probably to pro-
duce wheat, vrhich is cheaper by 20 per cent, as a first cost
than oilcake, the means taken to produce it ! I siy this may
be custom, but it cannot be wisdom ; we are creatures of habit,
but our habits may be very unwise. Stock farming, then, may
be very unprofitable ; but again, to go to actual facts, an en-
tire dependence upon the cora produce of the farm will uot do.
We hear men continually complaining that the sole reliance
upon the barn doors for every penny will not answer, and they
are quite right. Which portion of the agricultural community
suffered most during the depression preceding the late Russian
war? It was the cultivators of the clay districts whose lands
yielded corn crops, but no animal produce. This truth admits
of a reasonable explanation ; for whilst wheat fell in price 30
percent, meat but slightly receded in value; and the relative
prices are the same at the present time ; meat is dear com-
pared with wheat, consequently meat must be produced. We
have long since condemned the practice of bare fallow ; we
have strenuously urged the cultivation of roots, but we don't

require a profitless root crop ; we want a direct-paying vege-
table produce, and I think it both feasible and possible to se-
cure it. But before attempting to demonstrate a remunerative
method ol stock farming on stiff retentive soils, I should prefer
to glance at the actual position of many such farms relative
to stock farming at the present time and (or years past. Some
occupants of the clay or loamy districts have a very summary
process of stock farming; they grow no amount of vegetable
produce, and consequently require no stock to consume it.
This, under special pecuniary circumstancea, in different cases,
may not be entirely apart from necessity, for the " heavy land"
districts of the kingdom have never been noted for a galaxy of
wealthy owners or occupiers, nor has the soil ever been noto-
rious for its wealth of producing powers. Is it this description
of soil which our agricultural millionaires take through choice?
Is it here we meet with our Hudsous, our Crisps, or our Mills ?
Is it here we meet with large occupations and va'.t invest-
ments? Is it here we meet with farm houses as mansions, aud
a princely hospitality ? Is it liere we meet with the well-to-do
groom, and the well-conditioned hacks and hunters? Is it
here we meet with first-class stock, model homesteads, and supe-
rior farming ? We kuow 'tis money which is the main spring
of progress, and we must confess to the fact that the clays of
England do not command the wealth of England. To many a
spot could I take you, where the farmhouse of the small occu-
pant is a cottage, the buildings are rubbish ; where a clearance
fi?e would be a general benefit; where the farm is a succession
of corn fields and bare fallow ; where stock is the exception,
and not the rule ; and the tenant, though all kindness, is far
from being all intelligence ; and he is both literally and figu-
ratively "a man of straw." I know clay and water are not
very inviting for investment or cc:upation ; but if the pro-
prietor is too poor to build suitable buildings, if the tenant is
too poor to grow roots and to buy or rear suitable stock to
consume them, I can say nothing to such an improvement, but
I recommend the one to sell and the other to quit, and make
rooia for better men. I advise it, because in these days of
competition there must be adequate investment for adequate
return, and to neglect outlay is but to go to the dogs by de-
grees— the landlord to repossess a whipped, a jaded, and worn-
out farm ; and though the tenant may ksep himself from the
workhouse, and exist in fustian and subserviency, he will re-
quire no man to make out his will, as it is now the law of the
land that every man desiring to bequeath should have some-
thing to devise. We may settle it, then, as a fact, that no
stock at all is not profitable stock farming ; but there is yet
another phase of the class of heavy land farmers to whom I
would allude : I mean the man with sufficient means ; and
there are many such, with stock of a doubtful character — so
doubtful iu quhlity, that early maturity, aptitude to fatten,
symmetry, and shape, would appear to be undesirable qualiC-
ciitions. I now know of many such inferior, ill-made, coarse-
bred animals; I have even tried them, and I still have two or
three young beasts to test the truth of how much po d food
may be thrown away and wasted to manufacture one stone of
ordinary beef. These animals of which I speak, especially, are
often the produce of au ordinary cow, and of the nearest bull
iu the neighbourhood ; there are other beasts of the old Irish
character and the like, but I will warrant each specimen, one
and all of them, as a sure and certain preventive to grazing
proving a profitable investment in their individual cases. I
should like to see the balance-sheet of but one trial ; and if
men more fully calculated the cost even of their successes,
they would be more wary of future attempts. It would be a
case of "once bitten twice shy." Don'c think, gentlemen, that I
am ignorant of the vast improvement which has taken place
in the stock of the kingdom within the last 20 years ; don't
think that I am blind to our exalted national position iu ani-
mal productions. Our Kojal Agricultural Exhibition, our
Smithfield Club Cattle Show, and the local exhibitions iu the
country generally, are evidences of the perseverance, the in-
domitable perseverance, and triumphant successes, of the
middle classes of England, combined with instances of aristo-
cratic assistance iu animal culture. No other nation in the
world possesses such general comparative perfection in animal
symmetry ; and I but tomplain that such improvement has not
reached every occupation — that men are still to be fouud who
attempt to fatten those cattle which have no diipositioii to fat-
ten ; and, when prepared for the butcher, have much offal, but
little prime meat, and entail heavy losses upon the grazier. I
have shown different attempts at grazing, and certain neglects

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of grazing, which cau answer uo mau'd purpose ; but I am well
aware there are many heavy-laud farmers of excellent busineas
habits, of shrewd penetration and judgment, and of ample
capital, whose management will bear comparison with the beat
farming in the land. With your permission I will proceed to
relate tlie course I have pursued, and the reason why I have
acted as I huve in my stock mauegement. It will, of course,
be necessary for me to be rather egotislical ; but I must admit
I can see no good reason why we should all be so extremely
modest as to fear the use of those personal pronouns I, or we ;
for I stand Lefore you not in the spirit of infallibility, but 1
stand here to tell you the course I have pursued ; I stand to
relate my experience, tt at you may iu a kindly and friendly
spirit criticise and censure ray practice in any way you please.
I know well that different circumstances as to the price of food
allow and compel a different course of procedure in feeding. I
know too that a variation in the relative value of stock entails
a variation in practice; but I shall speak of the present time,
of the past five or six years, and under existing circumstances.
Above all, I trnst you will bear in mind I am treating upon
stock farming on stiif retentive soils which require drainage. I
have shown that buyiug old beasts at a dear price, and fatten-
ing them expensively, does not answer ; that all graining does
not pay ; I have shown that the system of all fallow, no root
crop, and no amount of stock, will not do ; and I have shown
that, attempting to fatten that which has uo disposition to
fatten, is a miitake. It was with an experience akin to this
that I undertook the niana;i;ement of 600 acres of arable and
200 acres of pasture land, iu round numbers, in 18.53, in Suf-
folk— it was laud requiring drainage ; the pastures especiilly
were wet, cold, and unproductive ; it was land upon wh.ich no
sheep had been kept except some two or three score iu the
summer months, and it was considered the soil was iinsuited
for sheep ; it was considered madness to institute sheep, not-
withstanding we established a flock of 25 score, or 500 ewes.
We at once drained both plough and pasture, adopted autumnal
cultivation, put aside the bare fallow system, cultivated min-
gold wurtzela and swede?, and we have since been able to rear
650 lambs annually, to fatten out an average of 40 beasts, to
rear an average of 30 young beasts, to fatten an average of 10
score of sheep, to keep 15 cows, 15 colts of different asjes, and
30 horses, and an average run of pigs. Now, I consider there
is nothing extraordinary in this, though clay land, and although
at the commencement much out of condition ; but the secret
has been large and increasing breadths of mangold wurtzels,
till this year, upon the four-course system, we have extended
the breadth to a hundred acres, which at an average of 30 tons
per acre equals 3,000 tons of good valuable food ; and in our
eastern counties exceeds by one-third the produce of swedes,
and the mangold wurtzela have superior fattening qualities.
Independently of our permanent course in keeping a flock of
breeding ewes, we have varied our system of giazing, generally
b\iying calves, rciring and rattening them for sale at two years
old ; but if beasts in good fresh condition have promised to he
beneath the value at which we could rear them, we have then
purchased beasts in the autumn, or in the spring, when partially
fattened ; or if beasts have been dear, and sheep pioportion-
ateiy cheaper, we have then fattened sheep in yards instead of
beasts. We have endeavoured to carry out the principle of
buyiug the most paying article in the cheapest market, and to
secure the largest amount of profit. After every trial vve pro-
nounce greatly in favour of the flock of 500 ewes, as the most
paying; and from the iaiproved condition of the laud, the
number of ewes might now be advantsgeously increased from
25 to 40 scores; and I believe such an increase of the flock to
be the best remely against the present depression in the price
of wheat. Last year the produce of the 500 ewes realized, for
600 lambs sold ia August, £884; 61 tods of wool, £144;
total, £1,028 which exceeds the rental value of the land. This
year the produce of the flock, viz., 650 lambs, and 60 fo'Js of
wool, which realized £970 ; and in other years the return has
been in the same ratio. We have gradually been substituting
Hampshire ewes lor SonthdoAn ewes; and we have crossed
either with Cotswold tups, hired of Mr. Sexton, of Earl's Hall,
Cockfield, Suffolk. We have found that mutton and wool
answers infinitely better than breeding and blood. Size and
frame are necessary for early maturity, and we hnve no no-
tion of small pretty lambs, which ca; not c )uiraand a ready
purchaser. Wc mnde trial of some pure bred lambs, by se-
lecting a few of the best Southdown ewes, and placing with
them Southdown tups hired from the best flockB, but the pro-

geny were very unpaying, even allowing that they consumed
less food when compared with the lambs of the first cross.
The Southdowua are, undoubtedly, admirably adapted for
downland and a short herbage, but not for the soil or the sys-
tem which we have pursued. In the management of the flock,
from the ewes being the scavengers of the farm, they are kept
inexpensively ; but they are always maintained in a sound,
liealthy, thriving condition ; and one main point is, to have
them upon the arable land as much as possible, because of
the manure, but never at a wet or improper time. In
October the ewes are placed in different lots upon the
maiden layers and stubbles generally, whilst the tuppnig
is going on ; also upon the mangold wurtzel tops, after the
roots have been carted. Ia November they have the swede
tops, perhaps a piece of rape, also the pick of the old grass
on the pastures, add, as the weather becomes wet and
cold, they are taken to two good, roomy, well-drained, well-
shedded yards, where they receive cut barley, oat, pea,
bean, or wheat straw in troughs, also a supply of any clean,
freah-thrashed straw, placed between hurdles, or in racks, from
which they eat the straw most fieely. I have been astonished
at the amount they will daily consume. Those yards become
their winter quarters. They are littered with straw as neces-
sary ; and I have alwavs noticed in coarse, wet weather, upon
entering the yards early in the morning, that every sheep is
under cover in the she.is, which simply proves that they are as
great lovers of comfort and warmth as the human or any other
animal. We adhere to the yards in the winter ; as ewes folded
at night upon a bleak field, exposed to severe frosts, cold cut-
ting winds, rain, sleet, and snow, are in a poor position for
progress ; and we prefer to cart the manure to the field in a
dry season, rather thao to deposit it there under such nnfa-
vourable cirrumstances to the a'limil and to the soil. Each
day the ewes have gentle exercise, or a free ramble upon an
aijoining pasture, where they receive an allowance of 100
bushels of swedes or mangold wurtzel per diem. This treat-
meat is continued till within a month or five weeks of lambing,
when a few bushels of crushed rapecake are daily added to the
straw chaff, which cake we consider may advantageously be
passed through the animal instead of applying it direct for a
grain crop to the soil. The rapecake is always eagerly con-
sumed; and even such inexpensive artificial food is very bene-
ficial in preventing too great a reduction in the condition of
the ewes prior to parturition. About three acres of cow cab-
bage are grown, some of which are given to the ewes 10 days
previous to lambing, or they have a small bait upon aftermath
grass, which assists to ease in parturition, and secures a flow
of milk. After lambing, the ewes are placed with the lambs
upon a piece of aftermath grass, which has been reserved,
where they receive mangold wurtzels and cabbages, and return
to the yards at night for rapecake and cut roots with straw
chafl', till the weather becomes sufficiently watm for the lambs
to sleep out, which is not usually till April. The lambs are
allowed cabbages, and a small supply of bean meal and rape
or oil cake, apart from the ewes. In Mayor June the flock of
ewes and lambs receive raangfdd wurtzels upon the rye or rye
grass or pasture, the lambs running forward for the best feed ;
after which, in July, the lambs are weaned, and placed upon
good clover or pasture, where they continue to receive a small
supply of artificial food, and are sold usually at the commence-
ment of August. After weaning the lambs, the refuse ewes
are withdrawn and fattened ; whilst the flock ewes are shifted
to inferior food, and gradually prepared for the following tup-
ping season ; they are allowed a fold of tares or rape, or second
crop of clover, in August and September; and h»ve the run of
some pastures, also the ftubbles, after harvest. Now the
advantages of the system are these — the ewes are treated as
the refuse consumers of the farm ; they are kept in a healthy
condition, but they are kept inexpensively. They subsist in the
autumn upon the stubble feed and root tops mainly ; upon straw
chaff and straw, and a small portion of roots, in the winter ; in
the spring they consume straw largely, with rapecake and
roots ; and in the summer months green food is plentiful.
The return is, as I have sho^n, nearly £1,000 per annum,
which will allow of some expense in the giving artificial food
to lambs ; and such a system of lamb-feeding answers admi-
rably. I can observe, that it not only improves the lamba
generally, but it prevents a number of refuse lambs, which
usually make but a poor return. I think food thus given pays
10 per cent, beyond the improved value of the manure, I cau
find, fuither, by having the ewe? off the laud ia the wet weather

6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of winter, and upon it when dry in the autumn, spring, and
Bummer, the farm is much improved. I can e\w&ya observe
the marked superiority of the wheat, aad other crops, fror.i the
folding. I can notice that poor heavy land pastures are much
fined and iraproveii, even beyond the advantage* ariding^ from
draining', by sheep-feefliug ; the herbage is thereby fined and
much thickened ; but I recommend that the ewes be folded
upon the arable and not upon the pasture, and that muck be
applied to the pasture in some cases instead of the ploughed
land. Such an exchange I have found very beneficial. I
would here remark that the dry food of winter much assists to
a healthy parturition, although mauy of the lambs are large,
and weigh when born from 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. When, from the
cheapness of turnips upon good feeding ground, we have left
home with the flock to consume the turnips at a nomiaal price,
we have been considerable losers in an increase of deaths, both
of ewes and Iambs, at lambing, I know it may be objected
that animals consuming straw largely are but poor manure
makers ; but this is no valid objection ; for if we can make a
good pecuniary profit by the system, we have money in hsud
with which to enter the manure market. Further, the lambs
and ewes consume some artificial food ; and by economy of
straw, with other stock upon the farm, in stall-feeding bensts
and box-lodging rart-horses, the spare here made will suffice
for the straw for the ewes, and a much larger quantity of stock
can by this system be kept. We were once troubled with the
foot disease in the flock for a few weeks, but never to any ex-
tent, and we quickly ridded the complaint by proper treat-
ment. We have purchased ewes, two and three shears old,
annually, at from 403. to 443., and upon this method of treat-
ment they will rear lambs for three or four years. We then
fatten them as crones to the value of from 44s. to 543. per
head. The following is my calculation of expense?, and the
actual balance-sheet of out-goiogs and returns : —

Attendance £40 0

Autumn quarter at Ss. per week per score, 13 weeks . 48 15

Winter quarter at 5s. per score per week 81 5

Spring quarter at 15s. per score per week 243 15

Summer quarter at 10s. per score per week 162 10

Interest 50 0

Loss 50 0

Tups 60 0

£736 5

I have placed all the food at coat price; and the calculation
is based upon the crones being fattened out at the value, and
at the same time that the stock ewes are bought in, conse-
quently 50^. is placed for deaths of ewes, which the lois has
not exceeded ; consequent gain in '57. after deducting 730/. 59.
(the cost), from 102S/. (the return), 291/. 15s. profit. In 'r,S,
736/. 5s. (the cost), deducted from 970L (the return), 23??. ISs.
profit. Now such profits, with the additional value of the
manure, are, I think, worthy of cnsideration ; and I advocate
a flock of ewes, in pre.fertnce to fatting sheep, because the
poor quality of the laud, and of the produce of heavy land
generally, is much better adapted for a breeding than for a
fattening flock. I beheve laiflb breeding the most paying
course; and in the light land districts the flock has always
been the mainstay of the farm ; then why should it not become
so upon mauy a clay laud occupation ? I believe the system
may be advantageously carriel out where not evea one tenth
of the farm is in pasture. Where no pasture exists, and it'
necessary, instead of pursuing the four-course system, why not
allow the land with clover to remain two years instead of one?
thereby making a five-course system of it in preference to the
four-course shift ; and with good folding, which the clover land
would receive after the first year's mowing, and then the
second year's feeding, it would be in excellent heart or prepa-
ration for the following crops, and furnish an abundauce of
feed and space for the ewes. Ever since I can remember, I
have heard increasing complaints of the loss in the eastern
counties of buying old beasts, and fattening them out ; but I
never yet heard one complaint against ewes, or the system of
flock farming. I know many a man may possibly say, " Well,
I'll try a score ewes, and see what they will do ;" the conse-
quence is, a few are as much trouble as the many ; and unless
the breeding is made a prominent feature of the farm, with a
lad or shepherd properly to attend to the ewes, the trouble of
the few, being every one's care and no man's direct charge,
exceeds the advantage, and they become a source of petty

annoyance rather than of profit. I therefore recommend any
gentleman disposed to pursue the system, to arrauge his re-
sources, and commence with a proportionate number of ewes
to the size of his occupation, whereby the prospect of a remu-
nerative return will make it worth his while to take suitable
care, and to pay the necessary attention to the flock. Upon
the s\ibject of lamb rearing, and the management of ewes
generally, on stiff retentive soils, my friend Mr. Goodwin
thus writes to me. Mr. Goodwin now farms light land, con-
sequently he writes in the past tense : —

" Covehithe, Nov. 29, 1858.
"My Dear Sir,~In reply to your letter of yesterday, respect-
ing the keeping of breeding ewes upon stiff land, the plan I
pursued for many years was this — to give three bushels per
score pc-r day of any description of roots, upon a stubble or
meadow near the yard ; where 1 nightly put them to straw in
racks (not laid about, to be trampled upon and dirtied) of any
kind of barley, pea, bean, cr wheat straw — the last the worst.
About three weeks before lambing I gave more roots, and
mostly halfa-piat of beans each, or as near as I could estimate
that quantity or value of barley in straw, if the latter was very
cheap. I forgot to say my ewes generally went upon this keep
about the third week of November, varying according to
weather. After lambing, my twin ewes went to old grass and
roots in the daytime, and each night into yards to cake and
corn, until layers were ready, when I threw roots into fold for
ewes, the lambs running forward. I need not say the singles
caught the wor*t fare. I do not know of anything further
likely to be of advantage to you, excepi_thi3 — my lambs were
generally a good crop, and made, as you arc probably aware, a
good price in the third week of June. I remain, dear Sir,
yours truly, " S. C. Goodwin."

I have in different instances fattened 300 of the produce of
the flock in sheds and jards duriag the winter, and sold them
the following spring as hog^;ets. In some cases I have fattened
purchased sheep, either of which I have divided into small lots
of 15 or 20, by partitioning the sheiis ; and when I have been
short of straw, or the manure has accumulated under them to
become hot to the feet, I have found a small casing to the ■ ard
of two or three inches of sand very serviceable, as abaorbiug
the liquid in the manure, consolidating the muck, and prevent-
ing injury to the feet of the animal by heat or moisture. The
manure thus made has always proved remarkably efficacious.
I have given the sheep a small supply of the cheapest artificial
food in the market, with cut mangold wuttzels and chaff.
Sheep have paid me even for grazing better than beasts. Sheep
grow wool, in addition to meat ; they have a smaller propor-
tion of offal to beasts ; consequently, less food goes to waste,
and the price of mutton is usually ^d. to f I. per lb. in excess
of beef; consequently, if a beast does not manufacture a larger
amount of meat from a given quantity of food than the sheep,
then it is clear, by the light of reason, under such circumstances
— the meat higher in price, a smaller proportion of offal, and
a penny to add to each pound of meat for the wool produced
— I Sly, under such circumstflnces, it is clear, by the light of
reason, that the sheep must he the more profitable of the
two classes of animals — and such has been my expcr-ence.
At the same time I would add, I have never yet found
sheep grazing equal to lamb rearing on stiff retentive farms.
My opiuiona and conclusions upon the age of the beasts to
be grazed vary considerably from the principles and pi-actice
generally adopted. I observe numbers buy old beasts for
fattening, or they purchase young beasts, and keep them
12 months upon straw, and roots, and pasture, and fatten
them the succeeding winter. Now, my experience has been
that, although young beast? will not fiitten so fast ss older
ones, yet their assimilation from a given amount of food is
greater ; they extract more of the nutritive matter, and
convert it into muscle, fat, and bone — in plain terms,
they manufacture a larger number of pounds of meat
from a ton of mangold wurfzels, or any other food, than
the older or full grown beast. The inferiority of the
manure from a growing beast is a proof of this, when
compared with the excrement of the full-grown animal.
You maj' say much goes to form bone ; but it must be re-
membered, although a superfluity of bone is undesirable,
that we sell bone as well as meat to the butcher, and the
butcher to the public ; and tlie more rapid the process of
rearing and fattening to earlj' maturity by judicious feed-
ing, the less the waste of food. It never can be wise or

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

prudent, in these days of rapid returns, of artificial food, of
early maturity, and improved breeds, to grow flesh and bone
by one process and fat by another ; it never was desirable to
make " two bites of a cherry ;" we do not grow straw by one
process and corn by another ; and I believe, nationally, we
are wrong. I believe it is against the interest of the king-
dom, and of the agricultural community, to mature a beast
in four years, which could with greater profit be matured in
two years. It is only in accordance with reason that bone,
muscle, and fat manufacturing should be proceeded with at
the same time. We now mature our sheep very young,
even killing them as hoggets at 12 or 15 months of age, and
they attain to a prodigious weight and size. Early
maturity in sheep grazing is justly considered one of our
modern improvements ; and why, in practice, is not the
principle applicable to beasts as well as sheep? I have
fattened animals of different ages ; and I have found that
beasts fattened when young make the best return, and pay
the largest amount ; they not only swell, but they grow
into money, and fatten at the same time. With
aniraala which I have purchased from Buckinghamshire
as calves, and which I have commenced to latten at
18 months of age, and sold at tv>^o years old, they have
averaged 50 stone of 141bs. each beast; when, had 1 given
them another year in the straw j'ard and at pasture, they
would not have exceeded, when fattened, 60 stones in weight ;
consequently 10 stones at 7s. 6 A. per stone £3 ISs. would
represent the amount of pay per head for one year's keep,
and I think it but a low figure, and poor remuneration for
12 months' feed. The following is an actual balance sheet
of calves reared and fattened, and sold at two years old ;
and I give it simply to show that by proper economy in
feeding, manure may be made without an actual loss in the
average of years, even by beasts, and to prove that beasts
will just pay for the roots and food consumed. Rely upon
it, judicious feeding, not the old-fashioned system of cram-
ming, is the secret of success in making the root crop pay ;
the object desired must not only be attained in a given
time, but it must be secured at the cheapest cost : —

Dr. Balance Sheet.

First cost of 20 well-bred shorthorned calves... £40 0 0

Month.

1 Milk, hay, tea, and artificial food, 4

weeks x 2s. the week per head ... 8 0 0

2"l Mangold, hay, and meal, 8 weeks x
3; Is. 6d. per week 12 0 0

Grass and meal, and chaff, 20 weeks x
Is. 6d. per week 30 0 0

lol

1 , I Mangold and chaff, and meal and chaff,

,2 I 20 weeks x 2s. per week 40 0 0

isJ '

14-.
15 y Di

lej

Ditto, ditto, 12 weeks x 2s. per week 24 0 0

17"!

18 1 Grass, at 23. per week, 16 weeks x

19 f 2s. per week 32 0 0

20 J

2q . .

22

oq I Mangold and chafF, and meal and chaff,

2 . ^ at 7s. per week 24 weeks x 7s,

OS per week

26j

.. 168 0 0

Profit

£354 0 0
21 0 0

£375 0 0

Cr.

] 000 stone of beef, at 7s. 6d.per stone of 141bs. £375 0 0

The mangold wurtzels are charged at £9 per acre, the
meal at 9d. per peck, the bay and grass at current prices.
Now, I am aware that this profit of £21 beyond the cost
of the purchase— the milk, corn, root, grass, hay, and
attendance— simply provides against casualties ; and in these
times of disease it must be remembered tlie risk is much
less with animals well cared for, and well fed throughout,
than with those beasts exposed to hard fare and hard
weather, to the extremes of heat, and perhaps the vitiated
air of a steamer's hold and the extreme of cold in a railway
truck. It must further be remembered that if the profit is
small, the prime cost of all consumed by the animals
is paid for, and the muck is free of any expense beyond the
cartage to the field. I am convinced rearing calves and
grazing young beasts, though entailing trouble, is a safer,
more paying, and less hazardous system than buying old
beasts. I am convinced it is right in principle, and I have
found it better in practice. I will now consider the question
of buying and grazing old beasts. I am convinced it must
be right individually and nationally to produce the largest
amount of meat from a given amount of food. And for one
man as rearer to adopt a feeding process for two or three
years to grow the animal, and another man as grazier
a feeding process for one year more to fatten the animal,
as is often the case, must, in these days of early maturity,
of quick returns, of improved breeds, and artificial foods,
be contrary to those principles of economy in time, and
economy in consumption, which it is desirable for us to
cultivate and carry out in practice. If the two — the rearer
and grazier of old bc-asts — were mutually benefited, who
would have cause to complain ? It would be a mutual
advantage ; but when it has grown to this, that the rearer
has always the best end of the stick, and pockets the total
profits, however small, whilst the grazier has none, either
with dear beef or cheap beef— I say, when the mutual
advantaae has so entirely ceased, it is high time for
the sufferer— the grazier — to seek his own remedy in a
change of system suited to his occupation, and possessing the
promise and prospect of remuneration and profit. I should
like but one old bullock buyer—but one high bullock feeder
in the eastern counties, to come forward and prove by his
balance sheet that grazing has admirably answered his pur-
pose. If such an one there is, he is a rara avis indeed ; and
though I know not the one who has profited, I know well
the ninety-and-nine who are losers, and much " over the
left" by the practice. In grazing old beasts purchased
at recent prices, pecuniary loss has been my experience ;
complaints and accounts from private friends give a
concurring testimony ; and when I examine published
statements, I can find but little recorded profit, and much
positive loss. We are all creatures of habit ; and in the
eastern counties we have so continuously purchased and
fattened beasts, and mainly supplied the metropolitan mar-
kets during the winter months, that "what has been must
be" is too much our course of procedure, without an effort of
thought or of action to effect a change. This observation is
especially true when applied to a system of long continuance
and of general practice. " What else should I do .''" " every-
one does the same," are the sedatives and narcotics of an
unpaying system ; and men are often at ease to share
a misery or loss with their fellow-men which they could ill
endure isolated and alone. I know many will say, '' I
must stamp my straw down." I reply, by all means;
but do it at a profit ! If you are content to do it at a loss, I
am not the man to swim with you ; if we are satisfied to do
badly, we shall never aspire to do better. I think, with
present prices and present prospects, the old bullock grazing
shoe has gradually contracted to pinch a little too tightly ;
and I am glad to have the opportunity of calling the atten-
tion, especially of my brother heavy-land farmers, to the
subject in the eastern counties, and I simply ask each man
to revolve and re-revolve the question individually, " Am I
doing well ? and can I not do better ?" An intimate friend of
mine, a farmer of 400 acres of stiff retentive soil, has practi-
cally answered this question. He had bought beasts, and
fattened them, and lost money in the transaction, for a few
years, till the following balance sheet in his experience
caused him to search for a less ruinous system. The
following are the items : —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

250

G

8

£

B.

d.

180

0

0

70

C

8

Dr. £ s. d.

Eight old beasts, at £19 152 0 0

20 weeks' keep at an average of 101b.

of cake per day, at Id. per lb.... Os. lOd.

3 bush, of mangold wurtzel at 2d. per

bush Os. fid.

J peck of meal, at 4d Os. 4d.

Is. 8d.
Is. 8d. per day each beast x 140 days x 8

beasts 93 6 8

Attendance , 5 0 0

Cr.

Eight beasts sold at £22 10s. each
Loss on eight beasts, at £8 ISs....

250 6 8

The loss of £8 153. lOd. per head is a slow road to riches,
especially when the ulterior result is known. My friend
found that the beasts had made 165 loads of muck, which
he applied to 11 acres of land, at the rate of 15 loads per
acre, and which, with the labour of filling, carting, and
spreading, coat nearly £7 per acre — a larger amount
than the two succeeding crops realized for the manure
applied, after deducting the outlay for seed, rent, rates,
tithes, and labour. This was but a poor speculation ;
hut we have heard of worse. I have known beasts
realize but the price at which they were purchased
at market in their lean state ; but, presuming the
year to be an average one, and that the popular
opinion is realized by the beasts paying simply for
the artificial food, still, on the above scale of feeding, at
3 bushels of root per day, there is a loss of 4s. 2d. per head
per week, in the cost of mangold wurtzels consumed and
attendance, or £4 3s. 4d. per head upon the 20 weeks ;
which, if each beast has mauufactured 20 loads of manure,
is 4s. 2d. per load, or 415 per cent, beyond the cost at which
younger beasts would have manufactured it ; for whilst on
the average, as generally allowed, older beasts pay nothing
for root crop, I believe, on the average, younger beasts,
with economical feeding, do pay for the food consumed, just
keeping the Dr. aud Cr. account at par, and the manure is
thereby secured gratis, without loss in the grazing trans-
actions. I am conviijced beasts, at the best, make but a
poor return ; and my friend before alluded to, who had lost
yearly by his bullock grazing, and as an ultimatum lost
£8 15s. lOd. pur head, was so dissatisfied that he wisely re-
solved upon a change. He has since gradually given up
beasts, and substituted the best riding colts he can purchase,
and sheep. He has now each year from 50 to 70 colts by
him, which he buys at a range in price varying from £20 to
£70. These he fattens in loose boxes, which his beasts
once occupied, in 20 weeks, thereby making two returns in
the mangold wurtzel season of 40 weeks. The following is
the dietarv, with the actual cost and results : —

8. d.
1 bushel of cut mangold wurtzel, at 2d. x 7 days ..1 2

.^ cwt. of hay at OS. per cwt. per week 1 6

r peck of bran at 2d. x 7 days, with straw chalF . . 1 2
Attendance 0 3

4 1
Cost for first ten weeks 4s. Id. per week.

Superior scale of feeding for fattening. In this case boiled
wheat is used with good success, and I would here re-
mark that 1 peck of dry wheat absorbs 3 pecks of water,
making 3 pecks of boiled wheat : s. d.

1 peck of boiled wheat per day at 4d. x 7 days ..24
i peck of barley meal at 2d. x 7 days 1 2

3 pecks of cut beet at 1 id. X 7 days. 0 lOJ

4 cwt. of hay in truss, or cut with 2-3rd straw at 3s. 1 6
Attendance 0 3

Cost for second 10 weeks, 6s. l^d. per week.
The result has been that my friend has reaped a clear

profit of 8d. per bushel for the mangold wurtzel consumed,
which, if calculated by the acre, is a very different return
from his serious losses, at bullock grazing, of the entire root
crop, and a little money in addition. The !ld. per bushel
includes interest of capital, and deaths or accident. Enough
colts are kept to make down the straw of the farm into ma-
nure, and it is the number of colts which allows of such
cheap attendance. It is of course perfectly clear that such
a course of colt grazing is not practicable to any vast extent
by any number of men, but it shows what may be done by
those who try ; and I much desire to see fewer old
bullock graziers upon the old Suffolk system — a larger
number of lamb breeders, keepers of well-bred cows, rearers
of calves, fatteners of young beasts, and colt fatteners on
the stiff retentive soils. Prices will thus equalise them-
selves more advantageously, and the heavy-land farmer will
greatly benefit himself by sharing in the profits of his lig'.t
land neighbour, who in times of depression finds his sheep
stock his preventive to loss — his grand security. I will
even go so far as to say we are no longer literally dependent
upon the animal for manure. We have our artificial ma-
nures ; and I believe a direct loss upon grazing to the
amount of the mangold wurtzel root crop consumed, which
costs £9 per acre to produce, is not the most paying course.
Even such manure at such a cost is not the cheapest, for al-
though bullock manure is lasting, we must remember that a
large proportion oi the vegetable matter it contains is given in
literally gratis in the shape of straw, which certainly consti-
tutes more than one-half of the manure. Try your pure
beast manure without the straw, against pure Peruvian
guano at equal costs, ami I believe the latter the cheaper,
judging by results. Not that I recommend such a course,
but I waiit to demonstrate that some other system than
losing by bullock grazing is practicable, and that our beast
manure, in Suffolk at least, is bought at too dear a price,
especially at the present price of wheat. I know it may be
said straw is not manure ; but I would simply remark that
when the lease stipulates that a load or two of straw shall
be annually supplied to the landlord, we then hear enough,
and a little to spare, upon impoverishing the farm and the like
by the removal of straw from the occupation of its growth.
Cow farming has within the last few years been discontinued
on many farms with stiff retentive soils, but it has been my
experience that the average of cows at the present high
price of butter and cheese pays a clear profit beyond cost
of keep, attendance, and trouble, of £5 per cow. Good food
ensures a good quality of milk, and an abundance of it. Of
nothing must come nothing, and a spare diet is certain to
result in a short fiow of poor milk. To me it has appeared
most desirable to possess such a quality of cow as will not
only prove useful and profitable for her milking properties,
but such an one as will also breed a good calf if put to a
well-bred bull. This is the description of cow to be met
with in the best dairy and calf-rearing districts, and I can
see no reasonable cause why such a cow should not be ap-
plicable to the eastern counties. I mean nothing of a fancy
character, but a well bred, well-shaped animal ; and thougli
it may be objected that the pastures of Suffolk, or Norfolk,
or Essex are not sufficiently good, I think if it should lead
to their drainage and improvement it would insure a double
benefit — a better description of cow, and better pasture
farming. My experience in pig grazing has been, that a
sufficient number to consume the waste of the farm are as
miuy as are desirable. I have found that cart horses are
most economically kept in part upon mangold wurtzels.
We commence feeding them even in October with the best
results ; and, at the present time, I can meet with no corn
so cheap as wheat, for the horse, in connection therewith.
The following is the dietary : — s. d.

2 bushels or 5 stones of mangold wurtzel, with chaff,

per day, at 2d. per bushel, 4d. X 7 days .. ..2 4
I bushel of ordinary wheat and grinding given with

chaff 4 6

I cwt. of clover hay at 4s. per cwt 2 0

Total per week 8 10

Upon such diet the horses work hard, and remain in good
condition. Plven with the cart horses I am a great advocate
for comfort, and much prefer airy, comfortable, well venti-
lated loose boxes, to the open yard aad shed system. The

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

9

manure remains under them for about three weeks ; from
being made under cover it is much better in quality; and
comfort is preferable to discomfort to the animal itself.
After a hard day's work, quietly to feed and quietly to rest
must be more desirable than fighting or being fought from
the shed or the feeding bin ; and in proof of the healthiness
of the system I will here read a letter from the most emi-
nent veterinarian in Suffolk, who has had much experience
upon this subject, combined with an extensive practice: —

" Veterinary and Livery Establishment, Museum-
street, Ipswich, Nov. 27, 1858.
" Dear Sir, — I am decidedly an advocate for well- ventilated
stables for cart horses to feed and sleep in, rather than open
yards, although I believe their general adoption would not
advance the pecuniarj- interests of the " vet." Mr. T.
Harwood, Belstead Hall, Ipswich, has had some 18 or "20
farm horses constantly in boxes for the past six years, and
to him I would refer you for a reliable practical opinion,
feeling sure he would with pleasure give it you — I am, dear
sir, truly yours, '• C. T. Shorten."

"Belstead Hall, Oct. 2, 1058.
" Dear Sir, — I am sorry I was prevented replying to your
letter yesterday. It is quite correct I have had 20 horses
for several years kept in boxes, and from my experience I
am satisfied the health of the horses is certainly improved,
as Mr. Shorten can testify. I think his bill the year pre-
vious to the alteration of my stables was £3G, and during
the five or six years since ii has not been 36s. for the entire
period. I think for both food and attendance the cost is
more, as they consume less inexpensive food, but the com-
fort and security is very great. I am fortunately situated
in having a constant supply of water in each box. I am
not quite certain that the horses make so much muck as
when turned into the yard, but it is decidedly better. It
will afford me pleasure to show you my stables. — Yours
very truly, " Thomas Harwood."

In all feeding and fattening of any description of animal
it has been my experience that warmth and comfort are
equivalents for a certain amount of food. I have found
that regularity of feeding and cleanliness are essential to
progress, I have always discovered that an extravagant
system of feeding is most unpaying ; that we require to
give such proportions and admixtures that the animal can
manufacture the largest amount of meat from_ a given
quantity of food ; that an excess of the nutritive is unassi-
milated and voided in the excrement ; that although the
manure is thereby improved, it is too expensive to manure
with that which should by proper management — by proper
admixture in a larger bulk — have been converted into meat.
On the other hand, I have found, as every one else has, that
an insufficiency of the nutritive in the food causes retrogres-
sion, instead of progression. Further, 1 have always ob-
served that rest and quietude are necessary for rapid
progress ; that exercise is undesirable. In fattening
animals we have an unnatural object in view, in the undue
development of flesh and fat; consequently, <an unnatural
means best secures the ends desired, aud exercise under
such circumstauces is injurious rather than beneficial. If
we frustrate nature's purposes, aud have objects antagonis-
tic to nature's intentions, we must deviate from nature's
prescribed laws of exercise for strength to secure our alien
ends. I am, therefore of opinion, and it has been my ex-
perience, that fattening beasts ranging at large, in an open
yard, lose much of the benefit of their food by waste in ex-
posure to cold, and from superfluous exercise. I have no
objection to the loose box system ; under certain circum-
stances, I think it the most desirable course to pursue ; but
as the beasts in loose boxes stamp away one-half more
straw than the stall-fed animals, and again, as the loose box
system requires a much larger extent of buildings, which
landlords usually are not very anxious to erect, nor tenants
to pajr a per-centage upon, I think stall feeding both the
more desirable and the more feasible sj'stem to adopt
generally. As to the description of animal to feed, we re-
quire healthy, symmetsical, and docile animals ; we require
animals that will manufacture meat, and not oftal ; animals
that will assimilate food to their own superstructure, and
not such as fill the office simply of root pulpers, cake
grinders, and manure stampers ; v.'p want animals that vAW

make a return in meat and profit for kind treatment'
attention, and good food. I will briefly recapitulate by a
summary of the foregoing. I have shown that although
stock farming is desirable, yet that all stock farming is not
profitable. I have pointed out, that the judgment required
for the most profitable consumption of the root crop, for the
most paying manner in which to manufacture straw into
manure, is something to tax the observation and attention,
and that it requires no mean powers of discrimination. I
have shown that an unpayiag and unprofitable root crop
will not do ; that no roots and no stock and an entire
pecuniary dependence upon the barn doors will not do, I
have shown that stock farming with ordinary stock is very
unpaying ; that extravagant feeding in stock farming will
not answer directly or indirectly, I have shown by my
own experience, and the experience of my friend Mr.
Goodwin, that lamb rearing is practicable and profitable on
heavy land, and that it is the most paying course. I have
shown by my own experience that sheep fattening is prac-
ticable and next in profit after lamb rearing on stiff retentive
soils. I have shown with mutton usually from 7 to 10 per cent,
dearer than beef, with sheep growing less offal in propor-
tion by 5 to 7 per cent, than beasts, and producing from 12
to 20 per cent, in wool, in addition to meat. — I have shown
under such circumstances that if the sheep manufactures as
much meat from a given amount of food as the beast, that
the sheep must necessarily be the more profitable animal
of the two to grow, graze, and fatten. 1 have shown that
j'oung growing beasts necessarily assimilate a larger amount
from a given quantity of food to convert into bone, flesh,
and fat, than the old full-grown beast; and that early
maturity is the correct principle whereby to manufacture
the largest amount of meat without loss or waste from a
fixed quantum of food. I have further shown by my own
experience that early maturity is the most paying course,
and that young beasts, by proper economy in feeding, may
be .so fattened as to pay the marketable value for all the
food consumed, whereby the manure is obtained free of
cost, I have shown by general experience that buying lean
beasts at a high price, and feeding them at an expensive
rate, is not a cheap, but rather a very dear system of
manure making. I have shown that such a system is un-
paying as a meat manufactory, or a manure manufactorj' ;
that it is only warranted by the ulterior results when wheat
is 30 per cent, above the average price, but that it is
ruinous when wheat is 30 per cent, below par. I have shown
that by the force of circumstances, from a restricted sup-
ply of lean cattle — from sheep husbandry, and beast fat-
tening in the old rearing districts, having superseded calf
and beast rearing; further, from an increased demand,
from increased root culture — I say 1 have shown from the
force of circumstances that the system of one man rearing
beasts, and another man fattening them, has gradually
become uutenable, and that heavy losses by disease would
appear to be hastening on a change to a more reasonable
and secure course of procedure. I have shown the vast
benefit which an intimate friend of mine— a farmer of
stiff retentive soil— has derived from a change from bullock
fattening to colt fattening, realizing in the one case a cipher
for the root crop, but in the other securing 8d. for every
bushel of mangold wurtzel consumed, I have shown that
from the high price of dairy produce cows make a good
return, and are profitable ; at the same time, I have sug-
gested the possibility of an improvement upon my expe-
rience, by .substituting well-bred cows, which are capable
of breeding good calves, in lien of such as are simply use-
ful for the pail. I have shown that pigs are profitable to
such an extent as a sufficiency to consume the waste of the
farm, but that beyond that number my experience does
not sanction. I have instnnced Mr. Shorten's veterinarian
experience, and Mr. Harwood's and my own practical
knowledge, to prove that cart horses require comfort and
warmth, with good ventilation, as much ss any other ani-
mal. I have compared the yard, box, and stall-feeding
systems, and have shown, that as our fattening ends are
unnatural, our means must be unnatural also. I have ex-
pressed my desire that upon the stiff retentive soils of the
eastern counties we should have more lamb rearing and
sheep grazing, more dairy produce, with calf rearing, and
young beast fattening, securing early development and early
nntr.rity; also more colt fattening — all of which would pay

10

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

—rather thau so much old bullock grazing, which does not
pay. I have even advocated an alteration, if necessary,
from the four-courRe shift to the five-course, that we may
grow less wheat, which we don't seem to want, and more
mutton, which we do want. In conclusion, and throughout,
I have endeavoured to show, we must have young unatunted
animals, of such symmetry and docility as to ensure early
maturit}%and a maximum of meat from a minimum of food
• — a maximum of first-class quality of meat, with a mini-
mum of coarse meat and a minimum of offal. I would
add, that there is uo branch of our business which is more
difficult of attainment than judicious stock farming; there
is no branch of our business in which there is more ample
scope for improvement, and a more full development of
latent resources ; and the general cause of advancement will
be best promoted by individual judgment and individual
effort, and by ever}' man doing his utmost to secure the
largest amount of pecuniary profit of which his occupation
and position are capable. I know, Mr. Chairman and
gentlemen, it may be considered I have too strongly
condemned the practice of buying lean old beasts and fatten-
ing them, as carried out in the eastern counties. I know I
have expressed myself freely, but I came before you with
the intention to propound my honeat convictions. I came
before yon with the determination to pander to no popular
principle .or general system. I came before j-cu with the
resolve to expose what I believed to be wrong and unpaying,
and to uphold what I believed to be right and attended with
profit. I have fully and openly explained my opinions,
founded upon my experience, and if I have erred, it has
been in my judgment, aud not by design. I have the satis-
factory assurance that an awakened public opinion will so
canvass the deductions as to pronounce a verdict of error
upon that which is error, and of truth upon that which is
true in principle. I only^ desire to elicit sound conclusions,
and to see established sound practices, based upon the cost
of production, and the law of supply and demand. Profit
best regulates systems of production, and whilst men dis-
card the unpaying produce, and resort to the profitable,
prices are regulated, and the public interest advanced. If,
then, manufacturing lamb, mutton, young beef, mill:, and
horse-flesh, pays better than grazing old beasts, let some of
us at least discard the latter, and adopt the former, to our
own individual profit, and the increase of that national
wealth which is the more rapidly augmented b.y the largest
number of the most successful investments. I could have
wished that my observations should more especially have
referred to those splendid specimens of early maturity and
perfect symmetry which we shall have the pleasure of ex-
amining at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show during the pre-
sent week. We cannot control the force of circumstances ;
but few such animals are fattened upon the stiff retentive
soils of England by hard-working practical men, conse-
quently they were beyond my province of observation. But
allow me to add, we prize "them as incentives to exertion,
and as models for our standards of attainment in animal
development. I beg to thank you for your kind attention
to my lengthened observations. I can assure you it will afford
me pleasure to answer questions to illuminate any remarks
wherein I have unintentionally been opaque or inexplicit,
and I much desire to hear the expression of your experience
in stock farming upon stiff retentive soils. (The reading of
the paper was followed by loud and general cheering.)

Mr. W. Bennett (of Cambridge) wished for a word of
explanation with regard to the two bushels of mangold
wurtzel per day, which Mr. Bond said he gave to each of
his horses, as the quantity appeared very large,

Mr. Bond said they did not give mangold wurtzel sepa-
rately, but they mixed it with corn and chaff, and the horses
ate two bushels of cut mangold per day weighing 2| impe-
rial stones per bushel.

Mr. Bennett inquired how much water the horses drank ?

Mr. Bond said they did not take a large quantity, but
they always had opportunities of drinking.

Lord Berners (Keythorpe, Leicester) wished to express
the great pleasure he felt in being present at the reading of the
most mteresting paper which they had just heard (cheers).
For the last two years he had been prevented from attending
the meetmga ; but he could assure them that he had read with
very great interest the discussions which had taken place in
that club, and he regretted extremely that it had not been iu

bis power to attend them. With regard to the paper which
had been read that evening, they would all agree with him
that it emanaied from a man of greit practice and great ob-
servation (Hear, hear). There was very much in it to make
people think, and he was sure that its diaseminatiou would
benefit agriculturists. One thiug had eapecially struck
him in listening to it, namely, that as io draining so in stock
feeding, there coulJ not be laid down any general rule for the
whole country, but that they must all be guided by the pe-
culiar circumstances of their districts (Hear, hear). As re-
garded the profitableness of sheep feeding incases in which beast
feeding had been carried on before, he could himself speak
from experience. He bad tried it on land of a very dififerent
nature from that which hsd been described ; but he there
found the results very beneficial, and he had also reabzed
similar results on the strongest clay soil (Hear, hear). Mr.
Bond truly observed that they must look to the races of
sheep and cattle, and must take care to select the best —
that is, those v,hich had the strongest constitutions, and
were most suitable for early maturity. Mr. Bond had spoken
of the Hampshire downs. He (Lord Berners) had tried them
to a great extent, but upon the land on which he tried them
they cost him £600, and he was glad to get back to the Sussex.
He tried the Sussex downs afterwards in Leicestershire. Being
very much pleased by the success which he had with them in
Norfolk, he persevered with them for twelve years in the
county of Leicester, but he found the soil and cUmate unsuit-
able to them, and therefore he had to give them up for the
Leicester and heavier breeds. Mr. Bond had dwelt very much
en the comparative profit of old and young animals. Whether
young animals would pay better thau old ones must depend
very much oq the nature of the farm, its capabilities for bered-
ing purposes, and so on. Th.st gentleman had also observed
that an old beast could not pay if it had 10 lbs. of cake a-day.
Now, as he (Lord Berners) was speaking before practical men,
he would give them the result of his own experience in this
matter. lie had found that to give the greatest variety of
food was the beat way to produce the greatest attainable
amount of fat and flesh (Ileor, hear). He had not himself of late
given any animal more than 4 lbs. of cake a-day. lie found
that one of his tenants was giving more than 14 lbs. a-day,
and be asked him how he could suppose that that would pay
when cake was £12 a ton ? He entirely concurred in the re-
mark, that it was best that rapecake should go through the
body of the animal, in order that it might increase the quantity
of the wool and the value of the mutton. He had bimsel
adopted that plan ; it was more than thirty years since he first
tried it, and he could testify to the value of Mr. Bond's sug-
gestion. Again, thst gentleman asked, why, when corn was at
ao low a price, they should not produce more mutton — why
they should not adopt the five-course instead of the four-course
shift ? While that suggestion was being made, his friend on
his left (Mr. Alderman Mechi) whispered " Won't that pro-
duce weeds aud twitch ?" On certain lands it no doubt would
produce them ; but how were they to avoid that evil at the
time of year when they were most pinched for food ? Some-
times their turnips were nearly finished, or their mangold
wurtzel was almost exhausted, or was wanted for a better de-
scription of stock. Being pinched in lambing time they had
recourse to rye. Here was seen the advantage of the fifth
course, a second year of clover. In order to obviate the grow-
ing of weeds and twitch, he had been accustomed to get what
was called a stolen crop of turnips. As soon as he had fed it
down, in May or June, he scuffled it, fed it off, and it then
came in for his wheat. As regarded the breeding of horses,
considering the high prices which the Suffolk horses fetched,
the great estimation in which they were held, not only in Eng-
land, but also in Scotland, and in Ireland, where he saw some
splendid specimens this year, he did not wonder, he said, that
a gentleman from Suffolk should recommend that horses should
be bred more than they had been ; aud he could say from his
own experience, that if they selected good brood mares, and
went to the expense of obtaining the best stallions that were
available, instead of looking only to a low price, they would
find the breeding of horses a very profitable item in the farm-
ing account (Hear, hear).

Mr. Alderman Mec;hi (Tiptres) must congratulate the Club
on the very able introduction of bis friend from Suffolk. He
thought that the principal cause of that gentleman's success
was his large consumption of straw. In former times he (Mr.
Alderman Mechi) was laughed at by some of his practical

THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE.

n

friends, for advocating the extensive use of straw ; but they had
recently had science to guide them on that point, and if they
read carefully Mr. HorsfaU'a valuable papers in the Royal
Agricultural Society's Journal they would there fiud that
every lOOlbs. of straw contained SOlbs. of gum, sugar, and
starch, which was equivalent to 151bs. of oil (laughter). There-
fore they need not wonder that straw properly prepared was
the right article to put fat on animals (renewed laughter). He
was not surprised to hear gentlemen laughiug at that, as it
was so much opposed to their preconceived notions ; but he
hoped they would be governed by facts and by science. There
was no doubt about the matter; there was in fact 151bs. of
oil in every lOOlbs. of straw. And when lOOlbs. of straw was
of so much value, it formed, as a mattei of course, the cheapest
possible food that they could have to fatten their animals.
This was not a msre theoretical question with him. Mr.
Bond had spoken of the profitableness of raising youug stock
on a farm. Now he had reared, in the same manner in which
that gentleman proceeded, forty calves, and, instead of paying
£2 a piece for them, he paid only 30s. They came out of
Buckinghamshire. He raised them on boards ; they had
nothing scarcely but steamed cut straw in very large quan-
tities, with a certain proportion of rapecake and a few roots,
and in two years and a half they were sold as fat bullocks.
Those forty animals were succeeded by fifty others, with re-
gard to which the same round of treatment was pursued, and
in two years and a half they also weut out fat bullocks. He
repeated, therefore, that with him this was not a mere ques-
tion of theory. At one period, owing to some alterations in
his buildings, he ceased to use such a large quantity of straw,
and the moment that occurred he found that he was keeping
his stock with less advantage. For a time he used large
quantities of cake, but that proved comparatively unprofitable,
lie had since returned to his former system, being convinced
by the science of Mr. Horafall, which he found in the admira-
ble papers to which he had referred, that by giving straw in a
prepared state you were sure to make aa animal thrive. He
had a number of bullocks now feeding on that system. Thoy
had as much wheat-straw cut up and steamed as they liked :
together w ith that they had three and a-half pounds of rape-
Cttke, and three quarters of a pound of malt ; and they had,
further, probably, about thirty pounds of roots per day. He
concluded, therefore, that straw was too valuable to be trodden
under foot ; and Mr. Horsfall had shown by large practice, as
well as by science, that while straw was worth only Oa. 4d. a ton.
to plough into the ground as manure, they could give 35s. a
ton for feeding purposes, and make a good profit. These
were things which should not be laughed at, but tested (Hear,
hear). He agreed with Mr. Bond, that yovmg animals con-
verted food better, and j'ielded a bettsr profit than old ones.
With regard to horses, he bejrged to say that he had given
them mangel wurzel for some years ; and he had found that
when it was mixed with plenty of fine-cut straw, and the
temperature of the roots was what it should be, his horses
would eat readily from forty to fifty pounds per day. If the
dung was in a proper condition, and there was no tendencj'
to scour, mangel-wurzel might be given almost ad libitum;
and he believed that in the spring of the year especially the
general condition of the animal was very much improved by
its use. He could not admit that Essex farmers were all
men of straw only (laughter). The Hutleys, and the
Carters, and others whom he might name, were anything
but men of straw (Hear, hear). He agreed, however, with
Mr. Bond that a great change was required in the character
of the buildings. Moreover, the land must be drained. On
this point, he was happy to find that many persons had
lately adopted the opinions whicli he expressed fifteen years
ago ; and as they were now working in the right direction,
and had begun draining at great depths on their stiff' reten-
tive soils, he hoped they would make the amende Jiojtourable
to him when the proper time arrived (laughter). He be-
lieved that good covered buildings were essential on stiff'
clays ; and he hoped that landlords would be found ready
to erect them, and tenants to pay a reasonable addition to
the rental — supposing that not to be too high at present —
on account of their erection. He felt quite sure that it was
not desirable, as regarded profit, to give a large quantity of
rich food to animals. Pie knew that Mr. Hudson, of Castle-
acre, had given as much as fortj^ pounds per day, looking
for a return in his wliejt ; but it wns questionable whether

it would not be better to diffuse the manure by means of a
larger number of animals.*

Mr. J. C. Nesbit (Kennington) said no one present —
whether he was practically engaged in agriculture, or engaged
in studying the practice of agriculture— could have listened
to Mr. Bond's introduction without being convinced that he
had well studied the various points which he brought before
them (Hear, hear). He would just refer to one or two of
those points on which he most entirely concurred with that
gentleman. In the first place, he spoke of the impossibilit}'
of getting profit out of the food without having regard to the
amount of manure. Nov/ it would, perhaps, be in the re-
collection of some gentlemen present that some years ago,
while speaking in that very room on this subject, he advo-
cated the use of food in such a manner that the stock them-
selves should pay for what they consumed, and the manure
be, as it were, given to the farm. He then said in effect
what Lord Berners had said that evening, namely, that
from twelve to fourteen pounds of oilcake per day for a bea-^t
was too much ; and Mr. Mechi would perhaps recollect his
saying also that if he would undertake to feed a certain
number of animals, some on three pounds of oilcake a dajs
some on six pounds, some on nine pounds, and some on
twelve pounds, and keep some of the dung which passed
through the animals so fed, he would undertake to tell him
how much of the oilcake had passed through the animals
undigested. It was eight or ten'years ago since he made
that offer; and as the point had not yet been decided, he
begged now to renew it, without limiting it to Mr. Mechi.
The assimilating powers of animals depended very much on
the time which they had for digesting their food. It was
useless to give an auimal a larger amount of food than it
could digest within the time allowed. The great point was
to give animals that quantity of food which was best suited
to their condition and to the climate and the state of the at-
mosphere ; it was only by observing these conditions that
they could properly regulate the amount of food. With re-
spect to straw, the chief use of it was to assist in the diges-
ion of other food. If they gave animals oilcake or mangel-
wurzel, or any other watery kind of food, without sufficient
admixture of woodj' fibre, it would be impossible for them to
digest it. Hence arose the value of chaff, straw, and any
other kind of woody fibre. As regarded Mr. Mechi's account
of the enormous value of straw, he had not read the paper
to which that gentleman referred [Mr. Blechi : "I wish you
would"] ; but he apprehended that if he did so he should
learn from it that Mr. Mechi had somewhat mistaken the
author's meaning. Oilcake was sold at from JtlO
to £12 per ton; he had found, in hundreds of
analyses, that from 10 to 12 per cent, was the maximum of
oil which it contained ; and, that being the case, he thought
that straw, which could be bought even in London at
about 25s. a load, could hardlj' contain 15 per cent, of oil
(Hear, hesr). [Mr. Mechi: "Do you know how much
it does contain.''"] He apprehended that 2 per cent., or
even 1 per cent., was the utmost amount that could be pre-
dicated of it (Hear, hear). The chief use of straw was, as
he had intimated, that it enabled them to use a large
quantity of more nutritious food with advantage. He did
not deny that there was a certain amount of nutriment in
straw, but as to its containing the proportion of oil which
Mr. Mechi assumed, if Mr, Horsfall or any other gen-
tleman asserted that, he would pledge his reputation that it
did not.

Mr. Mechi said this was too important a question to
remain in doubt. What he had stated was, that lOOlbs. of
straw contained SOlbs. of gum, starch, and sugar ; and that
that was equivalent to lolbs. of oil. It was a chemical
question whether that was the case or not (Hear, hear).

Mr. Nesbit said, then he would assert that lOOlbs. of
straw did not contain SOlbs. of gum, starch, and sugar.
No one entertained a more sincere respect for Mr. Mechi
than he did, feeling as he did that, by his experiments and

* A!r. Mechi since finds in Mr. Horsfall's paper the foUomng —
" In wheat straw, tor which I pay 35s. per ton, I obtain Jib. of
oil, besides 32 lbs. of starch, or (the starch produced as oil)
18.^ lbs. for Is. 2Jd. available for the production of fat, or for
respiration. I know no other material from which I can derive,
by purchase, an equal amount of this element of food at so low
a price."

12

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

his great activity, he had done an immense aniuuiit of
good throughout the kingdom (cheers). On this point,
however, he certainly must be allovced to differ from iiim.
Having analyzed straw over and over again, he had found
it to consist chiefly of woody fibre, v?itli some soluble or-
ganic matters, mingled with a large amount of ash ; and
any one who said that straw contained 15 per cent, of oil,
said what would not bear examination.

Mr. Alderman Mechi: As you have analyzed straw,
perhaps you can tell us what proportion of oil it contains .^^

Mr. Nesbit continued : If Mr. Mechi would send him a
specimen of his straw to-morrow, he would analyze it
(laughter). He said distinctly that the straw which he
had analyzed did not contain any such amount ot gum,
starch, and sugar as had been stated (Hear, hear). Now,
witQ respect to the various modes of culture which had been
alluded to that evening, it should be recollected that lands
and seasons and prices must vary the culture (Hear, hear).
In all his addresses to farmers, he had laid it down that
there ought to be no attempt to regulate fanning through-
out the country by fixed and invariable rules (Hear, hear).
It had been clearly shown by Mr. Bond that evening that
the farmer ought to be able to vary his cultivation with
the variations m circumstances, and should not be bound
always to adhere to the four-course shift ; and he thought
that, for that purpose, increased powers should, if possible,
be obtained uuder leases.

Mr. F. J. Wilson (Essex) thought that the straw referred to
in Mr. Horafall's paper wai not wheat straw, but beau straw,
and any chemist would tell them that the properties contained
iu those two kinds of straw were totally different. (Hear, hear.)
Iq Scotland, he might observe, it was very common for farmers
to fattea their bullocks with oat straw. la considering how
far wheat straw might be used with advantage, they should re-
gard it as a vehicle by which the stomachs of the animals were
enabled to perform their functions. Its chief use was to keep the
stomachs in proper tension. An animal would be starved if it
ate only mangold, contaiuing, as it did, 87 per cent, of water ;
and the animal that ate most straw in proportion to roots was
generally the one that did the roots most justice. This did not
prove, however, that straw was a fattening article; it only
proved that straw took away from the roots a deleterious
quality which belonged to them when consumed alone. (Hear,
bear.) The question which farmers had to determiaefor them-
selves was, how they couli accomplish the productiou of a
stone of meat, whether beef, mutton, or pork, not only without
loss, but with a fair profit. He considered that it was well
known that animals generally ate a fourth or a fifth of their
own weight per week, while a bullock was considered to be
going on very well if it assimilated a stone a week. Consider-
ing then the enormous quantity of food that passed away ex-
cremeiititiously, the excessive use of oilcake must be a great
loss ; and surely if they wanted manure for their land, it was
better to apply substances to the land directly, than to give
£12 a ton for them, and let them pass throuRli the animal.
He should like to see a well-penned essay on tbe simple ques-
tion, how far meat could be produced profitably by a judicious
admixture of valuable and cheap food. The question before
them being, how stock could be fed profitably on heavy lauds,
be should be glad to know whether the straw of which Mr.
Horsfall spoke was wheat straw or bean straw?

Mr. Mechi said, Mr. Horsfall said it answered his purpose
to pay o5s. a ton for wheat straw, and 40s. for bean straw.

Mr. Williams (Baydon, Hungerford) said he happened to
cultivate some of the stiff retentive soils of Wiltshire. He had
had very little experience in the feeding of bullocks, having
found sheep-farming more profitable on the hills of his own
county, as he could cut a fleece of wool off the animal in addition
to what could be made of the carcase. Although the feeding
of young auimals might be the most advantageous, it was clear
that some one must feed the older ones, even though it was
done at a loss ; and with regard to them it was perhaps desir-
able that as soon as they had got a certain amount of flesh
they should be sold, in order that the bone might produce as
much as possible. (Lsughter.) That, if it did not secure a
profit, would at least prevent any serious loss. There was
one point to which he could cot help juat adverting. If a
man occupied a thousand acres of land, he would require 40
horses ; the horses would consume a vast amount of produce,
one-fifth of the whole produce of the farm ; and as stock farm-
ing on atilT retentive soils required more horse-power than

stock farming on light sciLi, he thought it was iiesirable that
the occupier should have recourse to the steam engine, which
would displace one-half of the horses. If he were asked what
in that case was to be done with the produce which the horses
had consumed, he would reply, let the occupier feed young
bullocks in place of the horses which he had f^ot rid of. He
should be glad if Mr. Bond would state whether or not the
cost which he set down for feeding his horses on mangold
wurzel included attendance. In May, 1855, he had the plea-
sure of introducing the subject of the general applicability of
steam po^er to agricultural purposes ; and though he was then
considered a mere theorist, steam had since been brought into
extensive uie. He thesi introdixed the question of providing
a portable shed. (Cries of " duestion.") He contended that it
would be much cheaper to haul the budding to the roots than
the roots to the building, and that question was well worthy
of consiJcratija in relation to the coat of cultivation ; as iu
these days of competition it would be wisdom in us to adopt
the mode that would be most practical and economical.

Mr. MbCHi said, having obtained the "Journal" con-
taining Mr. Horsfall's paper, he would read the cost of fat de-
rived from 100 Ins. of the following subsiauces : — The fat ob-
tained from meadow bay cost Ss. 7d.; from wheat straw.
Is. 7d.; from Swedish turnips, 43.; from oilcake, Ss. 4d. ;
from locusts, 8a. 4d. ; from Indian meal, 8s. 4d.; so that in
fact they got for Is. 7d. from straw what would cost Ss. 4d. if
it were obtained from some other articles. He recommended
them all to study Mr. Horsiall's paper.

Mr. Nesbit said, the amount of oil stated in this book to
be contained in wheat straw was only one-half per cent.;
beyond that, they had nothing more than an hypothesis that
there were other matters which would form a certain amount
of oil.

Mr. Wells (Booth Ferry House, Howden) said, there was
one point introduced by Mr. Bond on which he wished a little
more information ; be referred to what was said about the keep-
ing of draught horses in loose boxes. He was not a cultivator
of strong clay soil, but as he had twenty-five pairs of draught
horses, he felt great interest in the questi :n which he had
mentioned, and he would be glad if Mr. Bond would tell them
whether what he had said was founded entirely on his own
practice. For upwards of twenty years he had always kept
his horses in stalls. He quite agreed with Mr. Bond that
cleanliness and ventilation were most essential ; and what he
wished to know was, whether loose boxes were preferable to
stalls ?

Mr. Smytiiies (Marlow, Leintwardine), coming as he
did from a part of the country where the bushel was not
much understood, should be glad if Mr. Bond would give
some weight by which the quantity of mangold wurzel that
he gave his auimals might be estimated.

Mr. Bond said, one imperial bushel of mangolds, as given
to the cattle, cut with Gardner's turnip cutter, weighs
2j stones, or 35 lbs.

The Chairman, in terminating the discussion, con-
gratulated the meeting on the great ability with which the
sul'ject was introduced, and the practical manner in which it
had been discussed.

Mr.] Bond then^replied. Adverting to the remarks of Mr.
Mechi on the character of the Essex farmers, he said, he
referred to two different phases of heavy land farming : he
alluded to those who farmed without roots and without cattle,
and to others who pursued the opposite course. In reply to
Mr. Williams, he said, the cost of the mangold wurzel, for the
young b?ast, included the cost of attendance. With respect
to Mr. Wells's inquiry, in reference to his draught horses, he
observed, that he bad kept ten horses in looae boxes for the last
five years, and he had found that they required less straw than
before. With his stock system he wanted manure ; he did
not want the straw to be trodden down.

On the motion of Mr. Alderman Mechi, seconded by
Mr. Nesbit, thanks were voted to Mr. Bond for his able paper,
and the proceedings terminated with a simitar compliment to
the Chairman.

THE ANNUAL DINNER

TookplaceonTuesdaycvening, Dec. 7, atRadley's Hotel
and was attended by upwards of 80 members and visitors.
The chair was taken by Mr. T. Owen, of Clapton ; and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

13

amongst those present were — Lord Berners, Mr. Shnarer,
Mr. Jonas Webb, Mr. U. Smith, Mr. James Wood, Mr.
Hudson (Castleacre), Mr. H. Trethewy, Mi.W. Ben-
nett, Mr. Aid. Mechi, the Rev. T. C.James, Mr. G. P.
Tuxford, Mr. H. Cheffins, Mr. J. C. Nesbit, Mr. Skel-
ton, Mr. C. W. Johnson, Mr. C. Howard, Mr. John
Williams, Mr. Marshall, Mr. Coussmaker, Mr. Con-
greve, Mr. C. Stokes, Mr. E Purser, Mr, Cressingham,
Mr. Sidney, Mr. R. Stedman, Mr. J. G, King, Mr. J.
F. Baines, Mr. W. Eve, Mr, Coleman, Mr. Caporn,
Mr. Corbet, &c., &c. Mr. John Thomas, of Bletsoe,
the chairman-elect, acted as Vice-chairman,
After the usual loyal and patriotic toasts,
The Chairman said, he had now to propose a toast
vfhich he was quite sure would be drunk by all present
with great cordiality, for it related to that in which they
all felt the deepest interest, namely, " The Prosperity of
the Central Farmers' Club." (Cheers). Itwasagreat
pleasure to him to see so large a company. It was also
a source of deep satisfaction to him to be able to an-
nounce the continued proiiress of the Club during the
present year — an increase which had only to be followed
uji by a like exertion on their parts to issue in the
doubling and trebliny; of their numbers, (Hear, hear.)
Looking back to the period of the formation of that
Club, which was now 15 or 16 years ago, and compar-
ing it with the state of things at present, he rejoiced to
see the great improvement which had taken place. And
where did those improvements for the most part
originate ? In societies and clubs, where men had
opportunities of gaining new ideas, anJ where projefits
were formed which were afterwards carried out. It
was by such means that they had attamed the degree
of progress which had already been realized. Every one
must look back with delight to the gradual advance
which had been made since the old-fashioned plough
was the only one in use. He was himself living on a
farm where his grandfather lived (cheers), and recollect-
ing the kind of plough which was used in his grand-
father's time, and seeing the improved manner in which
they were now able to till the land, he felt that they had
great cause to congratulate each other that there had
been men amongst agriculturists who had had the talent
to suggest improvements, and the energy to carry them
out, (Hear, hear). It was by the diffusion of intelli-
gence, and the interchange of ideas, that agricultural im-
provements were most likely to be carried to perfection ;
and he trusted therefore that they would all put their
shoulders to the wheel, and exert themselves to the
utmost in order that a club which had proved so useful
might attain increased prosperity. He proposed that
they should now drink " Prosperity to the Club ;" and he
begged to connect with the toast the name of his friend
Mr. Trethewy, one of their most active members.
The toast having been drunk with the honours,
Mr, H. Trethewy much regretted that that duty
had not devolved upon one who was more competent to
do it justice. As a member of the Club, however, he
felt bound to obey the call of the Chairman ; and, more-
over, the interest which he felt in the Club would pre-
vent him from shrinking from the performance of any
duty which was fairly impossd upon him. That Club
now numbered something like five hundred members,
most, if not all, of whom were more or less connected
with agriculture ; and it could also boast of the counte-
nance of many large and influential landowners, who by
their support manifested that they were not ashamed to
identify themselves with them (cheers). It would be a
bold assertion to say that their list of members com-
prised all the best farmers in England ; but they would
be fully justiiied in saying that it comprised very many
first-class farmers. (Hear hear,) Constituted, then, as
this Club was, he was sure it could not fail to prove a

very useful institution. They were not leagued together
for the purpose of promoting their own interests, to the
prejudice of those of other classes. On the contrary,
they had a national object in view : their object was the
improvement of the laud — the advancement of agricul-
ture. If they succeeded in that object, the effect must
be increased production, and increased production must
be a national benefit. (Hear, hear.) That the discus-
sions of that Club had excited attention in other quarters
there could be no question. It would be easy to adduce
several instances, but he would refer only to one which
had recently come under his own notice, and which he
had no doubt had also come under that of many pre-
sent. Within the last week a paragraph had appeared
in the Times, to the effect that some Liverpool mer-
chants had lately met together for the purpose of con-
considering the question of securing a uniformity of
weights and measures; and on that subject the " lead-
ing journal" had a very excellent article. Now that ques-
tion was first brought prominently before the country
through the medium of that Club, being introduced
there by their late excellent chairman, Mr. Owen Wallis,
whom he was sorry not to see now present. He
did not say that Mr. Wallis was the person who first
ventilated the subject, for it was discussed in several
market towns previous to its introduction in the Club
by that gentleman; but to him, he believed, was due
the credit of having first brought it prominently before
the public. That was one proof of the beneficial influ-
ence which the Club exercised. No longer ago than the
previous evening they had a paper read to tLem on stock -
farming on stiff retentive soils, to which no one
could have listened without deriving instruction from,
(Cheers). It might be said that gentlemen of superior
information could publish books, or send letters to news-
papers, and that information migiit be diffused as well
by such means as by means of lectures and discussions.
Now he (Mr, Trethewy) could not subscribe to that
opinion. He thought that by far the best way of attain-
ing the object was to have different subjects discussed in
a friendly manner, because in that way the various views
and opinions of the whole country might be brought to
bear on the question at issue — an advantage which
nothing in the shape of publications, or of correspond-
ence, would secure, (Hear, hear,) He quite concurred
in the opinion of their excellent chairman, that their
success depended very much on themselves, (Hear,
hear.) It was now something like sixteen years since
the Club was established; "through good report,
and through evil report" it had flourished and pros-
pered, and he had no doubt it would continue to do so.
(Cheers).

Lord Berners, with the greatest possible plea-
sure, rose to propose a toast, which had been en-
trusted to him by the committee of the Club — a toast
which he was sure would be received with equal plea-
cure by all present, namely, " The Health of their ex-
cellent Chairman." (Cheers,) They had heard from
that gentleman, and they had also heard from Mr.
Trethewy, that the prosperity of the Club was increasing,
and he had little doubt that much of the prosperity of
the present year was due to the efficient and admirable
manner in which the Chairman had conducted the busi-
ness. Every one with whom he had conversed respect-
ing the management of the Club had told him that the
Chairman was an excellent man of business, and he was
sure that the manner in which he had thus far presided
that evening was such as called for the approbation of
all present. One word modestly dropped from him
which touched him (Lord Berners) very much ; he
always rejoiced to bear a farmer say that he occupied
the land which his grandfather occupied. (Cheers.)
One of the advantages of Clubs of that description—

u

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and there can be no doubt that the advantages derived
from them was very great — was, that they afforded to
landlords and tenants opportunities of mingling together,
and by means of the meetings which took place that
bond of union which ought always to exist was drawn
tighter and tighter. (Hear, hear). For his own part, he
could declare with sincerity that he rejoiced in every op-
portunity of meeting the tenantry of the country. Mr.
Trethewy had alluded to the interesting character of the
topics which had been discussed in that Club, and had
observed that the benefits derived from the discussions
were not confined to the room in which they occurred.
He referred, by way of illustration, to the very interest-
ing paper which was read on the previous evening, but
he omitted to refer to another paper of equal interest on
the allotment system. (Cheers). In meetings like
those of the Club every man expressed his views openly
and independently ; and if occasionally some things were
said that were not quite correct, they were only met
with a little playful rebuke — a sort of rebuke which was
beneficial sometimes to all of them. (Hear, hear.) He
had never attended a meeting of the Club without ex-
periencing gratification ; and if, as he grew in years, he
found himself less able to enter into many subjects con-
nected with agriculture, the longer he lived the more
deeply v.as he impressed with the importance of agri-
culture, and of meetings for its advancement. Since it
was first established, the Club had passed through vari-
ous vicissitudes ; but the indomitable perseverance and
the skill which had been exhibited in its management
had overcome all obstacles, and he hoped and believed
that it would continue to prosper. He begged now to
propose " the Health of their excellent Chairman, Mr.
Owen," (Cheers.)

The Chairman, in returning thanks, said he could
scarcely find words adequate to express his sense of the
honour which had been conferred upon him, but they
might rest assured that he felt deeply sensible of it.
He was proud of being surrounded as he was on that
occasion by men of capital, intelligence, and integrity ;
and whom he regarded as representing the mainstay of
the country. The Club might have had a much more
efficient chairman than himself ; it could not have had
one who more sincerely desired to serve it (cheers).
One reason why ae especially prized that club was, that
it had enabled him to form many valuable friendships —
friendships from which he had derived great advantage
in connection with agiicuUural science and practice. As
regarded his own personal position as a farmer, which
had been referred to by the noble Lord who proposed
his health, he could not help remarking that, though he
had no l^se, he had an assurance from his landlord
that his name should never be disconnected from the
estate (cheers).

Mr. G. P. TuxFouD had been entrusted with a
toast which he could wish had been assigned to some
one more competent to discharge the duty of proposing
it. He had to give, " The Royal Agricultural
Society," coupled with the name of Mr. Robert Smith
(cheers). Most of them were old enough to remember
the birth of that society, and hence, without taking a
very distant retrospect, they could easily recal to their
minds the state of agriculture previous to its existence.
Many of them, too, could well recollect some of those
who took a leading part in the early proceedings of that
institution. The names of Spencer, and of Handley,
and of several other founders of the society, would
quickly rise up, as it were, from the past. But if in
the early days of the Royal Agricultural Society its use-
fulness was generally admitted, and men went from one
part of the country to another to see the little improve-
ment which had been made, how much more universal
was the testimony, how much greater the advance wit-

nessed at ihe present ! If those who were at Oxford
contrasted what they saw there with what was recently
exhibited at Chester, nothing more would be required to
show that this Society deserved the most cordial
support from such a body of men as he was addressing
— the members of the Central Farmers' Club— whom he
had ever considered as constituting the van of agri-
cultural progress (cheers). When he looked at the ad-
vance of the national Agricultural Society, and saw how by
every means that human ingenuity could devise, the best
energies of the mind had been devoted to the promotion
of the welfare of the farming interest of this country, he
felt that those who had commenced and carried on that
good work had done honour alike to their own names
and to the country to which they belonged (cheers). It
was not, however, in our own Isle alone that the
benefits arising from the Royal Agricultural Society
were diffused ; the civilized world was daily and hourly
deriving advantage from that institution (Hear, hear). ,

He knew, from his own sources of information, that
the improved agricultural machinery which had been in-
vented and manufactured in this country — machines
which had been brought into use niainly through the
medium of that society — were not confined even to the
continent of Europe. If they looked from the confines
of Russia, to our remote colonies in Australia, they
would find English engineering talent was brought to
bear on agriculture to an extent which was never known
in any previous age of the world (cheers). Then if
they already saw so much advance, what might not be
hoped for, in the future ! (Hear, hear.) If within a
period of five-and -twenty years they beheld a society,
numbering some thousands of men, uniting their efforts
to make it more useful, in order that the growing popu-
lation might be better fed, what might not be hoped for, l^
if the society received adequate support, and full scope
were given to it in its career of improvement ! They
might, indeed, well be proud of the position which
that institution had really attained ; but they must not
be contented with the progress already made. They
might depend upon it, that if they ever came to the
conclusion that they had arrived at perfection, they
would immediately begin to retrograde. They might
rest assured that if they ever thought that it was
enough to grow corn for the existing population with-
out having regard to the future increase, they would
find themselves dependent, in the hour of difficulty,
on those who would assuredly disappoint them in
their greatest need. Such were his views with regard to
the Royal Agricultural Society — an institution which,
in his opinion, deserved well, not ouly of the farming
interest, but of every interest wherever civilization was
known ; and he felt confident that, having been carried
on with so much success up to the present time, it
would in future realize results f':»r exceeding any yet
attained. So satisfied was he of the importance of that
institution, that ha would fain hope that there was not
a gentleman belonging to the Club who would not
endeavour by every means in his power to enrol new
members among such of his neighbours as had not
already joined it (Hear, hear). Though the associates
of that society were numbered by thousands, he felt
sure that its usefulness would be much increased by
the enrolment of thousands more ; and when he remem-
bered that the agriculturists of this country comprised
one-third of the population, he was ready to exclaim
with astonishment that there should be so few })er8ons
comparatively to represent that great interest. More-
over, when he considered the lectures now given to the
members of that society by analytical chemists and
veterinary surgeons, as well as the increasing ability
displayed by the judges in the discharge of their duties,
he felt that they had indeed reason to be gratified

ITHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

15

at the advance which had been made. At the same
time, the high qualifications of the judges would
render it incumbent ou those who had the con-
struction of the mechanism of agriculture to use their
best endeavours, that what had hitherto been done in
that respect should, if possible, be surpassed. There
never was a time when competition was so great, or
when improvement was so essential. At the show yard at
Chester there were more than one hundred engines
entered for competition. Why, it seemed but yesterday
since they first saw at Bristol only one engine (Hear,
hear). Could any stronger evidence be afforded of the
progress which had been made in the mechanical depart-
ment ? Of the stock it was unnecessary to speak with
such an illustration as they had before them in the show
of the present week ; and, without detaining them any
further, he would propose, "The Royal Agricultural
Society of England," coupled with the name of Mr.
Robert Smith (Cheers).

Mr. R. Smith felt it a great honour to represent
the noble society which had been so ably brought
under their notice. About twenty years had elapsed
since that society was formed, the Chester Meeting
being, he believed, the twentieth ; and he was happy to
say that he was one of the first seventy members, and
had been an active member of the society ever since ;
and therefore he could bear out what Mr. Tuxford had
said with regard to improvement. That gentleman had
alluded to the Oxford Meeting. Why, at Chester they
saw broad acres covered with implements and cattle ;
they saw English agriculture properly represented, not
only in the view of their fellow-countrymen, but also
before foreigners. (Hear, hear). He felt that he stood
there as an officer of a national society, and as an
0 Englishman he felt proud of the position which that
society occupied. All the world looked to it as a beacon
and a guide ; all the world looked to it for instruction
in the art and science of agriculture, in machinery, and
in the various breeds of animals. In the Smithfield
Show they saw how much had been done, in a great
degree through the instrumentality of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, to improve their animals ; and now
they had not only the most splendid English breeds, but
also every variety of crosses. It was not long since the
Smithfield Show was held in Goswell-street, where it
occupied a very small space ; and on that very day, in
consequence of the increasing interest which was felt in
the exhibition, it had been determined that they should
look out for a larger building. They were, as Mr.
Tuxford had intimated, living in an age of progress,
and a new era was dawning upon the world, and they
might depend upon it that if they did not move onward
others would soon take their places. The Royal Agri-
cultural Society was a society which had moved in
troubled waters ; but, looking back to the Chester
Meeting, and considering how much money was taken
there, he felt that it was now in a promising position in
relation to the future. As farmers, they must not forget
that useful publication — the Society's " Journal."
(Hear, hear). If the discussions at the Farmers' Club
were interesting and valuable, it should be borne in
mind that in the " Journal" were treated important,
difficult, and intricate subjects of the utmost im-
portance to all agriculturists, and he had no hesitation
in saying that there was scarcely a paper in the
" Journal" that would not repay a second reading. If
the management of the Society had in some respects
not been all that was desired, the Council were now
grappling with their difficulties, and increased support
on the part of farmers would be an encouragement to
them to go forward in the right direction. (Cheers).

Mr. Alderman Mechi had to propose " The Smith-
field Club" — a toast which he felt peculiar pleasure in

proposing, because he regarded its gradual increase as
a type of agricultural progress. At a former period in
the history of the Smithfield Club, to which he hoped
they all belonged, many persons exhibited their animals
with the belief that they were the best in the world, and
when the judges did not even commend them, went
away no doubt feeling rather ashamed of themselves
and wishing to do better in future. He hoped that
what had thus occurred with regard to animals would
occur with regard to a great many farms. Certain it
was that wherever criticism had been brought to bear
most upon agriculture, there improvement was most
manifest ; and he hoped that this source of progress
would prove more and more beneficial to agriculture.
The public were greatly indebted to the gentlemen who
established the Smithfield Club, and to those whose
great talents had ensured its prosperity. In using the
expression " great talents" his object was, he confessed,
to connect the toast with the name of Mr. Jonas Webb
(cheers), and he must say that although they had not
yet arrived at anything like perfection in^agriculture,
they had, through the exertions of Mr. Jonas Webb,
the Duke of Richmond, and others, come very near
perfection as regarded Southdown sheep. (Cheers).
As regarded agriculture generally, he could not help
saying that he considered it as yet in its infancy, more
especially in buildings and implements. However much
he might be ridiculed he must always express his honest
convictions ; and he did hope that now that they had
got their stock nearly into a right slate — and that it
was so no one could doubt who had seen the present
show — they would exert themstlves to get the buildings
right, so that they might harmonize with those beautiful
animals which were the admiration of the world.
(Cheers). He thought that the Smithfield Club showed
them, after all, only the sunny side of agriculture ; but,
not wishing to take them on that occasion into the shade,
he would at once propose that they should drink " The
Smithfield Club," coupled with the name of Mr. Jonas
Webb, and long might that gentleman be spared to
be as useful to the agriculture of the world as he had
been. (Cheers).

Mr. Jonas Webs, as a member of the Smith-
field Club, and as one of the stewards of the past year,
begged to thank them for the manner in which they
had received the toast. He must in one respect follow
the example of Mr. Tuxford. That gentleman said he
hoped there was no person in that room who would not
exert himself to secure additional members for the
Royal Agricultural Society. He (Mr. Webb) would
express a similar hope in reference to the Smithfield
Club. The committee had just offered an additional
inducement to join the club, having granted to every
member permission to have a private view on the day on
which the judges made their awards. Such an offer
could not fail to be tempting, as a private view of the
animals when they were undisturbed, and there was
nothing to distract attention, was worth all the rest of
the show. (Hear, hear). As had been previously re-
marked, the place of exhibition had now become too
small, the club having grown as it were out of itself,
and a better site might be found both for the public and
the stock. There was an arrangement with the pro-
prietor of the present Show-yard for a certain period,
but before that time had expired efforts would be made
to secure a more suitable place. In the pursuit of that
object, however, it would be borne in mind that the
exhibition must be made self-supporting. It had been
determined, too, that there should be three additional
judges, the work having been too hard for the number
who acted previously. In conclusion, he would again
express a hope that all present who were not members
of the Smithfield Club would soon become such.

16

fHE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

Mr. S. Sidney proposed "Prosperity to the local
agricultural associations of England." England was,
he believed, almost the only country in Europe where
there was not a Minister of Agriculture, and where the
Government did not expend money to promote agricul-
ture. It was fortunate for them that they were not
dependent on the Government — not bound to take their
plans of improvement from a theoretical functionary.
In every parish almost — certainly in every important
county or district — there was a society, which was
exerting itself in the cause of agricultural progress by
such means as it could command, and it was, in fact, the
operations of the local societies that suggested the for-
mation of that leading one which had convened them
that evening. The Central Farmers' Club and the local
clubs represented the essential difference between the
government of this country and the governments of con-
tinental countries. In this country men were left to do the
work of improvement themselves, and hence every man felt
hound to exert himself to the utmost to promote the general
welfare. He believed that if there was one reason more
remarkable than others why English agriculture had made
such rapid progress, it was that there was not a man in
England who did not feel more or less interest in the pur-
suit. In other countries they found here and tjiere agricul-
turists of extraordinary talent, who were labouring to
advance agriculture either in colleges or as model farmers,
but they were entirely separate from the rest of their couu-
trymen. In this country, on the contrary, there was hardlj-
any class of society which did not take an interest in agri-
culture. It was not only those farmers who, like their
excellent chairman, had, by themselves or their ancestors,
occupied the sime farm perhaps for a centur}-, that felt
interested in agricultural pursuits ; even working men were
attracted to them ; and many a man who had made a for-
tune in a colony, came here to apply his acquired wealth in
the engagements of agriculture. He would associate with
his toast the name of Mr. Spooner, a gentleman who w.ia
connected with one of the most intelligent local agricultural
societies in England.

Mr. Spoon KR, of the Botley Farmers' Club, said his
title to t'ne honour wsis founded on the fact of hu hav-
irio; for many years acted as the secretary of a loc»l
club, which had just published its fourteenth annual report.
It must not be supposed that during the period which had
elapsed since that club was first called into existence it had
pursued an undeviating cour=e of success. Iti their early his-
tory they had to eucounter many difficulties ; they had to run
the gauntlet, with prejudice ou the one side, and ridicule ou
the other ; and no ridicule was so stinging as that whicli they
had met with from their brother-farmers. Many persons, who
had since become activl^ and useful members of the society, at
that time thought that when farmers met together for discus-
sion, they were as much out of their element as a fish out of
water, or a shorthorn bull in a china shop (laughter). It was
afterwards found thst agriculture was a pursuit which not only
required capital and experience, b>U a vast amount of mental
study and the collection of numerous facta, and, he might
add, the assistance, directly or indirectly, of many of the
sciences; aud heuce it was no longer a subject of ridicule that
farmers should associate together and discuss agricultural
topics, lie recollected very well that at an early period in
the history of the society they discussed the question whether
a given amount of monfty could be m';st advantageously ex-
pended in the purchase of artificial manures or of oilcake to be
given as food to cattle. It was then supposed that those two
kiiids of expenditure were directly opposed to each other. On
the occasiou to which he referred, the question was decided in
favour of artificiiil manures ; but that question could no longer
be entertained, it being perceived that there was no antagonism
hetween the two methods of procedure. If such a question
was proposed at the pr.?sent titne he did not know how it
could be answered better than by the relation of a little anec-
dote which he heard some time ago with regard to a member
of the Society of Friends. Thst person, having been unfortu-
nate in business, and lost all his property, and having pre-
served his honour and his credit, several members of his frater-
nity determined to assist him. With this view they convened
a meeting, to which all who were invited were to bring as

much of their surplus capital as they could spare, in order to
set up their friend Obadiah again in business. At the meet-
ing the chairman, addressing the party principally concerned,
said, "Obadiah, thy friends have got together the g'.odly eurij
thou seest on the table to assist thee ; how much of this largp
sum do thy necessities require ?" Obadiah was a :nan of
short speech, and holding his hat with his left hand, with his
riii;ht he swept; the whole sura collected into it, saying,
" Friends, I have need of all." The moral of this story was
not difficult to understand. If farmers apostrophised the land,
and said to it, " Dost thou want artificial manures, or oilcake,
or any other substance ?" the land would answer in a voice of
inspiration, " Farmers, I need them alL" Those who had had
most experience iu such matters were found to be most liberal
in their expenditure under both heads, it having been found
that while oilcake would not supply the place of artificial ma-
nures, neither would artificial manures supply the place of oil-
cake (Hear, hear). He was here reminded of that great
society which brought such large numbers of agriculturists to
the metropolis at this season of the year. That was one of the
oldest, if not the very oldest of the agricultural societies of
this kingdom. Many years ago — in 1831 — it was said to have
performed its mission, having shown the country and the
world which were the best breeds of animals to be selected for
fattening. Few, he believed, eveu now took that view of the
Smithfield Club ; but the question was sometimes mooted iu
the country whether, for the benefit of those who had neither
the money nor the ability to perform the task themselves, it
might not advantageously institute inquiries with the view of
ascertaining what was the best and most nutritious food for
animah — in what form that food should he presented — how
much sliould be given, and what variety there should be— and
what was the profit and loss attending a particular course of
action ? He could not but think that some of the surplus
funds of the society would be well employed in the solution of
problems which so deeply concerned agriculturists (cheers).

Mr. W. Bennett proposed " The Vice-President and Pre-
sident-elect for the ensuing year — Mr. John Thomas, of
Bletsoe, Bedfordshire." A more practical, a more eu-
lighteued, or a more intelligent farmer than that gentleman
there was not, he said, in this or in any other country ; and
the committee had acted wisely in electing him to fill the chair
(cheers).

Mr. Thomas briefly returued thanks.

The next toast which was proposed by the Cliairman was
" The Committee of Management, coupled with the name of
Mr. Cuthbert Johnson."

Mr. C. Johnson, in replying, congratulated the assembly
on the growing prosperity of the club, and said it was in a
more satisfactory position than it had ever been before. Un-
like clubs in general, it bad money in the funds, and its
finances were in a flourishing state.

The Rev. T. James proposed "The agricultural labourers."
The labourers, he remarked, wanted not charity, but employ-
ment ; and there ought to be no lack of employment while
there was so much land not brought iuto cultivation, and so
much more which was not cultivated adequately. Far more
attention ought to he paid to the physical condition of
labourers snd the state of their dwellings. The homes of
many of the peasantry were at present a disgrace to the land
(Hear, hear). There was no possibility of cleanliness ; and
the sexes were so mingled together that it was impossible to
observe the common decencies of life. He hoped that
effectual efforti would speedily be made to do away with that
state of things, for it was useless to talk of the diffusion of
education or religion while vice, with all its evil consequences,
was all but inevitable; nor could they suppose that the super-
structure of society was secure while the foundation was so
defective.

The concluding toasts were " The Visitors," acknowledged
by Mr. Mitchell; "The Secretary," proposed by Mr. Stokes,
and answered for by Mr. Corbet ; and "The Press," with
which the name of Mr. Tuxford was couple J, and who duly re-
plied to the compliment.

Mr. A. Smith, of Tupwood, Red Hill, materially contributed
to the pleasure of the evening by singing three or four of his
well-selected so.igs in his best mauuer.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

17

DIGGING POTATOES,

Potatoes are best grown in drills that are thirty
inches a])art, as the width of interval gives room
for v/orking the land in the hollows, to kill the
weeds and pulverize the soil, and also for the
tubers to spread and multiply in the ridglet that is
raised by the plough over the dung. The proper
ground for potatoes is a heavy damp loam, of a
good depth, of which the bottom is generally firm
and retentive; and the land being wrought, and
the potatoes planted, during the damp weather of
the spring months, by the end of April, the bot-
tom of the ground becomes very much consolidated
from not being dried by the Summer exposure.
The intervals of the drills are ploughed during the
early summer with the miniature plough drawn by
one horse, which is much the best horse-hoe, after
all that has been spoken and written on the subject
of drill hoes and scarifiers. On stiff bottoms, of
all kinds, it far exceeds any scuffler yet known :
the narrow-pointed share pierces the ground, and
raises fresh soil to afford evaporations; and if
double time is spent in the hollow of each drill,
the superior effect amply compensates the time
that is spent. The light scuffler with knives
makes very good work behind the ploughings, by
which two furrows of loose soil are produced, to
be wrought and pulverized by the lighter im-
plement. The sole plate of all ploughs sledges
the ground underneath its action, closing the pores
and shutting the orifices of the soil, and denying
access to air and moisture. The bottoms of potato
grounds are much closed by this sledging action,
from the damp condition of the Spring cultivation
of the land ; and by the Summer working of tVie
intervals by the miniature plough ; and lastly, by
two furrows of the double mould-board plough,
which moves along the bottom of the interval, in
earthing-up the drills, and, with a long sole-plate,
sledges and consolidates the ground beneath its
action. In this manner, the entire under-surface
of the ground is rendered firm — and that in the
pores and orifices : the modes of working the land
and cultivating the crop, all tend to produce this
result.

The general maturity of jjotato crops happens
in the month of October, when the drills are split
by the double mould-board plough, or raised and
thrown, or cast, over by the common implement —
the steins being fiist pulled l)y hand, and carried
from the field. The tubers are exposed to view,
gathered by hand; the ground harrowed; and
roots again gathered. This ploughing sledges the

bottom of the drill that escaped the Summer work-
ings; and, when the land is sown with Autumn
wheat, the furrow of that ploughing does not
penetrate below the former workings ; and the
consohdated condition remains of the underground
to rest in the future crops. The last sledging is
above, rather than beneath, the former operations
— covering the whole with a fresh repetition.

The digging of land, by spade or fork, surpasses
in effect the ploughing of the ground, in a very
chief advantage of the narrow angular points of
the implements piercing the underground, and
leaving holes and cavities, pores and orifices, which
remain open, for the permeation of air and moist-
ure. The moved soil is also laid more loosely
togetlver, and enjoys the benefits of that condition-
Weeds are completely removed from the land;
and stones are very conveniently gathered at the
same time. Digging or forking of the ground is
most advantageously performed after the plough-
ings of the land have been done, in order that the
ground may remain in the open condition from the
loose movement of the soil for the future crops
The Autumn is a very proper season in which to
open, by digging the under-stratum of stiff lands,
that are not clay soils with wet bottoms, and not
proper of being mixed with the upper ground. A
portion of the subsoil may be raised by digging ;
and the unmoved stratum must be pierced by the
points of the implements to open the passage of
air and moisture. The stems of potatoes must be
pulled by hand in October, and carried from the
field— the adhering soil and tubers shaken, or torn
away, and the potatoes gathered and conveyed to
the store pits. A man, provided with a three-
pronged dung-fork of the farm, is appointed to dig
one drill of the potato ground, and pushes the
implement into the soil as deeply as can be done,
raising a load of earth, which is thrown abroad,
and scatters the tubers into view. A woman, or
lad attends each digger— gathers the potatoes into
baskets, which are emptied into carts that carry
the loads to the store-yard. At the same time,
any weeds that have escaped the Summer cultiva-
tion and cleaning of the land are gathered by
hand from the loosened soil, and laid into heaps ;
and the field stones are also gathered and placed in
small collections, as the work proceeds. A super-
vising care makes sure that the bottoms of the in-
tervals of the drills are dug by the fork, which
underwent the cultivation of the Summer working,
and have been consolidated : each digger must

c

18

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

move deeply the interval on the right or left hand,
as may be convenient ; and the depth must be
equal to the full length of the implement. The
strong pronged dung fork of the farm is better
fitted than the spade for digging potato crops : the
wide prongs do not cut the tubers as the close
blade of the spade ; the pushing into the ground
is easier for the digger; and the narrow points
penetrate the ground more deeply, and leave a
greater number of holes to receive air and moisture.
No portion of the soil must be unmoved, more
especially the bottoms of the intervals, which, if
not dug and turned up, remain as firm rafters of
ground betwixt the loose ridglets in which the
tubers were produced. The drills are heaved and
moved by the many tubers of the potato plant; ;
and it is essential that the firm bottoms of the in- j
tervals be dug and mixed with the pulverized earth '
of the ridglets, and also with the undecomposed
remains of the farmyard dung which will be found '
in the drills. These different bodies, being raised i
and placed in a new position of looseness and '
mixture, will present a fresh soil of varied elements j
to effect fresh combinations and reciprocal affini-
ties.

By this mode of raising from the ground the
ripened crops of potatoes, there are attained three '
very important purposes of execution — the crop is j
harvested ; the land is thoroughly cleaned of weeds I

and stones; and the substratum of the ground is
pierced by narrow points of implements, which
leave holes and pores for the permeation of air and
moisture. The digging and forking of the ground
confer the advantage of a loose condition, in
which the soil is placed to lie over winter, or sown
with Autumn wheat from one furrow of ploughing.
This moved condition is very favourable to the
heavy lands and stiff bottoms on which potatoes
are generally cultivated, and which are unavoidably
consolidated in the sub soil by the workings of the
land for the cultivation of the crop. It is a
gardening performance intermixed with farming,
and varies the executions by a more beneficial
process. The expense is very much reduced, by
reason of the several objects that are attained ; and,
if not legitimately to be divided into three portions,
the whole expense is very considerably lessened,
from being wholly charged to the raising of the
potato crop. Two-fifths may be very fairly sub-
tracted from the whole expense as placed to the
account of the benefits conferred on the land by
the digging of the ground; and this moderate
calculation will not overrate the advantages of the
mode of harvesting the potato crop. It raises tlie
crop, digs the ground, forks the soil, gathers
stones and weeds, and opens the subsoil to the
beneficial permeations of air and moisture.

J. D.

THE HISTORY OF A STRAW-YARD.

I have a very good laudlord ; and if a whirlwind were
to sweep down all my farm-buildings past recovery by
anything that could be included as " repairs," very
likely lie might be persuaded to realize, in actual brick,
mortar, mason-work, and joinery, that enchanting ideal
of a home for domestic animals — a covered farmstead.
But, unfortunately, an old barn, a dilapidated stable,
and a tumble-down granary were the only buildings my
predecessor had when he first became tenant ; and, by
way of improvement, he obtained a long line of open
shed, a waggon-hovel, and a brick wall, in place of the
miserable haulm-fence which had previously inclosed a
large court or yard for his uncomfortable stock. Well,
of course, I could not have all these pulled down, and a
bran-new farmery erected, after one of those beautifully-
engraved "plans, elevations, and sections," now so
familiar to the eye of the land-agent and agricultural
pupil ; and ameliorations of different kinds must con-
tent me. The landlord built me a better working-
horse stable, chaff and harness-houses, a loose box, a
"hospital," a cow-house, and half-a-dozen smaller
houses for calves, pigs, and store-rooms. I had good
gates, good water-troughs, and division-fences to the
main court inclosed by all these convenient buildings ;
and, having enlarged my stack-yard to contain the in-

creased produce to be looked for, I fancied I had a
tolerably comfortable steading to farm with, lu course
of time, portions of the long shed, which was open to
the yard for the shelter of the cattle which there con-
sumed my straw with turnips and oilcake, were de-
tached, and inclosed with thorn-faggots, so as to make
feeding-stalls and boxes ; then proper brick walls took
the place of the thorns, and new mangers, and water-
troughs with supply-pipes, were set up. I fixed a
two-horse chaff cutter; had my root-slicers and pulpers
(the latter supplanting in use a small steaming appa-
ratus) in places commodiously adjoining the stalls where
the fattening animals were ; and many of the appoint-
ments of a well-ordered establishment began to render
mine a respectable homestall.

But one essential point had been altogether over-
looked or slighted : thera was no provision for taking
care of the valuable manure produced either in the
open straw-yard or in the covered hovels. Sun and
wind dried out the moisture of the upper portions of the
manure, as the pigs rooted up the straw with their
omnivorous snouts, in search of anything nasty ; so
that, in some seasons, with little rain-fall in late spring,
I had mere wetted chaff and straw to cart out to the
dung-heap, instead of fermented rotten manure, arc-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

10

matic with vylatile npurishaient for ci'ops. The loss in
wet weather was worse ; for the courts, beside lying
ojien to receive ail the rains and snows descending upon
an area of 1,200 square yards, were drenched by
the additional fall from 600 square yards of roof.
And only think of the immense quantity of rich, ferti-
lizing salts, and soluble food for vegetation, that must
have been dissolved and soaked and washed out from
the three or four-feet thickness of manure deposited and
trodden down by the stock ! Where did the drainage
flow ? One yard was dished or hollowed toward the
middle ; and the bottom, being a sandy soil, impreg-
nated with vegetable matter, &c., from the manure,
and wetted and trampled witli great and repeated
pressure, had become so hard and impenetrable,
that little waste could percolate downward ; hence,
a complete pool or spongy mass of litter occu-
pied that yard in showery weather, necessitating con-
tinual supplies of fresh bedding for the poor cattle or
young horses, which, you may be sure, kept finely
healthy, lying night after night for weeks upon straw,
through which their weight forced up the wet from the
reservoir underneath ! The other part of the court, being
lowest on one side, had a vent through the wall there
for the escape of surplus liquor from its saturated straw ;
and month after month you might have seen the dark-
coloured pungently-odoriferous stream trickling down
into the semi-putrid water of a pond, hideous with
prismatic and nauseous colours mantling its surface,
disgusting even to filthy ducks, a residue also forming a
stagnant nettle-shrouded ditch in another direction. To
get into my bullock hovel across the yard, you were
over your shoe-tops in manure-water ; the feeding-
sheds and stables were dry and comfortable, biit the
solid manure was all thrown out from day to day, to
undergo the exposure and air-and-rain-deterioration of
the open yard ; and the only drain-gutter-and-grating
on the premises was that in my nag-stab!e, whore the
ammoniacal valuable liquid is allowed to dribble into a
" dry well," and so hopelessly got rid of, without any
attempt at saving or utilizing it. What a place to
manufacture manure in for improving the farm, to collect
every scrap and oddment of animal or vegetable matter
not strictly marketable, to be conserved and prepared
by decomposition and fermentation, and developed into
all sorts of invaluable chemical salts and gases for forc-
ing crops of roots, corn, and grasses ! What a place to
consign my weekly five pounds' worth of dear oilcake
to (indispensable food, in spite of tire mahogany sawdust
that is so largely produced in certain great linseed sea-
ports, and is believed to form a portion of the " vege-
table matter" of well-husked and essence-flavoured
cakes) I What a place to consume my far-greater
allowance of corn, barley-meal, scalded wheat, ground
peas, and beans in ! What a place in which to have
my splendid juicy roots devoured with wholesome
barley- straw and pea-straw, and sweet expensive hay,
and also pulped and partly fermented with bright wheat -
straw chaff ! What a place for milch cows to yield rich
milk in ; for hardy steers to contract catarrh and pleuro-
pneumonia in ; for young calves to get their coats set

wrong way ; for pigs, that should conserve all crumbs
and litterings, and be the healthy living save-alls of the
farmery, to grow lank on their sodden layer, and pro-
duce ulcered pork ! No wonder that I vowed to get
wet-footed po more on my cattle-bedding, even though
I could neither have a costly roofing, a systematic
drainage by pipes and gratings, or an excavated tank,
with pumps and paraphernalia, with water-carts and plots
for irrigation. Eave-spouting promptly put up did not
cost me a very heavy figure ; but some neighbours said,
" Our manure is -often too dry, even when all the build-
ings drip into the yard;" to which I replied, that I
could do what I pleased with the rain-water when once
in my shoots, and when the straw was full dry, I could
pour my downfall outside the water-tubs as well as into
them, or might conduct it in V spouts over any part of
the yard. But, in fact, I have not yet found any dis-
advantage from keeping roof-droppings off the necks
and loins cf miserable horses and bullocks. How do I
lay dry the yards and sheds without wasting the rich
draining?, without costly arrangement, and with little
expense in labour ?

Well, the only two of my houses which were at all
conveniently situated for being drained to one point
were soon cured. And I may say here, that the hap-
hazard arrangement of my building — having been
erected bit-by-bit in a hand-to-mouth fashion— was so
incommodious and inconsiderate, that the labour lost in
carrying and reconveying chaff and pulped-roots, mixed
meal, and cake, and milk, &c.,from one angle to another,
is something serious ; and tlie relative situation of places
for different kinds and ages of stock is somewhat con-
fusing and bewildering to a visitor. I put a grating in
the working-horse stable, and another in the cow-house,
to draw-off the drainings into a short pipe-tile drain,
emptying outside the wall of the straw-yard— not to
run away, but to be caught by a device to be presently
described. The hard bottom of the large yard or court
was lowest in two places — one spot being near a side
wall, and the other near a division fence of rails and
tall thorn-faggots. In each place I dug a semicircular
hole^ of 4 yards diameter, the flat side being nest the
wall or fence. These holes are only about 2 feet deep,
thus requiring no bricking, cementing, &c., and they
arc fenced off from the straw-yard by a "wattled" or
braided fence of stakes and willows — slill further pro-
tected by a few stout posts-and-rails. The object is
simply to preserve these spots from being covered with
straw and manure, and to keep out the cattle and pigs.
The effect is, that as the drainage of the yard fills these
holes or low places, I can get at the liquid with pump
or bucket or scoop, just when 1 please, instead of having
it saturating the yard and being incapable of removal
unless the litter be taken away with it. Several times
my yard-raan had been caught in the act of picking a
hole through the yard wall, to let out the water which
floated and "swum" the lower parts ; but he had been
promptly forbidden to let go the fertile liquor ; and at
last these miniature tanks opened up a means of reliefa
By means of portable lengths of spouting laid upon the
straw when necessary, I distribute the manure-water

e 2

20

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

back to the dry jiortions of the yard, taking it out of the
tanks with a wooden scoop or "jet." When there is
too much wetness already in the yard, I take it away
altogether by means of a very simple species of liquid-
manure cart. I bought a 98 gallon rum-puncheon of
a liquor-merchant; had a couple of deal rims put on it,
so that it could j-oll without the " bouge" touching the
ground ; and gudgeons, like those of a churn, fixed on
the two ends ; and chains attached, so that a horse can
roll it along. This cask, so fitted up, is placed in a
hole dug for the purpose, sufficiently low for
the stable and cow-house drainage to pour
into the bung-hole. When it is to be emptied,
the bung is put in ; a sort of barrel-churn
fastening holds it safely in. A horse is yoked to the
chains, and rolls the cask up two inclined spars on to
the level ground ; then it is taken to some garden-
paddocks near at hand, to the pastures, the plot of
Italian rye-grass, the compost heaps of gathered ditch-
scourings, pond mud, road-scrapings, ashes of burnt
hedge-clippings, &c., or wherever it may be wanted.
For distributing upon the grass-land, the cask is taken
half full, then filled up with w^ater from a pond close by,
so as to avoid too strong and burning a dose ; and the
bung being withdrawn, the liquor flows cut inter-

mittently as the cask rolls round. Pulled into the
straw-yaid, alongside one of the tanks, it is soon filled
with a scoop ; and thus, with little expenditure of
labour, and with a water-cart costing only about a
couple of sovereigns altogether, my liquid manuring is
accomplished, the excess of water removed frora the
yard every few days, many acres round the homestead
kept in splendid condition, to say nothing of fat beds in
the kitchen garden, bringing rhubarb like tree-trunks
and asparagus thick as hoe-handles, some rare mangold
and turnip compost manufactured by the rich filterings,
while the general mass of farmyard dung is improved
instead of deteriorated by the removal of these washings.
The precise expenses in labour and the value of returns
in augmented fertility, saving of manure-making mate-
rial used in the yards in the shape of cattle food, and
the increased comfort, healthiness, and thriving of the
stock, it may be difficult to compare ; but those managers
who arc situated as I was will doubtless appreciate the
advantages as highly as I do. Certainly " a good
schemer is better than a great eater ;" and let young
farmers, who are fond of trying new dodges when these
are comparatively inexpensive, make an experiment of
my clieap tanks and rolling water-cart.

Quisauis.

ACTUAL EXPERIENCE WITH THE STEAM PLOUGH.

If " an ounce of practice be worth a pound of
theory," the following particulars of steam-ploughing
upon two farms will doubtless be appreciated by our
readers ; and mainly because they describe the working
of the ploughs by agricultural labourers upon the land
of business men, instead of mere trials against time
with a set of show tackle under the practised guidance
of the inventor's workmen.

Between Stafford and Wolverhamjtton, and near to
the estate of Lord Hatherton, where the steam-cultivator
of Mr. Smith, of Woolston, has proved so successful in
cleaning foul ground, forwarding the preparation of
land for root crops, effectirig deep tillage, and saving
horse labour, we have lately seen one of Mr. Fowler's
steam-ploughs at work ; this is on the farm of Mr.
Bird, of Littywood, near Penkridge Station. The soil
varies from a bard red-brown conglomerate of clay and
pebbles, stiffened in the ancient days by enormous ap-
plications of " kag marl " from the great pits
which still gipe in every field with openings
more than 20 feet deep, to lighter soil where the
gravel predominates. Bare fallows were customary,
but are giving way to a more profitable growth of man-
gold, turnips, &c., partially eaten off by sheep. The
fashion is to plough in " five-bolt butts," that is, small
lands or stetches of ten furrows each ; and the work
being thus all " cops" and " reanes," not only is there
a waste of ground from such a redundance of water-
furrows, but there is a great loss of time in ploughing,
by having to gather up the land. By means of good
pipe drainage, 3 or 4 feet deep, Mr. Bird, who farms

GOO acres, only a small proportion of which is pasture,
has been able to practise ploughing on the flat, with the
result of a considerable increase of yield in his crops, in
spite of the forebodings and taunts of neighbouring ma-
nagers, who prophesied a beautiful " irrigation" of his
wheal, after a smart rainfall. Horse-ploughing, 6 inches
deep, is done with four horses ; and the " custom of the
country" allows the outgoing tenant only IDs. for the
operation ; whereas the four horses at 2s. 6d. each,
man 2s. 6d., and boy 8d. per day, make an expense of
13s. to 15s. per acre; and when the work is heavy, or
at a depth of 7 or 8 inches, and only three roods a day
can be done, the cost amounts to 17s. or 20s. per
acre ; and deep ploughing is especiallydemanded on this
over-marled land, in order to bring up the lighter soil
that lies beneath.

After much consideration and examination of dif-
ferent steam-tilling apparatus, Mr. Bird has adopted
Mr. Fowler's plough in connexion with an engine
of peculiar construction and capabilities, purposing
also to work a scarifier with the same tackle, and he has
lately turned over a considerable extent of land, some as
much as 8 inches in depth, the principal part of the work
averaging 6 to 7 inches. In fifteen days about 70
acres have been ploughed, and six removals made, ave-
raging about half a day each, as some of the fields were
along way distant from each other. This will be equiva-
lent to about 6 acres for a full day's work, that is, from
7 to 5 o'clock, with half-an-hour's stoppage for break-
fast, and an hour for dinner. In a ten-hours' day of
course a larger amount of work would be accomplished.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

21

To have ploughed the 70 acres in fifteen days by horses
would have required twenty to twenty-four horses,
working five or six ploughs. But the force of teams
kept upon the farna would have been perhaps ten days
longer in doing the same extent of work ; and tlie wheat-
seeding has not only been forwarded thus much, but has
been still further accelerated by the horses getting on
with harrowing and drilling while the steam-plough is at
work — simultaneously, instead of having to wait for their
own slow ploughing. And the setting-in of a week's
frost has still more strongly enforced the advantage
of this expedition. The steam-ploughing has been well
done, the slices are well-turned, and so shaken by the
rapid motion of the implement, and loose from the
absence of trampling, that less reduction of the surface
by harrows is found necessary, and the ground is in a
better condition for the seed to strike in. The fields are
hilly, and by no means rectangular ; yet the engine on
one headland and anchorage on the other travel without
obstacle or difficulty, the rope being let out or taken up
to suit the fluctuating length of the furrow, which varies
from 400 to 200 yards and less. In one field, the
plough, turning three heavy furrows (though four fur-
rows at a time on all but the strongest land), descended
into and mounted out of a partially-filled marl pit 20
feet deep, the sides sloping with a "batter" of one in
two, and in some places an angle of 45°.

What have been the items of expense for these fifteen
days' work ?

Labour : 3 men and 2 boys, coal, oil, and

water-carting, about. £22 10 0

Extra for removals (only 2 horses being
required, owing to the engine being
locomotive) 0 18 0

23 8 0
Wear and tear, and interest, say 20 per cent. :
On Engine.. ^£420"]
On apparatus 420 I charged on 200 days

( in the year 12 11 3

£840j

£35 19 3

s. (I.
The working expenses on the 70 acres

are thus G 8 per acre.

The wear and tear, interest, &c 3 7

Total about.

10 3 per acre.

The cost by horse labour would have been one-third
to one-half more, besides the work being so far behind
hand and so much less efficiently performed.

We should add here, that several days' delay occurred
at first, by the fracture of one of the spur-wheels on the
windlass, the engine being too powerful for the machine,
and with stoppage which arose from a new and untried
attachment of the hooks to the ropes. This is now
rectified.

One of the chief points of interest about Mr. Bird's
operations is, that the steam-ploughing machinery
is almost independent of horses, as it travels from field
to field, or from one farm to another, witli only a single
horse to steer the engine ; even this, however, is un-

necessary, as the engine may be steered by hand ; but
a hoise being required to lead out the rope, &c., in the
field, he is put into a pair of shafts on his way there.
One horse is also employed to take the balance plough,
while the windlass and the anchorage are both yoked
behind the engine. To shift a portable engine with the
whole machinery, would require ten horses, if going a
considerable distance ; four horses, if merely from one
field to an adjacent one, in which case the team can
make several journeys in a half-day. If we take five
horses as the average number required, the cost of the
six removals would have been, say, 43s. instead of 18s. ;
that is, the expenses of ploughing would have been more
by 4d. per acre ; and in the case of travelling a few
miles, the cost would be 8d. or Is. an acre more
with a common portable than with a locomotive engine.
Of course we must deduct something for the cheaper
prime cost of the simple portable ; but the saving of a
small price per acre is of less importance than the ad-
vantage of being able to take the apparatus to its work
without hindering the team from the sowing or other
urgent operations they may be engaged about. The
chief advantage of the locomotive engine, however, will
be in connexion with a thrashing-machine.

We said the engine is disproportionately powerful for
the windlass. In fact, it was not built for the purpose
of being used with it ; and while nominally of 12-horse
power, in reality works at some 25 to 30 horse power,
at CO lbs. pressure, or more. It is designed and con-
structed by Mr. John Smith, of Coven, near Wolverhamp-
ton, specially for traversing common roads and arable
land. The tubular boiler is mounted upon a wrought-
iron framing, and balanced midway upon plummer-
blocks, so that it can be easily and instantly adjusted by
screw, and preserved in a horizontal position when tra-
versing an incline. In going up a short hill this regu-
lation is not found necessary, as the " swill" of the
water appears to keep the tubes sufficiently cool ; but
when standing for some time on a sloping headland of a
field, &c., maintaining the level of the boiler is of great
moment and safety. The cylinders are not attached to
the boiler, but are placed underneath it, within the iron
framing, and the steam passes by a pipe from the top of
a high steam dome, and through a stuffing-box at the
point of suspension of the boiler. There is also another
stuffing-box, through which the water enters the boiler
from the feed-pipe ; and the exhaust steam is conducted
to the chimney by a short piece of flexible pipe. The
hind-wheels and fore-wheels are about 9 feet apart, so
that a depression in the ground makes but a sUght al-
teration in the position of the boiler; and the balance-
motion allows it to be adjusted so as to continue hori-
zontal on an incline of 1 in 10. The propulsion is
effected by an endless pitch-chain from a pinion on the
crank-shaft (under the boiler, and supported in bearings
on the framing) to a cog-wheel on the hind-wheel axle;
each travelling wheel buing set tight or loose on the
axle by means of rings, which clasp like a brake. An-
other peculiarity is that the whole is supported upon
strong springs ; and the weight — about 7 tons — is so
distributed that rather more than half rests upon the

22

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

hind-wheels. Over very imperfect roads, up gradients
of greater steepness than 1 in 10, up-hill and down-hill
in arable fields, this engine travels, without having
recourse to the "endless rails," though in some cir-
cumstances they would be advisable, and it works for
any length of time upon a comparatively steep headland
without danger to its tubes or fire-box.

But we cannot dwell longer just now upon this inge-
nious invention, and must proceed to detail some still
more extensive and satisfactory operations in Wiltshire.

Mr. Thos. II. Redman, of Overtown, near Swindon,
farms on the hills in the vicinity of the chalk downs ;
but though you see fine turnips and swedes growing,
and the spade finds chalk rubble and pebbles at five to
fifteen inches below the surface, there are plenty of in-
dications savouring strongly of a heavy soil ; a con-
siderable breath of bare fallows, the ground light-
coloured, but hard and brittle in dry weather, or stony
like concrete ; and when wetted with a shower, greasy,
slippery, or sticky, like birdlime, making heavy
work alike for the antique wooden plough of
the neighbourhood, or the steel mould - board
of Howard's modern one. Naturally drained by
the soft rock beneath, this forms a rich, unctuous
soil, tiresome in wet weather, and "mauly"
enough under the foot of the ploughman, but requiring
only a greater depth and perfection of tillage, and free-
dom from the kneading tread of the team — solidifying
a ihass already too consolidated — to produce far greater
yields than are at present raised, and become no longer
a costly, but a grateful calcareous clay. On 430 acres
arable seven ploughs are requisite, and the team kept
to work them consist of 13 horses and 13 oxen ;
three horses or four oxen ploiighing a furrow 4^ or 5
inches deep. It is quite possible that the powerful
high-priced horses used by Mr. Redman might be
exchanged, with mechanical advantage, for more active
and naturally quick-stepping horses ; but still it will
remain true that excessively heavy work has to be
done ; for we ourselves tested the draught of a Howard's
iron plough with steel mould-board, finding it to be
in two fields 6 cwt. for a furrow 10 inches wide and 6
inches deep, and in two other fields no less than 10 cwt.
for a furrow 10 inches wide and 7 inches deep. The
frost was out of the ground when these trials were made,
but the labourers declared that the work went far easier
than is frequently the case. The customary allowance
to a tenant for one ploughing is 8s., 10s., or 12s. an
acre ; but it evidently costs much more, and, after all,
the work is most imperfectly and miserably done.
The winter-ploughing Mr. Redman estimates at
16s. per acre, reckoning horse-keep at Ss. a-head
per day. However, as each horse has H bushels of
oats per week, with wheat-chaff, and Ij cwt. of hay, we
should take the daily cost of a horse at 2s. 6d., making
the work considerably dearer. Ploughing by oxen, at
the rate of 4 acres a- week for each team of four, he has
carefully estimated as costing 5s. 6d. in summer and
8s. Gd. in the time of winter -keeping ; but the work is
shallow, the injury by trampling and poaching very
great, and woefully inferior to that required by this land,

but which teams are utterly unable to perform at all. Three
horses, costing 15s. each per week, and a man and a
boy 10s. (in this county of low wages), amount to a sum
of 55s. ; and the 4 acres ploughed in this time cost there-
fore nearly 14s. per acre. Consider, moreover, that the
depreciation in value of the horses on such land as this
is a heavy matter, besides the interest of first cost, and
the expense of harness, implement, &c., to be added.
Some of the work done by the steam-plough was 7
inches deep, bringing up 2 inches of the hard subsoil,
and the draught of a furrow being 10 cwt., showed that
six horses would be required in order to achieve
such an operation. Yes, light-land managers !
a horse cannot drag 2 cwt. all day here as he
could with you, because of the labour involved in the
bad walking — an element that ought never to be lost
sight of, in calculating horse-power. Six horses would
do little more than half an acre a-day, say 4 acres per
week J and the cost then amounts to upwards of 25s. per
acre, or considerably more, including depreciation, in-
terest, and contingencies.

No wonder, then, that Mr. Redman should make up
his mind (as great numbers of farmers similarly placed
will be found to do) to try steam-ploughing. Having
purchased one of Mr. Fowler's sets of tackle with a ten-
horse double-cylinder engine, he has turned over 150
acres in about thirty-five days of actual work, or an
average of nearly 4^ acres per day. Eleven acres of
the heaviest work of all were completed in four days.
Tlie estimated expense, reckoning wear and tear, and
interest at 20 per cent., and two hundred days' work in
the year, at 5 acres a-day, and say one removal in a
week — the fields being large — comes to about 9s. per
acre average ; the heaviest work to about 15s. per acre;
from which it appears that the steam-plough has worked
at about one-third to two-fifths less expense than the
animal power. This cheapness of tillage, however, is a
small consideration compared with the saving of time,
the depth and excellence of (he work, the keeping of
fewer horses, &c., all which points we must reserve for a
tuture communication, which shall contain minute de-
fails of the work on this farm.

HOW TO PLANT ROSES.— Low, wet ground is un-
favourable for the growth of roses, and if planted in such
soils, without the aid of artificial drainage, they soon become
mossy and die away. Where your .soil is of this character
you must proceed thus: — First of all have the whole of the
ground well drained, then trench it over to the depth of
eighteen inches or two feet, throwing the mould up in ridges
to allow of the frost and winds to act upon it; when tho-
roughly dr}', level it down, and where the plants are to be
placed, take out the soil two feet deep ; put about six inches
of brick-bats in the bottom, then mix some well-rotted ma-
nure with the soil, and fill in as before. With a deep stiff
loam and dry subsoil, wliich is the natural soil of the rose,
little more than trenching and manuring will be required,
excepting for the tea-scented and China tribe, for which the
addition of sand and leaf-mould will be necessarj'.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

WINTER SHOW.

The annual winter show of the Royal Dublin Society
was held in the Society's new hal), Kildare-street, Dub-
lin, on Tuesday and Wednesday, November 23rd and
2'lth. The exhibition of farm produce, as usual, occu-
pied the most prominent place ; whilst the show pre-
sented a new feature, or rather the revival of one which
was abandoned two years ago, in consequence of the
want of accommodation — namely, an exhibition of fat
I stock, together with poultry. A portion of the building
was also set apart for the use of implement makers ; but
there were no prizes awarded in this section.

Following the order of the prize-sheet, we commence
with the cattle classes, and of these the first, three in-
cluding two and three-year-old shorthorned bullocks
and Devon oxen of any age, were vacant, the first in the
yard being two very prime West Highland oxen, one of
which was three years old, and the other four years old,
belonging to Mr. Allan PoUok, the celebrated Galway
proprietor. The first prize was awarded to the former,
both being a pair of capital bullocks well covered with
firm flesh. Strange to say, only one animal claiming to
be of the Kerry breed was shown, and this a nonde-
script ox, over three years of age, in low condition,
and certainly not a Kerry. This was shown in the
class of oxen " of any other breed, calved prior to
1855;" and beside it stood a thick cross-bred ox, un-
commonly well covered in all his points, belonging to
Mr. Pollok, which, of course, got the prize. The latter
also showed a splendid lot of three cross-bred bul-
locks in the next class — Class 7 — two of which were
three- year-old, and one one-year-old. One of the three-
year-olds, a roan bullock, was a magnificent animal,
and to this lot also the prize was awarded. In class 8,
" lot of six bullocks, under four years old, not competing
in any of the foregoing classes," Mr. Pollok was again
the exhibitor of six Scotch polled cattle, which, although
not quite so prime as his West Highlanders and his roan
bullocks, were good useful stock, and as such were
eagerly scanned by intending purchasers. The prize for
the best of all the fat oxen was also awarded to Mr.
Pollok. In the class for shorthorned cows, of any age,
Mr. J. O. G. Pollock, of Mountanstown, county Meath,
got first prize for his cow, and Mr Allan Pollok second-
Both animals were highly bred, and in extraordinary
condition, but rather patchy. Their were no Devon
cows in their class ; and in West Highland cows, of any
age, Mr. Allan Pollok was commended for a rather nice
aged cow, but there was no medal awarded. Of Ayr-
shires there was also only one specimen — a thin cow
from the " Albert Model Farm," not of sufficient merit
to obtain even a commendation. A sweet little four
years old Angus cow belonging to Loid Talbot de Ma-
lahide was commended in its class, but no prize was
awarded. Neither Herefords nor Kerrys appeared in

their respective classes. Of the " lot of three cows of
any age or breed, not competing in any of the other
classes," Mr. Sam. Garnctt got the first prize; and Sir
E. M'Donnel's lot was commended. There was nothing
particular about either, being simply "fed on grass,
without either turnips or oilcake," as was stated in the
entry, and nothing beyond what might be seen any
Thursday in the Dublin market. In shorthorned heifers
under four years old, Mr. Allan Pollok showed one
which was decidedly the best in the exhibition, aged
three years, a prime handler, and perfect in all the best
parts. Her back and quarters were particularly good.
Sir E. M'Donnelgot the second prize in this class. In
West Highland heifers, under four years old, Mr. Allan
Pollok was again the winner of first and second prizes
in the class with two very nice beasts. Mr. Allan
PoUok's Scotch polled heifer, 28 months old, was merely
commended, when it ought to have got the prize,
although there were no other competitors in the class.
In heifers of any age or breed, not competing in the
other classes, Mr. Allan Pollok obtained the first prize
with a very fine and highly- finished two years old cross
shorthorned heifer ; and Mr. Barton, of StrafFan, got
the second medal. The next class comprehended lots o
" three heifers of any age or breed" not entered in any
other class ; Mr. S. Garnett etting the medal, Sir E.
M'Donnell's lot a high commendation, and Mr. Allan
Pollok's lot being commended, There was nothing in
the animals shown in this class which calls for special
remark.

So much for the cattle. And we would merely ob-
serve, in passing, that the Royal Dublin Society must
feel itself placed under particular obligations to Mr.
Allan Pollok, whose entries amounted to exactly one-
half of the entire number, and whose cattle — all bred by
himself — were nearly all of a kind which would have
entitled them to notice at any show. In fact, without
his entries, the cattle department ofthe exhibition would
have been a failure— a rather remarkable circumstance,
some may think, when it is remembered that cattle
breeding is the chief object with the majority of Irish
farmers.

As a whole, the show of sheep can only be character-
ized as middling, and very far short of what ought to
have been the case, both in number and quality ; while
to several of the lots we must apply the term indifferent.
Our remarks, therefore, need only enumerate the prizes
awarded. In the class of long-woolled wedders, under
thirty-four months old, Mr. H. M. Twite, Sonna,
got the first prize, the other lot shown in the class not
having sufiicient merit for the second medal.
Sir Percy Nugent was the winner with one
of his lots of three and six long-woolled wedders, not
competing in the other classps ; but the second medal

u

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

was not awarded to either of his other lots ia the same
class, he being the only competitor in both cases. Of
short-woolled wctklcrs, under thirty-four months old,
Mr. Twite's lot got first, while Mr. C. Hamilton's pen
of Shropshires came in second. Mr. J. O. G. Pollock's
lot of three short-woolled wedders — evidently crosses —
exceeding thirty-four months old, were passed over wilh
a commendation, although there was no other compe-
titor. The prize for the "pen of three short-woolled
sheep of any age or breed, not competing in the other
classes," was got by three sheep of no distinct breed,
belonging to Lord Talbot de Malahide. Mr. Twite got
the first prize in the class of six short-woolled sheep of
any age, with a fair but unequal pen of Downs, whilst
the second prize was taken by a lot of grass-fed Che-
viots belonging to Mr. Samuel Garnett. In the next
class, that of six sheep of any age or breed, Mr. Owen,
of Blessington, showed the best lot in the entire sheep
department; to wit, a pen of six pure Leicester ewes,
bred by the exhibiter, and to which the first prize was
most deservedly awarded. The second pen on the list
in this class belonged to Mr. Twite.

The department comprising the various classes of fat
swine was restricted as to numbers, but the animals
shown were all good of their kind ; indeed, there has
been a more generally marked improvement in this than
in any other class of livestock in Ireland, and the con-
sequence is that the turn-out at the difTerent shows is
very creditable, The first class in this department in-
cluded pens of " three pigs, small breed, under ten
months old " ; and the first prize was awarded to a nice
lot sent from the Albert Farm, pigs being the only thing
which the conductors of that national institution can
bring out successfully. Dr. RadclifF, of Cliff Lodge,
got the second prize in the class. In the next class,
three pigs, small breed, not exceeding fifteen months
old. Dr. lladcliff was the only competitor, and got the
prize. In single pigs, small breed, of any age, a capi-
tal Cumberland sow belonging to Lord Lurgan got
the first medal; whilst Dr. Radclifl's entry was se-
cond. A pig bred by His Royal Highness the Prince
Consort, and now belonging to the Albert Farm, was
beaten in this class. The Albert Farm won the first
prize in the class comprising three pigs large breed,
over twelve and not exceeding eighteen months old, the
winning pen being a very good lot of Yorkshires.
Another excellent lot of Berkshires, belonging to Dr.
Radcliff, was second in the class. Of single pigs, large
breed, of any age, the first prize was taken by a splendid
Berkshire belonging to Mr. Bruce, Miltown Castle; and
the second by a cross between the Yorkshire and Cum-
berland, the property of Lord Lurgan. An enormous,
but coarse Berkshire sow, threee years old, belonging to
Mr. Joyce, of Abbey Farm, Waterford, was commended.
The poultry section of the exhibition extended to 103
entries, being too few as far as numbers were concerned,
but quite enough, taking general quality into considera-
tion. The best classes were the Dorkings, amongst
which there were several very fair lots, especially the
prize fowl exhibited by Lord Lurgan and Messr.J.
Williams, Forrest, and Maddocks.

We now come to the exhibition of farm produce,
which occupied three wide tables, each extending the
entire length of the hall. With many very splendid
specimens, the whole was, perhaps, scarcely up to the
mark of former years ; but some idea of it may be
formed when we state that two of the exhibitors — Dr.
Radcliff and Mr. Vernon— had each respectively 81 and
73 entries, several of which, of course, were duplicates.
The Earl of Charlemont also sent a large collection of
magnificent roots and cereals, but not for exhibition;
and Mr. Allan Pollok showed specimens of the various
crops grown by him at Lismanney, near Ballinasloe :
thus : — Of white wheat above 800 acres ; barley above
80 acres ; field beans above 100 acres ; turnipseed
(Swedish) 7 acres, Skirving's (purple top) seed 4 acres,
Aberdeen yellow seed 3 acres ; roots of long red mangel
on 90 acres; swede turnip roots on 1,200 acres ; Skirv-
ing's (purple top) on 400 acres; white cabbage on 50
acres ; in all 2,734 acres, and this only from one part of
his estates.

The best sample of white wheat, which was shown
by Mr. James Burke, Stapolin, weighed 64 lbs.
per bushel. This was an exceedingly beau-
tiful sample. The second lot, which weighed
6H lbs. per bushel, was exhibited by Mr.
Putland, of Bray. The best sample of red wheat,
belonging to Dr. Taylor, of Newton Mount Kennedy,
weighed 62| lbs. per bushel ; and the second, exhibited
by Mr. Barlow, weighed 61 lbs. The best sample of
barley was a particularly nice, good-coloured lot,
weighing 53 lbs. per bushel, exhibited by Mr. James
Trim, co. Wicklow. The second lot, which was shown
by Mr. Mill, Donalbate, was much inferior. Both the
first and second lots of wliite oats weighed each 43 lbs.
per bushel, and belonged respectively to Dr. Collins
and Mr. Perry. The prize si^mples of black oats were
also alike in their weight per bushel, viz., 40 lbs., the
exhibitors being Mr. Mill first, and Mr. Perry second.
In the section of field beans the first prize lot, belonging
to Dr. Radcliff, weighed 65 lbs. per bushel ; and the
second lot, exhibited by Lord Talbot da Malahide,
weighed 64 lbs. A more beautiful sample than either,
grown by the Hon. H. Sugden, was unaccountably
passed over. Dr. RadclifF's sample of field peas-
partridge variety — got the first prize in its class ; and
a bag of Gillet's early prolific goldfinder, shown by
the Duke of Leinster, was second. Neither of these
was of extra quality. Dr. Radcliff and Dr. Taylor
stood respectively first and second in vetches. Of flax
seed the samples exhibited were particularly good, the
first prize lot, grown by Mr. D. Patten, Glaslough, being
particularly so. The second in this class was exhibited
by Mr. Boyle, Springfield House, Leeds. The prize for
Irish-grown mangel seed was awarded to a very superior
sample of long red, grown and exhibited by Messrs.
Dickson, Farrel, and Co., Belfast: the same firm stood
first with their Irish- grown turnip seed — East Lothian
purple top — followed by a sample shown by Mr. Allan
Pollok.

In the minor classes of bulbs. Dr. Radcliff and
Mr. Vernon stood first and second for kohl-rabi ;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

35

aud Mr. Vernon, Mr. Barlow, and Mr. Forrest re-
spectively first, second, and third, in onions. Dr.
RadclifF's crop of kohl-rabi was stated to have
produced 40 tons per Irish acre.* The quality of the
potatoes shown was very good, Mr. Barlow being
first, and Dr. Taylor second and third, in the
section of matured potatoes. Mr. Barlow's produce
was stated to have been 17 tons per Irish acre — the
variety Regents ; and Dr. Taylor's 100 barrels or 12|
tons per acre — vaiiety White-rocks. The seedling sec-
tions contained several entries, Dr. Taylor and Mr.
Mason, Dublin, being the prize-takers.

We no;v come to the large root classes, specimens of
which have been so much admired in former years, when
exhibited by the Royal Dublin Society in Baker-street j
and we learn that at the coming show of the Smiihfield
Club a similar collection will again be found, under the
management of the Society's zealous curator, Mr.
Andrew Corrigan.

In long red mangel the first sample belonged to Dr.
Radcliff, and the six roots weighed 1381bs. ; 45 tons of
farm-yard manure, with half a ton of salt per Irish acre,
were employed in growing this crop, and the weight of
the produce was stated to be 72 tons per Irish acre.
The second prize was awarded to Mr. Vernon, whose
six roots weighed ISOlbs. ; 40 tons of farm- yard manure;
produce, 82 tons. Mr. Barlow's six roots, weighing
1141bs., were awarded the third prize. In long yellow
mangel, Mr. Vernon got the first prize with six roots
which weighed 1321bs. ; acreable produce 84 tons : and
Dr. Radcliff 's sample came in second. In red globe
mangel the prizes were awarded in their order to Mr.
Vernon, Dr. Radcliff, and Mr. Forrest ; Mr. Vernon's
sample weighing 119 jibs., and Dr. Radcliff 's six roots
1151b8. In vellow globe mangel Dr. Radcliff showed
six roots whick weighed 147ilbs., and to which the first
prize was awarded. Mr. Vernon's, second prize,
weighed 1191bs. Mr. Ilutton's, third, weighed 1071bs.
In sugar beet Mr. Vernon's six roots weighed 801bs. ;
and Dr. Radcliff 's 781bs. The prizes were awarded
accordingly ; a heavier lot than either, which weighed
llSlbs., being rejected by the judges on account of
coarseness. The red carrots shown were not good ;
whereas, in former years this section was always well
filled. The prize was awarded to Lord Talbot de Ma-
lahide's sample. Of white carrots there were several
good lots, the three prizes being awarded in their order
to Mr. Congreve, county Waterford ; the Marquis of
Kildare, and the Marquis of Waterford. The show of
parsnips was also very good ; Mr. Putland's lot, first
prize, being uncommonly large, and, at the same time,
clean grown. The second and third prizes were taken
by Mr. Forrest and Dr. Radclifl'e.

Of turnips, there was a very fair turn-out. Dr. Rad-
cliff's swedes (first prize) were grown on 28-inch drills,
ridges, with 35 tons farmyard manure and f ton salt per
Irish acre. Mr. Vernon's swedes (second prize) were
grown on 30 tons farmyard manure ; weight of crop, 45
tons per Irish acre. Mr. Allan Pollok's swedes (third

* The Irish acre contains 7,840 square yards, being 3,000
yards over statute measure.

prize) were grown on 30 tons farmyard manure and 5
cwt. guano per Irish acre. In Aberdeens, the Marquis
of Kildare got the first prize with a sample of his crop,
grown on 20 tons of dung and 3 cwt. guano per Irish
acre ; whilst the Duke of Leinster's sample — grown by
Mr. Chapman, Mogaddry Farm, and sown on the 18th
of July — was the winner of the second prize ; the third
prize being awarded to a lot grown by the Hon. R. G.
Talbot, sen., about the 20l.h of May. In white cabbage,
Dr. Radcliff stood first, and Mr. Allan Pollok second,
the four cabbages sent by the last-named gentleman
was a sample of the crop grown on 40 Irish acres with
35 tons of farmyard manure and 4 cwt. of guano per
acre, the crop being 100 tons per Irish acre. In red
cabbages, Mr. Vernon and Dr. Radcliff were the suc-
cessful competitors.

There were very few samples of flax shown, which
was not at all creditable to the spirit of the growers of
this valuable plant in the North of Ireland. We ex-
pected a large exhibition both of hand and mill-scutched,
but our expectations were not realized. Mr. Patton,
Glasslough, was the winner of all the prizes in tha
class.

The number of entries of butter was very limited,
but the quality was superior. The successful exhibitors
were Mr. Patton, Glasslough ; Mr. M'Grath, Castle
Meddery ; Miss Butler, Castle Ruddery ; and Mr.
Fawcett, Glaneely.

Dr. Taylor was awarded prizes for fleeces exhibited
by him, being, in fact, the only competitor.

It is very strange that in those articles for the pro-
duction of which Ireland has a name in the market —
namely Kerry cattle, flax, butter, and wool — the exhi-
bition should have been so poor as it was ; and we
commend these points to the future consideration of the
society.

We regret having observed a great falling-off in the
quantity of roots sent from workhouse farms, but this
has been entirely owing to a most absurd alteration in
the rules of competition made some two years ago ; and
from the manner in which it was done, workhouse agri-
culturists have been disgusted, and now decline send-
ing specimens, when they will not be allowed to compete
with the general body of competitors, or, if so, when
they can only win an honorary distinction — that is, a
third prize — no matter how good their specimens are !
For the largest and best collection of produce grown on
farms connected with public institutions, the first prize
was awarded to Mr. Kavanagh, agriculturist to the
TuUamore Union Workhouse ; the second to Mr. Flood,
agriculturist to the Lismond Union Workhouse ; and
the third, to the Antrim Union Workhouse Farm. We
hope that the society will see the propriety of putting
these deserving men in future on an equal footing with
the general body of competitors, instead of marking
them out as a species of agricultural pariahs.

The Board of National Education sent several speci-
mens of produce from their school farms ; while, owing
to an alteration in the day of adjudication, several intend-
ing competitors were too late in sending forward their
specimens. Amongst these we noticed a splendid lf)t of

26

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mangolds from Col. Tighe's farm at Woodstock, Co.
Kilkenny.

The implement makers who occupied stands were
Messrs Richmond and Chandler ; Thomas Bradford,
Manchester; John Hardley, Shide, Newport, Isle of
Wight, gorse-grinding machine ; John Maguire, Dub-
lin ; R. B. Lee and Co., Dublin ; John Twite, Dublin ;
Joseph Wonfor, Dublin, artificial manures; Thomas
Keenan and Son, Dublin ; Clayton, Shuttleworth, and
Co., Lincoln; Garrett and Sons, Saxmundham; James
Banks, Liverpool ; W. and J. Ritchie, Ardee ; Picksley,
Sims, and Co., Leigh; J. J. Mitchell, Dublin; J. VV.
Mitchell, Dublin ; Alfred Nixon and Co., Liverpool ;
David Rogerson and Co., Dublin, agents for Long's

Specific, and blood manure ; and Joseph Booth, Dublin.
Mr. Macdona, Dublin, exhibited several lots of Irish
frieze, and Messrs. Dickson, Hogg, and Robertson,
Dublin, had a tastefully arranged stand, on which was
exhibited a collection of cereals and grasses, conifera,
and green-crop roots, not for competition. The hall
was also decorated with beautiful plants from the
Botanic Gardens of the Royal Dublin Society, and also
from the gardens at Marino, the seat of the Earl of
Charlemont. The weather although cold was dry, and
the hall was visited on both days by a large assemblage
of visitors, amongst whom were his Excellency the Lord-
Lieutenant, Lady Eglinton and suite.

iMPRdVEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS.

Sir, — I need hardly say to you that the condition of the
agricultural labourer is not any new subject of couaideration
to myself; it is now many years ago that I first called public
attention to it and took a rather active part in exposing the
evils of that condition, suggesting remedial measures. What
is called philanthi-opy was not then the fashion of the hour ;
on the contrary, although the grievous evils of the labouret's
comditioa were in many matters admitted, they were consi-
dered dangerous to discuss openly ; we were warned of the
iuflammabie nature of this class, the great necessary exposure
of property to its malevolence and revenge. Those were the
days of Swing riots, iucendiatism, mschine-breakiug ; days of
things done by masters, suffered aud revenged by men, which
it would be no service now to rake out of the ashes of the
past. Quickly upon that disastrous season the force of public
opinion, a little perhaps impelled by the agency of such so-
called dangerous men as myself, and others taking the same
views, compelled our legislators to look more accurately into
the state of this class. It was not a case for blue-books and
paid commissioners, but for the exercise of their own common
sense, common powers of observatiou. It was »oou seen that
something more was wanted than stringent Poor Lawism, im-
provement of the constabulary, more schools, more churches,
more moral and legislative " plant."

Providence by the " cholera" forced consideration into
action in the matter of the healtii, the physical and therefore
the social condition of the town poor. The nation awoke to
the belief that if there was direct indisputable connesiou
between disease and filthy crowded dwellings, there was as
undenisble a connexion between crime's early and late life, and
the nature of the spot on which it first drew and last parted
with its breath. The sanitary campaign was begun in earnest;
some of the ablest heads, most unwearying pens, plunged at
once into the Augean sphere, and there they dived, digged,
analyzed, aud rioted amid every complication of disease-
begetting matter and manner of life ; they tasted foul water,
they smelt the foulest matters, they forced the chymist and the
microscopist to joiu them iu their labour; they would knov/
of what it all was composed, into what it all evolved, to what
gases it ga7e freedom, to what happy insect infusorial life it
gave bifth to nourish aud to multiply.

The labourer of the country now found friends who obtained
a partial henrin? when his sanitary condition was offered for
discussion. It waa proved in your columns and elsewhere that
his dwelling, almost as the rule, forbade every decency of life ;

was so crowded, so constructed, that if he was healthier than
the town labourer it was because he was fewer hours confined
to the foul air of his home. We contrasted the school
and church, the iessons there taught, with the one bed-
room aud the experience to be there gained ; we asked for
proof of the slightest consideration for modesty, decency, or
health in the avowed condition of the majority of the dwellings
of farm labourers ; we pointed to improved stabling, styes,
sheds, kennels. Were we so very wicked aud mischievous
when we would have laadowners regard their men with the
consideration they gave to their beasts ? Perhaps I, for in-
stance, drove the nail home too fast, too hard ; I might have
been more patient, more reasonable in my strictures on this
subject ; if I had preached treason, written blasphemy, I could
scarcely have been more abused. I am to this day impenitent
in the matter ; for I believe I and others so abused have had
our reward.

Facts bore down opposition ; the truth defied prevaricating
denial; Peers and squires began to lock the matter iu the face,
instead of simply cursing those who had stirred it. The la-
bourer's improvement tool!, became one of the " ideas" of an
age of progress ; Prince and Peer stooped to study the domestic
economics of the peasant; free -trade made improved cultiva-
tion of the soil imperative. This was a matter iu which scien-
tific practice required the aid of complex machinery, and the
intelligence in the laboHrer necessary for its use. Emulation
in farming made the farm and its details open to criticism ;
shame compelled some, real good but late-awakened feeling
others, to build better cottages. It was found the bettermost
men on the farm reared better families as their dwelhngs gave
them fair power to do so ; it was argued, men less good would
become better if dealt with in a better spirit. The cause
prospered under high patronage, the high pressure of the now
thoroughly roused public opinion. I now scarce go anywhere
but I see new cottages built with all desirable regard for the
comfort aud decency of the labourers who inhabit them.
There is room yet for much more cottage-building even iu
fortunate districts ; there arc yet, alas ! many districts in
which all the old evils are iu full force, but I very seldom meet
with a landholder who docs not regard the question in its true
light; there are few, who have any means at their Command,
who do not do something to improve the dwellings of their
poor; there are some bright examples among our territorial
magnates of cottage-building on a most extensive scale, and
with a care for the details and expense of construction above

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

27

all praise. It must be a work of time; forit is a luoat ex-
pensive work on some estates ; but the " cause" has its im-
pulse, and I have little fear but the next generation will see
the poor man as a rule treated in the matter of his dwelling as
we would desire. For my present purpose it is sufficient for
me to claim the couclusiou that thousands of labourers are
better lodged than they were a few years since ; that there is
a growing disposition among landowners to regard proper
dwellings for the poor in the same important light aa proper
homesteads for their tenants.

Assuming, then, the house to be better, how is the cupboard
furnished ? what about the wages? Within the sphere of my
own observation I see here, too, a great improvement : although
wages may not have increased numerically as to the shiliiugs
due on Saturday, the shillings received go far further to fur-
nish the week's necessaries, the Sunday's extra diet ; clothing
as well as bread is much reduced in price ; shoes keep up, but
modern farm work reduces the average expenditure of a
family's shoe leather, so much labour being now done with
little comparative travel. Again, the large and increasing
amount of land under cultivation, and the never-ceasing cul-
tivation of every inch of it, has cresited a demand for more
hands, at the very time extensive emigration is reducing their
numbers. This, if it gi^ea the men — the single men — a spirit
of independence, at times locally inconvenient, acts as a whole-
some drag on any downhill course of wages oa the ground of
" low prices."

So far from machinery, in its present extensive application
to farm work, having decreased the demand for manual labourj
it has called for more hands; more stock are kept, and all
sorts of stock are tended with more care ; the variety of the
food given, and its different forms of preparation, have made
a great call for " hands." The steam engine may do a good
deal of cooking and carving for the flock, the sheds and styes,
biit there are many made tlishes which require hand labour to
work the instruments by which they are prepared. The wait-
ing on the animals is also hand labour. Let me add, in passing,
that the order and method of good farming, tlie close
acquaintance with complicated machinery, the necessarily ac-
quired knowledge of the details of a farm, worked with the
skill and capital of a factory, has an inevitable good moral effect
upon its "hands." It is said footineu become butlers, butlers
gentlemen, by diligent observation of the machinery of refined
life ; so the most raw and stolid of farm youths by degrees
has his eyes opened to see, and his intellect excited to under-
stand the value of these processes, and the nature of the ma-
chinery by which they are accomplished. There is always a
premium before his eyes in the value he beholds given to those
of his class who, by their steadiness and docility, learn enough
and become trusted enough to take charge of particular de-
partments requiring those qualifications. After all that ma-
chinery can do on the surface of the soil, there remains yet in
the field and at the barn a great deal for men, women, and
almost children to do. The large family is not the curse it
used to be thought. True, the shoe bill is heavy, the assaults
on the cupboard many and difficult to meet ; but, with an
ordinary share of health, if drinking and waste are excluded
from tbe Iwuseliold, the earnings of a family not only meet its
wants better than I ever knew them, but leave the margin I
love to see for a certain amount of occasional indulgence in
pleasures and tastes not only wholesome, but leading to
positive good.

The truck system is, I hope, fast passing away; the men
are now, with little exception, paid their earnings in money;
if they take any part in corn, it is at their own option that
they do so. Here and there a few employers may be found

who expect tlieir labourers to take " tailing" wheat of them at
more than it would fetch in the market; they are generally of
a class whose days as tenant-farmers are numbered, for they
are far in the rear of that intelligence by the exercise of which
a renting occupier of land can live.

I must yet say a word or two on the all-importaiit question
of the labourer's education. From the very nature of things,
the time in which the children of this class can be "schooled"
is very limited. They are born to an inherited avocation ;
where the nailed shoe of the father has trodden the little
leathers of his boys must early learn to tread. Out-door em-
ployment demands very early acquaintance with exposure to
weather; the feet and hands must be hardened; the constitution
given a power to endure the extremes of heat and cold — the li-
ability to that but little intermitting damping which our climate
inflicts. To read with ease, to be master of simple rules of
arithmetic, to write a plain hand, to be grounded in religious
truth and in a good general knowledge of Scripture, to have a
boy's idea of the earth in outline, as maps may give it — this is
nearly all that can be hoped from any system of scho'dling in
a purely rural distri3t ; add to this, habits of obedience and
decency, control over the tongue, and an aim at strict honesty,
and you have obtained all you could with reason expect. The
Infant-school must form the base of the work, which the more
advanced school and Sunday-school must complete. The farm
lad is now, sO far as he can be, intellectually " finished," and
he g-es at once to " bird-keeping," or other work of his
apiirenticeship. In the winter season night schools, if well
managed, will, at all events, do much to prevent the loss of
the learning gained as above ; with boys of superior intelli-
geiice it will do more.

Managers of these schools must remember that these lads
must be Ud to work ; as children they were made to do so.
Cheerful, pleasant teaching, ready tact iu offering that which
will amuse while it instructs, is the great secret. The pupils
are often very tired, very sleepy, and yet I have seen them in-
duced to work with a zeal and a result that have astonished me.
Those who taught them made it a labour of love, they received
teaching iu the spirit offered. I have known some through-
out a winter walk miles to meet their " young lady" teachers,
and by their good conduct amply repay the pains bestowed
upon them. Far more can be done, aud is dene, in the girls'
school ; they can be kept there longer, and much of manual
labour, useful, nay, necessary for them in after-life, can be,
and is generally taught to them.

I lately in your columns spoke of the mechanics as a read-
ing class. I can say with truth the agricultural labourer now
draws much frOm books ; instead of being deluged with gra-
tuitous tracts — many good, very many far beyond his com-
prehension—he has now, with a good share of religious litera-
ture, a great amount of useful purely secular reading,
rendered cheap that he can buy it, plain in construction that
he can understand it. Pictorial illustration has great charms
in a cottage ; it helps out the reader, interprets to those who
caimot read. Just as in tbe higher classes we take books of
value number by number, so now it is very common for the
labourers of the rising generation to subscribe weekly or
monthly, as it may be, for some of the many excellent illus-
trated serials which the hawkers bring to their_doors. It is
no unusual thing to fiad in many villages a great and increas-
ing demand in this way for really good books. Trash may
be bought at " a fair," but I see little of it now about. There
is a great improvement also in the pictures on the wall and
teatray ; I only now know of one " Prodigal Son" in topboots
and a red coat, and the very " loud" flirtations pictured as be-
tween the geiitleniaii in uniform aud the lady in riding-habit

28

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

are faat givlu;;' way to really good specimens of cheap paiut-
in" and engraving. Who, too, has not marked the iruprove-
meut in the dress of the labourer— his Sunday dress?— no bad
criterion of his well doing. All thia proves to me matters are
rapidly improving. Drunkenness is still the curse to the men,
love of dress to the young women : with regard to the latter
they are scarcely more fooliah and extravagant than their
betters; as to the former, I have hope yet that Bible and
books will beat the beershop.

Let the upper orders rule more hy example, and they will
find they rule better. True social science lays down, among its

principia, that those who have received most have the most
to give ; the rich man's library, his education, bis position,
are to this degree the property of the poor man, who has few
books, has had little teaching, and lives from hand to mouth ;
he has — when told the value of learning and religion, of so-
briety and chastity, of honesty and industry — a right to see
the evidence of all this in the life of those who are possessed
of the sources from which it is derived.

I feel. Sir, I have trespassed too far on your patience : it is
an old and favourite subject of your now old correspondent
—Times. S. G. O.

ON THE INFLUENCE WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL CON ST I
TUTION OF PLANTS EXERTS UPON THE SEED.

BY WILLIAM K. SULLIVAN. PH.D., M.R.I. A., PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ROMAN
CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY, AND LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY IN THE MUSEUM OF IRISH
INDUSTRY.

In the matured plant we have the final result of
the action of all the causes which influenced its
growth. These causes may be classed under three
categories : cosmical, agrological, and morpho-
logical. To the first belong the several influences
exerted by the mean distribution of heat, the
temperature, the amount and distribution of rain,
the variation in the amount of vapour in the
atmosphere, the amount and quality of the sun's
rays, the relation between the period of flowering
and the length of the day. By agrological causes,
I mean the influence exerted by the special me-
chanical and chemical qualities of the soil in which
the plant grows. The third class of causes in-
cludes: 1. The action which the sjjecific morpho-
logy of the plant, — that is, the structure which it
has in common with all the individuals of the
species, — exerts upon the chemical and other
changes occurring during growth; 2. And that
exerted by the individual morphology, or the pecu-
liarities of structure which each individual exhibits.
These causes are not of equal generality ; the
order is, indeed, the reverse of that in which we
have enumerated them.

It so happens that the relations between the
chemical constitution and the individual and speci-
fic forms of plants, have, hitherto, received very
little attention, the former, indeed, none at all; and
yet phyto-chemistry, especially from an agricul-
tural point of view, should be based precisely upon
a knowledge of the action of those causes. Im-
pressed with the great importance of tracing this
connection, I have attempted some experiments,
which, although of a very fragmentary and not
very conclusive character, may help to call atten-
tion to one of the most important subjects of

inquiry, whether judged from a purely physio-
logical or agricultural point of view. I shall begin
with the individual morphological structure.

In the years 1852 and 1853, I made, in the
Museum of Irish Industry, in conjunction with
my friend Mr. A. Gages, several hundred analyses
of the bulbous roots usually cultivated. The
results of these analyses led to the important con-
clusion, that the diflference in the amount of water
between the large and small roots, grown under
similar conditions, in the same field, was generally
greater than that produced by the action of differ-
ent manures ; a result which necessarily invali-
dated all experiments upon the comparative action
of diflferent manures upon turnips, beets, potatoes,
&c., hitherto made, in which the influence of size
was not taken into account, and this had been
almost never done.

The proportions of water, ash, and nitrogen,
were determined upon a slice cut, in one series,
from the centre of the root and at right angles to
the axis; and in another series, in the direction of
the other axis. Mr. A. Rehring, of Edderitz, having,
however, shown that the amount of sugar con-
tained in difterent parts of a beetroot varied, being
at a maximum in the thickest part of the body,
and diminishing upwards and downwards, it ap-
peared to follow that the percentage of solid
matter, determined from the cross sections, would
be sensibly higher than the mean of the whole
root, and that from the section along the axis^
sensibly lower than the mean. This distribution
of the sugar is more or less in accordance with
the structure of the bulb, which consists of alter-
nate layers of vascular and cellular tissue, the
sugar being contained in the latter,^.especially in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

29

those cells close to the vascular tissue. A larger
proportion of such cells would, of course, occur in
the thick body than at the point of the root.
A considerable portion of the azotic substance
being found in the vascular tissue, it struck me
that the law of distribution for the other proxi-
mate principles of the root might not be the same
as that for sugar. With the view of determining
this point, I made, during the last Autumn and
Winter, the following experiments: —
I. — A root of long red mangel wurtzel, weighing
9lbs. 15oz , and measuring 19 inches in length,
had five cross sections cut from it, which gave,
when dried, the following results per cent, ; —

S"/;^^ Water.
, matter.

' 1. Sea;ment of crown, half-inch

thick, . . . .11.64 88.36

2. Segment of body immediately

below the crown, . . 11.09 88,91

3. Segment of body three inches

below section No, 2, , . 10.28 89.72

4. Segment of body four inches

below section No, 3, . , 11,17 88.83

5. Points of root or forkings, . 12,85 87.15
II. — A root of white Silesian, or sugar beet, weigh-
ing 61bs. lloz,, and measuring 14 inches in
length, similarly cut, gave per cent. : —

^^Z;*^ Water,
matter.

^ 1. Segment of crown, . , 7.55 92.45

2, Segment of body, half-inch

below crown, . , , 8.75 91,25

3, Segment of bodv, taken three

inches below No. 2, . . 10,45 89.55

4, Segment of body, taken three

inches below No, 3, . . 11.55 88.45

5, Point of root, two inches long, 12,13 87,87

According to these results, the maximum amount
of solid matter is in the thin part of roots, which?
according to Rehring, contains but little sugar,
AVhen the quantity of sugar is very considerable,
the maximum may, however, be in the thickest
' part of the root.

The relative diminution of solid matter, as the
size of an organ increases, appears to be a uni-
versal law within certain limits ; and the proportion
of nitrogen follows the same law. The young
buds, just before bursting into leaf, contain more
solid matter and nitrogen than when fully unfolded.
In the case of cabbage, I have found, in two
instances that I tried the experiment, that the
increase of water, from the young heart leaves to
the external ones, was quite regular. Large roots
sometimes appear to form an exception to this law
by containing more nitrogen than the smaller
roots. Part of this nitrogen is often, however,
derived from nitrates and ammonia — the quantity
of the former being always greater in large than
in small roots. It would appear, too, that part of
the azotic bodies is expended during the produc-

tion of the sugar, and that, consequently, the less
sugar that is produced, the less of the azotic bodies
will be lost.

Being desirous of ascertaining how far this
gradual increase in the relative amount of solid
matter, towards the narrow parts of the roots,
would influence the difFerence between large and
small roots, which former experiments, made in
the Museum of Irish Industry, had established, I
recently undertook to make a new series of deter-
minations, not upon a segment of the root as
before, but upon the whole root. Although it is
now universally admitted that large roots contain
more water than small ones, yet it seemed to me
to be worth incurring the labour of this new series
of determinations, if for no other purpose than to
ascertain the actual condition of our green crop
husbandry as regards quality. The results of this
inquiry, which extended to nearly all the kinds of
root crops now cultivated in Ireland, and in which
much care was taken in getting average samples,
will be found in the annexed table. Besides the
actual determinations of water and solid matter,
the results of which are given in the table, I made
a series of determinations of the density of a great
number of other roots, by a process to be de-
scribed further on. So that, although but two
roots from each locality were dried, these were
selected as representing the average, as determined
by the density of, perhaps, in some cases, twenty
roots. The table may, consequently, be considered
to express the present average quality of Irish-
grown roots, and will serve as a standard by which
to determine the future improvements in the qual-
ity of our green crops, for which, indeed, there
appears to be much room. Hitherto, all the efforts
of husbandmen seem to have been directed to
quantity and none to quaUty. This is abundantly
proved by the circumstance that the only test
recognized at shows of agricultural produce, for de-
termining the comparative merits of the specimens
of turnips, &c., exhibited, is weight. It is to be
hoped that henceforward some better test than this
will be introduced, and that prizes be awarded for
improving green- crop husbandry, and not for de-
teriorating it, as the present forcing system but
too often tends to do.

However important the object above mentioned
may be, it was not the immediate one I had in
view in making this new series of determinations.
That object was connected with the subject of this
paper, and which I shall now enter upon.

An examination of the table alluded to, shows
that, although large roots almost invariably contain
less solid matter than small ones, thus confirming
the results of former experiments made upon seg-
ments and not upon the whole root, equal difler-

30

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ences of weight between hyvge and small roots are
y^ry rarely accoinpijnied by equal difterences be-
tween the amounts of solid matter ; and this is
not only true of all roots compared together, but
even in many cases of roots grown in the same
field under, as nearly as possible, similar condi-
tions, as we shall see presently. To give a few
examples from the table : —

The greatest observed difference of solid matter
(10.81) is attended by a difference of weight of
only 2lbs. 8jOz., while the greatest difference of
weight observed between two roots grown together
(lOlbs. 4oz.) shows a difference in percentage of
sohd matter of only 2.40. A nearly equal differ-
ence of weight in another case (9lbs. IS^oz.) gave
a difference of solid matter of only 0.17 per cent.
To what are we to attribute these extraordinary
variations ? If the experiments had been limited
to a few specimens, they would be set down, most
probably, to the action of the soil and manure ;
and no doubt both causes may have contributed
to the result. But as similar variations, and
sometimes to as great an extent, may be observed
among roots grown under precisely the same con-
ditions as to soil and manure, it is evident that an
initial cause of difference must have existed in the
germs from which they were produced. I was led
to this opinion by observing that roots grown
from inferior, and especially from mixed seeds,
but under precisely similar conditions as to soil
and manure, varied very much in their composi-
tion, and did not follow exactly the law of size;
while good, uniform, and fully ripened seed in-
variably followed that law. The following examples
will illustrate this : —

I. — White Silesian beet, grown upon a strong clay
soil, and manured with matter from cesspools
and sulphate of ammonia.

MIXED INFERIOR SEED.

Pei'cc-ntage of
Weight of Root. Solid Matt.er-

13 lbs. 4 oz 8.YS

I'' 7' . 6 43

10 „ 5 , f).75

8 ., lU „ 9.92

5 „ m „ 7.52

3 „ 0 „ 12.74

2 „ lO.f „ 10.42

1 „ 12| ,, 10.42

GOOD UNIFORM SEED.

Percentage of
WeiLjhtof Root. Solid Matter.
71bs. lOioz 11.94

0 „ 12-1 „ 12.32

6 „ G-^' „ 12.80

6 „ 2^ „ 13.09

4 „ 3^ „ 14.32

2 „ 6| „.,... 1G.92
2 „ 12| „ 14.56

1 „ 15i „ 15.48

II.— Long red ipangel-wurtzel grown on a light
clay soil, and manured wjLh farmyard if^anure.

MIXED INFERIOR SEED.

Weight of Root

7 lbs

(3i

oz.

7 „

5^

G „

15

2 „

8

1 „

2!

0 „

10

Weight of Root

8 lbs.

6f

oz.

G „

m

3 „

4

1 „

5

1 „

5^

1 „

4f

Percentage of
Solid Matter.
. 12.92
. G.94
. 12.49
. 16.33
. 15.99
. 14.30

GOOD UNIFORM SEED.

Percentage of
Scjlid Matter.
. 12.84
. 13.03

. 15.20 {

. 14.80
. 15.86
. 16.96

It would appear, liowcvci', that, although the
initial cause of variation from the lav/ of size is
resident in the germ, the soil and manure may
increase or diminish the amount of divergence.

The ordinary seed used by husbandmen is rarely
the seed of plants grown upon the same kind of
soil and with the same kind of manure, that is,
under more or less analogous conditions, but
rather a mixture of seeds from different localities V
and produced under the most various circum-
stances. If then, there be really an initial cause of
difference resident in the germ, we have a sufficient
explanation of the difference which any one may
observe between the quality of roots grown in the
same field. Nov/ an important question suggests
itself, namely, is the initial cause of difference in
seeds hereditary, or in other words, is it derived
from the peculiar qualities of the plants which
bore it? If this be so, the seed of each plant
must transmit more or less of its individual quali-
ties, as v/ell as the specific ones, to the plants
which they will produce, subject to the modifying
influences of soil, manures, climate, &c.

One of the most striking diffei-ences in quality,
which roots exhibit, is that of relative amount of
solid matter — a difference which may be deter-
mined by ascertaining their specific gravity; the
roots containing least water being densest. I
therefore determined to try whether this property
of density could be propagated. For this purpose
I selected three roots of white Silesian beet of
nearly the sanie size (2lbs. 6oz. to 2lbs. 7oz.), but
exhibiting as great a difference in specific gravity
as possible. I determined the specific gravities by
means of a series of solutions of common salt,
indicating differences of specific gravity equal to
0.005. I employed eleven solutions placed in
wide-mouthed jars, numbered from oi;i,e to eleypn.

THE FAKMER*S MAGAZINE.

31

The fullukving table gives the specific gravity of
each : —

No.

4
5
6

The root,
determined,

No,

7

. 1.055

8

. 1.060

9

. 1.065

10

. 1.070

11

. 1.075

. 1.025

. 1.030

. 1.035

. 1.040

. 1.045

. 1.050
vvhose sjjecific gravity was to be
having been washed, was plunged
into each successive solution until it floated fairly.
We shall suppose a root sinks in solution No. 5,
but floats in No. 7; its specific gravity may be
considered as the mean, or 1.050; it ought con-
sequently remain for a moment in any part of
No. 6 solution, slowly rising towards the surface,
if its specific gravity lies between 1.045 and 1,050^
or sinking if it be between 1.050 and 1.055. For
all practical purposes intervals of 0.005 are quite
enough.

The roots, vvhose specific gravities were thus
determined, were planted and allowed to produce
seed, which was sown, and the roots produced
from them examined. The following table gives
the weight of roots grown from parent seed, and
percentage of solid matter : —
Sp. gr. of parent root. 1.070 1.050 1.030

WEIGHT

OF ROOTS. PERCENTAGE OF SOLID MATTER.

14 to 20 oz. .

32 to 40 oz. .

48 to 60 oz. .

The experiments which I have made upon this
deeply interesting subject are not sufficiently nu-
merous or varied to establish so important a law as
that supposed to exist. The results so far are,
however, very remarkable; and, whether they be
the expression of a general law or an accident,
they suggest a line of investigation, which, if ])ro-
perly followed up, would assuredly yield some
valuable and interesting theoretical and practical
results.* Such experiments occupy a great deal

* Since writing the above, I have found that M.
Louis Vilmorin has proposed to improve the quality
of the sugar-beet by selecting the densest roots,
and growing seeds from them, and continuing this
system of selection for several generations. I am
glad that the results of my experiments are so
fully in harmony with the experience of so eminent
an agriculturist. He determines the density of
the juice by cutting out, by means of a peculiar
instrument, a piece of the root, which he rasps and
presses. Small boxes, containing all the apparatus
required for the purpose, are sold in Paris, and
described by M. Vilmorin in a paper published in
No. 5, for March 5, 1858, of that admirable peri-
odical, the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, edited
by M. Barral.

/Max.
I Min.

18.83

15.91

10.11

17.46

14.52

9.12

/ Max.

IMin.

17-74

15.35

10.56

15.55

13.65

9.20

/ Max.
t Min.

16.15

15.47

8.75

14.80

13.89

7.87

of time, and demand great care and attention, and
could only be successfully carried out by persons
favourably circumstanced. To such I commend
the subject ; and, as an additional argument, I
would suggest its immense practical importance;
for if such a law as I have supposed exists, we
might raise the quality of most, if not of all,
cultivated crops far beyond their present condition.
In this respect there appears to be much room for
improvement, as will be seen by a glance at the
table containing the results of the determination of
water and solid matter in bulbous roots. To
increase the solid matter in all root crops (not
including potatoes) by only one per cent., would
be equivalent, in Ireland alone, to adding 50,000
acres to the area under cultivation !

In connection with this subject, it may be worth
while to direct attention to the tendency which
some nangel wurtzel roots have of starting, as it is
called ; that is, of prematurely producing their
flower-stalk. This, of course, exhausts the bulb
of its azotic and saccharine principles, at the same
time that it becomes woody. I have determined,
in several cases, the relative amount of water and
soUd matter in roots just about to produce their
flower-stalk, and never found the amount of the
latter to exceed ten per cent. Dense roots appear
never to exhibit that tendency; but in a crop of
mangel-wurtzel in which the percentage of water
is high, a considerable number of roots prema-
turely produce their flower-stalk as soon as the
amount of water passes 90 per cent., which it does
when the root reaches about three pounds in weight.

If, by a judicious selection of seed, we could ul-
timately succeed in growing crops of roots having
15 or 16 per cent, of solid matter, it seems reason-
able to suppose that we ought also to be able to
develop some particular constituent which may be
of more importance than the others. Thus some
plants are grown for sugar, others for oil, others
for fibre, &c. : it would certainly be a great advance
in practical agriculture, if we could increase the
relative proportion of each of these constituents in
the respective plants which produce them. That
such an initial difference of this kind may exist in
plants, is, I think, proved by the different qualities
of flax seed. Although the quantity and quality
of fibre in the flax plant are very much influenced
by the character of the soil, it is well known that
all flax seeds will not produce the same quality of
fibre when grown on the same land. Some will
give a coarser fibre, others an extremely fine one.
These diflferences in seed are of course the result
of the influence of soil and climate upon the plants
which bore them. There can be no doubt that, if
experiments were made in this direction, most iiu-
portant results would be arrived at.

32

TllK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

In assuming that a plant can transmit its indi-
vidual as well as its specific character through its
seed to the plants which they produce, I do not
mean to imply that the action of this cause may
not be mo(3ified or wholly counteracted by the ope-
ration of the numerous other causes acting during
the growth of plants, especially by the modifying
influence which the soil exerts in virtue of its
mechanical and chemical constitution. The con-
trary must indeed be the case ; for the individual
character is, in the first instance, as I stated in
reference to the flax plant, the result of the action
of such causes. Whatever be the cause or causes
which produce the specific character of a plant)
they appear to be so powerful as to predominate
over the action of soil, climate, &c. The individ-
ual character is the measure of the effect of those
causes in modifying the specific type. If we
consider with Rochleder that the homoecmorphism
of plants, like the isomorphism of minerals, is the
result of chemical constitution, — and the opinion
seems I'ational, — all modifications in chemical con-
stitution, whether they consist in the production of
an abnormal substance, or in the development of
an abnormal quantity of one or more otherwise
normal constituents, must, if they at all affect the
seed, tend to perpetuate themselves — that is, to
produce varieties. But nothing has yet been
done, strictly speaking, to trace the kind of modi-
fication in chemical composition which most affects
the germ.

In plants which produce but one flower-stalk,
the whole of the germs are more likely to have the
same chemical composition, and therefore the same
structure, than where numerous flower-stalks are
formed on different parts of the same plant. As
each flower may be developed at difterent periods,
the chemical constitution of the sap may vary very
much within the intervals of time between the
formation of the several germs, and consequently
a different character may be impressed upon the
germs of each flower. But even the seeds con-
tained in the same capsule or pod often vary
considerably in size and density. This is well
seen in the leguminous seeds, but it may be often
observed even in the case of such small seeds as
those of the poppy. In timber frees, and general-
ly in plants of slow growth, the constitution of the
sap appears to be more constant and less liable
especially to rapid modifications, or, at least, to
those which affect the quality of the seed, than
herbaceous plants. This is, perhaps, due in some
measure to the various substances stored-up in the
vessels and cells, the produce of former growth,
which serve to dilute or counteract the modifi-
cation. On this account, it is much to be regretted
that no one has determined whether the sap of the

sugar-maple presents us great a variation in com-
position as the quick-growing sugar-cane and
beet-root.

Plants being composed of chemical molecules
subjected to the action of the force or forces which
produce the phenomenon of life, a species may be
considered as simply a series of groups of such
molecules, whose motions fulfil, under a certain
relation of forces, the condition of the most stable
equilibrium. So long as the relation of forces
deviates very little from that which results in
equilibrium, the type is constant, and any devia-
tions from it are transitory. If the deviation be
considerable, we may have : — ]. A modification of
the tyjje, which m.ay be individual if the deviation
be transitory, or may result in the production of a
variety if constant; or 2. The deviation taking
place slowly and by successive steps, so as not to
remove, for a moment, the molecules from the in-
fluence of the vital forces, a new condition of
equilibrium may arise, which would result in the
development of a new species ; or 3. The equi-
librium may be so disturbed as to remove, for a
moment, some of the molecules from without the
sphere of vital force, the immediate result of which
would be the death of the individual. If the
transmutation of species be possible, the chances
of the production of a new one may be set down
at not less than one in several millions at least ;
while the conditions of equilibrium must impose a
limit to the possible number of species which can
exist under any given combination of physical
conditions, and the most stable arrangements
would naturally be those first attained. Now,
from this point of view, the question of the extent
to which a species might be permanently modified
has not yet, so far as I am aware, been examined.

Although the action of chemical agents upon
plants has engaged the attention of many dis-
tinguished experimenters, yet beyond the great
outline sketched by Leibig, very few positive data
have been, up to this, acquired. Perhaps the cir-
cumstance, that hitherto the influence of chemical
agents has been only studied ujion the individuals
of a generation, may in part account for this.

Carefully conducted experiments should there-
fore be made, to determine the action of chemical
substances upon j)lants through the several suc-
cessive generations obtained from a single parent
plant. The seed of each plant, beginning with
that of the parent plant itself, should be carefully
distributed into several sorts, according — 1. To
relative volume and density; 2. Shape, in reference
to normal type; 3. Position of the flower on the
plant, especially with reference to the action of so-
lar rays; 4. Period at which the flower of each
seed (if single) or of each pod, &c., was developed ;
and so on. In this way, whatever slight influences
might be exerted on the different seeds of the
parent plant, might be gradually exalted after two
or three generations. Such experiments should
not be confined to one or two families of plants,
because, no doubt, every family would be affected
more or less differently by the action of the same
causes.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

33

Table showing the influence of Size upon the relative amount of Water and Solid Matter in the

usually cultivated Bulbous Roots.

Weight of Root,

Per-centage of Solid

Matter.

Diflference between Large
and Small Roots.

]

n percentage

Name of Root examined.

Large.

Small.

Large.

SmaU.

In Weight.

of Solid
Matter.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz.

White Silesian, or Sugar-

12 7h

10 5

6.42

9.75

2 24

3.33

Beet,

9 4

2 74

8.73

11.19

6 12^

2.46

5 10

2 7

13.40

15.34

3 3

1.94

5 2

0 13.i

14.86

15.89

4 54

1.03

4 9

1 14

14.21

21.39

3 74

7.18

4 0

1 7i

10.40

17.43

2 8j

7.03

4 0

0 12

12.94

15.32

3 4

2.38

3 13f

1 H

15.78

19.78

2 9^

4.00

3 134

I 104

14.10

16.28

2 3

2.18

3 Uf

1 sh

7.95

18.76

2 Si

10.81

Long Red Mangel-

11 8

2 9

9.54

10.84

8 15

1.30

Wurzel

9 13

3 134

10.59

12.24

5 154

1.65

9 5J

2 1

9.41

14.09

7 41

4.68

8 0

0 7

10.98

15.62

7 9

4.64

7 4

1 0

10.79

15.91

6 4

5.12

6 124

1 H

12.28

14.68

5 7i

2.40

5 7i

1 6

11.83

13.46

4 li

1.63

5 64

2 10 .|

14.93

14.72

2 12

5 6

1 6

13.07

13.75

4 0

0.68

/4 8f

1 24

11.78

19.62

3 6i

7.84

4 64

1 3

13.70

17.81

3 34

4.11

3 14

1 3

14.70

14.28

2 11

3 14

0 U

14.62

16.03

3 0

1.41

Red Globe Mangel-

11 7

1 74

10.36

10.53

9 154

0.17

Wurzel

9 3

1 15

7.05

9.20

7 4

2.15

7 3

1 4

12.35

13.50

5 15

1.15

7 2

1 1^

11.95

13.77

6 0.1

1.82

6 124

1 9

11.34

13.80

5 3.}

2.46

6 12

2 4

12.82

14.64

4 8

1.82

5 10

1 12

12.66

15.41

3 14

2.74

5 64

2 5

13.00

15.46

3 14

2.37

4 3

1 ra

11.58

15.50

2 4

3.92

3 15^

1 2

11.04

14.34

2 13.^

2.70

Orange Globe Mangel-

12 14

10 54

5.24

6.66

1 12

1.42

Wurzel

11 9

4 5

9.96

9.35

7 4

10 2

1 14

7.52

11.72

8 4

4.20

9 10

2 5

11.88

12.58

7 5

0,70

Orange Globe Mangel-

7 14

1 5

11.11

13.77

6 9

2.66

Wurzel

7 0

1 3i

11.66

16.12

5 124

4.46

6 11

1 U

10.80

18.34

5 94

7.54

4 10

1 1

9.99

16.60

3 9

6.61

4 9

0 11

11.94

13.36

3 14

1.42

4 2

0 11

10.68

15.19

3 7

4.51

2 15

1 3i

14.32

14.10

1 lU

Yellow Globe Mangel

■ 7 3

1 4

12.35

13.50

5 15

1.15

Wurzel

5 11

1 12

12.66

15.40

3 15

2.74

4 3

1 14

11.58

15.40

2 5

3.82

Purple-Top Aberdeen 1
Turnips (Bullock) J

5 114

3 34

8.0s

8.93

1

2 S

0.85

u

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

N^ipe of Root examined

Skirving's improved

Purple-top Swedish'
Turnips

Laing's Purple-top Swed'
ish Turnips

Matson's Purple-top

East Lothian Purple-top

Ashcroft's Swedish \
Turnips J

Fettercairne Green-top \
Swedish Turnips J

Green-top Swedish Tur-
nips

Swedish Turnips (variety
not determined)

Orange Jelly Turnips

Parsnips

Red Carrots

Red Surrey Carrots
White Belgian Carrots

Weight of Root.

Large.

lbs. oz.

8 8
7 13

6 oi

6 0
5 10

9 10
5 Of

5 94

6 0

6 12*

7 10

5*

12 44
11 11
10 8
9 13
8 8
8 2
8 2
7 15
7 84
7 1
7 0
6 12
6 7h
6 1
5 11

5 04

1 11

94

1

1 8
1 6

2 10 J

3 4
2 64
2 0

1 15f

1 14

1 1

Small.

lbs. oz.
1 91
1 9.^
1 114
1 9
1 9^

1 8
1 1

1 10

1 9

2 64
1 3

7

6h
04
Oi

Per-centage of Solid
Matter.

2 04
1 1
1 5J

1 14

2 13

3 11
1 15
1 9

0 14

1 5

0 14

1 5i
1 34
1 2

1 10

0 14|

0 6h

0 3
0 2i
0 94

0 12

1 0
0 9t
0 11
0 9
0 3^
0 5

Large.

10.69
9.77
10.61
11.32
10.37

9.95
12.00

11.09

11.17

10.82

14.40

10.71
11.69
11.65
12.80

9.30
10.10
10.35

9.91
10.94
11.20
10.63
10.93
10.08
18.06
11.08
12.66
13.73
11.18
11.68

5.67

12.03

gl2.13
11.08
12.02

11.92

11.69
13.17
12.06
11.10
12.72
12.65

Small.

11.07
12.75
12.23
12.71
11.42

11.21
11.76

14.41

11.73

10.52

11.30

11.68
11.74
12.36
11.78

11.70
11.98
12.03
12.19
11.47
12.93
12.14
12.13
12.34
12.79
12.62
20.01
16.2.5
12.30
12.77

7.09

13.42

17.81
19.72
11.51

13.70

13,50
14.36
14.04
13.09
14.09
13.07

Difference between Large
and Small Roots.

In Weight.

lln percentage

of Solid

Matter.

lbs. oz.
6 14i-
6 34
4 5J

4 7
4 04

8 2
3 15f

3 154

4 7

4 6

6 7

4 15

3 14

2 74

2 5i

10 4
10 10

24
15
11

7

3

6

101
12

2

7t^
4
15
1

4 2

1 4f

1 64

1 0.^

0 124

1 14.^

2 4

1 12f
1 5
1 6f

0 14

0 12

0.38
2.98
1.62
1.39
1.05

1.26
0.00

3.32

0.56

0,00
0.00

0.97

0.05
0.71
0.00

2.40
1.88
1.68
2.28
0.53
1.73
1.51
1.20
2.26
0.73
1.54
7.35
2.52
1.12
1.09

1.42

1.39

5.68
8.64
0.00

1.78

1.81
1.19
1.98
1.99
1.37
0.42

•--Agricultural Review.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

35

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF PLANTATIONS.

A plantation is an assemblage of trees growing on the
surface of the earth, on which the young plants have
been inserted for the purpose of being reared into timber,
an article of vast importance in the domestic economy
of the human race. A tree is one of the first creations
of nature, and one of the most abundant productions
that are found on the face of the earth. The surface is
adorned by the presence of trees in the lofty stem and
canopy of foliage. Cold situations are sheltered and
rendered warm by the protection afforded from congre-
gations of trees ; and the trunks are manufactured for
a large variety of purposes in every clime of the known
world. Without trees the face of the earth would
lose a large part of its beauty.

In the modern economy of using the earth for the
purposes of cultivation, trees are reared with three in-
tentions—for scenery, for shelter, and for growing
timber as an article of commercial value. The first use
prevails chiefly in lowland situations, and upon rich
soils ; the second is used on high ground, in order to
afford a shelter to declining situations ; while the third
occupies all the upland and highest positions in which
vegetation is able to live and grofr. The first applica-
tion is beyond our present purpose : the second and
third occupy all high grounds, from the most Alpine
heights down to the low situations of scenery and plea-
sure j within this range are comprehended hills and
moors never cultivated, and banks and declivities beyond
the reach of the plough.

The rearing of timber is an object of much importance
to the owners of the soil, and of a very considerable in-
terest to the national community. A general rule
directs that all the grounds be planted with trees which
are inaccessible to the plough by reason of elevation,
declivity, or any other insuperable objection of nature.
And when a grassy surface on a kindly subsoil yields
a grateful herbage to animals, the position of plantations
must be so arranged as to afford shelter to the grounds
that produce the value in pasturage. The profits of the
grazing will determine if the use continues for animals,
or may be better converted into plantations. Very high
elevations deny the growth of any vegetation. Grasses
grow where trees cannot live, and consequently such a
value must come from these situations as nature is
pleased to allow. Plantations are best made on mo-
derate elevations, or sloping grounds that forbid culti-
vation, and on low situations where for special reasons
a congregation of trees may be eligible.

Trees of u£e are naturally divided into two large as-
sortments of hard and soft timber, which are assorted
by the relative situations of growth and utility. Young
plants are raised in nursery-grounds from the ripened
seeds to the age of two and three years, and then planted
in the open grounds. Fir trees form a large division of
the soft timber, .and the hard kinds of Britain are the

oak, ash, and elm. Other sorts of trees are introduced
in the low grounds where scenery is the object.

Grounds intended to be planted with trees must be
completely fenced during the year previous to the
planting, which may be done in the way that is the most
convenient to the circumstances of the locality. Stone
walls are the most ready and efTectual fence, and when
sunk into the ground the effect is useful and agreeable.
A strong turf wall of good materials constitutes a good
fence, and is often of more ready access than stones.
Timber palings will last for many years, and where
timber is plentiful will be often used. Different modes
will prevail, as the locality affords the materials. Wet
grounds must be thoroughly laid dry by surface
draining, of which the ditches are placed in the lowest
grounds, and follow the sinuosities of the surface in
every direction, however crooked or awkward the ap-
pearance may become. The general discharge must
lead to a large ditch, brook, or rivulet, into which the
water escapes. The conveyance must be clear and un-
interrupted to the outside of the plantation, if at all
possible to be got. If a flat surface occurs, an artificial
level must be sought and made for the special use.

Two methods are adopted in planting trees ; one
way opens circular pits in the ground, three to four
feet apart, about one foot deep, and one foot-and-a-
half in diameter. The tree is placed upright in the
centre of the hole, with the rootlets carefully spread
abroad by the hand, the excavated earth is thrown
into the pit, and trodden firmly round the tree by the
foot, and then the grassy turf is placed as before over
the pit, and cut into two parts, with the tree in the in-
cision. The earth being trodden firmly by the foot,
and the turf being compressed with the back of the
spade, finishes the planting of the tree. This mode is
adopted for plants of the largest size, which are placed
at widest distances on the ground. The second method
of planting trees makes two incisions with the common
spade, centrally crossing each other at right angles ;
the tree is placed in the ground at the point of inter-
section, the spade holding up the turf till the plant is
fixed, and then depressing it to receive the position.
The roots of the plant are neatly dressed by knife, and
the feathers are arranged in the new position before the
fixture is accomplished. This method is cheap and ex-
peditious, and leaves the roots among the best soil on
the surface of the ground on which to spread horizon-
tally, and establish its abode ; whereas in pits, by the
first way of planting, the roots are placed in the sub-
soil, which is often pernicious and inimical to vegetation,
the growth i'; stopped till new roots emerge from the
stem, aua uia.v substance from the upper soil. Trees
are fibrous-vooted plants, and spread horizontally along
the surface of the earth : no tap-root descends to
require a depth of humified earths, and consequently

D 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

36

tlie inserliim may be more shallofv, and the labour
less costly. The last-mentioned method is there-
fore the preferable way of planting young trees in the
ground.

The distance between the plants and the number of
trees that are required to cover an acre of ground are
vrey much varied both in opinion and practice. Hard
timber trees— as oak, ash, and elm— are usually planted
in four feet apart, on the calculation that one-half of
the trees are taken out when risen to one-third of the
full growth, in order to make room for the standing
crop, and that those remaining trees need the space of
eight feet between them. But experience has shown
that a full crop of timber trees can stand at four feet
apart, and consequently the first planting must be
thicker on the ground. The larch and Scotch fir are
found the most suitable plants on the highest exposures,
and even on the sheltered slopes of these elevations
these trees maintain the greatest worth on the lowest
declivities, and upon the best grounds the oak, ash, and
elm claim the preference] and on low flooded lands,
which cannot be amended, the willow and the alder
are the chosen plants. The beech on chalks, the
hazel on rocky banks, and the birch on barren gravels
are the useful introductions ; and in some situations
the Spanish chestnut will equal in value the most
esteemed trees in Britain. In every case of planting
trees on high or low grounds, and of firs or hard timber,
the distance between the plants will be two feet, and the
number on an acre will vary from eight to ten thousand.
The plants of hard timber may stand at two-and-a-half
feet apart, and in certain exposures the fir trees may be
so close as eighteen inches. These close distances are
required to create a mutual warmth, and to promote
the upright shooting of the plants by preventing the
lateral expansion.

The planting of trees is best done iu the months of
November, December, and January ; and during the
mild fresh weather that occurs during this wintry
division of the year. So soon as the setting of the
plants is accomplished the gates are shut, and, as the
fencing has been previously done, the performance is
wholly completed. Roads of twenty feet in width are
left in the convenient directions over the planted
grounds, and so arranged as to afi'ord a ready and con-
venient a' -ess to the working requirements, and to the
vehicles of export when the felled timber is removed.
This convenience is never to be omitted, being made in
all cases of plantations of trees. Open ditches are dug
along the sides of the roads in all places where water
may overflow the passages, and are directed to discharge
the contents into a main outlet. On all wet grounds
these ditches are necessary.

The close planting of trees allows the growth to be
altogether unmolested, save the insertion, during two
years, of fresh sets in the places where a failure of growth
is seen to happen. The most vigorous and thriving
trees take the lead, and carry the pre-eminence, and
strive to reach the benefit of sunshine, which is neces-
sary to a prosperous vegetation. A certain number of
plants attain that station, and form an umbrageous

canopy of leaves and branches that join in the contact.
Beneath this covering all vegetation is killed, and almost
every life extinguished, at least, that rises upwards in
any considerable height. The trees that cannot rise
upwards into the sunshine are killed ; and when seen
to be fairly mastered, are usefully removed for fencing
purposes. The lateral branches of the trees that suc-
ceed in obtaining the [^permanent elevation die away,
from a beginning at the bottom of the stem, and are
killed progressively upwards, according as the tree
rises in height. The decay follows closely on the
ascent of the stem, and there is left on the top of the
tree " only " a round canopy of green branches and
leaves, of a small vertical extent, and so far laterally as
the contiguous formations will allow. The stem of the
tree becomes a straight boll, without any knots or
blemishes. The upward struggle of growth prevents
any bendings or lateral inclinations, and the efforts of
nature are directed to one chief point. By this method
nature exhibits the finest timbers in the world. In the
wilds of America, in the straths of Scotland, and on the
rocky mountains of Norway, the seeds are sown by the
wind, and the roots are struck into the uppermost
stratum of decayed vegetable earth — a lesson which
forbids the pruning or lopping of branches, and the in-
sertion of young plants deeply into the ground.

The pruning of trees, or the cutting away of the
branches by a saw or chisel, is a mangling process, which
very much damages the timber of the stem. Sap flows
to an incision, and very often protrudes a number of
young shoots, or a struggle is made to cover the wound,
which forms a large blemish when the timber is sawn for
use. When the tree prunes itself by means of a killing
confinement of the lower parts, as by close planting, no
such accident happens ; the decay is gradual and pro-
gressive, and the sap flowing upwards by the attraction
of heat, leaves the branches to a complete annihilation ;
there is no wound to be covered with bark, the branch
drops off, and the junction with the stem is soon imper-
ceptible ; the expense of pruning is avoided, and also
the labour and cost of thinning, which is seldom repaid
by the value of the clearances. The trees grow to a full
maturity, and have no attention, except in keeping the
fences good against trespass, and in removing the stems
that are uudergrown, before rottenness destroys the use
for fencing.

About one-fourth of the number of trees planted will
remain for crop, and will average about two thousand
on an acre, standing at four or six feet apart. The
other portion of the original plants is sacrificed to the
purpose of raising the standing crop into a prosperous
condition. The first thinnings are useful for fuel only,
being the young trees that are first killed by the stronger
plants, and consequently are very small in bulk. The
second thinnings will be of older plants that have grown
for several years, and then mastened— the use will be
for light fencing ; while the third and last thinning will
consist in small trees of many years' growth that are
overtopped at the summit of the canopy of extreme
growth ; the stems are sawn and made into gates and
fencing purposes. The crop of timber trees proceed to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

37

the full growth, then felled, and the ground replanted
as has been directed.

The observant eye that looks into a congregation of
trees which have grown under Nature's care, or that
have escaped the havoc of the thinning and pruning per-
formances, cannot fail to discover the truth of the above
statements, and that the system is supported by the most
rigid adherence to established law. In these places
are seen the stems of trees, tall and straight, with-
out branch, knot, or excrescence of any kind, and the
bark smooth and slippery, without any interruptions.
Wherever the sun and light are allowed to penetrate, the
branches of trees will seek it laterally as well as verti-
cally ; and the number of shoots will be proportioned to
the free access which is given to these necessary elements
of growth. The vegetation is thus directed to many
points; the tree becomes a bush, and fails to reach the
height of a timber provision : the stem is knotty and
rifty, and inferior in the hands of the workman ; and
the wider standing of the trees reduces the number on
an acre of groutid. Close planting directs the efforts of
vegetation to the vertical growth, which forms the tree
without any lopping of branches, or cutting and thin-
ning.

The seeds of trees may be sown by hand on the surface
of the ground intended to be planted, and a very large
quantity of the seeds on an acre. The seeds germinate
and strike roots into the soil, and better timber is pro-
duced than from nursery plants. It will be advanta-
geous that the grass on the surface be not consumed by
any animals for some years previous to the seeds being
sown, but allowed to fall and decay yearly, which will
afford a bed of vegetable earth for the germination of the

seeds and attaching of the roots in the ground. The
young plants will grow in a close condition, as from the
inserted stems ; the thriving individuals will rise and
form the crop, and the inferior growth will dwindle
into underwood, and be altogether extirpated. The
quantity of seeds must be very ample; and when a failure
is observed in the first and second years, another sowing
must be done in a smaller quantity, and every means
used to obtain a full crop on the ground. All vermin
that eat tender shoots and gnaw the barks of trees must
not be present, and the fencing of the sown grounds
must be very secure. The collection of the seeds for
use will supersede the nursery, and a very considerable
expense will be saved. Nature has shown the way, and
the results are superior to the mode that is now followed,
which employs much more time and expends a large
cost. The stem of the nursery being cut close by the
ground, sends forth a vigorous shoot, which grows far
more luxuriantly than the old stem, and this shows the
superiority of every growth from the position where the
vegetation is to be permanent, and the seed is more
vivacious than any stem.

No advantage attends the mixing of different kinds of
trees in a plantation, as of firs with bard timbers in
various proportions to each other. The contrary is
evinced by there being seen a generic affection amongst
vegetables, which thrive best when associated with their
own congeners. Oak and elm trees on the lowest
grounds, the ash and beech on the first sloping declivi-
ties, and the larch and Scotch fir to occupy the higher
positions along with the most alpine situations that
occur. This assortment will adapt to all situations in
Britain.

SCARCITY OF FORAGE IN FRANCE.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH.

"TheMonitear of the 17th September, trauquiUize 8 the
public mind as to the couaequcuces of the scarcity of forage :
it Bays rightly that the crop of oats is not quite so bad as we
feared, aud that we shall find some resource in the autumnal
produce." lu support of that opinion the official journal pub-
lishes a statement of the contract prices of the Minister of
War, in the different military divisions of hay, straw, and
oats, and he congratulates himself at the price not being so
high as we might perhaps liave expected.

The article of the Moniteur is thus worded :

" The drought which has been so severe since last winter,
had considerably injured the crops of forage, and there was
reason to fear a real scarcity of the articles requisite for the
maintenance of horses and cattle.

" Beneficial rains have fortunately come to calm their appre-
hensions. They have refreshed the vegetation of the meadows,
and improved the autumnal cultures that are to succeed the
forage. In short, the crop of oats has been more productive
than was at first feared. The price of this grain has decidedly
f*llen in all our markets."

"Co'vimerca with its acnstomfd activity also as'iists in

establishing an equilibrium in the price of bay, by taking from
those countries which have been the most favoured, a supply
to be transported to those districts in wliich the deficiency has
been the most seriously felt.

" In consequence of these circumstances the War Depart-
ment has obtained results in its contracts relatively favourable,
especially if we consider that the agreements limited ex-
ceptionally to six months, embrace the periods of high prices,
which will he found to cease at the approach of the harvest
of 1859. These residts are placed in the following table."

Let us now look at the contents of the official table of the
contract prices. We have calculated the mean price for each
military division, and also the mean general price. The lowest
prices arc 8 francs (63. 8d.) at Auch and Tarbes for hay; 4
francs for straw in the Cotes de Novel, I'Allier and le Puy de
Dome ; 18 francs for oats in le Morbihau. The highest prices
are 17 francs (I4s. 2d.) at Cauebrac and Douai for hay ; 9
francs 15 cents. (7s. 7^d.) at Fontainbleau for straw; and 27
francs 10 cents. (223. 7d.) for oata in the 12th military divi-
sion. The sales are all by weight and by 100 kilogrammes (2
cwt.) In the prices inserted iu the tables are comprised the

38

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

expeuae of mauagemeiit of allctting tbe rations, of distribution,
and all the expenses generally included in the cbarges of the
agents :

Departments.

Ist Military Division — Eure-et-
Loire, Ouise,Seine-et-Marne,
Seine-et-Oise, Yonne. . . .

2nd Military Division — Eare,
Orne

3rd Military Division — Nord,
Pas-de-Calais, Somme . .

4tli Military Division — Marne,
Aisne-Ardennes

5th Military Division — Moselle,
Meurthe, Meuse-Voagea

6th Military Division — Bas
Rhin, Haut Rhin

7th Military Division — Daubs,

' Cote d'Or

8th Military Division — Aine,
Drome, Isere, Loire, Saone-

tt-Loire

1 ) Military Division — Bou-
ches-du-Rhone, Vaucluse

iOth Military Division — He-
rault, Gard

11th Military Division — Aude.

12th Military Division— Tarn,
Tarn-et-Garonne Lot.. ..

13th Military Division— Hau-
tes Pyrenes, Gers

14th Military Division — Gir-
onde, Lot-et-Garonne

15th Military Division — Maine
et-Loire, Deux Sevres, Ven-
dee

16th Military Division — Cotes-
du-Nord, Manche, Morbihan

18th military Division — Sarthe
Vienne

19 th Military Division — Indre,
Allio, Nievre

20th Military Division — Pay-
de-dome, Cantai

21 st Military Division — Creuse

Mean general price 11 27

Hay.

Fr, C't.

12 94

13 00

14 76
12 71

12 26

13 83
11 50

10 58

11 S6

12 34
9 00

8 00

8 00
16 25

10 GO

10 00
12 10

9 83

11 75
10 65

Straw.

Fr. Ct.

7 07

7 90

6 25

7 25
6 22
5 60
4 72

4 66

4 33

7 22

4 23

5 25
5 00

5 90

Oats.

Fr. Ct.

23 03

23 S5
22 76
22 74

24 12
22 13
22 50

22 04

21 61

23 75

22 50

27 20

22 62

21 35

21 00
19 50

22 50

21 13

25 70

22 00

22 56

What consequences may we deduce from these figures,
and the statement published in the Moniteur ? Legitimate
desire to prevent the prices from reaching a maximum, and
the proof also of the insufficiency of the high roads novr
existing, completed as they already are, to prevent the
value of the same commodities at different points of the
empire from varying from par to the double.

The Sliding Scale.
The agriculturists are at this moment greatly disturbed ;
they want to know the position in which they will be
placed by the laws for the importation and exportation of
cereals. We have flagrant witness of the feeling, which we
seek to express with moderation, in the agricultural votes
of some of the general councils, and in speeches recently deli-
vered. We must be excused quotations in such a matter.
We are always afraid of deceiving ourselves when we view
things rather by the heart than by the understanding.
Where we can calculate with mathematical or chemical pre-
cision, we do not hesitate ; but when it relates to matters
which the scales or the formula cannot ascertain, we confess
that we experience hesitation, and seek advice of volunteers
more experienced. What, then, do the agriculturists tell
us through the organ of those who enjoy their confidence ?
See, in the first place, a letter addressed to us from the

centre of France, and which refers to a discourse delivered
at the general council of La Niiivre,by M. le Baron Charles
Dupin.

" Mr. Editor,— I am surprised, on reading the commer-
cial review of the 5th September of the Journal of Practical
Agriculture, to see M. Borie exhibit himself as a partizan of
the admission into France of foreign wheat, and advocating
the suppression of the sliding scale. Is such a wish favour-
able to the interests of agriculture ?

" I am not the declared enemy of a/ree exchange, but, to
be just, it must be entire, absolute, unlimited ; that all ma-
nufactures and products should be free, tissues, iron, sugars,
coffees, &c. Everybody would then get out of it as he
might; </(« /Sto<e/j-«f, but everybody would then be upon
an equal footing.

" Is it just, in fact, to admit the free entry of foreign
wheat, and not allow the agriculturist to purchase his iron,
tissues, clothing, from countries where they are cheaper
and of better quality ? Is it just to raise against him a
competition whilst taking from him the means of combating
with it ?

" We want, therefore, equal protection for all industries, or
absolute freedom for all ; beyond this dilemma it is oppres-
sion, and not justice.

" 'But,' say they, ' bread must be cheap.' Well, then tissues
and cottons must also be cheap ; for it is as indispensable to
be clothed as to be fed. Grant, then, the same favour to these
two articles of first necessity,

" But is it so much the interest of the working class to have
wheat at a low price ? The city workman would perhaps con-
gratulate himself upon it ; but the rural peasant would regret
it. It would always be better for him to pay a reasonable price
for his bread, according to the wages he earns, than to purchase
it sometimes very dear, and other times at an excessively low
price. In the first case his wages become insufficient ; in the
second, he does not always find work ; for, proprietors and
farmers being cramped, reduce considerably their operations.

" You were quite right, Mr. Editor, in saying, at the meet-
ing at Dijon, ' The reduction of the price of cereals impo-
verishes and ruins the agriculturist, and produces enormous
sufferings, of which we have been, and are, alas! the wit-
nesses. It leads by degrees to a less production, a neglect of
culture, scauty harvests, and scarcity.'

" If we wish to see a return of the excessive prices of the
years 1854,1855, and 1856, we have only to arrange so that
the agriculturist continues to lose by his produce whilst having
abundant harvests.

" If we consult the manure merchants, they will tell us that
for a year past their sale has diminished more than one-third.
Add to that the enormous diminution in the number of cat-
tle required for that year, for want of the ability to feed them,
and see where all this leads us — to a famine before two years
if such a state of things continues.

The government ought, therefore, to endeavour to secure to
the cultivator a remunerating price for his products. Its in-
terest as well as its solicitude for two-thirds of the population
of France ought to enforce this,

" The emigration from the country to the towns has already
been disastrous enough, let us not promote it more by ren-
dering the position of the rural population more unfortunate.

"1 conclude by quoting the remarkable words that M. le
Baron Charles Dupin has just spoken at the General Couucil
of la Nievre on the subject of the sliding scale. ' With respect
to our cereals, we must not abolish without law — thejiaw which
protects them, and which for twenty-six years has defended
agriculture : we should not dare to act thus to reduce again

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39

the price of wheat, when it ia below the net cost of produc-
tioD, and when distress is already at the door of the farmers.'
"If we were to commit an act so fatal, our agriculturists
must do as did the Irish, and either emigrate or die. Such
was the course taken by the agriculturists of an isle, admira-
ble nevertheless for its fertility — ' the green Erin.' In ten
years, one peasant in four had left his abode. That is equal
to nine millions of French to be exterminated from the sod of
the country. Will they do it ? These are no romance but
facts. " I am, Mr. Editor,

"E. DE MONPOLY.

" Pontlevay (Loire-et-Cker), Sept. 12."

Agriculture claims not, and never baa claimed any privilege.

Equality with other production for us is the only wish it has
ever unanimously expressed. This is just what M. Borri has
said and what M. Monpoly asks. It would refuse a protection
that would injure maoufacture or commerce, or the develop-
Baent of the maritime or colonial power of France. Of this
M, Charles Dupin may be assured. Our agriculture can pro-
duce at the same price as other and foreign nations, and it is
this which gives it a superiority over manufacture : they have
availed themseflves of this fact in order to overload it with fet-
ters to the benefit of other interests. The government, we
firmly believe, now wishes that it resumes its place, that it
may not be sacrificed in its efforts to fulfil its mission.

EXPERIMENTS WITH POTATOES.

Does the Potato Degenerate ?— In answer to this question,
allow me state some facts which have Coine under my own
observation this season. Of some two dozen varieties
planted, not more than one-third of them have produced a
single ball. Six of these, occupying less than three-fourths
of an acre of ground, we do not believe produced more than
one quart of balls all told. The Early Blues produced some
half a-pint to a pint of balls to a square rod or so. But
some Prince Alberts produced some four quarts to the
square rod by actual measure. This would be at the rate of
20 bushels of balls to the acre. I do not think either this
town or county has produced from all other varieties put
together 20 bushels of balls this season.

Seven stalks of the Albert produced 135 balls, and 60
tubers. One hill of three stalks produced 54 balls and 20
tubers, and one stalk to one hill produced 42 balls and 5
good table potatoes. This last-named stalk is an isolated
case, and gives a product of over 8 balls to each tuber. The
Albert is witliout a rival in producing either balls or tubers.
The Albert is tough, hardy, and vigorous, and will endure
the blight like the king of vines. His stalks are still green,
which, with my Jenny Linds, which are also green, still
stand unharmed comparatively with the potato blight, which
was never known to be worse in its features, or more extended
in its ravages than noio among our common varieties.

Experiments with Salt. — About the first of June last I
took up a refuse potato, and began to cut it open ; it was
black within, and not fit to give to a hog. The chits in part
being alive, I resolved to plant it (or the eye chits), and
after digging down to the subsoil, I put down at least two
large handfuls of salt, and returned the earth again ; then
about even with the surface I scattered in the eye chits.
After many days four of the chits came up, of a deep green
hue, and grew vigorously. Not until just before the last
hoeing did I add any further stimulant, when I put on two
handfuls of compost of hen manure, ashes, and rich earth.
These tops continued to grow vigorously until September ;
but no balls, no blows, and no buds, nor the least sign of a
bud ever made their appearance on these tops. I pulled
these tops green Sept. 11th., and dug out nine tubers, all
sound and perfect up to this date ; I intend to plant the same
in 1859 ; and if they continue sound and produce balls, I
intend to report the same for the benefit of the reading pub-
lic. I believe in a warm dry soil, salt as a manure?
and deep clean culture, in raising a crop of sound potatoes,
and last, but not least, iu harvesting potatoes like other

crops, as they ripen— at least their tops, which atoounts to
the same thing. This ia like electricity and steam on this
point. " Knowledge is power."

I have as yet dug but five rods of Alberts, one rod
of which yields 44 quarts, or at the rate of 220 bushels to
the acre. This rod was salted in the hill, eight inches
below the chits, three chits in the hill, twenty-five hills to
the square rod, manured with a fork of hog manure upon
the salt, and the whole covered with five or six inches of
mellow soil, and then, in dents made with the hoe inverted,
the chits were dropped near the natural surface of the soil,
the hills gradually raised by three hoeings, before the last
of which a large handful of home-made guano was thrown
in among the stalks, composed of four parts hen manure,
one part ashes, and eight parts i^h earth, mixed together,
dry and fine. One rod was planted in rows, and done as
the other four, salt excepted, and the product in tubers ^as
40 quarts, or at the rate of 200 bushels to the acre. The
salted potatoes ripened four or five days first, without losing
their freshness any sooner than the unsalted ones, ia respect
either to their stocks or leaves.

The Kansas potato is unsurpassed for the table by any
coloured variety, and yields nearly as well as the Albert
with the same treatment. Have dug two or three bushels
of these, the largest of which weighs 14 ounces. The lar-
gest Albert yet dug weighs 9 ounces, but they have very few
small in size. The other objection to the Kansas potato is
that it ripens in the critical period ; if this can be obviated
so as to make it a later variety, it will be considered second
only to the Albert in excellence for the table for some tiine
to come.

My main object in planting so many varieties of the
potato every season, is to find some way to invigorate, and
then to redeem the whole. I do confidently expect to show,
by the end of twelve months, a true method of working out
full " redemption " for the potato crop.

The solution of this problem is connected with the estab-
lishment of the equilibrium in the development of the stalk
and root of the potato. On this critical point man's inge-
nuity will be taxed to the utmost stretch for some time to
come, as it has been in time past.

To discard the use of manure in growing a crop of potatoes
is not likely to accomplish the greatest discovery of this or
any former age of the world. J. C. Cleveland.

Torringford, Ct., Sept. 16.—

Country Gentleman.

40

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE BIRMINGHAM AND MIDLAND COUNTIES FAT CATTLE

AND POULTRY SHOW.

The success of a fat cattle show is scarcely susceptible
of a purely agricultural test. Such exhibitions have
ever been popular with the general public, who regard
them as an agreeable prologue to " the festivities; of the
season." Town people feel by no means so much at
sea here, as when opposed to all the progressive arcana
of the art. On the contrary, they stand up for their
rights and privileges as the consumer, assume know-
ing airs, and handle beasts and stir up pigs in the most
business-like manner. They have, in fact, a thorough
consciousness of the important part they will play
in the proceedings, and estimate the different speci-
mens of perfection arranged before them in much the
same spirit the connoisseur did the water-fowl in one of
Herring's farm-yard scenes: — " Beautiful, certainly!
How I should like to have them—stuffed with sage
and onions!" And so Paterfamilias mentally cuts up
Mr. Stratton's Shorthorn into Christmas beef, or carves
a delicate slice from the chine of one of my Lady
Chesterfield's pigs ; while mamma thinks of her dear boys
coming home from school, and the famous suet that will
mingle in pies and puddings, or bargains for the prize
turkey, to be served with a City Sheriff's chain of oflSce
hung about him.

This general interest in the occasion is especially ob-
servable at the Birmingham meetings. It is not every
one, after all, who can properly appreciate a fat bullock,
or a much-enduring pig. But here we have the most
agreeable variety. Indeed we question very much
whether wives and daughters do not enjoy the show
even more than the good man himself. The attrac-
tion, moreover, extends to all classes. The select
day, for instance, is quite an assemblage of rank
and fashion, and one honest citizen openly admitted
that he paid his five shillings more for a sight of " the
company" than anything else. And rank and fashion,
be it understood, have strictly a right here. The
Countess of Dartmouth, the Lady Evelyn Stanhope,
and the Lady Sophia Desvceux are the keenest of rivals
for Dorking chickens. The Honourable Mr. Vernon
plumes himself on his black-breasted game cocks. The
gallant Colonel Clowes has a first prize for Polands,
while the Premier of England is only mildly commended.
And then, clergymen, heads of firms, heads of families —
that is, ladies of course — tenant farmers, country squires,
little boys, and boarding-school Misses have each a pen
for sale, or a prize to take. The general attendance,
however, of the whole week was not what it has been.

" Tlie Midland Counties,'' however, is equally and as
deservedly well-knovrn for the excellent entries of stock
it has now for some years collected together. And cer-
tainly there was no great evidence of falling markets in
the show of this past week. Without going back to the
figures themselves, we believe the numerical strength

and support of the meeting by breeders and feeders was
quite up to what it has been. At the same time the
character of the exhibition was, in many leading features,
by no means so good as heretofore. With a few prime
beasts to select from them, it was one of the roughest,
most moderate, and unequal lot of Herefords we ever re-
member. Then the Shorthorns, as a class, were not re-
markable for their quality ; while the Devons, good as
they were, counted up to even less than usual, and were
far too few to create anything Uke interesting com-
petition. Taking the whole range of these three estab-
lished breeds, a really good beast had every opportunity
for distinguishing himself, as one most unquestionably
did. This was Mr. Naylor's first prize Hereford ox,
the best steer at this meeting last year, and that we then
spoke of as promising to still further improve. He has
now grown and fed into one of the neatest Herefords
ever seen. His symmetry is so perfect, that, as is the
case with all well-formed animals, he looks much smaller
than he really is. Neither is he so " upstanding" as the
sort often are, but more compact and close in his frame.
With this he unites all the best points of his race-
has a sweet head, is beautifully marked, and is as fine
a handler as a butcher ever touched. Of course he
carried off a whole accumulation of premiums. He
had one as the best of his class, another as the best
Hereford, a third as the best of all the oxen, a fourth
as the best bred and fed by the same man, and a fifth as
an especial compliment to his breeder. There wanted
but the culminating honour as the best of all the animals,
male or female ; but with all their ingenuity in this way,
the council have not yet arrived at that insignia. Mr.
Naylor's ox cannot go on to Baker-street, having been
exhibited there as steer last Christmas, when he was
hardly done justice to, reaching no higher than a third
prize. Curiously enough, the second prize Hereford
was also second at Birmingham in the steer class last
year, being then as the property of Mr. Child.
He has also improved, but his proportions are by
no means so perfect as those of the Gold Medal ox.
Mr. Shaw, the gentleman who took this in 1857, has
sent another good beast, and Lord Aylesford and his
Royal Highness the Princs Consort contribute to the
merit of the class. With these, however, are associated
some very inferior animals, so much so as to prove that
a lesson, although ever so often repeated, may be still
thrown away upon some people. The Hereford steers
were a good, but not a grand class ; the cows neither
in numbers nor excellence up to an average, but the
heifers as a whole by far the best of the breed. Over
the first and second prizes (standing side by side) it was
difficult to make a decision: Mr. Steadman's had the
best of it for size, and Mr. Price's for beauty and quality.
There were but six shown here, while the judges highly

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

41

commended a third, and added one general word of ap-
proval for the entire class.

Of the famous Shorthorns there was quite as clearly
a falHng off. There were not so many of them, and
these were not so good. Tested by the great points
quality, symmetry, and pedigree, the best of the entry
was Mr. Henry Smith's cow, which took the prize in
the Extra Class, and the Otley Medal as the best cow
bred and fed by an exhibitor. By Mr. Booth's famous
bull Harbinger, a beautiful handler, and a model to
look at, there could be only one reason for finding her
in sucli a place. Although now nearly six years old, she
has never had a calf, and hence her reduced value as
only butcher's meat. Mr. Swinnerton's Gold Medal
Cow is also an extraordinary one, the very realization of
a fat cow. Her breadth of back is marvellous, her head
a very picture of bovine beauty ; while she is most
evenly fed, has rare thighs, and scarcely any defi-
ciency to counteract so good a top. Still the fastidious
questioned her being very highly bred, and pointed to
certain dark hairs in her coat as being anything but
. orthodox. Another very good one was Mr. Browne's
Prize Heifer, which some of the cognoscenti selected for
a union of shape and touch, as the medal cow, and as a
breeding animal she would most probably have had the
best of it. She was well supported by one of Mr,
Hunt's and another of Mr. Herbert's entries ; but,
taken altogether, the Shorthorns showed in no great
force. There were only four heifers entered, and
just as many steers. Mr. Stratton led the latter with
a red-and-white beast that has some of the Booth
blood in him. He will most likely be kept for
another year, but is to come on to the Smithfield
Club. Mr. Root's First-prize Shorthorn Ox is
a big, broad, useful beast, but not closely packed
enough, nor sufficiently low on the leg to rank as a very
fine sample of the sort. Lord Spencer sends a fair
second, but there have been many years when neither of
these would have attained the honours now awarded
them. By the evidence of this meeting, either good
Shorthorns are too good to feed, or they want hunting-
up a little.

Mr. Turner, of Barton, had his usual pre-eminence
amongst the Devons. He himself sent the best ox, and
had sold to the Prince Consort the best steer, and the
pick of all the sort. They are both admirable illus-
trations of a most beautiful breed. Tiie heads appear
to be getting even finer and prettier than ever, while
their extraordinary width of chest, rare backs, evenly-
covered bodies, and fineness of bone and quality, all
tend to assure us how well they will cut up. There is
scarcely any beast with so much prime beef about him.
Only ten in number, all the Devon Oxen were good ;
and of the females there were only two sent — one cow
and one heifer. Thejudgcs considered both worthy of
a prize, but the heifer, especially, was by no means a first-
class animal.

There wei'e five Long-horns sent to compete for
three prizes, and nearly all these so inferior as to well
warrant the Society in discontinuing the class. Surely
Messrs . Chapman and Satchwell must see by this how

much they are out of date. We can only go back to
bring such stock again into repute.

The Scotch breeds brought half-a-dozen very good
Highlanders, of which Mr. Corbet, of Sundorne, a new
exhibitor, claimed the best. The two prize beasts, a
black and a grey, comprised the whole of the Welsh
entry.

Certainly on this occasion one of the most improving,
and always one of the most interesting features, is the
show of cross-bred stock. In the oxen, tliere were three
very successful experiments — one tried by the Duke of
Beaufort between a Shorthorn and a common Gloucester
cow ; another, by Mr. Farquharson, of a Devon and
Highlander; and the third, that useful north-country
cross of the Shorthorn bull with the polled Aberdeen
cow. The Hereford and Shorthorn, although more fre-
quently tried together, do not give such good results as
either of the three we have named. The Duke, who
is apparently fond of seeing how the different strains
will "hit," may now boast of the best ever exhibited.
So good was his beast thought by the judges, that it was
the only one they dwelt over previous to awarding the
gold medal. Had " the cross" taken it, the sensation
would have been very great. The Devon and Highland
union was also very happy ; while that employed by Mr.
Stewart has long been appreciated by those who have
the opportunity of using it. A first cross, many say, is
almost always a good one ; and, if so, why do we not
see more of it ? That is, of course, for butcher's meat,
and not with the vain hope of perpetuating the strain.

The meeting a^so excelled in cross-bred sheep. Mr.
Wallis' two pens were some of the best ever entered at
any meeting, and about the heaviest in the Hall. Mr.
Wallis himself is an Oxfordshire man, and the favourite
sort sent against him were the Oxfordshire Downs.
Some very good breeders could not reach higher than a
commendation ; and others, heretofore renowned, not
even to that. There was more competition than usual
with the Southdowa and other Down sheep, where the
West Country and llampshires tried their fortunes, but
with no effect. There were nine pens of Leicesters, and
five of other Longwools, the excellence of many of the
pens making up for the paucity of the entry; the Cots-
wolds more particularly being nearly all good. But one
class each for these varieties is quite sufficient. In fact,
the Leicesters could not make up their second. The great
attraction of the sheep show, however, was, as it always has
beenhere,with theShropshireDowns, who are still getting
betterand better. Indeed the breeders of them ai-e coming
to think there are few such in the world, and are so very
careful as to what they cross with. The Southdown
has lately gone rather out of vogue with them. It
is forty years since the Shropshires had horns, and by
this they should be strong enough to go alone. Cer-
tainly in their own districts there are none can show, or
yet more, "do" with them. The latter must be far the
more important point of the two ; for, really, showing a
sheep is fast becoming little more than mere trickery.
There were jiens here— of short-wools and cross-breds
more particularly — that should have been at once con-
demned by the judge=. The Society, in its published

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

42

conditions, makes a mild reciuest that after a sheep has
been once shorn, he should not be unfairly trimmed.
But they should get their judges to enforce this. Per-
haps the most telling way would have been to turn out
two Downs, one as he is, and the other as he should be.
In the latter case you cut all the wool close off his back,
but leave it long on his carcase, to give him a springing
rib and well-rounded appearance, taking care also to leave
any other weak place thickly covered. The very know-
ing ones even go so far as to smear some kind of nastiness
over the sheep— the backs particularly mind— so as to
give people the notion that they had just been driven up
in the rough off' the turnips, and perhaps to prevent the
curious from handling them too closely. If you do
get in the pen you can hardly have half-an-inch hold on
the top, while elsewhere your hand is buried in wool,
very fine and good no doubt. But what do the judges
mean by passing off such malpractices on the public ? Or
why should those learned Professors Simonds and Hunt
be so hard on the poor pigs, who are perhaps a little older
than they admit, while the sheep are suff'ered to strut
about padded like ancient bucks, or with a crinoline
rotundity to their really ragged shanks ? To serve such
a leg of mutton properly, you should dress it as they do
a hunted hare— with the skin on.

The pig show at Birmingham is always a good one ;
indeed, it ranks almost coequal with the poultry for pe-
culiar attractions. It was signalized this year by the
introduction of a distinct series of premiums for the
Berkshire breed, which produced a very strong and en-
couraging entry, and quite sufficient to warrant the
Council in the step they had taken. Some of the very
high-bred ones had pedigrees as long as those of race-
horses. As, for instance, a litter of Mr. Joseph Smith's,
of Henley-in-Arden,is thus described : — " Age, 5 months
and 3 weeks ; pedigree— sire Gipsy Boy the Fourteenth
by Champion, dam Gipsy Qneen by a brawn bred by
Sir Robert Throckmorton, grandam Longwaist by
Longsides, g. g. dam Short Tail by Berkshire Pride ;
dam Cholsey Lass, sire Moreton Jack, g. sire Nonpa-
reil, g. g. sire Magnum Bonum, g. g. g. sire Old Ben."
And there were other exhibitors almost as learned in hog-
flesh. The Countess of Chesterfield became at once
famous for a white pig, of what we must call the Bretby
breed, being not quite recognizable either as a York-
shire or a Cumberland. The young pigs of the latter
variety furnished altogether the best lot of any in the
yard— Mr. Wiley, Mr. Watson, Mr. Hindson, and Mr.
Mangles all sending some of their choicest. But, for
their age, there was no approaching the Bransby first
prize pen. One or two large whites were nearly as long
as ships ; and there were some improved Tamworths
that, however, we seldom see elsewhere.

An exhibition of roots, very tastily arranged, and in-
cluding some fine mangolds, brings the spectator gradu-
ally round to the poultry— the very Hamlet, as many
think, of tbe whole play. According to the judges, this
was the best poultry show ever known ; but the judges
at Birmingham talk proverbially in superlatives. Even
those for stock deal out commendations and high
commendations with such a liberal hand, that one really

comes to tardly regard them at all. There should be a
limit to the best of intentions, or we defeat our own ob-
ject. Still the poultry were almost generally good,
while we never saw them in finer feather. The run at
present is chiefly on the Dorking, Spanish, and Game ;
and we must admit we never saw such well-built, beau-
tifully coloured, and smart-looking game-cocks as con-
tended for the sweepstakes. Let us record Captain
Hornby as the winner. Mr. Fowler, of Aylesbury, also
deserves a word of especial praise, not so much this time
for his white ducks as for his grey geese. One of these,
the gander, was of the extraordinary and unprecedented
weight of two-and-thirty pounds, and he had a pair of
worthy helpmates with him. The trio, moreover, ap-
peared by no means over-done, but were, on the con-
trary, very active and cheerful, showing none of that
suffering a too-fat goose is popularly supposed to un-
dergo in the process. The Rouen ducks and the Christ-
mas turkeys come also in strong evidence of the good
influence of the show ; while the display of pigeons is
gradually getting more and more imposing. But pigeon-
fancying must be a business of itself, and without the
book we do not remember the names even of half we
saw. At any rate, the electric telegraph would appear
by no means to have depreciated their value or import-
ance.

Lord Spencer succeeds Lord John Scott as President
of the Society. During the week Professor Tanner de-
livered two lectures on congenial themes, but the hour
was ill-timed. Visitors cannot be expected to leave the
yard at three o'clock in the afternoon, whereas had the
evening been arranged for, there might have been a much
better attendance.

PRIZE LIST.
FAT CATTLE.

JuDGES—Mr. George Bright, Broome. Acton-on-Clun, Salop.
Mr. Philip Raise, Holland, South Moltou, Devon.
Mr. John Oatley, Bishton Hall, Shiffnal.
HEREFORDS.
Oxen or Steers.
First prize £10, with Gold Medal as best of all the
oxen, the President's Silver Cup, value £25, as best ox or
steer bred and fed by an exhibitor, the extra prize of =£20, as
the best Hereford, and SiWer Medal as breeder (Mr. John
Naylor, Leighton Hall, Welshpool.

Second, £5, Mr, Robert Swinnerton, Weddiugton, Nun-
eaton.

HigJdy commended, Mr. John Shaw, Hunsbury Hill, North-
ampton ; and tha Earl of Ayleaford, Packington.

Commended, His Royal Highness the Prmce Consort,
Windsor Castle.

Steers.
(Under Three Years and Three Months Old.)
First prize £10, Mr. Isaac G. Niblett, Red Lodge, Ashley
Hill, Bristol; Silver Medal to breeder, Mr. T. Meire, Coimd
Arbour, Shrewsbury.

Second, His Royal Highness the Prmce Consort.
JligJily commended, Mr. Isaac Niblett, Filton, Bristol.
Commended, Mr. John Carwardiue, Stockton Bury, Leo-
minster; audthe Earl of Darnley, Cobham Hall, Gravesend.
Cows.
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. William
Vaughan, Cholstrey, Leominster (had seven calves).

Second, £5, Mr. Richard Hill, Golding Hal), Shrewsbury
(had three calves). ^. , t^..

Commended, Mr. George Pitt, Chadnor Court, Ddwjn,
Leominster (had eight calves).

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

4B

Heifers'.
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. William
Stedmau, Bedstone Hall, Shropshire.

Second, £5, Mr. Edward price, Court House, Pembridge,
Leominster.

Highly commended., Mr. Philip Turner, The Leen, Pem-
bridge, Leominster.

(The class generally commended.)

SHORTHORNS.
Oxen or Steers.
First prize IGL, and Silver Medal as breeder. Mr. William
Root, Chipping Warden, Banbury.

Second, 51., Earl Spencer, Althorp, Northampton.
Highly commended, Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardiugton, Want-
age, Berkshire ; and Mr. Matthew Savidge, Sarsden Lodge,
Chipping Norton.

{The class commended.)
Steers.
(Under Three Years and Three Months Old.)
First prize 10?., and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Richard
Stratton, Broad Hinton, Swindon.

Second, 51., the Hon. Col. E. D. G. Pennant, M.P., Penrhyn
Castle, Bangor, Carnarvon.

The Sweepstakes in this class was won by Mr. Stratton 'a
steer.

Cows.
First prize 10?., with Gold Medal as best of all the cows,
and the extra prize of 201. as the best Shorthorn, Mr. Robert
Swinnerton. Silver Medal to breeder, Mr. John Evans, Chil-
vers Cotton, Nuneaton (had two calves).

Second, 5/., Mr. Joseph Phillips, Ardington, Wantage (had
two calves).

Commended, Mr. William Fletcher, Radmantbwaite, Mans-
field (had one calf).

Heifers.
First prize 10? , and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. John W.
Brown, Uffcott, Swindon.

Second, 51., Mr. Charles Hunt, Eign-street, Hereford.
Highly commended, Mr. Edmund Herbert, Powick, Wor-
cester.

DEVONS.
Oxen or Steers.
First prize 10?., and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. George
Turner, Barton, Exeter.

Second, 5?., His Royal Highness tho Prince Consort.
(The class highly commended.)
Steers.
(Under Three Years and Three Months Old.)
First prize 10?., with extra prize of 20?. as the best Devon,
His Royal Highness the Prince Consort. Silver Medal to
breeder, Mr. George Turner.

Second, 51., Mr. John Overman, Burnham Sutton, Burn-
ham Market, Norfolk.

Highly commended, the Earl of L«icester, Holkham Hall,
Norfolk.

Cows.
First prize 10^., the Earl of Leicester. Silver Medal to
breeder, Mr. Richard Merson, Brinsworthy, North Molton,
Devonshire (had five calves).

Heifers,
IHret prize 10?., Mr. James John Farquharson, Langton,
Blandford, Dorset. Silver Medal to breeder, Mr. James
Ciuartley, MoUand House, South Molton, Devon.

LONG-HORNS,
Oxen or Steers.
Prize 51., and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. K. H. Chap-
man, Upton, Nuneaton,

Cows or Heifers,
First prize 10?,, and Silver Medal as breederj Mr. Thomas
Scatchwell, Knowle, Birmingham (had five calves).

Second^ 51., Mr. R. H. Chapman, Upton, Nuneaton (bad
three calves).

OTHER PURE BREEDS AND CROSS-BRED.
Oxen or Steers.
First prize 10'., and Silver Medal as breeder, the Duke of
fieaufort. Badminton, Chippenham (Shorthorn and Glou-
cester).

Second, 5/., Mr. James Stewart, Ne* Market, Aberdeen
(Shorthorn and Aberdeen).

Highly commended, Mr. James John FarqubRraon (Devon
and Highlander).

Commended, Mr. David Lloyd, Llwyn-y-Maen, Owestry
(Hereford and Shorthorn),

Cows.
First prize, 10? , Mr, John Armstrong, Palterton (Cross-
bred).

Second, 51., Mr. Aaron Pike, Mitton Farm, Tewkesbury
(Shorthorn and Hereford).

Commended, Mr. John Faulkner, Bretby Farm, Burton-
upon-Trent (Shorthorn, Cross),

Heifers.
First prize, 10?., Mr. James Stewart, Aberdeen.
Second, 5?., Mr. Edward Holland, M.P., Dumbleton Hall,
Evesham (Shorthorn and mixed).

Highly commended, Mr, Samuel Druce, Eynsham, Oxford
(Cross-bred).

SCOTCH.
Oxen or Steers.
First prize, £10, Mr. D. R. Corbet, Sundorne Castle, Shrews-
bury.

Second, £5, the Duke of Beaufort.

Highly commended, Viscount Hill, Hawkatone, Shropshire.
WELSH.
Oxen or Steers.
First prize, £10, Mr. J. E. Bennett, The Grange, Husbands
Bosworth.

Second, £5, Mr. B. E. Bennett, Marston Trussell Hall,
Northampton.

EXTRA CLASSES.
(For animals not qualified to compete in any of the preceding.)
Oxen or Steers.
Prize of £5, Mr. William Eagles, Cropredy, near Banbury,

Cows or Heifers,
Prize £5, and Mr. Ottley's Gold Medal as best cow or
heifer bred and fed by an exhibitor, Mr. Henry Smith, Drax
Abbey, Selby, Yorkshire (Shorthorn.)

Highly commended, Sir Robert Peel, Bart., M.P., Drayton,
Manor (Shorthorn); Mr. J. Armstrong, Palterton (Shorthorn).

SHEEP.
Judges — Mr. Edward Gough, Gravel Hill, Shrewsbury.
Mr. John Moon, Old Alresford, Hampshire.
Mr. William Sanday, Holme Pierrepont, Notts.
Leicesters.
(Pat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old).
First prize £10, extra prize £10 as best pen of Longwools,
and Silver Medal »s breeder, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, Oaberton
Hall, Worksop.

Second, £5, Mr. G. S. Foljambe.

Highly commended, Mr. Abraham Nurse, Ashby Parva,
Leicester,

Commended, Mr, John Boast, North Dalton, Great Driffield,
Mr. Francis Jordan, Eastburn, Driffield.
(Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two, but not exceeding thirty-
four months old.)
[No entry.]
Long-woolled Sheep, not being Leicesters.
(Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.)
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Thomas
West, Green Hill Farm, Bletchiagton, Oxfordshire (Cotswold.)
Second, £5, Mr. Charles Kearsey, Glewstone, near Ross,
Herefordshire (Cotswold.)

Commended, Mr. John Shaw, Hunsbury Hill.
South and other Down Sheep.
(Pat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two months old.)
First prize £10, extra prize £10 as best pen of Short-
wools, and Silver Medal as breeder, Lord Walsingham, Merton
Hall, Thetford, Norfolk (Southdown.)
Second, £5, the Earl of Leicester (Southdown.)
Highly commended. Lord Walsingham (for two other peas
of Southdowns); the Earl of Leicester (for another pen of
Southdowns.)

(Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two, but not exceeding thirty-
four months old.)
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr, John

u

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Overmau, Buruham Suttou, Burnbani Market, Norfolk (South-
down.)

Second, £5, Sir Robert George Throckmorton, Bart., Buck-
land, Farringdon, Berkshire (Southdown.)

Commended, Lord Walsinghaui (Southdown), the Earl of
Leicester (Southdown.)

Shropshike and other Black or Grey-faced Short-
wooLLED Sheep.
(Fat Wethers, not exceeding twenty-two mouths old)
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Edward
HoUaud, M.P., Dumbletou Hall (Shropshire.)

Second, £5, Mr. J. B. Green, Marlow, Herefordshire (Shrop-
shire.)

Uighbj commended, Mr. Henry Smith, jun., Suttou Mad-
dock, Shiffual (Shropshire.)

Commended, Mr. Henry Smith, Jiui. (for another pen of
Shropshire.)

(Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty- two, but not exceeding thirty-
four months old )
First prize, £10, aud Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. William
O. Foster, M.P., Kiuver Hill Farm, Stourbridge (Shropshire.)
Second, £5, William O. Foster (Siiropshire.)
Hiyhly commended, Mr. Henry Smith, jun. (Shropshire.)
Commended, The Earl of Aylesford (Shropshire), Mr. Henry
Smith, jun. (Shropshire,)

Cross-bred Sheep.
(Fat Wethers, not exceeding tweuty-two montlis old.)
First prize £10, Silver Medal as breeder, and extra Silver
Medal as best pen of cross-bred sheep, Mr. William Talbot
Wallis, Shifford Lodge, Bampton, Oxfordshire.
Second, £5, Mr. William Talbot Wallis.
Highly commended, the Earl of Leicester (for 2 pens of
Leicester and Southdown) ; Mr. George B. Morland, Chilton
Farm, Harwell, Berkshire (for 2 pens of Southdown aud
Cotswold) ; and Mr. John Woohton, Wellingborough,
Northamptonshire (Southdown and Cotswold).
(Fat Wethers, exceeding twenty-two, but not exceeding
thirty-four months old.)
First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeiler, Mr. Adam
C. Keep, Woilastou, Northamptonshire (Southdown and
Cotswold).

Second, £5, Mr. Adam C. Keep (Southdown and Cots-
wold).

PIGS.
Judges. — Mr. Edward Gough, Gravel Hill, Shrewsbury.
Mr. John Moon, Old Alresford, Hampshire.
Mr. William Sanday, Holme Fierrepont, Notts.
Fat Pigs.
(Three Fat Pigs of one litter, not exceeding ten months uld.)
First Prize £10, aud Sdver Medal as breeders, Messrs.
James and Isaac Bate, King's Heath, Birmingham.

Second, £5, Mr. Henry W, Dashwood, Dunstew, Wood-
stock.

Commended, the Countess of Chesterfield, Bretby Hail,
Burton-upon-Trent ; Mr. Thomas R. B. Cartwright, Aynho,
Brackley, Northamptonshire.

(Three Fat Pigs of one litter, not exceeding fifteen mouths
old.)
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, the Countess
of Chesterfield.

Second, £5, Countess of Cheaterfield.
Commended, Messrs. Jamea and Isaac Bate.

(Pig, exceeding fifteen mouths old.)
First prize £6, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. George
Beale, Trolesworth, Lutterworth.
Seconi, £3, Mr. George Bcale.

Highly commended, Mr. James Marriott, Floorc, near
Weedon, Northamptonshire.

Commended, Mr. William Fowler, jun., Wood End Cottage,
Erdington; and Mr. John Spencer, Villiers Hill, Keuilworth.

Berkshire Breeding Pigs.
(Five Pigs of one litter, exceeding three, and not exceeding
six months old.)
First Prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. George
Holyoake, Neachley, Shiffnal.

Second, £5, Mr. Joseph Smith, Heuley-in-Ardeu, Warwick-
shire.

Silver Medal to Mr. Hastings Sanderson, Gannaway
Farm, Warwick ; Mr. T. B. Wright, The Quarry House, Great

Barr; Mr. William Cooper, Impsley Farm, Henley-in-Ardeu ;
and Mr. Walter J. B. Scott, Queen's Hotel, Birmiugham.

lligldy commended, Mr. Robert Overbury, Henley-in-
Ardeu.

Commended, Mr. Edward Freer, jun., Digbctb, Birming-
ham ; aud the Rev. Henry G. Bailey, The Vicarage, Swindon,
Wiltshire.

Pigs of other large Breeds.
(Five Pigs of one litter, exceeding three, and not exceeding
six months old.)
First prize £10, and Silver Medal, Mr. William B. Wain-
man, Esq., Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorkshire (Carhead breed).

Second, £5, Mr. William Endall, Beaudesert Park Farm,
Henley-in-Ardeu (improved Tamworth).

Ilighly commended, Mr. William Endall (improved Tam-
worth).

Pigs of a Small Breed.
(Five Pigs of one litter, exceeding three, and not exceeding
six months old.)
First prize £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Mr. Samuel
Wiley, Brandsby, Yorkshire (white).
Second, £5, Mr. Samuel Wiley (white).
Silver Medal, Mr. Robert H.'Watsou, BoHou Park, Wig-
ton, Cumberland (white).

Silver Medal, Mr. Joseph Hindson, Barton House, Everton,
Liverpool (white).

Highly commended, Mr. Samuel Wiley (white).
Commended, Mr, Geo. Mangles, Givendale, Ripoii (white).
The following certificates were given as to pens of pigs dis-
qualified :

" Birmingham, Nov. 27th, 1858.
" We hereby certify that the state of the dentition of one
of the pigs in Pen 210, shows thiit the animal exceeds the age
of the other two, and also that it is older than set forth in the
owner's certificate.

"James B. Simonds,

(Referee for age of Pigs.
" Robert L. Hunt,

"(Veterinary Inspector)."
"Birmingham, Nov, 27th, 1858.
" We hereby certify that the pig shown in Pen 235 is of
greater age than described in the owner's certificate.

"James B. Simonds.
" Robert L. Hunt."

PRIZES FOR ROOTS.

Judge. — Mr. J. Matthews, Edgbaston House, Birming-
ham.

A Silver Cup, value Ten Guineas, given by the

Mayor op Birmingham, for the best Collection

OF Four Varieties of Long Mangold Wuhzel,

Globe Mangold Wurzel, Swedes, and Carrots ;

Six Roots of Each.

Mr. John B. Starkey, Spye Park, Chippenhan.

Second, Five guineas, Mr. Richard Benyon, Englefield
House, Berkshire.

Best Six Swede Turnips.
Silver Cup, value Ten guineas, given by Messrs. Adkins.

Mr. Charles Holland, Top Farm, Keele, Staffordshire.
Long Mangold Wurzel.

First prize. Two guineas, Mr. John B. Starkey.

Second, One guinea, Mr. Charles Pratt, Stratford-upou-
Avou.

Commended, Mr. Saml, Robinson, Shaw House, Melbourne,
Derbyshire; Mr. Richard Benyon; and Mr. W. Horsburgh,
Bournefield Farm, Bradfield, Berkshire.

Globe Mangold Wurzel.

First prize. Two guineas, Mr. W. Horsburgh.

Second, One guinea, Mr. R. Benyon.

Highly commended, Mr. J. B. Starkey.

Commended, Mr. James Innes, Wroxton Abbey, Banbury ;
Mr. George B. Morland. Chilton; and Rev. Thos. S, evens,
Bradfield Rectory, Reading.

Swedes of any Variety.

First prize, Two guineas, Mr. C. Holland, Top Farm, Keele,
Staffordshire.

Second, One guinea, Mr, Charles Kear«3v, Glewstone, RosB,
Her'jfordshire.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Common Turnips.

First prize, Two guineas, Mr. C. Kearsey.

Second, One guinea, the Duke of Portland, Clipstone Park
Farm, Manafield, Nottiuf;hatEshire.

Commended, Mr. G. Mangles.

Carrots op any Variety.

First prize, Two guineas, Mr. G. S. Foljambe, Oaberton
Hall.

Second, One guinea, the Duke of Portland.

Hiylily commended, Mr. George Mackenzie Kettle, Dallicott
House, Bridgnorth.

Commended, Mr. Thoa. Barratt, Market Drayton.

Ox Cabbage.

First prize. Two guineas, Mr. S. Robinson, Shaw House,
Melbourne, Derbyshire.

Second, One guinea, Mr. Samuel Perry, Shipley, Bridg-
north.

Potatoes.

First prize. Two guineas, Mr. S. Robinson.

Second, One guinea, Mr. W. A. Lyndon, King's Heath,
Birmingham.

Commended, Mr. G. Mangles ; and the Rev. T. Stevens.

Disqualified on account of six varieties osily being sent in-
stead of twelve, Mr, Horsburgh and Mr. Beuyon,

RUTLAND AGRICULTURAL SHOW.

The annual exhibition of stock in connection with the Rut-
land Agricultural Society has long maintained a high charac-
ter, and that which took place in the Riding School atOakhara,
ou Wedueaday, Dec. 1, was certainly no exception to the general
rule of excellence. Connoisseurs in cattle were there afforded
an opportunity of inspecting a splendid collection of animals
in the several classes, not a few of which may confidently be
expected to take honours next week at Smithfield, where Rut-
land and Lincolnshire agriculturists have repeatedly dis-
tinguished themselves in years gone by. To notice the stock
in detail would occupy more apace than we can spare, and in-
deed would be superfluous, seeing that the list of awards given
below will sufficiently indicate tlie more prominent features of
the show. We may, however, mention that the red and white
three years and ten mouths old ox, which obtained for the
Marquis of Exeter the first prize of £15 in the class open to all
England, was a most splendid animal, and commanded universal
admiration. The rival animal exhibited by Mr. Marriott, of
Fletton, which received the second prize, was well worthy
of its position. Mr. Swingler, of Langham, and Mr. Wortley,
of Ridlingtoa, were the other competitors in this class ; the
ox shown by the first-named gentleman being commended by
the judges. Of the horned cattle in all ih^ other departments
suffice it to say that the merit stood high, and that their
breeders may rejoice in a well-earned reputation. It may not
be uninteresting here to note that a portion of this choice beef
is likely to form the staple of the Christmas dinners of same
of the good people of Stamford ; Mr. Payne, butcher of this
town, having purchased the extraordinary steer exhibited by
R. W. Baker, Esq., in class 5, in which it took the first prize ;
whilst Mr. Riley became the owner of the rema.-kably fine
heifer, which gained a premium for the Earl of Gainsborough.
As usual, Mr. Bradahaw, of Burley, was " A 1" in sheep, the
display of which was highly creditable to the several exhi-
bitors. Of horses there was a goodly array, both for the hunt-
ing field and for the general purposes of agriculture ; while the
show of pigs was pronounced even above the average of former
years. A few well-grown roots and vegetables completed an
exhibition eminently worthy as a whole of the highest com-
mendation. The day being delightfully fine, there was a large
influx of the neighbouring agriculturists into Oakham, and the
handsome sum of £24 was received for admission to the show-
house— -a building, by the way, admirably adapted for the
purpose, and affording protection against all vicissitudes of
weather. Amongst the visitors were the under-named : Lord
Aveland, the Hon, G. H. Heathcote, M.P., the Hon. G. J.
Noel, M.P., Hon. H. Noel, G. Finch, Esq, Col. Lowther, J.
M. Wingfield, Esq., the Rev. H. J. Fludyer, J. Eagleton,
Esq., R. W. Baker, Esq., E. Freke, Esq., R. Lucas Esq., W.
A. Pochin, Esq.. R. D. Bradshaw, Esq., T. Syson, Esq., &c.,
&c.

Early in the afternoon, the labourers and others who had
been successfnl in obtaining premiums were regaled with a
substantial dinner at the Red Lion, after which the prizes were
distributed by the Hon. H. Noel, who offered some encourag-
ing and approving remarks to the recipients. They were also
addressed by the Rev. Thos. Davidson, of Hamblctou.

We have only here to add, that the difficult duty of deci-
ding upon the reapective merits of the stock, &c., exhibited
in the various departments, devolved upon the following gen-
tlemen ;-=■

Judges op Stock. — J. Spencer, Esq., Odstone Hall,
Atherstoue, Warwickshire; W.Parke, Esq., Stragf;lesthorpe
Hall, Lincolnshire ; F. Spencer, Esq., Alma House, Leicester-
shire.

Judges of Hunting Horses.— R. Lucas, Enq., Edith-
weston Hall ; W. A. Pochin, Esq., Edmondthorpe Hall; the
Hon. G. J. Noel, M.P., Exton Park.

Judges ov Vegetables. — Mr. T. Y. Running, Emping-
ham ; Mr.T. W. Fowler, Exton ; Mr. G. Wood, Teigh.

Their awards were given as under-stated: —

To the feeder of the best fat ox or steer, 15/., to the Most
Noble the Marquis of Exeter, K.G , an ox, three years and
ten months old ; second prize, 71., to Mr. S. Marriott, of Flet-
ton ; Mr. T. Swingler commended. Four entries.

Oxen or steers, of any breed or weight, under four years of
ap;e. — First prize ,10Z., to Mr. E. Wortley, of Ridliugton ;
second, 5/., to Mr. T. Swingler, of Langham. Three entries.

Cows or heifers, of any breed, age, or weight. — First prize,
lOZ., to Mr. T. Swingler, of Jiangham ; second, 5/., to the
Right Hon. the Earl of Gainsborough. Three entries.

To the owner, being a tenant-farmer, of the best steer, under
three years of age. — First prize, 71-, li. W. Baker, Esq., of
Cottesmore ; second, SI., Mr. T. Swingler, of Langham ; Mr.
W. Franklin, of Barford Lodge, commended. Three enlties.

To the owner, being a tenant-farmer, of the best steer, under
two years of age. — First prize, £/., to R. W. Baker, Esq. ;
second, 31., Mr. T. Swingler. Three entries.

To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best heifer,
above two and under three years of age. — First prize, 6Z , to
Mr.T. Chapman, of Whitwell ; second, 3^ , to Mr. T. Swingler ;
Mr. G. Wyman commended. Six entries.

To the owner, being a tenant-farmer, of the best heifer,
under two years of age. — First prize, il., to Mr. T. Chapman;
second, 21., to C. O, Eaton, Esq., of Tixover Hall. Four
entries.

Oifered by Stafford O'Brien, Esq.

To the owner, being a tenant-farmer, of the best cow in-
milk. — First prize, .5/., to Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, of Burley-on-
tlie-Hill ; second, 21 , to Mr. T. W. Fowler, of Exton ; C. O.
Eaton, Esq., highly commended. Seven entries.
Offered by the Society.

To the exhibitor of the beat bull, above one and under four
years old. — First prize, 10/., to Mr. J. Lynn, of Stroxton ;
second, 5/., to the Right Hon. the Earl of Gainsborough ;
Mr. R. Searsou, of Deeping St. James, commended. Six
entries.

To the exhibitor of the best mare, 31., to Mr. R. Hawley, of
Oakham; Mr. J. Roy ce, Seaton, commended. Twelve entries.

To the exhibiter of the best yearling gelding or filly for
agricultural purposes, 3/., to Mr. W. Fabling, of Burley-on-
the-hill; Mr. E. Fryer, commended. Four entries.

Offered by the Right Hou. the Earl of Gainsborough.
(To tenant occupiers of not more than 30 acres in the dis-
trict.)

To the owner of the beat cow in milk, 51. to M. G. Chester,
of Waltham; second, 21., to Mrs. J. Harris, of Langham.
Four entries.

To the owner of the beat heifer, under two years and six
months old at the time of showing, 4/., to Mrs, J.Harris;
second, 2i., to Mr. G. Chester.

To the owner of the best heifer caK, under six months old

46

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

at the time of showiug, 21., to Mr. W. Hubbard, of Ijangham ;
second, 1/. to Mr. N. Needham, of Hambleton. Four eutries.
Offered by the Right Hon. Lord Aveland.
Long-wooUed fat wether sheep, a silver cup, value 10?. to
Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, Burley-on-the-hill ; second, 51. (offered
by the Society), W. D. Capell Brooke, Esq., of Geddington
Grange, near Kettering. Five entries.

Offered by the Society.

To the owner, being a tenant-farmer, of the beat long-
wooUed fat wether sheep one year old, 71. to M. C. J. Brad-
shaw; second, 4/., to Mr. E. Wortley, Ridlington. Three
entries.

To the owner, being a tenant farmer, of the best breeding
ewes, 5/,, to Mr. C. J. Bradshaw ; second, 31., to Mr. E.
Ridlington.

Loiig-wooUed theave?, one year old, 41. to the Hon. Colonel
Lowther, of Barley thorpe ; second, 21., to R. W. Baker, Esq.,
Cottesmore; Mr. C. J. Bradshaw highly-commended. Five
entries.

Long-wooUed wether lambs, 3L, to Mr. E Wortley; second,
2Z., to the Hon. Colonel Lowther; Mr. C. Bradshaw, com-
mended. Five entries.

Long-wooUed ewes, 31., to the Hon. Colonel Lowther;
second, 2Z., to Mr. C. J. Bradsliaw. Five entries.

Pigs of any breed, weight above 20 stone, and under 18
mouths old, £4, to Mr. Bryan, of Ridlington ; second, £2,
to Mr. W. Carver, of Ligarsby; R. W. Baker, Esq., com-
mended. Five entries.

Pigs of any breed or weight, £3, to Mr. W. Carver ; second,
£2, to Mr. J. Stimaon, of Egleton. Six entries.

Offered by the Right Hon. the Earl of Gaiusborongb.

To the owner of the best fat pig, £i, to Mr. T. Needham, of
Egleton; second, £1, Mr. T. Gregory, of Egleton. Five
entries.

Offered by the Society,

To the owner of the beat in-pigged or suckling sow or yelt,
£2, to Mr. J. Lynn, of Stroxton. Four entries.

Offered by the Most Noble the Marquis of Exeter.

To the owner of the best half-bred four years old hunting

mare or gelding, £10, to Mr. W. AUsop, of Garthorpe ; second
(offered by the Gentlemen of the Cottesmore Hunt), £5, to Mr.
J. Stokes, of Broughton Sulney. Nine entries.

Offered by his Grace the Duke of Rutland.

To the exhibitor of the best beast shown as extra stock, a
silver medal, value £3^ to C. O. Eaton, Esq., of Tixover Hall;
Mr. T. Suter, of Brook, highly commended. Seven entries.
Offered by the Tradesmen of Oakham.

To the exhibitor of the best sheep as extra-stock, a silver
medal, value £3, to Mr. C. J. Bradshaw, of Burley-on-the-
Hill; W. De Capell Brook, Esq., of Geddington Grange.
highly commended ; Messrs. J. and R . Painter, of Burley-on-
the-Hill, commended. Sis entries.

ROOTS AND VEGETABLES.
Offered by the Right Hon. Viscount Campden.
For Swedish turnips, cultivated on any system, £7, to Mr.
W. Berridge, of Barrow ; second, £3, to Mr. E. Wortley, of
Ridlington.

Offered by the Hon. Gerard James Noel, M.P.
For Swedish turnips, a silver cup, value £10, to R. W.
Baker, Esq., of Cottesmore.

Offered by the Tradesmen of Oakham.
For Swedish turnips. No entry.

Offered by the Society,
For mangold wuttzel, £2, to Mr. Suter, of Brooke ; W.
Fabling, Esq.,of Burley-onthe-Hill, commended.
Offered by the Hon. Roden Noel.
For mangold wurtzel, £3, to W. R. Morris, Esq., of North
Luffenham ; the Right Hon. the Earl of Gainsborough, highly
commended.

Offered by the Society.
For cabbages, £1, to W. Fibling, Esq., of Burley-on-the-
Hill ; Mr. Wortley, of Ridlington, commended.

Offered by the Tradesmen of Oaltbam.
For white turnips, a silver cup, value £5, to Mr. Christian,
of Barrow ; Mr. Smith, of Eston, commended.

GLOUCESTER AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION.

The united Agricultural Societies of this county held their
annual meeting at Gloucester, on Thureday, December 2.

The judges of stock, &c., were Mr. J. Wigmore, Mr. P.
Rich, and Mr. E. Blewitt ; of cheese, Mr. E. Bretherton, Mr.
D. Niblett, and Mr. J. Savory. The following was the
award :

SHORTHORNS AND OTHER BREEDS, EXCEPT
HEREFORDS AND DEVONS.

The Gift of the Right Hon. Earl Ducie.
For the best bull above two years old, £10, Mr. Richard
Stratton, Broad Hinton ; second best, £5, Mr. John Hall,
Syde, near Cirencester.
For the best bull, above one and under two years old, £10,
Mr. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton, near Highwoith.
The gift of W. P. Price, Esq., M.P.
Second best, £5, Mr. John W. Brown, of Uffcott, near
Swindon.

Society's Premium.
For the best bull-calf, bred by the exhibitor, and under 12
months old, £5, Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton.
The Gift of G. H. Beugough, Esq.
For the best bull, cow, and their offspring, £10, Mr. Thos.
Game, Broadmore, near Northleacb.
Society's Premiums.
Second best, £5, Mr. J. H. Langston, M.P., Sarsden.
For the best cow, in-calf or in-milk, £G, Mr. Richard Strat-
ton, of Broad Hinton, near Swindon ; second best, £3, Mr.
J. H. Laugston, M.P., Sarsden.

The Gift of J. H. Langston, Esq., M.P.
For the best pair of heifers, in-calf or in-milk, under 3 years
old, bred by the exhibitor, £10, Mr. Edward Bowly, of
Siddington,

Society's Premium.
Second best, £5, Mr. William Woodward, of Northway
House, Ashchurch,

The Gift of Edward Holland, Esq., M.P.

For the best pair of breeding heifers, under two years old,

bred by the exhibitor, £8, Mr. John Lane, of Cirencester.

Society's Premium.

Second best, £4, Mr. J. H. Langston, M.P., Sarsden.

HEREFORDS AND DEVONS.
The Gift of the Bight Hon. Earl Bathurst.
For the best bull above two years old, £10, Mr. W. G. Burnett,
North Cerney.

Society's Premium.
Second best £5, Mr. John Williams, of St. Mary's, Kingsland,
Herefordshire.

Tae Gift of Sir C. W. Codrington, Bart, M.P.

For the beat bull, above one and under two years old, £10,

Mr. Edward Price, of Pembridge, Herefordshire.

Society's Premiums.

Second best £5, Mr. Thomas Edwards, Wintercott, near

Leominster.
For the best bull calf, bred by the exhibitor, and under twelve
months old, £5, Mr. William Perry, of Cholslrey, Hereford-
shire.

Tue Gift of the Right Hon. Earl Beauchamp.
For the best bull, cow, and offspring, £10, Mr. R. Keene, of
Pencraig, Monmouthshire.

Societj^'s Premium.
Second best £5, Mr. Thomas Duckham, of Baysham, near
Boss.

The Gift of Robert Stayner Ilolford, Esq., M.P.
For the best cow, in calf or in milk, £6, Mr, W. G, Bennett,
North Cerney.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

47

Society's Premium.
Secpud best £3, Mr. Edward Price, of Pembridge, Hereford-
shire.

The Gift of Kobert Stayner Holford, Esq., M.P.
For the best pair of heifers, ia calf or in milk, under three years
qld, bred by the exhibitor, £10, Mr. J. E. L. Hewer, jun.,
Vera-house, Herefordshire.

Society's Premium.
Second best £5, Mr. William Perry, of Cholstrey, Hereford-
shire.
For the best pair of breeding heifers, under two years old, bred
by the exhibitor, £8, Mr. Edward Price, of Pembridge,
Herefordshire; second best £4, Mr. Thomas Pope, of
Horuingsham, near Warminster.

FAT CATTLE.
The Gift of the Hon. W, L. Bathurst.
For the best fat steer of any breed, £6, the Uuke of Beau-
fort, Badminton.
Second best, £4, Mr. Richard Stratton, Broad Hinton, near
Swindon.

The Gift of his Grace the Duke of Beaufort.
For the best fat cow, having had a calf at its full time, £6,

Mr. E. Price, of Pembridge, Herefordshire.
Second beat, £4, Mr. Heaiy Higgins, Woolaston Grange,
near Ljdney.

LONG WOOLS.

The Gift of Captain Bathurst, M.P.

For the best five breeding ewes, not more than 35 mouths

old, £8, Mr. Wm. Smith, of Bibury, near Fairford.

Society's Premiums.

Second best, £4, Mr. Edmund Ruck, of Caatle-hill, near

Cricklade.
For the best five breeding theaves, not more than 23 months

old, £8, Mr. E. Ruck, of Castle-hill, Cricklade.
Second best, £4, Mr. William Smith, of Bibury, near

Fairford.
For the best five ewe lambs, not more than 11 months old
£5, Mr. Wm. Smith, Bibury, near Fairford.

The Gift of the Right Hon. Earl of St. Germaias.
For the best five breeding ewes, not more than 35 months
old, £5, Mr. E. Holland, M.P., Dumbleton Hall.
Society's Premiums.
For the best five breeding theaves, not more than 23 months
old, £5, Sir Robt. G. Throckmorton, of Buckland Park,
Faringdon.
Second best, £2 10s., Mr. Edward Holland, M.P., Dum-
bleton Hall.

CROSS BREED.
The Gift of Thomas Stronge, Esq.
For the best five breeding ewes, not more than 35 months
old, £5, Mr. William Hemming, of Coldicott, near Moreton-
in-the-Marsh.

Society's Premiums.
For the best five breeding theaves, not more than 23

months old,f,£5, Mr. John King Tombs, of Langford, near

Lechlade.
Second best, £2 10s., Mr, Charles Hobbs, of Maiseyhamp-

ton, near Cricklade.

FAT SHEEP.— LONG WOOLS.

The Society's Premiums.

For the best three shearhogs, not more than twenty-three

months old, 51., Mr. Charles Kearsey, Glewstone, near Ross ;

second best, 21. 10a., Mr. W. Slatter, of Stratton, near

Cirencester.
For the best five wether tegs, not more than eleven months

old, 5Z., Mr. W, Joshua, Perrott's Brook, near Cirencester.
For the best three fat ewes, 5^., Mr. Edmund Ruck, of

Castle Hill, near Cirencester.

SHORT WOOLS.
Society's Premiums.
For the best three shearhogs, not more than twenty-three
months old, 51., Mr. Charles Hobbs, of Maiseyhampton, near
Cricklade.

CROSS BREED.
Society's Premiums.
For the best three shearhogs, not more than twenty-three
monthsold, 51., Mr. Charles Hobbs, of Maiseyhampton, near
Cricklade ; second best, 21. 10s., Mr. John Plumbe, of Ashton
Keynes, near Cricklade.

PIGS.
The Gift of T. Gambier Parry, Esq.
For the best boar pig under a year old, 4Z., Mr. Edward
Bowly, of Sidslington.

The Gift of T. B. Lloyd Baker, Esq.
For the beat three sow pigs, of the same litter, under four
mouths old, 41., Mr. W. Hemming, of Coldicott, near
Moretou-in-Marah.

The Gift of J. H. Elwes, Esq,
For the best sow pig for breeding purposes, 31., Mr. Henry

Tovey, of Stanton, near Highworth.
For the best sow and pigs, her own produce, the pigs under
ten weeks old, 31., Mr. William Hewer, of Sevenhampton,
Highworth.

HORSES.
Society's Premitims.
For the best mare and foal (her own offspring) for agricul-
tural purposes, 81., Mr. T. W. Swinburne, Corndean Hall,
near Winchcomb ; second best, 4?., Mr. Wm. Moore, Upton-
on-Severu.
For the best stallion, for agricultural purposes, above two years
old, 101., Mr. Isaac Thayer, of Walford, near Ross.
The Gift of Robert Gordon, Esq.
For the best filly for agricultural purposes, under three years
old, 51., Mr. J. Gay Attwater, of Hallingwood, Cheltenham

ROOT SHOW OF THE BOTLEY AND SOUTH HANTS FARMERS' CLUB.

AWARD OF PRTZES.

A prize of £5, given by Thomas Chamberlayue, Esq., of
Cranbury Park, for the best ten acres of swedes. — Mr. F.
Hewer, Nursling ; 135 roots per rod ; weight, 15 tons 8 cwt.
641bs. per acre. A prize of £2, given by G. Hunt, Esq., {oi
the second best ditto. Mr. W. Warner, Botley ; 122 roots
per rod ; weight, 15 tons 2 cwt. 961bs. per acre. Mr. W.
Hooper, Hound, had 120 roots per ton, weighing 12 tons
7 cwt. 161bs. per acre.

A prize of £5, given by Steuart Macnaghten, Esq., of Bit-
tcrne Manor House, for the best ten acres of swedes. — Mr.
Caleb Gater, Town Hill ; 144 roots per rod ; weight, 20 tons
15 cwt. SOlbs. per acre. A prize of £1 for the second best
ditto. Mr. Thomas Warner, Botley ; 108 roots per rod ;
weight, 15 tons 5 cwt. 801hs. per acre. Mr. Richard Pink had
118 roots per rod, weighing 14 tons per acre. Mr. Hooper
Hound had 120 roots per rod, weighing 11 tonslScwt.SOlbs.
per acre.

A prize of £3, given by Messrs. Spooner and Bailey, for the
best four acres of swedes, raised by means of artificial manures
only. — Mr. R. Trench, Freehills ; 96 roots per rod ; weight,
15 tons per acre. Mr. Colson had 103 roots per rod, weigh-
ing 13 tons 2 cwt. 961b3. per acre. Mr. Waters, Durley, had
72 roots per rod, weighing 12 tons 8 cwt. 641bs. per acre. Mr.
H. Wooidridje, Meonstoke, had 92 roots per rod, weigh-
ing 10 tons 17 cwt. 161bs. per acre.

A prize of £3, given by Messrs. Dixon and Cardus, for the
best six acres of common turnips. — Mr. Caleb Gater, Town
Hill; 116 roots per rod; weight, 16 tons 15 cwt. lOlbs. per
acre. Mr. James Withers, Durley, had 116 roots per rod,
weighing 15 tons 1 cwt. 481bs. per acre. Mr. Colson had 132
roots per rod, weighing 12 tons per acre. Mr. Holdaway,
Uplands, had 110 roots per rod, weighing 9 tons 19 cwt. 141bs,
per acre,

A prize of £2, given by Caleb Gater, Esq., for the best four

48

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

acres of turnips, raised by means of artificial manures only, and
grown aa a second crop, after peas, vetches, rye, &c., and sown
after June 20th.— Mr. Caleb Gater.Town Hill ; 170 roots per
rod ; weight, 10 tons per acre. Mr. William Warner, Botley,
had 70 roots per rod, weighing 5 tons 15 cwt. per acre.

A prize of £3, given by Mr. Harris, for the best six acres of
mangold wurtzel. — Mr. Thomas Warner, Botley ; 101 roots
per rod; weight, 24 tons 1 c«t. 481bs. per acre. Mr. Caleb
Gater had 119 roots per rod, weighing 21 tons 15 cwt. peracr.

A prize of £2, given by Messrs. Page and Toogood, for the
best three acres of mangold wurtzel. — Mr. Joseph Bluudell,
Burleadon; 87 roots per rod; weight, 37 tons 10 cwt. per
acre. Mr. W. Draper, Hound. (Weight not stated in list).

A prize of £1, for the best one acre of mangold wurtzel.
Mr. K. Trench, Freehills ; 1 12 roots per rod ; weight, 27 tons
11 cwt. 481b8. per acre.— Mr. W. Warner, Botley, had 103
roots per rod, weighing 21 tons per acre. Mr. James Withers,
Durley, had 92 roots per rod, weighing 18 tons 17 cwt. 161bs.
pea acre.

A prize of £2, given by W. Warner, Esq., for the best two
acres of carrots.— Mr. Croskey, Sanwick, 545 roots per rod;
weight, 23 tons 17 cwt. 161bs. per acre.

A prize of £1 for the beat one acre of carrots. — Mr. Joseph
Blundell, Bursledon ; 395 roots per rod; weight, 19 tons 4
cwt. 12ib8. per acre. Mr. R. Trench, Freehills, had 460 roots
per rod, weighing 16 tons 1 cwt. 481bs. per acre.

A prize of SOs. for the best six acres of stubble turnips. —
Mr. Joseph Bluudell ; 250 roots per rod ; weight, 6 tons per
acre. Mr. Thomas Warner commended.

A prize of 15a. for the best three acres of ditto. — Mr. Joseph
Blundell; 170 roots per rod ; weight, 5 tons 8 cwt. 641b3.per
acre. Mr. R. Trench commended.

A prize of 15s. for the six heaviest swedes. — Mr. PuUenger,

Curdridge; G roots, weighing 631bs. Mr. Dickinson, New
Park, had six roots, weighing 571ba. — Mr. C. J. Gale, Kit-
nocks, had six roots, weighing 49lba.

A prize of lOs. for the six best-shaped swedes. — Mr. Pul-
linger, Curdridge.

A prize of lOs. for the sis best-shaped Skirving swedes. — Mr.
George Hunt.

A prize of 10a. for the six heaviest turnips. — Mr. James
Withers, Durley; six roots, weighing 621bs. Mr. William
Hooper, Hound, six roots, weighing 481bs.

A prize of lOs. for the best-shaped green round turnips. —
Mr. James Warner, Curdridge.

A prize of 5s. for the six best-shaped white round turnips,
— Mr. James Withers, Durley.

A prize of 5s. for the six best-shaped red round turnips. —
Mr. Longman.

A prize of 5s. for the six heaviest stubble turnips.— Mr.
Sillence, Compton; 6 roots, weighing 191bs. Mr. Blundell,
Bursledon, had six roots, weighing ISlbs.

A prize of lOa. for the six heaviest red mangold wurtzel. —
Mr. Dickinson, New Park ; six roots, weighing 961b8. Mr. C.
H. Gater, Town Hill, had six roots, weighing 901bs. Mr.
Charles Piuk, Wood End, had six roots, weighing 841bs. Mr.
George Hunt had six roots, weighing SOlbs.

A prize of lOs. for the six heaviest yellow mangold wurtzel.
—Mr. Dickinson, New Park ; six roots, weighing 1201b8. Mr.
Blundell, Bursledon, had six root;, weighing 1171b3. Mr.
Rose, Totton, had six roots, weighing 91lb3.

A prize of 10s. for the six heaviest carrots. — Mr. Jonas,
Bishop's Waltham ; six roots, weighing 26ilb3. Mr, Dickin-
son, New Park, had six roots, weighing 241b8. Mr. Blundell,
Bursledon, had six roots, weighing 231b8. Mr. T. Warner,
Botley, had six roots, weighing 221b8.

DAIRIES AND BONE MANURE.

It was a wise saying that he who made two blades of
grass to grow in the place of one was a benefactor to man-
kind. The Cheshire dairy farmer, by the free use of bone
manure, laid on his grass lands, makes his farm, which at
one time, before the application of bone manure, fed only
20 head of cows, now feed 40 !

In Chesliire two thirds or more, generally three fourths,
of a dairy farm are kept in permanent pasture, the remainder
in tillage. Its dairy farmers are commonly bound to lay the
whole of their manure, not on the arable, but on the grass
land, purchasing what may be necessary for the arable-
The chief improvement, besides drain.age, consists in the
application of bone manure. In the milk of each cow, in
its urine, in its manure, in the bones of each calf reared and
sold off, a farm parts with as much earthy phosphate of lime
as is contained in half a hundred weight of bone dust.
Hence the advantage found in returning this mineral ma-
nure by boning grass lands. It is considered that draining
and boning four acres of land will yield such an additional
quantity of grass that each acre so treated will summer one
cow. But if land be not boned, and of similar quality to
that 'which has been boned, two acres are generally, in
Cheshire, required to keep one cow in summer.

Tlie quantity of bones now commonly given in Cheshire to
an imperial acre of grass land is about 12 or 15 cwts. This
dressing on pastured land will last seven or eight years ;
and on mowed about half that period. But the grass land
once boned and kept under pasture is never so exhausted as
to be as poor as it was before the application. All the bet-
ter sorts of grasses — cow-grass, clover, and others — spring
up in the place of the more worthless.

In Cheshire it is found most beneficial to use raw bones
that have never been boiled. When bones are boiled the
gelatine and other valuable properties are extracted. The
raw-broke bones are richer as a manure, and their effects on
the grass last much longer. These raw bones are ground by
machines into a fine powder, probably the size of a pea, and
in this state are strewed over the grass field. The present
price of raw-broken bones is from £7 to £o per ton.

Tlie example set in Cheshire by its dairy farmers in using
so largely bones on their grass lands, their application of
bones as top dressing to grass, has been found so very bene-
ficial as nearly to double the number of cows kept in that
county ; and the weight of cheese having also been nearly
doubled within a few years from this boning their grass
lands, ought to encourage the dairy farmers of Ayrshire to
imitate this management of boning their pastures.

It might be well worth the attention of the Ayrshire
Agricultural Association and other county farming societies
to offer premiums to those dairy farmers who top dressed a
given number of acres of their grass lands with broken raw
bones. By this means the use of boning would be intro-
duced, and great benefits result in augmenting the annual
make of cheese and butter. It would also be most desirable
to encourage the erection of small steam or water mills to
crush the raw bones in different parts of Ayrshire. The
expense of erecting one would not be great ; and wherever
there is a saw mill, the same wheel that drives its machinery
might also drive the rollers that are employed for crushing
bones. In Cheshire these bone mills are spread all over the
county, and thus the farmers can easily obtain the crushed
bones.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

49

THE LEADING FEATURES OF THE IMPLEMENT DEPARTMENT OF THE
ABERDEEN (HIGHLAND SOCIETY'S) SHOW.

The contrast between the show held at Aberdeen in
1847 and that of 1858, the leading features of which
we now propose to glance at, must have been grati-
fying to all interested in the steady and healthy progress
of the Highland Society. The tabulated results of the
two gatherings exhibit in a marked manner the develop-
ment of its capabilities of usefulness ; the increase of
entries of 1858, as compared with 1847, being nearly
three-fold, the entries of the two years standing
thiis :

1847. 1858.

Cattle : 361 458

Horses 103 189

Sheep 230 590

Swine 24 79

Poultry 102 366

Implemeuts and machinea 49 802

Total 871 2,484

The increase in the entries of implements and ma-
chines— the department in which we are for the pre-
sent specially interested — is the most marked feature of
the above tables, and affords evidence of the increased
and increasing practical interest taken in the department,
not only by the manufacturers who invent and con-
struct, but by the farmers who use the implements and
machines exhibited. And here we deem this a fitting
opportunity to point out how much of the increased
value of this department of the show is due to the Eng-
lish manufacturers. While not for a moment endeavour-
ing to detract from the merit of their Scotch brethren,
or to lessen the praise justly due to them for their en-
terjirise and ability ; there is little doubt of the iact
that the energy of the English manufacturers, and their
known liberality in incurring large expenses in prepar-
ing for the shows, hss done more than any thing else to
raise the implement department of the Highland Society's
shows from the comparative inutility and baldness of
exposition, of bye-gone years, to that of the fulness
and efficiency of later exhibitions. And this statement
naturally brings us to the consideration of a point con-
nected with the management of the shows which has a
close bearing on the interests of the manufacturtrs who
have mainly contributed to the success of this depart-
mnnt. Need we say, that we allude here to the vexed
question of classification of the machines and imple-
ments ? — a question which, although often discussed, is so
important to those immediately concerned in its speedy
and satisfactory solution, that it cannot be too often
broached and dwelt upon, if this will in any measure
help on the agitation, which has for its object the repeal
of the system now so rigidly adhered to by the authori-
ties of the Society.

For the benefit of those of our readers who may be
ignorant of the state of the question, we may here state
that the implements and machines are not arranged as

at the shows of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, in groups, directly under the control
and supervision of the party who exhibits them, no
matter how diverse in character they may be ; but they
are classified according to the uses to which they are put
in practice. Thus ploughs form a distinct group from sow-
ing machines, and these again from thrashing machines,
the two classes being placed at different parts of the yard.
Not only this, however, but the great divisions are sub-
divided into sections, so that we find ploughs in reality
not in one, but in many groups ; to wit, " two-horse
ploughs for general purposes" forming one group,
" trench or deep-furrow ploughs" a second, " subsoil
ploughs for two horses" a third, and so on. The same
principle is carried out in sowing machines — " broad-
cast" forming one group, " drill sowing machines" a
second, and so on ; this principle of subdivision being so
developed that we find the implements and machines
exhibited, extended over no fewer than eighty-two
sections. Now, if the intertsts of one party were those
only to be consulted — namely, the visitor anxious to
inspect the various machines exhibited, this classification
would be all that is desirable, so far as tlie facilities it
affords for making comparative observations are con-
cerned ; nor is its utility to the judges less marked and
satisfactory. But the interests of the exhibitors are
also to be consulted, and primarily so ; for to them the
department is altogether indebted for its practical
utility : without their efforts the department of imple-
ments and machines would sink into the insignificance
of the early exhibitions. The articles exhibited by
them, if diverse in character, being, to suit the classi-
fication adopted, placed in different parts of the yard,
obviously demands of the exhibitor one of two things—
either that he go to the expense of providing one atten-
dant or attendants at each section to describe to the
visitors the peculiarities and prices of the machines there
exhibited ; or to content himself with leaving his articles
to speak for themselves. Now, "either alternative,"
as we have elsewhere remarked, is not pleasant to be
contemplated by business men, anxious to do a good
business, to reimburse them for the expense of time
and money which they incur in bringing their articles to
the show. Nor, in fact, are the exigencies of the case
provided for, by securing extra attendants ; for business
men know well enough that purchasers like as well to
do with principals, as, on the other hand, principals
like to deal at first-hand with purchasers. And many
of our leading men can tell of numerous orders lost
through not being able to get directly in contact with
intending purchasers. It would be as impolitic in prin-
ciple as it would certainly be impossible in practice, to
ask the exhibitors to forego their business views in
coming to the show, and to look upon it simply as a

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30

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

pbilosophically-arrauged museum, to fill up the de-
partments of which, they send their articles. The truth
is, they s7ioir, in order that they may sell; and this
consideration is with them— and very fairly and justly
too — the primary one. We are inclined to think that
all the advantages, to the judges, of the present system
of classification, may be secured with all the ad-
vantages of the system of general grouping to the
exhibitors, by a compromise, the principle of which
emanates, we believe, from some of the leading manu-
facturers, and which is simply this — The system of
classification now adopted to be adhered to until the
judges have made their inspection and given in their
awards, which can be done before the public opening
of the yard; after which, the exhibitors to be allowed to
collect their articles from the various groups, and place
them under their own immediate control. This princi-
ple of compromise, meeting as it does the authorities of
the Society halfway, should at once be acceded to; it
enables them to maintain the system of classification up
to that point at which it is useful for the purposes of the
Society, and to discard it when it assumes an aspect of
inconvenience, and brings into action influences detri-
mental to the interests of that class to whom the Society
owes much of its attractiveness and practical utility.

In glancing at the leading features of the show, our
task will be somewhat of the easiest ; for to one ac-
quainted with the recent additions to agricultural me-
chanism as exhibited at other shows, little novelty was
displayed. Offering itself here and there only, we shall
therefore adopt no classified method of presenting our
readers with the results of our observation ; but shall
put them just as circumstances may dictate.

1. In corn-dressing apparatus, the great novelty ex-
hibited was the machine invented by Mr. R. Hislop,
Prestonpans, near Edinburgh. This apparatus received
the approval of most practical men who inspected it ; and
in addition to the honour of being " highly commended"
by the judges, it was considered worthy of the special
mark of a silver medal. The peculiarities of its arrange-
ment and mode of operation we now proceed to describe.

As in the ordinary fanners, the grain is cleaned in
Mr. Hislop 's machine by the two agencies of the
" blast," which the inventor calls the " test of gravity,"
and by the " riddle," which he terms the "test of size."
But the mode in which the grain to be cleaned is sub-
jected to these two tests in the machine now under con-
sideration is essentially different in principle from
that displayed in the fanners of the ordinary descrip-
tion. For the reciprocating riddle put in motion in
alternate directions by the agency of a crank, Mr.
Hislop substitutes a cylindrical screen, capable of re-
ceiving a slow rotary motion. The cylindrical screen
is constructed of wire cloth, and in the interior an
Archimedean screw is placed, in such a manner that the
grain as it passes along is forced to follow the convolu-
tion of the screw, and kept continually in contact with
the wire surface of the cylinder. The diameter of the
cylinder being 18 inches, and the screw taking four
turns in a foot lineal, the grain is made to pass over a
surface of 19 feet 4 inches for every foot of length of

cylinder. The wire cloth is kept clean on its outer surface,
and the meshes open, by a brush fitted on the top of the
cylinder, and stretching along its whole length. The
cylinder is not composed of wire cloth of uniform mesh
throughout its length, but has various lengths of differ-
ent fineness of mesh. Nearest the end where the grain first
enters the cylinder, the mesh is finest, sufficient only to
pass inferior corn, mustard seed, and other foreign seed ;
the next length is of larger mesh, sufficient to pass the
" grey;" while the third length is of mesh sufficiently
large to pass the good corn. The various qualities of
corn, seed, &c., are delivered to spouts, the orifices of
which are of height sufficient from the ground to admit
of sacks being placed below to be filled. All large sub-
stances— as sticks, parts of poppy heads, &c. — pass out
at the further end of the cylinder.

So much for the "test of size," and the mode
by which Mr. Hislop applies it in his machine.
We now glance at the " test of gravity," and the
method of its application. The principal feature in
this department is the way in which each indi-
vidual grain is subjected to the blast. This is effected
by passing the grain through a valve or opening three
feet six inches in width, allowing it to fall in a thin
stream, not more than one grain thick, and which is
subjected to the action of the blast. All the grain which
stands the " test of gravity" falls directly into a trough,
from which a screw or carrier removes it to the spout
which passes off the " good corn." All grain which
cannot stand the test of gravity is blown forward to a
trough, from which a second screw or carrier removes
it to the spout which passes off the " grey." By this
arrangement the grain is subjected to the test of gra-
vity, independently of and after the operation of the
test of size ; whereas in the ordinary fanners both are
attempted to be carried out at once. Again, in Mr.
Hislop's arrangement the grain is subjected to the blast
in the form of a thin stream, which admits of every grain
being acted upon ; whereas in the ordinary fanners the
grain lies in a thick stratum on the riddles, and the blast
acts in a direction opposed to the passage of the good
corn through the meshes, so that in great measure the
blast acts counter to the very effect which it is intended
to produce, and, instead of aiding the test of gravity,
actually resists it by preventing the good corn from
passing through the meshes of the riddle, and sends it
forward to be mixed with the inferior corn, &c., &c.

From the adoption of the rotary principle, Mr.
Hislop's machine absorbs comparatively little power in
its working : doing the work of three fanners, it takes
the power necessary to drive one only. It is capable
of dressing ten quarters per hour. The machine is
placed on an independent cast-iron framing ; and by at-
taching it to a thrashing machine all the labour of re-
dressing may be saved, and the two qualities of grain
are found distinct and separate when the machine stops.
Only one set of elevators is required to lift the grain to
the revolving cylinder ; all the qualities being delivered
through spouts placed at such a height as to admit of
sacks being placed beneath them.

2. The Britannia Reaper, introduced by Mr. Bernhard

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

51

Samuelson, of Baubury, and which is now attracting
considerable attention amongst practical men. The
principal novelty in this apparatus is the metliod by
which the crop, after being cut, is collected into bundles
for sheafs, the quantity contained in which is capable of
easy regulation. The mechanical movements by which
the raking is eiFected are exceedingly ingenious^ and,
considering the somewhat- intricate nature of the work
desiderated, are not so complicated as at first might be
supposed. Difficult as the task is to describe mecha-
nism without the aid of illustrations, we shall endeavour
to place such a " word-view" before our readers as will
enable them to have a fair notion of the mode of operation
of this ingenious " automaton reaper."

The rake has a twofold movement : first, an alternate
movement of progression by which it sweeps the corn
off the platform from the side at which the cutting-
knives are, to that at which it is delivered, returning in
the reverse direction; and, second, a movement of
rotation, or part rotation, on its own axis. This second
movement is required from the following circumstance :
the teeth of the rake being placed vertically while
sweeping off the corn from the front of the platform on
which it falls after being cut, to the side of the machine,
it follows that, if the rake made its return-journey with
the teeth still vertical, the corn lying on the platform
would be shoved off towards the cutters as the rake
finished its return movement. To keep the teeth, there-
fore, out of the way of the corn, they are changed in the
returning journey from the vertical to the horizontal
position ; the rake at the same time being raised from
a low to a highet position, it passes over the corn lying on
the platform. At the conclusion of the return-journey
the rake fails from its high to its low point, the teeth
being changed, by the part rotation of the shaft of the
rake on its axis, from the horizontal to the vertical po-
sition, and so placed as to engage with or take hold of
the corn, as soon as the movement of the rake in the
opposite direction is commenced.

How this part-rotation of the rake is effected we now
proceed to show ; this will, however, necessitate a de-
scription of the movement by which the rake is made to
sweep over the quadrantal platform, alternately, in oppo-
site directions, the one movement being dependent upon
the other. The curved platform (a), above alluded to,
is described with a radius equal in length to the shaft of
the rake (b). A cast-iron rack (c), curved in section
with same radius as the platform, is provided with teeth
at its upper and lower edges, and also at both ends,
which are circular. If this rack were spread out flat it
would present the appearance of a rectangular plate,
with circular ends, entirely surrounded with teeth. To
a lever (d) — which receives a reciprocating motion from
side to side, through the medium of a crank, obtaining
motion from the main driving wheel of the reaper — a
pinion (e) is connected, the teeth of which engage with
the teeth of the rack ; with this lever (d) the shaft of the
rake (6 is also connected. As the pinion (e) is made to
work along the upper side of the curved rack (c) it re-
ceives a motion of rotation on its axis, the direction of
which is reversed, however, as soon as it passes over the

circular end of the rack, and traverses the teeth of the
underside. The pinion (e) has thus iivo motions each, in
opposite directions, according as it traverses the under or
upper side of the rack (c). As the pinion (e) passes
from the upper to the under side of the rack (c), the
lever (d) will' fall from a high to a low position, and vice
versa, as the pinion rises over the curved end from the
under to the upper side of the rack (c). As the shaft of
the rack (b) is connected with the lever (d), it will thus
have the rise and lall to which we have formerly alluded.
It is from this rise and fall of the rake shaft that the part
rotation on its own axis, also already referred to, ig
obtained, and in this way : At its lowest position
the rake-shaft is at the side of the platform near-
est the cutter, and just before it commences the
movement, which sweeps the corn to the side of the
machine ; and at its highest position when returning
empty from the side of the platform. To the pinion (e)
a vertical rack (/) is attached, and which rises and falls
with it ; with this rack a pinion (g), fixed on the end of the
rake-shaft, engages. As the rack (/) falls, its move-
ment actuates the pinion Cg), and causes the shaft of
the rake to make a quarter turn on its axis, changing
the teeth from the horizontal to the vertical position.
The rake then sweeps the grain to the side of the ma-
chine ; and as the pinion (e) rises up to engage with the
teeth on the upper side of the rack (c), the rack (/)
also rises with it, and by its movement actuates the
pinion (g) on the end of the shaft, and turning it a quar-
ter round, changes the teeth from the vertical position,
in which they are kept till the rake has finished its re-
turn journey, when the movements above- described are
again repeated.

A peculiarity in the arrangement of the " gathering-
reel," by which the standing corn is brought up to the
action of the knives, is worthy of notice here, as we con-
sider it an important improvement. We have elsewhere
thus described it; " The horizontal bars of the reel, in-
stead of being placed parallel to the shaft, are oblique
to it. This places one end of the bars which strike the
corn nearer the machine than the other; the consequence
of which is, that they have less of the thrashing or beat-
ing influence which they possess when placed parallel
to the shaft. When placed obliquely they exert at the
moment of striking the corn little momentum ; but as it
sweeps along the oblique bars, it is brought gradually up
to the action of the cutters, in a manner closely resem-
bling the action of a man's hand, when in performing
the operation, in inserting his hand at one side, he gra-
dually brings his arm to bear upon the grain, instead of
beating it directly down the whole length of his arm at
once."

3. Shireff's Guano - distributing Machine. — This
apparatus distributes guano in drills if required, as well
as in broadcast. It resembles in general arrangements
Chambers's well-known Broadcast Manure Distributor,
but i; of simpler character and less pretentious work-
manship. The change from a broadcast to a drill dis-
tributor is effected by adjusting a series of lids or valves,
so that openings in the bottom of the manure chest are
left at the desired intervals. When used as a broadcast

B 2

52

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

distributor, all these lids are opened, so that the manure
passes from out the chest along its whole length. The
stirrer, by which the guano is made to pass out in the
state of powder, and by which it is prevented from
arching over and accumulating above the apertures, is
a flat bar of iron provided with projecting fingers at
each side, the bar having a reciprocating motion given
to it, through the medium of an eccentric deriving
motion from the main axle. As the manure passes
through the apertures, it falls upon a revolving cylinder
provided with a series of projecting studs ; in con-
nection with these the projecting fingers work of a
second revolving cylinder— placed parallel to the first ;
so that the guano is scraped off, and falls on the ground
divided or pulverized. This apparatus is manufactured
by Mrs. Shireff, West Barns, Dunbar. It took the first
prize.

4. In the section of "Extra Implements," Mr.
Macpherson, of Carstairs, Lanarkshire, exhibited speci-
mens of his Portable Sheep fencing, and also the
ingenious machine by which it is manufactured. The
fence is a clever combination of wooden spars and
tarred ropes, or zinc or galvanized wire ; and so con-
structed as to be capable of being woven as it were in a
species of loom. The tarred rope strands are four in num-
ber, and placed horizontally ; the wooden spars are
vertical, and are securely fastened to the horizontal
ropes. Straining posts are fixed at intervals in the
intended line of fence by means of loops, embracing
hooks fixed in the posts. Although the fence is very
light— a thousand yards weighing only two tons — it is
remarkably strong, and although originally introduced
for sheep, it has been found competent for the con-
fining of cattle. It is cheap— varying from 5d. to 9d.
per running yard. By using spruce branches, hazel, or
oak, a remarkably neat and ornamental fence may be
made. The machine is capable of working off — with
the aid of a man and a boy— from 150 to 200 yards of
fencing per day. The machine may be here briefly
described. In a simple framework four horizontal
shafts are supported in bearings and are put in simul-
taneous rotation through the medium of bevil wheels in
a shaft worked by a small winch. Each of the hoiizontal
shafts carries two bobbins, round whch the tarred strands
forming the horizontal ropes of the fence are wound. The
two strands, one from each bobbin, are passed over a
moveable frame in front of the machine, which performs
the office of what is called the " ley" in a common loom.
The two strands uniting at one point in one, form
an open angle, into which the wooden spar is inserted.
The handle of the machine is then turned three times
round, which causes the bobbins to revolve, and, giving
the strands a threefold twist, unite them into a single
rope, which embraces at the same time tightly the wooden
spar. As there are four sets of bobbins making four ropes,
the spar is embraced at four different and equidistant
points. As soon as the threefold twist is imparted to
the strands, the bobbins are stopped in their revolu-
tions, and the " ley" or frame brought forward with a
jerk, which tightens the strands upon the spar. The
spar, thus secured to the ropes, is pulled forward over

a roller, and a second spar inserted in the angles formed
by the strands from the four bobbins ; they are then
twisted into one, and another spar is fastened by the ac-
tion of the ''ley." These operations go on till the
lengths of turnetl strands in the bobbins are exhausted.
One feature of this method of forming fencing is worthy
of particular notice, namely, that on estates with abund-
ance of home timber, the spars may be made out of
timber fit for scarcely any other purpose. It is also
worthy of notice that the fence is very quickly erected,
two men being capable of putting up 800 or 1,000 yards
per day.

Amongst the extra " implements" exhibited, was the
National Coal Gas Apparatus, inventedby Mr. Bower, and
manufactured by J. T.B. Porter, of Lincoln. The judges
" commended" this apparatus ; and, as we believe that,
from the simplicity of its arrangements and the econo-
mical rate at which it produces gas, it goes far to meet
a want long desiderated amongst agriculturists and
country gentlemen, we deem a brief description of
its principal peculiarities will be useful and acceptable
to the reader. The retort is not of uniform diameter
throughout its length, but is larger at one end than the
other, gradually widening till it is connected at its widest
end with the interior of a vertical chamber (a), the foot
of which dips into a reservoir of cold water. The
smallest end of the retort is continued outwards for some
distance, and is made at this part (i) of uniform diameter,
so as to receive an Arcbimedian screw (c), which is
made to revolve in it as desired, by turning a handle,
connected to the spindle of the screw, which passes
through a stuffing-box, made in the end flange of the
retort. Near to the outer end— and externally of the
retort furnace— of this cylindrical part {b) of the retort,
and to its upper side, a vertical chamber (d) is fixed ;
this is provided with an air-tight lid, formed of a conical
plug (e), which fits into an aperture in the lid of the
chamber. The principal part of the retort is confined
within a furnace, the flame, &c., of which produces the
desired temperature of heat.

In working the apparatus, the plug (e) of the vertical
chamber {d) is taken out, and a supply of the gas coal
put into it. This falls between the two threads of the
Archimedian screw (c) immediately beneath, and on
this being turned round by the handle, the coal is de-
livered to the retort ; the turning of the screw is con-
tinued till the whole contents of the hopper are delivered
into the retort. This the " first charge" is allowed to
remain one hour exposed to the heat of the furnace ;
the gas passing off by a " pipe" into the purifier,
and from thence into the gasometer. At the expiration
of this period, a second charge is provided in the ver-
tical chamber fdj , and is by means of the Archimedian
screw (c) passed into the retort; this the "second
charge" of course propels the " first charge" into the
wider part of the retort. The " third charge" is then
put in, after the expiration of another liour, which as
before pushes the " first" and "second" charges fur-
ther along the retort, till at last the addition of the
" fourth charge" in the retort pushes out the " first
charge" at the wide end of the retort, and as it descends

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

53

into the water at the foot of the chamber (a) it is cooled,
and may be removed at pleasure.

By this arrangement all the nuisance met with in
charging and discharging the retorts fixed on the ordin-
ary principle, is completely obviated. All escape of gas
is also prevented, and a larger product obtained from
the fuel, in consequence of the vapours from the last
charge which is introduced, having to pass along the mass
of incandescent fuel which precedes it, as also through
the whole length of the retort. Another item of saving
arises from the fact that the retort or retorts are always
in work. As the small coal of houses, which is too fre-
quently wasted, is capable of being used in this appara-

tus, and as little labour is required in its management,
gas can easily be made with it, costing on an average 4s.
per 1,000 cubic feet. Another feature of the apparatus
is the superior quality of the coke obtained. The coal
from which it is obtained being subjected, at its first
entrance into the retort, to a considerable degree of com-
pression, the coke resulting is of a much denser quality
than that obtained from the usual process of gas mak-
ing. It is calculated that in a GO light apparatus there
will be as much coke produced as will keep the appara-
tus working, and tlie gas produced at the rate of 3s. per
1 ,000 cubic feet.

R. S. B.

THE SMITHFIELD CLUB FAT CATTLE SHOW.

CATTLE.

Although inflated accounts of the increased entries in
the cattle classes have been spread abroad, we find the
numbers of this and previous Shows are as follows : —
1855. 1856. 1857. 1858.

Devous 17 21 32 23

Herefords 20 21 36 26

Shorthorns 40 42 43 42

Scotch, Irish, and Welsh 16 13 18 12

Other pure breeds 3 18 22 26

Crosa-bred „ 7 12 8 23

Extra 9 13 17 14

Total 112 140 176 171

That is, as compared with last year, we have a decrease
of Devons, Herefords, Shorthorns, Scotch, Irish, and
Welsh, and Extra stock, the principal deficiency being
with the Herefords and Irish. Other pure breeds
show an increase, and the Cross-bred are three times as
many as they were last year. The Shorthorns keep pretty
closely to their usual force. The Show, altogether, is
full as usual, without being in excess. Taken as a whole,
the cattle classes cannot be ranked higher, if as high, in
merit as we have known them, there being too many
second-rate and third-rate animals — forming a dispro-
portionately large back-ground, setting off the few mar-
vels of excellence which are conspicuous in the Show.
One feature, however, is more observable than ever — and
this must gratify our humane and economical friends
who are opposed to the pampering and bloating of
beef into unwholesome fat meat, bad for graziers and
butchers, good only for cooks — this is the presence of
well-bred, well-fed meat, with an almost complete ab-
sence of unsightly lumps of fat on backs and rumps.
In a word, it is, in this sense, the " evenest " show we
have ever seen.

Devons. — This handsome breed musters in good
force ; has sent some good representatives ; but is open
to criticism, not being sufficiently select, particularly
in the large class of "steers or oxen.'' His Royal
Highness's prize steer is certainly very handsome, sym-
metrical, witii flesh well laid on, and capital in flank and
thigh. The Earl of Leicester's second prize steer is a
beautiful animal — a fine Devon in every i)oint. Mr.
Farthing's (third prize) has a larger frame, but flesh

not so good — and quality must always carry the palm.
We liked Mr. Overman's and Mr. Fisher 11 obbs' also
uncommonly well. The Prince's ox in Class II. has a
good back, is by no means deficient in beauty, but shows
rather too strongly the characteristic failing rump of this
breed to reach our idea of a model. We like Mr. Over-
man's ox (one year older) for his splendid quality of
flesh, laid on in the right places ; he is really a good one
in any year, and on any occasion. Mr. Farqubarson's
seven-year-old ox, bred by Mr. Quartly, is a famous
specimen of the sort, great in frame and substance, deep
through the chest, broad, and well-proportioned. Mr.
Pope's and Mr. Senior's heifers are exceedingly pretty.
If you enjoy touching a nicely-fed animal, let your hand
rest on the kindly-fleshed cow of Mr. Gibbs, which has
justly won the first prize. She is nine years old, and has
had six calves. Mr. Coates', Mr. Fouracres', and one
or two others in this good class, are also meritorious.

Herefords. — The excellent show of Herefords ap-
pear without their king. No amount of merit distributed
through the classes being able to compensate for the
absence of Mr. Naylor's Birmingham Gold Medal ox,
a beast that would of itself form a magnificent point
of attraction in the yard. But the rules of the Club
prevent a re-appearance on this stage. We could
not but admire Mr. Heath's splendid steer, only just
victorious over Mr. Niblett's ; and Captain Peploe's
steer well deserves its commendation. The " Steers or
Oxen" is an exceedingly good class, and well filled.
Mr. Swinnertonis successful with his famous beast, Mr.
Heath's second-prize animal coming closely after ; but
with all its excellence, having a weak point where it is
so often found — just behind the shoulder-blade. Mr.
Aldworth's is a very good beast, Mr. Oakley's deserv-
ing its place of honour, and the Prince's well worthy of its
" commendation." The Earl of Darnley's steer is very
compact and handsome, and with capital quality of
meat. Mr. Shaw's fine ox, of great size, has plenty of
flesh, but with a tendency to be patchy. Mr. Turner's
very pretty Hereford heifer has her class to herself.
Among the cows we find a higher degree of fatness ;
the class is very small ; but Mr. Uiggins' cow, and Mr.
Hill's prize cow (second at Birmingham), are of con-

54

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

siderable merit. Mr. Fisher Hobbs also shows a cow
by no means deficient in good quality and handsome
appearance.

If the grandest Hereford of the year, or, indeed, of
several late years, is absent from the Show, we have
there as perfect a model of a Shorthorn as has
been lately seen, namely, Mr, Stratton's Gold Medal
steer. This eminent breeder may be justly proud
of his position at this Show, as not only does his
steer thus far surpass all competitors, but the Gold
Medal heifer bred and fed by Mr. Brown was by one of
Mr. Stratton's bulls. We cannot dilate upon the vari-
ous fine points of this beautiful animal, but consider
him a study of what a young Shorthorn ought to be.
Let the farmer who visits the Show to learn keep in
memory the perfect form, the beauty of head and eye,
and the rare handling and quality. The Earl of Rad-
nor's and Mr. Joseph Stratton's steers, though com-
paring ineffectually with this, are exceedingly good ani-
mals. Colonel Pennant's is very great and good ; and
we also like Mr. Duffield's level and nice-fed steer.
The Birmingham Prize Shorthorns are of course eclipsed
here. Mr. Marriott's prize ox is magnificent ; very
level, extremely handsome, well covered with prime
meat, but, as we think, by no means surpassing Mr.
Wortley's famous beast of last year. The Marquis of
Exeter's highly commended ox is an uncommonly good
animal, remarkable for his rare thighs and good
shoulder -joint ; Earl Spencer's second-prize ox is
bigger, very level on the back, but has not so good
a round. Mr. DuflSeld's white ox has a capital fat
back, and we notice one or two others of great merit in
this fine class.

No one will grudge Mr. Brown the prize and Gold
Medal for his extremely beautiful heifer, except those
who may question the practice of awarding honours
to an animal suffering from disease. The breeding and
fattening, however, are equally meritorious, no matter that
the animal may have just fallen a prey to an epidemic
sure to bring down her condition. As to the award of
the second prize and the high commendation, a great
deal of argument has been dealt out in rather hard
tones to show that the judges are wrong. Well, it is
possible for good judgment to err sometimes. The
Earl of Radnor's white heifer is not first-rate — there is
too much of a hollow on the back, too much pinching
behind the shoulder, the fore-quarters are too contracted;
still it is pretty in appearance, and the quality of flesh
has carried the day. Mr. Odling's heifer, which is the
favourite with many people, is better formed, and very
handsome ; and, so important is shape over a beautiful
texture of meat and kindly delicate coat, that we might
have given an opposite decision had we been in office ;
but opinions always differ, and let exhibitors be content
to abide the chances of triumph or defeat in a moderate
spirit. Mr. Pertwee's heifer is fat, and certainly hand-
some. Is she not worthy of a commendation ? or is she
passed over because of her lameness ? Mr. Hunt's
heifer is of great frame, and has a very good back ;
Lord Feversham's is fine and pretty enough, but hardly
BO straight along the back as to please us, for symmetry.

The cows are, as usual, a very fine class. Mr.
Fletcher's prize red cow is of rare merit — level, wide,
compactly-made — with meat heavily laid on all over,
and splendid handling. Mr. Swinnerton's second
prize cow is wonderfully wide, and as good at the
chine as she is at the rump, and remarkably hand-
some in every respect, with fine offal and beautiful head ;
fairly beating Mr. Barrett's admirable third-prize cow.
From the rest we may single out Mr. Phillips's grand
strawberry for honourable mention. Altogether the
Shorthorns make a good show, without the assistance
of Colonel Towneley, Mr. Wetherell, or Mr. Booth.

Popular as red tints are just now, we are not so in
love with the colour as to blind ourselves to defective
form beneath it ; and, though a Sussex beast may
have a good healthy red for our eye, we cannot admire a
sinking behind the top of the shoulder, a narrow carcass,
or rumps thinning off to a point. Now, though Mr.
Cane's prize steer is really a good animal both in form
and flesh, the others in this somewhat well-filled class
are far from being models of perfection — too many of
the backs reminding one of a house roof ; and even the
second prize and the commended beasts, though perhaps
fair specimens of the breed, are not free from consider-
able defects. Mr. Dennett's prize heifer is a very good
one, and well fed; Mr. Smith's second-prize cow would
be also highly meritorious, were her chine and fore-
quarters out enough in proportion to her broad back and
hips.

In the classes for Norfolk and Suffolk Polls
we find little to admire ; and the Long-horns rather
amuse than edify, with their narrow frames, curly coats,
and preposterous horns.

Among the Scotch Horned and Scotch Polled
cattle are some to be looked at with satisfaction ; for
instance, Messrs. Martin's shaggy-coated bright-dun
ox ; Viscount Hill's second-prize black well-formed
steer; Mr. Cook's well-bred dun ox, in spite of its
somewhat unlevel back ; the Duke of Beaufort's hand-
some little yellow-coloured long-coated heifer ; and Mr.
Heath's Galloway ox, of great depth of frame — a
particularly good animal.

Unfortunately, the Irish Breeds make " no entry"
on the present occasion.

The Welsh Breeds, thinly represented, are not at
all remarkable, excepting that Mr. Bennett's is of
extraordinarily great size, something like the antique
sort, with bone as well as muscle.

The Cross or Mixed Breed classes are of great
interest and importance, as, though the perpetuation of
a good first cross is a diflSculty not easily overcome, the
production of first-rate feeders by crossing breeds
judiciously is of great and growing value. Besides, it
is sometimes a matter of curiosity to find how experi-
ments answer with the most diverse of breeds, the
results of extraordinary mixtures being sometimes highly
instructive if not profitable. Messrs. Martin showed a
good Aberdeen and Shorthorn— Mr. Knowles a very
nice thing as a steer, the produce of a Shorthorn and
Scotch horned. Mr. Knowles' Shorthorn and Aberdeen
heifer, red, with horns, is very well formed — straight.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

5S

deep, and uncommonly nice meat. The Duke of Beau-
fort's Shorthorn and Gloucester very good indeed,
handsome, and with a full ontspringing chine, Mr.
Farquharson's Devon and Highland is a happy hit ; and
the Earl of Darnley has done well with a Hereford and
Shorthorn cross, bred by Mr. Griffin, the character of
both breeds being, however, clearly discernible. The
heifer class comprises some very nice things indeed,
especially Mr. Holland's beautifully fed heifer, and Mr.
Druce's compact white heifer-

In the show of Extra Stock cattle, Mr. Smith's
Shorthorn strawberry cow is well worthy her silver
medal ; Mr. Farquharson's Devon ox is admirable ; the
Earl of Leicester's North Devon worthy of praise ; and
Mr, Oakley's Hereford ox a good beast.

SHEEP.
The number of sheep for the last three years is as
under :

1856. 1857. 1858.

Long-wools 40 35 37

Crosa-breeds 18 32 82

Short-wools , . 38 62 60

Total.

96

129

129

The Leic ESTERS are a better show than has been pre-
viously produced. Mr. Jordan's Gold Medal wethers
are extraordinarily good ; Mr. Foljambe's are very beau-
tiful animals ; and we see in Mr. Hine's second-prize pen
that size, combined with superiority of form and feeding
quality, which makes a profitable sort. The third prize
wethers of Mr. Marshall, everyone must admit, are also
in splendid condition.

We have seen better sheep than are to be found in the
class for " Fat wethers not exceeding 2201bs. live weight ;"
still there are some beautiful specimens. Mr. Brad-
shaw's are very handsome indeed, and have extra-
ordinarily good backs ; the Marquis of Exeter's have
plenty of mutton, and a good curly staple of wool ;
Mr. Brooks' are very pretty animals indeed ; and Lord
Berners takes second-prize for a pen of long, level,
well-formed sheep.

Among the Long-Wools not Leicesters, every-
one must admire Mr. Hewer's noble Cotswolds ; won-
derfully large and splendid sheep, with fine wool, dark
faces, and capital mutton. The Extra Stock silver
medal goes to Mr. Bradshaw's uncommonly good wether
— wonderfully broad back, and deep through the chest ;
almost like a Lincoln, except for his wool. The Mar-
quis of Exeter also shows a very good sheep in this
class. The Extra Stock silver medal for a fat ewe is
won by Mr. Bradshaw's ewe — no less than eighty
months old, yet fine in bone, of a model form, and with
a rare quality of mutton.

The important classes of Cross-bred sheep are a
striking feature in the Show. Mr. Overman's prize
Southdown and Leicester wethers are very perfect in
form, the character of the three sheep very equal, and
the handling uncommonly fine. Mr. White's, Mr.
Hobbs', Mr. Howard's, Mr. Morland's, and Mr.
Twitchel's are unusually good. Why do exhibitors
persist in clipping so as to present a straight flat back
to the eye, and rumps, flanks, plaits, bosoms apparently

full and expanded, when the hand instantly detects
the falsity of the outward show, and reveals the abomi-
nable attempt to thus gloss over a defective form ? And
why do judges award honours to such sheep as they
have done in this very class ? A sheep unfairly shorn,
and a pig unduly old, ought alike to be disqualified by
the authorities. In the next class (for wethers not ex-
ceeding 2201bs. live weight) we must make the same
complaint ; and we would not give a prize to a pen of
sheep, no matter how good their mutton, or how hand-
some their " looks," if there were such gross trimming
and shaping the animals with the shears. Mr. Over-
man's magnificent sheep are in splendid condition, are
wonderfully handsome, have rare fleeces, and are also
properly shorn. Mr. Morland's are extremely compact,
pretty, and with plenty of wool all over ; but several
pens in this class, some of them carrying off honours,
are evidently the result of good breeding, feeding, and
trimming combined. The Extra Stock Class is very
fine. Mr. Twitchel's silver medal wether has extra-
ordinary symmetry, great breadth of loin and chine, and
full plaits ; very fine in bone, and beautiful, but some-
what too tucked-up. Mr. Howard's Oxfordshire Down
wether is a beauty, possessing very great merit. Mr.
Overman's wether is extraordinary for size, width, and
substance, Mr. Hine's Down-and-Leicester wether
has considerable length of face, and a rare chine and
plaits. The Earl of Leicester's wether, and Mr. White's
handsome Cotswold-and-Sussex-Down ewe, are very
properly " commended."

There is an extraordinary show of Short-wools,
the Duke of Richmond, Mr. Rigden, and Lord Wal-
singham at the head of the poll. His Grace's Gold
Medal Southdown wethers certainly have won the
honour fairly ; and those of his Grace in the very grand
class for sheep " not exceeding 2001bs. live weight,"
are scarcely inferior in merit. Lord Walsingham's
beautifully-formed sheep are unsurpassed for their per-
fect keeping of the same character throughout ; and
those in the Two-shear class were worthy of a com*
mendation, though not thus distinguished by the judges.
The Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Chichester, Sir R.
Throckmorton, Mr. Gurney, Mr. Marjoribanks, Mr.
Overman, and Mr. Kent, exhibit some remarkably
beautiful and well-fed sheep. There may be a difference
of judgment as to whether the prizes in the Two-shear
class might not have been given to a finer pen than that
of his Grace. Beautiful as these Downs really are, the
fine art of "trimming a sheep" has here also, in too
many instances, been closely studied.

In the class of Short-wools not Southdowns
Mr. King's prize West-country Downs are very great
and good ; Mr. Canning's Hampshires, Mr. Sharp's, and
Mr. Humfrey's, exceedingly meritorious ; Mr. Holland's
a particularly handsome pen. But notwithstanding the
very high character of the class, how is it that wool
should grow so very much longer everywhere than it
does on the backs and loins of the sheep. Are not sheep,
if worthy of honours, good enough to show without so
much " make-believe ?"

In Extra Stock Mr. Rigden'sjilver medal wether is a

56

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

splendid animal, and Lord Walsingham's highly eom-
mended can scarcely be called inferior. The Duke of
Richmond's, Mr. W. King's, and Mr. S. Kind's, are
also remarkably good wethers. Mr. Foljambe's, too, is
very handsome. Lord Walsingham's silver medal ewe
we consider to be a. model Southdown, first-rate in
every point — of shape, quality, character, and wool.
Mr. Foljambe and Mr. King show good ewes ; but here
too we have to complain of the exhibiting of ewes
shamefully shorn, bustled, and padded and crinolined
— in fact, as beauties of another genus occasionally are.

PIGS.

The number of entries are : —

1856, 1857. 1858.

38 59 57

The show of pigs is extraordinarily grand, there being
not only many unusually fine animals, but the merits of
almost every pen stand remarkably high. In the class
of Pigs not exceeding four months old" are some mar-
vellous specimens of early maturity and wonderful de-
velopment of form and flesh — as Mr. Williams' hand-
some black Leicester pigs ; Mr, Barber's white Middle-
sex pigs, very fat and beautifully fine ; those of Mr, Betts
and Mr. Hall, and Mr. W. Barber's are little beauties.
In the next class Mr, Mill's and Mr. Crisp's deserve
great praise ; and Mr, Williams' little black pigs show
amazing development for their age. In the class for
" Pigs not exceeding twelve months old," Lord Berners is
successful with a very fine pen of Yorkshire pigs ; Mr.
Coates's black Dorsets are uncommonly prood ; and Mr.
Fowler's improved Bedfordshires are a valuable sort,
and remarkably good specimens. The Gold Medal very
properly goes to Mr. Beale's magnificent pigs in the
next class — amazingly fine, handsome, and marvels of
fatness, combined with incomparable quality. Those
of His Royal Highness, gaining the second prize, are
certainly splendid, but not at all equal in merit to the
others. Mr. Betts' white improved Suffolks are
wonderfully fine and symmetrical ; and Mr. Crisp's
improved black pigs well merit their commendation.
There is an unequalled Extra Stock class. So meritorious
are almost all the pigs here shown, that we ought to
name every exhibitor as worthy of honourable mention.
We may, however, refer more especially to the pens
shown by Mr. Baker, Mr. Druce, Mr, Burrell, Mr.
Crisp, Mr. Marjoribanks, Mr. Barber, Mr. Sadler, and
Mr. Hall.

AWARD OF PRIZES.

CATTLE.

Judges— J. BlomlieU, Warliam, Wells, Norfolk.
A. S. Mayuard, Martoii-Ie-Moor, Ripon.
W. Smith, West Rascu, Spita!, Lincoln.

DEV0N3,
Steers, not cxceedins; 3 years old.
First prize, £25— H. R. H. tho Prince Conaort. Silver
Meial to the brefder, Rirhard Mogridire, Mollaud, Sonth-
moUou. Parchaied by Mr. Pa-ysey, Batb.

Secoud, £10 — The Earl of Leicester, Holkham, Norfolk.
Third, £5— Robert Farlhiu"!;, North Petherton, Bridge-
water. Purchased by Mr. Stockley, Hign-street, Notting-hill,
Commended — Jolm Overman, Burnham Suttou.

Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old.

First prize, £25— H. R. H. the Prince Conaort. Silver
Medal to the breeder, George Turner, Barton, Exeter. Pur-
chased by Mr. Petherbridge, Hastings-street, Brunswick-
square.

Second, £10— John Overman, Burnham Sutton, Burnham
Market, Norfolk. Purchased by Mr. Jeffery, Foubert's-place,
Re^'ent-street.

Third, £5— The Earl of Leicester, Purchased by Mr.
Brooks, Stratford.

Commended —Walter Farthing, Stowey Court, Bridgewater,
and William Heath, Ludham.

Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old.

First prize, £15, and Silver Medal as bieeder— Edwarl
Pope, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset, Purchased by
Mr. Longman, King-strctt, New North-road.

Second, £5— William Senior, Hiuton St, Mary, Blandford.
Cows, above 4 years old.

First prize, £20, and Silver Medal as breeder— William M.
Gibbs, Bishop's Lydeard, Taunton. Purchased by Mr. Cham-
berlain, Exeter.

Second, £10— John Coate, Hammoon, Blandford. Pur-
chased by Mr. T. M Smith, Westbury, Wilts.

Tidrd, £5— Thomas White Fouracre, Durston, Taunton.
Purchased by Mr. Wm. Pontmg, Stroud,

HEREFORDS.

Steers, not exceeding 3 years old.

First prize, £25— William Heath, Ludham Hall, Norwich.
Silver Medal to the breeder, the late T. Longmore, Ludlow.

Second, £10— Is-.ac Niblett, Conygre Farm, Filton, Bristol.
Purchased by Mr. Burge, Bristol.

Thiril, £5—1. G. Niblett, Red Lodge, Ashley Hill, Bristol,
Purchased by Mr.Ebbels, Soiithgate-road, De BeauvoirTown.

Cow»nc?!tZfd— Captain Peploe, Gamstone, Hereford.
Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old.

First prize, £25 — Robert Swinncrtou, Weddington, Nun-
eiton. Silver Medal to the breeder, AVilliam Child, Wigmore
Grange, Leiutwardine, Hereford. Purchased by Mr. W. Pont-
ing, Stroud.

Second, £10— Wdliam Heath. Purchased by Mr. Keeble,
The Lion, New Cattle Market.

Third, £5— William Aldworth, Fnlford, Abingdon.

IligJily commended— Uich^td Oakley, Lawrence End, Luton.

Commended— K. R. H. the Prince Consort, and the Earl
of Uarnley, Cobhara, Graveseud.

Heifers, not exceeding 4 years old.

First prize, £15, and Silver Medal as breeder — Philip
Turner, The Leen, Perabridge, Leominster. Purchased by
Mr. Leaton, of Tring.

Secoud, £5— no competition.

Cows, above 4 years old.

First prize, £20, and Silver Medal as breeder— Richard
Hill, Goldine; Hall, Shrewsbury.

Second, £10— Henry Higgim, Woolaston Grange, Lydney,
Gloucester.

Third, £,^— withheld — want of merit.

SHORTHORNS.
Steers, not exceeding 3 years old.

First prize, £25, Gold Medal as best Ox or Steer ia any
of the classes, and Silver Medal as breeder— Richard Stratton,
Broad Hiuton, Swindon. Purchased by Mr. Davis, Black
Bull, New Cattle Market.

Second, £10— The Earl of Radnor, Coleshill, Highworth.
Purchased by Mr. Mitchell, Woolwich.

Third, £5— Joseph Stratton, Manningford Bruce, Pewsey,
Wilts. Purchased by Mr. Lane, Bowling-street, Westminster.

Cow»ne«deri— Colonel Pennant, MP., Penrhyn, Bangor,
and Charles Duflield, Marcham Park, Abingdon.
Steers or Oxen, above 3 yeius old.

First prize, £25— Samuel Marriott, White House, Fletton,
Peterborough. Silver Medal to the breeder, E. Gnffin, West
Ashby, Horucastle. Purchased by Mr. Bottrell, Rochester-
row, Vs^esuniuster.

Second, £10— Earl Spencer, Althnrp, Northampton, Pur-
chased by Mr. C. Cooke, Northstnptou.

Third, £5 — Thomas Swingler, Lnnghani, Oakham. Pur-
chased by Mr, J, Varney, Chapter-street, Westmiuater.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

57

WkjIiJi) commended ~Ti\s Marquis of Exeter, Burleigh,
Stamford.

Commended — Lord Radnor and Charles Duffield.

Heiters, not exceeding 4 years old. i

First Prize, £15, Gold Medal as btst Cow or Heifer in
any of tlie claese?, aud Silver Medal as breeder — J. W. Brown,
Uflcott, Swiudou.

Second, £5— The Earl of Radnor,

Highly commended — William Odding, Buslingtliorpe, Mar-
ket Rasen.

Cowmr/jrfed— curries Hunt, Eim Street, Hereford.
Cows, above 4 years old.

First piize, £20, and Silver Medal as |l)re«dcr — William
Fletcher, Radmanthwaite, Mansfield,

Second, £10 — Robert Swinnerton, Weddington. Purchased
by Mr. Lawrence, of Rua;by,

Third, £5— Charles Baruett, Stratton Park, Biggleswade.
Purchased by Mr. T. Bland, Woolwich.

SUSSEX,
Steers or Oxen, of any age.
First prize, £20, and Silver Medal as breeder — Edward
Cane, Berwick Court, Lewes. Purchased by Mr. J. Sharp,
Brighton.

Second, £10— William Verrall, Southover, Lewes. Pur-
chased by Mr. B. Towner, Southover, Sussex.

Co/nmewderf— Thomas Cooper, Norton Bishopatone, Lewes.

Heifers or Cows, of any age.
First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as b ecder— J. L. W.
Dennett, Wooiimaacote Place, Hurstperpoiut.

Second, £5— Tdf'en Smith, Grea*; Kuelle, Becklcy, Staple-
hurst. Purchased by Mr. F. Spinger, Southainptou.

NORFOLK OR SUFFOLK POLLED.

Steers or Oxen, of any age.

First prize, £10, aud Siker Medal as breeder — Lord J?o)ides,
Elmhara Hall, Thetford (Norfo'k). Purchased by Mr. J.
Cramp, Ealing.

Second, £5— «o competition.

Heifers or Cows, of any age.

First prize, £10 — F. and F. G. Thyune, Flexford Lodge,
Guildford, Surrey (Suffj'.k). Silver Medal to the bretder, G.
D. Badhani, Bulmer, Sudbury. Purchased by Mr. G. Wethers,
Guildford.

Second, £5 — Richard Salmon, Green Farm, Watton, Nor-
folk. Purchased by Mr. G. Stone, Watford.

LONGHORNS.
Steers nr Oxen, of any age.
First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — R. H.
Chapman, Upton, Nuneaton. Purchased by Mr. Newbery,
Southampton-street, Camberwell.
Second, £5 — no competition.

Heifers or Cows, of any age.
First prize, £10— William Senior, Hintou St. Mary. Silver
Medal to the brtedtr, James Davi?, Melcombe Horsey, Dor-
chester.

Sacond, £5— J. II. Burbery, The Chase, Kenilworth.

SCOTCH HORNED.

Steers cr Oxen, of any age.

First prize, £20 — James and William Martin, Market

Building", Aberdeen. Silver Medal to the breeder, James

Grant, Clathmore. Purchased by Mr. J. Deacon, Burnham,

Somerset.

Second, £10 — Viscount Hill, Hawlotone, Shrewsbury,
Comnien/ed— Isaac Cotk, Clenchwarton, lijnn, Norfolk.

Heifers or Cows, of any age.
First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder— Tr.e Duke of
Beaufort, Badminton, Chippenham. Purchased by Mr.
Slater, Kensington.

Second, £5— no competition.

SCOTCH POLLED.
Steers or Oxen, of any age.
First prize, £20— William Heath, Ludham. Purchase 1 ! y
Mr. S. Maton, Croydon.

Second, £10— Thomas Knowles, Sen., New Market, Abtr-
deeu. Purchased by Mr. Petherbridge, Has'ings-^treet,
Brunawick-square .

Heifers or Cows, of any age.

First prize, £10 — The B«roness Grenville, Dropmore,
Maidenhead. Purchased by Mr. Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Re-
gent-street.

Second, £5 — no competition.

IRISH.
Steers or Oxen, of any age,

[^No entry.']
Heifers or Cows, of any age.

\_No entry ]

WELSH.

Steers or Oxen (Runts), of any age.

First prize, £20— BarweU Ewiua Bennett, Marstou Trussell

Hall, Tlieddingworth, Rugby. Silver Medal to the breeder,

John Owen, DwygirFarm, Amlwch, Anglesey. Purchased by

Mr. B. Smith, Kiug's-road, Ciielsea.

Second, £5 — John Ewins Bennett, Husbands Bosworth,
Leicester. Purchased by Mr. G. Sutton, Dalstoo.
Heifers or Cows, of any age.
The prize, £10 — not sufficient merit.

CROSS OR MIXED BREED.
Steers, not exceeding 3 years old.

First prize, £15 — James and William Martin, Market
Buildings, Aberdeen. Silver Medal to the breeder, George
Marr, Caircbroggie, Aberdeen (Aberdeen and Shorthorn).
Purchased by Mr. Jones, Baker-atreet, Enfield.

Second, £10 — ThoinasKnowles, Sen. (Shorthorn and Seotch-
horiied). Purchaseil by Mr. Ford, K«jnton-atreet,
Steers or Oxen, above 3 years old.

First prize, £15 — Thomas Knowles, Sen. Silver Medal to
the breeder, Mrs. Jane Reid, Fochabers, Banffshire (Short-
horn and Aberdeenshire). I'urchased by Mr. A. Lawrence,
Croydon.

Second, £5 - The Duke of Bi'.aufort (Shorthorn and Glou-
cester). Purchased by Mr. T. Pawsey, Bath.

Commended — J. J. Farliuharsol^ langton House, Bland-
ford ( Devon and Highlanrl), and Lord Darnley (Hereford and
Shoithorn).

Heifers, net exceeding 4 years old.

The prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder, Edward Hol-
land, M.P., Duaibletou Hall, Eversharo, Gloucester (Short-
horn and Mixed). Pnrchasfd by Mr. Bagga, Cheltenham.

Commended — S. Druce, Eynsliam, Oxon (Cross).

SHEEP.
ANY LONG WOOLLED BREED.
Judges — J. Blomficld,
A, S. Maynsrd.
W, Smith,
Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 mouths).
First prize, £20, Gold Medal as beat pen of long-woolled
ahee;-, and Silver Mf dal as breeder— Francis Jordan, Eastburn,
near JJrifficld, Yoik (Leicester). Purchased by H. Barclay,
Great Titcbfiel.i-street.

Second, £15 — Thomas Hiue, of Knotting, Sharnbrook, Beds
(Leicester). Purchased by Mr. Dudley, New Cattle Market.

Third, £5 — Thomas Marshall, Blanch Farm, Pocklington,
York (Leicester). Purchased by Mr. Aldred, 27, Harrow-road,
Paddiagton.

llirjlihj commended— G. S. Foljambr, Osberton Hall, Work-
sop (Leicester).

Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 months), each sheep
not to exceed 220 lbs. live weight.

First prize, £20, and Silver Medal as breeder— C. J. Brad-
ahaw, A'stoe Hoi.se, Bur!ey-on-the-Hill, Oakham (Leicester).
Purchased by Geo. Rhodes, New-strset, Prince's-ioad, Ken-
ningtou.

Second, £15 — Lord Berners, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester
(Leicester). Purchased by Stephen West, Croydon.

Tbird, £5— The Marquis of Exeter, KG. (Leicester). Pur-
chased by Mr. Dartticll, Kichmond street, East-lane, Walworth.

Hiyhhj commended — W. de Capell Brooke, Geddington,
Kettering (I^eicester).

LONGWOOLS NOT LEICESTERS.

Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 months).

I First prize, £15, and Silver Medal as Breeder — William

58

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Hewer, Seven-Hampton, Highwortli, Wilts (Cotawold). Pur-
chased by Mr. Samuel Robinson, Hull.

Second, £10 — Thomas West, Greenbill Farm, Bletchington,
Oxford (Cotswold). Purchased by Mr. Hayhow, Johu's-road,
Hoxton.

Third, £5 — Charles Kersey, Glenstone, Ross, Hereford
(Cotswold). Purchased by Mr. Portwine, Regent- street,
Westminster.

LONG AND SHORT-WOOLLED CROSS-BRED,
Judges — J. Clayden, Littlebury, Saffron Walden.
J. S. Turner, Seaford, Lewes.
W. Watts, Littlewood, Frampton, Dorset.
Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 months).
First Prize, £15, and Silver Medal as breeder — John Over-
man, Burnham Sutton (Southdown and Leicester). Purchased
by Mr. Freecian, Nottmg-hill.

Second, £10 — Charles Hobbs, Maisey Hampton, Cricklade
(Oxfordshire Down). Purchased by Mr. Worboys, Bains-
buiy-road, Islington.

Third, £5 — Stewart Marjoribanks, Bushey Grove, Watford
(Leicester and Hampshire). Purchased by Mr. Reecham,
Clare-street, Lincoln's-inn- fields.

Highly commended — J. B. Twitchell, Wills, Northampton
(Leicester and Cotswold) ; and John White, Parsonage Farm,
Rickmansworth (Cotswold and Sussex).
Fat Wethers, 1 year old, under 22 months), each sheep not
to exceed 220 lbs. live weight.
First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — John Over-
man, Burnham Sutton (Southdown and Leicester). Purchased
by Mr. Freeman, Notting-hill.

Second, £5— George Hine, jun., Oakley, Bedford (Leicester
and Down). Purchased by Mr. Geo. Worley, Star-corner,
Bermondsey.

Highly commended — G. B. Morlaad, Chilton, Harwell, Berka
(Southdown and Cotswold).

ANY SHORT-WOOLLED BREED,
Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 months).

First prize, £20, Gold Medal as best pen of short- wooUed
sheep, and Silver Medal as breeder — The Duke of Richmond,
K.G., Goodwood, Chichester (Southdown). Purchased by Mr.
King, Paddington-street.

Second, £10— Lord Walsingham, Merton Hall, Thetford
(Southdown). Purchased by Mr. Jeffery, Foubert's-place,
Regent-street.

Third, £5— William Rigden, Hove, Brighton (fouthdown).
Purchased by Mr. E. Davy, Brighton.

Highly commended — Lord Leicester (Southdown).

Commended~G. S. Foljambe (Southdown).
Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 mouths), each sheep not
to exceed 200 lbs. live weight.

First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — The Duke of
Richmond (Southdown). Purchased by Mr. King, Padding-
ton-street.

Second, £5— William Rigden (Southdown). Purchased by
Mr. J. Sharp, Brighton.

Highly commended — Lord Chichester, Stanmore Park, Lewes
(Southdown).

Commended— JjOtA Walsingham (Southdown) and Stewart
Marjoribanks (Soulhdown).
Fat Wethers, 2 years old (above 22 and under 34 months).

First prize, £20, and Silver Medal as breeder — The Duke
of Richmond (Southdown). Purchased by Mr. King, Pad-
dington-street.

Second, £10— Sir R. G. Throckmorton, Bart., Buckland,
Farringdon (Southdown). Purchased by Mr. Jeffery, Fou-
bert's-place, Regent-street.

Third, £5 — John Overman, Burnham Sutton (Southdown),
Purchased by Mr. Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Regent-street.

Highly commended— Johu Kent, Goodwood (Southdown).

SHORT-WOOLS NOT SOUTHDOWNS,
Fat Wethers, 1 year old (under 22 mouths).
First prize, £15, and Silver Medal aa breeder— William
King, New Hayward Farm, Hungerford(West Country Down).
Purchased by Mr. Jeffery, Foubert's-place, Regent-street.

Second, £10— Stephen King, Old Hayward Farm, Hunger-
ford (West Country Down). Purchased by Mr. Smith, Kiug's-
joad, Chelsea.

Third, £3 — William Bro*ne Canaiug, Chisledou, Swindon
(Hampshire Down). Purchased by Mr. Bottereli, Rochester-
row, Westminster.

Highly commended — J. Sharp, Remenhorn, Henley-on-
Thames (West Country Down) ; and William Humphrey, Oak
Ash, Wantage (West County Down).

P I G. S.

Judges— J. Clayden.
J. S. Turner.
W. Watts.
Pigs of any breed, not exceeding 4 months old.

First prize of £10, and Silver Medal as breeder — John V.
Williams, Haygrove Farm, Bridgewater (Leicester). Purchased
by Mr. Worsfold, King's-road, Chelsea.

Second, £5— William Mills Barber, Sunninghill Wells,
Berks (Middlesex). Purchased by Mr. Dorbon, High-street,
Woolwich.

Highly commended~F. Hall, Kingsbury, Middlesex (Small),
and E. L. Betts, Preston Hall, Maidstone (Suffolk).

Pigs, above 4 and not exceeding 8 months old.

First prize, £10, and Silver Medal as breeder— Sir J. B.
Mill, Bsrt., Mottisfont Abbey, Romsey, Hants (Mottisfont).
Purchased by Mr. Bonny, Camberwell-^ate.

Second, £5 — Thomas Crisp, Butley Abbey, Wickham Mar-
ket, Suffolk (Improved Black). Purchased by Mr. Pattison,
Vere-street, Clare Market.

Highly commended — E. Bowly, Siddiugton, Cirencester
(Berkshire).

Commended — J. V. Williams (Leicester).

Pigs, above 8 and not exceeding 12 months old.

First prize, £10, and Silver Medal aa breeder — Lord Ber-
ners (Yorkshire). Purchased by F. C. Marshall, 26, Oxford
Market.

Second £5 — Francis Fowler, Henlow, Biggleswade (Bed-
fordshire). Purchased by Mr. Lewis Haymais, of Mile-end-
road.

Highly commended— J. Coote,l{ammoou,'Blsiiid(ord (Dorset),

Commended— G. Home, Egham (Small Black).

Pigs, above 12 and under 18 months old.

First prize, £10, Gold Medal aa best pen of pigs, and
Silver Medal as breeder — George Beale, of Frowlesworth, near
Lutterworth (Leicester). Purchased by Mr. Matther, Lei-
cester.

Second, £5— H.R.H. the Prince Consort (Windsor). Pur-
chased by Mr. H. Scott, Broadway, Westminster.

Highly commended — E. L, Betts, Preston Hall, Maidstone
(Suffolk), J. K. Tombs, Longford, Lechlade (Berkshire).

Commended — T. Crisp (Black).

EXTRA STOCK.

Silver Medal, for the best Beast in extra stock— Henry
Smith, of Drax Abbey, Selby (Shorthorn Cow).

Silver Medal for the best Louii-wooUed Wether Sheep in
extra stock — C. J. Bradshaw (Leicester).

Silver Medal, for the best Long-wooUed Ewe in extra stock
— C. J. Bradshaw (Leicester).

Silver Medal, for the best Cross-bred Sheep in extra stock—
J. B. Twitchell (Southdown and Leicester Wether).

Silver Medal, for the best Short-wooUed Wether Sheep in
extra stock — William Rigden (Southdown).

Silver Medal, for the best Short-wooUed Ewe in extra stock
— Lord Walsingham (Southdown).

Silver Medal, for the best Pig in extra "stock — William
Baker (Dorset).

In the Cattle in extra stock commended — J. J. Farquhar-
son (Devon Ox).

In the Cross-bred Sheep in extra stock, highly commended —
Johu Overman, Burnham Sutton (Southdown and Leicester).
Commended— George Hine, jun. (Devon and Leicester), Lord
Leicester (Southdown and Leicester), Charles Howard, Bid-
denham, Beds (Oxfordshire Down), John White, Rickmans-
worth (Cotswold and Sussex).

For Short- woolled Wethers, highly commended — The Duke
of Richmond, and Lord Walsingham (for Southdowus), and
William King (for West Country Down). Commended —
Stephen King (West Country Down).

For Short-wooUed Ewea, highly cotmnended — G. S. Foljambe
(Southdown). Commended — W.King (West Country Down).

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

For Pigs, higJihj commended — V. J. Sadler, Bentham Calcutt,
Cricklade (Berkshire), and T. Crisp (Suffolk). Commended —
C. Burrell, Walthamstow (Essex), S. Marjoribanks (Bushey),
and W. M. Barber (Middlesex).

THE IMPLEMENT DEPARTMENT.

lu consequence of the great demand for implements,
lessening the labour upon our farm, every facility should
be afforded to manufacturers for exhibition. The space
at present allotted is not sufficient for the purpose.
Most of the machines are only within reach of the eye,
and many upon the floor are so cramped and wedged in
amongst others as to be quite immovable. Some,
agaia, are to be judged of only by sections and models
from the sheer impossibility of finding room for them.
This state of things is unsatisfactory, and especially
so when the fault admits of a remedy, that must suggest
itself to everybody. Surely in London, the centre of
civilization, where the possible seems to have no limit,
and the spirit of enterprise is perpetually urging men to
the gratification of wants that are daily increasing in
magnitude and grandeur — surely in London, the capital
of a country that has exalted agriculture as a grand
particular star amongst the sciences, we should possess
a better theatre in which to display the very implements
to which we are mainly indebted for our proud su-
premacy.

The comfort of the public and the interests of the
Club would be very much consulted by the establish-
ment of five shilling and half-crown days, as well as
the one shilling days now in vogue. This arrangement
would please those who could afford the extra fee, and
present no hardship to such as could not.

The show itself seems a fair one, with but few new
objects of especial interest. Those deserving most at-
tention are Child's Grain Separator, an American
invention, displaying wonderful ingenuity, and a quite
original principle ; Allen's Grass Mower, an
American invention, brought out under the auspices of
Messrs. Burgess and Key ; and Samuelson's Reaper,
with self-acting bunching rake. These with a great
number of improvements introduced in machines al-
ready known to our readers, will be consecutively de-
tailed in our category.

First, we come to Mr. Gibbs's Stand (of Half-moon-
street), and find there a splendid collection of specimens
from the cereal and root crops. The mangolds are
specially good, and are exhibited in very heavy weights.
He fully maintains the reputation he has established,
and merits the confidence he has inspired.

Biggs shows his usual Dipping Apparatus, consisting
of cradle and crane ; but the cradle is now of galvanized
iron.

Garrett and Sons show a one-horse-power, with
horse-works, complete, for £2>2; a dressing machine ;
their excellent improved wheat and spring- corn horse-
hoe ; a turnip hoe, with good lever arrangement ; a
fair sample of drills, and Chambers' excellent manure
distributor.

Geo. Gibbs shows a carefully-selected assortment of
roots, some of the largest of which are from the farm of
the Prince Consort. There are mangolds weighing from
27 to 30 lbs., and cabbages of 30 lbs. weight.

Busby, of Bedale, — carts, with his usually strong
workmanship ; good ploughs, and a useful-looking
horse-hoe. We were disappointed not to observe Cuth-
bert's reaper on his stand.

Sutton & Son., Reading, — a famous variety of roots
and seeds. The roots struck us as being very beautifully
grown, and indicating specially good quality. There
were some specimens of long-red and globe mangolds
weighing 30 lbs. The new Chinese potato, a long tap

root, much like a badly -grown carrot, and some sugar-
cane from the same country, are to be observed also.

Nicholson, Newark, — the haymaker, without per-
ceptible improvement.

Clayton & Shuttleworth, — a fixed steam-
engine.

Peter Lawson& Son, Edinburgh,— a splendid as-
sortment of corn seeds, grass, and roots. Many roots
grown by the aid of the liquid manure drill attained the
weight of 40 lbs. There was also an instrument for
testing the specific gravity of roots.

Dray and Co. — a large collection of corn mills,
chaff-cutters (Richmond and Chandler), steel forks,
and the celebrated prize reaper, with tipping platform,
from the introduction of which into this country so
many improvements have taken place in such machines.

Gardner, of Banbury, — chaff-cutters, &c.

Whitmee & Co., London, — an array of corn-crushers
and griding mills. A single grinder can be obtained for
£2 15s.

Turner, of Ipswich, — a double mill for crushing
oats and splitting beans at one time ; for hand or steam-
power ; simple, effective and cheap.

Ward — the famous cattle gauge, which from cer-
tain measurements determines with tolerable accuracy
the weight of an animal.

James, of Cheltenham, — a liquid manure distributor,
which has won unto itself a good name, being very
much upon the principle of the street water-carts.
Upon meadows and pastures such implements are in-
valuable, and many a crop of swedes or mangolds might
be saved by their use.

Priest and Woolnaugh — a horse-hoe, very similar
to Garrett's ; drills, and Rowley's blast drill.

Richmond and Chandler — very good double-
action turnip cutter, made entirely of iron. In the cen-
tre of the hopper there is a wing which shuts off" either
side, and then the motion of the knives being reversed,
the turnip is either cut for sheep or beast as desired.
The price, £b 10s., for a machine so well got up, and
apparently effective, is not great. The chaff" machine is
very much simplified, and the bearings reduced by
doing away with one wheel and shaft. The workman-
ship of all these machines struck us as especially
superior.

Clayton— his patent brick-dresser, so justly cele-
brated ; together with the " Eagle" reaper, concerning
which enough was said at Chester.

Holmes and Son — a large variety of drills, corn-
dressing machines, and scissor turnip -cutter, slicing a
turnip at one stroke. Price £2 10s.

Page and Toogood, Southampton, — a very credit-
able assortment of roots.

Warwick Smith, London, — a nice-tasting cattle-
food, found in close proximity with a sack of locust-
beans, to which it bears a great affinity. Yet the
locust-beans are priced at £7 10s. per ton ; run through
a mill, and presented in a chopped or bruised condition,
they are priced at £\b per ton; while in the shape of
fine dust, they are offered for ^30 per ton. This grind-
ing seems an expensive process

RusTON, Proctor, and Co. — saw and grist mills,
of very excellent workmanship.

Burgess and Key — Allen's patent American grass-
mower ; a machine which has, it appears, been tested in
this country, and found to work well. A little more
experience of its adaptability to varieties of crops is
necessary before we can report upon it with confidence.
The horses walk beside the standing grass, drawing the
machine after them. The cutting arm, furnished with
knives moving in the same manner as Burgess and Key's
reaper, is thrown out from one side to a distance of three
feet, terminated by a sort of wooden breast, which pre-

60

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

serves the grass ia falling over the cutters from being de-
posited amongst the standing crop. This arm is firmly
attached to the frame of the machine, and a spring ex-
tends from the near side of the frame to a smaller tra-
vellino- wheel, which preserves the position of the whole
machine, and keeps the cutting arm close to the
ground, while allowing all irregularities of surface to be
allowed for without the attention of the man who drives.
The scheme is ingenious ; but one would expect either
the horse power employed to be less or the breadth of
swathe greater. The price is ^£30. The well-known
reaper belonging to this firm was also here, with screw-
platform for side-delivery in swathe, and conical divid-
ing roller. Then we have Child's patent grain separator,
a machine which introduces a new principle, " weighs
every kernel of grain separately," and manages to
despatch 50 quarters per day, roughing, dressing, and
blowing at one operation in a very perfect manner. The
novelty introduced in the machine consists in the fact
that the fans revolve in an enclosed drum creating a
vacuum in a chamber behind. The air rushing to sup-
ply this vacuum, enters only at one point, and meeting
there with the dressed grain in its final descent from the
riddles, carries it up in a very surprising manner, and
holds it suspended in a chamber the same width as the
back of the machine. If good and true the grain under-
goes the test and falls to the heap to be raked away to
the bushel ; but if light and chaffy, it is drawn upwards
into a larger space where the current is less severe, and
drops into the place allotted to it. The air then pafsses
out behind, catching the grain as it falls from the hopper,
carrying with it almost every vestige of chaff with which
it is there mixed. The price of this machine is ^'20.
We hear it is much used by maltsters and millers ; and
we think a simple machine without so much riddle
surface might now be constructed at less expense to
finish the grain as it comes in its nearly prepared con-
dition from our combined thrashing and dressing ma-
chines. Certainly this is the most novel piece of ma-
chinery in the whole show, embodying as it does a
totally new principle. There was a cheap, and what
seemed to be a likely potato plough, also an American
implement, as well as the celebrated American churn.

Sk.irvinct, Liverpool, — a very fine collection ; one
mangold 46 lbs. weight ; the long reds splendid, and the
swedes of admirable quality.

Parkes,— steel forks, two, three, four and five-tine,
all additionally recommendable for the amount of work
they get out of the men. The reign of iron is fast
coming to a close in the matter of forks as well as
elsewhere.

Barrett and ExALL,—aneat two-horse-engine for
chaff-cutting and pulping, cScc, at ^105 ; chafF-machines,
corn-crushers, and endless-band-saw.

Samuelson. — On this stand, in addition to his corn-
mills, chaff-cutters, root-pulpers, single and double-
action turnip-slicer (with the new plates to be added for
mincing small for lambs), Mr. Samuelson exhibits the new
American reaping-machine. The novelty consists in the
automaton raker-off ; not like that complicated piece of
ingenious mechanism familiar to' us a few years ago, but
a remarkably light and simple contrivance, which effects
the delivery of the cut corn in sheaf-bunches out of the
track of the horses. The " cut" is five-feet wide. There
is a reel, recently improved so as to have six fans in-
stead of four. The price is £32 10s. The question is,
whether the raker will perform as well on heavy crops
as we hear it does on light ones ?

Crosskill's reaping-machine is so well known that
we need only mention it as an improvement upon Bell's
original, the horses walking behind, and the corn being
delivered on either side at pleasure, by means of belts
traversing across the slanting platform. The world-

wide known carts, and the simple Archimedian root-
washer of this firm, were also exhibited.

On HoRNSBy's stand we observed a newly-patented
plough, in which the usual cast-iron body is discarded,
and the sole, etc., attached to wrought-iron " legs'
welded to the beam. Lightness and simplicity are the
result; and the plough is certainly one of considerable
promise. .

Dray and Co. exhibit the " Champion" reaper, a
well-known improvement upon Hussey's machine, with
tipping platform for facilitating delivery in sheaf.

BuRNEY AND Bellamy, Millwall,— a sample of
their superior iron cisterns.

Greening and Co., Manchester,— specimens of
galvanized iron-wire netting. _

David Hart, London,— an expansive weighmg-
machine, with a very good reputation. ^

Wheeler, Oxford, — turnip-graters on Moody s
principle.

Cambridge, — winnowing - machines ; combined
ribbed and clod-crusher rollers, which look very likely
to clog ; and chain-harrows, that are creating no small
astonishment by the efficiency of their working, par-
ticularly in the gathering of couch-grass and treeing
it from clods, &c., in their capacity to follow the drill,
and to harrow short dressing on grass land.

Bextall— his deservedly favourite root-pulpers,
for steam and hand- power, chaff-machines, harrows,
wooden-beam plough, cultivator, and a cheap cake-
breaker.

Wedlake and Dendy,— a fixed engine.
Bedford and Impey,— root-pulpers and turnip-
cutters.

The Dublin Agricultural Society,— a col-
lection that exhibits, in a wonderful degree, the great
fertility of the virgin soil that is waiting to repay
English capital and Irish industry.

Eaton, Thrapston, — economical combined wood
and iron safety jack.

Wood, Stowmarket,— a large show of corn- crushers,
chaff-cutters, and Phillips' turnip cutter.
Sawney, Beverley, — winnowing machines.
Ransomes and Sims,— rotary turnip- cutters ; in
which the root is carried to the cutter, instead of the
cutter to the turnip, which is the generally recognized
principle. A large display of chaff-cutters, and corn-
crushers, and cake-breakers, and mills of various de-
scriptions ; besides ploughs, &c.

Barnard and Bishop,— root-pulpers and turmp-
cutters, &c.

Martin, Barmer,— a Gardner's turnip-cutter, re-
versed, by which the roots are cut inside the barrell,
instead of outside, and the last piece is professedly
dealt with.

Smith, Kettering, — a simple, effective-steerage,
three-row turnip horse-hoe.

Hunt, Essex, — winnowing and seed-shelling ma-
chine.

Fowler, — all sorts of pumps, &c.
Warner,— double and single action pumps, fire-
engines, liquid-manure distributors, &c.

Lyne, Malmsbury,— a patent field stile, of singu-
larly ingenious construction, for footpaths in pleasure-
grounds, church-roads, and foot-crossings on railways.
Price £2. ,

Smith and Ash by,— haymaker, chaff-cutters, and
a natty two-horse engine. The chaff-cutters manufac-
tured by this firm are to be recommended.

Haywood, Derby,— a capital two-horse engine
fori,70. ,, ^ .

Professor Varnell, — stoble fillings.
Smyth and Sons, Suffolk,— several corn-drills of
a serviceable character.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

61

J. AND F. Howard, Bedford, showed their P P
iron ploughs, ridging plough, lever steel-tooth horse-
rake, iron zig-zag harrows, specimens of different forms
of sliares for various soils and purposes, a model of a
patent plough with all its beautifully adapted fittings,
and a very simply-constructed draught dynamometer.

Kington and Throwbridge, — weighing machines
of a good but cheap character.

Carson, Warminster, — Moody's turnip-cutters,
chaft'-cutters, &c.

Thompson, Lewes, — hay-maker with double prong
for reversed action.

Pickering and Sims, Lancashire, — turnip-cutter,
corn bruisers, and chaff-cutters, exhibiting great ex-
cellence of workmanship.

SowDON, Gloucester, — Woofe's patent paring plough
and patent litter-cutter, which, cutting straw and hay
for food as well as for litter, seems a valuable machine.

HENSMAN,Leighton Buzzard, — the Bedford steerage
drill that merits a more extensive reputation, and a
Howard's patent iron plough.

Powell, — ■" Sigma's" hand-dibble and hoe.

Kent, Holborn, — a very good quick churning
apparatus.

Reeves, — liquid manure drills.

Page, Bedford, — chaff-cutters, turnip-cutters, and
an iron plough on the celebrated Bedford model.

Beneath the gallery we find the engines and thrashing
machines, in their accustomed corner.

Smith and Ashby, — a two-and-a-half horse-power
portable engine, weiwhirig only 1 ton. Price ^^70.

Brown and May, — a six-horse power portable
engine. Price £190.

Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes, — a seven-
horse-power portable engine. Price £210.

TuxFORD AND SoNS, — a seven-horse-power portable
engine, with inverted vertical cylinder inclosed within
a steam-tight jacket ; weijiht, 3.t tons. i';oe £235.

Wedlake and Dendy, — a sevea-iiorse-poAxr
portable engine. Price £210.

Ransomes and Sims, — a scven-horse-power port-
able engine ; weight, 2 tons 19^ cwt. Price £210.

Haywood, — a three-horse-power portable engine;
weight, 24 cwt. Price £90.

RusTON, Procter, and Co., — an eight-horse-powcr
portable engine, with 9f-inch cylinder. Price £235.

Robey AND Co., — a portable twelve-horse-power
double-cylinder engine, with reversing gear and ash-
pan enclosed by water space.

E. R. AND P. Turner, — a two-horse-power port-
able engine. Price £90.

Garuett and Sons, — a six-horse-power portable
steam engine,

Humphries, — a combined thrashing and finishing
dressing machine.

F. R. Hunt, — a clover and trefoil shelling machine.
Price £45.

Hart and Gibbons, — a combined thrashing and
finishing- dressing machine.

Hornsby and Son, — a combined thrashing and
finishing-dressing machine.

Holmes and Son, — a seed drawing or shelling and
dressing machine.

Clayton and Shuttleworth, — a combined
thrashing and finishing-dressing machine.

Steam Cultivation is rejiresented by Mr. Smith
of Woolston's stall of " great globe" mangolds, grown
on clay land, worked 14 inches deep with the steam-
grubber and subsoiler, and (Mr. Smith says) without
any artificial manure, and with only twelve one-horse
loads of farmyard manure per acre.

Mr. Fowler's prize steam-plough could not of course
be present, but had its likeness hung upon the wall,

showing the last new method of hauling by wire-rope
passing round an endless grooved drum attached by the
simplest of all possible arrangements beneath a portable
engine.

Mr. Williams, of Baydon, had also a model of Mr.
Fowler's Chester machine, intended for engines of great
power.

Mr. Halrett showed a model elucidating his extra-
ordinary method of cultivation by steam-machinery
traversing fields upon railways laid down all over a
farm wilh the ultra " broad gauge" of 50 feet. There
were specimens, too, of different kinds of " guidewny"
rails, to cost from £10 to £20 per acie.

Mr. Cambridge exhibited a mahogany model of a
Boydell traction-engine.

Mr. Romaine showed a beautiful model of his loco-
motive steam digging- machine, which works a revolving
tilling-cylinder behind, either for skimming and cleaning
or dee-p trenching land.

Mr. CoLLiNSON Hall, had a model illustrating his
mode of working ploughs by an endless wire-rope
passed in a figure of 8 form round grooved drums.

Any detailed description of these different engines and
machines we must leave for some future occasion, as
well as reports of their working in the neighbourhood of
London dviring the week.

Steam-culture, however, is evidently uppermost not
only in the minds of the farmers, but also in the schem-
ings of implement makers. As you walk through
the galleries, one tells you oF a new plan of affixing a
windlass to an engine, another gives you a peep at a
new form of winding apparatus, another communicates
a secret as to an altogether new kind of cultivator, and
everybody is talking of experience with the steam-
plough, and wondering at the convincing evidence which
has lately been published.

Great things will undoubtedly flow from this year's
" general muster, and throngs of chiefs" in agricultural
mechanics, to inspect, consult, advise, and sow and pick
up ideas. Our part as the farmer's remembrancer
will be to dwell more fully as occasion serves, upon the
special improvements that have been brought to light
during the show.

GENERAL MEETING OF MEMBERS,

Tuesday, December 7th.

Lord Berners in the Chair.

The Presirient, Vice-Presidents, Truatees, and Honorary
Secretary for the ensuing year were re-elected.

Mr. Henry Smith, of the Grove, Cropwell Butler, near
Biughain, Notts., anJ Mr. John Ford, of Rushiou, near
Blandford, were elected Stewards in the room of Mr. Sauday
Eud Mr. FooVes, retiring.

Lord Feveraham was elected a Vice-President in the room
of the late Lord Spenner.

Ou the motion of Mr. Giblett, it was resolved—" That a
sub-committee be appointed to inquire iuto the practicability
of procuring a bttter and more commodiouti place for the
Smithficld Club to hold their annual exhibitions, and report
the result of their inquiries to the next general meeting — also
to consult with Mr. Buluois relative to raising the price of
the admission on the first day of the show."

Oa the motion of Mr. Sauday, it was resolved — " That in
consequence of the great additional labour incidental to the
increase of the show, it is necessary that three more judges be
appointed, and that the departments of each he as follows,
viz. : —

Three for cattle.

Three for long-wooUed sheep and pigs.

Three for shdrt-wooUed sheep and cross-bred sheep."

On the motion of Mr. Jonas Webb, it was resolved —
"That ia future all the pigs exhibited at the Pmithfield
Club's shows shall have the state of their dentition examined
by a competent authority, previously to the judges making

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

their award ; and that if the deutitiou shall satisfactorily indi-
cate that the age of auy of the pigs has beea incorrectly re-
turned iu the certificate, the stewards shall disqualify such pig,
and report their having done so to the first meeting of the
members of the club, and that such disqualification shall be
final and without appeal."

On the motion of Mr. Buckley, it was resolved — "That
there be two medals instead of one iu extra stock cattle, viz.,
one for steers or oxen, and one for heifers or cows."

Mr. Beazley's motion — "'That the rules of the Club
should define what is and what is not a pure-bred animal, or
how many crosses constitute a pure-bred beast, and what jus-
tifies it to be shown iu the pure-bred and what in the mixed
classes" — was negatived.

Mr. Badham withdrew his motion as to the admission of
breeding animals and martin heifers.

Mr. Batson's motion, " That in future the agea of Herefords
be calculated to the 1st of July in place of the Ist of December
in each year," was negatived.

Mr. E. B. Bennett's motion, for increasing the prizes
for Welsh and Scotch cattle, waa lost.

Thursday, Dec. 9,
Lord Berne RS in the chair.

The following members were appointed as the Committee
to carry out Mr. Giblett's motion : —

The President J. Ford E. W. Moore

Vice-Presidents R. Morgan

Trustees W. F. Hobbs Josh. Druce

Steward.s — H. Brandreth Chas. Barnett

W. Torr Wm. Sanday J. Clayden

J. Quartley J. S. Turner 0. Wallis

H. Smith J. B. Simonds R. Garrett, sen.

Jonas Webb R. Milward J. Giblett

H. Waters A. Ransome Brandreth Gibbs.

THE DINNER

Took place on Wednesday, at the Freemason's Tavern.
The attendance was smaller than usual ; not much
exceeding ninety. His Grace the Duke of Richmond,
the President, occupied the chair ; supported by Lord
Berners, Mr. C. J. Towers, (now Father of the Club),
Mr. C. Barnett, Mr. R. Milward, Alderman Mechi,
Mr. Henry Wilson, Mr. R. Westbrook Baker, Mr. H.
Brandreth, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs (Hon. Sec), Mr. W.
F. Hobbs, Mr. G. P. Tuxford, Mr. H. Corbet, Pro-
fessor Simonds, Mr. Sanday, Mr. Torr, Mr. W. Quartly,
Mr. Jonas Webb, Mr. John Hudson, Mr. Druce, Mr.
B. E. Barnett, Mr. Stratton, Mr. J. W. Brown, Mr.
Wilmore, Mr. Watts, &c., &c.

The cloth having been removed,

The Chairman had to inform the members of
the Club that Her Majesty deeply regretted that it
was not in her power to visit the Show-yard this year.
He thought they would all agree with him, that they had
every reason to be deeply thankful to Almighty God for
having placed on the throne of this country such u lady
as Queen Victoria (cheers). They must be well aware
that in her exalted station she had ever shown the most
anxious desire to promote the welfare of all classes of
her subjects ; that in private society she had been a
bright example to all. They had not forgot the sym-
pathy which she manifested for our soldiers and sailors,
in the late war (Hear, hear) ; and he believed he spoke
the opinion of the great body of the agriculturists of
this country — ay, and of all other classes of society —
when he expressed a hope that Her Majesty might long
reign over a moral and a religious people, and enjoy
every blessing which this world could bestow. He
would now give — " The Queen."

The toast having been most loyally responded to.

The Chairman next proposed " The Prince Consort,
the Prince of Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family."
He said His Royal Highness the Prince Consort visited

the Show, yard on Saturday, in consequence of the
favour which was granted by the Club to the President,
of allowing Her Majesty, the Prince Consort, and any
members of the Royal Family to visit the Show, either
before or during the period when the judges were
present. The Prince Consort spent a good deal of time
in going round the yard, and was very much pleased.
And he (the Chairman) thought his Royal Highness
would have been still more pleased if he had waited till
that day, and seen his own Devon, which, he must say,
was a very creditable specimen of his Royal Highness's
breeding. The Prince Consort had always evinced the
warmest interest in the proceedings of that Club, and
had been a constant visitor to the yard ; and they were
much indebted to him for the support he had rendered
them. The Prince of Wales had entered the army, and
Prince Alfred the navy. He was himself delighted at
that, because he did think that those who were hereafter
to be at the top of the tree — if he might use such an ex-
pression—in this country, should see a little of the
hardships of service. Prince Alfred would no doubt
find it very good fun to be a midshipman on a fine day ;
but he would probably have to encounter some rather
rough storms before he returned home. What had been
done showed, at all events, that Her Majesty was anxious
to devote her children to the service of their country;
and, on that ground alone, it must meet with the appro-
bation of the farmers of Great Britain.

After a fitting response had been given to this toast,
the company drank that of " The Army and Navy."

The Chairman then proposed "Success to the
Smithfield Club." He said he could not help congra-
tulating the members of the club on the very flourishing
state of its finances. They gave away something like
£"1,000 a year in premiums, the whole of which came,
of course, out of their annual income; and yet at the
end of the year they had money in hand. Those whom
he addressed could judge quite as well as he could whether
the present show was a successful one. An enormous
number of visitors now attended their annual exhibitions.
Many of them came from various places in Great Britain
and Ireland, while others were from distant countries ; and
they there saw what the intelligence, perseverance, and
skill of the farmers of England could do to ameliorate the
stock of the country. He believed the present show was a
very creditable one. There was, perhaps, an absence of
such very large animals as were seen in former years —
animals which were patched, as it were, with fat in various
places — but, speaking generally, he might say that great
attention had been paid to sy-mmetry, which was, after all,
one of the most important points in selecting an animal for
fatting (Hear, hear). The example of the Smithfield Club
had been very advantageous. \Mth the aid of other agri-
cultural bodies, that society had induced farmers in every
part of Great Britain and Ireland to pay more attention to
their stock than they formerly did ; and he would put it to
any grazier present — he would put it to any man who had
anything at all to do with the pursuits in which they were
engaged — whether, if a good animal would not pay suffi-
ciently, there was the slightest chance of remuneration
from a bad one.' (Hear, hear.) If he wanted further
proof of the great benefits conferred by the society, he might
point to the fact that they had extended to many of her
Majesty's colonial possessions ; and he hoped that it would
continue to prosper. If many of those present were un-
successful competitors in the present show, let them not be
down-hearted on that account, but let them persevere in
their efforts (Hear, hear). He was happy to observe that
day, in the list of successful competitors for gold medals,
the names of gentlemen to whom he had never had the
honour of presenting gold medals before. Let it not be
supposed, however, for a moment, that he thought the
young competitors ought to get all the premiums (laughter).
He thought that an old staler like himself might be allowed
occasionally to get some of the best premiums — that is, if
he, as an old hand, could send to the show sheep that were
better than those which some of the young ones sent

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

63

(laughter). He would now ask them to drink "Success to
the Club ;" and so long as it was maintained as it was at
present, so long as it was supported by the tenant-farmers
of the country, so long, no doubt, it would continue to be
successful. He wished it success, not only because he was,
as they all knew, a warm fi-iend to the agricultural interest
(cheers), but also because he believed in hia conscience
that by promoting agriculture they were doing what was
best for every class of their fellow-subjects (cheers).

The toast was drunk with great enthusiasm.

The Chairman then presented the Society's gold medal
to Mr. Stratton, as the exhibitor of the best steer in any of
the classes, after which he proposed, and the company
drank, that gentleman's health.

Mr. Stratton, in returning thanks, said : the animal for
which he had obtained the gold medal was the best that
he had ever had; but he would endeavour to exhibit a
better another year, feeling as he did that they ought never
to imagine that they had attained perfection. There was a
time when he could not win any prize ; but by coming to
the shows, and comparing his own animals with those of
others, he had learned where the imperfections lay ; and
he had corrected them as well as he could.

The Chairman then presented to Mr. J. W. Brown the
gold medal for the best heifer or cow in any of the classes.

This gentleman's health having been subsequently drunk,

Mr. Bro\vn said that was the first gold medal he had
had the pleasure and satisfaction of receiving, and no doubt
hia success would encourage others to persevere as he had
done. There were several things essential to success. They
must look out for good animals to begin with. He hap-
pened to live in a neighbourhood where there were great
advantages in that respect. He resided in the same locality
as Mr. Stratton, and he had not failed to avail himself of
the facilities which were thus afforded to him for making
improvements in his stock.

Lord Berners, in presenting to the Noble Duke in the
chair the gold medal for the best pen of short-wools of all
classes, observed that they all knew that his Grace did his
best to fulfil any promise which he had made. Two or three
years before he said that, although Mr. Rigden was the
winner of the first prize in this department on that occa-
sion, they might rely upon it that he would do his best to beat
him hereafter. Like a good soldier, he had done his duty
by redeeming that promise, and he (Lord Berners) had
now the pleasure of proposing his health as the winner of
the gold medal. (Cheers). He had also to propose his
noble Lordship's health in another capacity — namely, that
of Chairman, (flene wed cheers). He well knew that that
toast would be received with the enthusiasm with which
his Grace's name was always received, whether among the
farmers of England or the farmers of Scotland ; for in no
place did the name of the Duke of Richmond fail to evoke
a feeling of enthusiasm. (Cheers). He now proposed that
the health of his Grace should be drunk with all the
honours ; and he knew he expressed the feeling of all present
when he said they were gratified at hia being able to preside
that day, and fervently hoped that he would long be spared
to preside over a club to which he had done so much good.
(Loud cheers).

The toast was drunk with three times three.

The Chairman, who on rising was greeted with
reiterated cheers, said, he could not plead that that was the
first time that he had risen to return thanks at a great agri-
cultural meeting for the enthusiastic manner in which he
had been received. He had for some years been anxious
for the improvement of agriculture, and he had never neg-
lected an opportunity that was presented to him of meeting
the tenant-farmers of the country ; and he had often
remarked on those occasions, and at other agricultural
gatherings, that he thought the landowner who did not take
every opportunity of meeting the tenantry lost one of the

freatest pleasures a landlord could have. (Cheers). He
ad attended, perhaps, some hundreds of dinners ;
he had also attended many other meetings to which
he could not now allude, and which had other
objects than that of passing a pleasant evening, and he
could declare that on no occasion had he ever been received
otherwise than with marks of esteem, regard, and affection
from every farmer with whom he had the good fortune to be

associated (cheers). He should, therefore, be ungrateful in-
deed if he did not endeavour to express his desire long to con-
tinue to meet them. But there were circumstances which no
man covdd prevent. Last year was, he believed, almost the
first year in which he had not been present at the annual
dinner, and the cause of his absence was that he felt it to be
a paramount duty to remain with the militia regiment which
he commanded, and which was embodied only for a few days
(Hear, hear). He felt that his presence was necessary, to pre-
vent men from getting into scrapes, which some young men
would do (laughter). He was early taught that duty was to
be first, pleasure second (Hear, hear). Hia duty last year was
to be at Dover, his pleasure would have been to meet them
(cheers). He thanked the club for having re-elected him as
President. He was proud of it (cheers). He was proud to
have an opportunity on occasions like that of making new ac-
quaintances among the members of the club ; and at the same
time, looking around, he was gratified to see so many of his
old friends present that evening. So long as Providence
should give him health and strength, he would always en-
deavour to meet them ; and in the meantime, though he
could not express his feelings, he hoped they would all believe
that one feature of his character was, that he was not an un-
grateful man (cheers).

The Chairman then presented the Gold Medal to Mr.
George Beale for the best pen of pigs in any of the classes ;
after which that gentleman's health was drunk, and he bnefly
returned thanks.

Mr. C. Barnett proposed "The Health of the Vice-
Presidents and Trustees," He said, on all such occasions as
that, it was their duty to acknowledge their obligations to
such as filled those positions ; but he regretted that his
feeling in proposing this toast waa not one of unmixed satis-
faciiou. There were many absent whom he could wish to see
there; and although he was aware of the value of their ser-
vices, and although he knew that they wished prosperity to
the society, he wished they would, by their presence, support
to a greater degree the object which he knew they had at
heart in accepting their offices. In proposing, however, the
health of the Vice-Presidents and Trustees of the society, he
was happy to able to connect with that toast the name of hia
noble lord on his left. Lord Berners (cheers). They were all
aware that no man connected with that Club, or with any
agricultural society in England, had worked harder, or with a
niore horieat heart, to carry out the objects which they all had
in view. With such a noble Lord as that for a Vice-President,
and with the Vice-Presidents and Trustees all of whom he
was sorry not to see on that occasion, to co-operate with him,
he was quite certain that that Club would remain permanently
successful (cheers). He had also full confidence that as vacan-
cies arose in the various offices men of the right stamp would
be found to fill them.

The toast having been drunk with the honours.

Lord Berners, in the name of the other vice-presi-
dents and the trustees begged to return cordial thanks for
the honour which had been done them. He sympathized
in the regret of Mr. Barnett that he was the only vice-presi-
dent present on that occasion. He regretted it especially,
because he was aware that many of his colleagues would have
returned thanks in a far better manner than he could, though
he was sure none of them desired more heartily to promote the
interests of the club (cheers). He might, perhaps, be allowed
to congratulate them on the state of their finances and the
general prosperity of the club, a topic which had been already
alluded to by their noble president, the Duke of Richmond.
He believed that waa almost the only club of the kind in ex-
istence which, instead of having anything to pay for the occu-
pation of its showyard, received from that source a large sum
of money. They obtained, he believed, £700 a-year for the
privilege of holding their show in Baker-street. Many of them
must recollect how they outgrew, as it were, the premises in
Goswell-street. It was now very evident that they had in a
similar manner outgrown the premises in Baker-street ; and
he thought that fact alone proved that under the presidency
of the Duke of Richmond the club had prospered to an unpre-
cedented extent, and was conferring the greatest possible
benefit upon the country. He would now take that oppor-
tunity of mentioning that there was a motion on the minutes
of the club to the effect that a committee had been appointed
to search for a larger and more commodious place of exhibition,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

a step which was required by the enormous and increasing
numler of cattle that were shown, the immense increase m the
implements, and the vast uumberj of people that no* attended
the show. He did not take up any of their time in enforcing the
necessity for this, as no one could have gone into the show-
yard that day, and especially into the department for imple-
ments, without finding it almost impossible to proceed from
one place to another, or to inspect the stock or the machinery
in a satisfactory manner. Tr.ere was a contract with Mr.
Boulnois which would last for three years ; but he trusted
that the committee would be able to deal with the question in
a satisfactory manner, and that something would be done that
would be worthy of the great bhow which was exhibited to
London and the country at large (cheers). It now became his
duty to propose as a toast " The unsuccessful candi.lates."
He' trusted that such persons would not be disappointed.
They had before them the example of a man who, never having
bceu successful before, had on that occasion obtained the
highest premium in his class ; and he trusted that the motto
of British farmers would always be "Persevtre." Thanking
them on behalf of the vice-presidents and trusties, he now pro-
posed "The unsuccessful candidates, coupled with the name of
Mr. Fisher Hobbs."
The toast having been drunk,

Mr. W. F. Hobbs said, although he had attended the an-
nual dinners of the Smithfield Club for nearly a quarter of a
century he had never before been placed in the position of
beiug called upon to return thanks for the unsuccessful candi-
dates. For that honour he had to thank his friend on the left,
the Hon. Secretary, who, with his usual diligence, had reported
him as one of those who were unsuccessful (laughter), and,
standing in that position, he could only say that he would take
the advice given by the noble duke, and persevere. He had
certainly exhibited animals this year which did not come up to
the mark. They were indeed well-bred animals, but their
feeding was not such as to justify him in expecting a gold
medal. He hoped that in future years he should stand in a
more honourable position (Hear, hear). The selection of
judges in that society was a most responsible duty, and he
believed that for many years past the stewards had fulfilled
that duty in the best manner. He was perfectly satisfied with
the decision of the judges on this occasion, and he thought
every other exhibitor ouf;ht to be so too. The stewards of
the club had selected as judges men of great experience, of
uprightness, and of sound judgment, and he had great pleasure
in proposing the health of the judges.

Mr. Watts, in returning thanks, said : they were all well
award of the delicate ground those had to tread upon who
acted iu the capacity of judges, especially in days when so
many exhihitcra were apt to muke up their minds what prizes
their animals ought to receive before they got into the com-
pany of their rivals. He assured them that there was not an
animal that was passed over by the judges hurriedly, and he
trusted that their decision gave satisfaction to all present.

Mr. MiLWARD, in proposing the health of the Stewards
of the Club, had not, like Mr. Barnett, to apologize for the
absence of many of those to whom the toast related. Having
been a steward himself some years ago, he could testify that
those who filled that office had something to do; and what
had just fallen from one of the unsuccessful candidates tended
to show that they fulfilled their most responsible duty of se-
lecting judges in a proper manner. He now proposed the
toast of "The Stewards,", coupling with it the name of Mr.
Sanday.

Mr. Sanday, as one of the retiring stewards, said, the duty
had devolved upon him of returning thanks. He could assure
them that during the time that he had held office the stewards
had performed their duties to the best of their ability, an J, he
might add, with pleasure to themselves. He thought the mem-
bers of the Club might fairly congratulate each other on the
present Show. Were it not for their very excellent secretary,
the office of steward would be much more irduous than it wa?.
To that gentleman they were all very much indebted, and he
believed his services were generally appreciated (cheers)

Mr. ToRR proposed — "The Health of the Honorary Secre-
tary, Mr. Gibbs," and, after bearing testimony to the admira-
ble manner in which that gentleman performed his official
duties, said he was sure the committee which had just been
appointed to look out for a more Buitable place for the show
■would receive the most useful assistance from the Secretary.

Mr. Gibbs should feel ashamed of appeflring before them
year after year if he did not recollect that the health of
executive officers was proposed *ith a twc-fold object : first,
that of expressing approval of any services which might
have been rendered; and, secondly, that of affording them
an opportunity of briugirg before the members any subject
which might appear interesting. It was, no doubt, with this view
that the health of the judges and that of the stewards
were proposed, and he supposed the same remark applied to his
own case. He should, therefore, avail himself of that oppor-
tunity of making two or tiiree observations. In former years
these had usually been of a general charecter, and had
related mainly to the objects and position of the Club. Obser-
vations of that character had been made on that occasion by
his Grace, and therefore he should content himself with al-
luding to one or two of the subjects which had most
recently engaged the attention of the committee. He
did not presume to think that he could throw any new
light on these subjects, so far as the officers were concerned ;
but as the majority of those present were not in the position
of ofiicers, one or two words might not be considered out of
place (Hear, hear). They were aware of the great increase
which had taken place in the show, from time to time, and
that at the meeting held on the previous day it was, in conse-
quence of that increase, detetermined that there should be
three additional judges. This addition would, he believed,
afford great facilities for getting through the task of making
the awards ; and it would be satisfactory to the judges, mas-
much as they would have more time to examine the animals.
It would also tend to lighten the labours of the stewards m
selecting judges, because it would be easier to find gentlemen
who would undertake the duties when they were more distri-
buted. Some new rules had been made, having reference to
the ages of pigs, That might appear an unimportant subject,
but he assured them that hitherto it had been one of the
most difficult matters with which the stewards had to deal
(Hear, hear). Often had they been kept prisoners, he
might say, for several days, in consequence of having to
inv'estigate difficult cases. It had now been determined, how-
ever, that in all cases in which dentition indicated that the
animals were over-age, they should be disqualified. It was
satisfactory to know that through the laborious investigations
of his friend. Professor Simonds, dentition had now been re-
duced to such a perfect science that there could .be very little
difficulty iu arriving at correct conclusions. He (Mr. Gibba)
knew perfectly well that some years ago the pig exhibition
was far less satisfactory than it was at present. Formerly one
might have fancied that some of the exhibitors had taken a
lesson out of Capt. Marryat's " Midshipman Easy," where a
negro was represented as acting as if he thought the chief
thing he ought to pay attention to was the filing of his teeth
(Laughter). He did not mean that this was the case with re-
gard to the black breeds alone : he feared that what he said
was true of both black and white. The next subject which
he had to mention was one which all would acknowledge to
be of the greatest importance; he referred to the appoint-
ment of a committee to look for a more suitable building for
the holding of the shows. No one who had traced the his-
tory of the Smithfield Club from its origin, or who bad been
acquainted with it even for the last few years, could doubt
that the most important step that the Club ever took was
the removal from Gosweli-streettothe present premises, and
he believed that any future removal which might take place
would have a most important effect eitherfor goodorevil. He
would not on that occasion go through the different argu-
ments that might be used, or compare the merits of different
sites which might be offered. It might be asked why, then,
he alluded to the subject at all.;^ He had an object m
doing so. He believed that " in the multitude of counsel-
lors there is wisdom," and he would therefore ask each of
them to give his mind, when he returned home, to the con-
sideration of the subject, and if any suggestions shou d
occur to any of them, he should be very glad if they would
communicate them to him, in order that he might lay them
before the committee (Hear, hear.) Whatever might be
the result, he could only say that, whilst he fully acknow-
ledged the great benefits they had derived from the removal
to JBaker-street, whilst he fully appreciated the vast improve-
ments which Mr. Boulnois had from time to time made m
the present show-yard, and whilst he also admitted that

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

gentleman's readiness on all occasions to do everything in his
power to meet the requirements of the Club, no one would
be more delighted than he (Mr. Gibbs) would be if they
could obtain some building commensurate with the import-
ance of the show (Cheers.)

f 1^'' Jof^s Webb proposed the health of Mr. Tower, the
lather ot the Club— a toast which met with a fitting response
irom the company.

Mr. Tower said he was one of the few surviving mem-
bers who formed the society at the beginning of the present
century, and he had been a constant member from that
period down to the present time. He had been a member
under circumstances far different from the present. The
Club began under the auspices of some of the most illus-
trious men that the country could boast of at that period ;
but it was the misfortune of the Club to wane when agricul-
ture became depressed; and after John, Duke of Bedford,
had bestowed upon it a noble patronage for several years
he unfortunately shared in the impression which then pre-
vailed, that it had done all that it could do in providing the
production of fat stock for the supply of the London
market. But there were a happy few who, first under
bir .John Sinclair, and afterwards under Sir John
Sebright, maintained that the Club was still necessary, who
thought that agriculture was as yet only in its infancy,
and that they ought not to abandon the Club, but to perse-
vere. Happily he was one of the few who took that view,
and he thanked God that he had been pleased to prolong
his life to that daj', to be, as it were, a livicg record of the
noble conduct of those who had departed. The Club was
at one time above £1,000 in debt, a considerable part of
which was paid off by the Duke of Bedford ; and by a record
with which Mr. Gibbs had kindly furnished them within
the last twelvemonth, he was reminded of the fact that he
himself dined, not in that room, but in a much smaller
room in that house, with Sir John Sebright and a very few
others, who were regarded at the time as the last remains
of the Club sticking to the last plank of the ship (cheers).
Ultimately, however, the Club was taken up by their ex-

65

cellent friend Earl Spencer, who became the President
J^rom that moment it began to flourish. With such a Pre-
sident, indeed, it could hardly do otherwise than flourish
Under Earl Spencer, and under the noble Duke in the
chair, the number of members continued gradually to in-
crease, and he had come to that room when he was unable
to get a seat at the dinner table, and had in consequence
been obliged to sound a retreat. Not only had the Club
Itself succeeded, but it had called into existence a number
ot similar societies scattered over all parts of Great Britain
—societies which, like the parent one, had not only led to
the production of the finest stock, but had also called forth
a wonderful expansion of the mechanical powers for the
development of agriculture, steam itself having at last been
added to the list of inventions ; and thus had the proceed-
ings ot the Society proved beneficial to the agriculture, not
only of this country, but of the world (cheers).

Mr. H. Wilson proposed— "The Butchers." He con-
gratulated the company on the remarkable address they
had just heard from one of the founders of the Society— a
gentleman of four-score years of age— observing that it was
in entire accordance with the advice which had been given
to farmers by the noble Duke in the chair. He (Mr Wil-
son ) considered " the Butcher" to represent at their meet-
ing that important personage " the Consumer," and he was

^A^r^ 1,7/'""^*^^' S'""^ ^° ^'^^ s"'^'^ gentlemen. For his
(Mr. Wilson s) own part he was especially so, as he had a
pen of pigs in the Show which "the Judges" had unac-
countably passed over, but that he would take this oppor-
tunity of recommending to the best attention of "the
Butchers" (Laughter).
Mr. Scarlett returned thanks.

Mr. Westbrook Baker gave "The Agricultural
Labourer, and the company separated at an early hour.

The speeches were interspersed with the performance of
songs, glees, and duets, the musical arrangements being
under the direction of Mr. Genge, who was ably assisted
by Miss Eyles, Miss J. Wells, Mr. Holmes, and Mr. Rans-
lord.

THE METROPOLITAN GREAT CHRISTMAS CATTLE MARKET.

Monday, December 13.— The holding of the great
Christmas cattle market is an event invariably reo-arded
in the light of no ordinary importance, and the^result
of the great day on the present occasion has fully
answered the most sanguine expectations, not only of
the public, but likewise of the owners of the stock, the
former having had an opportunity of witnessing a won-
derfully fine collection of animals, and the latter have
realized prices which, on the whole, may be considered
remunerative. At an early hour in the morning the
stock was arranged for sale without inconvenience", and
visitors began to arrive from nearly every part of the
United Kingdom, as well as from the continent, and
who expressed their admiration at the beasts and sheep
offered for sale. The progress of breeding and feeding
in these islands may well stand high in the estimation
of foreigners, when it is considered with what compara-
tive ease our enormous consumption is met by the
agricultural body. The question generally asked by
them to-day has been, " How are these things so well
managed in England ?" It would be out of place here
to enter minutely into that question ; hence we content
ourselves with observing that the wants of the consumers
are provided for by a judicious outlay of capital, and
the aid of the most scientific principles of breeding and
feeding. But when we compare the present great show
with many previous years, what an important chance
do we observe- in the bullock supply ! In years gone
by, we have been accustomed to witness the greater
portion of the show composed of pure Devons, Here-
ords, Scots, and Shorthorns; but on the present

occasion, the supply of the latter breed was considerably
in excess of all former periods, both as regards number,
weight, and condition. Again, amongst the Scots fed
in Norfolk and Scotland, we observed unmistakable
signs of crossing with the Shorthorns, and in several
other breeds the Shorthorned blood was fully apparent.
But it may be said that many of the Scots were of a
pure colour. Doubtless they were, and this very
circumstance may have induced many experienced
pc rsons to repudiate the idea of crosses ; in point of fact,
the purity of the original colour may be regarded in
the light of an important secret in the production of
Scots of great weight. Now it is well known that Scots,
as a breed, are aji7ie race of stock— smallness of bone
and moderate weights being their leading characteris-
tics ; but this morning we handled more than 300 of
them which averaged 220 stones each ! We have no-
thing whatever to urge against the quality of these ani-
mals—wh'cb, in every respect, were in the finest pos-
sible condition— but this may be regarded as a stroog
proof of crossing with larger stock. We make these
remarks without disparagement to the Devons or Here-
fords ; our task being to note down changes as they
occur; and this change leads us to the inference that
the time appears to have arrived when it is found
necessary to produce a more bulky description of
bullock to keep pace with increasing consumption.
Hitherto the efforts in this respect have been highly
successful; but it occurs that, eventually, the present
system will have the effect of producing a wide margin
of difference between the value of Scots weighing from

60

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

90 to 110 stones aud larger breeds, because we must
bear in mind tliat every grazier cannot command suc-
cess in entering upon a system which may be new to
him. However, as we have remarked above, although
there were fewer really pure animals shown here to-day
compared with many corresponding periods, the
large feeders appear to have met with an amount of
success both gratifying and important ; consequently
it will, no doubt, be followed by a further extension of
the system.

Taking the supply of Beasts in the aggregate, we
should say that as great a weight of meat was brought
forward as in 1857 ; and we may further observe that
thei'e was a peculiar evenness in the stock — a feature
of no ordinary importance to the breeders. This even-
ness shows that even extensive crossing has not had a
prfjudicial eflect upon either the frame or the con-
dition of the Beasts, although we may admit that the
quantity of fat has increased. This perhaps, may, not be
the case with those grazed in some of the northern and
midland counties, owing to the universal dryness of the
past season, and the comparative scarcity of food.
Notwithstanding this scarcity, the Shorthorns came
to hand in prime condition, and their enormous
bulk certainly excited no little surprise. Next
in order we may take the Hereford?, the
owners of which have not, for the most part, had
to contend with an absolute scarcity of food. This
important breed, then, was, if anything, superior to last
season in every respect, although some of the Beasts had
evidently been crossed. Their age was a full average
one, and they shewed no signs of rapid or over-feeding.
We now come to the Devons. Smallness of bone and
medium weights were their leading features; as such,
they stood high in the estimation of those who cater for
the West-end, consequently rea'ized high prices. The
show of Scots was a magnificent one, and not a few of
that splendid breed were as heavy as some of their more
stately neighbours. From Sussex, the arrivals were in
excess both of 1856 and 1857, and not a few of the
Oxen were seven and even eight years old. There were
very few Welsh runts on offer, and this breed is evidently
falling off in number. A few of the Heifers from
Ireland were in good order ; but the supply in this
respect was not what may be termed a fine one. As
might be expected, very few foreign Beasts were brought
forward, and their condition was very middling. A few
Longhorns and several mixed breeds were on sale, but
they afford no scope for comment.

The following return shows the number of beasts ex-
hibited, and the prices obtained for them, on the great
days in the last eighteen years :

Year. Beasts Shown. Prices.

s, d. s. d.

1840 .... 3,528 4 4 to 5 8

1841 4,509 3 8 5 0

1812 .... 4,541 3 4 4 8

1843 .... 4.510 2 8 4 4

1844 .... 5,713 4 0 4 6

1845 .... 5,326 3 6 4 8

1846 .... 5,470 ...... 4 0 5 8

1847 .... 4,282 3 4 4 8

1848 5,942 3 4 4 8

1849 .... 5,765 3 4 4 6

1850 6,341 3 0 3 10

1851 .... 6,103 2 8 4 2

1852 .... 6,271 2 8 4 0

1853 .... 7.037 3 2 4 10

1854 .... 6,181 3 6 5 4

1855 .... 7,000 3 8 4 2

1856 .... 6,748 3 4 5 0

1857 .... 6,856 3 4 4 8

The total imports of foreign stock into London last
wejk amounted to 4,323 head. In the corresponding

week in 1857 we received l,773j in 1856, 1,622; in
1855, 4,752 ; in 1854, 3,999 ; in 1853, 6,316 ; and in
1852, 4,436 head.

IMPORTS INTO LONDON LAST WEEK.

LAMBS. CALVES. PIOS
— 208 —

FEOM WHENCE, BEASTS. SHEEP,

Rotterdam..,. 163 1603

Harabro' — 68

Harlingen .... 91 425

Medemblik .. 56 1635

Ostend — 50

12 3

3 —

6 —

Total 310 3781 — 229 3

The yearly comparison of weekly imports is as follows :

BEAST8.

SHEEP.

LAMBS.

CALVES.

PIGS.

1857..

259

1361

—

15d

1856..

499

919

204

1855,.

859

3555

238

1854..

. 1130

2593

269

7

1853..

. 1136

4693

462

20

1852..

235

3782

—

419

—

STATE OF THE TRADE.

The attendance of both town and country butchers
was very large, and, notwithstanding the unfavourable
change in the weather, there was a fair, but by no means
active, demand for all good and prime Beasts, at fully
last Monday's currency. The general top figure for
Scots was 5s., but a few very superior animals realized
5s. 2d. per 81bs. ; inferior Beasts were a dull sale, but
not cheaper.

The supplies from Herefordshire, Devonshire, So-
mersetshire, and Warwickshire amounted to 2,300 :
from Lincolnshire and other adjacent counties, 1,500 ;
from Norfolk, 420 ; from other parts of England, 950;
from Scotland, 700 : and from Ireland, 400 head.

On the stand of Mr. Robert Morgan there was a re-
markably fine show of Beasts from various counties.
The stock from Scotland comprised some wonderful
animals, fed by Messrs. Peter Milne, Mitchell, Coo-
per, Tate, Kidd, and Stodart ; from Norfolk, Beasts
bred by Messrs. Robert Gillett, Leeds, Abbott, Feltow,
Freeman, and Hayne. From the midland counties the
supply was large, and it comprised stock forwarded by
Messrs. Allday, Hewson, and Bird. The Prince Con-
sort, also, sent some stock to Mr. Morgan's stand ;
likewise Mr. Joseph Raddock, of Berwick-on-Tweed.

Mr. D, Maidwell offered for sale 20 very fine Scots
belonging to Mr. MacCombie, of Tillyfour, N. B. ; some
prime animals, the property of Mr. J. Reed, of Aber-
deenshire, and of Mr, Sherringham, of Sculthorpe,
Norfolk.

Mr. Thomas Burrell showed 10 very fine Herefords
belonging to Lord Darnley, and 20 Sussex Oxen fed by
Mr. C. Burrell, of Walthamstow.

Mr. Thomas Duckwood had 20 very prime Scots, the
property of Mr. G. Hay, of Aberdeen; likewise, some
fine beasts forwarded by Mr. Heath, of Ludham Hall,
Norfolk.

Mr. Giblett exhibited some very prime stock, the
property of Messrs. Stewart, Martin, Knowles, and
Mennie, of Aberdeen.

Mr. Underwood had a fine collection of animals fed
by Mr. Curtis, of Landport, Northamptonshire.

Messrs. Brooker and Son had 27 wonderful Sussex
Beasts, and various other prime lots from that county,
including some Oxen sent by General Ellice.

Mr. Lamb exhibited very prime Scots and short-
horns— the former being forwarded by Mr. Posteli,
the latter by Mr. Waters, of Norfolk. Some of the
Cattle were of great weight.

Mr. Collin=? exhil)ited prime stock belonging to Mr.
Whitworth and Mr. E. Groves, of Newport Pagnell ;
W. Beardsly, Esq., of Leicestersbire ; Mr. R. Thomas,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

67

Shrewsbury ; John Hudson, Esq., of Castleacre ; Mr.
Overman, of Norfolk ; and Mr. Mardeu, Aberdeenshire.

Mr. VVm. Vorley had stock of very fine quality for-
warded by Mr. Ilutcheson, of Aberdeen; also by Mr.
George Philip, of Inverary, and Mr. Yorke, of Thorp-
stone.

Mr. Thomas Dixon had some fine breeds belongino-
to the Marquis of E.^etcr, Messrs. Little, Walsham",
Taylor (Long Sutton), Shelton, Marshall (Aylesburv),
and Mr. J. Rippln.

Mr. Senior, of Broughton House, near Aylesbury,
had on offer 40 very prime Devons.

The above comprised the leading and best portions
of the supply of Beasts.

There was a full average supply of Sheep for the time
of year, and their general quality was good. Prime
Downs and half.breds moved off steadily at full quo-
tations, the top figure being 5s. per 81bs., whilst most
other breeds may be considered steady, on former terms.

Messrs. Weale showed 20 very prime Downs, belong-
ing to R. Oakley, Esq., of Luton ; 10 from Mr. White,
of Rickraansworth ; 50 from Mr. W. Bates, of Harpen-
den; 80 Gloucesters from R. Rowlands, Esq., of Cres-
low, and various lots from Bedfordshire and Berkshire.
Mr. Gurrier had a fine collection of Cotswolds, together
with some fine Sheep sent by Lord Radnor and Sir R.
Throckmorton. Some of the Cotswolds sold at £5 10s.
each.

Some unusually prime Downs were sold by Mr. Lin-
tott, the property of His Grace the Duke of Richmond,
and of Mr. Sanders, of Watercomb, Dorset.

Mr. Lathbury exhibited Hampshire Downs of great
weight, bred by Mr. King, of New Hayward, Hereford,
and Mr. Humphrey, of Chaddleworth, Berks. Mr. W,
Collins had a very good supply of Sheep.

The were seven West Country Downs, of splendid

weight, disposed of by Messrs. Still and Son. They
were fed by A. Darby, Esq., of Stoke, near Windsor.

There were some remarkably fine Down Lambs on sale.

The finest specimens of the Lincolnshire long-woolled
Sheep, direct from that county, were exhibited on the
stands of Messrs R. Eland and Son, Hancock, Wood-
ward, Mawer, and Smith. They numbered about 180,
and were fed by Marshall Heanley, Esq., R. G. Chat-
terton, Esq., Messrs. Byron, Everington, Parker,
Seals, Everard, Wilkinson, and others.

The supply of Calves was good, and the Veal trade
ruled steady, at full prices.

There was a moderate demand for Pigs, at extreme
rates.

A Statement and Comparison op the Supplies and
Prices op Fat Stock exhibited and sold in thh
Great Metropolitan Cattle Market on the
Great Days in 1857 and 1858.

1857. 1858.

Per Slbs.to ainktheoffal. s. d. s. d. «. d. a. d

CoaraeandiuferiorBeasts 3 4 to 3 6 .... 3 4to 3 8

Second quality do 3 8 4 0..., 3 10 4 2

Prime large Oxen. ... ., 42 44.,,. 44 48

Prime Scots, &c.. .... .. 4 6 4 8 .... 4 10 5 0

Goarseandinferior Sheep 32 38.... 34 38

Secoud quality do. .... .. 3 10 4 0 .... 3 10 4 4

Primesoarse-woolleddo, . 4 2 4 10 .... 4 4 4 6

Prime Southdown do., .. 50 54,, .,48 50

Large coarse Calves .... 4 4 5 0.,,.3 8 4 4

Primesmalldo... .. ,. .. 52 56.... 46 50

LargeHoga ,.. 4 0 4 6 .. ., 2 10 3 4

NeatamallPorkers... ., 48 52.... 36 42

Supplies on Sale Dec. 14, 1857. Dec. 13, 1858.

Beasts 6,856 6,424

Sheep , 18,450 23,200

Calves..... ., 69 115

Piga 330 380

THE SMITHFIELD SHOW WEEK.

You may generally trace the changes in a man's
fortunes from his change of habitation. The biogi-a-
pher is especially fond of noting such land-marks in
the history of his hero, whether it be from the humble
cottage of future greatness, or to " the worst Inn's
worst room" of fallen splendour. Let us at such a
season follow out the more pleasing picture of the two.
Let us take the industrious apprentice who has begun
life by bringing his Bessy home to quiet lodgings. But
the family soon increases, his means rise with it, and
in a few years they have far more comfortable quarters.
They are good tenants, too, and the landlord does all
he can to keep them— builds out a drawing-room,
enlarges the offices, and adds every improvement that
the premises are capable of. His efforts, however, are
of little avail. The family is large and thriving, and
they have crowds of visitors coming to see them.
Indeed, after the crush of last Christmas, Bessy, now
a buxom matron, will put up with it no longer. They
must have a bigger house, a better place to welcome
their friends, and where they may really enjoy them-
selves. To be sure, buying a mansion in a good part
of town would be very expensive, and building one
even worse. Paterfamilias quickly sees what she is
hinting at, and the suburban villa is eventually decided
upon. A place with plenty of room for their visitors to

stroll about and see everything worth seeing— the fat
pigs, the shorthorn cows, the girls' poultry and pigeons,
and so on. And, when they are tired of these, tliere are
plenty of nicknacks to amuse them in-doors, with, of
course, a good lunch or dinner ready to be served
before they leave for town again.

The Smithfield Club is the industrious appren.
tice, or rather, just now, portly Paterfamilias, in
the very zenith of his prosperity. AVe hear him
often boast, with pardonable pride, how he started
in life with those humble lodgings in Goswell-
street. Then, as he found he could afford it, he re-
moved his people to a far better house in King-street,
Portman-square, where he has been very comfortable,
and where the landlord has certainly done all he could
to make him so. But his family is still increasing; and
as for his friends, it would be quite absurd to attempt
to entertain them here much longer. They can only
push, and jostle, and tread on each other's toes, with-
out hp.lf enjoying the good things he has provided for
then. Something must be done; and he straightway
declares that he is on the look-out for a bigger place.
Many of his acquaintance advise him to build, and have
a house all his own. Our friend, however, is a tole-
rably cautious man, with all his ambition. He has heard
what a costly business building in London really is, and

F 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

f)8

he knows a luau iii the same profession as himself in
Birmingham, who, a few years since, fairly overbuilt
himself, and who could never have gone on without the
assistance of his friends and neighbours. Still he would
like to have at least as good a home as his country-
cousin, and as he wants it for the winter rather than
the summer months, there might surely he something
found to suit him. It is whispered, indeed, there is a
very fine place — quite a Palace in fact — in the neigh-
bourhood of Sydenham, that would be just " the thing''
for him. It is almost empty at the time of year he
■would want it, and has nearly every convenience ready-
made that he would require. Partial as he is to m-?-
chanics, he might have all his machinery admirably
arranged in the house itself, while his -well fed stock
and famous pigs would have ample space provided for
them in the homestead. The people now here have
some little fancy for poultry, and he might well add
this to the other Inducements for his friends to come
down to see him. Then there are capital luncheon and
dining-rooms, a railway running right up to the door,
and as fine a look-out as anyone could wish to have.

It really promises to be a very fine look-out for the
Smithfield Club, if the place could only be taken upon
a fair agreement. At any rate, we would advise Mr.
Giblett's Committee not to pass over too hastily such a
site, merely from its distance from town, which is
actually not now further from London Bridge or Fleet-
gtreet — from Belgravia or Battersea— than the Bazaar
itself. There might not possibly be so large an attend-
ance in the evenings; but with all its concomitant at-
tractions, the Christmas Show at the Crystal Palace
would be sure to draw immensely, especially if the
Poultry Show were associated with it. Moreover, it
would be the very spot upon which to inaugurate a
five-shilling day.

This was, as we have made it, the chief topic of
the week. And no wonder either, for the Bazaar was
more crowded and more inconvenient than ever. In
fact, as Mr. Jonas Webb said at the Farmers' Club
Dinner, if a man wishes to see the Show in anything
like comfort he must become a member of the Smith-
field Club, and so avail himself of the privilege to
spend his two hours at the private view. This oppor-
tunity was offered for the second time on Monday last,
when we found the entries numerically about as good
as ever ; but many of the clashes by no means equal to
the average excellence of the few past seasons. Neither
of the three established breeds— Shorthorns,, Devons,
nor Herefords— were what we have seen them. The
Devons especially were palpably below the promise they
have shown ; and while there were a few fair Herefords,
there was nothing extraordinary amongst them. The
best— Mr, Swinuerton's ox, far from a perfect animal —
was only a middling second in his class at Birmingham.
In the Hereford cows, again, there was often little merit
or no competition. The Shorthorns and the Crosses had
a long way the best of the meeting. In fact, the two
selected, Mr. Stratton's stetr and Mr. Brown's heifer,
were the only gold medal animals in the yard.
They are both by bulls of Mr. Stratton's, the heifer

by Waterloo, and the steer by a bon of Booth's Har-
binger. People have occasionally said, in times past,
Mr. Stratton did not go enough for "blood;" but we
should think they would be satisfied now. A very model
in shape, his steer showed every sign of high In-eeding,
and wc ratlier regret his not being kept on for another
year. There was every promise of his developing into a
really grand beast. The Birmingham awards over the
Durhams wtre anything but confirmed in London,
For instance, Mr. Swinuerton's Gold-medal cow was
beaten here by two that were shown against
her the previous week — Mr. Fletcher's cow,
which stood before her in her own class, and
Mr. Brown's heifer, declared to be superior to either.
We believe, however, there was not a Shorthorn-man
in office at the Midland Counties' Meeting, and
that quality was, accordingly, not stifficiently regarded.
We certainly, so far, go with the Smithfield Club dicta.
A fall report of the merits of the Show will be found in
another part of our paper, and we need not repeat
ourselves here. The sheep and pig entries, however,
made up for any falling ofi" amongst the cattle. The
Yorkshire Leicesters were declared to be the best ever
sent up, and never certainly were there handsomer
sheep than the Duke's Downs, Another resolution of
the Club, passed during the week, is, that pigs found
to be over the age stated shall bo disqualified— a rule
that should surely have been in practice already.
There was one rather remarkable case of this kind in
the present exhibition. The Yorkshire pigs, selected by
the judges for the chief prize, were at first thought to
be over the age stated in the entry — ten months and
five days — and the award was not published in
the official prize-list. But, as it subsequently ap-
peared they were still under the twelve months' limit,
the premium was given them, although under the new
regulation it could not now be so settled. They were
certainly wonderful for their age. At Birmingham
Mr. Simonds decidedly condemned pigs for being " of
"■reater ago than that described in the owner's certi-
ficate."

The other resolutions agreed to will be found in the
report of what passed at the two meetings of Members
on Tuesday and Thursday. Tiie Dinner on the inter-
vening day was not so well attended as of late, nor were
the proceedings marked by anything very novel or
strange. Care must be taken to introduce as much new
blood as possible into the executive, and we may then have
more fresh faces here. The high table again ran in its
well accustomed line of long tried supporters— Lord
Bernei-8, Mr. Barnett, Mr. Milward, Mr. Brandreth,
and Mr. Hobbs, The Farmer^' Club dinner, on the
Tuesday, went off with more spirit. In fact, this
Club is coming to be cited as a bit of an example:
and at the General Meeting of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society on Friday iNIr. Sidney, in a speech
commendable for its moderation of tone, referred to the
Club as an instance of how the farmers themselves
mifht be induced to take an active interest in any pro-
ceedings affecting them. The Society's Report has
more in it than usual, and may be read with advantage.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

69

It anticipated, indeed, iu a great degree, the objections
and suggestions offered.

The very able and unusually lengthy paper read by
Mr. Bond at the Farmers' Club, occupied more than
an hour in reading. Another long evening was. spent
at the Society of Arts over Mr. Halkett's Essay on
Steam Cultivation. Surely, by another year the Agri-
cultural Committee of that august body may have
weight enough to alter the time of meeting to an
open day.

Might we add one word more, and express a hope
that the official prize-list may yet be amended. A
highly-commended cow in one of the classes was thought
by many to be superior to the second prize. Now

every paper will give all due honour to the second
prize ; but scarcely one will name the highly com-
mended, simply because she is not named by the Club.
In a somewhat confused state, at the end of the list
come a lot of commendations — that is, " Highly
commended, 45;" "Commended, 41" — which not
one man in a thousand will care to unravel. It
must not be supposed that our list is a mere copy of
that issued by the Club. We have taken the trouble to
discover and to identify what "45" is, and what "41."
Generally excellent as are the management and ar-
rangements of the meeting, we are the more em-
boldened to press this point upon the attention of those
iu authority.

THE CONSUMPTION OF BUTCHERS' MEAT IN LONDON.

The return of the annual Christmas meeting of the
Smithfield Club Cattle Show, with its prime selection
of fatted animals, naturally enough brings forth with it
suggestions of the aggregate consumption of butchers'
meat in the metropolis. It may, therefore, be useful
and interesting to connect with the records of prizes
and descriptions of superior animals exhibited, the pro-
portion of food they furnish to the millions, and the
statistical details of supply and consumption. Unfor-
tunately our details are not very complete for any such
estimate, because the dead-meat sales have been trench-
ing so largely of late years upon the live stock sales,
that we are much at fault for authentic data for com-
putation. While we have complete returns for a long
series of years of the sal^s of beasts and live stock gene-
nerally in the metropolitan markets, there are no
returns to guide us as to the quantity of dead meat sent
to London and sold in Newgate, Leadenhall, and other
markets.

It cannot fail, however, to be remarked that the sale
of cattle and sheep unslaughtered have by no means
kept pace with the increase of population and wealth in
the metropolis, and with the consequent necessary de-
mand for meat. Let us examine this matter in a sta-
tistical point of view, and compare the figures at decen-
nial periods.

Firstly, then, how has the metropolitan population
progressed ? It stands as follows : —

1821 .,

.. 1,378,947

1831 .

.. 1,054,994

1841 ,

.. 1.948,417

1851 .

.. 2,362,230

1858 .

.. 2,750,000

We assume the population of London at the present
time to be fully two millions and three-quarters, for the
Registrar- General estimates it will reach 3,000,000
before 1863.

Now, what are, next, the returns of cattle sold in the
metropolitan market, at the corresponding periods, to

supply the food consumption of the people of the me-
tropolis ? They have been as follows : —

Year.
1821
1831
1841
1851
1857

Cattle.
129,125
148,168
166,922
229,717
272,843

Sheep.
1,107,230
1,189,010
1,310,220
1,572,400
1,391,960

The returns for 1858 are scarcely yet complete.

Here, then, we have the remarkable fact that the
sale of live cattle has only doubled in the period under
review, while the sheep have scarcely increased at all,
and have kept almost stationary in the last sixteen
years. And yet we know that the condition of the mass
of the people, from the liighest to the lowest classes,
has greatly improved in the thirty or forty years under
review. It is therefore self-evident that the dead meat
must form a much larger proportion of the business
than it formerly did ; and it would be interesting if we
could arrive at a correct estimate of the quantity
brought to Loudon by the different railways.

Among the fluctuations of other large articles of food-
consumption it is remarkable to find how uniform and
steady the supply and sale of live cattle are in the metro-
polls. The annual sale of sheep has stood, with com-
paratively slight variation, at 1,400,000 for the past
twenty years. The cattle sales stool at about 170,000
to 180,000 from 1835 to 1844; but since that period
have gradually crept up to 221,000 m 1847, and
272,000 head f )r the last three years.

There is no doubt the weight of the animals has much
increased of late years as compared with the first period
©four inquiry. In 1830 the average dead weight of the
bullock was about 650 lbs., of the calf 144 lbs,, of the
sheep and lamb 90 lbs., and of the pig 96 lbs., nearly
double the weight of those animals at the close of the
last century. But now we might take, if not as an
average, at least a* fair and ordinary samples, the bul-
lock at 900 lbs., the calf at 150 lbs., the sheep at 90 lbs,,
the lamb at 4.5 11)8., and the pig at 100 lbs.

70

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

A mere estimate of the meat consumption of the me-
tropolis by the quantity of live stock sold, would be a
very erroneous and unsafe criterion ; but it may be
worth while, nevertheless, to compare the present and
past metropolitan consumption by this test. In 1836,
the sales in Smithfield Market would give the follow-
ing proportions : —

Averaste

weight.

lbs.

Cattle 159,907

Sheep and lambs 1,287,070

Pigs 254,672

Calves 22,500

Total weight.

G56
90
96

144

lbs.

104,898,992

115,836,300

24,448,512

3,240.000

Pounds of meat consumed 248,423,804

Now, if wc divide this gross number of pounds by
the population at that period (say 1,800,000), the quo-
tient will be 1381bs. for each person per annum. But
it should be borne in mind that this includes the bones
and offal. If we next take the present supply, and cal-
culate upon similar data, we have the following
figures : —

Cattle solp in 1857.

^"'•■ff Total weight.

weight. "

lbs. lbs.

Beasts 272,843 900 245,558,700

Calves 29,706 150 4,455,900

Sheep 1,391,960 90 125,276,400

Pigs 25,030 160 4,004,800

379,295,800

Dividing this gross amount again by the actual popula-
tion, it gives only a proportionate allowance of 10 libs,
per head. It is thus far quite clear, as was
shown in our columns three or four years ago, that the
carcase trade is fast superseding the live stock sales in
the metropolis. The farmers and stock-breeders have
found out that there is a better demand for the fore-
quarters and offal in the provinces than in London ;
and moreover, that there is a considerable loss in the
expense and trouble of transport of live stock, and the
waste on the animal system, and the uncertain mode of
sale by lu up, as compared with the actual weight of
dead meat.

THE SMITHFIELD CLUB CATTLE SHOW.

Dear Sir, — The annual return of the above festival (for
such I consider it) is an event that cannot fail to interest
every one who has the improvement of agriculture aud the ad-
vancement of the country in material prosperity at heart. This
interest has been greatly heightened and extended since the
ccknowledgmeut of the relationship between the cultivation of
the soil and the physical sciences has been made by men
whose pursuits in other respects might be supposed to be
inimical to those of agriculture, but who now recognise it as
at least eqnal in importance to any of the industrial interests
of the country ; and this consideration has imparted an impe-
tus to the practice of husbandry amongst a class who formerly
had littletodo with the land, except to receive thereat, but who
now take a real and personal share in the profession itself.
It would be lowering to the character of agriculture to say
that it has become fashionable with this class. Their acces-
sion to the cause as practical men has arisen from a principle
far more correct and permanent thaa the mere frivolities of a
passing fancy ; it ia rather instigated by a deep-seated convic-
tion of the vast importance of the subject in a country like
England, where all the different industrial employments of
the people depend in a great measure for their success on the
price and abundance of the first necessaries of life. Tt is to
men of the last generation that we are indebted for this high
and permanent standing that agriculture has taken amongst
the great interests of the country, and which has raised it to
that pitch of excellence we now behold. Gathering around
them men of eminence in science, art, and general intelligence,
they encouraged and promoted those investigations into the
once-mysterious arcana of animal and vegetable life, which are
now bearing such splendid fruits, and the results of which
have been exhibited at Baker-street during the past wesk.

It is satisfactory to see, by the manner ia which the
character of the Smithfield Club Cattle Show is sus-
tained this year, .that the recurrence of a low price of wheat
has not in any degree damped the spirit of the English

farmers, or induced them to relax in the path of improvement
and competition. This is as it should be; for assuredly the
passing cloud under which the agriculturists are now suffering
should produce anything rather than a resolve to relax in their
efforts to carry out the great measures of improvement in
the cultivation of the soil now in progress. Far from any
felling off in the quality of the various animal and vegetable
productions exhibited at the late show, there is, if anything, a
higher degree of perfection in most of the specimens. Amongst
the cattle I thought there were fewer inferior or cross-made
animals than usual. The show of Devons and Shorthorns was
good ; and many of those which were not considered
equal to the prize cattle, did infinite credit to both breeders
and feeders. Indeed, it appeared to me that the several
breeds were, on the whole, quite as well sustained in their
distinctive characteristics this year as last, and that there was
a greater equality of excellence, and consequently less supe-
riority. There were some splendid specimens of Herefords
and Sussex ; but I confess I am not very partial to the long-
homed breeds, probably owing to early associations.

Amongst the sheep, there were some specimens of South-
downs equal to any I ever beheld. Those of the Duke of
Richmond (Nos. "241 and 263) were perfect models, and
displayed as high breeding as I can conceive possible to be
produced. Lord Walsingham, W. Rigden, G. S. Foljambe
and many other of the old exhibitors, fully sustained their
previous character. I missed Overman, of Weasen-
ham, and therefore conclude that, having sold off his
whole stock of Southdowns, he has left the field to other
competitors, being satisfied with the substantial honours he
has heretofore obtained. The stock, however, exhibited by
his relative front Bumham, Mr. How, did ample credit to
the reputation which that farm has enjoyed for more
than half a centurj', under the management of his progeni-
tors, as flockmasters. Of West-country and Hampshire
Downs, I fancied the show was inferior in number, if not in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

71

quality, to tliat of last year. Those, however, exhibited by
Mr, King (•272 and 274) were certainly splendid sheep. Of
the longwoolled breeds there were many meritorious lots, but
the Cots wold did not strike me as equal to those of last \ ear.
Possiblj' the dryness of the season may have had something
to do with the condition of the larger sheep, which require
a more abundant pasture than the Southdowns. In sym-
metry, however, there was no falling off in any of the various
breeds; and this is of far more importance than the condi-
tion of the animals, being a proof that the attention of the
breeders has not relaxed.

Of the pigs I believe there was but one opinion, that they
were quite equal to any previous exhibition. The enormous
disproportion, it is true, between the age and the size and
weight of some of the animals, led some critical farmers to
doubt the truth of the aanouuceraeuts upon the cards. Thus
lot No. 325 states the age of the pigs at 10 mouths and 5
days, whilst the weight was estimated by a butcher, whom I
questioued on the subject, at 25 score each, or 35 stoue lOlbs.
long weight. It is not likely, however, that Lord Berner's
herd should have any motive for deceiving his lordship as to
the age of the pigs, but certainly it appears a marvellous thing
for a pig to gain 3^ stone per month the first ten months of
its existence. Almost as wonderful was lot 333, the three
pigs of which were estimated at 30 score, or 42 st. I21bs.
each, their age being 17 months, which allows 2^ stone per
month. I cannot, however, a»ree in the propriety of thus lay-
ing on /«<, whilst it is manifest the flesh cannot grow in propor-
tion, although I am not exactly of opinion witi\ the Irishman
who fed his pig only every other day in order to have a streak
of fat and a streak of lean alternately, which he considered the
perfection of good pork. If we are to judge of the taste of the
visitors by the attention they paid to particular portions of the
Exhibition, then I should conclude that the show of pigs was
the favourite part of it, for it seemed aimost impossible to get
near some of the lots, so great was the curiosity the grunters
excited ; and great also was the anger, expressed in harsh and
querulous notes, excited by the attempts of the company to
make them exhibit their proportions by rising from the re-
cumbent position in which their swineships seemed so much
to delight.

The show of roots and other vegetable productions was
yery fine. Those sent over by the Royal Irish Agricultural

Society were of enormous size ; some of the cabbages being
almost moD&ters. They could not weigh less than from 35 to
40 lbs. The mangel wurzels, too, were of gigantic propor-
tions ; but Irelaud is par excellence the country of roots, and
1 have kniwn as much as 70 tons of mangels per acre grown
ia the neighbourhood of Dublin. Mr. Smith exhibited some
very hrge specimens, the result of his steam-ploughing (as he
avers), which enabled him to stir the land to a depth not
attainable by any common plough. There were some fine
specimens of the Scrgho plant grown by Mr. J. W. Clark, of
Whittleaea. The produce of his crop he estimated at 120
tons per acre (green), which is enormous. I expect that this
plant will receive considerable attention in future in this
country, as it has already done in France. It is not difficult
of cultivation if put in late enough to escape the frosts of
spring.

I am almost afraid to touch upon the machinery depart-
ment. Every machinist was well represented in that wonderful
part of the exhibition, which displays the breadth and power
of English agriculture more, in my estimation, than even the
animals. That all those complicated and expensive machines
and implements of husbandry should have become the common
utensils ia trade of almost every farmer in the country holding
150 acres of land and upwards, speaks volumes for the present
condition of that class. There were, however, several quite new
machines; amongst which were Messrs. Burgess and Key's
mowing machine, the patent of which they purchased of Mr.
Oweu, an American machinist; a coru-cleaning machine by
Mr. Childs (also an American machinist), and which is confes-
sedly the most efficient thing of the kind yet brought out ;
and last, but not least, the " Guide-way steam cultivator" of
Mr. Halkett. I ought here to state, that I have found the
attention of the farmers almost wholly absorbed by the
question of ploughing by steam, which is now the desideratum
to which the machinist must devote all his attention and iu-
genuitj'. Mr. Halkett delivered a lecture at the rooms of the
Society of Arts on Wednesday evening, on the system he has
invented ; and as my space this week is filled up, I will
write you again, and give you my opinion of the principle
on which that system is based, having paid more than a
common attention to the subject.

Yours respectfully,

London, Dec. 11, An Old Norfolk. Farmer,

THE BEST KIND OF WELSH CATTLE— USEFUL, HARDY, AND PROFITABLE.

Sir, — The droves of Welsh cattle that come yearly into
our midland counties to be fed appear as if many of them
were bred bychance, like rabbits upon a warren— good, bad,
and middling. But Colonel Pennant, within the last five
or six j'ears, has proved what some of the best of the said
kind of cattle may be brought to, by giving them the same
strength of food as the best of other kinds of cattle. As a
proof, about five years back, Mr. Kirkby, of Park-street,
purveyor to Her Majesty, purchased of Mr. Maydwell Col.
Pennaut's prize North Welsh ox for £6.5. The said ox
weighed about 200 stone, and 'dO stone of tallow was taken
out of him ; carcase and tallow, 250 stone of Olbs. to the
stone. He was verj' thick in his lean flesh, which was beau-
tifully marbled ; nay, very fine and silky in the grain. He was

an admirable specimen of what a Welsh ox ought to be —
useful, ornamental, and profitable. The Welsh cattle are
bought a great deal by the Leicester, Buckingham, and
South Northamptonshire graziers at the latter end of the
year, and used as scavenger,?, alias land-cleaners, by eating
up the old coarse grass left by the fat cattle during the hot
months. From their hale constitution, the North Wales
ruQts can bear the bleak winds in the winter much better
than the fine, thin-skinned, handsome Durhams, Devonf,
and Herefords. The North Welsh cattle are second to
none in strength of constitution, which is the foundation of
hll good sound and profitable breeding; an animal weak in
a?e stamina may be compared to a bell without a clapper.
Mill Field, Pelerborough. Sam. Arnsby.

72

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY.

A parliamentary blue-book, recently issued from the
Board of Trade by Mr. Fonblanque, supplies a large
amount of curious and instructive information i-espect-
ing the social condition of the kingdom ; some of the
leading details of which it may be interesting to notice,
because they are not often brought prominently under
consideration. We therefore proceed to take a sum-
mary view of some of these points, which may serve
for reference and future comparison.

The estimated total population of Great Britain in
June, 1856, was 22,080,449, of whom 11,278,170 were
females. The births exceed the deaths nearly as 2 to
1. The number of marriages— 179,824, in 1850—
seem to bear the proportion of one-third to the
deaths.

For England and Wales, the population, in 1856,
was 9,357,035 males, and 9,688,152 females. The ex-
cess of births over deaths was 258,273 ; so that, in round
numbers, the increase of population may be taken at a
quarter of a million a year. The marriages in the me-
tropolis seem to average about 26,000a year, and in
England and Wales about 159,000 a year. Looking
at the ages at which the parties enter into wedlock, we
find that while 206 females and 3 males of the early
age of fifteen and sixteen were married in the year
1856, 973 men and 292 women above the age of sixty
were married ! About twenty appears to be the predo-
minating age for entering into the holy estate, for 42,544
males and 45,651 females were married at that age.
There seems, notwithstanding the number of marriages,
to be a progressive increase in the number of illegiti-
mate children.

The improving health of the metropolis is shown by
the decreasing mortality in the face of a larger popula-
tion.

In 1854, 1855, and 1856, the total deaths stood re-
spectively at 73,697, 61,942, and 57,274. In the
latter year, 3,141 died between the aae of seventy-five
and eighty-five, 793 at from eighty-five to ninety-five,
and 42 died who had li-ved beyond that age — a circum-
stance unequalled in the returns of the kingdom, except
in Wales, where 50 died over the age of ninety-five.

In Scotland, the population for 1856 is given at
3,035,262, of whom 1,.390,018 were females. The births
there were 101,748, and the deaths 58,456.

In 1856, 168 agricultural national schools are re-
turned for Ireland ; of which 37 are described as model
schools, 51 ordinary, 3 school-gardens, and 77 work-
house schools.

The total sum raised in England and Wales for the
relief of the poor in the year ending Lady-day, 1857,
was £8,339,210, which is a decrease of 1 .8 per cent, on
the previous year. The number of paupers on the 1st
Jan., 1858, in receipt of relief in England and Wales
was, in-door, 126,481 j outdoor, including lunatics,
vagrants, &c., 781,705. These figures show an in-

crease in the pauper returns of 6.9 per cent, over the
corresponding period in 1857.

In Scotland, the total amount received for the relief
of the poor in the year ending Whit-Sunday, 1857, was
£669,853. The total poor of all classes receiving relief
was 115,213 persons, of whom 103,427 were out-door
paupers. There seems to be a gradual decrease in the
number of paupers in Scotland in the last three years.

The decline of pauperism in Ireland is also a satisfac-
toi'y feature, and indicates a highly improving condition
of the people. From 80,966 relieved in July, 1855, the /

number decreased to 49,234 in 1857, and of these
20,404 were children under fifteen years of age. The
present population is not given, but in 1851 it stood at
6,552,055. This number has, however, been very
largely reduced by emigration. In the past three years
more than 300,000 persons have arrived in Liverpool
and other ports, principally outward bound to distant
countries, chiefiy to the United States and Australia.
The total amount for poor rates in Ireland in the year
ending Lady-day, 1857, was £645,631, being at the rate
of lO^d. in the pound on the value of rateable property;
in Scotland the proportion is Is. Id. in the pound.

The proportionate poor-rate expenditure per indi- «

vidual of the population, by the latest returns, would
seem to be in the following ratio in difi'erent parts of
the Kingdom : In England and Wales, 6s. Ifd. per
head ; in Scotland, 4s. 4|d. ; in Ireland, Is. lO^d.

The criminal returns of the last three years speak
favourably of the improving moral condition of the
country, which are strikingly marked in England and
Wales and Ireland, although less so as regards Scot-
land. The committals for trial in England and Wales
have dropped from 29,359 in 1854 to 19,437 in 1856;
in Ireland from 11,788 to 7,099; but in Scotland only
from 3,994 to 3,713.

The emigration returns for the United Kingdom show
the following progress : In 1855, 176,807 persons left;
in 1856, 176,554; and in 1857,212,875. Lastyear, of the
emigrants, 78,500 were English, 16,253 Scotch, 86,238
Irish, 12,624 foreigners, and 19,200 not distinguished.
With the increased exertions and Government outlay
by the Cape colony, by Victoria for its extensive rail-
way labour, and by Canada, with the cheap steam
communication in prospect across the Atlantic, a largely
increased tide of emigration may be looked for next
year. The proportion of females to males now leaving
the country is much larger than in former years ; but
there is no doubt that it might be more extensively in-
creased, to their individual benefit, looking to the de-
mand both for domestics and helpmates in the colonies.
Of the bulk of the emigrants last year, 126,905 went to
the United States, 21,000 to Canada and the British
provinces, and the great bulk of the remainder, 61,248,
to the Australasian settlements, 41,000 of these proceed-
ing to Victoria. When we find such aids as £600,000 to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

73

it'900,000 remitted annually by settlers in North
America, and £59,000 from Australia to their friends at
home towards passage and outfit, we cannot wonder
that the emigration is vigorous. And this is only what
is officially known to be sent through bankers and
merchants, but large sums also come home for the
same purpose through private hands.

There is another feature in the return before us which
deserves notice, and that is the Savings' Bank returns,
which are a mark of the progress of the condition of
the people. The amount of money deposited in the
Savings' Bank and Friendly Societies seems to increase
at the rate of about £2,000,000 a year, or rather more.
In 1856, £78,801,612 was thus lodged with the Na-
tional Commissioners for Great Britain and Ireland.
In England there were 469 Savings' Banks, in which
the deposits made by 1,135,390 depositors was
£"30,404,870, or on the average £26f. In Wales
there were 31 Savings' Banks, 29,277 depositors, and
£878,844 lodged, being an average of £30. In
Sc;>tland 47 Savings' Banks, with 119,497 depositors,
and £1,938,572 lodged, averaging about £16 4s. to

each depositor. In Ireland the number of banks was
52, of depositors 57,508, and the amount of money
£1,723,726, being an average of nearly £30. The total
for the kingdom shows an average amount of £25 in-
vested by 1,318,047 individual depositors, in 599
Savings' Banks. But these banks are used largely as
deposits for trust funds by charitable institutions, and
friendly societies, from the security offered; and there
were 14,579 of the former, with an average deposit of
£48, and 9,046 of the latter, whose average deposit was
£155 IDs. The average rate of interest paid seems to
have been about £2 18s. 8d. The number of annui-
ties not exceeding £30 each to the industrious classes,
granted by the Commissioners, was, in 1856, 10,843,
the total amount of them £185,515. The total amount
paid for annuities since the commencement, for life and
term of years, has reached £2,124,914, a very fa-
vourable indication of the provident habits of this class
of people.

There are other features in this return having
special reference to the agricultural community, to
which we may direct attention hereafter.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday the
1st of December: present, His Grace the Duke of
Marlborough, President, in the Chair, Lord Berners,
Lord Feversham, Lord Leigh, Hon. Colonel A. Nelson
Hood, Hon. William George Cavendish, M.P., Mr.
Raymond Barker, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Exall, Mr.
Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Wren Hoskyns,
Mr. James Howard, Mr. Humberston, Mr. Milward,
Mr. Pain, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Torr, Mr. George
Turner, and Professor Voelcker.

Lord Leigh, of Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire, was
elected a Governor of the Society.

The following new Members were elected : —
Baily, Thomas Farmer, Hall-place, Leigh, Tunbridge
Bayzand, Joseph, Arrow, Alcester, Warwickshire
Bouck, John T , 13, Oxford streef, MaucViester
Duvics, James, Moor Court, Here'^ordshire
De Sails, Kev. Heury Jerom», Wiiigfjrd Rectory, Oxfordshire
Docker, Lud.'crd, Patil'a Hill, Leigh, Tunbridge
Foster, William 0 , M.P., Stourton Castle, Stourbridge
Harri'", John, Springfield, Bedford
Hawkesley, Aichihald, Englefield-greeD, Surrey
James, Tho nas, Coj) e, Bedfordshire.

Jeykell, E. J , jun., Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester
Lascelles, Hon. George Edwin, Moor Hill, Harewood, Leeds
Locock, Frederick, Hertford-street, Mayfair, London
LyoQ, Captain, T. H., Soundness House, ^Henley-ou-Thainea
Stevenson, Charles Beojamiu, Hennor House, Leominster
StiUgoe, Henry, Chapel-Aacot, Southam, Warwickshire
Olorenshaw, Joseph, Berkswell, Coventry
Pike, William, Steventon, Bedfordshire
Pijgot, James Algernon, Beckenham Hall, Witham
Pracd, VVilUara Bickwell.Tyrnigham, Newport-Pagiiell, Bucks
Silver, Rev. Frederick, Nortou-in-Hales, Market Drayton
Watt, Gibson, Djldowloe, Radnorshire.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Cliairman of the
Finance Coaranittee, presented the monthly report on the
accounts of the Society, from which it appeared that
be current cash balance in the hands of the bankers

was £268, On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker,
the names of Colonel Challoner and Sir John Shelley,
Bart., M.P., were added to those of the Duke of Rich-
mond and Lord Portman, as trustees for the investment
of Stock.

Agricultural Chemistry. — Mr. Wren Hoskyns,
Chairman of the Chemical Committee, read the follow-
ing report from Professor Voelcker, the Consulting
Chemist of the Society :

I have the honour of submitting to the chemical committee
a short account of the labours that have been entrusted to me
by tt.e Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, since my
appointment in February last.

The January number of the Journal contains the results of
an experimental inquiry into the theory of paring and burning,
an inquiry with wbic; I had been occupied for some considera-
ble (irue before my appointment.

The last published voliinv; contains a full report of experi-
ments relating to the germination of turnip seed, aud on field
experiments upon swedes, which I have undertaken with a view
of ascertaining the fertilizing constituents most conducive to
the production of an abundant crop of swedes. Similar ex-
periments I have again uudeitaken this season, and shall con-
tinue them from year to year, f jr trustworthy deductions cannot
be made from field experiments unless such experiments are
carried over a number of years.

While referring to the cultivation of swedes I may observe
that I have given attention during the past summer to the
diseases in turnips, and have recently had an opportunity of
observing a remarkable case of anbury ; which disease in this
special instance could be traced to the deficiency of lime in the
whole fielf", and almost total absence of this constituent in the
parts of the field in which the roots were most affected by
anbury.

I have now in hand the soi's from parts of the field upon
which the turnips failed completely, and from other parts of
the same field where the roots were less severely affected by
that disease, and hope to communicate the results of my
inquiry aud suggestions to remedy the evil to the Society at a
future period.

The economical advantages of cotton seedcake as an auxiliary

74

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

atllde of food ate bi;comii)g more aud more known to the
English farmer. ^

Duriug the past season I have analyzed several samples of
cotton seedcake sent by members of the Society, and procured
other samples for examination. No description of c"ske I find
differs so much ia composition as cotton-cake.

I hope to furnish a paper on the average composition of
cotton-cake aud its feeJiug value, in the forthcoming volume
of the Society's Journal.

There are several other kinds of feeding materials, the
composition of which as yet has not been determined by
rigorous analysis ; on the recommendation of the committee
the composition and feeding value of such food might be ascer-
tained by your chemical officer.

I may state in this place that I have already ascertained the
composition of Dari or Daura grain, a newly-imported farina-
ceous seed of the size of a large millet, and extensively used
for feeding purposes in the East ; I have also determined
carefully the composition of several kinds of oilcakes that
rarely find their way into commerce.

The uses of made-up cattle food have likewise occupied my
attention. The concluaion to which I am led by the analyses
of three or four different samples of food of that description
agree so entirely with the opinions expressed in Mr. Lawes'
paper in the last volume of the Society's Journal, that I need
not here enter into details to prove the fact that purchasers of
such cattle food as that examined by me may readily procure
equally nutritious and fattening food at something like one-
fourth the cost at which such made-up cattle food is sold at
present.

Mo9t samples of cattle food which I hive hitherto examined
contain large proportions of rice-meal (the refuse of rice-dress-
ing mills), oat dust, and the sweepings of flour mills, mixed
with spoiled and inferior flour. The bad taste and fusty smell
of the latter are concealed by strong smelling drugs, such as
foenigric, or anise or fenue'seed, aud also by bitter substances,
such as gentian. In one particul:ir sample, much recommended
as food for pigs, I have found the bulk of the meal to consist
of crushed carrots, bean?, rice, and barley-meal ; this food also
contained some sulphur aud nitre, as well as fcenugric, and a
little aniseed ; it was, in fact, a regular medical powder.

I have devoted a part of my leisure in the past summer to an
agricultural tour in North and South Wales, and purpose each
year to set aside a portion of my vacation to similar agricul-
tural tours in other parts of England j for I feel strongly im-
pressed with the mutual advautagea that will spring from a
close and familiar contact of your chemical officer with intelli-
gent agriculturists, and am convinced that much good may be
conferred upou the farming community at large by oar united
efforts to promote agricultural progress. The analytical work
performed by me and assistants, on behalf of members of the
society, has been very brisk during the past season — making
analyses of soils, marls, chalks, freestones, oilcakes, artificial
manures. Among them, I am sorry to say, many adulterated
guanos, and all but worthless, or very inferior, fertilisers, &c.,
&c., have been analyzed in the laboratory; and it affords me
much pleasure in informing the chemical committee that I have
received several letters, stating that my reports were the
means of saving intending purchasers considerable sums of
money. In order to return analyses referred to me without
dehy, and to carry on at the same time the field experiments
and more scientific laboratory researches entrusted to my care,
I have found it uecessiry to engage a staff of four competent
assistants. My first assistant has taken an active part in
several researches carried out in my laboratory, and has juit
issued a treatise on Agricultural Chemistry, which I have reason
to believe will be appreciated by the agricultural public. My
second assistant has been educated at King's College, huudoij,
where he baa gained several prizes in various departments oi
knowledge. My third assistant is a thoroughly trained aud
careful analyst. The salaries for assistants and other necessary
laboratory expenses amount to a considerable sum of money,
which, indeed, I would not be justified in incurring to the same
extent, if the college authorities did not liberally assist ma in
meeting these expenses.

Agriculturat, I.mplf.ments. — Colonel Challoner,
Chairman of the Implement Committee, read the fol-
lowing report, which was unanimously adopted :

The committee having taken into their consideration the

memorial of a meeting of implemeut-raakera at the Chester
meeting, it appears to the committee that, in consequence of
the large increase of the number of implements during the
two past years, a further extension of the period for the trials
will in future be required. On due consideration, the com-
mittee feel that it will be advisable to have the system of trial
extended over four year?, instead of three, agreeably with the
following schedule, in which it will be perceived that the
trials in the field and in the yard will take place in alternate
years :

1859.
Ploughs Rollers

Harrows Tile and Brick Machines

Cultivators Draining Machines

Clod-Ciushers

1860.
Combined and other Thrashing Mills

Machines Oilcake Breakers

Chaff Cutters

1861.
Drills Eeaping Machines

Manure Distributors Horse Rakes

Horse Hoes Carts

Hay Machines Waggons

Mowing Machines

1882.
Fixed aud Portable Steam Hand Dressing Machines

Engines Barley Hummellers

Fixed and Portable Finishing

Machines

In each year, such special prizes as the council may deter-
mine, and medals for miscellaneous improvements, shall as
formerly be offered.

The committee recommend that, when practicable, a tabular
statement of the results of the trials of machinery shall be
issued previouslj- to the opening of the implement showyard.

The committee do not recommend any alteration of the long-
established rule by which every implement exhibited is liable
for trial in the prize-classes of the year.

Mr. Smith's protest aq;ainst the award of the judges of
steam cultivation, at the Chester meeting, in favour of Mr.
Fowler's apparatus for steam ploughing, on the ground that
the judges were misled by Mr. Fowler's statement of the
" lowest selling price" having been taken, by the special
Implement Committee, into their due consideration, they
beg to report to the council the following points of the
case : —

1. Mr. Fowler, in his specification of entry, includes no
reference whatever to those extra portions of his apparatus,
which in the private catalogue, stated by Mr. Smith to have
been distributed by Mr. Fowler at Chester, I'aised the price
of the complete apparatus for working purposes to £153
beyond the price stated by him in the specification of entry
with the society.

2. As the judges of the Society were guided in their pro-
ceeding only by the Society's official catalogue, and based
their calculations entirely ou the lowest selling price therein
stated, the economy of the work performed by Fowler's Steam
Ploughing Apparatus was overstated to a certain extent, in
consequence of the incompleteness of the date of price fur-
nished to them. The judges, however, have reported as fol-
bws on that point: — " Had Mr. Fowler's revised prices been
made known to us officially, and not merely comnauuicated by
him to one or more of us individually, they would have
caused a slight modification in our estimates, but certainly
would not have affected our decision." The committtee can-
not, however, exonerate Mr. Fooler from the imputation of
much blame in not having taken the earliest and most effec-
tual steps to place the judges in full possession of a know-
ledge of the alteration he had made in so important aa item as
the cost price of his working apparatus.

3. No evidence has been adduced before the committee that
Mr. Fowler has evaded the rule of the Society, which obliges
every exhibitor, on pain of exclusion from future exhibition,
" to execute all orders given to him in the shoio-yard at the
price stated in his specification."

4. The committee recommend to the council that a rule
should be introduced into future certificates and specifications
of entry, requiring that the prices entered on them shall be the
prices of the respective articles of machinery entered for com-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

75

petitioa and trial at the country meetings of the Society
complete and in good working order.

Colonel Clialloner also read to the Council a special
report of an alleged false entry, or otherwise an infringe-
ment of patent-right, in reference to one of the miscel-
laneous machines to which a silver medal had been
awarded by the judges at Chester. The Committee hav-
ing examined, witnessed, and perused a lengthened cor-
respondence on this contested subject, recommended that
the medal should be farther withheld, until, by the pro-
vision of the 38th Regulation of the Chester Prize-sheet,
"a reasonable period shall have been granted, to allow
the trial of the rights of the parties at law ; and if no
steps at law are taken, in the next term, the award shall
be absolute."

Implement Prizes for 1859. — Colonel Challoner
further reported for the Implement Committee the fol-
lowing schedule of classes of prizes proposed for the
Warwick Meeting :

Class of ploughs . . . . , . . . £40

Class of harrows ., .. ., .,20

Clas3 of cultivators . , . . . . . 20

Class of clod-crushers ,, .. .. ..10

Class of rollers .. .. .. ., ..10

Class of tile and brick-machinea .. .. 20

Class of draining machines and implements . , 20

On the motion of Mr. Thompson, seconded by Mr.
Torr, the Council resolved that a Special Prize of ^50
should be offered at the Warwick Meeting " for the
best application of steam-power to the cultivation of the
soil."

Warwick Meeting. — Lord Berners, Chairman of
the General Warwick Committee, reported the follow-
ing recommendations — 1. That the Warwick Meeting
should be held next year in the week commencing Mon-
day, the 11th of July; and 2. That the Local Prizes
placed at the disposal of the Council by the Local Com-
mittee, and to be awarded under the general legulations
of the Society, should be accepted. These recom-
mendations were adopted.

Lxve-Stock Prizes. — Mr. Milward reported from
the Live-Stock Prizes Committee, the schedule of
prizes in that department, which was adopted.

Refreshment Steward. — On the motion of Mr.
Brandreth Gibbs, seconded by Lord Berners, the fol-
lowing resolution was carried unanimously : —

" That, in order to secure the Refreshments supplied for
the Public in the Show Yard being properly conducted,
there be in future a Steward of Yard Refreshments."

South- African Agriculture. — The Hon. and
Rev. Samuel Best, of Abbot's xVnn, near Andover,
having represented to the Council how great it would
prove to the agricultural community at the Cape of
Good Hope if a grant of the Society's Journal were
made to the Agricultural Library established at
Graham's Town, and how strong a mark of sympathy
it would be regarded by the settlers of that colony, it
was moved by Mr. W^ren Hoskyns, seconded by Mr.
Torr, and carried unanimously, that a complete set of
the Journal should be placed at Mr. Best's disposal for
hat purpose.

Cattle Disease in Portugal. — The Earl of
Malmesbury transmitted a despatch from H.B. M.'s
Consul- General at Lisbon, reporting a violent outbreak
of the " foot-and-mouth disorder" among the cattle of
that kingdom. The Council directed that Professor
Simonds, as the Veterinary Inspector of the Society,
should be requested to make a report to them on this
subject.

Audit of Accounts. — The Half-yearly Audit of
Accounts was held on Friday, the 3rd of December :
present, Mr. Raymond Barker and Colonel Challoner,
on the part of the Finance Committee, and Mr. Wil-
liam Astbury and Mr. Joseph Druce, auditors on the
part of the Society. The accounts were examined,
audited, and certified as correct.

The Council stands adjourned to its Weekly Meet-
ing on Wednesday, the 8 th of December (at which all
Members of the Society have the privilege of being
present).

The Annual Meeting of the Members of this Society
took place at the Society's House, in Hanover-square, on Fri-
day last, under the presidency of Lord Berners. Amongst
the gentlemen present were Lord Feversham, Mr. Slaney,
M.P., Mr. Mark Philips, Mr. S. Druce, Mr. Druce, jun., Mr.
J. Kinder, Mr. D, Martin, Mr. W. F. Hobbs, Mr. Astbury,
Mr. S. Sidney, M. Trehonnais, Mr. H. Corbet, Mr. C. Sewell
Read, M. A. Paqueree, Professor Voelcker, Mr. T. Pain, Mr.
H. J. Hare, Mr. W. Torr, Mr. T. Duckbam, Colonel Chal-
loner, Mr. Pope, Mr. Crofts, Mr. H, J. Keys, and Mr. J. B.
Caldwell.

At the request of the President, the Secretary, Mr. Hud-
son, read the Report of the Council as follows :

REPORT.

The Society consists at the present time of —

79 Life Governors,
134 Annual Governors,
916 Life Members,
4076 Annual Members, and
18 Honorary Members,

making a total of 5223 members, or an increase of 77 names
on the list since the last half-yearly meeting. The Council
have filled up the vacancy in their body, occasioned by the
decease of Mr. Paine, of Farnham, by the election of Mr.
Thomas, of Lidlington.

The funded property of the Society in the name of the
trustees has been raised by further investment to the amount
of £10,000 stock in the New Three-per-cents.

Mr. Dyke Acland and Mr. Wrr:n Hoskyns having found
that their own more immediately personal engagements would
not allow them conveniently to act longer as joint-editors of
the Journal, Mr. Thompson, their remaining colleague, has
undertaken the sole editorship, on the condition that the sum
of £300 be placed annually at his disposal for the purpose of
procuring such subsidiary aid connected with the details of the
work as he may find desirable. The Council have expressed
unanimously to Mr. Acland and Mr. Hoskyns their sense of
the high value they have attached to the services rendered by
them in their co-operation with Mr. Thompson, during the
period of their voluntary engagement ; and they have grate-
fully accepted the offer of Mr. Thompson to c ntinue hia
valuable services as the sole editor of the Journal.

The Council have adopted the following schedule of Prizes
fur Essays and Reports, to be sent to the Secretary by the Ist
of March next, namely —

76

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Results of Microscopic observation applied to
the Vegetable Physiology of Agriculture . . £50

Agriculture of the Islands of Jersey, Guernsey,
Alderney, aud Sark 25

Steam Cultivation 25

Extent to which Tillage operations act as a
Substitute for Manure 20

Modification of Four-courae Rotation conse-
quent upon modern improvements 20

Varieties of Wheat, Barley, and Oats best
adapted for high farming 20

Causes of the increasing difficulties of Turnip
Cullivatiou, nnrl the Remedies 20

Comparative Cost of high-condition of laud
produced by purchased Cattle Food, or by
purchased Manure 20

Any other Agricultural subject 10

Lectures have been delivered before the members by Pro-
fessor Henfrey on Vegetable Physiology, and by Professor
Simonds on the Composition of the Blood, and the Diseases
with which that fluid is connected in the animal economy.

Professor Voelcker, the Consulting Chemist of the Society,
has made to the members, at the weekly councils, various
communications on points of practical interest connected with
the aiulteratiou of guano, and the feedmg properties of cotton-
seed cake. He has also recently presented to the Council,
through the Chemical Committee, a detailed statement of the
works carried on by him as the Chemist of the Society, in his
Laboratory at Cirencester, and also a plan of the various arrange-
ments he has in coutempUtioii, in order that he may be enabled
more fully to carry out tbe practical usefulness of his scientific
labours. The Council have adopted au enlarged schedule of
the privileges enjoyed by members of the Society in availing
themselves of Professor Voelcker's professional aid.

The Chester Meeting; proved iu every respect the most impor-
tant one hitherto held by the Society ; the number of visitors
exceeded by many thousands the average amount of former
years, and the liveliest interest was exhibited throughout the
district in the proceedings of the occasion. The Mayor and
Corporation, and the Local Committee acting under their
a\(thority, spared no efforts to render the meeting successful ;
while their hospitality and cordial reception to the members
of the Society were on all sides gratefciliy acknowledged.
The show of Cheshire cheese, and of the animals competing
for the local prizes, added greatly to the iutereat which must
under any circumstances have been excited by the excellent
stock competing for the prizes of the Society, and by the
trials aud public working of the magnificent array of steam
engines and other agricultural implements and machinery sent
to the meeting.

The Council have decided, that the Warwick meeting shall be
held in the week commencing Monday, tbe 11th of July next.
Already the several portions of land in that neighbourhood have
been placed under suitsble management for tbe purposes of the
trials of implements, and the siteof theshow.yard has been sur-
veyed by the Society's contractor of works, with a view to its
being duly prepared, under the instruction of the Warwick Com-
mittee, for the exhibition of the stock and implements. The
Council have adopted a series of local prizf-s, placed at their
disposal by the Local Committee, aud to be ompeted for under
the general regulations of the Society, and to be open to gene-
ral competition, with the exception of the prizes for cheese,
which will, at the request of the Local Committee, be restricted
to cheese made within the county of Warwick. Tr.e Society's
prizes for live stock will exceed by £53 the total amount of
prizes offered last year in this department ; and third prizes
have been added to the great majority of the classes for cattle,
sheep, and fig". The Council tiave decided to adopt several
arrangements connected with the mode of distinguishing the
prize animals, the restriction of local prizes to competition in
their own classes, »nd the management of refreshments for the
public, which they hope will be found to be improvements iu
their respective application. The Council have also decided on
the folbwing prizei=, to be offered in the department of im-
plements at the Warwick meeting, namelj' —

Class of Ploughs , £40

Class of Harrows 20

Class of Cultivators 20

Class of Clod Crushers £10

Class of Rollers 10

Class of Tile and Brick Machines 20

Class of Draining Machines and Implements . . 20
Special Prize for the best application of Steam
Power to the Cultivation of the Soil 50

The triennial system for the trial of implements, which com-
menced in 1855, at the Carlisle meeting, has terminated this
year at Chester ; and it has, therefore, been necessary for
the Implement Committee, at the request of the C mncil, to
take into their deliberate consideration the question of the
renewa', discontinuance, or modification of that system. The
Council have adopted the recommendation of the Committee,
that, instead of three years, the trials should iu future be dis-
tributed over a period of four years, the trials in the field and
in the yard occurring every alternate year, such special prizes,
and medals for miscellaneous improvements, being also offered
each year as the Council may determine. The following is
the schedule of this arrangement : —

Ploughs.
Harrows.
Cultivators.

I.— 1859.

IL— 1860.

Combined and other

Thrashing Machines.
Chaff Cutters.

ni.— 1861.
Drills.

Manure Distributors.
Horse-hocs.
Hay Machines.

IV.— 1862.
Fixed and Portable Steam

Engines.
Fixed and Portable

Finishing Machines.

Clod-crushers.

Rollers.

Tile and Brick Machines.

Mills.

Oil-cake Breakers.

Mowing Machines.
Reaping Machines.
Horse-rakes.
Carts and Waggons.

Hand Dressing

chines.
Barley Hummellers.

Ma-

They have also decided that iu future specifications of
entry, " the prices stated shall be the prices of the respective
articles of machinery entered fur competition and trial at the
country meetings of tbe Society, complete and in good work-
ing order."

The Council have the satisfaction of recording the rapid ad-
vances of the Society iu carry inp; out successfully the several
oljjects for which it was established.
By order of the Council,

JAMES HUDSON, Secretary.

London, December, 1858.

Mr. AsTBURY having moved, and M. Trehonnais se-
conded the adoption of the report,

Mr. S. Sidney said, that before the motion was put to the
meeting he was desirous of making an observation or two upon
the report. Ic would be in the recollection of many of the gen-
tlemen then present, that on previous occasions, at Chelmsford,
at Silishury, and again in this room last year, he took the
liberty of making some tuggestions which he thought were for
the benefit of the Society; and he believed he might flatter
himself that those suggestions had not been altogether in
vain ; inasmuch as it was quite impossible to listen to the
report just read, without seeing that very considerable im-
provements bad of late been introduced into the management
of the Society. Moreover, he granted also that there had been
improvements which were not mentioned iu the report. Now
it was perfectly notorious, and it was a subject of general com-
plaiut, that the Council of the Society had not hitherto con-
tained so many working members belonging to the
great sgriculiural body aa the importance, the num-
bers, and the intellect of the tenant furmers of the conn-
try deserved. Smce he had made the remarks to which he
had referred there was no doubt that several gentlemen
of considerable intelligence had been introduced to the Council.

THE farmp:r's magazine.

77

Still, he ventured to thiuk, and in that opinion he was sup-
ported by the great body of the farmers, that that measure
had not been carried far enough, and that there were yet a
considerable number of gentlemen on the Council who,
though of the highest respectability, were little better than
ciphers in an agricultural point of view. He knew that it was
said at Salisbury by a gentleman who defended the Council,
and was a tenant-farmer himself, that the teuant-faimers
would not attend. But with regard to that argument he
thought he could give facts which would at once set it com-
pletely at rest. He had had the honour of belonging, for a
considerable number of years, to the Ceijtral Farmers' Club — a
society not so numerous as this, but celebrated for coijtaining
within its ranks a large body of practical men. That Club met
seven times in the year to hold discussions. It had a large
Committee, and he believed he should be borne out by the
members of the Club then present — at any rate by those who
took an active part in its proceedings, when he said that the
meetings of the Club always comprised a great proportion of
practical farmers. And the importance of those meetings —
an importance which might be easily imitated by the Royal
Agricultural SoL-iety, if it chose — could be gathered from the
fact that the papers and discussions of the Club, having been
immediately reported and spread throughout the length and
breadth of the laud, hal led to great and important changes.
Indeed, at a recent meeting of the Society of Arts, it
was stated that the discussions of the Central Farmers'
Club on the steam-plough had done much to promote
the application of stesm to autumnal cultivation. He
trusted, then, that the Couucil would take into conside-
ration that, since the Royal Agricultural Society was founded,
the number and intelligence of the tenant farmers of England
had greatly increased, and seize the earliest opportunity of
introducing a larger portion of that element iuto their owu
body. If they would do that, they might rely upon it that
they would find no difficulty in getting gentlemen to attend
their meetings as punctually as they did in the compa-
ratively small society, the Central Farmers' Club. He
would not make any remarks about the Journal, which he ad-
mitted had been put in a more satisfactory state since last he
addressed them upon the subject, neither would he refer to the
prize-list; because, although he had been told that any change
was unnecessary, it had nevertheless been thoroughly con-
sidered, several changes had been introduced, and the list placed
upon a better footing. But there was one point to which he
was very anxious to direct attention — he meant the weekly
meetings. At present, m consequence of the exclusion of re-
porters, those meetings were nothing better than a farce. Now
the society had immense means at its command, and a great
number of its most intelligent members were anxious to con-
tribute to the usefulness of those meetings ; but they did not
like to come forward with useful papers, if it was their fate to
be buried and never heard of more, as he feared was the case
with many a valuable contribution of the sort. He trusted
that the weekly meetings of the Society would not be much
longer treated like a French police court, as if there were some-
thing dangerous in reporting what the members might have
to say. The value of an immediate report of a useful discussion
was strikingly proved by the Central Farmers' Club, of which his
lordship in the chair was a member. Some years ago the Farm,
ers' Club did not publish its discussions, but left it to the
newspapers to do so, and that alone gave very great support
to the Club. But when it went a little further, and circulated
a report of its discussions amongst the members, a great ac-
cession was made to its ranks. He kacw that it was not pos-
sible to do this in the Royal Agricultural Society ; but

he should be borne out by every practical man who heard
him in saying that when useful papers were brought forward
the Council might allow the Press to disseminate them, with
the view of obtaining criticisms upon them ; so that if they
were good they might be made useful, and if not that their
fallacies might be exposeJ. Any gentleman who took the
trouble of turning to the seven discussions of the Central Far-
mers' Club during the past year would at once see that those
which were useful created immediately a great deal of atten-
tion. No sooner, indeed, was the esj-ay upon autumnal culti-
vition published than the newspapers were literally over-
whelmed with correspondence of the most interesting descrip-
tion in reference to that subject ; and he had been informed
by a gentleman who was engaged iu promoting ste^m plough-
ing that the discussion had done more to accomplish that
object than anything else. He would also take that oppor-
tunity of observing that he thought the time had arrived when
the Royal Agricultural Society should take stock of what it
had done. lie was certain that nothing could more contri-
bute to its usefulness, or forward the great object for which
it was origiuallj' established, than now, at the end of twenty
J ears from its foundation, to adopt some means, such as the
preparation of a sciies of questions relating to eveiy subject
connected with agriculture, and the circulation of those ques-
tions amongst its members iu the various counties, of ascer-
taining what progress had been made in every department
of agriculture siuce the year 1838, when the society was
first instituted. If they would only make use of the very
intelligent members who were to be found iu the ranks of
the society, and other gentlemen who would be quite as
ready to render their services iu circulating a series of
questions throughout their several districts, as to what
changes had been effected in the management and breeds of
live stock, what progress had been made in the use of im-
proved implements, and what implements had been found to
be the most successful ; what changes iu, and additions to,
manures had been made, and what had been the general re-
sult ; he was sure that the answers to such questions as he
had thus faintly indicated, when digested into a report, would
prove to be a document far exceeding in value anything in the
shape of agricultural statistics that could be obtained, and
that without prejudice to any one (hear). It would tend still
further to promote the usefulness of the society, and to raise
it in the estimation of the great body of the agiicnltunsts of
the kingdom. He hoped that, in what he had said, he had
not laid himself open to a charge of egotism. It was rather a
bold thing for a man like himself to stand up there, and make
these observations. That he was quite aware of ; but, since
last he addressed the society, at one of its meetings, he had
taken considerable pains to obtain the confldence of the ai;ri-
cultural public, and he believed that, without being egotistical,
he had achieved some measure of success. He confessed that
he could have wished some more influential person had come
forward and addressed the meeting on this occasion ; but he
truBied the observations he had taken the liberty of making
would be regarded as intended to promote the usefulness of
the society, which no mau was more desirous of assisting to
increase than himself.

The Chairman said he could bear bis meed of praise
to what had been accomplished by the Central Farmers'
Club ; but this was not a debating society, and it was
most desirable that it should not be permitted to lapse
into anything of the sort. Mr. Sidney had the advantage
of the press being represented here to-day, and there was
no doubt that his remarks would go forth to the public, and
be appreciated by the council in the manner they deserved.

78

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Lord Feveesham. — As Mr. Sidney has not concluded his
observations with any practical suggestion, it may appear
rather out of place, and inopportune, for me to make any reply
to the speech which he has just addressed to the meeting. He
admits that very considerable improvements have been intro-
duced in the proceedings and management of the institution
since this time twelve months, and he claims some credit, and I
do not mean to say improperly, for these improvements. I do not
wish to deprive Mr. Sidney of any satisfaction which he may
feel from that reflection ; at the same time, I cannot agree in
the concluaion at which he arrives, when he proposes to make
this society a mere debating club ("No, no," from Mr. Sid-
ney), at all of whose weekly councils the press shall be present,
and report the proceedings, in order, as he says, to their being
subjected to criticism out of doors. Now I cannot but think
that the adoption of any such measure would create very great
inconvenience ; that it would be the means, perhaps, of sowing
the seeds of much dissension and division, both in the council
and among the members of the society generally, and that it
would not be attended by any of the benefits which he seems
to anticipate. The one suggestion which he has made has al-
ready, in point of fact, been carried out ; and if he has perused
the paper which was addressed by Professor Voelcker to the
chemical committee of the society, and which was read at the
council meeting on the 1st instant, he must have seen that
Professor Voelcker has taken the very course which he now re-
commends; that he has made a tour of North and South
Wales, during which he held communication with the most
intelligent agriculturists of those districts, for the purpose of
ascertaining what systems of farming they had adopted, and
the mode in which the husbandry of their respective localities
was carried out; and he states that it is his intention to pur-
sue the same course with regard to other parts of the kingdom.
(Hear, hear.) It is clear, therefore, that Professor Voelcker has
already adopted the system suggested by Mr. Sidney. More-
over, he has done so withgreat credit to himself, and to the satis-
faction of the council and the agricultural community gene-
rally ; and I have not the slightest doubt that most important
benefits will be the result. (Hear, hear.) In addition to this,
the professor states in the same paper that he has taken into
hia consideration, and instituted inquiries relative to several
important topics connected with the cultivation of the soil. I
may mention sorae of them. He states that he has now under
his coDsideratiou the subject of the paring and burning'of dif-
ferent soils, and a particular disease in turnips which arises
from a deficiency of lime used in their cultivation:(Hear, hear).
He has aho suggested a particular grain, termed Dari or Daura,
which he says is much used in the East.forthe feeding of cattle.
He has further warned us, iu the same paper, against what he
has characterized as " made-up cattle food," which he says
may be procured of as nutritious a quality at one-fourth of
the cost. He alludes to the cotton-seed cake ; and, in fact, to
all those other matters which, without now entering into de-
tail, are of the utmost importance to the agriculture of this
country, and which no doubt >re the very] points that; Mr '
Sidney wishes to have taken into consideration. I am ex-
tremely unwilliug to trespass further upon the time and atten"
tion of the meeting; indeed, it is quite unnecessary that I
should do so. But I may be alloived to observe" that we are
mtroduciug continuous improvemeuta, that we are going on
year after year ^in 'effecting alterations and improvements,
which I have'not the least doubt will increase; yn number and
impoitauce as time'advances. Throughout the whole country
there is a growing desire to promote the interest of agricul-
ture, as evinced by the enormous increase which has taken
place in the number of persons who attend our annual exhi-

bitions, and especially as stated iu the report at Chester last
July (Hear, hear). A further proof of the increasing interest
which is felt on the part of the public is to be found in the fact
that on Tuesday last the Smithfield Cattle Club appointed a
committee to inquire and ascertain whether a more eligible
situation for holding their shows than the Baker-street Bazaar
cannot be obtained in the course of the next three years. This
is a step in the right direction ; for it is impossible to contend
that the present site is adapted for the purpose to which it is
now applied (Hear, hear). I hope that such an improvement
will be effected as the Smithfield Club may be able to congra-
tulate us upon on some future occasion (Hear, hear).

Mr. Sidney explained that he had not the slightest idea
of recommending that the monthly council meetings, or the
deliberations of the society should be open to the press, be-
cause he was of opinion that they should not. Still, when
valuable papers upon practical subjects were read, he
thought the press should be permitted at once to dis-
seminate them amongst the public. He could assure the
noble lord that he had no wish to turn the society into a de-
bating club.

The Chairman, in putting the motion, said he hoped
that those who read the report of the council would not
consider that either their weekly or monthly meetings had
hitherto been a farce, as Mr, Sidney had been pleased to
term them (Hear, hear).

The motion for adopting the report of the council was
then put to the meeting, an dagreed to unanimously. Lord
Berners being compelled by an urgent engagement else-
where to vacate the chair, the remainder of the business was
transacted under the presidency of Colonel Challoner.

Mr. A.sTBURY, one of the auditors, in the accidental
absence of Mr. Raymond Barker, read the following
balance-sheet : —

HALF-YEARLY ACCOUNT FROM THE IST OF JANUARY TO
THE 30th of JUNE, 1858.

Balance in the hands of the bankers, Jan. 1,
1858

Petty cash balance in the hands of the secre-
tary, Jan. 1, 1858

Dividends on stock

Governors' life composition .. .,

Governors' annual subscriptions

Members' life compositions

Members' annual subscriptions

Journal receipts . .

Sale of horse-shoeing tracts .. ..

Country meeting receipts :—

Salisbury . . . . . . . . . .

Chester

Contribution from the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society of Scotland towards the ex-
penses of Professor Simonds' mission abroad
in reference to the cattle plague

Ditto Royal Agricultural Improvement Society
of Ireland

£331

15

11

14

7

6

134

18

4

40

0

0

620

5

0

251

0

0

3529

10

0

236

17

1

23

0

0

300

0

0

1831

6

3

. 89

0

0

y

. 89

0

0

£7491

0

1

(Signed) Thomas Raymond Barker,"! F"

Chairman, > /, ...
C. B. Challoner, J Committee.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

n

PAYMENTS.

Permanent charges £170 12 6

Taxes and rates 10 10 6

Establishmeut charges 619 14 6

Postage and carriage .. .. .. .. 28 13 1

Advertisements .. .. .. ,. .. 6 12 6

Journal payments , .. 1199 13 2

Essay prize 20 0 0

Veterinary grant . . .. 100 0 0

Balance to Professor Simonda on account of "1

mission abroad in reference to the cattle I 150 0 0

plague J

Chemical grant 150 0 0

Country meeting payments: —

Salisbury 948 0 7

Chester 1803 17 0

Subscriptions (overpaid by the bankers) returned 8 0 0

Horse-shoeing tracts . . . . . . . . 40 8 6

Sundry items of petty cash . . . . . . 5 7 8

Balance in the hands of the banker.s, June 30,

1858 2225 15 9

Balance in the hands of the secretary, June 30,

1858 3 14 4

£7491 0 1

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 3rd day of Dec,
1858.

(Signed) William Astbury, I Auditors on the part
Joseph Druce j of the Society.

Mr, Corbet moved a vote of thanks to the auditors, who,
he remarked, seemed to have a very pleasant duty to perform,
in consequence of the admirable manner in which it was gene-
rally understood the books were now kept (Hear, hear).

Mr. Sewell Read seconded the motion.

The Chairman said that the Couocil felt very much in-
debted to the auditors for the hints with which they had from
time to time favoured them. Upon those hints the Council
had endeavoured to act ; and he believed the auditors were
now perfectly satisfied with the manner in which the accounts
were kept (Hear, hear).

Mr. Astbury: They are so — perfectly.

The motion was agreed tc, and briefly acknowledged by Mr.
Astbury, who observed that he could take upon himself
to verify the state in which the Society's accounts were now
kept. The management was so admirable that the duties of
the auditors were rendered exceedingly pleasant (Hear, hear).

On the motion of Mr. Corbet, seconded by Mr. Read, the
auditors weie then re-elected.

I Mr. ToRR had much pleasure^ju moving a vote of thanks to
Professors Voelcker, Henfrey, and Simonds, for their excellent

lectures, which he regarded as one of the best features of the
society, in promoting its great object, the advancement of the
science and practice of agriculture. Lord Feversham had re-
ferred to Professor Voelcker'a journeys through the Princi-
pality ; and he (Mr. Torr) might perhaps be allowed to
suggest that the members of the Royal Agricultural Society
would materially assist the professor in conducting his in-
quiries by giving him the best practical information in their
power (Hear hear). For, however useful the professor's tours
might be, or excellent his intention in undertaking them, it
was possible that they might not produce all the good results
anticipated from them for want of bringing practical know-
ledge to bear upon what was purely scientific (Hear, hear).
They might depend upon it, that whilst agriculture could not
advance without science, science was of little use without good
practical details; for, after all, it was the good practical
details which kept a man's pocket from getting quite empty
(Hear and a laugh).

Mr. Sidney seconded the motion, and expressed his con-
currence in the observations which had fallen from Lord
Feversham, respecting Professor Voelcker'a exertions ; but he
wished to see those exertions extended to every member of
the society, not one of whom would be unwilling to furnish
the profesor with the facts he required.

Lord Feversham had not the slightest doubt that, as he
had stated. Professor Voelcker would hold communication with,
and take the opinion and advice of, all the most eminent agri-
culturists and tenant farmers of the kingdom ; and he (Lord
Feversham) had no apprehension whatever that these gentle-
men would decline to impart such information as they pos-
sessed relating to the culture of the soil, and the system of
farming which was carried on in their respective districts.

The motion was carried unanimously.

The Chairman having asked if any gentleman had a ques-
tion to put, or a suggestion to offer for the consideration of
the Council,

M. Trehonnais said he would take the liberty of sug-
gesting, for the consideration of the Council, that as there was
a prize now given for bull-calves under 12 months old, it was
also advisable to give a prize for heifer calves of the same age
(Hear, hear).

The Chairman directed Mr. Hudson to take a note of M.
Trehonnais' suggestion, in order to its being submitted to the
Committee on Cattle Prizes for the ensuing year.

Lord Feversham then moved, and Mr. Kiuder seconded, a
vote of thanks to Lord Berners, the President of the Society,
and to Col. Challoner for presiding as Chairman that day.

The motion was carried by acclamation ; and, having been
briefly acknowledged by Colonel Challoner, the meeting
separated.

IMPORTANT JUDGMENT— THE TENURE OF LAND — " LANDSHARE."

ABERGAVENNY.

{^Before J. M. Herbert, Esq., Counly Court Judye.']

William Williams v. William Howells. — The
plaintiff is the owner and present occupier of Pentre Farm, in
the parish of Tregare. The defendant was his tenant for eight
years up to Christmas last, and on his quitting the plaintiff
took the farm into his own hands. The defendant held under
a lease^or agreement, dated the 6th Feb., 1849, by which the
plaintiff agreed to let the farm from the 25th December then

last, for one year, and so on from year to year, until six months
notice should be given by either party to determine the agree-
ment, at the yearly rent of £103, payable half-yearly. The
defendant agreed "not to underlet the said premises, or any
part thereof, or sell hay or straw, or any kind of fodder, with-
out the consent of the said Williams or his trust {sic), to ma-
nage the lauds in a proper husbandlike manner, and according

80

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to the custom of the couutry ; and, iipou quitting, to leave the
hedges, ditches, gates, and stiles in a proper state of repair."
And it was further agreed by the plaintiff " to allow £3 per
annum for manure. Also, in case he should want the farm to
his own haiid in the space of three years to pay £20 of money
to the said William Howells, for quitting the farm at six
months' notice." It was admitted by the plaintiff that the de-
fendant, according to the custom, was entitled to two-thirds of
the wheat crop, but he claimed the remaining one-third as the
incoming tenant's portion or "laudshare," as it is termed in
this county, the universal custom being, as he alleged, to give
the incoming tenant onethirJ of the wheat sown oa a ley, and
one-sixth of the wheat sown on a naked fallow. The defen-
dant denied the plaintifl'a right to any landshare by reason of
his having been excluded from landshare at the commencement
of his tenancy, his predecessor having been entitled, under an
agreement which he had made with his landlord, a former
owner of the estate, to the whole of the away-growing crop,
the defendant contending that, according to the custom of the
country, when a tenant on entering takes no landshare, he is
not liable to leave any on his quitting. The defendant having
cut the wheat crop and put it into stooks (as it was admitted
he was bound to do whether or not the plaintiff was entitled to
laudshare), and having told the plaintiff he did not intend to
leave any landshare for him, the plaintiff ordered the gates of
the fields to be locked, and the defendant afterwards broke the
locks, and carried away the whole of the wheat crop. The
plaintiff then brouoht this action, claiming £10 for the alleged
trespass of breaking the locks, and £26 Ss. lOd. as the value
of the plaintiff's landshare thus taken away and converted by
the defendant. It was proved by Eliaway, the outgoing tenant,
who quitted in the same year as plaintiff purchased the farm,
that he bad a converaation with the plaintiff about the laud-
shire; that he told him that he had uo landshare on entering,
and that he did not intend leaving any ; that he had a document
under the hand of his original landlord Mr. Watkins, " that
freed him from having one ;" and that plaintiff said, "if you
have such a document I am satisfied." The document was as
follows: — "August 8th, 1813. Memorandum of an agree-
ment between Mr. Arthur Eliaway a'ld the undersigned. In
consideration of Mr. Eilaway not having any landshare upon
his taking the Peutre, he will not be entitled to leave any after
quitting the said farm, but must not leave on the said farm
more than his odd mark in wheat. — J. C. Watkins." This
document was also shewn to the defendant before he took the
farm, it was proved by defendant, tliat, aCler he had taken the
farm, he had a conversation with plaintiff about the landshare;
that he said to plaintiff, "What about landshare?" Plaintiff
said to him, " Don't the custom of the place give a landshare ?''
" No, I don't think it does, as Mr. Watkins has done away
with it." "If Mr. Eliaway has a document to show from Mr.
Watkins, that will be an end to it ;" and that he (the plaintiff)
then saw the document referred to, and gave up all claim for
landshare. It was proved by several farmers, who had lived
for years in Tregare, or in the neighbouring parishes, that the
general usage of the district was, that the offgoing tenant
should leave uo landshare for his successor when he had none
left by his predecessor ; and their evidence was uncontradicted.
But some of them stated that some of the principal land-
owners of the district (and they instanced the Duke of Beaufort
and Colonel Clifford) were desirous of doing away with the
landshare, and that they let their farms exempt from the
landshare ; and it was open to much doubt whether their tes-
timony affirmed any general usage excluding the landshare, or
whether it merely referred to instances where the landshare
was done away with by special contract. Mr. James Price, on

behalf of the defendant, contended — 1st. That where the land-
lord of a farm has broken through the custom, by depriving his
tenant of the landshare, the farm becomes for ever exempt from
liability to landshare ; and 2ndly. That even supposing his first
proposition could not be maintained, he had satisfactorily es-
tablished it to be a part of the custom of the country that the
liability to landshare on leaving depended on the enjoyment of
landshare in'the first year of his tenancy. As regards the first
point contended for, I think it quite impossible that it can be
established. For how does the custom of the country operate
on contracts of letting ? It annexes to the specified terms of
the agreement all those well known usages and customary
rights and incidents affecting the ^occupation] of Uand which
universally prevail in the district, and which, it is to be pre-
sumed, were tacitly assumed by the parties as forming part of
the contract. And as the owner of a farm cannot remove it
from the district in which it is situate, so neither can he pre-
vent those with whom he treats for the letting of his farm from
silently importing into the contract the established usages,
unless he excludes those usages by express terms. But the
second proposition anpears to me much more worthy of con-
sideration, and open to doubt. It is to be observed that the
defendant had_^no, right whatever to an away-going crop, ex-
cept under the custom. Whatever share of the crop, then, the
custom gave him, he was entitled to take, and no more. If it
was part of the custom that the incoming tenant should have
a landshare, he was bound by his contract to leave one ; but if,
under the circumstances, the custom gave the incomiug tenant
no such right, but gave the defendant the whole of the crop,
then, by the contract, the defendant was entitled to the whole.
Again, it ii not to be deuif d that it was more consonant with
justice that the defendant should take_the whole of the away-
going crop, rather than leave a landshare for the plaintiff; for
it is only reasonable and fair that the tenant should quit on
the same terms as he entered, and^',that he should enjoy as
many entire crops of wheat as there were years in his term.
This proposition would hold, whatever might be the length of
the term ; but in a case like the present, where the de-
mise was only for two years certain, the depriving the
tenant of oue-third of a year's crop, when he had only held
the farm for two years jf the tenancy had then been deter-
mined (and the plaintiff would in that cise have had the same
right to demand a laudshare as at present), would have ap-
peared to work a comparatively greater hardship than when he
has held the farm for a much longer time. What, then,
ia the existing custom? Did this landshare ^invariably
form part of the original custom — or was the right to it
from the first uncertain, and dependcDt on the fact of the out-
going tenant having enjoyed it on entering? Or, again, has
there sprung up in comparatively recent times such a usage as
is contended for by the defendant, modifying the more ancient
custom, and yet so general as always to be received and acted
upon where the circumstances exist to which it applies ? And,
as a matter of law, can a usage be admitted which thus modifies
a more ancient usage, or rather limits its application, when the
more remote usage has become so general as to be' presumed
to influence people in their contracts, and to be tacitly recog-
nized and acted upon when .they contract ? These are the
questions which, it appears to me, to be necessary to answer
before I can determine whether the_]defendant has established
a good defence under the custom of the country, j. The manner
in which the custom of the country operates on contracts such
as this is thus explained by Baron Parke, in^delivering the
judgment of the Court of Exchequer in " Hutton u. Warren,"
1 M. and W., 479 : " It has long been settled that.' in com-
mercial tiansactiotis extrinsic evidence of custom and usage i^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

81

admissible to aunex iucidents to written contracts in niatters
with respect to which they are silent. The same rule has also
been applied to contracts in other trausactious of life, in which
known usages have been established and prevailed ; and this
has been done upon the principle of presumption that, in such
transactions, the parties did not mean to express in tvriling the
luliole of the contract hij which they intended to he hound, but
a contract with reference to those knowu usages. Whether
such a relaxation of the strictness of the common law was
wisely applied, wlien formal instruments have been eatered
into, and particularly leases under seal, may well be doubted ;
but the contrary has been established by su^ih authority, and
the relations between landlord aud tenant have been so regu-
■ lated upon the supposition that all customary obligations, not
altered by the contract, are to remain in force, that it is too
late to pursue a contrary course ; and it would be productive
of much inconvenience if this practice were now to be dis-
turbed." Mr. Justice Coleridge, in delivering the judgment of
Q. B., in Brown y. Byrne, 3 Ellis and Bl., 715, says : " In all
contracts as to the subject matter of which known usages prevail,
parties are found to proceed with the tacit assumption of these
usages ; they commonly reduce into writing the special par-
ticulars of their agreement, but omit to specify those kuown
usages, which are included — known as of course — by mutual
understanding : evi leuce, therefore, of such iucidents is re-
ceivable. The contract, in truth, is partly express aud in
writing, partly implied or understood and unwritten." In
Lord Hood v. Kendall, 17, C. B. K., 269, Mr. Justice Willes,
in his summing up to the jury said : " Then there is a further
question, viz., whether there is any custom of the country
affecting the position in which the teuiut stood. And here it
must be observed that it is not the mere practice which pre-
vails with regard to a particular estate that will make custom
of the country ; it must be au usage generally practised and
adhered to — so general, in fact, as to be ordinarily kuown and
acted upon throughout the country, and understood to form an
ingredient in every bargain, without express and particular
reference to it." Such being the best judicial explanations of
what is meant by " cuscom of the country," it would seem to
be necessary to its validity that it should be reasonable, cer-
tain, and of universal applicatiou, except when excluded by
express contract ; for what is either unreasonable or uncertain,
or what only prevails partially or in particular instances, cannot
be presumed to have been tacitly assumed by the parties to
the contract — the want of those qualities readering it necessary
to inquire whether the custom applies or not to the subject of
the contract. I therefore conclude that the custom aa set up
by the defendant could not have formed part of the original
custom ; that, if there be such a customary right as laud-
share— and it is admitted that there is — one must be able to
allege with respect to it that the custom gives it to the in-
coming tenant in all cases, and not that it applies iu all cases,
except where it does not; or, in other words, jh «ome cases,
which can only be ascertained after inquiry. But, if I felt there
was ao inconsistency in saying that the custom, as set up by
the defendant, was part of the original custom, I should be
inclined to conclude from the evidence adduced that it owes its
origin to the very general desire of the landowners to abolish
the landshare, and that it ia of comparatively recent growth.
But it was submitted by Mr. Price that, if this be so, it would
not invalidate the custom ; and he quoted Woodfall to prove
that it is not necessary that it should have existed iramemo-
rially, p. 505, 5th edu. It will be observed that none of the
authorities which I have before referred to mention immemo-
riality as a necessary ingredient to make such a usage binding ;
and, betides the case of Senior v. Armjtage quoted by Wood-

fall, there is the very recent case of Grifli.ihoof v. Oaubuz, 4
EI. and B. 230, to show how short a time it requires for a
usage to prevail with regard to farming contracts to be recog-
nized by the Courts. la that case it was a question whetht'
the landlord or tenant was bound under the circumstances to
pay the tithe rent-charge due on the 1st October after the ex-
piration of the tenancy, the tenancy ending at Michaelmas ;
audit was proved that it was the u^ual course in that part of
the country where the farm was situate for the tenant quitting
to pay, and Lord Campbell, in giving judgment, says : "The
tenant, by the contract as explained by the usage, was cer-
tainly bound to pay." Now, the Tithe Commutation Act was
only passed in 1836, and few commutations were perfected
before 1840. Here, therefore, was a usage which could not
have prevailed extensively more than ten or twelve years, and yet
recognized by Lord Campbell as affecting a written contract. It
must, therefore, be conceded that it is no objection to a usage
of this kind that it has not immemorially existed ; but still it
must be general, or it can have no effect. It was, undoubtedly,
proved by the defendant that the right to landshare had been
done away with to a very great extent, and that, so far as the
experience of his witnesses went, it was the invariable practice
for a tenant, who had no laudshare on entering, to have none
on quitting ; and I should be mclined to hold that the cus-
tomary right to landshare was now restricted to those cases
where the offgoing tenant had taken a landshare on entering,
if I thought, iu point of law, that the ancient usage mia;ht be
thus narrowed or modified by a more recent usage. But I am of
opinion that this cannot be; that a recent usage cannot be
admitted, which contradicts a more aucient one, unless, at
least, the earlier one falls into desuetude — that they cannot
co-exist together ; and that, as the customary right of land-
share is admitted, there cannot be at the same time a cus-
tomary exemption from landshare. There is another objection
which, though perhaps not fatal to the custom set up by the
defendant, tends to show its unreasonableness. It often hap-
pens that a farm is held by the same tenant, or by him and his
ancestors, for a great number of years ; so that what took
place, in point of fact, at the commencement of the tenancy is
either only knowu to himself or not kuown at all. Now, if
such a tenant, on quitting, alleged that he aud his ancestors
had no landshare on entering, how is it possible to ascertain the
truth of his allegation ? No doubt he would be called upon to
establish the fact if the incomer brought his action. But is it
reasonable that the incoming tenant should thus be driven, of
necessity as it were, to his action to ascertain what his rights
on entering are ? for, I take it, it is not pretended that the
alleged custom would deprive his successor of his landshare
unless he, on entering, yielded to a rightful claim. The al-
leged custom, therefore, appears to me highly objectionable, as
introducing uncertainty, and encouraging the assertion of un-
founded claims. But, without resting at all on this objection,
I conclude, for the reasons before expressed, that the defence
on the part of usa^;e has failed ; and as the defendant was
fully aware of the existence and effect of the special contract
under which Mr. EUaway was entitled to the whole of the
away-going crop, at the time when he executed the lease, it
seems to me that he could only insure himself the enjoyment
of the same advantages at the end of his term, by having a
clause to that effect inserted in the lea=e ; and that, as this
was not done, the declaration cf the plaintiff, that the laud-
share was " at an end" — though it in effect imported that the
defendant should at the end of his tenancy enjoy the whole of
the away-going crop — did not bind bin in law, or afford the
defendant any ground of defence in this action, the position of
the defendant net having been in any way altered, r:or his

0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

legal or equitable rights afifected, iu consequence of the decla-
ration. As regards the alleged trespass for breaking the locks
and entering the fields to carry away the crops, it is clear, from
the cases of Beavati v. Delahay, 1 H. Bl. 5 ; Boraston v.
Green, 16 E. 71 ; Knight v. Bennett, 3 Bing. 366 ; and Grif-
fiths V. Puleston, 3 M. and W. 353, that the defendant was no
trespasser. But it will suffice to quote the language of Baron
Parke in the last of these cases. He says : " The outgoing
tenant remains in possession until all is done which he has a
Tight to do in respect of the away-going crops ; not merely
until the cutting. The case of Beavan v. Delahay is a strong
authority to show that his interest amounts to a possession,
and not merely to an easement." There will, therefore, be
judgment for plaintiff for the value of the landshare, and I
assess that value at £21 Ss. 7d.

remedy of the plaintiff, therefore, in the present case, must be
that provided by the first of these statutes, viz., by summoning
the defendant before a Justice of the Peace ; for when a sta-
tute creates a right, and provides a specific remedy for the
enforcing of that right, the statutory remedy can alone be
pursued.— Nonsuit.

POUND BREACH.—RESERVED JUDG-
MENT.

Newport, Friday.— Before J. M. Herbert, Esq., County
Court Judge.

George Wilcox v. John Roberts.— The plaintiff is
the keeper of a public pound, and Mr. Lloyd, of the King's
Head, having impounded a horse of the defendant's, damage
feasant, in the plaintiff's pound, it remained there for three
days ; but on the night of the third day it was taken out of
the pound by some one, without the leave of the plaintiff, and
was afterwards seen in the possession of the defendant. Mr.
Lloyd told the plaintiff to demand 10s. for the damage. The
plaintiff's fees as pound-koeper amounted to Is. 8d., and he
had supplied the horse with food to the value of Ss. ; and this
action was brought to recover the sum oi 19s. 8d., the amount
of these three items. It is quite clear that the plaintiff has no
claim for the damage done to Mr. Lloyd. It is also clear that
he cannot recover his fees by action. The proper remedy
vFould have been an action for the pound-breach ; but this
action would only lie at the suit of the distrainer. The mode
of supplying cattle iu a public pound with food, and of recover-
ing from the owner the value of the food so supplied, is regu-
lated by the 12 and 13 ViC, c. 92, bs. 5 and 6, and 17 and 18
Vic, c. 60, s. 1. The first of these statutes, s. 5, enacts that
the distrainer shall provide and supply, during the confine-
ment, a sufficient quantity of fit and wholesome food and water
to the animal impounded, subject to a penalty of 20s. for de-
fault in providing such food : and s. 6 empowers any person
whomsoever to enter any pound where an animal is impounded,
and to supply fit and sufficient food and water duriug the cou-
fiuement of the animal, without being liable to an action of
trespass ; and the reasonable coat of such food and water shall
be paid by the owner of such animal, before such animal is re-
moved, to the person who shall supply the same; and the cost
maybe recovered in like manner as penalties may be recovered
under the Act— that is to say by an order of a Justice of the
Peace. The last Act enacts that the impounder, who has pro-
vided the animal with food and water, may recover from the
owner double the value of the food^aud water, in like manner
as penalties may be recovered^under'the former Act ; and, in-
stead of t>roceeding so,';for the recovery, he may, alter the ex-
piration of seven clear days after the time of impounding, sell
the animal openly in the public market, after having given
three days' public printed notice thereof, for the most money
that can be got for the same, and apply the proceeds in dis-
charge of the value of such food and water, and the expenses
of the sale, rendering the overplus (if any) to the owner. The

NORTH DURHAM FAT CATTLE, POUL-
TRY, AND SONG-BIRD SHOW.

The first show of this society was, considering the difficul-
ties which the committee had to surmount, in every way bug-
cessful.

The judges for cattle, sheep, and pigs were Mr. James Doug-
las, of Athelstaneford; Mr. W. Raine, Morton Tinmouth;
and Mr. W. Duckmanton, Cleasby. The show of cattle, al- r
though not large in numbers, was of a quality that has seldom
been surpassed at any local show in the kingdom. The win-
ner of the first prize in class 1 was a magnificent ox, the pro-
perty of Mr. John Smith, of Normanby, Kirby-Moor-Side,
York. He is an animal of great constitution and immense
substance, but is deficient in levelness at the top. He is ex-
ceedingly massive, and carries a large amount of heavy flesh.
The second prize in the class was awarded to Mr. Richard
Swan, of 44, Eldon-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne, for an uncom-
monly fine steer, of good frame, and well finished, bred by Sir
Matthew White Ridley, Bart. This animal showed a good
deal of the true characteristics of the Shorthorn breed, was
more level on the back than the winner, but in other points
was not up to the mark of its successful competitor. \

Iu the second class, for the best shorthorned steer not ex-
ceeding three years old, the winning animal, exhibited by Mr.
James Stewart, Newmarket, Aberdeen, was greatly superior to
anything in his class. He is a very excellent animal, two years
and ten months old, and would do well to be kept on. The
steer which took the second prize (the property of Mr. J.
Outhwaite, of Bainesse, near Catterick) was a good useful
animal, but too flat in the ribs— in some other respects, also,
he was not quite up to the mark.

But the "gem" of the show was " Beauty's Butterfly," a
beautiful white heifer, aged two years and ten months, the
property of Colonel Towneley, bred by himself, but from a cow
descended from Mr. Booth's stock. Her dam " Beauty," we
believe, won the first prize iu her class at the Royal Show at
Lincoln. She was got by " Master Butterfly," is a most per-
fect specimen of a shorthorn, and was an object of universal
admiration. She obtained the first prize in her class, was se-
lected by the judges as the best animal in the yarJ, and re-
ceived the silver cup preseuted by Lord A. Vane Tempest.
She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn,
She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn,

Hurrah, hurrah, for this beautilul cow I
She's clean in tlie jaws, and full in the chine.
She's heavy in flank, and wide in her loin;
She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump,
A straight and fat back, wiih never a hump,
Hurrah, hurrah, for ihis beautilul cowl
She's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes,
She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in hertliighs,

Hurrah, hurrah, for this beautiful cow !
She's light in her neck, and small in her tail.
She's wide in her breast, and good at llie pail,
She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin.
She's a grazier's wiihout, and a butcher's within.
Hurrah, hurrah, for this beautiful cow !

In Class 4 the prize was justly awarded to Mr. W. Wilber-
force, the Hermitage, Stockton-on-the-rorest, York, for his
Shorthorn cow, aged 4 years and 7 months. She was a re-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

83

markably good animal, of immenBe substance, and carrying a
great amount of flesh of good quality. Col. Towneley received
the second prize with a fine animal, showing a good deal of the
Shorthorn character. She is from a cow of Mr. Booth's, named
'' Madeline," but was in the present instance over matched.

The animals shown in Class 5 for the best pure-bred or
cross-bred steers not being Shorthorns, were remarkably good.
The winner, which attracted considerable attention, appears
to be a cross between a Scotch cow by a Shorthorn bull. His
substance was extraordinary, his quality of flesh excellent, and
he might fairly be considered the third-best animal in the yard-
In Class 6, for the best pure-bred or croBs-bred heifers or
cows not being Shorthorns, the first prize was awarded to
Mr. James Stewart, New Market, Aberdeen, for a cross be-
tween a Shorthorned bull and an Aberdeen cow, aged 3
years and 8 months. Sir Walter Calverley Trevelyan, Bart.,
received the second prize in this class for a heifer with good
fore-quarters, but weak in the back and not well finished.
The prize in the seventh class, for the best heifer or cow of

any polled breed was carried off by Mr. Thomas Lund, of
Monk Bar, York, with a remarkably fine animal only 2 years
and 7 months old. She wants size, but is of good quality,
and will make excellent beef. If she had not had wonderfully
fine points about her she would have had little chance with
her competitors, some of which were more than twice her age.
A Scotch polled heifer exhibited by Sir W. C. Trevelyan,
Bart., was a good thick animal, but so wild that no one durst
approach her. There were only two competitors in Class 8.»
The animal which carried off the prize, exhibited by Mr,
Stewart, of Aberdeen, is a beast of which a good deal more
might be made. Classes 9, 10, 11, were represented by fair
good animals.

Although there were 25 pens of sheep, they were not a
first-rate exhibition. There was an exceedingly good show of
piga, numbering no less thau 33 pens.

The dinner of the society was held in the New Town-hall,
Lord A. V. Tempest, M.P. in the chair.
—Abridged from the DurJiam County Advertiser.

THE RECENT PROCEEDINGS OF THE SMITHFIELD CLUB.

Like a coursing party, " mad for a minute and dull
for an hour," the Smithfield Club is very busy for a
week, and very quiet all the rest of the year. The
proceedings of this last anniversary have been more
than usually interesting; and it may so be not impolitic
again to refer to them, while we have still the oppor-
tunity, and they are yet comparatively fresh in the
recollection of the public. We would dwell here not
so much on the merits of the Show itself, as the several
propositions for its future management and ad-
vancement. The very number of motions on the
agenda list spoke well for the vitality of the
Society. What the Smithfield Club has especially
to guard against is the mere routine of self-satisfied
success. It must strive even to do more than it
has done, and not continually fall back upon precedent
for everything it attempts or accomplishes. In a word,
it requires more new matter and new blood ; and one
will always conduce to the otlier. The more practical
men that are invited to take an active part in its ad-
ministration, the more likely is its improvement, even
in the numerical strength of its members. It has been
the fasliion of ringing the changes on Brown, Jones,
and Robinson — Robinson, Brown, and Jones — that has
caused the Club to be considered rather as a close
borough, and brought the majority of agriculturists,
like all the rest of the world, just to pay its shilling and
see the Show, and to think nothing more about it.

It was, then, with much satisfaction that we saw a
notice from one of the stewards of the yard for in-
creasingthe number of gentlemenin authority, Mr. San-
day, himself a most active officer and eminent breeder,
proposed — " That, in consequence of the great addi-
tional labour incidental to the increase of the Show, it
is necessary that three more judges be appointed" —
and he carried his motion. Even in the list for this
year there were one or two new names whose addresses
were by no means so readily at our fingers' ends. We

would counsel the Club to follow this up, and, in the
nine now required, to endeavour as much as possible to
find a few fresh faces. It would be our last object to
offer any dispai'agement to those who have officiated
so often and so well ; but it is in] every way advisable
to have more tried men to fall back upon.
Moreover, a new judge may work on to a
new steward, or vice versa ; and certainly, the greatest
mistake or most unpopular proceeding, of late, has
been to ask members who have already had three
years of duty to take upon them another such a round.
We somewhat que.stion, too, whether we have not got
beyond the times when a steward should Lave the ap-
pointment of his successor. Such a plan might have
been all very well when the direction of the Club was
necessarily limited, and agriculturists, as a rule, loath to
aid even their own interests in public. At present,
however, the reverse is the case ; and we would put it
as a grand principle of action, that the more poweryou
give to the general body of your members, the more
members will you be likely to have. The weak place
of the Smithfield Club is that it has so few.

Another point touched on at the recent meetings of
the Club would not seem so easy of improvement or
solution. In the game of definitions we have alway.s
had two standing difficulties — What is a gentleman ?
and what is a thorough-bred horse ? Mr. Beazley adds
a third, and asks the Club to say what is a pure-bred
animal? The latter has "given it up," perhaps a
little too hastily. A committee might surely furnish
us with some leading principles or rules to act upon— •
long wanted for the guidance of judges and similar so-
cieties, and that could not come so appropriately from
a 'y othrr body. Indeed, if such information be ever
supplied us from elsewhere, it will be simply because
the great national Club has omitted to do so. The
motion, too, was the almost inevitable sequence of what
occurred at the Show of last year. Whether Mr,

Q 2

84

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Heath's ox were pure-bred or not, the Club hardly
went the best way to settle such a question.
To pass an animal as pure by simply looking at
him, argues an amount of confidence that few would be
inclined to trust to, and that none but those who exer-
cised it did in this instance. Again, in the entries of
last week there were animals exhibited and prize-
winners amongst the pure breeds, that were strongly
suspected to have a very recent cross in them. Mr.
Beazley, with a committee for consideration and
inquiry, might have done much good.

The age of a pig would appear to be becoming a more
momentous question than even that of a horse or a
lady. All the trickery of this kind has evidently not
been confined to the turf. The great agricultural
meetings have had their Running Reins and Leanders.
According to a humorous and well-applied illustration
ofMr. Gibbs, " formerly one might have fancied that
some of the exhibitors had taken a lesson out of Cap-
tain Marryatt's ' Midshipman Easy,' where a negro
was represented as acting as if he thought the chief
thing he ought to pay attention to was the filing of
his teeth." With the knowledge of this, and the
attainments of Professor Simonds, the motion of
Mr. Jonas Webb was strongly called for, pointed as
it was by something of an example in this very
show. It is, indeed, difficult at times to under-
stand how men of the hiy;h character we see occa-
sionally condemned for this offence should have per-
mitted such practices. But the world is commonly
charitable enough to put the blame on their ser-
vants, just as it does in the trimming and squaring
of sheep. We shall want some such a similar resolu-
tion, ere long to meet this bit of chicanery. Will Mr.
Webb be kind enough to bear it in mind ?

Taking the age of cattle is another point worthy of
consideration, and we know some eminent breeders who
would go with Mr. Batson against the first of January
generally, and for other breeds as well as Hereford*.
Mr. Badham backed out of his motion as to the ab-
surdity of showing cows in-calf as fat cattle. It is said

the feeling generally would have been against him, as
the majority of heifers exhibited are in-calf. What-
ever may be the fact, the practice is a direct contradic-
tion to the declared object of the Club. When we saw
the prize cow of last year go home again to calve, and
remembered how we had seen her shown in just about
the same condition in the summer, the very natural
question that suggested itself was— Which, if you
please. Sir, is the breeding and which the feeding cow ?
It is this close association of the two states that leads
to so much abuse.

We entered last week at some length on the chief
motion of the two meetings— the practicability of ob-
taining a more commodious place for holding the show ;
and we must now await the inquiries of the committee-
The couductof that just held in King-street has since
been somewhat criticised as to the admission of affected '
animals. We believe a great deal more has been made
of this than was in any way warranted. For the future,
it may be as well for the stewards to at once remove
any suspected beast ; while it was certainly not prudent
to readmit Mr. Brown's heifer, considering the state
she was in. Travel and excitement only conduce to the
development of disease, and an invalided animal could
but be expected to jict worse and worse in such a crowd
and atmosphere as that of the Baker-street Bazaar.

On the whole, we can heartily congratulate the
friends of the Club on the increased activity and
watchful spirit it has recently evinced. To further this,
people must be encouraged to suggest and participate "T
in promoting its advancement. With a national ob-
ject and influence, its active supporters cannot be too
widely spread. Let it therefore be a care to mark out
districts with which, so far, the office-bearers of the So-
ciety have not been identified. If a steward is still to
name his successor, let there be a byelaw that it shall be
S'jme one living at least a hundred miles from him, and
who has never served before. There are plenty of good
men ready to take their turn if they are onlj asked to
do so; and " the more the merrier" might even make
the dinner a little more lively and attractive.

CHRISTMAS WEATHER.

BY CUTHBEKT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

To what bright and sunny thoughts do the words
"A happy Christmas !" give rise ! Of the blazing
yule log, handed down to us from Saxon days; of
the family gatherings around smoking turkeys and
stout plum puddings, right able to withstand the
shock of hungry holiday-keeping youths. Long,
long may these truly national assemblages flourish,
with increasing comfort and warmth to English
homes ! And on one of these cosy gatherings, as
we sit around our fire, we may not spend our time
unprofitably if vve just (without turning out into
the snow or the thick chilling fog) take a thoughtful

turn round our homestead, and see how our live
stock are spending their Christmas, and bestow a
thought or two upon the useful inquiry. Can we
make these or our dependants more comfortable ?

We have reason to be hearty in this little question.
Our pockets are concerned here, our balance at
the bankers may be influenced by these observa-
tions, especially if we do what many persons do
not, feel convinced that something good is to be
done, and yet never make even an attempt to do it.

While I am saying these things a dense cold winter
fog encircles everything around me; these fogs

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

85

have, in fact, been more than usually prevalent at
this season of the year. Every one knows their
chilling influence. We not only feel it ourselves,
but we notice it in our shivering farmyard live
stock. The fog not only surrounds and carries off
the animal heat from us on all sides, but it is often
an impure moisture. We need not allude to the
smoke-surcharged fogs, of densely-populated places:
it is apparent enough to the very senses there ;
your eyes smart in a London fog (it is of a mellow
reddish-yellow colour) ; you taste it there. But
even in country places the water of fog is more
impure than that of rain. Professor Anderson, when
sketching (on a recent useful occasion) the progress
^ of scientific agriculture {Trans. High. Soc, 1858,
p. 397), alludes to the labours of a celebrated
French agricultural chemist to determine the com-
parative amount of some of the foreign substances
found in rain, fog, and dew waters. M. Boussin-
gault directed his attention to determining the
amount of ammonia and nitric acid not only in the
moisture of fogs and dews, but in rain-water under
different circumstances ; and he has shown that
the proportions vary within very wide limits at dif-
ferent times. As a general rule the water of dew,
and still more that of fogs, is richer both in am-
- monia, and in nitric acid than rain-water, unless
we compare it with the first drops of rain falling
during a shower, and which for obvious reasons
must contain a large quantity. The abundance of
these substances in fog-water is remarkable. Thus
Boussingault found that a million parts of rain
falling in Alsace contain O.G of ammonia, and 0.2
of nitric acid ; but in the moisture of a particular
dense fog which occurred in Paris on the 23rd of
January, 1854, there were no less than 138 parts
per million of ammonia ; and on another occasion
in the country, about a third of that quantity; and
on the 19th of December, 1857, a fog was examined
which contained 13 parts per million of nitric acid.
The following is a tabular statement of the quantity
of ammonia and nitric acid found in meteoric water
under different circumstances. The numbers
express in grains the quantity per imperial gallon ;
Ammonia. Nitric Acid.
S Paris .... 0.2100 O.07OS
i Liebfrauenberg . 0.0350 0.0140
S Maximum . . . 0.4340 0.0785
) Minimum . . . 0.0714 0.0030
p C Paris .... 9.6000 0.7092

^' • (Liebfrauenberg . 0.1790 0.0718

When we conclude that the protection of our
domestic animals from cold and wet (which moisture
renders our stock still colder) tends to our profit,
we have the testimony on our side of all the leading
practical farmers, and of men of science too. " I
have no faith in the idea which I have sometimes

Rain

Dew.

heard expressed," observes Mr. Edward Bovvly, of
Siddington, in his recent valuable prize essay on
the management of breeding cattle {Jour. Roy. Ag,
Soc, vol. xix., p. 147), " that ' roughing' calves
(which means exposing them to cold and hunger)
makes them hardy. On the contrary, it has the
eff'ect of weakening their constitutions; and this
system pursued towards the young stock for two
or three generations will ruin the best breed of
cattle in the country : the oft'spring after this time
will have lost all the quality, early maturity, and
propensity to fatten of their ancestors, and it will
require years of the greatest care to recover what
is thus lost. On the other hand, it is very injurious
to force young animals, although it may be neces-
sary in those individuals which are intended to
compete for prizes. The tendency of such a system
is to curtail their usefulness as breeding animals ;
for, though most of them so forced will breed,
there is of course more risk in calving them, their
milking properties are greatly lessened, from those
vessels intended by nature for the supply of milk
being coated with fat, and they decay prematurely,
and have all the marks of age upon them at seven
or eight, whereas I have bred from cows not so
forced up to twenty-two years of age. Nor is there
any real reason for forcing show-animals ; for
judges can fully appreciate the merits of cattle
without their being so extremely fat as breeding-
stock are now exhibited at nearly all our shows."
And when speaking, in his prize essay, of the ma-
nagement of sheep {ibid, vol. viii., p. 30), Mr. R.
Smith, of Exmoor, after giving the result of a
variety of experiments upon their food, sums up
the results with the observation that it will be
found that icarmth is proved to be an important
feature in sheep husbandry, and is, in fact, a subject
affecting the rural economy of the whole nation.
Taking the average temperature of a sheep's body
at 100 degrees, and the average temperature of our
climate to be 60 degrees, in every respiration and
inspiration of air the animal loses by the exchange
animal heat equal to 40 degrees, which if not sup-
plied by the elements of food or artificial warmth,
the animal would cease to exist. Thus, when
the temperature of the animal body is below the
standard oi heat, it requires a proportionate arti-
ficial warmth to economize the vegetable food,"

The dairy suffers too, by the exposure of the cow
to low temperature. It was in his elaborate paper
on the milk-producing gland {ibid., vol. xix.,
p. 101) that Professor J. B. Simonds had occasion
to remark, when speaking of the effect of tempera*
ture, that the injurious result of the extreme heat
of summer, or of the cold of winter, over the ani-
mal functions, requires but little exemplification.
Cows exposed to either suffer in their lactation,

86

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

A highly elevated teiiii)erature, by keeping an ani-
mal in a state of excitement, often produces func-
tional disorders of the liver, which lead to diarrhoea
and a consequent diminution in the secretion of
milk; while the opposite state of the atmosphere,
by depressing the vital functions, has a similar
result. Notwithstanding this, an animal has the
power of maintaining a uniform heat of its body
under any circumstances it may be placed in, with
regard to temperature. This heat, which is equal
to about IOC of Fahrenheit, is, however, kept up
with less tax on the system under some circum-
stances than under others. As a general principle
a greater demand is made on some of the elements
of the body in cold than in warm weather. It is
principally by the union of the oxygen of the at-
mosphere with the carbon and hydrogen of the
system, and the consequent production of carbonic
acid gas and watery vapour, which takes place in
the capillary vessels of the entire organism, that
animal heat is produced. The carbon and hydro-
gen are thus being constantly consumed, and to
supply their place the hydro-carbonaceous mate-
rials of the body are appropriated. By the process
of respiration oxygen enters the system ; and by
the same process the carbonic acid and watery
vapour are cast out. Cream, as we have elsewhere
stated, consists chiefly of the oleaginous or hydro-
carbonaceous elements of the milk, their source
being the food ; but if these are consumed while
still in part within the blood to keep up the heat
of the body, it follows as a consequence that a
diminished amount will be found in the milk.
Protection from the cold and inclement weather of
winter thus becomes indirectly the cause of supply
of a given quantity of food, and the same protec-
tion is no less beneficial in allaying undue excita-
tion during the heat of summer.

The owners of stock on the Continent seem well
aware of the advantages of warmth. In the
Netherlands, where the cows are housed during the
winter months, thay can suffer little from cold ; they
are brought into their winter quarters in November,
and are put out to grass in May if the weather is
mild. When first the cows are let out into the
meadows, a piece of coarse cloth is put over their

loins, and tied round their bodies, to prevent the
injurious effects of cold dews and fogs : this is
discontinued when the air becomes warmer. In
all Northern Germany too, and in Holstein, tha
cows are as warmly winter-sheltered, or more so
than in the Netherlands. In Holstein the housing
of the cows requires very extensive buildings ; for
there the herds are large, and in fact their dairies
are "the glory" of the intelligent Danish farmers.
The advantage, indeed, of adapting the circum-
stances in which our animals are placed to the
changes of the seasons need hardly be enlarged
upon. The winter coats of our horses (which are
barbarously clipped off), and many other natural
phenomena, tell us the necessity of the same thing. i
The very worm we tread upon seeks a warmer
habitation as winter approaches; he then dives
down into deeper and warmer chambers, and again
approaches the surface as the season becomes
genial. We may thus take a hint from very
"humble creatures"*; and if at this merry season
we just give a few minutes to the consideration of
how those patient cows — those shivering pigs can
be made a little more " comfortable," we may per-
haps accomplish something worth while by even
small efforts, that would not sound very important
in print. The extension of a haulm wall — a better
closed window or door — a transfer at night to a
warmer shed during comfortless snows and fogs —
a little variation in the food, or a warmer bed —
might be sensibly felt even in the dairy. And
when we are considering our herds and flocks,
assuredly it would be a kindly act to remember
that the herdsman and the shepherd have also
little flocks at home of their own, who might jyer-
chance, by some kind little act or word of advice
and thouf/htfulness, be also rendered warmer and
drier. At any rate, it gives little trouble and less
expense en our part to "just see to this"; the very
pleasure of trying to do it is an ample reward, I
know full well, to all those to whom I care to
address myself ; and in any event, the raere attempt
to give comfort will certainly not render the glo-
rious season of Christmas less joyous, either in the
house or in the homestead.

THE ADVANTAGES OF WINTER PLOUGHING.

The season of the year has now arrived when the
majority of our farmers are far advanced, or are
rapidly pro..;ressing-, M'ith tlie important operation of
ploughing-up the land for the winter. With g( neral
consent, this system has been accepted and adopted
with very advantageous results ; but there are some
districts in which greater attention to the practice will

bo productive of much benefit, and we therefore feel
it important to draw attention to it. Tlie soil, like all
other matter, needs a period of renovation after it has

* " Humble Creatures " is the title of a nice little
3s, Qd. volume on the worm and the house-fly (all
Van Voorst's books are, in fact, good), by Samuel-
son and Hicks, just pubhshed.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

87

been discharging' its duties for a certain period of
time. It was once very generally believed that plants
threw off certain excrementitious matters, in the same
manner as animals do ; and that such matter was very
prejudicial to the luxuriant growth of the plant pro-
ducing it, as being not simply useless for the nourish-
ment of the plant, but positively injurious. With such
an opinion, it became very easy to see the advantages
derived from exposing the soil to the atmosphere ; and
it was consequently assumed that the air, by promot-
ing the decay of such excrement, purified the soil, or,
as it was usually termed, " sweetened it," and thus it
again became fitted for producing the same crop. The
advances which have been made in our knowledge of
the growth of plants, whilst they make us cautious in
rejecting such an opinion entirely, certainly lead us
to modify the views originally entertained. Conse-
quently, our ideas respecting this purification of the
soil from excrement have undergone considerable
change. Instead, therefore, of tracing to the plant the
power of throwing off this excrementitious matter, it
is now believed that the decay proceeding in the soil
produces matter which, in some of its stages, is un-
congenial to the plant ; and, when such is the case, the
admission of air into the soil becomes desirable for
sweetening the land, not from any excrement which
the previous crop may have thrown off, but from the
vegetable acids which are formed in the soil from the
decay of vegetable matter. If this organic matter
should be abundant, there is the greater opportunity
for the production of these vegetable acids in the soil ;
if it be deficient, then there is less opportunity for their
formation. The natural inference is that, if we are
dealing with a soil rich in organic matter, either
naturally or from the use of manure, it becomes the
more desirable that it should be freely exposed to the
air, so as to keep it in a healthy condition. The atmo-
sphere of the soil is almost as influential upon the
plant as the atmosphere above the soil. If it becomes
foul and unhealthy, the plant cannot luxuriate as under
more congenial conditions.

The organic matter of the soil, which demands these
supplies of fresh air, needs it to perform those alter-
ations in its character and condition that will fit
the decaying ingredients to change from the organic
matter of the soil into such ;i state that it may be
readily transformed— under vital energy— into the or-
ganic matter of the crop. This is a transformation
which it is necessarj for it to undergo, in order that it
may be serviceable in promoting vegetable growth. It
is of little avail having a soil richly stored with organic
matter unless we allow this matter to become so acted on
that it shall be rendered serviceable for the next crop.
The free exposure of the soil to the air is therefore
very important and essential for the healthy condition
of our lauds, because it promotes the decay of the or-
ganic matter they contain, renders any dung re-
maining in them ready for the succeeding crop, and
developes matter hidden in the land. In fact, whilst it
purifies the soil it also enriches it.

But why should this be done during the M'inter

months ? There are many reasons, but the two follow-
ing will probably be sufficient : The winter is the
period of rest— a time when the soil is not employed in
the production of vegetable growth, and therefore we
may employ it advantageously without interrupting
the production of any crop. Another reason is, because
the soil becomes more completely acted upon at this
time of the year than any other ; and hence the action
is rendered more perfect. This arises from various
causes ; but of these the influence of temperature is the
most important. The exposure of the soil to the rain
causes it to become thoroughly permeated by the
water ; when the frost. sets in, this water becomesfrozen,
and the frost, as it were, creeps into the soil, binding its
particles together like portions of rock rather than
soil. But when a change of temperature follows, the
hard and rock-like clods crumble beneath its influence.
In this manner we get the soil very freely exposed,
and this breaking-down gradually lays its hidden
stores open to the action of the air, and thus the de-
caying matter of our soils is changed from its sour and
acrid condition into a form ready to enter into the suc-
ceeding crop, and minister to its development. It is so
we see that the ploughing of the land in order to ex-
pose it as much as possible to the influence of the
winter air is a practice which advantageously accom-
panics the liberal use of farm-yard manure. Upon
good land it is desirable as far as it can be done, be-
cause it develops the fertility which lies hidden within.
It also favours the decay of the manure it contains,
thereby bringing it within reach of tlie subsequent
crop, and rendering it available for promoting its luxu-
riant growth.

HOW TO MAKE TWO POUNDS OF MEAT
UPON POOR GRASS LAND WHERE ONLY
ONE POUND WAS MADE BEFORE.

giR^_The famed county of Leicester contains some of the
finest grazhig laud upou the face of the earth ; and the said
fine county contains some very weak poor grass land, which
ought to be first underdrained, and then ploughed, and sown
with a fair proportion of root and green crops. If not
ploughed up, I propose upon this poor grass land to give the
cattle and sheep eating the grass upon it a fair quantity of
cake per head per day upon it, which would make the said land
in a short time produce double the weight of grass, which
would keep double the quantity of stock, and at tlie same time
produce double the quantity of strong manure yearly, and
double the quantity of meat per acre -nay, and keep fat stock
where lean ones were kept before. I have known the above
practised 50 years back near Rockingham Forest, where some
short-horned oxen ate lOlbs. of oil-cake per head per day, and six
Leicester sheep Hlbs. each of cake per head per day; the oxen
gained alive per head per week a stone of Mlbs., or 2801b3. in
twenty weeks; the sheep gained alive 21bs. each sheep
per week, or 401bs.each, or lOlbs.per quarter in twenty weeks.
The more cake you give the cattle and sheep the sooner your
land would keep double the stock, as the strength of the ma-
nure depends upon what it is made of. And the cheapest
manure is by converting cake or corn into meat, because when
meat is at a high price the manure lays to but little money.
As the Lincolnshire Wolds and Lincoln Heath has been by ju-
dicious manuring made to produce double the quantity of corn
per acre, common sense says that the poor grass land might
easily be made to produce double the weight of grass per acre;
but the great obstacle in the way is the want of a North
Liucoluahire tenant-right alias justice between landlord and
tenant. Samuel Arnsby.

Milifield, Pelerhorougli, Bee. 2nd.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE,

During' stormy and frosty weather, carry dung
from the cattle yards to the heaps in the fields that
are intended for next year's green crops. Slope
the heaps at the ends^ so that, the carts can pass
along the heap ; and spread the strawy excrements
evenly over the extent; the treading is intended to
prevent the present fermentation. Carry stones
for drains, and for walling, and soil to the compost
heap, and to the liquid manure pit, where fine
earths are used for absorption. Deliver grains to
the merchant; carry fuels; and gather all kinds
of manure.

In fresh weather, plough stubbles for wheat,
and green-crop fallows : on wet lands, open by
spade all cuts, to let the water escape into the side
ditches. Plough grass leys for Lent crops of
grain— all lands are better for being early ploughed;
heavy lands are pulverized by the vicissitudes of
atmospheric action; and light lands acquire a con-
solidation from laying a time in a certain position.
In the case of light lands, this firmness of the soil
has been found of very great value.

The fresh weather of this month affords a good
opportunity for cutting hedges, underwood, and
copses; for planting young trees; forcuttingdrainsto
the half depth, to be afterwards deepened and finished
in Summer; and for cleaning water-courses, clean-
ing the sides of roads, and carrying the materials
to a heap for lime compost. Sow wheat on any
fallows delayed in Autumn, and on stiff turnip
lands from which the roots have been removed.

During mild dry weather, if any happen, con-
tinue to pull, and lay in store, Swedish turnips in a
heap at the homestead ; lay the roots in a longi-
tudinal row, six feet wide at bottom, and four feet
high, with sloping sides, and thatch it with straw.
Choose a cool situation. Lay in store, in provision
against a storm, a quantity of common turnips,
sufficient for a month's consumption : keeping be-
yond that time produces mouldiness.

In every kind of weather never omit to collect
manures; a compost heap is indispensably re-
quisite, to which all refuse matters are carried ; in
a shed under cover, prepare dry manures for the
drop drill. Float water meadows, and lay dry
occasionally.

Thrash frequently, that the animals may
have fresh straws for constant use — for provender
in the yards, and for being cut into chaff. Move
very often the straw cribs in the yards, that the
dung underneath may become of an uniform
quality; and litter often the whole area of the

yards thinly and evenly. Bestow the most mi-
nute attention on every detail of practice.

Give turnips and other roots to the feeding and
store cattle in the yards by break of day, in such
quantities as the intended purpose may require,
and to be consumed by night, in order to prevent
accidents by choking when darkness prevents the
observation. Wooden cribs with latticed bottoms
allow the mud and water to escape downwards,
and answer a good purpose. A few young pigs
are very useful to run loose in the yards to pick
up the shells and scraps of turnips that fall from
the cattle.

Attend most carefully to the milch cows now
beginning to drop calf. The secretion of milk
must be promoted by juicy food — roots mixed
with chafF, prepared by steaming, in at least one
meal daily, given at mid-day. Suckle all calves,
either for weaning, or for veal ; no substitute has
been found for the mother's milk ; feed the calves
thrice in a day.

The sheep in the fields will require a very re-
gular attention in feeding and tending. Give the
turnips in a fresh state daily, pulled from the
fields if possible : early ewes will begin to drop
lambs, must have ample feeding with juicy food,
and good shelter in covered sheds.

Feed bacon hogs twice a day with steamed roots,
as potatoes mixed with meals and bran. The food
of brood sows may be thinner and more mashy.
Store pigs may have the roots in a raw state, and
one feed of cooked food daily. Bacon hogs are
finished in the last month of fattening by
eating hard corns, as beans and oats. This food
produces whiteness and firmness in any flesh.

The poultry must not be neglected. Feed with
light grains, and steamed potatoes mixed with
meals, and given in troughs placed in a covered'
shed. Poultry houses should be heated under-
neath the floor by hot water pipes from the cooking
boiler. By this means, the hatching of chickens
may go on during winter.

The foremost fatting bullocks, and the early
bacon hogs will come into sale during this month,
and will command a ready market at this early
season. Such articles being scarce, a higher price
is obtained. This circumstance should stimulate
the farmer to have all things as much in advance
as possible.

Work horses are much benefited by one feed
daily of steamed potatoes or other roots, given in
the evening when they return from work.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
DECEMBER.
Although rather large rjuantitiea of rain h»ve fallen in iflost
parts of the United Kinglom since the close of the previoua
mouth, the want of adequite supplies of moisture is still com-
plained of in some of our leading districts. However, on the
whole, out-door farm labours are, for the moat part, seasonably
forward, and the young wheats are looking strong and healthy.
We are again compelled to write in the same dull strain, as
respects the wheat traile, as for many months past. Great
disinclination has been shown on the part of the millers iu the
purchase of wheat beyond immediate wants ; nevertheless, the
downward movement iu the quotations appears, at length, to
have received a check, and some parties in the trade have ex-
pressed their opinion to the effect that we shall shortly have
rather excited markets, and that, as a consequence, the quota-
tions will have an upward tendency. Without positively en-
dorsing this opinion, it may, we think, be taken for granted
that the value of wheat has seen its lowest range, and it may
hi fairly argued that the absence of extensive importations
from abroad during the next three months may enable present
holders of foreign to dispose of the enormous supplies which
have accumulated iu the London warehouses ; but against any
important rise in prices, we have to notice the important fact
that our farmers continue to hold heavy stocks of wheat, both
new and old, and, further, that the secondary articles of con-
sumption— such as potatoes, rice, &c. — are, from their great
abundance, still coming into direct competition with wheat ;
nevertheless, a very little excitement in the trade would doubt-
less be followed by extensive purchases on the part of the
millers, who now hold much smaller supplies of grain than has
been known for niiny years past. We observe that in some
quarters there is a disposition to attribute the present de-
pressed state of the trade to a falling off in the consumption of
bread; but a comparison of the sales (jf English wheat effected
this, compared with lasi; year, shows that the transactions have
been considerably in excess of 1857 ; and when we bear in
mind that the trade and commerce of the country are rapidly
recovering their former position, and that the whole of our
operatives are in full employment, we can hardly assume that
the future range i:i prices will exhibit any adverse movement
as regards the agricultural body. And here we may further
remark that the consumption of meat, since quite the com-
mencement of the year just concluded, has been enormous.
Everywhere prices have ruled very high, although the importa-
tions from the continent have not exhibited any important
decline compared with 1857. Throughout France and Ger-
many a large quantity of wheat is still in stack, and the
growers have coiitin\ied to press sales, even at further reduced
rates ; but in the United States, owing in some measure to a
redaction of 30 per cent, iu the import duty on American
flour in Brazil, the trade has ruled somewhat firmer. The
shipments of produce to the United Kingdom, since the 1st of
S.'ptembcr, have been trifling, viz., 71,471 barrels of flour
against 3]8,5i3 barrels iu the same period in 1857 ; 422,821
bushels of wheat, against 2,566,693 bushels; and 305,685
hushels of maize, against 534,955 bushels. The decrease,
t'lerefore, amounts to 267,039 barrels of flour, 2,143,877
bushels of wheat, and 229,270 bushels of maize. This im-
meuse falling off in the exports ii somewhat significant, and,

in the event of the Liverpool granaries becoming well cleared
of their late heavy stocks, it may have the effect of producing
additional firmness in the home trade at a period when least
expected.

Immense supplies of potatoes, in excellent condition, have
continued on offer in the who'.e of our leading markets. All
kinds have met a dull inquiry, at prices varying from 453. to
lOOs. per ton. On the Continent, the crop, as with us, has
turned out large, and some extensive shipments have been
made to this country from France, Holland, and Belgium,
although the use of potatoes in distilleries is again permitted.
From the 1st to the 27th of the month, about 3,200 tons of
foreign potatoes were received into London alone, and we may
anticipate equally large quantities both in January and Feb-
ruary.

Full average supplies of fat stock have been on offer in our
various markets for Christmas consumption. Although the
trade has not been to say very brisk, good clearances have been
effected at high, perhaps we may say rera\juerative, quotations.
The scarcity of winter food for cattle is still complained of
iu our midland counties, and not a few of the graziers have
been compelled to purchase large quantities of hay to meet
actual requirements. This outlay must, as a matter of course,
materially reduce profits upon future sales, even though meat
may continue to sell at its present high value.

Although the accounts from the manufacturing districts are
favourable in the extreme — an immense amount of business
having been transacted both in cotton and woollen goods^
partly for export to India and China — there has been no im-
portant movement in the wool market. Prices, however, have
continued very firm, and there is every prospect of higher rates
as the new year progresses, as the supplies now in the hands of
the manufacturers are unusually small, and as the greater portion
of the last clip of English has been disposed of.

The hop trade has continued devoid of animation ; neverthe-
less, prices generally have been supported. The supplies of
hops now on hand are larger than for many years past at this
time, and nothing short of extensive shipments will relieve the
market from the pressure upon it.

We have nothing particularly to notice as regards demand
for, or value of, produce either in Ireland or Scotland. The
operations in wheat have been limited, at about previous quo-
tations ; bnt fine barley and oats have moved off steadily, at
full quotations. The quantity of fine barley produced both
here and on the Continent, in the past year, was unusually
small, even allowing that the entire crop was a large one ; but
sales of light parcels have continued to be foiced, and the re-
sult is that the quotations have run down to a low point.
Very little barley is now used iu the distilleries in this country
for the purpose of making spirit for export to the Continent.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE
PAST MONTH.
The leading feature of the month has been the holding of the
great markets for Christmas consumption. With scarcely an
exception, they have been well and abundantly supplied,
whether we consider tbe condition or the weight of the stock
brought forward. The trade has ruled decidedly firm, and
both beasts and sheep have changed bands at high quotations.

00

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Iq a camparative sense, the great market held in London was
a moat superior one, and it was a general subject of remark
that the short-horned breed of beasts in this country is rapidly
increasing in strength, both as regards number and in the
crossings. This is a point of great interest at this moment,
and it would appear that apprehensions are current in some
quarters that eventually we shall have very few of the old-
fashioned, or what are termed pure, breeds — such as Herefords,
Devons, Scots, &c. — left in the country. The aim of the
breeders of late years appears to have been, to combine weight
with improved quality, and the result of the experiment thus
far appears to have been successful. It will, however, be
watched with more than usual attention, as many persons have
long since condemned the system of extensive crossing as
fraught with danger to the general stamina of the stock.

A scarcity of winter-food has continued to be felt in some
quarters, more especially in our midland counties, and rather
large quantities of hay have been purchased from a distance to
make good the deficiency.

We have now arrived at the close of the Lincolnshire season
for beasts as regards London, and we shall be chiefly supplied
from Norfolk during the next sis months. In that county the
number of beasts in process of stall-feeding is large ; and we
may fairly anticipate heavy arrivals from that quarter. With
average supplies from the Continent, therefore, we see no
reason to anticipate higher quotations than those now current.
The total supplies of stock exhibited in the Great Metropolitan
Market have been as follows : —

Beasts 20,523 head.

Cows 490 „

Sheep 74,274 „

Calves ],412 „

Pigs 2,450 „

Comparison of Supplies.
Dec. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Piffs.

1857 19,830 375 fi9,l32 1,209 1,915

1856 23,995 475 73,200 1,526 2,3;;0

1855 22,412 590 94,030 1,376 3,184

1854 20,298 120 88,880 1,573 2,746

1853 23,314 484 88,480 1,143 2,403

Beef has sold at from [38. to 5s. 4d. ; mutton, 3s. to 5s.
4d. ; veal, 3s. 4d. to 5s. \ and pork, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 2d. per
81 bs., to sink the ofFal.

Comparison of Prices.
Dec, 1857. Dec, 1856. Dec, 1855.
s. d. s d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.
Beef, from.. 3 0 to 5 0 3 10 to 5 0 3 4 to 5 4
Mutton .... 3 2 — 5 0 4 0 — 5 6 3 4—5 0

Veal 3 10 — 5 6 3 8 — 5 6 3 10—6 0

Pork 3 6 — 5 4 3 8 — 5 4 3 6—5 0

The above comparison shows that pork has sold at ruinously
low rates during the past mouth ; but the fact is, that the high
quotations realized for them in the three previous years have
had the eflfect of producing a wonderful increase in the total
supply of pigs in the United Kingdom. The excess in the sup.
ply has been so enormous that the greatest difficulty has been
experienced in effecting sales of the immense supplies of pork
forwarded to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, at almost any
price. Apparently, as much money has been lost this season
in the production of pork aa was gained in the two previous
years.

The imports of foreign stock into London have been on an
extensive scale for the time of year, or as follows : —

Beasts 1,980 head.

Sheep 16,029 „

Calves 1,037 „

Pigs 53 „

Total 19,099

In the corresponding month in 1857, the total imports were

6,608; in 1S56, 11,079; in 1855, 19,515 ; in 1854, 18,349 ;
in 1853, 21,918; and in 1852, 11,870 head.

The arrivals of beasts from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and
Northamptonshire have comprised about 9,000 shorthorns ;
from the West Country, 2,300 Herefords, Devons", Runts,
&c. ; from other parts of England, 2,450 of various breeds;
from Norfolk, 720 Scots and Shorthorns; from Scotland,
1,161 Scots; and from Ireland, 1,450 osea, &c

Unusually large supplies of Scotch and country-killed meat
have been received up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, in
which an extensive business has been transacted as follows : —

]3eef, from 33. to 4s. 8d.; mutton, 3s, 2d. to 4s. 8d. ;
veal, 39. 2d. to 4s. 8d. ; pork, 2s. Gd, to 4s. 4d. per 81bs.
by the carcase.

WEST GLOUCESTERSHIRE.
Another year has nearly run its course — a year replete with
agricultural interest. Erom the commencement to the pre-
sent time the weather has been more than usually favourable
for farming operations. A fine winter, succeeded by sharp
frosts in March, rendered the soil most remarkably fit for
spring cultivation ; and it also checked the precocious growth
of the autumn-sown wheat. A fine and early spring brought
forth the fruits of the earth in great perfection, and a dry sum-
mer enabled the careful husbandman to clean his land most
satisfactorily. Then came the harvest, with abundant crops,
and splendid weather for the ingathering. All the farming
operations of the season have proceeded with unusual regularity
and promptitude; there has been nothing to impede them. The
early harvest has allowed much time for tillage, and a man
must have been culpably negligent who did not embrace the
advantages of autumnal cultivation. The very small propor-
tion of rain that has fallen on an average during the year,
although suitable for most soils, occasioned considerable incon-
venience in many parts, from the imperative necessity of pro-
curing it from a distance to supply the slock, involving in
many instances considerable expenditures of money. The
quantity of cheese made in this district is below an average;
it commenced with prospects highly flattering. The grass
came luxuriantly and eerly in the spring, but the dry weather
of the summer occasioned a great falling ofl'. The fruit may
be estimated at a trifle under two-thirds of a crop, but the de-
ficiency is made up by the quantity of the cider. The
root crops are fair, not first-rate ; yet there is not much
cause for complaint. The dry weather which prevailed during
the summer and autumn prevented luxuriant growth, and the
mangels have superiority over the swides. They were nearly,
if not all, housed during fine weather ; therefore there is every
reason to expect they will keep well. We now come to the
all-important provision for another year — the wheat crop. In
many places the planting of it was delayed, in consequence of
the extreme hardness of the soil ; and in some places where it
was planted early, it lay in the ground without vegetating,
which must be prejudicial to its growth ; but we are not ap-
prehensive that this failing is extensive. The artificial-manure
mania has come to acrisii, and many intelligent farmers have
decided that they can produce good crops without guano.
The introduction of lime is extending with pood efl'ect, and
although it may be pronounced an old-fashioned application,
it is nevertheless a good one. The decline in the value of all
kinds of agricultural productions can scarcely be said to have
occasioned surprise — perhaps we may except the great reduc-
tion in the price of wheat •, but considering the abundant
crops, not merely in the United Kingdom but all over the
world, and the extra breadth of land planted with that grain
in England, whatever it might have been elsewhere, there
could be no reason for supposing it could have maintained the
rates of preceding years.

WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE.
The month which above all others is characterised by ex-
cessive cheerless and gloom has now run its course, and
we are now close on the festive season, anniversary of the time
when " Peace on earth, good-will to man," was heralded forth
by angelic tongues ; and how many generations of earth's
proud sons, big with the pomposities of vanity, since that

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

91

eventful period have been and passed away ! " Their name is
legion ;" and how many associations, delightful and sad, does
this season call up to us ! How many have gone, to whom we
looked with filial and reverential respect, whose ample experi-
ence might be a safe guide for our youth, and on the accuracy
of whose opinion we always regulated our paths ! But the
stern destroyer does not hold with the aged and well-striclf en
in years : the young, the gay, the beautiful are all proper food
for his insatiate jaws. How much it behoves us then, who
are now spared to ^enjoy the festivities of another Christmas,
to " join trembling with our mirth!" How many of us may
be numbered and marked to fall before another Christmas ! For
how many the steru mandate has gone forth, " Cat them
down : whycumbereth they the ground ?" That such an order
has gone forth for " numbers is certain ; the reverse is sure to
none." " Be ye also ready." Duriug November we had our
quota of dull cheerless days, a portion of wet, and some severe
frost ; on the whole an unseasonable month, and favourable for
the steady progression of out-door work. Ploughing is well for-
ward, and a goodly proportion of roots secured, which, by the
way, are pulling fair crops, and much better than at one time
during the summer could have been anticipated. Cattle are
all now at winter quarters ; but the idea is very prevalent that
less than a usual average number has gone to turnips. The
trade of late has been better for fat, prime animals making
about 73. 6d. per 14 lbs. feheep are, and for the last six months
have been, a drug on the market. Mutton must certainly be
in the dark shade with the million, or sheep-breeding of late
must have been more extensively followed. Grain sells at
ruinously low prices ; and if present rates hold, Halkett's rails
cannot be too soon laid over the length aud breadth of our
district, if the advantages promised in his able paper are at
all likely to arise from their adoption. Bu; the great bug-bear
in connection with the system is, and will be, the immense
capital required. Good wheat can be got at 40s. per qr. ;
barley, malticg from 32s. to 343. ; grinding barley, of which
a very goodly proportion in this district this season must be
classed, brings 283. per qr. New oats from lO^d to ll^d. per
stone; fresh old oats from 32s to 35s. per qr. — Dec. 23.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE,
FAIRS, &c.

BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a good show
of fat beasts, hut a small one of sheep. All kinds of fat stock
were in good sale, at the full rates of last fortnight. A small
quantity of holding stock sold at late rates. Beef, 6s. 6d. to
78. 3d. pt-r stone ; mutton, S^i. to 6|d. per lb.

COMBE ST. NICHOLAS FAIR was well attended by
farmers. The supply of all kinds of stock was large, excel-
lent in quality, and met a ready sale, good prices being
obtained for the greater part.

KELSO FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— The supply of fat
Cattle was not large, but there were a number of them of
good quality. There was a good demand, and all were dis-
posed, at from 78. to Ss. per stone.

LEDBURY FAIR.— Fat beef was not very plentiful,
but what there was was fine. It fetched from 6^i. to 7d.
per lb. Fat sheep made G^d., ewes 7d. A few
store beasts were in the fair, which were sold, though the
dealers were scarcely willing to give the prices asked.

PENRITH FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— We had
a large show of sheep (upwards of 1,200); a gi'eat manj',
however, were blaukfaced, and not well up in condition.
For those fit for the butcher a good demand was experienced,
at prices a little in advance of last market. In cattle the
show was very good. The market closed with a dull
tone.

PAIGNTON MONTHLY MARKET was attended by a
great number of buyers and dealers, and the supply of stock
was large. Beef, of which there was some very prime speci-
mens, is quotable at from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per cwt., and mut-
ton at 5d. to ejd. per lb.

SHREWSBURY FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.—
The best fat beef sold for fully G|d. per lb., inferior cows 6d.,
fat calves Gd. to G^d. ; useful store cattle selling at fair
prices, also cows and calves. Fat wether sheep 7d per lb.,
fat ewes 6,Vd, ; fat pigs 5d. per lb , stores selling better.

STRATFORU-ON-AVON FAIR was well attended
with buyers, and there was plenty of fat stock, the majority

of which was of a very superior quality, and met with a
ready sale at first-rate prices. Beef from 6|d. to 7^d. per
lb. There were about 800 sheep. Mutton and Iamb, best
qualities, brought very good prices. Fat bacon pigs brought
from 7s. 6d. to Os. Gd. per score.

YORK FORTNIGHT MARKET.— There was only a thin
supply of fat beasts, but the butchers having previously pur-
chased their Christmas beef, the trade was slow, at prices rang-
ing to 7s. per stone. There was only a limited supply of
sheep, which were well sold up. In-calvers and milch cows were
in good supply, as also grazing stock, but the market for them
was heavy. We had a good supply of pigs. Pork pigs were
in good demand, at 6a. to 6s. 6d.,but bacon ones were heavy,
at 5s. 6d. to 63. per stone, including the head and feet. A
large number of Irish pigs were again exhibited, and sold at
58. Gd. to 5s. 9d. per stone. Pork hams were as last quoted.

COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, Dec. 18 :—
Potatoes sell at 6d. per peck, and Is. 8d. to Is. lOd. per bush.
Leeds, Die. 21 : We had a large show of Potatoes, which
sold at 8d. wholesale, and 9d. retail per 211bs. Sheffield,
Dec. 20 : Potatoes sell at Ss. 6d. to Ss. 6d. per load of 18
stones. Richmond, Dec. IS : Potatoes, 2s. 8d. per bushel.
Manchester, Dec. 21 : Potatoes, 6s. 6d. to 10a. per
252 lbs.

IRISH FAIRS.— Bennett's-bridge : There was only a
small and inferior stock of every kind, and any beasts which
were of tolerably good quality were readily gold a fair average
prices ; but the amount of business done generally was not
large. There were no pigs ; but a tolerably good supply of
horses met a quick demand, at long prices. — Kells was not
so large as was anticipated. The show of beef was on a mo-
derate scale, not being much more than sufficient for the ac-
accoDjmodation of the town. Store bullocks were in good
demand, at from £^ to £11, and heifers at from £8 to £12
each, yearlings £4 to £5 lOs. each. There was also but a
moderate supply of sheep, and all were sold. Pigs were
abundant, and buyers equal to the quantity present. Prices,
however, were not higher, being from 38s. to 403. per cwt.
Porkers sold at from 388. to 503. each ; stores were in good
demand, at from 25s. to 453. each. There was a fair at-
tendance on the horse green, and brisk business done, at
prices ranging up to £40 and £50 each. Mullagh-
CREW was a small one, aud prices, in consequence of the
great competition, ended somewhat higher, prime beef bring-
ing 56s. to 603. per cwt. The demand for dry cattle was
pretty brisk. Two-year-old store bullocks brought from £7 to
£9 each ; three-year-olds from £9 to £11 10s. each. Spring-
ers went off briskly at from £8 to £16 per head ; and milk
cows also met ready sales at similar figures. Three-year-old
store heifers brought from £8 to £12 each. For sheep the
demand was brisk at fair prices. Prices of pigs were lower,
ranging for bacon pigs from 378. to 408. per cwt. Store pigs
sold well at from 35s. to 453. each. Ball\bay: Prime
beef went off pretty briskly tit from 56s. to 58s. per cwt.;
three-year-old heifers brought from £9 to £12; two year-old
ditto from £8 to £10 lOs., and yearlings from £3 10s. to £5
each. Two-year-old store bullocks sold at from £7 to £10 per
head. Springers and milch cows were not very numerous, and
went off quickly, at from £^0 to £14 each. The pig fair was
large, and in good request. Bacon on the foot brought from
383. to 403. per cwt. ; stores from 25s. to 443. each.

GLOUCESTER CHEESE MARKET.— The supply was
very small (about 30 tons), and consequently there was more
tone to the trade than of late, factors being willing buyers, but
prices cannot be quoted higher. Loaves and thicks fetched
66s. ; broad doubles, 58s. to 60s. ; best singles, 54s. to 56s. ;
seconds, 42s. to 44s. ; and skim, 20s. to 30s. per cwt. A good
clearance was effected.

GLASGOW CHEESE MARKET.— Supplies were about
the same as last day; demand better. There were 16 tons
passed the weigh-house scales, and six caris were shown in
the market. New 42s. to 45s., prime early-made 523., skim
22s. 6d. to 24!!. per cwt. No alteration in other articles.

BELFAST, (Thursday last.)— Butter: Shipping price, QSs.
to 103s. per cwt.; firkins and crocks, lOd. to 10|d. per lb.
Bacon, 46s. to SOs,; Haras, prime 729. to 8O3., second quality
60s. to 66s. per cwt. Prime mess Pork, 76s. to 77a. per brl. ;
Beef, 1208. to ISOs. per tierce; Irish Lard, in bladders,
66s. to 70s.; kegs or lirkins, 60s. to 64s. per cwt. Pork,
42s. to 46s. 6d. per 120 lbs.

n

92

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The past month closed the year's account with
little satisfaction to the farmer, as the rates
were brought to a lower range than during any
month previous, viz., 40s. 2(?. per qr. for wheat,
tlie further decline in prices having been about Is.
per qr., notwithstanding the temporary rise pro-
duced in France by the late measure of Govern-
ment, which seems eventually rather to have de-
termined holders to send on here in preference to a
subjection to Imperial decrees. The much-needed
supply of rain has gradually fallen, and given a
good soaking to the surface as well as fed the
ponds, but the springs yet remain low. Nothing
unfavourable to tillage or the autumnal sowings
has yet occurred, the young wheat generally look-
ing healthy and strong, but the forward pieces are
in some danger of over-luxuriance from the exces-
sive mildness of the temperature, as well as the
ravages of vermin. Future prospects have become
the great question with growers, and some would
propose legislative help ; but this quarter has always
been of so doubtful a character, and terminated
with such disappointment, that we are ready to
adopt the suggestion, " Deliver me from my
friends," rather than seek Parliamentary aid, and
prefer looking round for the chances of improve-
ment to the continual commercial changes that
occur, first taking care that no fault or deficiency
attaches to individual management. Still, when
old burdens exist under new regulations, justice
requires a prompt and effective relief. It would
appear that the abundant crop of 1857, both here
and in France, has still left its effects, though fol-
lowed by only an average yield, and the heavy im-
ports that have since obtained have weighed on the
markets to that extent, that store-room has become
difficult. The granary power of London is estima-
ted at about 1,000,000 qrs. of room ; we are, there-
fore, provided to this extent with grain of all sorts.
Oats and other spring corn may equal 400,000,
and wheat make up the rest. This, while the
country markets are well provided, may continue
to constitute a pressure against prices ; but as the
season advances, and the enormous consumption
going on by cattle-feeding, malting, and distillation
begins to tell, the fact that only a fortnight or
month's consumption is in store will exercise its
proper influence, and when once markets tighten
the holders in granary will not be slack in their
demand, in order to make up more favourable ac-

counts, especially as America and the Baltic con-
tinue a range of prices which for all practical pur-
poses is prohibitory. The New Year, therefore,
may yet obliterate many of the sad chapters of the
Old, and again present the nation with the scene of
agriculture and commerce united in prosperity.
With this hope we heartily present our compliments
to our friends.

The following will show the prices yet quoted in
foreign markets, and while farmers complain of
the result of their labours, they will see that im-
porters have fared little better than they. In Paris,
fair samples of wheat are to be bought at S^s. to
39s. ; first quality red at Bordeaux was 39s, per qr.
free on board ; Upper Loire at Nantes, 3Gs. 6d.
free on board ; Mayenne white, 41s. 6d. f. o. b. ;
Lucon, 40s. free on board. The average price
in Belgium was about 42s. 6d. per qr. on wheat ;
pale white wheat at Rotterdam, 44s. ; Polish, 53s.;
fine red Mecklenburg at Hambro' was quoted at
46s. The best wheat at Berlin was held at about
40s. per qr. ; high-mixed at Danzic about 49s. to
50s. per qr. Odessa prices left no margin for
business with this country, Polish being worth
about 38s., Sandomirka 40s., and Ghirka 3Gs. 6d.
per qr. The ports of Azoff quoted 30s. to 35s. per
qr. At Galatz the rates were about 24s. to 30s.
per qr. The demand for Spain, at Algiers, had
raised prices of hard and soft wheat to 47s. 6d.
per qr. New York exports were almost nothing,
holders there relying partly on the closing of the
canal navigation for the maintenance of prices :
prime white Kentucky wheat had sold at 1 dcil.
55c. per bushel (51s. 6d. per qr.), for consumption;
fair white Southern, at ] dol. 41 c. (47s. per qr.);
the low sort called Milvvaukie Club was worth
1 dol. 9 c. (36s. 6d. per qr.) France, therefore,
which in ordinary years, like Britain, is an importing
country, by its low prices and proximity chiefly
influences the British markets ; but before the sea-
son has ended she may resume her station, and be
well nigh drained of her stores, notwithstanding
the efforts of her government.

The first Monday in London opened on the back
of large supplies, both English and foreign ; this,
with the mild weather prevaihng, which affected
the samples on show, made an unusually heavy mar-
ket, though there were not large supplies during
the morning from Kent and Essex. There was a
good deal imsold, and the parcels that were quit-

TiJE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

93

ted only realized within Is. or 2s. per qr. of the pre-
vious Monday's rates. The foreign trade was quite
at a stand ; and to sell was impossible, unless at a
sacrifice : but generally it was deemed preferable to
store, rather than submit to a reduction of more than
Is. per qr. The occurrence of the cattle shows at
this period made markets thin in the country, but
there \vas not generally so much depression as in
the metropolis. Boston, Lynn, Manchester, New-
castle, and some other places, only reported a no-
minal trade ; Leeds, Louth, Birmingham, Glou-
cester, and Bristol were all Is. per qr. down ; but
Bury St. Edmund's was 2s. per qr. cheaper.
Liverpool yielded on Tuesday id. to 2d. per 70lbs.,
but on Friday there was no change.

The second Monday was a quiet one, on good but
not quite so liberal supphes. Kent and Essex sent
up but few samples for sale ; but there was plenty,
with the limited demand, at the former currency.
In foreign, business was equally calm, at unaltered
rates. Again there was less disposition in the
country to force business, some places evincing a
resolution to take no less money by the withdrawal
of samples. Hull and Birmingham were firm.
Manchester, Stockton, and Bristol obtained pre-
vious rates ; and Boston realized Is. advance; but
St. Ives, Louth, and Gloucester were all heavy,
with some few other places. At Liverpool there
was only a moderate business on Tuesday, the mar-
ket being thin, and old prices were only ob-
tained for the best qualities. Friday's report closed
with a brisker trade.

The third Monday in London was but shortly
supplied, both English and foreign together being
only 12,500 qrs. ; but the near counties sent up about
an average quantity in the course of the morning.
Among these samples, after the long prevalence of
damp, there were several lots of rough that were
still difficult to quit, but all those that were in fair
condition were cleared off more readily than for
some time previous. No advance could be estab-
lished in foreign, but holders occasionally obtained
an improved price on favourite bulks. Several
of the country markets this week noted a small ad-
vance—as Birmingham, Sleaford,and Market Rasen
— all reporting an improvement of Is. per qr..
Melton Mowbray and Newark making a rise of Is.
to 2s, Manchester, Sheffield, Newcastle, and most
other places were firm. This week, however, closing
with Christmas-day, the markets immediately pre-
vious were of a holiday character, Liverpool remain-
ing much the same.

On the fourth Monday arrivals were small, as
well as the morning's supplies from Kent and
Essex. Very little was doing, London being still
in a holiday condition, but the few good dry par-
cels that appeared were readily cleared off at former

prices. There was more firmness in good foreign
qualities, with a moderate inquiry for mixing.

The imports into London during the four weeks
noted have been as follows, viz. : of English wheat
24,951 qrs., of foreign 52,393 qrs., giving a weekly
average of 19,336 qrs. against 18,901 qrs. for the
previous month.

The imports into the United Kingdom for the
month of November, in wheat were 2/6,00/ qrs ,
and in flour 236,849 cwts.

The flour trade throughout the month has expe-
rienced very little change. Norfolks commenced
at 28s. per sack, and the best town-made at 40s. :
the former, after declining Is., recovered the loss.
The sale has only been slow, and supplies alto-
gether pretty fair, neither French nor American
being abundant. Fine qualities of the latter have
become quite scarce, the first brands being of more
value at New York than in London. The four
marks at Paris have closed worth about 30s. per
sack; and middling Canada barrels, at New York,
have brought 5 dollars (= 20s. /d.) per brl. The
imports in the four weeks into London have been
—in country sorts /4,386 sacks, of foreign 6,111
brls. 6,118 sacks, against 66,915 sacks country
sorts, 8,645 sacks 2,156 brls. foreign, last month.

The four weeks' exports were 290 qrs. wheat and
14 cwt. flour only.

Barley of all sorts has been upon the decline,
the high price of malting leading to substitutes,
wheat itself included. The rates have, therefore,
lowered 2s. to 3s. per qr., the greatest reduction
taking place on the first Monday, second-rate and
grinding being nearly as much reduced from the
continued large foreign arrivals, principally from
the Black Sea, the difficulty of storage adding to
the depression of the market; and until the
granaries are relieved, there does not seem much
prospect of improvement, as maize, through the
difficulty of selling in Ireland, has been brought
down in value, and, consequently, lessened the
consumption of the lighter grain. The arrivals
during the four weeks, in London, were 1/,810
qrs. native, and 78,814 qrs. from abroad, against
14,328 qrs. English, 40,146 qrs. foreign, for four
weeks in November.

The malt trade has followed the reduction in
fine barley to the extent of fully 2s. per qr., in-
ferior kinds having become extremely difficult to
place.

The supply of oats has not been half what it
was in November; but the previous arrivals no
being cleared from granary, rates have further
given way on the first two weeks, when the quan-
tities reported were most considerable, the first
Monday yielding 6d, per qr., and the second 6d.
to Is. per qr, Tlie subsequent faUing-off kept the

9^

THE FARMER'S MAGx\ZINE.

rates steady; but there was no improvement_
Prices having fallen so much, foreign orders have
been resumed; and the exports for four weeks
have amounted to 16,579 qrs. The imports into
London in the same time were 2,418 qrs. English,
10,521 qrs. Scotch, 15,413 qrs. Irish, and 113,109
qrs. foreign; against 2,846 qrs. Enghsh, 4,470
qrs. Scotch, 11,325 qrs. Irish, and 236,353 qrs.
foreign last November. The probability is that,
should any frost happen, which may yet be
reasonably expected, there may be some rally in
this grain: and we quite expect it later in the
season.

Both beans and peas have participated in the
general decline about Is. to Is. 6d. perqr.; the first
Monday, as in other grain, being the day of most
decision.

The English supply of beans has been better
than expected. The former good crop holding
out well, and the arrivals from France following
those of Egypt, have made a heavy trade. Reports
of the crop at Alexandria being unfavourable,
with the opening spring there may be some re-
covery.

As to peas, those for hog-feed have been under-
mined in value by barley and maize; the
plentiful supplies of boilers from the Baltic,
Canada, and the Black Sea, without the usual
frost, have quite spoiled the English trade, and
farmers with a minimum crop have been forced to
accept unremunerating rates. As the season is
now getting on, there does not seem much chance
of an important improvement; and should Canadian
supplies be kept up, they will very likely be appro-
priated to horse feeding.

The arrivals of beans in this port for four weeks
were 3,542 qrs. English, 13,689 qrs. foreign.
For peas l,6l6 qrs. English and 8,672 qrs. foreign.

Of linseed there have been large supplies and
exports — the former amounting to 70,179 qrs,, and
the latter to 28,668 qrs. On the first Monday,
with an unusual quantity reported, the market gave
way Is. per qr. ; but it has since settled into firm-
ness, from the steady character of the export
demand and scarcity of stock.

The seed market, excepting clovcrseed, has been
without interest. Spring tares arriving early,
throuo;h the mildness of the season from abroad,
have been held too high to attract buyers. Canary
has passed its height, and become dull. White
mustardseed has remained scarce and dear, but
brown has continued in entire neglect. Hemp-
seed, rapeseed, and the sorts used in confectionary
have been saleable in retail at much the same
prices. The tone of the cloverseed trade, as
respects red qualities, looks more upward, the
French market having begun to move, and offers
f. 0. b. are held higher than at first— say, about 56s.
per cwt. for fine new Bordeaux, or 603. per cwt.
here. New English begins to appear also, but
holders ask high rates, viz., about 70s. for stout
but not very purple seed. Trefoil also is firm, but
white cloverseed has not been in favour, and the
rates may be considered nominal.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

SbillinK* per Quarter,

Wheat, EsBex and Kent, white 38to46

,, red ....» 35 42

Norfolk, Line. and York8., red S8 41

B AELET, malting .... — to 33 Chevalier .... 85 41

Grinding., 24 26 Distilling 2« 29

MALT.Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ....64 63 fine 67 70

Kingston, Ware, and town made .. 54 63 ,, 67 70

Brown 51 52 — —

Rye new— — 30 32

O ATS, Knglish, feed 19 23 Potato.....^ 25 80

Scotch, feed ........ 20 23 Potato 23 29

Irish, feed, white 20 23 fine 23 27

Ditto, black 19 21 ,, — 21

Beans, Mazagan.. 35 36 Ticks 35 36

Harrow 36 37 Pigeon 39 42

Peas, new, white boilers40 40.. Maple 40 43.. Grey 37 38

Floue, persackof 2801bB.,Town,Uousebolds 343., fine 35 40

Country 28 30 ...... Households.. 31 34

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship 27 28

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Foa THE LAST Six

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Rye. Beans

Pea£.

Weeks :

8. d.

s. d.

8. d.

8. d. 8. d

s. d.

Nov. 13, 1858 ....

41 10

35 5

23 2

31 0 43 4

43 8

Nov. 20, 1858 ....

41 2

35 1

22 U

32 4 42 7

45 11

Nov. 27, 1858 ....

41 2

35 4

22 9

31 6 42 7

46 1

Dec. 4, 1858 ....

41 5

35 4

22 8

31 2 42 6

43 10

Dec. 11, 1858 ....

41 0

35 1

22 10

32 6 41 8

43 8

Dec. 18, 1858 ....

40 2

33 11

21 10

32 5 41 1

46 5

Aggregate average

41 I

35 0

22 8

31 10 42 4

44 11

Sametimelastyear 49 11

88 0 23 8

34 4 42 4

41 7

HOP MARKET.
BOROUGH, Monday, Dec. 27.
Mid and East Keats ... . 703. 843. choice 120s.

Weald of Kents 528. 623. „ 683.

Sussex 503. 56s. ,, 623.

' POTATO MARKETS.

BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS.
LONDON, Monday, Dec. 27. — Full average time-of-year
supplies have come to band since Monday last, coastwise and by
laud carriage. The imports have amounted to 247 tons from
Daukirk, 150 from Antwerp, 232 from Rouen, 163 from
Dieppe, and 30 baskets from Rotterdam. The trade rules
very inactive, yet acarcely any change has taken place in
prices.

York Regents 8O3. to lOOs. per ton.

I.incolus SOs. to 90s. „

Essex and Kent 708. to 90s. „

Scotch 6O3. to 85s. „

Foreign whites 45s. to 55s. „

Ditto reds SSs. to 70s. „

ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.
LONDON, Monday, Dec. 27. — Our trade generally is
slow, indeed no business seems doing on this day. ^

Dorset, fine ........ II83. to 1203. per cwt.

Ditto, middling .... 983. to lOOs. ;,

Fresh 123. to 168. per doien.

~ WOOL MARKETS. ~~

ENGLISH WOOL MARKET.

LONDON, Monday, Dec. -27.— Although the advices
from the manufacturing districts are very favourable, there has
been no loovement in the English wool trade since our last
report. Holders, however, are very firm in their demands, and
prices rule steady, with every prospect of a decided iaprove.
ment in them. The supply of wool oa offer is very moderate ■
LIVERPOOL, December 24.

Scotch Wool. — There has been less doing in all classes
thi3 week. Being near the end of the year, the manufacturers
and stiplers buy very sparingly before their usual stock taking,
but the general stocks being light, holders are very firm, and
are looking forward for some improvement after the beginning
of the new year.

Foreign. — There has been some inquiry this week by
parties looking after small lots, and holders might want to
close sales before the end of the year; otherwise the demand
has been limited to immediate wants.

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 846, Strand, London.

THE FAHMEE'S MAGAZINE.

JANUARY, 1859.

CONTENTS.

Plate I.— "MOSS ROSE," and her daughter, "YOUNG MOSS ROSE:" Shorthorns.

Plate II.— THE DOG IN THE MANGER.

PAGE

Description of the First Plate , . . . . .1

Description of the Second Plate . . . . , .2

London, or Central Farmers' Club : . . . . . .3

Stock Farming on Stiff Retentive Soils , . . . .3

The Annual Dinner . . . . . . .12

Digging Potatoes . . . . . . . .17

History of a Straw-yard . . . . . . .18

Actual Experience with the Steam Plough . . . . .20

Royal Dublin Society : Winter Show . . . . . .23

Improvement of Agricultural Labourers . . . . .26

Influence exerted by Individual Plants upon the Seed. By Wm. K. Sullivan . 28

General Management of Plantations . . . . .35

Scarcity of Forage in France . . . . . .3/

Experiments with Potatoes . . . . . . .39

Birmingham and Midland Counties Fat Cattle and Poultry Show . . 40

Rutland Agricultural Show . . . . . .45

Gloucester Agricultural Association , . . . .40

Root Show of the Botley and South Hants Farmers' Club . . .47

Dairies and Bone Manure . . . . . . .48

The Leading Features of the Implement Department of the Aberdeen (High-
land Society's) Show . . . . . . .49

Smithfield Club Fat Cattle Show . . . . . .53

Metropolitan Great Christmas Cattle Market . . . .65

Smithfield Show Week . . . . . . .67

Consumption of Butchers' Meat in London . . . , .69

Observations on the Smithfield Club Cattle Show . . . .70

The Best Kind of Welsh cattle — Useful, Hardy, and Profitable . . 71

The Social Condition of the Country . . . . .72

Royal Agricultural Society OF England: .....

Proceedings in Council . . . . . .73

The Annual Meeting . . . . . . .75

Important Judgment on the Tenure of Land . . . . .79

Pound Breach — Reserved Judgment . . . . . .82

North Durham Fat Cattle, Poultry, and Song-bird Show . . . 82

The Recent Proceedines of the Smithfield Club . . . .83

Christmas Weather. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esa., F.R.S. . . .84

The Advantages of Winter Ploughing . . . . .86

How to make Two Pounds of Meat upon Poor Grass Land where only One pound

WAS MADE before . . . , . , .87

Calendar of Agriculture . . . . . . .88

Agricultural Reports . . . . . . .89

Review of the Cattle Trade during the past Month . . . .89

Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c. . . . . .91

Review of the Corn Trade during the past Month . . . .92

Corn Averages and Market Currencies , . . . .94

THE

MARK LANE EXPRESS

AND

AGRICULTUEAL JOURNAL

IS THE

LARGEST AND THE LEADING

FARMERS' AND GRAZIERS' NEWSPAPER,

PUBLISHED EVERY MONDAY EVENING IN TIME FOR POST.

The object of the Proprietors of the MARK LANE EXPRESS has ever been, to render it in every way the most effitient organ
of the Agricultural Class, to direct and diffuse practical and scientific information of all kinds relatin? to rural atfairs, to be a
medium for giving circulation to the Proceedings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland, the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, and of every Ajiricultural Society and Farmer's
Club in the Kingdom. All political and party discussions are carefully avoided, except such as are purely Agricultural; since its
eslablishnicnt, twenty-fix years since, this course has been steadily adhered to, and the result has been, the accession of a
numer(Uis and rapidly-increasing list of Subscribers, comprising the most influential Agriculturists in the kingdom.

In times when the position of the Tenant Farmers has been one of great difficulty, the MARK LANE EXPRKSS has ever
been directed to the advucacy and support of the eights of the Tenant Fak.meks. In stating this, it is not inteude <• to
lose sight of that noble principle which the great Lord Leicester so successfully followed ; viz., that liberal conduct toicnrds the
Tenant will ever be found to be the most beneficial to the Landlord.

THE MAI.T TAX.— This is the only Farmer's Paper in London which advocates the Repeal or the Malt Tax.

In authenticity and extent of .Market information, the Mark Lane Express stands unrivalled. A REVIEW OF THR CORN
TRADE (British and Foreign) fully explains the Causes wliicli occasion the Rise or Fall in Prices, thus affording the Growers
and Speculator some grounds for anticipating the stability or future tendency of Prices.

The Latest Rir'ports of the Corn, Cattle, Provision, Wool, Seed, Hop, Malt, and Commercial Markets, appear with the leading
Country Fairs and Agricultural Meetings. Authentic Weekly Advices are received from all the Important Markets in the king-
dom, our Colonial Possessions, as well as all parts of Euiope any America.

Office of Publication and for Advertisements, 246, Strand, London.
May be had of all Booksellers and Newsmen throughout the Kingdom, price Sevenpence, o? £\ 10s. 4d. per annum.

JACK OF NEWBURY SWEDE, &c.

PETER LAWSON AND SON (THE QUEEN'S SEEDSMEN, kc),
27, Great George-street, Westminster, respectfully reques-t attention to their very genuine
Stock of the above excellent Swede; also of the Lothian Purple Top Swede, both of wliich have
been selected with the greatest care. They have also a very fine Stock of the Kohl Rabi, or
[Turnip-rooted Cabbage, specimens of which were shown at their Stands at Smithfield Club
Show. The Kohl Rabi was largely grown last season, and may now be relied on as a substitute
fur the Turnip and Mangold, where these Roots do not succeed, or for filling up blanks where
there is a i)arti;Hl failure. Its feeding qualities, hardness, and weight per acre are equal to the
Swede, and all kinds of Stock prefer it to other roots. P. L. and Son have also selected a first-
rate Stock of Mangold Wurtzel Seed, which they can confidently reconunend. Their Natural GrasT Seeds
have been also saved with very great care ; and they are ready to supply them separately, or in mixture, for
laving down Permanent Pastures, Lawns, &c.

P. L. and Son have arranged to deliver Seeds free throughout England and Wales, from their London Estab-
lishment, for all quantities exceeding 20s. in value.

Lists of Prices of the above, and till other Seeds, Plants, &c., may be had on application, 27, Great George
Street, Westminster.

The Fourth Edition, just published, 8vo, in cloth, pries 5.s., by post free, 5s. 6d.,

ON TRUE and FALSE SPERMATORRHCEA ; with the View to the Correction
of wide-spread Errors in relation to the Treatment and Cure of Sufferers from Debility of the Generative
system, or Sexual Hypochrondriasis.

Translated from the German of Dr. PICKFORD.
" Dr. Pickford is known to English readers by his frequent practical contributions to German medical
literature. Tliis is the first time, he informs us, that he has addressed himself to the non-medical reader.
We trust that this may not be the last, if he shall detect any other equally flagrant evil which it may be in his
power to correct." — London Medical Gazette.

" The editor has conferred a great boon on the sufferers from this distressing malady by translating tliis
little book, and by laying bare the scandalous practices of unqualified adventurers, who profess to cure a dis-
ease of which they know nothing, with no other object than to fill their own purses. The diffcri;nce between
true Speriiiatorrhoea and the various forms of disease which resemble it arc accurately described, and thus a
safe guide is offered for the treatment of the malady." — Medical Circular.

" We have delayed so long upon the contents of the preliminary chapter, that we have scarcely left ourselves
space for any notice of the subject specially treated of by Dr. Pickford ; but the moderate price at which the
' brochure' is sold, places it within the reach of every oue interested in the matter." — Dubhu Medical Press.
London: — il.Bailliere, 219, Regent-street.

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Report of the British College of Health, Euston Road, London,

FOR 1859.

Fellow-Countbymen,

Since we addressed you last yeai', the Medical Profession have obtained
from Parliament what they call a " Medical Reform Bill ; " but wherein the "reform " consists, so
far as the public is concerned, we are at a loss to make out. If any good for the people at large
had been effected by the measure, we should applaud it; but so far as we can see, the Bill only
appears to us to be a step in the wrong direction, by creating a kind of Medical Inquisition through-
out the country. In their appeal to Parliament, Doctors went on the plea, that many persons, not
Leing legally Doctors of Medicine, fraudulently assumed the title, and by that means took many
* es which otherwise would have gone into the pockets of the Simon Pures. Now, we are not the
parties who, for one moment, would uphold such a state of things, for we think that men should be
WHAT THEY SEEM ; but at the same time, we do not believe that such a practice has been carried to
any very great extent. Most people, when they employ a Doctor, know pretty well what they are
about, but they well know also that no two of them agree .' However, be this as it may,
the British Parliament were prevailed upon to pass a bill, which tends to establish a sort of Medical
Inquisition in the country. We say, " tends," because it is only the small end of the Avedge which
has at present been driven ; but we fear that unless the people are alive on the question, they may
hereafter find themselves under as horrible a Medical Priesthood, as Protestants would be if they
allowed the terrible Inquisition of Rome to have sway in this country. There must be liberty of
thouo-ht in Medicine as in Religion ; and since the Romish Church does not allow such liberty, we
protest against it, as being against the liberties of mankind. It is entirely owing to this great
principle of liberty of thought and action, that England now stands so pre-eminent over all the nations
of the earth ; and will you do any thing, or consent to any thing, that may do away with this great-
ness ' Surely not. Well, then, let Members of Parliament beware how they interfere with the
"Medical Liberty/ of the Subject;" for as sure as that liberty is taken from the people, so sure
'must the downfall of England "commence, because we look upon Medical Liberty as the key to all
other liberties. If you liave not Medical Liberty, you cannot have Religious Liberty ;— you have a
Medical Priesthood, you must have a Religious Priesthood ; you have Doctorcraft, you must have
Priestcraft; and if you have a Medical Inquisition, you must have a Religious Inquisition— the one
supports the other ! The late James Mobison, the Hygeist, clearly foresaw all this, as appears in
his Biographic.ll Sketch, wherein he exhorts the people to free themselves from the thraldom ot a
Medica*! Priesthood, under which the country is groaning. r- i ht v i

You have had this last year some terrible examples as regards the power ot the Medical
Priesthood with respect to alleged lunatics ; but you are much deceived if you fancy that our
Parliamentary noodles will do much next Session to alter the present disgraceful state of things as
regards lunatic asylums, &c. From experience we know the perfect apathy of Members on eyery-
thfng pertaining to medicine. They are perfect children on such a question. It will only be
=• ^ n ° T»T..,_i_... .., i — t-r. talk about "medical science" (heaven save the mark).

The usual rallying cry

obtained another victory. So it was with respect to the Poison Bill, which is now a dead letter,
merely because it was found that Doctorcraft, being the principal meddlers with poisons, they
could not be intei-fered with. Even Dr. William Palmer, of llugeley notoriety, did not open the
eyes of our Parliamentary noodles on iiM question. The fact is, wc are a doctor-ridden
country, and until people will think and judge for themselves on the laws of health and disease,
they must expect to have Doctor Palmers. Look at the dreadful suicide by Strychnine,
reported in the '• Daily Telegraph." There we iind an account of a young girl taking " an
infallible vermin destroyer," containing that cursed strychnine, which has been introduced into
the Pharmacopoeia as a medicine. AVe hold the medical faculty to be responsible for all such
cases. This infernal strychnine, we understand, is scarcely ever used : then why is it not altogether
done away with frota the Pharmacopeeia ? How will our Parliamentary noodles now deal with
these "infallible vermin destroyers? " A thing more dangerous to the whole country could not
be devised. And who have we to thank for the introduction of these deadly poisons ? Why, our
friend the doctor ? who has made them ten thousand times more dangerous by Holding them out
as "medicines in certain cases,"— the difference between the Doctor and the Poisoner being only
a question of half-a-grain, or even less. Think of this, and the whole question is at once made
palpable. We have attempted, by illustrations, to expose the infamy of the Avhole concern, and it
now remains for the people to assert their right on this all-important question. We may add that
the Illustrations are sold at the " Hygeist " Office, 262, Strand, London, price Gd. each.

You are aware, from the newspapers, of the terrible failure of re-vaccination in the French
army by order of Napoleon the 3rd. The mortality attending the regiments at Toulouse from that
loathsome disease was frightfid. It is exactly what we expected, but all seems to he forgotten !

The schism which now exists between the Allopath and Homoeopathic Doctors ought to open
the eyes of the public to their contradictory theories, but we presume that, like other things, i^-
will be a nine days' wonder, and that John Bull will just allow himself to be treated for his diseasc-t
right or wrong— hit or miss. Should it be so ?

As regards the Universal System of James Morisom, the Hygeist, which has now stood the
test of 33 years' most extensive practical experience in all parts of the ^vorld, (during which period
upwards of 500,000 persons have been cured of their diseases,) we have only to say, that the prin-
ciples of that system are before the world, and by them, Hygeists must stand or fall.

SYNOPSIS OF THE HYGELIN SYSTEM OF MEDICINE.

1.— All animal bodies consist of fluids and
solids,

2. — While in a state of embryo, all animals
consist entirely of fluids,

3. — It is from and by the fluids that the solida
are formed.

4. — The fluids contained in thd human body
SiXefotir times the weight of the solids.

5. — The chief of the fluids is the blood, from
which all the others are derived.

6. — The blood not only repairs every part of the
human machine, but also carries with
it all Ihe rubbish or decayed parts, to
be deposited in the intestines previous to
being expelled along with the excrement.

7. — The blood is the life — the primum mobile —
the first agent — from which all others
derive their origin.

8. — Health depends upon the purity of the
blood.

9. — The purity of the blood depends upon its
having free outlets for its decayed par-
ticles.
10. — Disease is induced by the choking up of
these outlets in the bowels, by reason of
an accumulation of glairy mucus on the
inner surface of the intestines, &c.

11. — This accumulation is occasioned by any-
thing that weakens the circulation or
impairs digestion, but chiefly by the
poisonous drugs and bad treatment of
the Faculty,

12.-^The impurities thus detained in the blood,
occasion every species of disease, accord-
ing to the quality of the humour, or i\va.
particular locality in which it is lodged.

13 All diseases proceed from one source, there-
fore they may all be cured by one medi-
cine.

14, — This medicine must be a vegetable purga-
tive, innocuous in itself, yet sufficiently
powerful to pervade the whole system,
clear away such mucus, and purify the
blood.

15. — The discovery of a vegetable compound,
capable of being digested, and mixing
with the blood, so as to impart to it the
energy requisite for ridding the body of
superfluous humours, was a desideratum.

16. — This discovery was made by James Mori-
son, the Hygeist, in the composition of '^
the Vegetable Utiiversal Medicine of the
British College of Health, Euston (late
New) Road, Loudon.

If these principles are correct, (of which we ourselves and hundreds of thousands of others
have no doubt) then it follows, that all the terrible Pharmaceutical poisons which load our Chemist
shops, and which are to be had for the asking, might be done away with, thereby saving a great
number of valuable lives. Poisonings are increasing throughout the country, all owing to Doctoi-s
having spread Poisons throughout the length and breadth of the land, and are now become quite
common everywhere. You have lately had a terrible catastrophe at Bradford, through arsenic
having got into lozenges by mistake— this very arsenic is used by Doctors for the alleged cure of
skm diseases. W^e would take issue with such Doctors upon this very point, and contend that with
our simple Hygeian Vegetable Purgatives, we could cure, whilst they failed to cure, such skin
diseases •, but the fact is, that all such deadly poisons are kept before the world to throw mystery
and confusion in the healing art, and thus form the strong bulwark of a Medical Priesthood, from
which the nations of the earth have yet to emancipate themselves.

We are, Fellow Countrymen, your most obedient humble servants,

The Membeba op the British College of Health,
Fo? THE Society of Hxgeists.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

VOLUME THE FIFTEENTH.

(third series.)

JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCLIX.

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MAY BE HAD BY ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS.

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v^. 15"

INDEX.

A.

Agriculture, Calendar of, 88, 178, 272, 367, 454, 54G
Agriculture, its present position, 173
Agriculture, on guideway, 150
Agriculture, progress and importance of. By Mr.

Charles Howard, of Bidenham, 295
Agriculture, progress of, and the Country Mem-
bers, 387
Agriculture, recent improvements and present

prospect of, 140
Agriculture, the present condition of American,

235, 492
Agriculture, the profession of, 474
Agricultural Benevolent College, 523
Agricultural Implements, and the Prize System,

268, 329
Agricultural Intelligence, 91, 181, 274, 457, 549
Agricultural Journey, notes on an, 232
Agricultural Labourer, the condition of the, 400
Agricultural Labourers, improvement of the, 26, 121
Agricultural Produce, the imports of, 147
Agricultural Progress, Statistics of, 291
Agricultural Reports, 89, 180, 273, 360, 455, 547
Agricultural Societies —

Bath and West of England, 142

Birmingham and Midland Counties, 40

Gloucester, 46

Highland and Agricultural, 175

Kingscote, 204, 413, 484

Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, 478

Royal Dublin, 23, 440

Rutland, 45
Agricultural Societies, implement prizes offered by,

251
Alpacas in Australia, 201
Australian Agriculture, condition of, 526
Averages, Comparative, 186,461
Averages, Imperial, 94, 186, 278, 370, 462, 554

B.

Bakewell Sheep, trimming to imitate the, 202

Barley and Salt as Food for Sheep, 357

Barley for Oats in feeding Horses, substitution of,

219
Barley, premiums for, 533
" Beadsman," the winner of the Derby, in 1858,

pedigree and performances of, 95
Beechen Tree, the, 386

Belgium, the English Farmer in, 324, 427, 541
Black-leg in Cattle, Homcepathetic treatment of,

271
Butcher's Meat in London, consumption of, 69
Butter and Cheese Markets, 94, 186, 278, 370,462,

554

C.

Cabbage and its uses, the, 479
Cane, Mr. Edward, testimonial to, 532

Cart-horse, the breed and shape of a, 406

Cattle, deaths of, from feeding on impure cotton

and hnseed cake, 326
Cattle Food, varieties of, 305
Cattle of England and France, 434
Cattle, rearing of, 148
Cattle, great sale at Blencow, 359
Cattle-trade, Review of the, 89, ISO, 273, 361, 456,

548
Cheese, its manufacture and quality, 322
Chicory, Price of, 186
Christmas Weather. By Cuthbert W. Johnson,

84
Clarke, Mr. John, of Long Sutton, presentation of

a Testimonial to, 110
" Confidence," a Norfolk Cob, description of, 187
Corn and Grain, return of, 450
Corn, its sale by the " Cental," 270
Corn Trade, Review of the, 92, 183, 275, 368, 459,

551
" Cotherstone," Pedigree, &c., 280
Currency per Imperial Measure, 94, 185, 277, 461,

553
Corn Sheds and Calf Pens, on, 203

D.

Dairies and Bone Manure, 48

Death from Old Age, cause of, 433

Devon Bull, "Napoleon," description of, 187

Dog in the Manger, description of plate, 2

Donald, Mr., of Linstock, presentation and dinner

to, 108
Durham County, defective state of farmhouses and

farm-buildings in, 499

E.

Ewes, on the management of breeding, 204
Ewes, the treatment of, 534

F.

Farmer, the want of system in the education of the,

293
Farmers' Clubs—

Botley and South Hants, 47, 145

Hadleigh, 533

Hexham, 140

Ipswich, 474

London, 3, 101, 254, 345, 388, 503

Milboune, St. Andrew, 338

Newcastle-on-Tyne, 176

North Durham, 82

Oxford, 134, 332

Warwickshire, 244

Wenlock, 407

Winfrith, 136, 534
Farmers, hints to emigrant, 239
Farmer's Life and Duties, 210

IXDEX.

Farmers, Spring resorts of prudent, 382
Feathered Tribes ; Are they beneficial to the

Farmer, or otherwise ? 267
Flax, Deficiency in supply of, 221
Flour Trade of Metropohs, 331
Food for Cattle and Sheep, 359
Food, new, and new Domestic Animals, 320
Food, Strength of, 266
Forage in France, Scarcity of, 3T
France, the Corn Laws of, 204
Frost Conductors, 498

G,

Game Laws and the Farmers, 246

Gardening Calendar of, 179, 272, 367, 454, 546

Grain, New method of Planting, 118

Grain, the selling of, by Measure or Weight, 212

Grazing of Cattle in Summer, 525

Guano, the trade in, 312

H.

Hard Times, and how to meet them, 335
Hedgerows, Timber and Game, 136
Herds of Great Britain, the, 188, 281, 372, 465
Hereford Bull, " Claret," description of, 279
Highland Society's Show at Aberdeen ; Leading

features of the Implement Department at, 49
Hop Market, 94, 186, 278, 370, 462, 554
Horse Taming, 217
Horses of the Cape, 337
Horses, Principles of Breeding Stock, especially,

407
Horses, Riding, the supply and demand for, 307
Hull, Trade of the Port of, 166
Hunters, the Breeding of, 309

L

India, Agriculture of, 120
Ireland, Advance of Agriculture in, 438
Ireland and Irish Agriculture, 314, 480
Ireland, the Agricultural Statistics of, 323
Irish Short-horns, 416

January Fever, the, 1 27

L.

Labour, Free, in 1859, 200

Labourers' Cottages, on, 222

Lambing Season, the, 249

Land, How to make meat on Poor Grass, 87

Land, the Tenure of, Important Judgment, 79

Legislative Obstruction to Agricultural Progress,

517
Linseed and Oil Cake Trade, Annual Report of

the, 164
Liquid Manure, the Composition of. By Cuthbert

W. Johnson, 286

M,

Malt Liquor, its Use in Harvest work, 516
Mangel Wurzel, 413

Mangel Wurzel, Importance of proper and per-
manent Culture of, 500
Mangel and Swedes, 501

Manure and Oil Cake Trades, Review of the, 172
Manures on Plants, the effect of certain, 193

Manures, Premiums for the best, in the Hibalstovve

Turnip Experiment, 102
Manures, Price of, 278, 370, 462, 554
Meat and Milk. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, 483
Metropolitan Great Christmas Market, 65
Mixed Feed, 330

N.

Nitrogen, its influence on Crops, 338
North American Continent, Natural and Com*
mercial features of the, 419, 528

O.

Orchard, the Growth and Management of an. By

Professor Tanner, 226
Owls, Spare them and save your Wheat, 218

P.

Phosphate of Lime, the different kinds of, 215

Plantations, General Management of, 35

Plants, on the influence which their individual
constitution exerts upon the Soil, By Professor
William K. SuUivan, 28

Plants, the Food of. Ill

Ploughing Experiments, (The Gold Medal Pre-
mium.) By John Lennie, 207

Ploughing Matches, Suggestions for the future
conduct of, 472

Ploughing, Ploughs, and Ploughmen, 116 ^

Ploughs, Wheel v. Swing, 241

Poetry : — Fanny's Barn-yard Song, 250
The Farmer, 139

Potato Market, 94, 186, 278, 370, 462, 554

Potatoes, Digging, 17

Potatoes, Experiments with, 39

Pots and Pearls, 497

Pound Breach, Judgment in a case of, 82

Pupil System, the, 403, 518 ^

R.

Rent in case of Fire, Liability of Farmers for, 266
Review — Revue Agricole de I'Angleterre, 448
Roots, the Pulping of, 129
Roses, How to Plant, 22
Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, 252
Royal Agricultural Society of England, Proceed-
ings of the, 73, 198, 358, 436, 542

S.

Seeds, Useful suggestions on the Growth of, 437

Seeds, Price of, 186, 278, 370, 554

Seed Steeps. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, 96

Sewage Question, the relation of Town and
Country, 491

Sheep Feeding for Manure, 202

Sheep Feeding, Notes on. By C. W. Hamilton,
98

Sheep Feeding, the most Economical, 134

Sheep, on " Sturdy" in, 163

Sheep, the Cross-breeding of, 1

Short-horned Bull, " Fifth Duke of Oxford,"
description of, 371

Short-horned Heifer, " Queen of Trumps," descrip-
tion of, 463

Short-horned Prize Cow, "Moss Rose" and
" Young Moss Rose," description of, 1

INDEX.

in

Short-horned Steer, 95

Short-horns, the Cobham Sale of, 430

Sickles and Cycles, 177

Smithfield Club Show, 53, 67> 70, 83

Social Condition of the Country, 72

Sorgho as Forage, 531

Sowing, Thick and Thin, 231

Spencer, Captain, Sketch of, 371

Stableyard, Reference to the plate of a, 463

Stallions for 1859, 362

Steam Culture, 143, 289, 320

Steam in Agriculture, 503

Steam Plough, Actual experience with the, 20

Steam Plough : its rise and progress, 130, 502

Steam Plough on the Prince Consort's Flemish

Farm, 383
Steam Power for common Farm Practice, 334
Straw, Do we waste it? &c,, 327
Stravvyard, History of a, IS

Temperature. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, 379
Thompson, Mr., Chairman of the Oxford Farmers'
Club, Testimonial to, 332

Thrashing Machines, Portable, the Implement
Judges at Chester, and their awards on the, 384
Tithe Commutation Tables, 175
Trade, the Morality of, 404
Trees for the Metropohs, 489

V.

Vegetables, on the Diseases of Cultivated, 524

W.

Waste Substances, the utilization of, 196

Weather Wisdom, 473

Welsh Cattle, the best kind of, 71

Wetherell's, Mr., Sale of his herd, 451

Windows, Use of open, 128

Winter Accommodation for Stock, 484

Winter Ploughing, Advantages of, 86

Wool Markets, 94, 186, 278, 370, 462, 554

Wool Trade, Annual Report of the Liverpool, 169

Woollen Manufactures, the Progress of our, 401

Wools, the Cape, 248

THE EMBELLISHMENTS

The Dog in the Manger

" Moss Rose," and her daughter " Young Moss Rose"

" Beadsman," the winner of the Derby, in 1858

A Short-horned Steer

" Confidence" a Norfolk Cob

" Napoleon" a Devon Bull .

" Claret," a Hereford Bull . :

" Cotherstone," a Thorough-bred Stallion

"Fifth Duke of Oxford," a Short-horned Bull .

Captain Spencer and his dog Sunbeam

The Stable Yard

" Queen of Trumps," a Short-horned Heifer ,

Page.
1
1

95
95

187

187
279
279
371

371
463
463

—

No. 2, Vol.. XV. 1 FEBRUARY, 1859. [Thikd Series.

THE

FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

AND

MONTHLY JOURNAL

i

TFTB AGEICULTURAL INTEREST.

1
i

meWnttti

TO TUB

1
i

FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

i

1

LONDON :

1

!

rUBLlSHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 24G, STRAND.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

1

aOO£SBON AND TUXVOBD,] [PBINTEBS, 246, SXSAND.

DR. HASSALL

ON

THOBLEY'S FOOD FOR CATTLE.

PROM THE "MARK LANE EXPRESS," 10th JAN., 1859.

74, WxMPOLE Street, Cavendish Square, 21s* December, 1858.

Having, on more than one occasion, been requested to make an analysis of Thorley's Well-known
Food for Cattle, and to express my opinion respecting it, I placed myself a short time since in communica-
tion with Mr. Thorley, desii-ing to be furnished with certain particulars relating to his Food. Mr. Thorley,
who was previously a stranger to me, at once conducted me over his Manufactory, showed me all the ingredi-
ents employed, and also the process of manufacture of the article.

I took away with me samples of the food as well as of every ingredient entering into its composition. I have
s nee carefully examined and tested these, and I have also compared the samples procured at the Manufactory
with others obtained by myself from other sources.

I am, therefore, now in a position to expi-ess an authoritative opinion respecting the composition and
properties of Thorley's Food for Cattle. I would remark of it —

First. That the ingredients used are all of excellent quality, and are purchased without regard to expense.

Second. That the receipt or formula, according to which the Food is prepared, is an admirable one, no
ingredient being selected on account of its cheapness, but those only being chosen which are best adapted to
fulfil the objects intended.

Having regard, thus, to the composition of Thorley's Food for Cattle, 1 find that it possesses the
following properties in an eminent degree — it is liighly nutritious and fattening — it is a tonic and gentle
stimulant, aiding, when mixed with other descriptions of food, materially the digestive powers of an animal — a
point of great consequence, since it is an undoubted fact that much of the nourishment contained in the ordi-
nary food given to cattle is lost in consequence of the impaired or defective action of the digestive organs.

Comparing Thorley's Food for Cattle with other Cattle Foods, with the compositionof which I am ac-
quainted, I unhesitatinsly assert that it is infinitely superior to any others, at present known to me. In all those
of the composition of which I have a knowledge, I have found ingredients to be present which have been added
solely on account of their cheapness, that is for the purpose of adulteration, and to the exclusion of other more
valuable, but more expensive, articles. In some of the Foods I have detected ingredients which are positively
hurtful.

Comparing, also, the samples taken by me from the Manufactory with others procured from different
source-i, I found a perfect accoi dance in the composition of both series of samples.

Before bringing this Report to a conclusion, I would notice an objection sometimes urged agaiust the use of
Cattle Foods generally, namely, that the price at which they are sold exceeds considerably that of the materials
from which they are prepared ; this can be readily shown to be a very unreasonable objection. Thorley's
Food for Cattle is a compounded and manufactured article, upon the composition and preparation of which
much care, labour, and expense have been and are bestowed. Moreover, the refuse materials resulting from the
cleansing, grinding, &c., and which ai'e an entire loss, amount to twenty per cent. To estimate, therefore, the
value of such an article merely at tlie cost of the raw matei'ials is both absurd and unjust.

Neither must the value of this, or any other Cattle Food, be determined by the exact amount of nourishment
contained in them; although in the case of Thorley's Food this is very considerable, but the indirect effects
resulting from its employment must be tiken into consideration; that is, the effects of the article in improving
the appetite, digestive powers, and general vigour of the Cattle fed upon it. By the improved condition of the
digestive organs animals may be fed upon coarser and cheaper articles of food, and from which, without the aid
of Thorley's Food, they would be unable to extract all the nourishment which such articles actually contain.
I consider, then, that the use of Thorley's Food is attended, not with an additional, but with a considerable
saving of expense.

I am glad, therefore, to be enabled to recommend — which I do strongly and conscientiously — Thorley's
Food for Cattle as a highly important and valuable compound for the feeding of all descriptions of Cattle.
Signed, ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D.,

Analyst of the Lancet Sanitary Commission ; Author of the Reports of that Commission ;
of " Food and its Adulteration ; " " Adulterations Detected; " ^c, i^c.

From Alfred Brown, Esq., Wandsworth, Surrey, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons,
England ; Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company, London ; Fellow of the Medical
Society of London ; late Demonstrator of Anatomy at the St. George's School of Medicine.

Wandsworth, Surrey, Dec. 11, 1858.

Sir, — I shall feel obliged by your sending me another cask of Thorley's Cattle Food. I have been making
experiments with it upon one of my milch cows, and think it only fair that I should let you know the results.
My cow, before I used the Food, was fed upon hay, wortzel, and water ad libitum, and upon this diet she
\ielded one gallon of milk per day, making two pounds of butter per week. She was five months gone with
her second calf; when she had the Food I discontinued giving her the wortzel, and gave her a measure-full
(about half-a-pint) of the Food with a peck of damp chaff night and morning; besides, slie had as much good
hay as she would eat. Upon this diet, in less than a week she doubled the quantity of milk and butter; and in
order that I might be sure that this excellent result depended upon the Thorley's Food, I discontinued it, and
returned to her former diet, and she speedily went back to the gallon of milk per day. After waiting about a
fi)rtnight, I again leturned to the Thorley's Food, and in a lew days she increased to two gallons of milk per
day. This expeiiment I repeated several times, and with the same results. I have tried the Food upon other
animais horses, sheep, &c. — and with the most satisfactory results. I have also analysed the Food, and find
that it contains nothing that would in any way injure the system or constitution of cattle. You are at liberty
to make any use you please of this communication, and I am, Sir, yours. &c,,

To Mr. h Thorley, ALFRED BROWN,

THE EAUMER'S MAGAZINE.

FEBRUARY, 1859.

CONTENTS.

Platk I.— a shorthorn STEER, the Property op Mr. Robert Lynn, of Stroxton,

Grantham.

Plate II.— BEADSMAN; Winner of the Derby, 1858.

[B operations of the

PAGE
. 95

. 96
. 98
. 101
. 102
. 108
. 110

. Ill

. 116
. 118
. 120
. 121

. 127

. 129

130

Description of the Plates • • . , .

Seed Steeps. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esa., F.R.S.
Notes upon Sheep-Feeding. By Charles W. Hamilton. .
Central Farmers' Club. .....

Premiums for the Best Manures : the Hibaldstowe Turnip Experiment
Presentation and Dinner to Mr. Donald, of Linstock. ,
Presentation of a Testimonial to Mr. John Clarke, of Long Sutton.
The Food of Plants ......

Ploughing, Ploughs, and Ploughmen ....

The New Method of Planting Grain ....

Agriculture of India ......

Improvement of the Social Condition of the Agricultural Labourer
The January Fever ......

Pulping OF Roots : Its true use . ....

The Steam Plough : Its Rise and Progress

What Kind of Corn and Cake are the most Economical at their Present Prices

. for Feeding Sheep on Roots ?
Hedgerows, Timber, and Game ....

Recent Improvements in, and Present Prospects of. Agriculture

Bath and West of England Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture,

Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.
Steam Culture. ......

The Cross-Breeding of Sheep. — Cotswold and Oxfordshire Downs

Imports OF Agricultural Produce

Rearing of Cattle ......

On GuiDEWAY Agriculture; being a system enabling all th

FARM to be performed BY STEAM POWER ..... 150

Lecture on " Sturdy " in Sheep ...... 163

Annual Report of the Linseed and Oilcake Trade .... 164

Trade of the Port of Hull — report for the year 1858 . . . 166

Annual Report of the Liverpool Wool Trade ..... 169

Review of the Trade in Manures and Oilcakes during 1858 . . . 172

The Present Position of Agriculture ...... 173

Grain Prices for the last 15 Years ...... 174

The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland .... 175

Tithe Commutation ........ 175

Newcastle-upon-Tyne Farmers' Club ..'... 176
Sickles and Cycles ........ 177

Calendar of Agriculture ....... 178

Calendar of Gardening ....... 179

Agricultural Reports ....... 180

Review of the Cattle Trade during the past Month .... 180

Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c. . . . • . . 181

Keview of the Corn Trade during the past Month .... 183

Corn Averages and Market Currencies .... 185-6

134
136

l40

142
143
145
147
148

IPSWICH.

THE JPOIiliOlfTf :WO IMPI^EME^TS OKTAITVED THE

FIRST PSIZE

AT THE CHESTER MEETING OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

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" Mr. Jas. Haywood, Jun."

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POTATO, GRASS, BARLEY, CLOVER, and WHEAT MANURES.
BONE DUST. PERUVIAN GUANO, 'TnD SUPERPHOSPHATE OP LIME

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;5 Si

N

THE FARMER'S MAGAZII^E.

:FEBRUARY, 1859.

PLATE I.

A SHORTHORN STEER,

THE PEOPERTY OP MR. ROBERT LYNN, OF STROXTON, GRANTHAM.

This steer, bred by Mr. Lynn, and calved Dec, 20, 1854, was got by Sir John (12084), dam (Princess
Royal) by Richmond (4947), g. d. (Priseilla) by Belvoir (1708), gr. g. d. (Phoebe) by Sir Roger-de-Coverley
(5187), gr. gr. g. d. by Albion (1619), gr. gr. gr. g. d. by a grandson of Eavourite (252). Sir John was
the winner of five first prizes, , ^ ,,-,.• i^ i o • i i. i • erf

This steer took, on December 2nd, 1857, at the Rutland Agricultural Society, the second prize ot 7
sovs., for oxen or steers of any breed or weight, under five years old, and open to all England ; on
December 4th, at the Leicester Agricultural Society, the second prize of 5 sovs., for oxen or steers of
any breed, under five years old, and open to all England ; and on December 8th, at the Smithfield Club
Cattle Show, the first prize of 25 sovs., and the silver medal for the breeder, as the best Shorthorn steer
not exceeding three years old. -, » „ . . . tt c

This excellent steer was especially remarkable for a wonderfully-good tore- quarter. Me was untor-
tunate only in encountering, on each occasion of his being exhibited, Mr. Wortley's famous gold medal ox.
An older animal, the latter naturally beat him in the all-aged classes at Oakham and Leicester, and, again,
as the best of all in Baker-street.

PLATE II.

BEADSMAN; Winner of the Derby, 1858.

Beadsman, bred by Sir Joseph Hawley in 1855, is by Weatherbit, out of Mendicant, by Touchstone,
her dam Lady Moore Carew, by Tramp— Kite, by Bustard. „ ,.. x ^. i. t. • tt

Weatherbit, bred by Mr. Gully in 1842, is by Sheet Anchor, out of IMiss Letty, by Priam. He was
a strong favourite for the Derby of his year, and a good but not lucky race-horse. He was sold by Mr.
Gully to the Duke of Bedford at four years old, and soon transferred to the stud. He opened here well
with Weathergage in 1851, and his fame as a stallion is rapidly increasmg. Amongst other winners,
Weatherbit is the sire of Diomedia, Pugnator, Pampa, Triton, Pauli Monti, Dabchick, Delusion, Kelpie,
Hucro and a whole run of useful W's-Weathergage, Weathercock, Weatherproof, Weatherglass, and so
on " Weatherbit left Newmarket in 1856, and has been standing for the last two seasons with Mr.
Jaques at Easby Abbey, Yorkshire. A good judge, who saw him here in the autumn of last year, pro-
nounced him to be the best-looking stallion out, to get " useful horses." Beadsman puts his rank at
something even more than this. ^ , • i u ii

Mendicant, bred by Mr. Whitwortb, in 1843, takes precedence as an Oaks winner, and was altogether
a very superior mare. Perhaps, to look at, there never was a more beautiful illustration of the poetry ot
motion than the elegant Mendicant with the equaUy elegant horseman Sam Day upon her back. After
her famous but unfortunate race for the Chester Cup, and when first favourite for the Ascot Cup, bir
Joseph Hawley gave Mr. Gully the stiff price of two thousand five hundred for her. She was put to the
stud the foUowing year, and threw Misericorde, who died young, in 1849, Eriar Tuck in 1850 bupplicant
in 1852, Gaberluuzie m 1854, and Beadsman in 1855— there being nothing, so far, to rank witfi tlie latter.

Beadsman is a dark brown horse, standing fifteen hands two iuclies and a-half high. He has a some-
what plain head, in which he does not take after his beautiful mother ; but the eye is full and expressive.
Pie has a clean, blood-like neck, which he arches in a very distingue' style when m action. His shoulder
is rather upright, and a little heavy at the point. He has a light barrel and ribs, a muscular back, droop-
ing quarters, with good gaskius and thighs. He has famous arms, clean hocks and knees, with not very
large bone. Beadsman stands a little upright before ; is a blood-like, wiry-looking, but rather leggy liorse
He trains light, has a certain " style " about him, especially when moving, and takes altogether a good
deal after his dam, although without that refinement of appearance for which she was so famous.
OLD SEKIES.] H [VOT. L.-No. 2.

96

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

SEED STEEPS.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.K.S.

The attempt to improve the germination of
seeds long since engaged the cultivator's attention.
Chemical philosophers soon came to their aid • but
hitherto, with but little success. It is now nearly
half-a-century since Sir H. Davy was experimen-
tahzmg m this important direction. Davy soon
found what others have since done-that the ger-
mmation of the seed might be readily hastened by
the use of particular solutions. The difficulty did
not end there, however. Certain chemical sub-
stances which promote early germination, seem to
produce a languid after-growth. But, still, some
rather good advances have been made. It will be
useful, as spring seed-time is now close upon us if
we examine the effect produced by a few of these
steeps. This inquiry will hardly be rendered less
valuable by the present low value of seed corn. It is
evident, indeed, that the less return we receive for
our crops, the more necessary it becomes to increase
their produce and to diminish the cost of cultiva-
tion.

Davy's failures even, in his seed-steeping trials,
were useful; they pointed out the errors which
were to be avoided. It was long after his time
that the use of superphosphate of lime and certain
concentrated nitrogenous mixtures was introduced.
His trials in the farmer's cause were commonly
more resembling the alchymicists researches of the
olden time than those of modern agricultural
chemists. Davy also had the disadvantage of
walking over the soil too much alone : he farmed
as he was wont to fish on the sunny banks of the
Kennett, and the romantic German rivers, either
by himself or with other chemists : he had not the
advantage of exploring the highly - cultivated
modern farms of our island, arm-in-arm with their
skilful cultivators.

It was in recording some of his trials on ac
celerated germination that he told his readers
[Elem. Agri. Chmn., 218) that he had found several
chemical menstrua which rendered the process of
germination much more rapid when the seeds are
steeped in them; but the result proved that the
practice was inadmissible, for seeds so treated,
though they germinated much quicker, did not
produce healthy plants, and often died' soon after
sprouting. This celebrated chemist steeped radish
seed, in September, 1807, for twelve hours before
they were sown, in a solution of chlorine, and
similar seeds in very diluted nitric acid, in very

diluted sulphuric acid, in a very weak solution of
sulphate of iron, and some in common water. The
seeds in solutions of chlorine and sulphate of iron
threw out the germ in two days, those in nitric
acid in three days, in sulphuric acid in five, and
those in water in seven days. But in the cases of
premature germination, though the plume was very
vigorous for a short time, yet it became at the end
of a fortnight weak and sickly, and at that period
less vigorous in its growth than the sprouts which
had been naturally developed. Davy thus was led
to very correctly conclude that "too rapid growth
and premature decay seem invariably connected in
organized structures ; and it is only by following
the slow operations of natural causes that we are
capable of making improvements. The failure of
these powerful steeps with one or two root crops
deterred Davy from further experiments. It was
long after his time that the same acids were more
successfully applied to the seeds of certain cereal
grasses. In the summer of 1844 a Scotch farmer,
Mr. G. Dalziel Holm, of Drumlanrig {Trans.
High. Soc, 1846, p. 31G), tried the steeping of seed
barley; and his experiments were reported by him
to the late Professor Johnston. He used diluted
sulphuric acid before sowing the seed, with a very
marked effect on the luxuriance of the crop. In
August, 1845, he observed in a letter to the Pro-
fessor, " the difference was very marked in all the
stages of growth, and in the end the quantity per
Scotch acre was eight bushels more on the land
sown with the steeped than in that sown with the
unsteeped grain."

My readers will feel with the reporter of these
trials (and the farmer never had a more zealous
friend than Johnston), that this was a very curious
fact— an experiment well worthy of being repeated
on other soils, in other districts, and on different
varieties of barley. But this experiment is not the
only one made about the same time, on the effect of
acid steeps on the growth of corn. In the report
of the annual meeting at Munich, in 1844, of the
German agriculturists, similar trials are reported
made in Silesia by Tinzmann. In these, barley
was steeped for six hours in sulphuric or muriatic
acids diluted with forty times their weight of water:
about five pounds of acid per acre gave one-
fourth more grain and straw. Steeping in pure
water gave more straw, but a very slight increase
of grain, The same quantity of acid diluted with

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

97

water, and spinkled over the ground before sowing,
gave very little increase. Arthur Young had long
before this time arrived at the same conclusion.

When diluted with forty waters the sulphuric
acid browned the outside of the grain, but did not
prevent its growing well 5 it ought, however, for
safety to be diluted with fifty or sixty times its
weight of water. Tinzmann also tried the sulphuric
and muriatic acids upon wheat, oat, and vetches,
and upon turnips and grass seeds ; and in all
cases he found the steeped seeds, especially when
sulphuric acid was used, do better than the un-
steeped. It was on soils which had been long in
good cultivation that the effect of these acid steeps
was found by the German farmer to be most ob-
servable.

Haifa century elapsed from the trials of Davy, and
we find another chemical philosopher in 1857 cau-
tiously repeating and extending these important
experiments. "The idea," well observes Professor
Voelcker {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. xix., p. 164),
"of dressing seed with various fertilizing matters is
not a new one. Several attempts of applying
manure to the seed instead of to the land have been
made, and the most preposterous advantages re-
sulting from seed-manuring held out by certain
men, whose interest it was to sell comparatively
cheap fertilizing matters at an enormous profit.
These attempts, as might have been expected, have
proved complete failures. I allude to these
attempts of manuring and steeping the seeds, be-
cause I do not wish to be suspected of entertaining
for a moment the idea that the system of seed-
manuring is based on rational principles. My sole
object in engaging in the subjoined experiments
was to ascertain if, by any chemical means, the
germination of the turnip-seed could be promoted,
and to collect additional evidence respecting the
effect of ammoniacal manures on the germination
of seeds.

" With this object in view, I made the following
experiments with new Norfolk bell-turnip-seed.

No.

1. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in dis-
tilled water, containing 2 per cent, of sul-
phuric acid.

2. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in dis-
tilled water, containing 1 per cent, of sul-
phuric acid.

3. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in distilled
water, containing 5 per cent: of sulphuric
acid.

4. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in distilled
water, containing 2 per cent, of sulphate of
ammonia,

5. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in distilled
water, containing 5 per cent, of sulphate of
ammonia.

6. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in 3 oz, of

distilled water and 4 oz. bone-ash dissolved in
sulphuric acid.

7. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in 3 oz. of
distilled water and I oz. of bone-ash, dissolved
in sulphuric acid.

8. 100 seeds were soaked for 20 hours in 3 oz. of
distilled water and J oz. of Peruvian guano.

The seed prepared in this way was sown on the
15th of May, 1857, in garden-mould in flowerpots.
On the same day were sown also in flowerpots —

9. 100 seeds with ^ oz. of superphosphate, made
by dissolving fine bone-dust in 50 per cent, of
brown acid.

10. 100 seeds with § oz. of bone-ash, dissolved in
acid.

11. 100 seeds with 1 oz. of bone-ash, dissolved in
sulphuric acid.

12. 100 seeds with A oz. of Peruvian guano.

13. 100 seeds with 4 oz. of Peruvian guano, mixed
with 1 oz. of soluble silica rock, finely
powdered.

14. 100 seeds with i oz. of sulphate of ammonia,
mixed with J oz. of powdered soluble silica
rock.

15. 100 seeds, sown with 120 grs. of sulphate of
ammonia and h oz. of powdered soluble silica
rock.

16. 100 seeds with i oz. of Peruvian guano,

17. 100 seeds without anything.

18. 100 seeds without anything.

"The flowerpots containing these 18 experiments
were regularly watered every day. The soil was
constantly kept in a moderately moist condition,
and the result observed from tim,e to time."

The general conclusions arrived at from the re-
sult of these trials are thus added in the Professor's
report —

" 1. That the seed employed in the experiments
was of good quality, 94 in one trial and 90 in a
second, out of 100, having germinated.

" 2. That turnip-seed unprepared and merely
moistened occasionally, germinated more rapidly
than the seed in all the other experiments.

" 3. That very dilute sulphuric acid killed the
seed.

" 4. That a dilute solution of sulphate of ammonia
killed many seeds, and retarded greatly the germi-
nation of those that survived. Thus two-thirds of
the number of turnip-seeds were killed, and only
one-third germinated. It will also be seen that
sulphate of ammonia sown in considerable quantity
with the seed also killed it, whilst in more mode-
rate doses it greatly retarded the germination of
the surviving seeds.

" 5. That Peruvian guano, even in small quanti-
ties, had the same effect as sulphate of ammonia :
hence the danger of drilling in turnip-seed or car-
rots with guano, even when previously mixed with
ashes,

H 2

98

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

"6. That superphosphate of lime, instead of
hastening, rather retarded the germination of turnip-
seed.

" 7. That superphosphate made from bones, and
containing ammonia, is more liable to injure the
seed than superphosphate made from bone-ash or
mineral phosphates. Thus only 60 plants came up
in No. 9, in which bone superphosphate was used,
and 80 plants in No. 10, in which experiment the
same quantity of bone-ash superphosphate was em-
ployed.

" It follows from these experiments —
" 1st. That it is advisable to mix artificial manures,
such as guano and superphosphate, with as large
a quantity of ashes as is practicable, if the manure
is sown dry, and to mix the artificial manure with
much water if the liquid-manure drill is used.

"2ndly. That superphosphate of lime, especially
when made from bones, does not hasten the ger-
mination of turnip-seed, but rather the contrary.

"I would observe, however, that when fairly up,
the plants manured with superphosphate grew
much more vigorously than the others, and soon
were twice as big as the rest. Although super-
phosphate does not promote a more rapid germi-
nation of the seed, it is yet extremely useful in
favouring a vigorous growth of the plant, thereby
bringing the crop out of reach of the turnip fly."

These experiments certainly deserve to be ex-
tended (and other chemical substances have to be
tried). It is no reason against success that we do
not exactly comprehend the nature of the asserted
beneficial action of diluted sulphuric acid on seeds.
This kind of ignorance naturally precedes almost
all discoveries in agriculture. The use of hme

and chalk as manures, for instance, would have
been postponed to a very recent peiiod, had the
Roman and early British farmers waited for a
scientific explanation of their action. When sul-
phuric, muriatic, md nitric acids, mixed with char-
coal, were first experimentally applied by Arthur
Young to barley in 1782 ("Annals of Agriculture,"
vol. i. p. 151, vol. iii. pp. 120 12]), he had no
knowledge of the action of the acids on the phos-
phate of lime of the charcoal— a result afterwards
so well explained by Liebig. And when the great
German philosopher did, sixty years after Young's
trials were made, explain the result of the mixture,
cautious old gentlemen shook their heads ; and one
of these gravely expressed his horror, in a note to
one of our leading agricultural papers, at "the
monstrous proposition" of applying sulphuric
acid to the soil ! Twenty years have not yet elapsed
since this energetic tirade against the use of
mineral acids on agriculture, and now more than
half of the sulphuric acid of commerce finds its
way into the farmer's service. We must, then,
continue to experimentalize even in doubtful fields
of research. Arthur Young used thus to carry on
his inquiries. He always seemed actuated by the
spirit of his contemporary, the celebrated Priestley,
whom Davy thus so feelingly and instructively de-
scribed in the introduction to his " Chemistry " \

" He exposed all the substances he could procure
to chemical agencies, and brought forward his re-
sults as they occurred, without attempting logical
method or scientific arrangement. He possessed
in the highest degree ingenuousness and the love
of truth. No person ever discovered so many new
and curious substances."

NOTES UPON SHEEP-FEEDING.

BY CHARLES W, HAMILTON.

There must always be a great difference of opinion as
to the decision of judges at our cattle shows, and I
should be the last to bring forward a mere opinion on
the subject ; but I think that the discussion of one case
upon which I have taken pains to obtain accurate in-
formation may be of some assistance in future to the
Royal Dublin Society in classifying, and their judges in
deciding prizes.

In the schedule advertised for the 25th November,
class 26 was for a pen of long-woolled wethers, not ex-
ceeding twenty- two months old ; class 30, a pen of

short-woolled wethers, not exceeding thirty-four months
old.

Now, if this means anything, it means that a short-
woolled sheep takes a year longer than a long-woolled
sheep to fatten. As a short-woolled sheep-breeder, I

must protest against this inference, and express my be-
lief (in support of which I am in a position to produce
facts) that the distinction is founded merely in ignorance
on the part of the Committee of Agriculture.

The only entries in class 30 were : Three Southdown
wethers, born in 1856, and bred by Hugh M. Tuite,
Esq., of Sanna ; three Shropshire-down wethers, born
in 1857, and bred by me. Mine were, therefore, a year
younger; and as the instructions to the judges were to
base their decisions on " the amount and quality of
flesh, lightness of offal, and early maturity," I thought
it desirable to compare the lots more fully than the
judges who awarded the first prize to Mr. Tuite's
wethers had the opportunity of doing, and so test their
judgment. The lots were each weighed in the show-
yard, and were exactly equal, viz., 4^ cwt., or averaging

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

99

12 stones live-fasted weight each. They were bought
by the same butcher, and at the same price, viz., <£3
each. The dead weights were :

Mr. Tuite'a three sheep —carcasses 315 lbs.

„ „ inside fat 48 lbs.

My own three sheep — carcasses 302 lbs.

„ inside fat 43 lbs.

So that by feeding a year more, liis produced only 41b.
5 oz. of meat, lib. 10 oz. inside fat, or about 3s. more of
value on each sheep, an amount, as in this case, not suffi-
cient to affect the selling price.

Now let us compare the cost of feed. Mr. Tuite's
were fed in his park at Sanna until about six weeks be-
fore the show, when they were put on rape, but received
no bought food whatever. Mine were kept upon pas-
ture not above a-third of the value of his park at Sanna
until July 25, when I began to give them as much oil-
cake as they could eat, and latterly half-a-pint of oats
per diem. They were, therefore, for four months
strongly forced. On the 1st May, 1858, I valued my
hoggets at £2 ; they immediately afterwards gave
me each 71bs. of wool, which sold for lis., and they
then stood me for fattening at 29s. Although the South-
downs which I imported from Sussex used to give me
only from Zh to 5lbs. of wool, yet, as I have no proof
of what Mr. Tuite's sheep clipped, I will assume that
his sheep in their hogget year were started shorn at the
same value, 29s. ; I will also assume what I believe to be
pretty nearly the value of the year's average keep of
such a sheep as 208., and at this rate the cost of Mr.
Tuite's sheep will have been £2 19s. My three
wethers consumed in addition to the same charge,

for

£. 3. d.

Pasturage Oil 3

15 stone 1 lb. oilcake 10 9

2 stone 2 lb. oats 0 2 0

Each

Cost at May.

1 U
1 9

£3 3 0
I therefore got in nineteen months within 4s. of what
Mr. Tuite got in thirty months, and if early maturity,
the mother of the tripping sixpence, is the farmer's
great object, I think I have put my sheep in the first
place, though the judges put them in the second. As
to the quality of mutton, that must always be a matter
of taste ; but I believe that though a saddle of five-
year-old Southdown mutton (that aristocratical myth),
from its acknowledged superiority, is a worthy prelude
to such a battle of port or 34 Lafitte as may have lain
in the cellars of Sanna for twenty years, doubling its
price at compound interest, yet that the same compound
interest will have worked up the mutton to above Is.
per pound, and if the butcher made no objection to
giving Is. per pound, I would keep my sheep on for
him, not otherwise ; and I also believe that hogget mut-
ton is really superior to two shear, though inferior to
three shear ; and know that the London and Brighton
butchers seldom get Southdown mutton to kill much
older than twenty months, whatever they may subse-
quently call it, to please old-fashioned customers.
I am now going to tread upon more delicate ground,

though I fully feel how dangerous it is to draw con-
clusions from isolated experiments ; but as the value of
artificial food is a matter of such vital importance to the
farmers, I think it may be useful to throw out the fol-
lowing observations, in order to lead others who have
more opportunity to multiply and reason upon them
more extensively.

The experience of the practical farmer has long ago
convinced him that bought food does not pay for itself
in the increase of beef and mutton, but that a manifest
improvement takes place in pastures where sheep have
been fed with oilcake.

The natural question for the farmer to ask is, how
much of the cost of the oilcake consumed am T to charge
to the animal, and how much to the pasture ? In my
own case how much of the £\ 2s. 9d. paid for oilcake
and oats, with the whole of which I have debited my
sheep, ought really to have gone to the debit of the pas-
tures, as compared with the top-dressing of guano which
Mr. Horgfall proves to be so remunerative ?

If we refer to the able article of Messrs. Lawes and
Gilbert, " On the composition of some of the animals
fed and slaughtered as human food" (proceedings of the
Royal Society, June 17, 1858), we find the following
conclusion from an extensive series of accurate ex-
periments and analyses : —

" Taking first the proportion of each class of consti-
tuents stored up for 100 of the same consumed, it is
concluded that in the case of sheep liberally fed on a
mixed diet of dry and succulent food, the increase of the
animals will, perhaps, generally carry off less than 5 per
cent, of the consumed mineral matter ; somewhere
about 5 per cent, (varying according to the proportion
in the food) of the consumed nitrogenous compound
substance in the food ; and lastly, that for every 100 of
collective dry substance of food consumed there will be
in sheep about 8 or 9 parts of dry matter in increase
stored up." It is clear from this that out of my £\ 28.
9d. worth of food the sheep have had value ia only 2s.
9d. What has become of the rest ?

The average daily consumption of my wethers was, of

Oilcake H lb.

Oats Oilb.

In the first experiment, which was made to determine
the amount and manurial value of the solid excrement,
one of the wethers was compared with a ewe, same age
and size, which had never had any feed but grass ; they
were kept for 48 hours on a clean floor, and the dung
was carefully collected as often as possible ; it weighed
for the

Wether .. .. 6 lbs. 7 oz, or 3 lbs. 3^ oz. pet diem
Ewe 5 lbs. 15 oz., or 2 lbs. 15^ oz. „

The same sheep were subsequently placed in a sheep
shed, the bottom of which consisted of spars, which en-
abled me to collect all the urine which passed during
24 hours ; it was collected frequently, and carefully
guarded against evaporation, and the amount measured
in a glass vessel graduated for water (I do not make the
slight correction on account of the specific gravity) was,

for the

Wether 2 lbs lU oz.

Ewe ., , 3 lbs. 11 oz.

100

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

This, as well as other matters referred to, were all
analyzed by Professor Apjohn, so far as to ascertain
their manurial value, and from hia report I subjoin the
following extract :— '• In wether's dung :

Wafer .. Sg.gg

Dry matter 41-04

The dry matter is composed of
Organic matter . .
Ash I Insoluble in muriatia acid
I Soluble in do.

10000

.. 66-50
., 15-30
.. 18 20

10000

The 18-20 parts soluble in muriatic acid contained
3-72 phosphoric acid = S'07 phosphate of lime. 100
parts of the dry dung gave 2-49 ammonia ; extracting the
money value of this from the phosphate of lime and am-
monia, i find that

One ton when dried is worth £2 12

Do. before being dried 11

Dung of the ewe —

Water , ^^ 70'29

Dry matter 29-71

100

^gjj r Insoluble in muriatic acid
I Soluble in muriatic acid

The dry matter gave

anic matter 65 91

. 19-72

. 14-37

100
In the 14-37 parts of ash were found 2*44 phosphoric
acid = 5'31 phosphate of lime. 100 parts of the dung
gave 2 51 ammonia. Money value —

Djy duDg £2 7 7

Dung before drying 0 14 1."

The wether's dung, was, therefore (allowing for the
quantity rendered), valued at Is. O^d., and the ewes
8Jd. per cwt. The monthly value of the dung would
be, in the wether lOd., ewe 6d.

The analysis of the urine was as follows ;— " Urine of
ewe,sp. grav. 1-009. It was strongly acidulated with
muriatic acid, and then evaporated down, until upon
cooling it was converted into a solid ; the residuum was
weighed, and found to constitute 2-609 per cent, of the
weight of the urine ; such amount of it (2-609 per cent.)
was then burnt with soda lime, and in this way it was
found to yield 0-542 per cent, of ammonia = 0-390
nitrogen. Urine of wether, sp. grav. 1-057; treated
in the same way it gave a much larger residuum, con-
sisting of 25-43 per cent, of urine, and this, when burnt
with soda lime, gave 9-165 per cent, of ammonia = 7-45
nitrogen. The comparison gives —

Sp. gr. Ammonia. Nitrogen.

Urmeofewe 1009 .... 0-542 0-390

Urine of wether 1-057 9165.... 7-486

We then arrive at this conclusion, that the urine of the
wether yields very nearly seventeen times as much
ammonia as that of the ewe, and that using the ammonia
as a measure, the value of the urine of the wether is to
that of the hr-^ P/^mvl-n gufirr:! in the ratio of 9 to 17."
The greater ciiiunlity rendered in this case by the ewe
reduces the ratio from 17 to 12, and the value of the

urine would be per month, wether 4s., ewe 4d. ; so
that we have in ammonia and phosphate of lime a
differential value in favour of the wether fed on oilcake
of 4s. Id., or 16s. 4d. out of the £l 2s. 9d., to give to
the improvement of the land ; and the corrected state-
ment of the cost of the two lots going into the show-
yard would be —

Mr. Tuite's £9 19 3

Mine 0 7 8

The nine per cent, stored up in the carcass, accord-
ing to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, will be valued at
2s. 6d. The exudsition (which is probably added to the
value of the sheep track) would, according to Barrall, as
quoted by Mr. Hoisfall, be one shilling's worth, leaving
only 3s. unaccounted for, and this is probably owing to
the exorbitant price of oilcake. At £9 10s. per ton,
my account would have balanced.

I have thus reasoned upon the manurial value of the
excretions to show that though the feeding of my sheep
cost 4s. more than the feeding of Mr. Tuite's, yet that
my gain was three times that sum in improvement of
the land, I have my money to turn again, instead of
losing a year's interest upon it ; and besides, all the
chances that the use of nesl summer's grass may give
m ; besides, I shall shear a hogget while he shears a two-
year-old sheep.

Let us now take the differential weights. I have in
nineteen months produced nearly as much mutton as
Mr. Tuite has in thirty-one months, or, as the quanti-
ties were, as 105 to 101 nearly, and his increase was
3st. 61b. per month, unassisted. I may assume that
mine, increasing at somewhat of the same rate, 3st. 61b.
on the gross, owed 401b. in 101b. per month to the
extra feeding, equal at the rate —

1

They sold for ..
But the extra feed cost .

£1
1

Money gained . . £0 1 2i,
unless we admit what the judges ignored— the great
tendency to early maturity in the Shropshire Downs.

I have made these calculations on the results of the
first experiments, which I believe to have been the best,
as between a sheep wholly grass-fed and one fed on oil-
cake, &c. As, however, the result seemed so unex-
pected, I made a second trial between two wethers
that had been fed equally on oilcake and oats, dropping
the artificial food with one (No. 2), and feeding him on
grass alone for three days previous to his being shut up
for twenty-four hours. The urine alone was analyzed,
and contained per pound avoirdupois-

No. 1.
No. 2.

Sp. Grav.

1-0428
1-0057

Grs. Ammonia.

252-80

33-12

Grs. PhoSi Lime.
3-92
1.76

The per-centage difference is not the same as in the
other case, but three days was probably not sufficient to
prevent the previous highly nitrogenized feeding from
having told on the secrelions of No. 2 ; but the experi-
ment is the more satisfactory, aa showing how com-
pletely the value of the excretion follows the quality of
the food.

I had the oilcake also carefully analyzed by Dr.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

101

Apjohn, and though he reports it as being only of ave-
rage quality, it gave of

Water 12-80

Proteia compouud 26'18

Oil 10-50

Starch, lignin, &c 43-42

Ash 7-10

100-

A , ., , inn i. r 5'088 ammonia.

Aud the ash gave per 100 parts | ^.^ ^^ phosphate of lime ;

so that one pound of the oilcake produced of

Gra.

Ammonia 355-60

Phosphate of lime 329 70

Oats, according to Boussingault, would contain—

Grs.

Ammonia 154"00

Phosphate of lime 229-60

Now let us look to the quantities No. 1 consumed
during the twenty-four hours he was shut up : 21bs. of
oilcake, ilb. of oats. This was more than the average,
as he ate little else in confinement. The consumption
was, therefore, of

Grs.

Ammonia 788 20

Phosphate of lime 774-20

The liquid excretion, taking the quantity as the same
voided in the first experiment, would be of

Grs.

Ammonia 687-30

Phosphate of Ume 10 70

The difference in the ammonia is very nearly what
would be accounted for in the quantity stored on, ac-
cording to Mr. Gilbert, together with the small propor-
tion voided in the dung. It is clear, from the former
experiment, that the phosphate of lime can be equally
well accounted for in the solid excrement, though, in
this instance, the urine alone was analyzed as a check
upon the former remarkable result, which I think it has
fully confirmed, and the quantities were not again mea-
sured. I am not chemist enough to do more than
point out the general bearings of Dr. Apjohn's analysis,
but I think I have sufficiently opened the question for
others more qualified to take it up, and shown the prac-
tical farmer that where he gives artificial food to his
sheep, out of every ^10 expended at least £8 15s. goes
to the improvement of the land.

This will further lead to the conclusion, that where
the manure made by cattle fed in the house is carefully
guarded from waste, the value of one class of manure
may be much greater than that of another ; and there is
no doubt that its application to crops should be regu-
lated accordingly, for there is great tvaste in giving to
crops more than a sufficiency of manure, whatever that
may be.

Having begun by a comparison between two lots of
sheep belonging to different breeds — the Southdowns
and Shropshire Downs — I wish it to be understood that
I do not question the superiority of the former, fed upon
their own dry and warm Sussex Downs, as to quality of
mutton ; but in my own instance, and that of some of
my friends who have imported and kept up flocks of

pure Southdowns, I have seen a great tendency to de-
generate, arguing an unsuitableness to our climate ;
and in this I am borne out by the observations made at
the London Central Farmers' Club by Lord Berners,
on the 6th Dec, 1858 :—

" Mr. Bond had truly observed that we must look to
the breeds both of sheep and cattle, and select those
which were best suited for early maturity. Mr. Bond
had referred to the Hampshire Down, a class of sheep
with whose value he (Lord Berners) was fully acquainted,
for he had tried them to a great extent. It cost him
igeOO, however, to try them on his land in Norfolk,
and he was glad after all to get back to Sussex. Sub-
sequently he tried the Sussex Downs in Leicestershire,
and the success he had achieved in Norfolk induced him
to persevere with them twelve years in the former
county, but the climate and soil proved unsuited to their
development, and he had to give them up for the Lei-
cester and the heavier breeds."

It is for this reason that, although the mutton of the
Southdown may be a shade superior to the Shropshire,
yet I think the latter better suited to Ireland ; they are
in mutton very much superior, and in wool and early
maturity nearly equal to the Leicester. They flourish
on the cold clays of Staffordshire, and I think I have
amply proved their tendency to early maturity, a point
upon which Lord Berners lays so much stress, and the
judges of the Royal Dublin Society so little.

CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB.

Tlie following subjects have been selected for discussion
during the ensuing year :—

February 7. — Arterial Drainage — including the state of
our Rivers and Water-courses — proposed by Mr. J. A. Clarke,
Long Sutton, Lincoln.

March 7. — The Education, Discipline, and Introduction
of the young Farmer to Life — Mr. R. Bond, Kentwell, Long
Melford, Suffolk.

April 4. — The Progress of Agriculture — Mr. R. Smith,
Emmett's Grange, South Molton.

May 2. — The Advantages of Steam in Agriculture — how far
they have been availed of — Mr. J. J. Mechi, Tiptree Hall,
Essex.

June 6. — What System of Cultivation upon Mixed Soils
will, under present circumstances, be found most profitable ?
—Mr. R. Baker, Writtle, Essex.

November 7. — The Growth of Seeds in alternate Hus-
bandry, without the admixture of Trefoil or Rye-grass — Mr.
J. Marshall, Riseholme, Lincoln.

December 5. — The Composition of Different Varieties of
Vegetables and Plants, and their respective Values as Food —
Mr. J. C. Nesbit, Kennington Lane.

The discussions will commence at half-past five o'clock, p,m;
Members unable to attend these meetings are invited to for-
ward practical information upon them. Their letters will be
handed to the introducer of the subject to which reference is
made.

102

THE FAR.XJER'H MAGAZINE.

PREMIUMS FOR THE BEST MANURES.

THE HIBALSTOWE TURNIP EXPERIMENT.

There is still one branch of the business of the farm
which has long been conducted in a very unsatisfactory
manner. This is the further remarkable as it is a fea-
ture that of late years has been more and more de-
veloping itself. The progress of modern agriculture is
as directly identified with the use of artificial manures,
as with the employment of improved machinery or the
extension of good stock. The trade has been gradually
increasing, but at the same time by no means assuming
tha general tone of respectability and confidence it
ought properly to possess. In fact, to this day the
farmer, m commercial phrase, is a " shy " buyer,
ihe greater the competition, only the greater would
appear to be the roguery. If the manufacturer means
right, It ,s not always that he can answer for his agent ;
while tl.ere are some notable instances where the im-
position has been altogether wholesale. With some
honourable exceptions, the dealing in manures is still a
lottery, with the player or purchaser, as in the majority
of such games of chance, of course the sufierer

Many schemes have been devised for meeting such an
evil. In the first place, you should adopt the great rule
of all commercial transactions, and only deal with re-
spectable people. Then you must not regard the mere
cheapness, or rather the lowness in price, of the article
supplied. Indeed nothing has been found to be dearer
than cheap manures. Further, you must be very cau-
tious how you credit testimonials, but read them rather
as you would the puffs to quack medicines. The good
men whose signatures you see may have been deceived,
as they often enough are. Their experiments may have
been tried with a very different sample to what the
world at large could obtain. Many a reference has ere
now denied himself. Above all, however, the buyer
should have an analysis of what is sent him. Let some
competent chemist tell him what it is really worth, and
if not equal to its character let it at once bo returned.
But this is scarcely as easy a matter as it seems to be.
The other contracting party will in all probability
demur, or refuse outright to abide by any such opinion.
A law-suit will hardly increase the profits of the ven-
ture, and so the farmer is placed on the horns of a
dilemma-wanting and willing to buy good manure,
but not knowing where to get it. Men of fair fame
certainly allow their names to head the prospectus of
many such a Company. Others offer their word for the
good they have really derived from the use of certain
sorts, and Professor Way, or Professor Voelcker, or
Professor Nesbit, or Professor Anderson, are always
available. Still, we repeat, the business is not alto-
gethcr satisfactory, and we certainly require some other
means to put it on a better footing.

The farmers of Lincolnshire, in their need, have gone
back to a precedent. They know full well already

I that any man in the line has always the best kind of
implement or the best breed of cattle. It is naturally
the same with the manufacture of manures. There is
not an agent comes into the market but who represents
the most respectable house, and has the mo^t valuable
sample to show them. But we want something more
la these days, than a man's mere ipse dixit of his own
worth and character; while we don't want to be drawn
into lawsuits, or to have our Ways and Voelckers
publicly out-sworn. Tell it not in the West Coun-
tree, carry it not to the remote region of Barnstaple,
and excite not with such a rumour the busy hives of
the Ipswich, the Bedford, or the Leiston Works ! But
the farmers of Lincolnshire, instead of abolishing have
extended the action of the prize system. They intend
to have not only prize Shorthorns and prize Steam
Engines, but prize Manures. It must be un-
derstood, too, there was no leading up to this,
but that it has been a purely spontaneous movement
amongst the farmers themselves, conceived and carried
out by no greater machinery than the Brigg Market
Ordinary. It has been well done, too. If, indeed,
agriculturists will only properly organize similar tests'
of this kind, the chicanery of manure-making will soon
become an unprofitable profession. Let tliem all learn
how a consummation so devoutly to be wished is to be
attained. When, then, Mr. Richardson, with his bro-
ther farmers to aid him, resolved on offering prices for
manures, he did not send round to the different manu-
facturers or to local agents for specimens; but he took
the sanqne to be tried from the bulk some consumer
had still 171 store. Here was a test, assuredly, in its
very purity. There could be no questioning as to this
being the sort of stuff you are prepared to sell at so
much a ton? It actually had been ; and the greater,
accordingly, the triumph of those who now rank
as the makers or vendors of the prize manures. We
direct the most careful attention of our readers to the
following report; for we really know of few move-
ments of late that have promised to so directly
benefit the practical farmer. The perseverance in
and more general adoption of such a course will
leave him no longer at the mercy of the Trade. Every
dealer now will work with the knowledge that his wares
may be thoroughly and publicly tested, and that the
better they are the proportionately better will it be for
his business. It is creditable to many firms having
connections in Lincolnshire to see how readily they
answered to the challenge. It is only by their con-
tinued willingness to do so that we shall he able to
draw a line between the fair and unfair dealer. It
is not every one that can hope to get a prize ; but
by such a means we shall soon know those that are
really doing justice to their customers— the approxi-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

103

mation of excellence between an actual winner and
those who follow him. A golden rule in commerce
is to offer only a good article. A few lucky hits may be
occasionally made in less legitimate ways ; but it is a
simple truism to say tliat the better known a good
tradesman is, the better will it be not only for the
public, but equally for himself. How much more, or
how much more readily, would the farmer buy, if he
could depend on being honestly served ? On the con-
trary, people gradually habituate themselves to do
without many things that tliey cannot get good at a
. fair price ; and so drink less wine, smoke fewer cigars,
and spend less at hotels than they were once wont to,
simply from their being so often taken in. We are not
quite sure but the use of artificial manure was
gradually falling again from precisely the same
cause.

Altogether the Hibaldstowe experiment is a rare
commentary on the abuses of the prize system.
Whether it be proceeded with or not, we believe it al-
ready to have been the means of doing a great deal of
good, in putting both buyer and seller becomingly
alive to their own interests. The plan has already
been taken up, in another part of the same county,
under the auspices of the Sleaford Society, where a
similar award has been made. We only wonder how
long it will be before this kind of thing is found out
to be all a mistake. When prizes for manures will not
be needed. When farmers had better not be selected
to judge of their merits. When these public tests will
only be an annoyance and an expense to the great manu-
facturers, to whom we ought to go at once for what we
want, without any iuquisitorial proceedings of this kind.
The men of Lincolnshire have, however, long been
famous for a lead in matters agricultural, and this step
will tell equally to their credit and intelligence.

The Hibaldstowe turnip experiment was determined last
month, when the cups offered as prizes by Mr, Richardson
were presented to the successful competitor, Mr. James B.
Horner, of Lincoln, at the ordinary held at the Angel Inn,
Brigg. Originally the prizes were advertised to be of the
value of £5 respectively ; but Mr. Richardson — the origi-
nator, or, at any rate, the worker-out of this movement —
enlarged considerably upon his primary offer, and the result
is that Mr. Horner has acquired the possession of two cups,
the money-value of which cannot be far short of £30. But
Mr. Richardson's liberality did not stop here ; for Mr.
Seagrave, of Liverpool, broker to the Phospho-Peruvian
Guano Companj', was also presented on the same occasion
with a silver tankard of exquisite workmanship. The cups
were manufactured by Messrs. Elkington and Co., of Bir-
mingham, designed froman old Saxon cup, called the
" Lover's Cup." Cup No. 1 bears the following inscrip-
tion : —

"Hibaldstowe Challenge Cup, open to All England,
awarded to Mr. J. B. Horner, of Lincoln, for the best one
acre and a-half of common turnips grown on the farm of T.
M. Richardson, Esq., with Odam's Superphosphate in com-
petition with other artificial manures."

The secoud cup — the prize for the Swedish turnips — of
precisely similar design, workmanship, and value to that
given for the common turnips, bore this inscription :—

"Hibaldstowe Challenge Cup, open to All England,
awarded to Mr, J.B. Horner, of Lincoln, for the best two
acres of Swedish turnips grown oa the farm of Mr, T. M.
Richardson, with Phospho-Peruvian Guano in competition
with other artificial manures." ,

The tankard, a very handsome piece of plate, has this in-
scription : —

"Presented by Mr. T. M. Richardson, on the occasion of
the successful competition of the Phospho-Peruvian Guano
in the growth of Swedish turnips on his farm at Hibald-
stowe, to Geo. Seagrave, the broker to the Phospho-Peruvian
Guano Company,"

At two o'clock, the hour fixed for the ordinary, a company
of nearly 100, including some of the most influential agri-
culturists of the neighbourhood, had assembled in the dining-
room of the Angel Hotel. Mr. George Nelson, of Limber,
the chairman of the ordinary, presided.

In the course of the evening, Mr. William Skip worth
said he was exceedingly glad to see so many of his brother-
farmers present on this occasion, which must be regarded
as most important to all engaged in the business of agricul-
ture. It was paying a well-merited compliment to Mr T.
M. Richardson, who had done the agricultural community of
the county very good service by steppingforward and enabling
them to test the qualities of the principal manures before the
agricultural public. The manures put into competition for the
Hibaldstowe experiment had, he iaWy believed, been most
faithfully tested, and he was also fully of opinion that the
experiment would be of great and intrinsic value to farmers.
A good deal had been written on the subject of this experi-
ment, which, in his opinion, would have been as v.'ell left
alone. In one letter that he had seen published in a news-
paper, the produce of 15 or 16 tons of turnips to the acre
was considered to be small in tne extreme ; but it must be
remembered that the land on which the experiment was
tried was in a completely exhausted state, having been
cropped in succession until it had no nutritious properties left
it. That was as it should be. It was not wanted to test the
manures on land in a high state of cultivation ; for it would
have been no test at all. He repeated that he firm ly and
fully believed that everything straightforward and honest
had been done in the matter, and that the prizes had been
justly awarded.

The Chairman proposed the health of the winner of the
two extraordinarily handsome cups which now stood on the
table before him. He (the Chairman) felt that Mr. Horner
had honestly and fairly gained these prizes ; but it might
not be out of place for him (the Chairman) to say a few
words by way of explanation of the origin and carrying out
of the Hibaldstowe experiment. This originated last Spring,
only two or three weeks before the time of sowing Swede
turnips, so that it was palpable that the inuendos that had
been thrown out, that time was allowed for the manufacture
of a special manure for the occasion, were loauifestly without
foundation. He had heard this hint from one or two
quarters, but he did not believe that anything of the kind
had been done— by either one or other of the competitors.
Another thing he had heard was— and he was sorry to
feel that it was a duty incumbent upon him to repeat it —
that Mr, Richardson had, in carrying forward this experi-
ment, been actuated b}' a selfish motive (" No, no"). But
he need scarcely say more than this, that every one who had
the slightest knowledge of Mr, Tom Richardson would
not for a moment believe that he could be actuated
by a selfishly interested motive. And, really, he
(the Chairman) thought they could have no better

104.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

proof of the disinterested spirit by which Mr. Richard-
son had been actuated in carrying forward this ex-
periment than the two very beautiful cups now before
him. It would be remembered that Mr. Richardson's
original oifer was two prize cups of the value of £5 each ;
that was, one cup for the best acre and a-half of common
turnips, and one for the best two acres of Swedish turnips.
But in order to prove beyond all shadow of doubt that he
was actuated by no selfish motive, Mr. Richardson had far
exceeded his original offer, and had also, in addition to the
two cups, given a handsome silver tankard to the Phospho-
Peruvian Guano Company ; so that, instead of the two
prizes of the money value of £10, as originally offered, Mr.
Richardson had expended not less than £30. That, he (the
Chairman) thought did not look very much like an interested
motive. And besides that, he could bear personal testimony
to the very great trouble Mr. Richardson had taken in this
experiment, in order that it might be brought to a satisfac-
tory conclusion. Mr. Richardson had been most pains-
taking in the matter, and had spared neither trouble nor ex-
pense. He (the Chairman) for one would not undergo the
trouble and annoyance with which this experiment had
been attended for double the amount of cost of manuring
20 or 30 acres of land. But they all, as farmers, were
deeply indebted to Mr. Richardson for having come forward
to try this experiment. They all well knew that since the
introduction of a large number of artificial manures a search-
ing and honest test was urgently required. That test had,
he conscientiously believed, been applied in the case of the
Hibaldstowe experiment. It had been tried on land ex-
hausted by cropping, and that was the proper way to do it ;
for it would be of no use whatever to go upon land in a high
state of cultivation. But however exhausted the land was,
he must give his friend Mr. Richardson the credit that it
was perfectly clear of twitch and filth. All such experi-
ments must be attended by a large amount of trouble to the
person who undertook to carry them out, as he had already
intimated ; and he (the Chairman) could assure that not for
a much greater inducement would he be tempted to undergo
what Mr. Richardson had done. With regard to the ob-
jections raised as to the manner in which the experiments
had been carried out, he would remark that ever since
guanos, &c., were introduced into this country, they had
wanted a sound test as to their respective merits ; and with
a view of accomplishing, in some measure, this desirable end,
the experiments in question had been set on foot. And in
conducting these experiments they did not want land in a
high state of cultivation, but the reverse; for the manures to
be tested should be divested of all helps in every shape. Ex-
periments made with artificial manures, assisted with farm-
yard manure, &c , were no experiments at all. The Hibald-
stowe experiments, as bringing into play the intrinsic value of
the various manures, he looked upon as one of the best tests
that had been carried out in this country for many years ; he,
in fact, had never heard of anything like it. He had long
wished to see the matter taken up as it required to be, but he
had wished in vain until Mr. R. came forward. He thought,
therefore, they would agree with him in thinking that
they were greatly indebted to that gentleman ; and looking at
the character of the judges, and the open manner in which the
competition had been conducted, he believed there could be no
charge of partiality or favouritism. In concluding his obser-
vations, the speaker, in presenting the cups, addressed a few
highly eulogistic remarks to Mr. Horner, and urged him to go
on in his endeavours to produce a good article, and in the end,
he had no doubt, he would find for it an abundant sale. Be-

fore sitting down, however, he reminded manufacturers of
manure that now that farming produce was so low in price,
they must do their best to meet the somewhat, i n consequence
of these low prices, reduced means of the farmers. The Chair-
man then alluded to the advantages to the agriculturist de-
rived from a judicious outlay of money in the cultivation, and
concluded by giving the health of Mr. Horner, the successful
competitor in the Hibaldstowe experiment (cheers).

Mr.HoRNER, on rising to respond, said: It has always been
my wish and desire from the very commencement of this
experiment to see it carried out on the broadest principles
possible, to have every well-known good manure in the contest,
not even omitting bones dissolved or undissolved, Peruvian
guano, farm-yard manure, &c. ; and it is satisfactory to know I
have stood the contest honourably and faithfully with all
these, and have been tested and weighed in the analytical
scale of Dr. Voelcker, and am happy to say, not " found
wanting." On these grounds, gentlemen, I conscientiously feel
I am duly entitled to these two cups which have been so fairly
and impartially awarded by our honourable judges, the first
cup being for the heaviest and best one and a half acres of
common turnips grown with Odam's manures, and the second
cup being for the best and heaviest two acres of swedes grown
with the Phospho-Peruvian guano. Gentlemen — The supe-
riority of my manures have this day gained me a proud position
in placing me as the successful competitor in both experi-
ments, and what still adds greater weight and importance to
this glorious success, is the honour, gentlemen — the distin-
guished honour of having these two prize cups presented by
our noble chairman at this the renowned Brigg ordinary,
which I consider second to none in intelligence, wealth, and
good-fellowship. Now, gentlemen, let me tender my warmest
thanks to Mr. Richardson for these two munificent gifts, and
more particularly when I must know he has exceeded, far ex-
ceeded the limits of the prize advertised ; but this, gentlemen,
only accords with his usual liberality, and I am quite sure I
shall only be echoing the sentiments of my brother-compe-
titors, when I say we have during this experiment been most
handsomely and most courteously received at his house, for
which myself and brother-competitors feel we owe a debt of
gratitude. Gentlemen, the great and main thing in this paper
warfare that has been assailed and impugned on the character
of Mr. Richardson, is that this experiment has been a mer-
cenary scheme ; this I deny in toto, and if it has been a scheme
at all, it has been an honourable scheme of my own, which I
can very well explain. It is now some nine months ago when
I entered this room almost a perfact stranger, not even knowing
Mr. Richardson ; and finding that from the want of the merits
of my manures being better known, I could not do so much
business as I should like, I one day over this table, in conver-
sation with Mr. Richardson, Mr. Brown (of Appleby), Mr.
HobsoK, and many other gentlemen, made this proposition to
Mr. Richardson — that I would give him one ton of each of my
manures, if he (Mr. Richardson) would give them a fair trial
by the side of bones, Gibbs' guano, farm-yard manure, &c. In
reply, Mr. Richardson said, " I tell you what I will do, I'll
throw open a 26-acre field next to my house for public com-
petition, and if you can grow swedes there you can grow them
anywhere ; the land has been heavily cropped and is perfectly
exhausted, and just the very piece to try the merits of your
manures." Mr. Brown fell in with the idea, and thought such
an experiment would be a very good thing. Mr. Hobson also,
with his usual cool, collected, and sound judgment, made theie
remarks, and said, " We keep trying the various artificial
manures year after year on different soils — • some-
times with farm-yard manure, or something else — and

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105

never seem to come to any defiaite results ; and I think one
public experiment, as Mr. Kichardaon suggests, where the
manures are to be applied alone, at the same cost per acre,
without ashes or anything else, and on the same soil, and all
done under the same management, is just the thing the
farmers want. On the strength oi these remarks from Mr.
Brown, Mr. Hobson, and many other gentlemen present, Mr.
Richardson said, " I will advertise the experiment nest week,
and throw it open to all England." I now think, gentlemen,
what I have said is sufficient to exonerate Mr. Richardson
from any scheme, beyond that of a great, grand, and praise-
worthy public scheme for the public benefit. Gentlemen,
agriculture must be progressive— must go a-head. It cannot
atand still : it is the source from whence millions derive the
" means of satisfying their daily wants, and muat, therefore, go
on increasing in its results, in accordance with the increased
demands which are made upon its resources; and it is to such
enterprising, energetic gentlemen as Mr. Richardson, that we,
the manure-merchants, the manure-manufacturers, and you,
the farmers, are indebted, for keeping pace with the necessary
progressive movements of the flay. What has this Hibald-
stowe experiment shown us ? It hii,s shown us that the well-
incorporated, uniform, and well-manufactured superphosphate
made by our friend Mr. Odams took the lead and ascendancy,
for common turnips, over all other ammoniacal phosphatic
manures, producing a weight of four tons per acre more than
the lowest competitor. We also learn that the phospho-
Peruvian guano has taken the ascendancy in the experiment
for swedes, beating bones and Gibbs' Peruvian guano some
two or three tons per acre ; and as the time has now come
when the great aim of the farmer must be to produce the
greatest quantity of food for man, and that at the least pos-
*■ aible cost, I think Mr. Richardson has, through the instru-
mentality of this Hibaldstowe experiment, made a great,
grand, and progressive achievement in finding out those ma-
nures that are best adapted to grow the largest amount of
produce per acre at the least possible cost.

Mr. Predeeick. Richard Marshall (who officiated as
vice-chairman, in the absence of Mr. West), proposed "The
health of the Judges— Mr. Hobson, of Kettleby Thorpe ; Mr.
C. Nicholson, of Staniwells ; Mr. Fowler, of Kirton Grange ;
Mr. C. Nicholson, Mr. John Stephenson, of Buraham ; and
Mr. M. Maw, jun., of Cleatham." Mr. Marshall passed a
warm eulogium upon the gentlemen whose healths he had
proposed, for the admirable manner in which they had per-
formed their arduous and important duties. Speaking from
intimate acquaintance with Mr. Hobson and Mr. Charles
Nicholson, he said, better judges for the experiment could not
have been selected ; for they were among the best growers of
turnips in the county of Lincoln.

Mr. Hobson responded. Mr. Horner had referred to a
conversation which took place in that room with respect to
the experiment which they had seen brought to a successful
issue. It was suggested at that time that an equal amount of
money value per acre should be represented in the contest, and
he (Mr. Hobson) might take to himself the credit of that
money value. Subsequently a wish was expressed to reduce
the standard, and it was done ; but he, nevertheless, was
still of opinion that the amount he fixed in the first instance
would have been better (Hear, hear). As to the manner in
which the experiment had been carried out, he believed that
nothing could have been more fair and just (Hear, hear). The
land had no producing properties left in it beyond its natural
c»pabilitiea (Hear, hear), and that was Lhe c> 'y proper wa; iu
wai.h to try such a' exper' 'w'. iiad manure been left in
the laud, it could not have beea terTue 1 a fair test, but in this

case the land was perfectly bare (Hear, hear). It had been in-
sinuated that some manure entered for competition had been
specially manufactured for the purpose; but, really, looking
at the very short time which elapsed between the competition
being invited by Mr. Richardson and the sowing of the seed,
he saw no reason for believing that anything of the kind was
done by any one of the competitors. He had every reason to
believe that the competing manures were taken from the bulk,
and if there was any fault at all in the contest it rested with
the manures themselves.

Mr. Matthew Maw and Mr. John Stephenson also briefly
responded, expressing their belief that the experiment was a
bona fide and houest test of the value of the different manures
entered for competition. [Mr. Fowler was not present.]

Mr. Horner rose and said, that in order to render the
experiment as satisfactory as it possibly could be to all par-
ties, he would suggest that the winning lot of swedes should
be re-weighod on the 16th of February, and the result then
announced.

The Chairman next presented to Mr. George Seagrave,
of Liverpool, the introducer of the Phospho-Peruvian Guano
into this county, the silver tankard which we have before re-
ferred to. He said the farmers were much indebted to the
introducers of these manures ; but he must again impress upon
manufacturers the necessity of producing fertilizers at as low
a price as consistent with adequate remuneration, in order to
meet the present reduced rates of agricultural produce.

Mr. Seagrave said : This guano has been applied at the
rate of 13/. per ton, or, in other words, in the quantity of
about 1 oz. to the square yard, in competition with the liberal
application of other manure of very deserving hijsh character.
Under any circumstances, too great a compliment cannot be
paid to some of the manufacturers of such manures as have
been supplied in the case of the experiment in question, at the
rate of price at which they have been entered, and upon which
the calculations have been based. I feel convinced, judging
from these analyses, that my native county can proudly boast
of a fair and honest competition such as no other county en-
joys ; and I feel assured that the unvarying supply to the
agriculturists of Lincolnshire of artificial manures, up to the
standard of these analyses, will, instead of, as I am told exists,
a "shyness between the buyer and seller," or rather " on the
part of the buyer towards the seller," call forth a pleasurable
greeting at every market meeting whenever the manufacturer,
agent, or seller shall be brought into contact with the con-
sumer. In addition to which, I am assured that the seller or
sellers of adulterated manures in this district (if he or they
have not already done so) will find the honest competition so
hot for them, that they will have to repair to some less favoured
district (which will be likely to prove more favourable to them
and to their calling), where neither analysis nor guarantee is re-
quired : under such competition as I have just alluded to, the
sale of spurious manures will in time be most effectually put
a stop to, by the proof of comparative practical experiment
and demonstration. And in order not only effectually but
speedily to put a stop to such impositions, which are the true
cause of the " shyness on the part of the farmer towards the
seller of artificial manures," not knowing in whom he may
place confidence, and on the principle of " once bit twice shy,"
and which shyness we must all look upon as the natural con-
sequence— I say, in order not only effectually, but speedily to put
a stop to imposition, Mr. Richardson has suggested a plan
which, if carried into effect, would at once tend to attain the
object in view, and thereby prove conducive to the interests of
all concerned, by giving a substantial guarantee to the farmer,
and I am sure would wonderfully facilitate the business of the

106

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seller, as well as adding to his pleasure and comfort in his
business negotiations. The suggestion referred to was to this
effect, that the seller of every artificial manure iu Lincolnshire,
or rather at this market (with the exception of those samples
which are now already in the hands of Mr. Kichardsoo, and of
which a careful examination has been conducted), should for-
ward the sample of the manure he has for sale to Professor
Voelcker for analysis, at that at the time of sale he should give
a written guarantee that the delivery of the manure should be in
accordance with such analysis, subject to non-payment for same
manure in the event of Dr. Voelcker finding any material com-
mercial difference in the composition of the bulk delivered. I
say material difference, because it is well known that in tlie
case of all manufactured compound manures some slight
accidental difiference (caused either by an unfavourable
drawing of the sample from the bulk, or some slight differ-
ence iu degree of the material not having in the instance of
the samjile drawn been uniformlj' chemically acted upon)
may exist, and Dr. Voelcker's great and renowned experi-
ence in scientific examinations and inquiry is in itself a
sufficient guarantee of his giving a good and sound judg-
ment in the matter. I think every one present will admit
that the best test of the value of a manure is its chemical
analysis — at least, I may safely assume as a fact, which
does not admit of cavil, that the money value of manures
can alone be determined by chemical means— there is really
no other way of ascertaining the market value of a mauure
than by means of the chemist's examination of the composi-
tion, unless, indeed, the farmer himself acquires a sufficient
knowledge of analytical chemistry to enable him to analyze
his soils and manures, and I know of no good reason why
respectable farmers should not be instructed in the theory
and practice of that science which must be regarded as the
true expounder of his art. No artificial manure should, in
my opinion, be purchased by the consumer without pre-
viously obtaining an analysis setting forth its exact compo-
sition. Testimonials, without a guarantee of analysis, are
all very well in their way, but are seldom to be relied upon.
In numberless cases the most worthless manures have been
palmed upon the unsuspecting farmer by means of specious
testimonials. A correct analysis can alone be depended
upon ; and even this, in not a few instances, proves unavail-
ing. The analysis may be correct, but it is practically of
no value to the farmer unless he understands it : and not
only so, but a true statement of the composition of a bad
specimen may, to him, appear that of a good one ; and he
may purchase the bad under the impression that, as an
analysis is given at all, it is as a guarantee of the genuine-
ness of the article. Relying upon this very natural mode
of reasoning on the part of the purchaser, the fraudulent
dealer resorts to this audacious experiment in order to avoid
being prosecuted fon selling otherwise than ' according to
analysis;' but the watchful core of Dr. Voelcker, when
sought for, as well as that of other chemists of high agricul-
tural chemical attainments, will provide a sufficient protec-
tion to the purchaser (at least from being led into this trap) ;
without which protection, so long as buyers are unacquainted
with even the elementary principles of chemistry, so long
must we expect this system of imposition to be pursued : let
us hope, however, that this is a state of things v/hich will
not long continue. If fraud is abroad seeking for prey,
science is on its track to discover and disarm it ; and even
the agricultural part of the community, though to widely
dispersed from the great urban centres of scientific light,
cannot long remain ia ignorance of that science which must
be regarded as the farmer's best friend and safeguard, and

the true exponent of his noble art. Many farmers are ia
the habit of purchasing various kinds of guano and other
artificial manures for the purpose of testing their compara-
tive fertilising properties. Now, experimenting in the
field with various kinds of manures is, no doubt, highly
desirable, and frequently leads to very important prac-
tical results; but you should first obtain the chemist's
opinion as to the composition of the manures (supposing
you not to be previously acquainted with them) before
you proceed to experiment with a variety that may
prove to be completely worthless for the object in
view. Haphazard experiments in agriculture should be
avoided by every agriculturist who desires to ftrra pro-
fitably. No doubt many of you gentlemen present
know of curious facts in connexion with field experi-
ments ; one with which I am acquainted (as it bears dis-
tinctly on the point we have now at issue), may be worth
mentioning. Several experiments were tried this year at a >

large farm with which I am acquainted, to test the com-
parative fertilizing value of guano and other varieties of
artificial manures ; and, as a check upon the experiments, a
portion of the crop was not sown with manure at all, and it
was found that the heaviest crop of all was that grown upon
the unmanured plot. (Hear, hear.) So much for badly
arranged field experiments as a test of the fertilizing value
of manures. The soil of the field in which these experiments
were conducted was so extremely fertile, that the addition of
manure produced no sensible effect upon the crop. In the
experiment at Hibaldstowe, so judiciously conducted by Mr.
Richardson, such cautions iiave been instituted as to insure
on its basis the result being due only to the various artifi-
cial manures applied, by wisely selecting a field which had £
been thoroughly exhausted, and which alone was fitted for '''
the object in view, viz., to decide upon the comparative
merits of the various manures under consideration (which
was the only and true object iu view), not that of producing
the greatest weight of bulk attainable under any circum-
stances. The subject of adulteration of artificial manures is
one the importance of which, to the agriculturist, can hardly
be over-estimated; and although the question has occupied,
of late years, the attention of several very distinguished
chemists, and has been frequently brought under the notice
of the farmer, still, I think, further public attention to the
existence of the wide-spread (and, in some counties, well
organized) system of adulteration, which so unfortunately at
present prevails, imperatively calls for active interference to
suppress it. It is, indeed, fortunate for the cultivators of
the soil, that chemical science furnishes the means of detect-
ing adulteration of every kind, no matter how skilfully
it may have been accomplished ; but it is to be regretted
that so few, comparatively speaking, avail themselves of the
boon. I hope, however, that this apathy amongst those
mo3t interested in the matter will not be of much longer
continuance, and that no " penny wise and pound foolish"
considerations, on the part of the farmer, will cause him to
reject the aid of chemistry, a science which has thrown so
much light into every intricacy of his avocations, and which
is ever available to protect him from fraud and imposition.
The money loss to the farmer in the purchase of the manure
IS not all ; indeed, the useless expenditure of money in the
purchase of worthless manure is the least loss which the
farmer sustains, His loss is far greater; his time, the rent
of his land, and the crops which he should have obtained
had his manure been genuine, are all sacrificed to the un-
scrupulous cupidity of the dishonest manufacturer of spurious
manures, and the no less dishonest dealer in the same article*

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

107

Mr. Stephenson proposed " The heaUli3 of the Unsuc-
cessful Candidates." While he admired the fair and honest
manner in which the experiments had heeu carried out, and
was glad that the best man had won it, it must not be for-
gotten that it had only been just won.

Mr. Packer, representing Mr. Smalley, of Stockwith, re-
sponded. Although the firm which he had the honour to
represent was not successful in obtaining a prize in thia com-
petition, still he was not ashamed of the position they occupied
in it. They had produced, with the manure for which he was
the agent, a very good crop of turnips, and he would say this
in justice to all the competitors, that two better fields of
turnips could not be found in the county than those upon
- which the experiment had been tried. This had not been a
good season for the turnip crop ; but the produce in those two
fields— the soil be it remembered having been exhausted of all
but its natural producing quahties— was more than an average.
(Hear, hear). The experiment had undoubtedly been a triumph
for Mr. Horner, and the experiment would,in his (Mr. Packer's)
opinion, be attended with permanent benefit to the agricultural
community. The test, he firmly believed, had been moat im-
partially carried out. The prizes just presented had been most
fairly won. As an unsuccessful competitor, he should very
much like all the manures of the unsuccessful competitors
should be analyzed, and be for one was quite ready to stand
the test, and should be glad indeed to bear the expense of the
analysis. He thought if Mr. Kichardson would be good enough
to send samples of all the manures entered in competition to
Professor Viielcker for analysis— the expense being borue by
the unsuccessful competitors— they should all derive consi-
derable benefit. All, he thought, would agree to this propo-
sition for their own sakes and for the credit of the firms which
they represented. Mr. Paclser then dwelt at some length on
what were the valuable constituents in manure— )'. e., phosphate
for turnips, and ammonia for wheat— and said the only way
to ascertain what were good and what were bad was by analy-
Bia. He then gave the health of Mr. Richardson, to whom he
considered they were all, both farmers and vendors of manures,
greatly indebted for the way in which he had originated and
conducted to a termination the Hibaldstowe turnip experiment.

Mr. Francis Page rose to order. He was known to
many gentlemen there as the representative of Messrs. Morris,
brothers, and Geves, and he had, he thought, some cause to
complain : though all the speakers concurred in eulogising the
manner in which the experiments had been carried on through-
out, the house of which he was the agent ran second in the
race— a fact which would have remained unnoticed but for a
passing observation from Mr. Stephenson. Had not they who
came forward voluntarily reason to expect a just amount of
consideration at the hands of gentlemen present? The fact had
not been alluded to, and it surely deserved notice. He felt it
a duty on himself, and justice to his principal?, to put them in
their right position before that company. He wished that
one member of the firm had been present to take up the toast
and do justice to its merits. The low price of agricultural
produce, as the chairman had stated, called for as low a price
as possible on the part of the manure manufacturers. That
suggestion had been anticipated by the firm he represented,
the price of manure having been reduced lOs. per ton.

Mr. Walesby (agent for Batche'or's manures) declared,
in the midst of much laughter, that the manures which he re-
presented would always beat the Phospho-Peruvian guano.

Mr. T. M. Kichardson, on rising to respond to the toast
of his health, was loudly cheered. He said, alluding to Mr.
Packer's suggestion that the manures of the unsuccessful com-

petitors in the experiment should be analyzed, he would wil-
lingly give up the portions in his possesion for that purpose.
The subject of the adulteration of manures was a subject of
very great importance indeed to the farming public, and
thought it could hardly be over-estimated. He could give an
instance of this from his own experience : he was in the habit
of using a manure at £12 per ton ; but he got it analyzed, and
found that he was paying £12 for what in reality was not
worth more than £3 (Hear, hear.) This had made him wary.
He would not purchase a manure now unless he received a
guarantee, and even then he should consider it to be his duty
to consult the chemist as to the truth of that guarantee.
They had just been told that fraud was abroad seeking for
prey, and ready to victimise the unwary. Then (said Mr.
Richardson) I must appeal to you, my yovmg brother sports-
men, and more particularly to our gallant Captain Rattler, to
prepare for the hunt. Meet at the cross-roads of Imposition —
let slip the dogs of Chemistry — put Science on the track of
fraud, aud hunt it out, not only from the coverts in which it
now lurks and lies concealed, but also from every covert
throughout the agricultural districts ; and in the open field of
honest trading, run into this sly and fleeing enemy, and nail
his brush to the farmyard door of every cultivator of the soil.

Mr. RicHAD Richardson, of West Firsby, proposed the
health of Mr. Odams, the manager to the Nitro and Super,
phosphate Manure Company. He (Mr. Richardson) was very
glad indeed to be enabled to bear personal testimony to the
worth of those manures, and the skill and scientific knowledge
displayed by Mr. Odams in their preparation, for on a very
recent occasion he (Mr. Richardson) had the privilege of going
over the manufactory of the company, in Plaistow Marshes,
and he was then enabled to judge for himself. From what he
then saw, he was enabled most truly to declare that mere
genuine and valuable fertilizers could not be than those pre.
pared under the superintendence of Mr. Odams. And they
had a sufficient guarantee of the respectability and bona fide
character of the Superphosphate and Blood Manure Company
in the fact of the board of directors being composed of such
men as Mr. Jonas Webb; aud in the additional fact that the
shareholders and directors themselves represented no less than
300,000 acres of land.

Mr. Odams acknowledged the compliment, and said it had
always been his aim and study to produce for the compauy
manures of real value to the agriculturist, and it would always
be his endeavour to make one of the best manures out.

Mr. Pratt said it would be in the recollection of the chair-
man that upon Mr. Richardson's advertisement appearing in
the papers, which brought about this trial, he (Mr. Pratt) with
others attended this ordinary ; but the anxiety of competitors
was so great that no place was left for him ; consequently those
who could not get in this public trial resolved to send half a
ton each to Mr Geo. Skelton, of Hibaldstowe, and|upon inquiry
of Mr. Skelton this day, he (Mr. Pratt) had been informed by
him that from his (Mr. Pratt's) manure he had the best crop.
— (Abridged from The Lincoln Times.)

The Average Price of Corn, per Quarter (imperial
measure), in England and Wales, for the Quarter ending
Christmas, 1858 :—

Wheat 41s. 9J.

Barley 35s. 2d.

Oats ....... 23s. 3d.

Rye 3l3. lOd.

Beans 42s. lid.

Peas 44s. 8d.

108

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

PRESENTATION AND DINNER TO MR. DONALD, OF LINSTOCK.

When, at the last annual meeting of the East Cumberland
Agricultural Society, it was announced that Mr. Thomas
Donald, of Linstock, after having assiduously and gratuitously
laboured as Secretary for twenty-five years, had retired from
that post, it was generally felt that some public mark of
respect was demanded by his long and valuable services to the
Association. Mr. Donald's high private character, and the
wide esteem which his public spirit and integrity have secured,
aided the movement, and many persons who were not directly
connected with the agricultural society gladly availed them-
selves of the opportunity to testify their regard for his per-
sonal worth. With but little effort, therefore, a sum of about
150Z. was obtained, and, under the direction of a committee,
a massive silver salver, an elegant silver coffee pot, a silver
claret-jug, and a gold watch and chain were purchased as
suitable testimonials to remind Mr. Donald of the number of
his friends and the estimation in which they held him. The
presentation took place on Saturday, Jan. 15, at a public
dinner in Carlisle.

The salver or coffee tray is oval in shape, and richly chased,
having a scroll and shield in the centre, containing the inscrip-
tion. The claret-jug — which is of the antique shape, and the
coffee-pot, are both richly chased. The following inscription
is engraved upon the articles : —

Presented to

Thomas Donald, Esa,"

by the Members of the

East Cumberland Agricultural Society,

and other Friends,

as a Token of their Appreciation of hia Valuable Setvices

as Honorary Secretary to that Society

during a period of 25 Years.

January 15, 1859.

The dinner took place at the Royal Hotel, where the large
room was tastefully decorated for the occasion. On the end
wall, surrounded by a border of evergreens, hung a large
banner, bearing the motto " Prosperity to the East Cumber-
land Agricultural Society." On each side of this, and ar-
ranged at intervals down the room, were bannerets with ar-
morial bearings. Other large flags adorned the walls, bearing
such mottoes as " Our Q,ueen and Country," " Success to
Agriculture," &c., aud the Royal arms furnished the other end
of the room. The coffee-pot and claret-jug were placed on
the salver, on the table before the chairman. Captain James,
of Lothian Gill, presided, and John Birkett, Esq., of Broom-
hill, occupied the vice-chair.

After the usual loyal toasts were disposed of, the Chair-
man thus gave the toast of the evening : I believe I
am now called upon to exercise the right which you have per-
haps in too flattering a manner confided to me, in electing me
as the organ of expressing your feeUigs towards an old friend.
And I really was not aware, until I saw the long list befoie
me, how embarrassing it was. Although I do not feel it em-
barrassing to address a public assembly when I have only my own
feelings to express, I feel that on the present occasion my
powers are not sufficient. I have not abihty, and assuredly I
cannot command sufficient eloquence, to express the feelings
which animate each one of you, and the large body of sub-
scribers—a list of whom I hold in my hand— who have thus
intended to express their feelings of admiration for our friend

Mr, Donald, who, as the Mayor has rightly expressed it, is
the hero of the evening. For a long series of years he has
been the unpaid, the very active, and, I may add, the very
patient servant of the East Cumberlaud Agricultural Society.
The exact period of his services I am unable to state, except
by looking at the very elegant inscription before me. His
service dates back twenty-five years— long before I, although
now going on for nearly twenty years' acquaintance with agri-
culture, had anything to do with it. Before I had anything
to do with attending agricultural meetings it appears that Mr.
Donald, who must then have been a very youug man, was
secretary of the Society, and the friends of agriculture then
presented him with what was a very good specimen of the
work of the time — a tea service ; and I understand that this
(holding up the coffee-pot) is the only article wanted to com-
plete it. Why the coffee-pot was omitted before, I cannot say ;
but the merits of Mr. Donald at that time commanded only a
tea service, and it is left for us to complete the service, and
provide him with what all will admit to be a nice specimen as
a work of art— a coffee-pot. But, gentlemen, I trust Mr.
Donald will not estimate our respect by the intrinsic value of
the articles presented, but consider them as a poor, inadequate,
expression of the very high regard in which we hold him. Nor
do we hold him in that high regard lightly ; but for those
qualities which will among all nations and in all countries
command esteem. I confess it has struck me occasionally and
I could never reconcile it to myself how he managed the dis-
cordant element that all of you know you meet on the show-
ground. Long before this presentation I watched, and of
course if I watched I found it out. I found that angry ex-
hibitors, persons too late to enter, impatient judges, who had
missed the train, and all the other difficulties, were overcome
by the exhibition of good temper and tact. (Cheers and
laughter). Now, gentlemen, tact is a thing which, like poetry,
is born with a man, and our friend Mr. Donald is a very lucky
man to be born the possessor of tact aud patience. I think a
lesson is to be taken from him, and if there are any in this
room younger than myself, which I fancy there will be, I may
be allowed to recommend them so to keep Mr. Donald in
mind ; and when they are spoken to, ns I have heard Mr.
Donald spoken to, in a hasty and petulant manner, let them
take care not to answer too hastily. I believe this has been
the secret of our friend— only to answer at the right time. I
trust, however, the career of Mr. Donald is not finished, and
that he will be an assistant at our Agricultural Society, al-
though he ceases to be its gratuitous servant. I trust that
after expressing our feelings towards him— something may
have taken place already— I may venture to express a hope
that when he rises to return thanks, he will inform us that he
has resolved no longer to delay the period of settliag himself
in life. It is a serious atid somewhat delicate point to touch
on, but having lived in a healthy country, aud beiag the father
of tea children, if I can't venture upon it, who can ? What
is the use of a coffee-pot without a helpmate ? I can under-
stand the use of the other (the claret jug) ; for that a bachelor
may use too well and too often. It only remains for me now,
lamenting as I do my want of power in expressing your feel-
ings, to present to Mr. Donald something that will remind him
each day, when he puts his hand into his waistcoat-pocket,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

109

that he unites ia himself the concentration of the feelings of
a very large number of friends, not by any means expressed by
the number in this room, because it accommodates but a
limited number, and there is a large number of subscribers
who, from unavoidable causes, are prevented from attending
here this day. If he will permit me to take the liberty, I will
put it on, and I trust it will remind him that worth, virtue,
and honesty are not always in this world, however inadequately,
unrewarded. The Chairman then proposed Mr. Donald's
health, which was drunk with great enthusiasm.

Mr. Donald then rose and was received with loud cheers.
He said— Mr. Chairman, Mr. Vice-chairman, and gentlemen,
it has been said, and I think with some truth, that when the
- heart feels most the tongue has the greatest difficulty in ex-
pressing. Aud if I was ever placed in a situation where more
than under ordinary circumstances I had an opportunity of
feeling the full force of that truth, the present is that occasion.
I feel, gentlemen, that merely to thank the worthy chairman
for the very flattering terms he has been pleased to apply to
me would be but a poor expression of my feelings. But be as-
sured I will remember to the last day of my life the very flat-
tering manner in which you have conveyed to me this valuable
testimonial. The value, according to its intrinsic worth is
great ; but it has a higher value in my estimation, as it conveys
to me in language which could not be misunderstood, that
during the long time I have acted as secretary of the East
Cumberland Agricultural Society I have met with your appro-
bation; and shows to me in a way ia which there can be no
mistake, that I am in possession of your respect aad esteemi
which I value at a much higher price than silver or gold.
Gentlemen, I have sometimes thought, and I assure you it is
without afi'ectation, that some one who could have carried
more energy into the business than I was possessed of, would
have made a more efficient serv /. it in the interests of the so-
ciety J but after the proceedings of this day I may perhaps be
vain enough to think that I had formed a wrong opinion. We
have sometimes heard of the want of public gratitude, but I
have seen that when any man has had a just claim on the
public he has never gone unrewarded. This must be encou-
raging to ray successor, who possesses zeal and ability, aud if
to this he will add patient perseverance, when he retires from
office at the end of five-and-twenty years he need not fear that
his services will be forgotten. Gentlemen, during the long
time I have acted with you it has been my fortune to be asso-
ciated with four treasurers. First, there was the late Mr.
Bowman, whom you all knew very well. He had been the
treasurer for other societies before, and a more exact aud
painstaking treasurer could not be, aud I have often woudered
how at his great age he could manage the work. Then came
the late Mr. Farish, than whom a more worthy man never lived.
He was succeeded by the late Mr. Rome, a spirited farmer,
and most active treasurer ; but unfortunately, Uke his predeces-
sors, his health and strength were not equal to the work he
had before bim. Gentlemen, we have now my friend Mr. Dalton.
I cannot in his presence say all I would say about him ; but I
will say, and I believe I only express the feelings and sentiment
of this company when I say, that I wish he may long live to
discharge the duties of treasurer with credit to himself
and benefit to the society. The benefit produced by agricul-
tural societies is cow so universally admitted that it need
not be insisted on here. Whatever produces emulation and

competition will necessarily produce improvement, and we all
know that many agriculturists think their own things best at
home ; but when they bring them to be compared with others,
they are stimulated to further improvement. So with crops.
They think their own best until compared with others, and
then they are dissatisfied with the opinions of the judges. I
have always found it would be more easy to be successful in
gaining a prize if I had not anybody to compete with me. In
green crops I bad twice the good fortune to be successful,
although Mr. Eome and Mr. Forster, of Moorhouse Hall,
were my competitors. They had both very good turnips, and
did not believe they had been well treated ; but they came and
saw my crop, and then they both candidly admitted that they
were fairly beaten. Another year I had a crop, and, puffed up
by my success, I again entered the lists with Mr. Kome as a com-
petitor ; but he, having profited by the experience of the
former year, had put on the whole steam, and beat me, so that
I have never since ventured to enter the lists again. Gentlemen,
you are aware we have sometimes heard complaints by parties
of the partiality of the judges. That the judges do very often
err there can be no question ; if they never erred, they would
be more than human. No one had a better opportunity of
forming an opinion of their judgments than myself. I have
known them come and ask me to whom the animals belonged
to which they had awarded the prizes ; while, at the same time,
they were accused of partiality. Gentlemen, it has sometimes
even been hinted that politics had something to do with it ;
but I have no hesitation in saying that, so far as I was con-
cerned, or the committee that managed the business of the So-
ciety, not a shadow of politics ever interfered with us. And
when I look round this room, and see so many gentlemen of
different shades of political opinion, I cannot but feel that I
am confirmed in my statement. Our friend the Chairman has
political opinions of his own ; and as to my friend the Vice-
Chairman, nobody has any doubt about his opinions. Though
he and I differ always in politics, we agree in everything. This
may seem a paradox to some, who are not aware that we agree
to differ in politics. Gentlemen, I think we would have ar-
rived at a strange state of things if gentlemen could not meet
at an agricultural society, or at a meeting like this, without
being soured by the demon of politics. Gentlemen, I can't
say, in answer to our worthy chairman, that anything is set-
tled in the way he recommended ; but his kind advice, allow
me to tell you, will encourage me to hope that the exertions
which from this time I may set about will, before long, be
auccessful. Gentlemen, for the very kind and liberal way in
which you have treated me, I really cannot find words to ex-
press my feelings as I could wish. I cannot, indeed, tell you
how I thank you. When I look at that splendid salver, I am
inclined to say, as Cardinal Wolsey said to Henry VHI,,
" You have made me too great for my house." And when I
look at that beautiful coffee-pot and claret-jug, I feel you have
given me additional means of entertaining my kiud friends,
when you give me a visit; audi hope that, when you come,
you will not say, " I hope it will be the last visit." When I
look at this valuable watch, and see how time is flying, it will
be a warning to me that time is on the wing ; aud every time I
look at it, it will remind me of what T never can forget, the
deep debt of gi-atitude I owe to my very kind and very numer-
ous friends (loud cheers).

110

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRESENTATION OF A TESTIMONIAL TO MR.

OF LONG SUTTON.

JOHN CLARKE,

_ At the tenth anniversary of the Long Sutton Asso-
c.at:on for the Prosecution of Felons, held Jan S,

liiionZTh"Jtu""V^- ''^"^^''^ "" Agricultural Asso^
ciation forthwith. This was immediately done and
Mr. John Clarke appointed Honorary sLreJary ; an
office which he has now held for twenty-two years wi?h
much benefit to the Society and the district. ^ It ha^ng
la e y been determined to offer him some testimonial of
h s fnends' respect, the anniversary of the above Asso

«arn'^'%T V"' """' apJropriatVdr/for'rts
presentation. The Chairman of the day was Robert
Mossop, Esq., who, in a very able and complimentarv

Mr'c'laXr/'^-. T^' ^' '''' ''''' obfectTwS
ivir. Clarke had aided by his efforts, as well as the

Association with which he stood more immed atelv
connected-concluding amidst the plaudit oT a Targe
assemblage by presenting the testimonial, consi ?ifg
of a very chaste and beautiful ormolu limep ece
ornaSS.'^^-^^"^^^' ^"'^ ^ ^^^ -^-r, i!^;

Mr.JohnC]arke,inacknowledgemenf,said, Ibes sir
to thank you for permitting us of'the Long Sut on Agri.'

our purpose, I know you have always encouraecedanv
TelinrFro^'t? '""'.' '^ '^°"^'^' forwardftyour
Societv the Tn, r ™^^"°S«^-°ated our Agricultural
nant ..? Company, the Corn Exchange Com-

ine like 1 thank you most sincerely for the kind and

sX'rE: aTd'^Th^ " "';'=' ''"^ ^'^'^ - behalf^'of tS
suoscriDers and this meeting convevetl tn me ti,„.

beautiful articles of plate on the side Joard I e te m i
a great honour. I believe I am the first indivduaT in
his district that has ever had such an honour coSreS
ZTh "" Sr;' ^'''' ^''^ testimonials presented but
-trova private friends, members of congregations to

iTlTow' '°t^ «^'^-"try totheir\?dt d Jr
agents fellow-parishioners ; but mine is from the dis-
trict, from the general public, which to me makes the
honour greater. I am most ha^py to receive iTSrou^

rJed^undT ^'''?^M- ^°-'^^- ^'-^ -dThl Comrt et
taken ?o d. IT'^X^''^'''' ^"^ '^' *™^ble they have
arise in^ollLr I ^°"""''- ^ ^"°^ ^^^^^ difficulties

S '°5fi7^''"S subscriptions : many are disposed to

rw ,i '''i"'^ committee-man is not at hand to

receive the sovereign, it lies quietly in the purse, and the
thing IS passed by. I thank you for usincr such a wis.

cote b it Wh^ P'-epo^^e«Bion was to build a model
mv Ln'^ • \^V^ y°" ^°' preventing me embruing
my hands in bricks and mortar. I thank vou fo?
acceding to my wish to have it in three pLces, because
I wish to hand to each of my three children an hel
orTcT'oitainThef:" " "Y'''^' ^^^^ *^^^^ P--t " ^
neighbours for efforts of a public character, and that it

iTff T "f 'f 'K'"^ '' '''''''^ "°^ usefubess through
miA r ''^'° *° °^"^° ^"other member of the com
mi tee-I mean Mr. E. Cole, to whom I am indebted
as the proposer of this testimonial. I beg aSo toVon
bistc^^ta c"e ''W'^''' toJ...nof ap;fovtuwaUin,

bothSked'rnen v„7: "^ ^"■^' '^'' '^'' ^' "' "^^^
your private w^rH' ^^^^ ^^^..^^ "ceive a testimonial for
y private worth, your obliging and attentive business-

habits ; mine is for public usefulness. I trust we shall
not forfeit the good opinion shown toward us ; but that
we may each fulfil our stations with honour, and prove
ourselves an example to others. To Mr. W Skelton
our esteemed Presi^dent, I am greatlylndebt'ed fo h?^
steady support, and the great encouragement and assis
ance he has rendered me throughout the whole period of
he society's existence. It was by his help, and E of

dTJr °'^'''' '^^' '"^ ^''^^^ °f greaf 'agrtultural
difficulty, we were kept together. To the Stewards
I have been under very great obligations, andT'e
is one whom I desire more to particularize - I
mean Mr. John Peele. We have^ acted together
from the commencement for twenty-two years ; wf have
acted harmonously and laboriously. I [hank him for
onTon ' ^^--^^^ff-'t liberality; for his determina-
tion to overcome and live down all difficulties. Recol-
lect that in the depressed times all the other societies
around us were given up-Wisbeach, Spalding, King

fn f„?T"'i^°''°°' ^^^"gl«' Holbeach- allien
in but Mr. Peele would never give up. To Mesis

SkeUon''?T''^ Horn,Meatheri?ghm,Ld Mr E S;
bkelton I tender my best thanks. Others have done
well, but you never had a class of Stewards equal ?o
these gentlemen. They have duties, and they fulfi them
In judging allotments, drilling, and setting out S'
and managing our large meetings, they merl^t ^our h gh
approval-they do it admirably. To Mr. John ThoriS

t ^.l- c •' ^, ^'■''''"y relieving me from many duties •
for .his Society has this novel feature in its oper^ations -
he education of the agricultural community, the labour-
ng population To the present meeting I offei my best
thanks for your kind attention. I thank you for thTse ex-
pressions of your high opinion. I should think my Jnd

esta^tionf ttn' ' '^°"^' be indifferent to such'mani-
festations. I know your public spirit. I know of no
district having so many good institutions, or whose
mhabitants are so ready to aid each other. And in thJse
matters you do nothing by halves : yourSocietv s
unexampled for its comprehensive prize fist your lUtle
tL"priro/Zr' '' ''I ^-^'- '^i'l y- ba/e made
paUern to th. ^r,'"""*'^ ' ^°''' ^«'" Exchange is a
?rt.lZ\ the whole country; and the testimonial you
fZ '^u'\ ^'^'^^Pt^ble, the most splendid and useful

It was ever the lot of any one in the district to receive
I have one more name, one gentleman whose name I
wish particular y to bring before you ; I mean my co-
worker and colleague, Mr. John Swain. He hTsVow
been associated with me for fourteen years : a great parT
o that time as joint secretary: he has done Lar y^ a
the work-keeping accounts, collecting subscriptions
managing certificates, and most of the details S the
Association-for which I beg to offer him my sincere
thanks. Moreover, he is the treasurer and secure Iry of
this testimonial fund : it is to his energy and manage-
ment that much is due. I have ever found him a mfst
useful and disinterested fellow-labourer, and I don-
know one amongst us who makes himself more generaSy
useful, and but for whose help I must long ago have

h. !.••*/>' Sir, to conclude by proposing Ms
health, with best wishes for his prosperity.

In the course of the evening, Mr. Clarke gave an
interesting sketch of his career, for which, however! we
have not room this month.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ill

THE FOOD OF PLANTS,

The ancients inquired, by very laborious researdies,
into the nature of vegetable growth ; but the results
were very unsatisfactory. The transmutation of air into
the different bodies was held as an undoubted truth by
Epicurus and Pythagoras ; and Lucretius, in the beau-
tiful poem, " De Rerum Natura," atRrms the con-
stant change of air into other substances which are re-
■ solved into air, and whicli is again decomposed into
bodies by a continual and never-ceasing rotation.
Anaximenes also believed that all bodies were formed of
air, or of aerial matters. Among the moderns, Law-
rence contended for fire, Helmont for water, Bradley for
air, and others for earth and nitre j and this uncer-
tainty continued till more recent discoveries found that
liquids, carbonaceous, gaseous, and other substances
entered into the food of plants, and that water and air
are compound substances— the former consisting of two
elastic fluids or gases, viz., inflammable air or hydro-
gen, and vital gas or oxygen, or the oxide of hydro-
gen, and in weight 1+8 of oxygen; and the latter of
two gases, oxygen and azote, and small quantities of
aqueous vapour and of carbonic-acid gas— this last sub-
stance being itself a compound elastic fluid, consisting
of charcoal dissolved in oxygen. Tull thought that the
earth reduced to very minute particles supplied the
nourishment to vegetables, by attracting much moisture
in that comminuted state ; and that manures only
acted mechanically in improving the texture and in
crumbling the particles, and thus increasing the power
of attraction. Duhamel adopted these opinions, and
thought manures unnecessary; but he lived long
enough to abandon that notion, and he finally
concluded that no single material composed the
food of plants. Succeeding philosophers have made
many experiments on the growth of vegetables in
different situations, in light and in darkness, and placed
in substances of different qualities ; and tlie results
satisfied them that light and atmospheric air have
great influence, and that water is essentially necessary
to organized bodies, as without it no circulation of juices
can be carried on, though it be only reckoned a vehicle,
and not to constitute any part of tlie food itself. lu-
genhousz contended for atmospheric air by many very
in'-enious reasonings, which have not yet been clearly
proved or understood. Hassenfratz argued for carbon
or charcoal being the chief food of plants, and derived
from the soil by the roots, supplied to them in a state
of solution or suspension from the brown sediment of
dung after evaporation. This opinion was adopted by
Kirwan, with the difference of supposing that plants
derived carbon from the air by the act of vegetation, as
carbonic acid gas is easily resolved into its two ingre-
dients, oxygen and carbon. But common air has been
shown to contain only a thousandth part of its bulk of
carbonic acid gas, or, according to Lavoisier, none at all;

and carbon forms only one-fourth part of the fixed air it-
self. And it is doubtful if the brown mud of dungremain-
ing after evaporation can be reckoned real coal without
undergoing the action of fire ; it may rather be called
an extract, as it may be again diffused through water,
or dissolved as it was before the evaporation. Saussure
would lead us to believe that plants obtain their earths
from the soil; for beans, supported by distilled water,
yielded only one-third of the quantity of ashes afforded
by those grown in the soil ; while those fed by rain-
water gave little more than one-half of the latter
quantity.

Thirty-two ounces of dry corn contained earths and
metallic oxides as under —

Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats.

Carbonate of lime 12-6 13-4 24-S 33-75

Silica 13-2 156 667 144-2

Carbonate of magnesia ... . 13-4 14-2 25-3 339

Alumina 0-6 1-4 4-2 4-5

Oxide of manganese 5-0 32 6-7 6-95

Oxideofirou. 2-5 0.9 3-8 45

One hundred parts of ashes lixiviated gave as

under — ^ , , ...

Silex. Calx and Argil.
Muriatic.

Wheat 48 37 15

Barley 69 16 15

Oats.. 68 26 6

Bear or here 65 25 10

Rve C3 21 16

potatoes 4 66 30

Red clover 37 33 30

Schroeder seems to prove that a part of the earths
must be derived from vegetation, even where plants are
deprived of any opportunity of deriving fixed princi-
ciples from the soils where they grow. He planted
vegetables in sulphur and in the oxides of antimony
and zinc, containing no earthy matter, and placed them
in boxes, with free access of light and air, with dust and
rain excluded, and fed them with distilled water. He
found that the plants contained more earthy matter
than the seed from which they grew, and which he had
previously analyzed and ascertained the constituent
parts. Plants growing in distilled water, and with free
access of light and air, nearly doubled the portion of
carbon they originally contained ; but with little share
of light, it was diminished from the latter quantity :
and hence the plants must have derived nourishment
from the air. But as they never perfect seeds, and soon
decay, it is evident that air and water alone cannot
support healthy and productive vegetation. Plants
draw earthy matter from soils where no earths of that
kind exist ; as much as G5 per cent, of lime has been
found in plants, of which substance no traces could be
found in the ground ; and silica also, though none ex-
isted where the plants grew.

It has been found, by experiment, that plants do not
absorb solutions of saline substances indiscriminately ;

112

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

it may depend more on the degree of liquidity than on
any discriminating power in the root ; but we are wholly
unable to explain that so much greater a portion of
water should be absorbed than of the salt held in solu-
tion. Saussure concluded that it does not so much de-
pend on the earths which constitute the soil, as on the
quantity of earths held in solution by the liquid part of
it. So that earthy and saline matters existing in the
soil, and being always found in plants, we can scarcely
help considering them as a substance necessary to the
growth of plants ; but without manures, no earths,
salts, air, or water will support their proper growth,
Giobert mixed four earths— silica, alumina, lime, and
magnesia — in proportions to constitute a fertile soil, and
supplied the plants growing in them with water ; but
none grew till he applied water from a dung-hill.
Lampadius planted vegetables in one pure earth, and
supplied them with dung-hill water ; they grew and con-
tained the usual earthy matters, notwithstanding the
total absence of any of them in the soil. Plants have
been resolved by chemical analysis, but no satisfactory
conclusions as to what substances they derive from the
earth as nourishment can be drawn from a knowledge
of the constituent parts of organization. If a plant be
strongly heated in a close vessel, allowing only smoke
to escape, the residue is always the same, and is called
charcoal or carbon by the chemists ; of this carbona-
ceous matter a considerable quantity is always found in
garden-moulds and in rich lands, derived no doubt from
the remains of vegetable substances of which the mould
was originally formed. It is insoluble in water, and
cannot enter in that state into plants ; hence we may
suppose that it is rendered acceptable to their pores by
a variety of changes and combinations. Vegetable
mould is a loose black mass, obtained from plants putri-
fied in the open air without any mixture of animal
matter : it causes plants to grow with great vigour, and
must contain or constitute of itself a great source of
nutriment. New countries owe their fertility to this
substance. When exposed to continued cultivation it is
dissipated, and the soil is impoverished. Two hundred
grains of oak mould distilled, and the same quantity of
undecayed oak, gave as under :

Mould. Oak.
Inches (Fr.)

Carburetted hydrogen gas 124 116

Carbonic acid 34 29

Grains (Fr.)
Water containing pyrolignate of am-
monia 53 80

Empyreumatic oil ]0 13

Charcoal , 51 41^

Ashes 8 0^

Mould, and the vegetables from which it is derived,
give nearly the same results ; but mould contains more
charcoal than the vegetables, and more ammonia, and
consequently more azote.

Plants contain but few elements in their construction
and organization, and are chiefly composed of charcoal
and aeriform matter. They give, by distillation, vola-
tile compounds, of which the elements are pure air, in-
flammable air, coaly matter, and azote, or that elastic
substance which forms a great part of the atmosphere,

and is incapable of supporting combustion. They de-
rive these elements either by their leaves from the air,
or by their roots from the soil ; and the sap, which nou-
rishes the plant, and is finally converted into substance,
in order to add to its bulk by extension of parts, is de-
rived from water or from the fluids of the soil, and is
altered by, and combined with, principles derived from
the atmosphere. The principles of vegetable matter
contained by manures from organized substances are,
during putrefaction, rendered either soluble in water or
ceriform ; and in these states they are capable of being
assimilated to the vegetable organs. No one principle
affords the pabulum of vegetable life: it is neither
charcoal nor azote nor hydrogen alone, nor oxygen, but
all of them together, in various states and combinations
CBavyJ.

The fixed alkalies consist of pure air and highly
inflammable metallic substances; but there is no reason
to suppose that they are resolved into their elements, in
any of the processes of vegetation.

Elastic fluids are by some thought to constitute the
chief food of plants, and the principal cause of the fer-
tility of soils. Carbon, being the only fixed ingredient
in plants, is insoluble in water or in the acids of the
soil, and only in combination with azote and oxygen.
Heat is very favourable, as without its agency no sub-
stance can assume the gaseous forms.

Oils have also been supposed to enter into the food
of plants, as some oily productions are found to be
great improvers of land ; but oils are not miscible with
water, and must suppose the presence in the soil of lime,
chalk, marl, or soap-ashes, to convert them into a
transmissible state.

The earths are not convertible into the elements of
organized compounds — carbon, hydrogen, and azote.
They consume very small quantities of earth, found in
their ashes, and are not converted into new products.
They give hardness and firmness to the organization in
an epidermis of siliceous earth, and strengthen and pro-
tect it from the attacks of insects and of parasitical
plants. Soils and their bases, the metals with oxygen,
are not altered in vegetation : they may be corrected by
a modification of their earthy constituents, by probably
aff'ording a better receptacle for the absorption, reten-
tion, and giving oft' of moisture, and the means of useful
and fertilizing combinations.

Experiments have been quoted to showthat the soils ex-
erted a powerful influence on the qaulity of metallic oxides
contained in the plants; for, though the composition of
the ashes differ, the quantity of oxygen contained in all
the bases is the same, or an equal number of equivalents
of metallic oxides. And hence the opinion has been
entertained, that plants do not produce any inorganic
substances, alkalies, or metallic oxides.

Carbonaceous matter, in all active manures, must be
in a state of combination soluble in water ; and lime
also, pure or in a state of salt. Magnesia and alumina
may be rendered so by means of carbonic-acid gas ; and
silica may be dissolved in water : and though we cannot
comprehend the different changes and combinations, we
may conclude water to be the prime agent. The pro-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

118

portion of earthy matters in plants is considerably in-
fluenced by the soil on which they grow ; but whether
they derive the whole of these fixed principles from the
soil, or form them partly by some unknown powers of
vegetation, has not been satisfactorily ascertained. Some
would lead us to believe that all the earths are derived
from the soil; others, that a portion at least is derived
from vegetation, as in the case of plants wholly removed
from the soil. But plants removed from contact of the
earth do not arrive at maturity, or produce Iruit, and
contain much less carbonaceous matter than others of
the same kind.

Plants decompose common air, and change it into
carbonic- acid gas, forming carbon for the use of the
plant. In light, oxygen is given out by the leaves of
plants, and hydrogen retained ; in the dark, oxygen
is inhaled, and hydrogen given out. But coal consti-
tutes only one-third — or, according to Lavoisier,
28-lOOths of carbonic-acid gas ; and the atmosphere con-
tains only a thousandth part of fixed air, or, as before
mentioned, according to Lavoisier, none at all.

In Hassenfratz 's theory the difficulty lies in account-
ing for the quantity of carbon that trees find in one
place, as they have no locomotive powers to go, like
animals, in search of food. But both that writer and
Ingenhousz are candid enough to admit that both the
earth and air may combine in affording materials for the
growth of plants.

It has been long and very generally supposed, by
vegetable physiologists, that " humus" audits modifica-
tions formed the chief food of plants, and that alkalis
were necessary to promote the decomposition. The
name of " humus" was applied to the vegetable layer,
or mould, arising from the putrefaction of organic
substances, the quantity and quality of it indicating the
fertility or barrenness of soils. But, properly speaking,
humus is only a particular portion of the vegetable layer
in a certain state of preservation, and does rot extend to
the stratum of mould that has generally received that
name ; consisting of vegetable matters, partly decom-
posed, but not completely disorganized ; resembling a
plant without organization pervading and nourishing
others. Humus being slightly soluble in water, it was
supposed to yield materials capable of being absorbed by
the roots of plants, and the soluble parts were called
" humic acid," and the insoluble " humin," or coal of
humus j carbon being, as usual, the chief constituent
element. But it has been found that humus requires
2,500 times its own weight of water to dissolve it — a
much greater quantity than nature aff"ords ; and the very
trifling portion of alkalis in many soils would be insuffi-
cient to yield any great supply of carbon from that
source. On lands that are regularly mown, humus in-
creases, and yields as much carbon as manured grounds.
It is thence conjectured that the air supplies the carbon,
as it has been incontestably proved that plants imbibe
carbonic-acid gas, retain the carbon, and emit the
oxygen. Water is a prime agent, and the elements of
it may be decomposed and assimilated by plants at the
same time. From the very small quantity of carbonic-
acid gas in the air, and of carbon with the gas itself, it

may be supposed that the vegetative process possesses the
power both of assimilation and of augmentation. Expe-
riments made by supplying carbonic acid and water to
plants failed, because other necessary' ingredients were
wanting. The decaying vegetable matter, by converting
the oxygen into carbonic acid, affords the first food to
plants till the leaves are able to perform the functions of
inhalation. The carbon is thus derived from two sources :
from the humus in the soil in the first place, and thett
from the atmosphere.

Ammonia, in dififerent forms, is a powerful promoter
of vegetation, and is thought to afford the nitrogen to
plants, being itself a compound of nitrogen and hydro-
gen; or, ammonia 17 =14 nitrogen x 3 hydrogen.
Ammonia exists largely in manures of various kinds,
and in plants it forms several colours ; it abounds in
the last products of all animal substances, and in rain
and in snow-water ; the smell exhaled by the ground
after the melting of snow most sensibly showing its
presence. The use of gypsum, charcoal, and burned
clay arises from their fixing and retaining'ammoniaj and
oxides and ferruginous matters also possess that property.
It has been supposed that manures act only by the
formation of ammonia ; but nitrogen, or the product of
ammonia, exists sparingly in vegetables, and with the
nature of that elementary body, whether it be simple or
compound, we are, as yet, very imperfectly acquainted.
Plants contain a great preponderance of carbon over the
azote, and animal bodies the contrary ; and pure
vegetable substances are doubted to contain any azote.
Such is the uncertainty that attends the most plausible
theory on this subject.

It has been supposed by several eminent physiologists,
that plants eject fiBces like animals, and that the excre-
ments are converted into humus by exposure and
cultivation. It has also been supposed that the fecal
exudations of one plant supply food to another that is
of a wholly different kind, and that the benefits of alter-
nate cropping are derived from that source. But no
instance is known, in the animal world, of any one indi-
vidual deriving its support directly from the excrements
of another ; it seems to be repugnant to the laws of
Nature, until the substance has undergone many modi-
fications, and has been converted by the process of
assimilation into animal and vegetable food. The
theory is only a modification of the old hypothesis, that
plants have a power of choosing and rejecting, and that
different plants require different food. The excrements
are supposed to restore to the soil the carbon they de-
rived from the humus during the early period of growth,
and alkalis and ashes may hasten the decomposition ;
but it is still uncertain if the exudations be derived from
the soil, or from some other source, or formed by the
plant itself ; and until that be ascertained no certainty
can exist of the justness of the theory.

Experiment has not yet decided if soluble animal and
vegetable matter passes unaltered into plants, and be-
comes a part of their organization. If it does pass, it
must be by many combined and unseen agencies ; and it
is very probable that water, air, and earth, although
they do not singly afford the food of plants, all of them

I 2

lU

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

operate in the process of vegetation. It is probable
that we are yet unacquainted with any of the true
elements of matter ; for general substances, that were
formerly thought simple, have been decompounded, and
the most recent discoveries are by no means sufficient to
penetrate into the deep mysteries of organized life, and
it is doubtful if the propagation of vegetables has been
in any degree rendered more intelligible or easier of
comprehension. The original vegetables — lichens and
mosses — that grew on the naked decomposing rock,
could have little other food than water and atmospheric
air ; and, though chemists yet regard carbon as a simple
and uncompounded substance, and have found it in
water and in air only in a very minute degree, but by
some supposed to be decomposible, we may very reason-
ably think that water and air are the chief ingredients
of the food of plants; and, if the conclusion be true, it
is more curious in speculation than in practice, for it is
certain that no plants can be raised to perfection with-
out the aid of vegetable mould. Plants growing in a
rich soil must derive nourishment from it in some way ;
for if removed to one less fertile, they decay, and often
die quickly. Sap is ascending and descending ; rises in
the spring to the leaves, where it is elaborated, and under-
goes some change, and descends to every part of the plant,
becomes a part of the substance, and adds to the bulk.
Sap is also changed at the first entrance by the vessels
of the roots ; for ingrafted plants can derive from the
common stock the sap peculiar to itself. But what that
sap, or food, or substance is, we have not been able to
discover, owing to the minuteness of the rootlets, fibres,
tubes, and pores, which almost escape detection by the
microscope ; and it may be very reasonably presumed to
be in a state of solution as it ascends the organs in a
liquid form. But in what way, or by what peculiar
operation, the soil and manures yield the food in a liquid,
or in any other form, and become so highly conducive
to the growth of plants, is a point of very difficult re-
search, and all the conclusions yet formed on the subject
must be regarded as matters of very doubtful specula-
tion. Fortunately, the importance of being known
seems much less than the difficulty of obtaining the
knowledge ; for, if we were in possession of the latter
as amply as could be wished, it is doubtful if any useful
result would be derived, or if it would not rather re-
main a part of the ostentation of science, containing
most beautiful scientific truths, but totally irreducible
to practice.

In the present generally received opinion of the action
of manures, it is supposed they exert an influence in
several ways — in imparting the matters they contain
that are favourable to the growth of plants, and also by
adding by future decomposition to the quantity of vege-
table matter already in the soil, and thereby increasing
the fertility by operating upon other matters in the soil,
breaking the texture, and setting at liberty other in-
gredients, and forming new combinations favourable to
the growth of vegetable life, and by producing changes
and alterations in the constitution of the soil, and
bringing it into a more proper condition for yielding
food to plants, and also by acting partly in all the dif-

ferent ways now mentioned. Thus, it may be said that
some manures afford nourishment onlyj others yield
nourishment, and, by leaving an earthy residue, add to
the bulk of the soil ; and others, again, do not nourish
in their own nature, but exert an agency on other sub-
stances, and convert them into food for plants ; and
there is probably no manure that does not operate in
more ways than one. These supposed modes of opera-
tion are resolved into the mechanical and chemical
agency of manures : the first, by reducing the texture,
dividing the earthy particles, and rendering the soil more
open and porous, and in other cases more firm and com-
pact, and adding to it by decomposition; and the second
operates by the chemical attraction and affinities which
different ingredients brought into contact exert on each
other and on the soil, forming new combinations, and
producing aeriform or elastic fluids by means of the heat
generated in the soil during the operation of the chemical
combinations — thus joining with the mechanical agency
in producing a state of action highly conducive to the
growth of plants.

The decrease in the quantity of produce on land by
the ceasing of the action of manures may be accounted
for by the chemical affinities having exhausted their
activity, and every particle of the earth being at rest,
and no more heat being generated to produce the elastic
fluids. And as experience has ever shown that
the benefits derived from the use of manures are
generally in a direct ratio with the quantity
applied, and with the character of the upper soil with
respect to quality and depth, it may be concluded that
the superiority of manures in the latter case arises from
the greater quantities of each substance affording a
greater number of affinities and combinations that pro-
mote the growth of plants. And experience has also
taught that if manures of any kind be applied to any
subsoil prepared as the upper soil generally is, no such
fertilizing effects will ensue ; that subsoils differ in
quality, and that some are very pernicious to vegetation,
and require long exposure, working, and manuring to
dispel the noxious qualities. And it may be inferred that
the failure in the action of the manures arises from the
substances brought into contact having less chemical
affinity, and consequently not forming the combinations
that are necessary for the growth of plants, and that the
upper stratum, or cultivable soil, has undergone a long
series of preparations, which has fitted it for entering
into immediate action with the manures applied to fur-
nish food for vegetables ; and the mode of that prepara-
tion may never be known. The action of manures, and
the benefits derived from them, are much affected and
modified by local circumstances and external agencies,
and by a soil too wet or too dry, and by a climate being
too dry or too humid ; and as similar constitutional
qualities in soils are rendered very different by these
causes, many cases will find that manures are similarly
affected, and give proportional results.

It seems evident that organic matter furnishes food
for plants ; and recent chemical analysis has found the
impoverishing effects inflicted on soils by cropping to
consist In a diminution of that substance, and not of

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115

any of the earthy constituents. The insensible progress
of fermentation and the suction of vegetables im-
poverish it, and deprive it of organic remains, and leave
the metallic residue or earths, forming very poor soils,
and ochres where the ferruginous principle abounds.
The organic matter would seem destined to repair the
losses of the vegetable kingdom, and the earthy residue
that of the mineral ; for there we find diamonds, spars,
and gypsum, and similar productions.

The pure earthy part of dung is very small, and, after
a perfect putrefaction, bears an inconsiderable propor-
tion to the soil it was intended to manure. The great
use of soils seems to be in affording a bed to plants, in
which to fix the roots, and derive nourishment slowly
and gradually by the roots from the earth and from
atmospheric air. In order to account for the presence
of carbon in plants, it is supposed that vegetables de-
compose carbonic acid at the same time with water,
and absorbs its carbon ; but this supposition has not
been proved, though it has gained strength since the
decomposition of carbonic acid combined with soda by
means of phosphorus has been discovered. Others are
of opinion that vegetables, earths, moulds, and water
of dunghills furnish the carbon attenuated and even
dissolved in water; that plants absorb it, and do not
extract it from carbonic acid. According to this hypo-
thesis, manures afford only carbon, and the water is
nothing more than a saturated solution of this principle.
To these data the theory of vegetation is at present
restricted.

Four earths have been found in plants— lime and
silica most abundantly, and magnesia and alumina in
much less quantities. All the alkalies have been found
in the fluids of animals : potash not very common ;
soda in all fluids combined with albumen ; ammonia in
urine, and during its decomposition. And of the earths
are found lime, magnesia, and silica ; and of the metals,
iron in blood, and manganese in hair. None of the
earths are simple substances, and animals have a power
of forming them by the process of digestion. And it
seems very probable that plants have a power of forming
earths and other substances from their principles ab-
sorbed by the roots from the earth or from the atmos-
phere. Hence solution by chemical analysis of the con-
stituent parts of the organization of animals, and our
knowledge of the nature of the substances that com-
pose it, have not given any information in respect of the
food which should be supplied to them: they possess the
instinctive power of choosing and rejecting by smell and
taste, and thereby teach what articles are most agreeable
to them, and consequently most suitable for promoting
their growth. Any food they eat contains few or none
of the substances found in their constituent parts : they
must be formed during the process of digestion by many
unknown agencies and combinations ; and if an analogy
be drawn between animal and vegetable life, it may be
supposed that the food of plants differs as much as that
of animals from the constituent parts, and that the
latter are derived from the former by similar processess
and combinations. If an animal be restricted to one
kind of food, or to two, the growth of the solid parts

of the body and the secretion of the fluids will go on
uninterrupted, and the animal will thrive and fatten.
The kinds of food contain none of the substances found
in the animal organization ; and though some of the
minor parts may differ something in quantity than if fed
on a greater variety of food, yet all the principal parts
are unaff'ected. Charcoal has been found the only fixed
ingredient in plants, and that substance has been sup-
plied to the roots without the least apparent advantage.
If it could be applied in the form accessible to the roots
of plants, it is not known that it would pass through
the elaborations and combinations in the plant, and
ultimately constitute charcoal in the organization. The
case of an animal shows that whatever kind of common
food is consumed, the necessary parts are formed ; and
it may be supposed that plants have similar power of
producing the necessary constituent parts from various
substances both dissimilar to each other and to the
materials that form the composition of the plant. Of
elastic matters there may ever be little or no control :
they are generated by causes much beyond command or
appHcation ; and of the solid substances that are applied
as manures, it is not known what part, or if any part
of them, passes into the plant as nourishment, what
agencies they and the soil exert over each other, and
what combinations they enter into with the atmosphere,
by which they ultimately become so highly conducive to
the growth of plants.

The expectation of gaining any knowledge of the
matters which form the food of plants, and of a
mode of applying those matters to the soil, from an in-
vestigation of the constituent parts of the plants them-
selve's, must rest on a very uncertain supposition ; for,
in any case of similarity or analogy that exists in the
natural world, no deduction of that kind can be made,
and from observation and experience all the knowledge
that is possessed on these subjects has been derived. If
the veil were withdrawn with which Nature has enshrouded
many of her works beyond the reach of our visual
organs, and our eyes were permitted to roam over afield
very probably for ever, and very justly, forbidden to
man, the probability is that our practice might not be
any way improved thereby. On the contrary, the atten-
tion might be diverted from principles that never fail,
and wander in pursuit of an Utopia, probably never to
DC obtained by our utmost scientific research, or re-
duced to practice by any human skill. But on
the other hand, it is very possible to use any
advantages that may result from such investigations,
without departing in any hurtful degree from the solid
principles of practice. The combination of science with
practice, so far as the former is capable of application,
will ever constitute the safe mode of proceeding with
every judicious cultivator, ever bearing in mind, and
never for a moment forgetting, the influence of physical
causes and of external agencies that bear on every such
application, on which the whole matter hinges, which
are generally overlooked, and over which human agency
never can exert any control. From want of a due at-
tention to the different circumstances of application,
much misunderstanding and acrimonious disputatioa

116

Tilii i-'ARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Las arisen, "which, with a little more knowledge of the
subjects on both sides, might have been avoided.

In the preceding observations on the action of ma-
nures on soils and on plants are embodied the latest
opinions on the subject, the results of the scientific in-
vestigations of the most distinguished chemist (Davy) of
our age, whose attention was turned to the specific object
of applying the aid of chemistry to promote the cultiva-
tion of the earth. The results of his labours are stated
by him with much philosophic candour and becoming
diffidence ; and though no improvements in practice have
been derived from them, they have nevertheless greatly
enlarged our knowledge on these points, and have shown
that everything has been done that the best exertions
of our scientific knowledge can do, and point out the
path of investigation to future inquirers, who may by

some single discovery amply compensate for all former
disappointments, accelerate and greatly advance the pro-
gress of the art beyond what might have been expected
during a great number of years of ordinary advance-
ment, and introduce a new era into its history and ap-
plication. Such studies, though not attended with evi-
dent practical utility, as all human speculations from
their nature cannot be so, are highly deserving the at-
tention of rational beings. By laying open the wonders of
creation they increase our reverence and admiration of
the great Source of being, who supplies every created
thing with the proper nourishment and in the most
regular order and harmony, by ways and means be-
yond our finding out. On these subjects it would be
presumptuous to be sanguine, and unphilosophical to
despair.

PLOUGHING, PLOUGHS, AND PLOUGHMEN.

Ploughing.— This is one of the most important
acts of husbandry in farm practice. Upon the due and
proper execution of this process, this department of
business, the prosperity and productiveness of the crop
mainly depend. The efficiency of its performance is
the true foundation of a good tilth. It is the primary
moving of the soil to form the safe and proper seed-bed.
It is the first process in common or ordinary cultiva-
tion, and when effectively done, saves much harrowing,
and other subsequent working. Effective ploughing
prepares the soil for thorough pulverization, so that it
can be the most readily reduced into an equable and
well-broken state to receive the seed. Correct plough-
ing will expose the greatest surface or amount of soil to
the atmospheric influences, or to be wrought upon by
harrows, and other working, so as to give friability and
looseness in the first stage, and equanimity and consist-
ency to the greatest portion of the soil subsequently,
whereby the rootlets may. be enabled to penetrate into
it, and thus derive food in the greatest plenty. The
best ploughing will provide best for the ultimate and
partial consolidation of the soil, so as to form a firm,
though open soil, for the healthy sustenance of the crop
till it arrives at maturity. The true principle involved
in the philosophy of good ploughing is the exposition of
the largest quantity of soil to promote the disintegration
of the ammonia it inherently contains, and that it may
take it up more abundantly from the atmosphere by
being thus broken up and reduced by subsequent work-
ing. If the ploughing is efficiently performed, it will
safely bury many surface weeds, or it will cover up and
cause to rot any matters or manures required to re-
plenish the soil. The true and correct practice
in ploughing, as ascertained by long experience, is
to lay the furrow-slices at an angle of forty-five de-
grees, that is, the furrow must be about one-third more
in width than in depth— or as 6 in. to 9, or 7 in. to 10,
&c., &c. It is thus that the greatest amount of soil is
exposed to weathering influences ; besides, in this way
it must, if properly done, lie close. No hollows, " no

hog-troughs," but one uniform series of furrows in the
best position for the harrow to work with the greatest
effect and usefulness; and thus the most readily to
secure the disentegration of ammonia and its subsequent
deposit. Good ploughing, then, exposes most surface
to the air ; it provides best for subsequent harrowing,
and also prepares it, when well-broken down, for better
and more consistent consolidation, so that no hollows
supervene between the surface and furrow sole. These
important ends are requisite for the best sustenance of
nearly every crop.

Ploughs. — I am not about to write an elaborate
article upon this part of my subject : my limits will not
permit me. I shall, therefore, merely give a few obser-
vations about ploughs. I have nothing to say about
the old Kentish Turnwrest. It may be a useful imple-
ment, as being convertible into many other phases, such
as the Skim, the Broadshare, the Scarifier, the Horse-
hoe, &c., &c. ; but, as a plough, I look upon it as
shortly to be " a thing of the past." Its awkward,
cumbrous, unwieldy construction can never allow it to
hold a place amongst modern farm-implements.

In the same class I put the old Norfolk Gallows
Plough ; but it is not so convertible as the former. I
am often at a fault when viewing it, on my occasional
visits into that county—for I verily believe it is not to
be found elsewhere. I wonder that the far-famed
Norfolk farmers should persist in using such an obsolete
implement. I grant readily that it can and does do its
work ; and so would any plough, in most parts of the county.
It is one of those countries which our old and ever-
lamented friend Henry Ilandley used to say might be
ploughed ' ' by two rabbits, with a clasp-knife." The only
legitimate conclusion that I can deduce is, that the Nor-
folk farmers continue to use it in memorial of their great
patron and friend, the father of modern agriculture, the
late Earl of Leicester, whom they all but adored. I
also view it as speedily to be " a thing of the past."

There are also many plou ghs of local manufacture
equally reprehensible. There are many swing-ploughs

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117

yet made with short beams, short bodies, and short
hales, or handles. A swing-plough requires to work
easily on the balance between the hand of the plough-
man and the shoulder and back-bands of the horses, or
there is hard work somewhere. Now you cannot poise
or balance a short, close- made plough with the ease and
facility of one of longer make and longer hanflles. If
in too deep, you have to press the harder to get it out ;
if too shallow, you must use a sudden and abrupt lift to
put it deeper. These are giving way to longer and
more easily-balanced implements. Nearly all the
ploughing in Ireland is ploughed with short ploughs and
short, stumpy mould -boards ; consequently, the work
is roughly laid, greatly broken, and at much cost in
extra draught.

I also view ploughs made with wood beams, hales,
and occasionally wood bodies, as being nearly as repre-
hensible. Most of this class have, however, been
greatly modernized ; and many excellent implements, of
good pattern and model, are made, to be found almost
everywhere. It is true that, so long as every mortice,
every pin, and the wood itself, continues sound and
good, the plough will work well and easily ; but so soon
as any pari: begins to decay or loosen, then the draught
begins to accumulate ; and the application of the dyna-
mometer would satisfy the most incredulous that per-
fection does not lie in a plough partially made of wood.
I have arrived at the same conclusion, and conse-
quently come now to the iron ploughs. These are fast
superseding all the other kinds— and most deservedly so.
Their manufacture has been closely studied, and per-
fected with the greatest care and skill. Their stability
and durability are beyond all question to be preferred.
Their general form and perfection of the various parts
are such as cannot be retained in wood, nor cannot it be
so uniformly attained— one model sufficing for all of the
same class. I know not how to improve the turn-furrow
of some of our iron ploughs. Those eminent makers,
the Messrs. Ransomes and Sims, and the no less eminent
firm of James and Frederick Howard, have the credit of
achieving this. Now imitations of their ploughs are
everywhere found ; indeed, they must keep on the alert,
for I incline to think that in some of our recent
ploughing meetings they have been excelled ; not in
general adaptation and usefulness, but in one important
point — I mean in lightness of draught. It was but slight,
but it was the fact ; and I call their attention to it— more
especially as I am well aware, if improvement there is to
be had, they will move the world to obtain it or achieve
it.

I have often tried experiments to test the draught of
wheel versus swing ploughs, and have satisfied myself
upon that point. The new-made strong swing plough,
of wood frame, &c., will generally give the lightest
draught in good hands, owing chiefly to its being of less
weight than of iron ; but let it be worn, and put it into
the hands of an inferior workman, and the difference is
soon found to be very great. The addition of wheels is
advantageous, as preventing irregularity in the tillings.
The difference, however, is not in proportion to the dif-
ference in weight of the v/ood frame versus iron. The

iroii ploughs that I have tested give invariably the most
equable tillings, and, as compared with a worn wooden
plough, considerably lighter, although the plough itself
may weigh considerably more ; indeed, I have placed
myself on the plough body, but my additional weight
did not give a draught of two-thirds my actual weight. Of
course, I am supposing both the iron and wood ploughs
to be as nearly as possible upon the same model : as for
some of the short-bodied, ill-formed, mould-boards, the
additional draught is astonishing. Those ploughs having
a long mould-turner or mould-board, and shaped or
inclined so that if a straight-edge is placed on the share
at the point, and is drawn along from the point to the
utmost length of the mould-board, it shall touch it all the
way, will invariably be found to possess the lightest
draught ; at least this is my experience. And it is clear
there is no extra lift or prising or pushing aside in any
one part, but all is one even regular effort on the part
of the share and mould-turner to pass under, lift
gradually up, and as gradually to turn-over the furrow
slice. Wherever there is extra friction there must be
extra draught. There is generally in the common-made
ploughs a fulness either in the breast of the share or in
the breast of the mould-turner. This is supposed to
give the first prise or lift, so as to cause the furrow
slice to separate more directly from the furrow sole, and
to be more easily turned. Tiiis is wrong, as it mostly
has the effect of breaking the furrow, so that no mould-
turner could then make it lie correctly, to say nothing
of the extra draught.

Ploughmen. — There is something like instinct in a
ploughman. I have had men who never could learn to
plough, whilst others take to it at once. I never could
impress upon some men in what consisted good plough-
ing; so long as the soil was in some way or other
turned over, they were satisfied. Now, if the plough
put into their hands would, in spite of the ploughmen,
execute its work in a proper manner, a great thing is
gained. I am inclined to think that many of our firmly-
framed iron ploughs, with wheels set under the master's
eye, would enable him to employ many an inferior
ploughman ; and this is almost the only point I intend
to name. The adoption of wheel-ploughs will make the
master more independent of his men. Lads can manage
them readily. There cannot be a doubt but that a first-
class ploughman is a valuable servant upon a farm.
His superintendence, his work, and example to others
have a very good effect, and stimulate them to greater
exertion and care. Good ploughmen are entitled to
higher wages ; hence if an inferior man with a superior
plough can be made to do good work, the farmer is ad-
vantaged. I therefore would recommend wheel
ploughs, most decidedly, for this purpose. Many
ploughmen are unable to set their irons properly, and
much indifferent ploughing is the consequence. A good
ploughman who understands this part of his business is
also a great help to others in guiding them in this
particular.

118

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE NEW METHOD OF PLANTING GRAIN.

In a recent number of this journal, in reviewing the
mechanism exhibited at the Royal Society's Show at
Salisbury, we described the new dibbling machine in-
vented by " Sigma," the nom de phme of a gentleman
well known for his inventions in this department of
agricultural mechanism ; and proposed at some future
period to notice at some length the " system" which the
machine was designed to aid. This we now proceed
to do.

" Sigma" terms his system a new one. It is not so,
however : it is simply the old method of " dibbling" or
"setting." But inasmuch as the mechanism which he
employs gives infinitely greater facilities for performing
the operation than any yet introduced, and indeed en-
ables it to be performed on the large scale as expedi-
tiously as it was formerly done on the small, and with
much greater precision and economy, he deems himself
entitled to give the system the name and dignity of
"new." In order to detail the economical and pro-
ductive advantages of the system, Sigma publishes and
distributes to all rcalli/ interested in the matter, with
characteristic liberality, a pamphlet, the matter of
which we shall take as the basis of our remarks.

The ordinary method of dibbling is thus described in
ihe Encyclopedia Britannica: "The lands on which
this method is particularly prosperous are— either after a
clover stubble, or on which trefoil or grass-seed was
sown the spring before last. These grounds, after the
usual manuring, are once turned over by the plough in
one extended flag or turf ; at ten inches wide, along which
a man who is called a dibbler, with two setting-irons
somewhat bigger than ramrods, but considerably bigger
at the lower end, and pointed at the extremity, steps
backwards along the turf, and makes the hole about four
inches asunder every way, and ore inch deep. Into
these holes the droppers (women, boys, and girls) drop
two grains, which is quite sufficient. By this mode
three pecks of seed is sufficient for an acre ; and being
immediately buried, it is equally removed from vermin
and the power of frost. The regularity of its rising
gives the besc opportunity of keeping clear from weeds,
by weeding or hand-hoeing." Although this process
is by no means so precise and economical as the system
introduced by Sigma, he nevertheless says that his ex-
perience of this, the old method of dibbling, with all its
defects, shows that " all things being equal, whether the
soil be rich or poor, light or heavy, drained or un-
drained, I have found ' set' wheat succeed better than
when drilled or broadcast, merely because each plant
has an even space allotted to it. » * I do not mean to
say,'' Sigma continues, "that 'planted or set wheal'
does not succeed better on some lands than others ; but
what I affirm is, that, everything being equal, of two
pieces of land of equal size, one ' set' with wheat, the
other ' drilled' or ' broadcast,' the ' set' land will pro-
duce a heavier and more healthy crop, and with straw

always standing stiflf and erect through all weathers."
To bear this statement out, Sigma institutes a short in-
quiry into the rationale of ploughing, or rather sowing
wheat, by means of the " drill" and by " broadcast."
The seed by the method of ' ' drilling" is dropped in a con-
tinuous row, leaving no intervallic spaces for the plant
to branch or tiller, the result of which is that this
branching or tillering can only take place in the spaces
between the rows, not between the plants in each row.
This tillering, however, does sometimes take place in the
rows themselves, but only at intervals where the plant has
been destroyed, or where the machine has ceased its
action and no seed has been deposited. In these lapsed
spaces the plants " tiller," and assume the circular
form, which is the natural one; and here, in these
spaces, are always found the healthiest and finest plants.
Again, in " broadcast" the plants are scattered unevenly
over the surface, with no regard either to regularity or
uniformity of space, or, what is worse, with no uni-
formity of depth ; so that if one-half of the seed did not
fail, that is, did not germinate, " the crop would be so
crowded that it would never come to perfection ; but
luckily half is so deep that it becomes rotten." In
ordinary practice we often see the advantages aris-
mg from thin seeding, or thin seeding the result of
accident. On this point " Sigma" has the following
suggestive remarks : " How many instances could I re-
late of farmers being about to plough up a ' miserable-
looking piece of wheat,' so ' thin' that I have heard
them say they despaired even of getting back their seed !
On the approach of spring, the plants of what had been
called ' a wretched piece of wheat' have stocked out, as
it is termed ; they have had room to grow in the circu-
lar form, or as nature intended wheat should grow.
This wretched piece, to the surprise of every one, has
become the best piece on the farm. But this is so com-
mon a case, that I have no doubt most persons can call
an instance of this kind to their recollection. What a
lesson ought this to teach us, and how few ever take ad-
vantage of these facts !" In this case of accidental thin
seeding the seed would be very unevenly distributed,
many square yards doubtless being altogether devoid of
a single plant. Some notion, then, of the results may
be gathered by supposing the field to have had the plants
evenly dispersed over its surface, say "at the rate of
two stools (each stool containing five or six plants) to
the square foot." In " Sigma's" system, the principle
is to deposit the seed at a uniform depth, allotting to
every plant, or stool of three or four plants, an equal
share of room, " so that it shall from its infancy be well
fed, produce stout and healthy stems, and remain stiff
and erect in all weathers." It is immaterial whether
" one plant or five form a stool, provided the five grow
up out of a small hole as a single stem, and form appa-
rently one plant." All that is essential is that the
wheat plants shall have room to assume the circular or

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119

natural form, and not be interfered with by the too near
approach of neighbouring plants. " Sigma's" plan is
to plant from ten to twelve grains of wheat in each
square foot of ground, inserting each grain at a depth
suitable for its germination, so that the growth of every
seed is secured.

With reference to details of practice, " Sigma" has
some useful remari?s. Of these we now present a
resume. The system should be carried out early in the
season, the greatest success being ensured by doing this
—say from the latter end of August to the first week in
October. At this season three grains in each hole will
be sufficient, the rows being nine inches apart, the in-
tervals in the rows eight to twelve inches. The depth
varies according to the soil ; in light land one-and-a-
half, and iu heavy not deeper than one inch. The
" plants will nearly touch ia the course of two months,
crossing in the ground, and are not liable to ber.ome
' winter bound,' for every stem is stout, stiff, and hard,
and grows liorizontally." As the season advances more
seeds should be put into the holes ; after the 1st of Oc-
tober five or six seeds to each hole— five or six to the
half foot amounts exactly, in average sample, to five
gallons per acre. " There is nothing to be com-
pared with machine-planted seed," says " Sigma," " for
regularity. If you seed early, and place the plants in
stools (four, five, or six plants to each stool growing up
out of a small hole as a single plant), at nine inches
apart every way, you will find that before winter tlie
plants or stools will become so bushy and circular that
the intermsdiate soil will hardly appear. The plants
will be three times the size of those 'thickly seeded,'
having room to extend their shoots every way ; the roots,
likewise, having a longer time for growth, will be found,
if examined, to have extended a great depth after their
food, particularly if the soil be poor and well drained.
Here it is not an unusual thing to be able to trace them
five feet below the surface. The roots that extend side-
ways alsa,onpoorland, seek their food at great distances,
searching for inorganics, to stiffen the straw and stay
the plants in wind and rain. To a crop of this descrip-
tion, where the land is so poor that the plant has to
search far and wide through the soil for food, a little
guano in spring has a most marked effect. This is my
plan of growing wheat ; my plants become giants, not
pigmies, and bear a crop in proportion."

Dibbling on the ordinary system cannot be carried
out on light lands in a very dry season, as the holes fill
up as fast as the dibber is withdrawn. On the con-
trary, in a very wet season, on strong and stiff clays,
the seeds in the holes cannot be properly covered up by
the bushes which are drawn over them. By tbe use of
Sigma's "corn planter," both these evils of the old
system are completely obviated— in the first, namely
on light lands in dry weather, because the making of
the holes and the deposition of the seed are thus de-
pendent on each other. To the under side of the angular
seed-box, a row of from fourtoeightbrassnozzlesortubes

are fixed, in the inside of which the steel dibbers work
up and down by means of the handle. The instrument
being jerked on to the ground, the nozzles penetrate
into the soil as far as the bottom of the box to which
they are fixed. The steel dibbers are then withdrawn,
the action of withdrawal of which permits the seed to
fall from the seed-box into the holes made by the
nozzles] when the dibbers are made to descend, push-
ing the allotted portion of seed into its own hole. The
seed being thus deposited before the nozzles which make
the hole are withdrawn, the objection of the old system
is completely obviated. Nor is this operation of the
instrument an old one, as at first sight it might appear
to be ; thirty-four of the necessary movements can be
made on the average in a minute, giving with a five-row
machine 170 holes filled, and all executed in the most
perfect manner. In wet weather, on strong stiff clay,
the holes or water-cups, which cannot be well closed on
the old system, do not exist when Sigma's iustrument
is adopted, inasmuch as the diameter of the holes is ex-
ceedingly small. On wet land the seed should never be
deposited more than an inch below the surface.

Not the least recommendation of the instrument is
that with it the work done cannot be " scamped :" even
with the most indifferent attention given to its working,
the seeds cannot fail to be deposited, and with the
greatest uniformity of depth. The amount of work
done by a strong lad or man per day is equal to one
acre, and this amount is more easily performed than half
the extent on the old system. The depositors, or " corn
planters," are made to deposit the grain in rows of the
usual width apart, namely, 9 inches ; and if the intervals
between the rows be also 9 inches, the stools all then
stand in squares, which admit of every facility for hoe-
ing. In using a machine with five depositors to make
ten rows of corn on a 7 feet stetch, the depositor is in
the first place brought close to the furrow ; the operator
then works backwards, depositing the seed in the rows
at intervals of 8 or 9 inches, till the end of the field is
reached, when the operation is reversed to the other
end of tbe field.

To induce some of our readers to give the system a
fair trial, we in conclusion, show (in the words of Sigma)
the satisfaction that awaits (hem by so doing : "Few
until they have tried it can form any idea what a crop
of dibbled wheat is like, the seed being inserted at even
distances, and at a proper depth ; it totally differs from
every other method, the vigour of the plants — not the
over-luxuriance producing mildew, all liags and no
corn— the efforts made by nature to fill up every space,
and, when further advanced, the stiffness of the straw,
resembling sticks, the length and weight of the ears, are
interesting and instructive to observe."

To those desirous of knowing more of the contents of
tbe pamphlet which " Sigma" has published, than the
space at our disposal has permitted us to give, we may
mention that it is obtainable at Mr. Ridgway's, the
publisher, Piccadilly. R. S. B.

120

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE AGRICULTURE OF INDIA.

In assuming the more immediate control of the vast
stretch of country now known as " British India," and
extending almost in one uninterrupted line from Pegu
in the East to Kurrachee in the West, we have under-
taken great responsibilities, civil and political. If
there have been great short-comings heretofore in
our government and management of the natives and
of the country over which we have exercised rule for
so long a iDeriod, there is the more reason now why our
best energies should be put forth to improve the condi-
tion of the people, and to develope the indigenous
resources of the vast territories extending through every
climate, for which England ha« paid so dear. It is
not our province to enlarge upon the political aspect of
the question ; but we can at least direct attention to
theopenings for British enterprise and the call for agri-
cultural improvement. The bar of exclusion, which
formerly shut out from India every European but the
covenanted servants of the East India Company, is now
removed, and Englishmen will be no longer restricted
to the cultivation of indigo and sugar, but may now, with
the improved tenure of land and the extended field of
operations open to them, turn their attention to what-
ever seems best calculated to bo remunerative and suc-
cessful. A strong movement is making to people the
hillsides and healthy localities of India with Europeans,
and the extension of railways will enable operations to
be carried on in the plains. In the Himalaya moun-
tains, whose sides seem carved by Nature to an angle
forbidding the exertion of the farmer's art, patient per-
severance has triumphed over the difficulty, and the
natives raise crops upon the acclivities, which enable
them to subsist high up among the precipitous forma-
tions.

But it is by the introduction of English capital,
English improvements and supervision, and the modern
scientific practices, that the largest amount of benefit
will accrue to India, and which must necessarily react
on the mother-country.

Already we are largely indebted to India for rice,
for fibres, for oil seeds, for cotton, for wool, and various
other staple products raised in considerable quantities.
But its indigenous resources are immense, and by the
petty and ill-directed exertions of the natives have
never been properly developed. If we have received,
however, for many years these important supplies, and
have also drawn from thence many new products for
our fields, forests, and gardens, we may at least give
something in return by our sldll and energy in intro-
ducing new plants and improving the old-fashioned
systems in operation. We have introduced from India
many valuable coniferous trees, of which we might
enumerate a dozen or two, including the Deodar, the
Pinus excelsa, &c. Several of our cereals also have
been drawn from the East, including the Bengal barley
and the Nepaul barley j the latter in 1817, from the

Himalaya mountains, where it grew near the lino of
perpetual snow.

Improved internal communication, a better land
tenure, public works for irrigation, and moderate taxa-
tion will greatly benefit our Indian territories. The
result of railway traffic among the natives has already
far surpassed the expectations formed, and the third-
class carriages are freely used by the Indians on all the
existing lines; and these will do much to improve
agriculture in the interior. Fruit and vegetables are
even now cultivated as far as Burdwan, or 100 to 150
miles, for the Calcutta market. And cattle, sheep,
fodder, root crops, &c., will all ere long be brought into
the Presidency towns from the hills and interior dis-
tricts.

One great obstacle to the employment of manures in
the East is the prejudice entertained by the natives
against meddling with ordure or excrementitious
matters; and yet they sedulously collect and dry the
cow-dung for fuel, and shape it into toys. The manure
has to be applied by baskets— a tedious and expensive
process, which a few carts would obviate. In
India, the season of vegetation continuing throughout
the year, the land might be occupied with an unin-
terrupted succession of crops.

No branch of Indian agriculture deserves more at-
tention, or has obtiiined less, than that which embraces
the cultivation of the grasses. Whether it will receive
greater attention, now that British colonization may be
expected to spread over the temperate parts of India,
remains to be seen. So innutritions are the ordinary
grasses of Hindostan, that hay has to be brought from
other provinces ; and the roots of the finer grasses are
collected for saddle horses. Stock are, for the most
part, fattened upon dry food, and grain twice a-day.
The most common and useful grass in India is the doob
gi'ass, the creeping dog's tooth (Cynodon dactylon of
Sinclair), which furnishes three-fourths of the food for
the horses and cows. The country is by no means
destitute of natural grasses, though it cannot compare
in the abundance of this produce with milder climes ;
for Dr. Roxbrough enumerated nearly 250 species as
indigenous to the country, some of which, if the seeds
were collected and sown on any moderately friable and
fertile soil, would make a good pasture. Lucerne
(Trifolium incarnatum), clover, rye-grass, and spring
tares, would all probably succeed in India. The
seeds of many of the superior grasses might also be
obtained from the Cape of Good Hope, and others
with but little trouble from England. There is no
doubt some of our very best pasture gi-asses could
be successfully introduced in India, if part of their
cultivation comprised a judicious system of irrigation.
A better supply of green fodder would not only prevent
the occurrence of the sweeping mortality which so fre-
quently visits the cattle during the hot season, but

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

would keep even the well-fed in health. The main-
teuauce of the horses of our cavalry, and a larger supply
of mutton and beef, which will be required to keep
pace with European settlement, render this subject of
importance.

In Affghanistan several of the millets (species of
Panicum and Holcus) are often cultivated for their
herbage, which is dried and stored for the winter. Even
wheat and barley are cut gi-een before the ear has
formed, and given to horses and cattle with advantage.
This cutting is often repeated with barley ; but if wheat
is cut more than once the crop is injured.

The practical suggestions of experienced agricul-
turists may do much to improve the systems of hus-
bandry pursued in India. The introduction of suitable
implements— not, perhaps, the heavy and expensive
ones used in England, where high farming is followed,
but still something more effective than the rude sticks
used for ploughs, harrows, rollers, drills, &c., for so
long a time in India. A better rotation of crops and
a better system of applying manure are essential, while
the reprehensible practice of growing crops commingled
should be abolished.

121

It is not uncommon to see the cotton plant, pulse,
and the castor-oil shrub growing intermixed. In other
districts, barley, peas, some one of the oil-seed crops, and
safflower are often mixed with wheat. The usual mix-
tures in Bengal are— flax grown for the seed, and
mustard; a kind of pea, lentil, and mustard; and barley
or wheat with flax.

The breeds of cattle and sheep can also be greatly im-
proved. The fine, powerful oxen employed by the
Indian Government are a proof that proper food and
treatment, and attention in breeding, will enable much
more efficient animals to be kept for draught than the
dwarfish little bullocks commonly used by the natives.
Much has already been done to improve the fleece of
Indian wool ; but more can yet be done. We imported
last year about nineteen-and-a-hali' million pounds of
wool from British India, being an increase of more than
sixty per cent, in the last four years.

With so many millions of acres available for the
culture of plants, either suited to tropical or temperate
regions, with cheap labour and with cheap land, there
is no reason why an opening should not offer for many
a spirited individual in some of the Indian Presidencies.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE
AGRICULTURAL LABOURER.

Chaucer says of his Clerk of Oxenford, that he was
full of

" High sentence :
Sounding in moral virtue was his speech,
And gladly would he learn and gladly teach."

Now we would remark, in continuation of our notes in
our last paper, on the necessity of the employed doing
his best to exert a good influence in his home and
around his hearth, that in this readiness to learn lies
his surest hope of being able to teach. This mutuality
between giving and receiving, is not so obvious to many
amongst us, after all ; else why do we show a greater
desire to teach than to be taught ? The philosopher of
old, on being asked how it was that he knew so much,
replied that it was owing to his never being ashamed, in
asking anything, to show his ignorance of it. Now, the
best-informed amongst us must needs admit, if
we are honest with ourselves, that we might have been
better informed had we not too often been ashamed of
our ignorance. By pretending that we knew, or at least
giving no intimation that we did not know of it, we have
lost many a golden opportunity of acquiring knowledge.
Now the employed must, if he has a real desire to teach
(and we have in our last paper attempted to show to him
his high responsibiHties in this matter) he must never
be ashamed to be taught, or, by withholding the avowal
of bii ignorance of any subject, lose the opportunity of
acquiring knowledge of it. Nor is this teaching to be
derived from books merely, or by himself occupying the
benches of a school. Many sage counsels may be
dropped, and much sound information thrown broadcast
by his employer, or even by the companion of his

labour, in the field while at work, or at the cottage-
door while at rest or recreation. For all these things
he should have a ready ear and a willing mind. He
must cultivate the capability of receiving, as well as of
storing up ; of looking out for the good seed, as well as
preparing his mind for the reception of it ; borrowing a
lesson from the labour at which he toils in the field-
that the land, if left to itself, without the seed-corn
being planted in it, brings forth only the prickly briar
or the noxious weed ; and that if sown, the seed cannot
fructify to its fullest perfection till the land is cultivated
and prepared for it : these two must always go hand
in hand, preparation and reception. And, as much
knowledge lies hid in books, let him wisely use such
spare time as he has given him, m the cultivation of an
acquaintance with their contents ; nor grudge moreover
a little self-denial : much will not, in these days of
cheap literature, be required of him, a pipe or a
pot of beer the less— to obtain them. But limited as his
literature may be, there is always one book to which he
can have access, which, whilst it inculcates " fervency
of spirit," no less forcibly enjoins " diligence in busi-
ness" ; and which, whilst it shows us how best to do our
duty to ourselves, teaches how fullest to do it to our
neighbour. Nor let the employed think that the result
of all this self-reform and self-culture will only be ad-
vantageous as showing to others the influence of a good
home example ; although, if it did no more than this, it
would be worth all the labour incurred in getting it.
It will not end there ; as it "grows with his growth, and
strengthens with his strength," it will exert an mfluence
on his own material prospects, and, while it makes him

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a wiser, it will also make him a better man — better in
spirit, better in body, better in purse and in pocket. In
truth, his self-culture — and self-dependence, .its most
valued fruit — are just the touchstones which change po-
verty to wealth, and enable a man to rise in the world. It
would be easy to cite examples to prove this ; but we
deem it needless. The maxims of prudence — the cur-
rent coin of those who have fought the battle of life and
won it — and the results of experience, alike abound ia
truths which point to the worth and value, in a worldly
if in no higher and holier sense, of self-culture, self-
dependence, and self-denial, all three linked together in
a bond of high utility and practical power. Nor let
the employed be influenced by the belief that the em-
ployer does not wish his rise in the social scale. Many
miserable minions of wealth there may be, who do not
wish it ; but, with more, the feeling exists that it will be
a grand day for Old England when the employed shall
raise themselves, or be raised, from the degradation of
their vices to the dignity of their labour ; when the
ranks of the middle shall be recruited from the ranks of
the labouring classes ; and these fired with a new zeal,
and animated with a new motive — a desire bright and
ever brightening, because ever aspiring — to be as true
and loyal to themselves and their destiny as they are
useful to the community. We believe this ; and he
who would urge the labourer to believe the contrary, be
he pot-house or platform orator, is in this thing the
DevU's emissary, and lending himself to the Devil's
"lie." This is plain speaking ; but, in this matter, at
least, the worth of the thing lies too near the heart of so-
ciety to be passed lightly over, and not dealt plainly
with. We are no advocates for using fine names to
designate foul things ; to cut and carve at them, round
and shape them oft", till we get rid of their angularities
and protuberances, beautify their ugliness, and gloss
them over and burnish them up, till they^ lose all out-
ward semblance to their real selves ; till vice almost
comes to have a look of virtue, and lies and deceit the
semblance of truth and sincerity. There is much good,
believe us, reader, in calling things by their right names
— a lie, a lie ; and work, work : not the one truth, and
the other play. The lack of this avowal of our belief in
the real nature of things lies pretty closely at the root
of much of our social evil — our sham-worship and our
" opaque flunkeyisms," as Carlyle has it— and pretty
closely, good reader, at the root of that social evil,
the low moral and physical condition of the labouring
classes, which forms the subject of our present papers.

Cultivating, then, the habits of self-denial and self-
dependence, but ever with a trust in Providence and in
His guiding wisdom — showing in his daily transactions
with his employer, as well as in those with his neigh-
bours, a high integrity, sound prudence, trustfulness,
and charity to all and with all — the labourer will best be
able to act a living example to all around him, and, ever
learning, will best be able to be ever teaching, and thus
his labour of toil will become a labour of love, as he
sees his influence spreading around him for good, eleva-
ting his neighbours, and bringing fast to a wide-spread
realization the wish of the poor mau's poet, that —

" A virtuous populace may rise the while,

Aud stand a wall of fire around

Their much-loved isle."
This great work of the education of the home, pre-
ceded by, as obviously it must be, necessary self-reform
and self-education, we have hitherto considered as being
carried on by the males amongst the employed, and
these chiefly married men, who have families over whom
they have to exert an influence, and homes which they
have to adorn and purify. But they will require help-
meets in this work — nay, from the very circumstances
attendant upon their daily toil, they will be so much
absent fiom their homes as to be obliged necessarily to
delegate their power to another ; and this other, who so
fitting as the wife and mother to wield ? The husband
must be the head — the bond, or band, of the home;
for such is the primary signification of the term
" husband," which knits all the family together in the
oneness of a common interest, and in the strength of
love. But the wife must give the most frequent teach-
ings, because she possesses the most frequent opportu-
nities. Indeed, the truth is, that the education of the
home is mainly dependent upon the mother. Fenelon
says that " the education of women is more important
than that of men, since the improvement of man is always
their work." And another writer states that "the
health and purity of the social system are placed under
the immediate guardianship of woman." And we all
know how the majority of great and good men have
been indebted to the training of their mother. Seeing,
then, the importance of her duties and the extent of her
influence, it behoves the wife and mother to do all in
her power to prepare herself for the exercise of this in-
fluence, and the performance of these duties. And to
her will apply much, though in a sense more or less
modified, of what we have already said as to the im-
portance of self-culture and self-denial to the man.
And it will only be when both together are actuated by
the same right feelings, and live according to the same
right principles, that they will be help-meets in truth to
each other ; the trust of the wife in the husband being
met with confidence in the wife by the husband ; the
strength of counsel of the one by the loving obedience
of the other ; and all begetting alike obedience and love
in the children ; till, for the responsibilities of the family,
they shall taste of its delights, and be gratified by its
pleasures, and for the wise teachings of the hearth they
shall partake of the pure sanctities of home.

The benefits derived from the "education of example,"
and the " education of the home." These naturally
lead us to the " education of the school," in what
direction this should lead, and in what manner it should
be carried out. So much has been written on the sub-
ject in this and other journals, and with which our
readers are doubtless familiar, that we are spared the
necessity of going very deeply into its details. What-
ever school education should consist of, it should not
consist merely of the education of the intellect, to the
exclusion of the education of the heart and feelings. So
much stress has unfortunately been laid on "accom-
plishments," falsely so called, that in getting up the
polish we have obtained it at the expense of the pith of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the man or woman. Our present system of educating,
although it undoubtedly tends to the repression of crime
—crime of the individual against the community— does
not tend with equal force to the repression of vice—
crirne of the individual against himself. The highest
cultivation of the head is compatible— and is, alas ! too
often found so— with the most hardened condition of
the heart, and the most depraved and degrading vices
of the body. If education, then, is to do good service
to the community, we believe that it must not stop con-
tent with informing the mind with what is called " use-
ful knowledge," but it must "strengthen by exercise
the powers of thought, quicken the love of truth,
awaken a taste for beauty, cultivate the moral sense, and
train in moral habits, and stop not short of imparting
both a knowledge of the scriptures, and a disposition
to believe and practise whatsoever they inculcate."
And here, as the most powerful end to the education of
the school, comes in the education of the hearth and
home. A writer, who has done much in elucidating the
essentials of a good working man's education, has some
pregnant remarks on this point. He says that " virtues
are habits, not belief," and must be inculcated by ex-
ample rather than by teaching, by training rather than
by lecturing. A point of knowledge may be imparted
by the persistent force of application, by repeated illus-
tration, by line upon line, by precept upon precept "until
at last the mind of the learner yields to their force, and
becomes thoroughly saturated and penetrated by the
principles in question." Not so with the inculcation
of moral habits and feelings. Proofs in favour of any
one of these may be brought from the parables and pre-
cepts of every page, almost, of the New Testament, and
examples of their power in life may be cited without
end. Yet, while the intellect of the pupil yields a ready
consent to those proofs, and acknowledges the truth of
the examples, it is found to be a different thing to get
them to apply them practically to themselves, and adopi
them in their every-day life. The lessons of the school
then, must be supplemented by the precepts and exam-
ples of the home, and the labours of the teacher aided
by the authority of the parents, iiut it must not be
overlooked that the education of the home must, if true
progress is desired, be aided by the education of the
school ; that is, the kind of education there imparted
must be of that practical stamp which will enable the
parents themselves to make their homes happy and
comfortable ; that to the lessons of piety which they
give to their children, they may add those of prudence
and of integrity, those of industry and economy. And
first in importance are the claims of the female to this
kind of practical every-day useful education. We have
adverted to the great influence which woman possesses
over the welfare of man ; and this influence is best
exerted under the shelter of the family roof-tree, and
around the family fire-side. But under the roof-tree
must reign order and regularity, and around the hearth
must be gathered the comforts which yield relief to toTl,
and those pleasures which lighten the labour of life.
How best to secure to the female, whose future destiny
is to be the wife and mother of the labourer, that edu-

123

cation which will be of true service to her in her every-
day cottage life, is now engaging the attention of those
educationists who see the importance of increasing home
influence amongst the employed. It is little things
which make up the sum of household happiness ; and
the converse holds equally true, that it is little things
which make up the sum of domestic discord. How im-
portant then that the future wife, with all her cares and
responsibilities, should be taught those little things
wliich will lighten her cares and relieve her responsi-
bih'ties ! To this end it seems reasonable to suppose
that that education will be most beneficial which, with
the education of the intellect and the heart, combines
instruction in common things ; which teaches how best
to make home comfortable, and to economise means and
time ; changing that which with improvidence would
be the poverty of means, into that which with economy
will be the provision of plenty ; that education, in short,
which will combine working with learning— that kind of
working which will enable its possessor to change the
habits of carelessness into those of comfort, the home
of thriftlessness into that of thriving. Amidst the
abundance of institutions calculated to elevate and qua-
lify for the duties of life young women belonging to the
upper and middle classes, there are none for those be-
longing to the lower ranks. The former can attend
establishments, and be taught cooking and those
branches of female education which enable them to throw
a charm over the domestic circle ; but the poor man's
daughter is entirely dependent upon her mother, and
cannot therefore be expected to know anything beyond
what her parent can teach. How little the amount of
teaching of this sort which the mothers of the poor can
give to their daughters is, let those say who know most
of their domestic arrangements and of their every-day
mode of life. To aid in this kind of teaching, it is pro-
posed—and no proposition made in recent times bids
fair to be so productive of good effects in elevating the
social condition of the agricultural labourer than this—
to add to the ordinary branches of knowledge imparted
in the school-room a practical acquaintance with the
duties of a well-regulated household ; to give to each
female a "knowledge of those common things with
which she shall have to deal the whole residue of her
life ;" that she may be able to "light a fire, to sweep a
room, to wash crockery and glass without breaking
half of them, or clothes, to bake bread, to dress a
dinner, to choose meat or fish or vegetables, and to
know where to keep them when bought" ; to know, in
fact, the value of little, and appreciate the worth of
common things; to know, and act moreover on the
knowledge— letting it be a living faith rather than a mere
dead belief— that the difference between money saved
and money lost at the week's end, is just the difference
between the right and the wrong method of doing such
humble things as peeling and boiling potatoes, kindling
a fire and poking it when kindled, mending a worn gar-
ment and washing a soiled one, and numberless other
things more humble still than these, and apparently
more trifling. We say apparentlij more trifling, for
this is just one of the lessons that the expectant wife

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must learn— that nothing that is worth doing at all is or
can be trifling; as sand makes the mountain, drops
from the cloud or dews from the grass the rivers, so do
little things make up the grand total of the duties and
the privileges of domestic life, and that the doing of them
rightly is just that which makes the homes of happiness,
as the doing of them wrongly— or what is worse, not at
all— the dens of discord. Further, the expectant wife
must strive to arrive at an appreciation of the dignity of
economy, and become convinced that there is more
meanness in the waste which brings want, than the
saving which brings security against it. It is not mean
to be economical, or stingy to be saving, as is too often
said by the poor while stigmatising the habits in these
directions of the middle classes and the rich. We
must get before we can give ; to be charitable to others
we must be careful ourselves. The poverty which comes
about by want of providence deserves no pity, and the
sorrow which arises from self-indulgence no sympathy.
" Much food," says the wise man, " is in the tillage of
the poor ; but there is that is destroyed for want of
judgment."

But in the cultivation of the utilities we must
not— recollecting the fine distribution, in the material
and moral world, of labour and rest, of food for
the body and things pleasant for the eye, of the time
to rejoice as well as the time to weep— neglect the
cultivation of the beautiful. If the home of taste is not
always the home of happiness, it goes far as a help
in the cultivation of fine tempers and feelings, and
adds to the amenities and pleasantnesses of social
life. This aspiration after the beautiful in nature
and in art, which all of us have, more or less defined,
is implanted in us for high and holy purposes. We
see this exemplified, in every scene around as. We
have the corn and the coals for the sustenance and
comfort of the body; but the flowers and their perfumes
no less, to please the eye and cheer the spirits : we
have the grass for pasture for our flocks and our herds,
but it is radiant with flowers and redolent of sweet-
smelling perfumes : the trees, that yield us timber for
our ships, add beauty to the landscape ; and the same
breeze that wafts them on their errands of peace brings
to us the breath of health and fans the fevered cheek :
the sea, their mighty pathway, soothes us in its calmness
with the melody of its murmurs, or raises in us emotions
of the sublime with the thunder of its rushing waves. All
around us gives evidence of this unison of the useful with
the beautiful or the grand in the economy of nature, and
affords us lessons how best we may carry out a like
unison in the economy of our domestic and social insti-
tutions. Mr. Ruskin, who has done so much— of which
the world will some day better appreciate its high value
than it appears to do now— in the advocacy of the beau-
tiful and the true -beauty in truth, and truth in beauty-
has some fine and most suggestive remarks on this point.
In explaining that we have warped the word " eco-
nomy" in common language into a meaning which it
should not bear, he points out that it means " the right
management of labour" — labour rationally applied, and
its produce carefully 2^re.scrred and seasonably distri-

buted—diUA quotes as the Wise Man's description of the
queenly housewife or the virtuous matron the following :
" She riseth while it is yet night, and giveth meat to
her household and a portion to her maidens. She maketh
herself coverings of tapestry ; her clothing is silk and
purple. Strength and honour are her clothing, and
she shall rejoice in time to come ;" enlarging on this
as a text, in language beautiful exceedingly, thus :
" Now you will observe that in this description of the
perfect economist, or mistress of a household, there is a
studied expression of the balanced division of her care
between the two great objects of utility and splendour—
in her right hand food and flax, for life and clothing ; in
her left hand the purple and the needlework, for honour
and for beauty. All perfect housewifery or natural eco-
nomy is known by those two divisions, wherever either
is wanting, the economy is imperfect. * * * * In
private and household economy you may judge always
of its perfectness by its fair balance between the use and
the pleasure of its possession. You will see the wise
cottager's garden trimly divided between its well-set ve-
getables and its fragrant flowers ; you will see the good
housewife taking pride in her pretty tablecloth and her
glittering shelves, no less than in her well-dressed dish
and her full store-room ; the care in her countenance
will alternate with gaiety ; and though you will re-
verence her in her seriousness, you will know her best
by her smile." This is beautiful writing, and no less
true than beautiful ; and conveys much that is, or ought
to be, valuable to us in every-day conduct.

To enable the poor man's house to have its well-
balanced divisions of true economy, we see that it is
necessary that its owners shall be well taught the
utilities and the beauties of life, and have wherewithal
(or the education will be but a mockery after all) to put
them in practice — homes consistent at once with
the cultivation of the delights as well as the decencies of
life. Of what class or kind the lessons of utilities
should consist we have already in our last article shown.
Much of the education of the beautiful is comprised in
ordinary scholastic education, where the taste is culti-
vated and the mind refined by intellectual training. Nor
while advocating the necessity of a cultivation of the
heart, as well as imparting a knowledge of " common
things," do educationists who see the advantages of this
direction in education, ignore or think lightly of the va-
lue of intellectual training. On the contrary, they wish
to see it carried out to its fullest capabilities, only insist-
ing that this shall not be done to the exclusion of those
other points which they conceive essential elements in the
education of the labouring classes. They are not igno-
rant of the immense influence for good which an in-
tellectual training exercises on the minds of the em-
ployed, in bringing them up to a level with those of the
employers ; for it is to be noted, as remarked by a keen
observer, that in cases where there is a real sympathy of
the heart influencing us in our intercourse with those
beneath us in the social scale, there is often an impas-
sable barrier " presented by a lack of sympathy of in-
tellect." And it is in this way that the utility of an
intellectual eauc;^.tion will act so powerfully iuincreasing

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125

the bond of sympathy which in our first paper we dwelt
upon. By both occupying the same platform, and by
being able to traverse the same domains of thought, we
shall best be able to understand each other— our
thoughts, feelings, and motives— and " we shall all be
drawn nearer to each other, by means which at the
same time help to draw us nearer to the fountain of light
and knowledge, of truth, and holiness, and love."

And here we would for a moment pause, to point out
one powerful means of urffinff the employed to avail
themselves of such education as now in nearly every
village and hamlet is happily placed within their reach ;
for it is a painful truth that they are amazingly indif-
ferent to the advantage which a liberal education bestows
upon them. This, however, is to be attributed to ig-
norance. Before we can persuade a man to take hold of
the rope which we throw to him while plunged in the
water, we must first make him believe that he is really
in danger, and secondly that the rope is strong enough
to pull him out. Now, in like manner as regards edu-
cation, our first duty is to explain to the employed that he
is plunged in a state of ignorance which is dangerous to
his future success in life— that it is in fact a state of
death he is in ; and next, that education will not only
raise him out of this condition, but in the surer footing
it will give him when out of it, he will be able to ad-
vance to higher life and a more influential position. And
to add urgency to this latter reasoning— perhaps, with
most of them, as it would likely be with most of us, the
most forcible argument— let the employers determine to
give the best employment they have to the best educated ,-
lei the employed see that their power in gaining high
remuneration will just be in proportion to the extent of
their attainments ; that education is, in fact, a necessary
thing to be possessed of, as much so as a chest of tools,
or a capability of doing the work of the trade they profess
to follow. And if this plan is persistently followed out
by employers, not long will it be ere the employed will
perceive the advantages of education, and suffer no small
amount of self-denial to come between them and its at-
tainment.

We have already urged upon the employed the
necessity of his ever learning ; but this im-
plies that he must be always in some way or
other ever taught. Education to be beneficial must be
permanent; and it is remarkable how rapidly the lessons
of the school, however well grounded at the time, fade
from the memory, if not perpetually renewed by re-study
and continued dressing as it were. Man's mind in this
respect is like the field, which, if allowed to remain too
long unstirred, becomes overgrown with weeds, that com-
pletely overshadow the fruitful plants. To aid them in
this after-cultivation and cleaning of the soil in which the
seed has been sown, means must be thrown in the way of
the employed of filling up his spare time by listening to
oral instruction in the way of lectures on subjects calcu-
lated to be useful, as well as in providing him with the
means of study by books in the reading room, or by
means of itinerating libraries.

" Tell me how a man employs his leisure hours, and
I ^ill tell you what he is." Tested by this standard,

how fearful must be the short-comings of our employed !
If their leisure hours were simply wasted with following
out

" AH the tricks
That idleness haa ever yet contrived
To fill the void of an unfurnished brain,"

the moral evil done would be bad enough ; but where,
to the addition of the waste of time incurred by the
follies of the working man's leisure hour, we find a con-
tinuity of vicious indulgence and determined depravity,
the evil which they suffer, and through them society,
becomes in its effects so appalling, that it well behoves
us to pay strict attention to the means by which they
can be obviated. The nature of the leisure-hour em-
ployment is, to be sure, not to be wondered at, seeing
that while we do everything to encourage the attractions
of the beer-shop, by doing nothing to counteract them,
we are hugely indifferent to all attempts to make the
houses of the employed calculated, by the comforts
which they possess and the attractions they offer, to win
him to stay at his own fireside ; and farther, while we
do offer him any amusement, it is of the questionable
character of the race-course, the low theatre, or the
harvest-home and rural fair, with their too-often-found-
concomitants of open vice and public profligacy.

But with the attraction of a well-arranged, healthy,
and comfortable home, with its plot of ground, however
tiny, in which the labour of love will raise vegetables for
food and flowers for fragrance and delight— we have no
fear but that, with these attractions, the employed will
find amusements for himself and for his family. To
this end, however, we must sooner or later become con-
vinced of the necessity of providing the employed with
time— time for education, and time for recreation.*
There " is a time to labour " and " a time to rest ;"
and miserable is the condition of the workman, and un-
sound the condition of society, in which the time for
rest is swallowed up in that of labour. If it is true that, if
"man will not labour, neither should he eat;" it should
be no less true that, if he labours, he shall eat— not
always true, good reader, in this boasted nineteenth-
century time of ours. The laws of Providence, if we
honestly work them out, and aid their application to the
purposes of every-day life, are so beautifully adjusted to
our social necessities, that, where labour is rightly man-
aged, it always affords not only the necessities of life,
but the delights of leisure and the health of rest. But
if we go contrary to those laws, and mismanage our
labour, then as a result we find poverty and the woes
of want around us. ''Wherever you see want, or
misery, or degradation, in this world about you, there be
sure either industry has been wanting, or industry has
been in error. It is not accident, it is not Heaven-
commanded calamity, it is not the original and inevita-
ble evil of man's nature, which fill your streets with
lamentations and your graves with prey. It is only
that where there should have been prudence, there has
been waste ; where there should have been labour, there
has been lasciviousness ; and wilfulness where there
should have been subordination."

Labour thus placed on its right basis, and worked
out in conjunction with the laws of mercy and justice,

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

no less than of truth and right, brings with it alike
exemption from want, the luxury of leisure, and the
recreation of rest.

But in this adjustment of the relation of employers
and employed, which is necessitated, so that for a fair
day's work the employer shall give a fair day's wages —
not the poorest of fare for the hardest of labour, the
least of leisure for the most of time — there should exist
that mutuality of interest which we have all along in-
sisted upon as necessary to be maintained between the
employer and the employed. We have shown that of
the three things which constitute economy the wise
management of labour, the careful preservation of its
produce is one. An increased liberality on the part of
the employer, must be met with the increased care of
the employed. We must learn to prevent want by the
avoidance of waste ; to ward off to-morrow's poverty
by to-day's prudence, and to secure fortune by fore-
thought.

Our much exceeded space warns us to conclude ;
but in what we have found space to say, the reader will
perceive that our main object has been to show that
much of the improvement of the social condition of the
employed rests with himself; that self-reform and
self-dependence will bring about many other reforms,
which he is now wearily, and without them may we say
hopelessly, waiting for. Nor less plainly have we
attempted to show what the employer is expected to
do, and we believe must do, before that elevation of
the condition of the labourer, in which he is as much
interested as the workman himself, can be carried out
and fairly and fully inaugurated.

By adding to the attractions — attractions of taste as
well as of comfort — and inculcating an appreciation of
the sanctities of home ; by educating the heart as well as
the head, elevating the aspirations and refining the
minds of the employed ; by drawing closer the bond of
sympathy between him and his employer, so as to
realize much of the power— though working out in
another way perhaps, the principles — of thepatriarchial
government : by doing all this, and thinking each of us
of doing what we can, rather than waiting for others,
criticising their conduct and scanning their motives,
looking within as well as without, we may do much, if
we do not do all, to get rid of the social evils which op-
press the labour of agriculture. The reforms, or rather
reform which we have pointed out, will go far to lessen
the evil, if not do away with the necessity, for the
systems of the "bothy," the " bondager," and of
"field gang-work." "Execute true judgment, and
show mercy and compassion every man to his brother ;
and let none of you imagine evil against his brother in
your heart." This principle of true judgment and of
charity, binding alike on the labourer and the master,
followed out in every-day life and every-day duties, will
tend to make the life useful and happy, and the duties
well performed.

But much as the employed can do, and should
do, in conjunction with the efforts , of the employer, to
elevate his own condition, there is much which the em-
ployer must of necessity do alone. Wealth, as Ruskia

terms it, is " the helm and guide of labour far and near."
Those who have it are "in reality the pilots of the
power and eff'ort of the State ;" it is entrusted to them
as " an authority, to be used for good or evil, just as
completely as kingly authority was ever given to a prince,
or military command to a captain." Those who have
it, he says, may stretch out their sceptre over the heads
of their labourers, and as they " stoop to its waving," he
may command them to water the dry, and plough the
desert places, or on the other hand to build a mound for
him to be throned on, high and wide ; to make crowns
for his head, and tapestry on which he may place his
feet ; to dance before him, that he may be gay, and sing
sweetly to him that he may slumber, that he may " so
live in joy, and die in honour." " Better far," he says,
" than such an honourable death, it were, that the day
had peiished wherein he was born, and the night in
which it was said, There is a child conceived. I trust," he
continues in one of his glowing sentences full of thoughts
that breathe and words that burn, " that in a little
while there will be few of our rich men, vfho through
carelessness or covetousness thus forfeit the glorious
oflSce which is intended for their hands. I said just
now, that wealth ill-used was as the net of the spider,
entangling and destroying ; but wealth well used, is as
the net of the sacred fisher, who gathers souls of men
out of the deep. A time will come — I do not think
even now it is far from us — when this golden net of
the world's wealth will be spread abroad as the flaming
meshes of the morning cloud are over the sky, bearing with
them the joy of light and the dew of the morning, as well
as the summons to honourable and peaceful toil. What
less can we hope from your wealth than this, rich men
of England, when once you feel fully how, by the
strength of your possessions — not, observe, by the ex-
haustion, but the administration of them, and the power
— you can direct the acts, command the energies, in-
form the ignorance, prolong the existence of the whole
human race ; and how, even of worldly wisdom, which
man employs faithfully, it is true, not only that ' her
ways are ways of pleasantness, but that her paths are
peace ;' and that for all the children of men, as well as
for those to whom she is given, length of days are in
her right-hand, as in her left-hand riches and honour."

In the remarks which we have been thus privileged to
lay before our readers, want of space has compelled us
to omit the discussion of points which we have not even
adverted to, but which at some future time we may find
an opportunity of doing. At the opening of our pre-
sent series of papers we claimed no higher position for
them than as a medium for glancing at the subject merely,
reserving a full review of its entirety for another period.
We shall be glad if our sketches will induce some of
our readers to fill up the details, and induce them to
endeavour to make the-n of some practical worth — if
the slight details we have given of what some men
amongst us have thought, and are now thinking on the
important subject, will set others thinking also, till the
impulses of thought give life to the labour, and willing-
ness to the work, which will best develop its projects,
and aid its onward progress. R< S. B.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

137

THE JANUARY FEVER.

There are some men who always dread the 1st of
January. The thought of it causes the turkey to dis-
agree; the sauce to the Christmas pudding wants flavour ;
nothing, in fact, is right either within or without. There
IS a certain testiness of temper, accompanied by a
nervous restlessness as the day draws on. The sudden
entry of a servant, a ring at the bell, or a sharp rat-tat
at the door arouses disquietude. There is a great in-
disposition to be seen in the haunts of men ; long soli-
tary walks or rides in lonesome neighbourhoods are re-
sorted to, terminated by very late tea-dinners. The
postman comes to be regarded with aversion; the
housemaid with suspicion. The delivery of letters, once
a welcome circumstance, is now a painful fact ; and as
though they contained a sealed doom, many are allowed
to lie day after day unopened upon the mantel-piece.
These are all symptoms of the January fever. We have
known the complaint aggravated by such occurrences
as the following :

Maid : " Please, sir, Mr. Jones has called, and will
be thankful if you will settle his little account, as he
has a large amount to makeup to-night."

Master : " Confound Mr. Jones ; I paid him last
week."

Mistress : " Yes, dear, but was not that the account
for the year before last ?"

Master : " Last year's account or not, it's con-
foundedly impertinent to come to trouble a gentleman
two weeks running. Tell Jones I'll look over his bill
and send him a cheque soon.''

[Eicit maid.']

(Jones loalking away. " Soon, eh ? next year.")

Mistress: "I wish, dear, you had not got that
hooded chaise, we could have done very well without it,
as I told you, and now we have all the trouble of j)ay- I
ing for it." |

Master : " Well, it would perhaps have been as
wise not to have ordered it, but the cart was very
shabby; besides, Jones had just set up, and I wanted
to encourage home trade ; it's nicely made, and has got
him many orders amongst our friends ; and this is his
gratitude. Confound him !"

Mistress: "But you see the carriage was sent in
last January, so he has waited twelve months."

Master: "And if I had gone to old Barouch at

, he'd been glad of the job, and let the account run

three years."

Mistress : " You left him, I thought you said, be-
cause he charged so high."

" To be sure," as Jones said, "it was cheaper to use
green, and many did a very large business with a very
slender capital in this way ; one might say with no
principle at all ; putty might cover a multitude of de-
fects, and make a bad thing look cheap, but he would
work with good stuff." And so he made the greater
portion of his capital fast, leaving, like a wise man, a
nice little floating sum to meet current expenses. A
good and an obliging workman generally secures a fair
hare of patronage ; and so did Mr. Jones. For two
or three years his prospects were bright, but the fourth
year, when he is introduced to us, he looks anxious.
There's a deal of money out, £iO here, £30 there ; £20
in that place, and ^60 in another. Some has been
due two years, nearly all of it twelve months ; and
men's wages have kept on, and housekeeping expenses
have continued to soak up the little floating sum, until
the day when Messrs. Timber's traveller is advised to
him, and what is to be done? The half-year's account
is somewhat heavy. His wife advises him to call and
state his case to some of his best customers. Very
reluctantly he collects a few of his bills, and takes his
hat. It goes very much against the grain. " I'm more
at home in the work-shop," he thinks. The lady who is
looking out of the window of the second house upon
which he has designs, says to herself, " What an un-
usually long interval between the foot upon the door-
step, and the ring at the bell." And so it was, for
poor Jones had been repulsed from the first house as
though he had requested alms ; his bill was taken, and
the door shut in his face. He therefore pauses a little
before he summons a second insult. " Well, here

goes.
Jones :
Maid ;
Jones :
Maid :

at home .'"

(The conversation changes.)
Mr. Jones, as will be seen, was a coach-builder, and a
neat thrifty hand. His capital was small ; his principles
were good ; he employed but little labour, and worked
assiduously himself. He knew that the foundation of a
good honest trade was to lay in a large stock of wood,
to as to work up nothing but well-seasoned stuff.

" Is Mr.

"No."

" When will he be at home ?"
' Next week."
" Too late," sighs Jones, and proceeds.
At a few places he is successful. By some he is re-
quested to call again; but not unfrequently his presence
is the signal for a scene like the one we opened upon.

The day following Messrs. Timber's traveller appears
as per advice.

Traveller. — " Good morning to you, Mr. Jones.
Business brisk .' Got my advice, I suppose ?"

Jones : " Yes I did."

T. : " Well, I'll look in after dinner. You'll have
your order ready, and then we'll settle the account."

Jones : " I'm sorry I can't be so punctual as usual ;
but I can't for the life of me get my money in. Though
I was out all yesterday looking after it, I have only
made up half the sum due."

Mrs. Jones : " And I do think it very hard, when it's
our own."

T. : "Well, never mind, my boy; we will draw a
two- months' bill on you, and that will settle a difficulty

128

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many a better m:iu than you has to settle in the same
way."

Jones : " And suppose I don't meet it in two
months !"

T. : " O, but you will. Tat-ta, be ready when I
look in."

The bill was drawn, but whether Mr. Jones met it
we cannot say. We know, however, that many bills
drawn under the same circumstances are not met — that
many names for the same reason figure in the Gazette>
and that many men thus are doomed to ruin.

And this is not only true of Jones, but of good honest
men in fifty different trades. Why, do we not read in
this very 4th of January's Times an account of the
Sultan's being mobbed by three hundred creditors, who
had supplied the palace with food, and could not get
paid ? A deputation of three was admitted to an audi-
ence. No money was forthcoming ; promises were
given, and the majority of the three hundred within a
week were in consequence sold up, and reduced to hope-
less poverty.

The relation between the wholesale and retail trader
on the one hand is very exactly defined — punctuality is
the soul of that connection ; while, on the other,
between the retail trader and his customer it is unusual
to recognize the existence of any relationship. The re-
gular demand of the wholesale house is not to be trifled
with ; but when the retail trader seeks for the means to
satisfy it, his customer oftentimes proposes pleasant
games at Hide-and-seek, Bo-peep, and Tom Tiddler's
ground. If a gentleman declines to pay, the course is
clear ; but if he promises to pay, and yet delays to do
so, the course is not so clear. And the credit system of
this day enables men who are up to the game to main-
tain a splendid appearance upon nothing of their own,
save a prodigious stock of impudence. Many great
shams of this sort have lately been caught and ripped
up, displaying an emptiness past belief. Such men are
found to glory in their shame, and exalt to a science the
mean tact that averts a just claim. Timon has many
faithful associates who ease their consciences with the
following formula — Debt is exchange, and exchange
is no robbery.

Far be it from us to charge the generality of those
who are in the habit of running bills with any design to
defraud or injure the tradesman. Nothing of the kind.
But yet it seems to iis that the fact of a bill just means
this : when the articles mentioned there were ordered
there did exist a present inability to pay for them ; and
if so, it becomes a question, particularly if they were
articles of mere luxury, whether they should have been
bought at all. If there is any difficulty in paying for
them at the end of six months, without question they
should not. The facility is so great, that people go on
buying without thinking what they can afford ; and for
want of calculation or self-denial in this respect theyim-
bitter their own days, and impoverish those whom their
custom, if properly regulated, is designed to benefit.

We put it to our readers, whether it is honest to take
long credit on articles sold for cash, so to make up the
deficiencies of a small capital, at the expense of the gro-

cer, the butcher, or any other trader. This is not called
roguery, but it is very much like it ; and the " home-
trade" would certainly be more thriving without such
doubtful patronage.

There is one class of men with absolutely no excuse
for this conduct. The farmer's is essentially a ready-
money trade ; and they are placed in a most favourable
position to bestow the same benefit upon those de-
pendent upon their custom. On the whole, we believe
them to constitute the safest class, and the best pay-
masters in the world ; but the pride of a large holding
dims many a man's better judgment, who seeks in the
credit system a means to avert the consequence of an
error, and finds in it only destruction to his peace of
mind. There is, too, a disastrous tendency to specu-
late in corn with other people's money. Mr. , who

put his sample into his pocket to-day, and determined
to wait for " the turn," did not think, perhaps, of the
sore shifts to which several individuals will be reduced,
by having thus to wait for their money.

The 1st of January should be a day of joy and hope
to everyone; but to those who see in it only an accu-
mulation to the heavy drag-weight of debt, that bears
down their heads before the public gaze, from which
they shrink, it may well seem to cry, " I come with re-
newed claim — sharp angry claim — no peace I bring
thee,"

There are many now suffering from this January
fever, and in various degrees. Amongst them there are
those who need our sympathy, and there are those who
do not deserve it. Some are chronic long-standing
cases, said to be incurable.

To those whose symptoms allow room for hope, par-
ticularly to those who have only begun to experience
the remarkable uneasiness that distinguishes the attacks
of this malady, we beg leave in our medical capacity to
hand the following prescription :

PAY YOUR DEBTS.

— to which we append these directions .

Do not buy what you do not want. Pay cash for
what you receive, if you can ; and if you cannot, make a
point of doing so before six months have run.

In case this advice is taken, we guarantee a cure, and
can most positively predict a Happy New Year.

WINDOWS OPENED MORE WOULD KEEP
DOCTORS FROM THE DOOR.— A very large quantity
of fresh air is spoiled and rendered foul by the act of
breathing. A man spoils not less tlian a gallon every
minute. In eight hours' breathing a full grown man spoils
as much freeh air as seventeen three-bushel sacks could
hold ! If he were shut up in a room seven feet broad, seven
feet long, and seven feet high, the door and windows fitting
so tightly that no air could pass through, he would die,
poisoned by his own breath, in a very few hours; in
twenty-four hours he would have spoiled all tlie air con-
tained in the room, and hove converted it into poison.
Reader, when you rise to-morrow morning, just go out of
doors for five minutes, and observe carefully the freshness of
the air. That air is in the state in which God keeps it for
breathing. Then come back suddenly into your close room,
and your own senses will at ouce make you feel how very
far the air in your chamber is from being in the same
wholesome and serviceable condition.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

129

THE PULPING OF ROOTS — ITS TRUE USE,

The modern system of reducing roots to a fine pulp
before being given to stock for consumption, has now
become general. It therefore behoves every stock-
master to look closely into the subject, in order to as-
certain its comparative advantages, and the best mode
of preparing the food. It is unquestionably an expen-
sive process, and the return of profit ought to be com-
mensurate. I think to pulp roots for every kind of stock
would not pay ; but selections of stock may be made
upon every man's farm, that would admirably answer
for the additional outlay. So far as I have been able
to ascertain the lesults of the pulping system, it is some-
thing like the following : All kinds of stock, includ-
ing horses, are benefited by consuming this pulped
food, as compared with it in any other state. Horses
are more advantaged by using it in a fresh state, mixed
with chaff. Cattle should have it administered in a
slightly fermented state, and niixed with chaff, which is
to be thoroughly incorporated and saturated with the
juices or watery particles of the pulp. I^heep and
lambs require its being divested of those watery particles
as much as possible ; hence the very process of pulping
is desirable for this purpose, and then it should be thinly
spread over a floor for a few hours, to promote evapora-
tion. Pigs eat it leadily, and in its fresh state, mixed
with meal, to great advantage. Poultry prefer it fresh.
Calves and young cattle should have it evaporated awhile,
and then mixed with hay-chaff. These are the plain
facts. Now let us look into the various methods of pre-
paring the pulped food.

First, as food for horses. — The great danger in the ad-
ministration of this food arises in the excessive quantity
of water of which the mangold and turnip are com-
posed ; but particularly the former. In preparing it
for horses, a convenient floor should be appropriated ;
the pulped roots should be mixed with fine chaff, and
then be left to saturate or absorb the watery quality of
the roots into the chaff. It will be ready for use in a few
hours, and should th^n be sparingly given in the manger
or boarded crib. Working-horses will require a little
corn with the mixture; but young horses thrive well
upon it, with straw or other similar food. The pro-
portions for horses should be, in bulk, about two-thirds
chaff to one of pulp. In preparing the food for cattle,
two distinctions should be observed : Young cattle
must partake of a larger porportion of dry food, i. e.
chaff, or scouring will result. The proper mixture for
fatting cattle will be about equal parts in bulk, i. c,
two bushels of chaff to two bushels of pulp ; while for
young cattle it ought to consist of three bushels of
chaff to one of pulp, and in both cases it should undergo
a slight fermentation. In feeding them, great care
should be taken not to overdo the animals ; and if any is
not eaten, let it be taken away, and the crib left to
sweeten till next feeding ; otherwiije the crib gets a nasty
odour, and the animal will never lick it clean, or feed
pleasaally out of it.

In preparing it for sheep, it will not be requisite
to use chaff at all, although the better for the
mixture ; but simply to use such means as may
appear desirable to extract from it those 'deleterious
watery particles which cause looseness and scouring.
For pigs the pulp will only require miNing with meal,
without the addition of water. I think for fatting stock
of all kinds, it should be fermented ; the food undergoes
a chemical change, and some improvement ; saccharine
matter is engendered ; and if no further result is obtained,
the process of digestion is commenced before the ani-
mal has partaken of the food. It has also been found
that the majority of animals prefer the fermented to the
fresh food. Cows are said to partake of this food with-
out any deleterious effects to the milk or butter.

Fermentation. — This will commence immediately
after the pulping, and in cold weather it will be
about from twenty-four to thirty-six h'mrs before it
is quite ready for use ; in mild weather about twelve
hours' fermentation will suffice. The common prac-
tice is to divide a convenient floor into sections or com-
partments, and lay the pulp in three separate divisions,
so that they may be carried to the stocks in successiop,
so that one day's food is always in hand ; but for the
Sunday I should mix the fresh pulped with the oldest
fermented mass, so that both may be equalized. On »0
account should the fermenting mass be permitted to wax
hot — merely warm. The fermentation of the pulped
roots has the effect of turning a portion of the starchy
matters into sugar; just, I presume, the very thing re-
quired to add nutritive value to the food- And the fur-
ther admixture of chaff, similar dry food being well in-
corporated and saturated with it, adds still greater
nutritive value to the heap, which is then precisely ia
that state wherein it is most readily digested by the
animal, and from which it can deiive the greatest aliment
in the shortest time, thus leaving it additional liberty
and time to rest and more quickly thrive. This ad-
mixture of dry food, as chafl' or other solid fo-jd, is
almost imperative, or looseness or scouring will take
place, and disappointment will ensue. In very cold
weather it is most di^sirable that the pulped food should
be warmed by fermentation, and the mixture of chaff
more liberal. It is perfectly compatible and true that
a large feeding of cold roots, unmixed with dry or strawy
food, cannot be beneficial to any animal in severely cold
weather; it then tends to cause flatulency, colic, and
indigestion. To pulp all the roots grown on the farm is
almost impossible. Fancy crops of from thirty to fifty
tons of mangolds or turnips per acre, upon a large
breadth, being passed through our present pulpers ! It
would be extravagant, and nearly useless in many cases.
For instance, common white-fleshed turnips are readily
fed ofF by sheep : I should not undertake the expense of
collecting and pulping this crop, although the sheep
would in soma respects be advantaged by it. I think it
unnecessary expense, because cutting .would do nearly as

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well, and moreover store-sheep would thrive even if let
alone to provide for themselves. The great thing is to
suit the food to the stock, and the stock to the food ;
no one would think it best to give very costly food to
inferior animals or breeding stock, as a rule. The
selection of the animals or class of animals must be left
to the judgment of the farmer. I would suggest that all
kinds of young stock requiring a little extra nursing be
included — young calves and stirks, culllamb-hoggets, also
aged ewes, and old cows. But the most important classes
are those of animals requiring to be quickly fatted ; for
these classes the system has very great advantages, and
it cannot be too extensively carried out, nor too care-
fully practised. It is what I would designate the
" topping up" system, and I would bring all animals up
to it by degrees ; for instance, I would use a turnip-
cutter up to a certain point or stage in the animal's
fattening, and then commence with pulped food to com-

plete the process ; or, on the other hand, in the case of
animals as above, that require nursing, I would give
them pulped food till fairly brought round to a healthy
thriving state, and then give them cut food : this merely
on the ground of expense. Milch cows will pay well
for this extra expense ; and what is better, the process of
pulping appears to give off so much of the watery par-
ticles containing the peculiar flavour of the root as to
prevent any ill effects or odour to the butter.

In concluding this short paper, I would say once for
all, that pulping roois in the early part of the winter!
unquestionably much to be preferred to cutting or slicing,
and is as a general rule also far more advantageous,
but it is more expensive. The great question therefore,
in the every- day experience of the farmer, will be, to
decide as to what stock he will give pulped food, and to
what he would give cut or sliced food, and, further, what
he will leave to provide for themselves.

THE STEAM-PLOUGH — ITS RISE AND PROGRESS

Tracing a mechanical invention through its early
history and fii"st attempts, with a view of fixing the ex-
act date of its birth, and determining who were the real
parents, is something like searching into the origin of
evil. You never can make out how it was that the
first step was taken, or what suggested the novel idea.
And if you meet with the originator, as you suppose, it
is sure to turn out that similar schemes existed long be-
fore his, and that there actually is " nothing new under
the sun."

The question, " Who invented the steam plough ?"
is one of this kind ; but we think a far more prac-
tically useful inquiry just now is, not Who first tried
and failed ? but Who is at present able to give us the
best realization of the old ideas, combined with im-
proved new ones ? However, though there are difficul-
ties attaching to the settlement of priority of invention,
it is sometimes possible to trace the progress of a single
ingenious mind; and very interesting and instructive
the history often is. Mr. Smith, of Woolston, has told
us how, having devised a new mode of tillage — the
fruit of much meditation and practical trial — he longed
for some means of yoking steam-power to his imple-
ments ; and caught the idea from witnessing the novel
operation of the draining-engine at the Lincoln Meeting.
Other experimenters had preceded Mr. Fowler and Mr.
Smith J but that ingenious machinery — so cleverly com-
bined, so beautifully simple, with its engine and wind-
ing barrels neatly built together on one set of carriage-
wheels, its pulleys firmly anchored, and smooth- working
wonderful wire-rope hauling onward that immense im-
plement hundreds of yards distant from the motive power
— that machinery made steam culture apracticable matter
in the eyes of every clear-seeing man of business. The
Royal Agricultural Society of England's judges wTote :
" The trial of these immense implements could not fail
to awaken much interest in our minds. A small six-
horse engine with .comparative ease performed the work

of 150 horses, drawing so regularly that no oscillation
was observable. ' Surely,' was our remark, ' this
power can be applied to more general purposes.' We
earnestly commend this idea to our engineers and ma-
chinists." " Applied to more general purposes" ? — of
course it could be. Here stood a portable engine, not
in a yard, but in a spacious field ; not beside a wheat-
stack, but upon a piece of ground that wanted draining.
No strap to drive a thrashing-box or mill, but spur-
wheel gear, working strong coiling-drums, hung in a
framing fixed to one end of the boiler. Why, then, any
mechanism we like may be similarly connected with a
common engine ! And to move an implement, the
engine need not travel, as we used to think was a neces-
sity of the case, and a necessity nobody knew how to
get over, on arable uphill and downhill fields — for there
stands the engine puffing away in the corner. For
pulling the plough, the toughest hemp hawser would
be useless ; it would wear out in no time : chain, again,
wraps so jerkingly on the barrel, and besides would
lose all the power, in dragging so heavily along the
ground. But that metal rope, quite flexible round the
great pulleys, strong as you please, and lasting a long
while where flints and hard limestones do not rasp it too
much ; that, made lighter for shallower operations and
easier draught, is just what we have been waiting for.
The anchorages are readily set down or removed ; and
with what a tremendous purchase they grip in their
holes ! how easy to make a slighter fixing, on the same
principle, for ordinary tillage ! And the huge imple-
ment, too— how steadily yet resistlessly it moves ! What
an unheard-of depth that massive coulter is penetrating !
Why steam power might subsoil to any pitch, and could
trench our lands like market-gardens ! The soil trem-
bles for yards on each side ; the coulter and wedge-
mole are making a little earthquake down below. De-
pend upon it, steam-subsoiling would loosen and shake,
and let in air and rain-water, in a manner never thought

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131

of before. Yet, no matter how profoundly the tool
sinks, or how stubborn the mass of cohesive clay forced
through, the workmen can steer in the requisite direc-
tion with that clever adaptation of the woodman's
" gin," by altering the lock of the wheels. Could not
some mechanist contrive a plough to go straight, while
following at the end of a wire-rope ? Thus the drain-
ing engine was wondrously suggestive. And Mr.
Smith, of Woolston, imbibed ideas which, instead of
conmitting to print, he perseveringly carried into
practice— with results the most astonishing and invalu-
able.

But let us look at Mr. Fowler's own course, as an in-
ventor : that is, in matters which have come before the
public in connexion with steam power field-work. And,
indeed, every farmer now-a-days ought to be jierfectly
familiar with the principles of construction of the dif-
ferent kinds of steam-tilling apparatus, or he is apt to
misjudge the reports of progress that reach him;
thinking he knows the "steam-plough" pretty well,
having seen it half-a-year ago, when, in fact, almost
every month it is coming out with important modifica-
tions. We hope our readers will keep up their me-
chanical knowledge of what is going on in this im-
portant department of agricultural improvement ; par-
ticularly as we find even our old correspondent the
" Old Norfolk Farmer " inadvertently stating that
" Messrs. Fowler's and Smith's systems are similar to
each other in all respects, I believe, except that the
•* former works with a plough and the latter with grub-
bers."

In the autumn of 1849, Mr. Fowler's attention was
drawn to the great expense of laying drain-tiles in the
ground ; and he determined to substitute machinery
for the manual operation, if it were possible. Lum-
bert's mole-plough figured in the ''Annals of Agri-
culture'' many years ago. The practice of mole-
ploughing was common in some heavy-land districts;
and it appeared to him that there would be no diffi-
culty in making the same machine draw in some
material to be left in the hole made, and thus
form the drain. Mr. Saul, of Garstang, had pro-
posed such an idea years before ; but it still re-
mained to be actually realized. It is not necessary to
detail all the various experiments of the inventor's no-
viciate. All the tackle that could be procured was far
too weak to answer the purpose. Chain and hemp rope
were tried; but when strong enough, were found to be
of so great a weight as to render moving about imprac-
ticable. Recourse was then had to wire rope ;
and in July, 1850, Mr. Fowler was able to bring
before the Royal Agricultural Society, at their Exeter
Meeting, a machine that would bury drain pipes
made of wood to the depth of 2^ feet. The windlass
was a travelling one, worked by horses going round
and round — and propelling itself by winding along a
rope laid out in the required direction anchored at
the end. The drain plough followed the moveable
windlass — the horses walking in a series of eccentric
circles, or, more properly, spirals, and so gradually
passing up the field. Into a description of the drain-

plough itself, the construction of the windlass, the con-
trivances for manufacturing the toood pipes, &c., we
need not now enter. The great inconvenience in ad-
justing the rope to the length of the field, the difficulty
of keeping it tight enough to cause sufficient friction
on the winding barrel, and the wear and tear caused
by the friction, led at once to the abandonment of this
plan of windlass. A remarkably simple and easily
portable capstan was then made. This, stationed on
the headland, coiled the rope upon a drum, the vertical
axis of which carried the four arms or levers by which
the horses caused it to revolve. Two men in five
minutes can raise and pack this windlass ready for
removal ; and when properly fixed, with its bi'oad iron
plate let into the ground and a strut set out at an angle
to hold the machine upright, it is capable of resisting
all the power of four horses working with a leverage of
twenty to one. For applying horse-power to occasional
heavy field-labour, such as pulling down forest trees,
or removing cannon or stores over a difficult country,
a more compact and efiecdve windlass cannot be
desired. The plough was also improved in form and
capabilities. Experiments also showed that ordinary
earthen tiles could be laid with ease and accuracy
(which had previously seemed doubtful) ; and in the
spring of 1851 the plough was perfectly competent to
perform drainage on good cutting clay soils, in some
cases four feet deep, as shown on Wormwood Scrubs,
near London. But the principal fact demonstrated (as
bearing upon the present subject), was the practicability
of managing great lengths of wire rope in a field, with
comparative ease — the plough being often drawn a
quarter-of-a-mile from one fixture of the horse-power
windlass.

In 1853 it was determined to apply steam-power
to the draining plough. The first attempt was
no^ that which our readers saw at Lincoln in 1854 j
but the engine, windlass, and plough were all combined
in one carriage adapted to travel over the land. The
winding apparatus was attached in front, and driven
by gearing from the engine crank-shaft, while the
plough followed behind — the rope being stationary, and
anchored at the end of the drain. Thus, the usual
habit of beginning with steam just where you began
with horses, was adopted ; but with a similar ill-
success; for the travelling steam windlass answered no
better than the travelling hoi'se windlass, though for a
different reason. The great weight on hilly land, and
the impossibility of managing such a ponderous
machine in the field, rendered it impracticable, and it
was accordingly abandoned at an early stage. Mr.
Fowler then decided to fix the engine and windlass in
one corner of the field, pass the rope along the head-
land and round a pulley anchored at the head of the
drain to be cut ; a smaller rope being passed round
another pulley at the bottom of the field, so as to be
hauled out when the larger rope was being wound up,
and thus be ready to pull the larger rope and imple-
ment back again when the drain was finished. This
method worked very well, at once proving the perfect
feasibility of applying steam-power to the purposes of

m

THE f-ARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ordinary cnltivation, and Was ftshibited at the Lincoln
Meeting in 1854.

Tlie next improvefment consisted of a more power-
ful anchorage, ih which two boards were hinged to-
gether, back to back, and placed in a hole G feet wide
and 3 feet deep ; the chain from the pulley tending to
force the pair of boards open in the hole (like a pair of
" tweezers" or " sugar-riippers" opening outwards) ;
and these pressing against both sides, gave a very firm
Holdfast cdpable of resisting a pull of ten toBS. This
arrarigetnent of tackle worked very well at first; but
wire rrtpe of the great thicktiess necessary to bear the
greatly increased strain could only be used advan-
tageously over pulleys larger than could be moved in
the field — sheaves of a small diameter bending the rope
so much that it would not last any great length of time.
Accordinsly, the system of lea<ling the rope round
pulleys was altogether relinquished; and an engine and
windlass combined was taade to move itself along the
headland so as to come to the head of each drain in
turn, and, there standing, have a direct pull on the
plough without passing round any pulley. A winding
drum was placed on a vertical axis underneath the
boiler of nn ordinary portable engine, and driven from
the crank-shaft by an intermediate shaft with bevil
gearing. When the rope was wound up, and the plough
arrived at the engine, it w.is drawn back again to the
bottom of the field by a horse, while the engine shifted
itself onward ready for making ;inolher drain — this
movement being effected by a small drum and a rope
anchored on the headland. This plan is still in use ;
and a drain half-a-mile in length has often been f lit in
by it from one fixture of the maehine.

Everybody ou-ht to be familiar with the mechanics
of steam plou^'hing. Accordingly, we have given
an outline o> Mr. Fowler's progress with the drain-
phiugh, as the foundation of our present success in
windlass and wire-rope cultivation. The first form
was that of a travelling windlass, actuated by horses
walkiru round and round,, while the machine slowly
advanced along the fixed rope, dragging the imple-
ment behind ; and then came a stationary capstan,
worked by hordes, with the rope led round a pulley
anchoied at tl;e head of the drain, Steam-power being
applied, it went through the same mode of ojieration :
the eniiine being first made to travel in front of the
plouijh, by wimiing up a fixed rope ; then it was sta-
ticmed in one cornt r of the field, and hauled the plough
up the field and back again by two ropes led roLind a
pulley at each end of the drain. And, lastly, going a
step further than the horse-windlass had done, the pul-
leys were abandoned ; the engine, with a coiling drum
underneath, was made to stand at the head of the drain,
pull up the plough, then move itself onward to the next
drain, while the implement was drawn back again by a
horse.

Very similar have been the successive stages of ad-
vance made by Mr. Fowler's steam-plough. And as
we are noticing, on the present occasion, Mr. Fowler's
machinery only, we shall be doing no injustice by
passing over Mr. Hannam's trials in 1844, Lord Wil-

longhbj *s or the Marquis of Tweeddale's steam -plough,
or Mr. Williams's experiments in 1852, and Mr.
Smith's working of his cultivator with the windlass,
&c., supplied to him by Mr, Fowler in 18.55. This
tackle consisted of an engine, and a widdlass on a se-
parate frame, in which two drums on a horizontal axis
were driven by a belt from the engine fly-wheel ; but
otherwise differing only in strength from the windlass
adopted in 1853 and 1854 for the draining-plough.
These were stationed at one corner of the plot to be
cultivated ; and the rope, laid out in a triangular form,
passed round three anchored pulleys, two of which were
moveable, and shifted, as the work proceeded, into
holes dug for the anchors to hold by. The first trial
was with a scarifier, which it worked well, turning it
round at the headlands with ease; this being accom-
))lished by attaching both ropes to the front of the im-
plement, so that it turned round of itself when the
ropes began to reverse their pull. The next step was
to consider the best mode of applying the newly- found
power ; and the much-despised plough, in its different
modifications, seemed the most lil<ely instrument for
accomplishing this end. In using the ordinary jilough,
if turned in the same furrow, that one furrow is turned
over one way, and the next the other way, leaving an
open " drill" or " ridge ;" and to make a number of
furrows lie the same way, it is necessary to take
the plough some distance along the headland before
turning to go back again ; but this plan is im-
practicable with steam-power, there being no means
by which the implement can be moved along the head-
land, except by very cumberous and delaying arrange-
ments, or extraneous labour. The turnwrest plough,
to be sure, laid all its slices in one direction ; but to
employ several such implements at once, in their com-
mon form, was out of the question. Mr. Fowler there-
fore had recourse, as others had done before him, to
two distinct sets of ploughs, one "right-handed" and the
other " left handed ;" and, by a simpler device than any
other inventor had then or has yet arrived at, he fixed
the two sets of shares and mouldboards rigidly at oppo-
site ends of along frame, and balanced this frame upon
a pair of large carriage-whaels. By this arrangement,
when one set is in work, the other set is in tlie air ; and
the-ic are simply br^uglit down, and tlie others simulta-
neously raised, for going in the opposite direction ; and
while there is weight enough to keep the ploughs in
work (with the horizontal and low p'lU of the rope, in-
stead of the angular uplifting draught of horses) there
is not enough to cause that sledging pressure which in
common ploughs augments the draught and injures the
subsoil. The steerage of the implement was awkwardly
effected by a man waikins^ in front with a long pole or
handle to guide it by. A new form of windlass Avas
found necessary ; for previous experience in draining
had proved that the crookedness of the fields, and the
varying angles at which it was required to plough, in
order to render the machine generally available, ren-
dered it essential to mount the winding-drum on a
vertical axis instead of a horizontal one; it being evi-
dent that a rope will wind on an upright drum fiom

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133

any part of the field; but on a horizontal drum, the
rope must either lead off always at right angles to the
axis, or else be coiled on with much friction by a to-
and-fro traversing winding apparatus. Tlie windlass
was accordingly made with two -vertical barrels, with
intermediate reducing wheels and a rigger driven by the
engine strap. The engine and windlass were set down mid-
way along one side of the fleld, and the ropes led offiu
an angular direction to two pulleys anchored one at each
end of.the work ; these being shifted forward along the
headlands for every fresh bout of the plough. The an-
chorages for these pulleys were then and still remain
in the form of trucks or cart bodies, each having four
sharp discs for wheels, which, cutting deeply into the
ground, present a great resistance sideways to the strain
of the ropes, but may be easily pulled forward through
the soil in a forward direction. The large sheave or
"pulley" was attached uuderneatli, and the anchorage
weighted witlr soil to hold it down in its place. The
shifting of the anchorage was effected by a small
wire rope laid along the headland, passing round
an anchored pulley in the corner of the field,
and then along the side of the field to the wind-
lass, where a couple of small grooved rollers acting
as a " Spanish windlass" were employed when re-
quired to pull the rope a few feet, so as to haul the
anchorage opposite to the next line of furrows. In the
year 1856, this machinery was exhibited at the Chelms-
ford Meeting, and also at Paris. By the latter end of
that year a great improvement was accomplished. The
supporting wheels of the plough were made to " lock" :
and thus a man, riding on the tail of the implement,
could steer to a nicety by means of a small toothed rack,
worm, and wheel. So perfect is this mode of steerage,
that the ijlough may be directed entirely out of the line
of draught, until the rope stands at an angle of one in
two to the direction of the plough ; and accuracy in
setting the anchorage is no longer needed. The an-
chor-carriages had also been made self-moving, so as to
save time in working.

Instead of the ropes from the fixture capstan being-
led off at an angle, as before, they were made to enclose
the plot of land in a rectangle, thus requiring two
additional anchors (that is, making four altogether),
fastened down at the corners of the field ; and as the
draught-rope passes along the headland, it tends to
draw the anchorage forward. All that was required
was a mooring-chain behind the anchorage, to regulate
how far it should ti-avel at a time. But Mr. Fowler
did not stop there. Hitherto a common portable
engine had been employed, driving the windlass by
means of a belt : but two anchors, two snatch-blocks,
supporting friction-rollers for the rope, the windlass,
the engine, and an extravagant quantity of rope, -were
tediously and expensively shitted from field to field ;
and the whole apparatus required to be simplified in
order to reduce wear and tear, and liability to contin-
gencies. Accordingly, in the early part of 1857, a
windlass-frame was contrived, carrying an ordinary
engine upon it ; this was made to travel along the
headland, propelling itself when required, by a small

barrel winding up a rope anchored a-head, opposite to
one anchorage at the bottom of the field, the ropes
passmg simply side by side from the engine to the
anchorage, working the plough to and fro between.
At Salisbury Meeting, in that year, this arrangement
of tackle was shown, the engine driving the drums by
shafts and gearing, and being also locomotive, along
roads and fields by actuating one of its broad-felloed
carriage-wheels. Another form of combined engine
and winding-drums was also exhibited, in which the
machinery was "self-contained," or all attached
directly to the portable engine boiler, without the boiler
itself resting upon a framing. The anchorage pro-
pelled itself by a barrel and fixed chain, the barrel
liaving a slow rotation given to it by a screw and
worm-wheel, and subsequently by bevilled gearing-
worked by the revolution of the large sheave or rope-
pulley. But though very successful ploughing was
peribrmed with this improved machinery in many
parts of England, and winning the Highland Society's
prize at Stirling, another form of apparatus was de-
manded for applying the steam-plough to the common
portable engines already in the farmers' hands, in
cases where the farmer might not be prepared to have
his engine taken off its wheels and fixed upon a wind-
lass; therefore, in the autumn of 1857, a windlass was
constructed which could be temporarily connected
with the engine (with its fore-carriage removed), em-
bracing one end as in a pair of shafts — similar in prin-
ciple to that designed by Mr. Williams. A driving-
strap communicated motion from the engine fly-wheel
to a rigger upon the windlass frame. However, in the
spring of 1858, Mr. Fowler abandoned the use of
winding-drums altogether; and instead, passed an
endless rope several times round two grooved drums :
thus obviating the wear and great crushing pressure of
the rope in coiling many times upon itself, together
with the irregular motion, which tended to breakage ;
and securing an equable smooth motion, and a " safety
valve" slip of the rope under great and sudden strains
from the impact of the implement against roots or
stones. A short reserve of rope was carried upon two
small barrels on the plough, which is let out or taken
up according to the varying lengtlis of furrow ; and
sections of rope are added or removed so as to adapt
the length engaged to different-sized fields. At the
Chester Meeting this form of machine was worked,
and also subsequently, with the greatest success, the
windlass-frame being made to attach to or detach from
the engine in a few minutes. At the same meeting was
shown a remarkably light and compact form of wind-
lass attached round the fire-box of a common portable
engine, only one of the drums being driven by gearing,
rigger, and strap. But still Mr. Fowler was not satis-
fied ; and during the late Christmas Show- week, we
had an opportunity of witnessing in operation at Strat-
ford the same arrangement of two grooved drums per-
manently aftixed rmderneath a common engine-boiler,
by marvellously light and simple attachments. The
driving-strap is dispensed with, and one drum actuated
by a shaft and bevel-gearing from the crank-shaft ;

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THE FARxMER'S MAGAZINE.

and the entire weight, in addition to that of the engine,
does not exceed three-quarters of a ton. A new mode
of working and turning a grubber, scarifier, or paring-
implement has also been contrived ; and if simplicity
of parts, easy portability, cheapness of first cost, and
economy in operation are the great recommendations of
any steam-cultivating machinery, Mr. Fowler need not

wish to make any further progress, beyond the exten-
sion of this last improved apparatus through the
length and breadth of our land. Having done his part
towards the solution of the long-standing problem, he
must be gi-atified to feel that agriculturists are be-
ginning to approve and appropriate his invention.

WHAT KIND OF CORN AND CAKE ARE THE MOST ECONOMICAL AT THEIR
PRESENT PRICES FOR FEEDING SHEEP ON ROOTS?

At the Oxford Farmers' Club this question was introduced
by Mr. Osborne, who said it appeared to bim that a Club
consisting of 400 members ought never to be without a subject
for discussion, and, therefore, in the absence of one, he had
ventured to introduce this, hoping that it would elicit from
some of their leading practical men that information which was
needed for the proper and profitable cultivation cf the soil. In
considering this question, be divided the community into two
great classes — the producer and the consumer ; the producer
was the farmer, and the rest were the mass or consuming body,
for whom the farmer provided. It happened this year that
generally speaking, there was a short crop of beans, and the
consequence was, they ran up in the market to something above
the price of wheat, and up to the price of barley and other
food, which went to the sheep-fold to produce good mutton
and wool. In the great consuming body, the two largest
customers were the baker and the butcher. At the present
moment, the baker was liberally supplied with all he required
to feed the increasing population, but the butcher was not so.
They were supposed to know the price of muttou and wool,
and the common remark was — " Bread is cheap, but how dear
meat is." Now they did not want to pay 7d. per pound for
mutton, but would prefer to have more mutton at a lower rate,
and keep the bread a little higher than it was. They were
bound, then, to keep this balance, looking at the present price
of corn, which was less than £10 a load. Barley was much
the same price as wheat, but beans were higher, and for that
reason he was in favour of wheat for sheep, as it was well
adapted f jr producing mutton and wool, for he found from
tables, giving the comparative nutriment contained in various
articles of food, and denoting the proportion of nutriment in
every 1000 parts, that wheat yielded 950 ; peas (dry), 930 ;
barle_v, 920 ; beans (dry), 890 ; and oats, 742 — by which it
would be seen that wheat took the precedence of all. With
respect to peas, he had found that railway contractors fed their
horses upon them, because they contained more nutriment
than any other food usually given to horses, which fact served
to confirm the accuracy of the tables which he had already
referrred to. Some persons had a great objection to give
wheat to sheep, but he had tried it, and never found the
slightt-st harm or loss from using it. He commenced by taking
bis sbtep home, and starving them down till they became used
to bran and water, and when that had gone through their sys-
tem, then he used wheat. He gave them a pint, or 1 lb. per
head, per day; and if they adopted the plan of starving them
down to it, and preparing their system, they would find no loss,
but if they did not do so, and threw in a quantity, some of the
sheep would perhaps take a quart, which would do them an
injury, while others would get none. Looking, therefore, at
the present price of wool (£2 per tod), it was to their interest
to grow all the wool they could, and if they could feed the

people with more mutton and less bread, they would be only
doing their duty. With regard to cake for sheep, he believed
that the best description of oilcake was the best and most
economical for that purpose, and that if they did not use the
best description, they would have to pay the penalty. At the
same time, be was bound to say that when he gave his sheep
a mixture of wheat, beans, and cake, they picked out the wheat
and left the beans and cake, clearly showing which they pre-
ferred ; and, therefore, the less they went against nature in
feeding sheep the better. ]\Ir. Osborne concluded by moving,
"That of all kinds of corn, wheat, at its present price, is the
most economical for feeding sheep on roots, and of cake, the
best oilcake for the same purpose."

The Rev. J. Clutterbuck observed that in considering
this question it was necessary to bear in mind the per centage
of nutriment in different kinds of corn, as it was evident that
one contained more than another. It was generally supposed
that if they gave wheat to animals it would have a tendency to
heat them, and, therefore, few gave it alone ; it might be found
necessary and advisable to mix it with other food which gave
meat and muscle, for wheat gave bone, containing, as it did,
phosphate of lime. The ashes of a large swede would lie in a
man's hand, and consisted of phosphate of lime, of which ani-
mals were made, and substances of which they were made they
would consume ; and, therefore, it was necessary to consider
what food was most consistent with the nature of the animal
itself. There was nothing so nourishing to man as wheat, but
it had been considered a sin and a waste to give it to animals;
but they gave their pigs offal, which now it was very difficult
to procure ; and what nourished pigs would do the same for
sheep, and, therefore, he saw no reason why wheat should not
be consumed in this way as well as in any other. A friend of
his, who had been remonstrated with for giving his pheasants
barley, vindicated it by saying that be consumed the barley
himself, for he ate the pheasants (laughter). If the feeding
properties of wheat were so much greater than other corn they
could afford to give abetter price for it. Some parties objected
to grow certain descriptions of wheat which was very produc-
tive, but, at the same time, was cosrse ; but if they could grow
6 quarters to the acre, instead of from 4J to 5, it might not be
a bad sort for feeding purposes. When he visited the Paris
Exhibition, he met with some Algerian wheat, and he had found
it, if not fine, at least very productive, and not a bad wheat for
feeding sheep, for he obtained some of it, and had grown it ;
it came from the north of Africa, which used formerly to be the
granary of the world. It was well known that they could grow
com in proportion to what they returned to the soil, and if
they did not return to the soil what they took from it, it would
soon be beggared. He had seen land where the subsoil was
well calculated to grow corn, but it would not stand up, because
it wanted strength in the first place. As they could not take

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135

wheat out of the land without returning wheat to it, he thought
that the best way was to consume the wheat ou the land, and
for these reasons he had very great pleasure in seconding Mr,
Osborne's motion.

Mr. James Williams, of Northcourt, said that the rela-
tive price of wheat to that of other food bore chiefly on this
subject, which was confined to the feeding of sheep, which
must consume roots ; and, in order to have a healthful animal,
which would yield a fair return for what it consumed, they must
look to the effect of the food on the animal itself. Now roots
alone were of a purgative character, a large per centage being
water ; and they wanted to correct that, and the beat corn for
that purpose had been found to be good old beans, not so much
for the formation of fat, but for supplying that which was
wanting in feeding on roots. In looking at wheat, they natu-
rally inferred a tendency to scour, which was increased by the
consumption of roots. He (Mr. Williams) had watched a flock
for some months that had been consuming half a piut of wheat
per day ; they thrived quickly, and came very heavy to the
scale, but there was a tendency to scour, and he had asked the
shepherd if he continued to give them wheat, and he told him
he was obliged to leave off ths wheat because it scoured the
laoibs, and for the last mouth he had given them clover hay
and turnips, upon which they made the same progress ; but he
(Mr. Williams) doubted whether they did so well without corn
as with it. They ought not, however, to Iook to the effect of
any kind of food independent of other food. He had seen a
very fine flock of 250, which made 703. each, and they con-
sumed 1 lb. of oilcake per day, and he had asked the party if
old beans would not have been cheaper, but his reply was that,
from his expcrieace, oilcake was not only the safest thing to
consume, but was cheaper than any other description of food.
That was the experience of a man who farmed largely, and who
produced most excellent cropa. They found from experience
that by feeding with new or old beans they lost sheep from
congestion of the brain, brought on by indigestion, and thus it
was a great question whether beans were equal to, or as safe
as, oilcake, which did not produce that effect. He (Mr. Wil-
liams) had lambed 550 ewes, when he fatted the lambs -ivith
oilcake alone, but his experience with oilcake this year led him
to give it up, for it prod\jced a good deal of fever, and they did
not progress so well as with split beans. One year he fed
liis lambs with peas, and he found they did best on old peas,
which «vere not so apt to scour, or to engender disease, as new
peas. Then came the question as to whether wheat was the
most profitable article to consume for sheep, and, as far as his
experience went, beans or old peas were preferable, as being
not only cheaper and safer, but possessing equal feeding pro-
perties. He could not advocate using wheat alone, for, as such,
he did not think it either the safest or cheapest, but it
might be r.sed in company with other corn. He disagreed
with Mr. Osborne's plan of using wheat alone, and was of
opinion that a mixture of one-third wheat, one-third cake, and
one-third old beans, would be preferable, as the cake would
produce fat, beans made muscle, while wheat would give
strength to the general frame.

The Vice-President (Mr. James Walker, of Begbroke
Hill Farm) said that, with respect to feeding sheep with wheat,
he could not speak from experience, or adduce any facta in
favour of it, because he had not tried wheat, but for some years
past he had been an extensive contunaer of oilcake, and the
more he used it the better he liked it. The price of beans was

so near to that of wheat that he strongly upheld the feeding of
sheep with beans on roots. Mr. Williams had spoken very
favourably of oilcake, but he (Mr. Walker) had found it too
loose for sheep in fold, and was in favour of a mixture of cake,
barley, and beans. Wheat was intended for human nature,
and was best suited for that purpose, and before he used it
alone for sheep he should like to be ioformed, which Mr. Os-
borne had not done, on what number of sheep it had been tried*
and what number of quarters of corn had been so applied ? In
the absence of that information, which ought to be given
before any such conclusion were come to, he should move, as
an amendment, "That a mixture of beans, barley, and cake,
is preferable as food for sheep.

Mr. G. F. CoGGiNS, of Coombe, said that this was a subject
which required years of practical experience to qualify a man
to speak upon, but as he could not lay claim to that, he must
confine himself to a scientific view of it. Mr. Osborne had
thrown out some remarks on the relative value of certain foods
with respect to the amount of nutriment they contained, not-
withstanding which, he (Mr. Coggins) was prepared to prove
that wheat contained less nutriment than beans, peas, or len-
tils, which latter contained more than peas, and next to
peas stood beans. It was a well-known and ascertained
fact, that food which contained the largest amount of
nitrogen contained the largest amount of nutriment. Wheat
was more adapted to the human frame, but in the practice of
farming they must look to first principles ; the farmer had to
look 10 the nature of the food he has to use, and to get the best
amount for his root crop. He must look to hia basis for nitro-
gen and carbon, but nitrogen was the best, though he must
have sufficient of both qualities. Swedes alone tended to
scour, because they contained more carbon than nitrogen.
Beans and peas formed the best iavestment of capital ; oilcake
contained a large amount of carbonaceous matter, and laid ou
a great amount of flesh and fat. Rapecake had been recom-
mended by some, but it was nauseating to sheep. Wheat was
intended as, and was very properly designated, " the mainstay
of life," but it did not follow that it was the best for feeding
sheep and beasts, for animals ate grass and roots, and preferred
them to dry food. They might train an animal to eat any
thing, but if they mixed wheat and beans he believed that it
would be found a cheaper and safer food than wheat alone for
sheep. The manure which was left by an animal constitut«d
the largest profit, and they did not look so much to the price
of mutton as they did to the value of the manure left on the
land, and by giving beans it formed the manure for the cereal
crop. It was no proof because some sheep picked out the
wheat that they preferred it ; and believing as he did, that a
mixture of beans, barley, and cake, was preferable to wheat
alone, he begged to second the amendment.

Mr. Williams remarked that if they took the price of
beans at 443. per quarter, they could get a ton of cake at
10 guineas, which would produce as much as five quarters
of beans, whereas they could buy old peas at SSs. per quarter,
wliich would compete with beans. At the same time they
could not throw overboard cake, beans, or peas. He had con-
sumed some hundreds of quarters of wheat, but what would
feed pigs would not feed sheep, because they had not to con-
tend against the purgative property of roots, which sheep con-
sumed, but which pigs did'not.

On a division, the amendment was carried, and the original
motion was lost.

136

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

HEDGEROWS, TIMBER, AND GAME.

The monthly meeting of the Winftith Farmers' Club was
held at the Bear Inn, Wool, on Wednesday, the 17th
November; and the subject on the card for discussion was,
" The Importance of Removing Hedgerows, Timber, &c."

Mr, T. S. Jacksox, of Rempstone, having been entrusted
with its introduction, said : Mr. Chairman and gentlemen,
it is probable that many, on looking at the subject for this
evening's discussion, may think it of but little importance,
and that it might be summed up in a few words by ad-
mitting there ^re a few trees and hedgerows in the country
which certainly would be better removed ; but, in order to
give me a little more scope, allow me to call your attention
to the following addition upofi the card, the '' et cetera."
But first a few words about timber. I should be very sorrj'
to give the impression that I am advocating the total an-
nihilation of that magnificent work of Creation, for in many
cases I am able to enter into the spirit of that good old
English song —

" Woodman ! spare that tree ;
Touch not a single bough :
In youth it sheltered me.
And I'll protect it now.''

I am quite ready to class them amongst the good creatures
of God, providing they stand in the right place. Everyone
must admit that a handsome bull, feeding in a pasture, is a
good creature of God, but what would it be in a china shop?
Why, in the wrong place, to be sure ; and the sooner re-
moved the better. And we must come to the same conclu-
sion respecting thousands of timber trees standing upon the
arable land of this country. I am not a speculating cha-
racter ; but methinks I should like just for once to lamich
out (if it could be doue) and purchase all the timber standing
upon the arable land of this country for what it is worth,
and sell it for the damage done to the crops beneath, and
doubt not it would quite put Mr. Hudson in the shade,
although he speculated by steam. I hope our good landed
proprietors will pardon my speaking a little plainly on the
subject ; but I must say thej' are apt to carry their heads
rather too high when riding over their estates, admiring the
spreading oak, the elegant ash, .tnd towering elm, instead of
looking down at the wretched crops beneath, bj- which the
hopes of the husbandmen are blighted, and the food of the
people destroyed. The loss is great when trees stand on
the border of one corn field, greater between two, but
greater still when standing in them, not only from the
nutriment being extracted by the roots, but the breakage of
ploughs and inconvenient dodging which must follow in the
working of every other implement. When living in
Herts it twice fell to my lot to ride over the county
as one of the judges ot root crops, and on both oc-
casions it was quite distressing to see the havoc caused by
timber. I remember making this remark to my col-
leagues : Would it not be much more to the point,
instead of the landlords giving a prize to the tenant for the
best root crop, for the latter to offer cue to those laudlords |
who had the least number of trees in their corn fields ? We
measured the distance injured by one ash tree, and mentioned
it in our report at the aunual meeting. To the best of my re-
collection the damage e.xtended twenty- five yards from the
trunk. A friend, on hearing the topic for this evening's dis-

cussion, was kind enough to measure the damage caused by
three trees on his farm during the last harvest, and found that
one oak, girthing 68 inches, injured the crop from 13 to 14
yarda from the trunk — probable age of tree from 160 to 180
years, value from 403. to SOs. ; one elna, age and value much
the same, injuring crop 15 yards from the trunk; one amall
ash, value from 12s. to los., extent of damage about the same
as the oak. The crop was barley, something like five qrs. to
the acre, but not more than one- third of that under the trees ;
and thus by putting the value of damage at only 4s. per tree
for one hundred years, and saying nothing of the first fifty or
sixty, it would amount to £20, and the value of the trees not
more than SOs., making a loss of £17 10s, for each tree. In
concluding this part of the subject, and advocating the fall of
trees which are a curse and not a blessing, God forbid that I
should wish to see this beautiful world of oars stripped of all
its splendour ; but I would say to those who have the power,
plaut more of your hills aud dales, heath and waste laud by
the road side, which are not calculated for growing com. It
is true it will be a work of time for them to make much pro-
gress, but pray begin and do what your forefathers ought to
have doue, in order that the now bleak and barren spots might
smile with gratitude to the hand of industry. I will now
proceed to make a few remarks on plautiug, narrowing, and
rooting hedgerows. It appears to be generally agreed that
white bush, or quick, is the best to procure a good live fence,
but still opihious differ as to the manuet of cultivation ; some
preferiug double rows, other single. As far as my owu ex-
perience goes I should decidedly recommend the latter, for
this reason : it is quite out of the question to expect a strong
and healthy fence, unless kept clean when young, which is
practicable on the sinj;le system ; but it is almost impossible
to dig between a double row after a certain growth. Some
approve of the plan of cutting it down close to the earth the
first year, but it appears to me better to let it remain three or
four years, and then, when cut close, it will shoot stronger aud
make a much more bushy fence below. Having made these
observations ou plautiug, I will now endeavour to bring a few
facts to show the evil arising from haviug too mauy hedges,
and consequently mauy small fields, which is a loss that even
the occupiers are too apt to overlook. In the first place it
must be admitted that sun aud air arc most essential not only
to produce but also to ripen the corn ; in most cases that
growing within a few yards of the hedge is less productive and
of an inferior quality. Then, when cultivating the land, there
is a great loss of time, in turning, for both men and horses;
and, in order to obtain some idea as to the amount, I have, ou
several occasions when two ploughs were going, and one some
little distance behind the other, walked close beside the latter, and
made a mark with my foot directly the first began to turn, and
another as soon as it fairly got iuto its work again, and found
the latter plough to have gone sometimes 7 perch, and never
less than 4. So by taking the average at only 5 perch (which
I fear is below, when the master's eye is not there), aud thus
by placing two square fields adjoining, each 10 acres, the hedge
between must be 40 perch in length, there is a loss of 5 perch
ou both, making 10 iu width. Consequently, while ploughing
the 20 acres they will have lost sufficient time to have ploughed
2^ acres, if the hedges had not been there; and of course the
same with drilling, harrowing, rolling, &c. ; and supposing the

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137

width taken up by the fence itself to be one perch, there is a
loss of a quarter of au acre of grain or roots. I am aware it
may be urged that in many cases it is necessary to have an
open ditch to carry off the water : but, unless there is a very
great quantity, it would be much cheaper in the end to put in
jarife pipes and fill up the ditch, instead of having the mouths
of the under-drains constantly stopped by rats and moles, &c.,
and perhaps cost less to run hurdles across when required, than
to have the expense of cleaning and trimming the fence. With
respect to those hedgerows which are indispensable, I would
allude to the importance of keeping them as narrow as possible
without injuriug the fence, and also of cutting down all weed^
before they seed. It appears almost useless for the farmer to
endeavour to clean his land while the hedgerows are complete
nursery beds for all kinds of weeds, full of seeds for the wind
and birds to scatter over the fields. The thought has often
occurred to me that it might bd wise for the different farmers
in the neighbourhood to have a sort of thistle rate ; and, if
scarce of hands, aud there are any able-bodied men, women, or
children in the Union, have them out, and supply them with
the weapons of warfare most suitable for destroying that flying
little enemy which grows upon the waste places, belooging,
apparently to nobody, hut which is, in fact, calculated to
iojure every one who holds an acre of land within a mile or so,
according to the strength of the wind. Having briefly alluded
to the advantages of rooting and narrowing live fences in order
to gain time or land, and to destroy weeds, there yet remains,
perhaps, the greatest reason why every farmer should be
anxious to thin out his hedgerows — namely, that they may
not form a harbour for the worst enemies with which the
British agriculturist has to contend ; I mean those midnight
robbers called rats, rabbits, and harff? ; and iu placing them
amongst the etceteras, Mr. Chairm:i.i, I trust it will not be
running from my subject to advocate their destruction also.
But the tenant-farmers may say, " We cannot do it because
the landlord claims them as his property, being on his estate."
Whit, belong to the landlord ? Yes, unless he sells the right
of shooting to some stranger (which is not unfrequently the
case). If that be true, gentlemen, would that England did
not grcaa under such a curse. Let us endeavour to dissect a
system so unjust. Should any of your piga stray into a neigh-
bour's field, although liable to pay a trifle for damages, you
could still claim them as your own. But how is it with the
rabbits and hares? We will suppose thut there are two
estates a 'joining, one belongs to Lord A, the other to Squire
B ; and upon Lird A's estate there is a beautiful field of
wheat. To whom does that belong ? To Lord A ? Oh no, but
to poor old farmer Patient ; aud when I tell you he has not
only paid his rent for the land, but has drained, manured,
chalked, ploughed, aud sown it, you must agree that surely
every blade ought to belong to him. Ah ! but look ! do you
not see that hare or rabbit in yonder farm. Whose is it ? Well,
watch it a little ; and towards evening, when most robbers are
on the alert, it goes to this wheat field, and begins cutting its
paths and making ball rooms (or bald rooms) in the ripeiiiug
corn ; aud, after satisfying its destructive appetite, it travels
on a little farther, and gets pretty near to Squire B'a estate-
To whom does it belong ? Lord A of course. Well, it goes a
little farther, and happens to stop just upon the boundary line
of the two estates ; and now who owns this valuable animal ?
Why, I suppose, the head would belong to the squire, and my
lord could only claim the tail. It takes another bound, and
then may turn round to my lord and say, " Touch me if you
dare." And yet this is the kind of property which has caused
BO many husbands and fathers to be trans ported to distant
lands. Now I ara iiot a friend to poaching, believing those to

be cowards who would sooner poach than work ; but, of the
two evils, I would rather stand before the Great Judge charged
with the sin of poaching than that of game-preserving ; for,
whereas the one is guilty of stealing what really belongs to
nobody knows who, the other is guilty of encouraging that
which is robbing the poor man of his loaf. Some people may
say, "But, surely, a landowner has a right to keep rabbits and
hares on his estates if he likes ?" But that is not what I have
been complaining of; it is that poor Mr. Patient has to keep
them and not the landlord. But I will venture still farther, and
question whether it is right for a gentleman, even on his own
occupation, to keep such destructive creatures, which, by being
permitted to roam abroad, destroy tenfuld their own value ;
for on this principle it might be argued he had a right, if he
liked, to sow all his land with weeds for the purpose of col-
lecting them into one large heap, and applying a lucifer match
merely for the gratification of seeing them blaze, and hearing
the crackling sound of a glorious bonfire. But, would it not
be a sin in His sight, who has said, " Woe unto him who with-
holdeth corn from the people?" There are also other evils
connected with this system ; for the farmer not only has to
keep the game, but help to prosecute the poachers and then
support their families. I regret to say it is not unfrequently
the case that a respectable and industrious farmer is constantly
annoyed by seeing a conceited, unprincipled keeper scaling his
hedges aud travelling his field as though he had more right
there then even the tenant himself, and worse still, giving false
representations to his employer respecting the quantity of
game. Of course, in making tbis remark, I do not condemn
the whole of that class ; yet, I fear the honest straightforward
gamekeeper is the exception and not the rule, for the tempta-
tion 13 doubtless very great to endeavour to obtain a handsome
gratuity from geutlemeu after what is called a good day's sport.
Perhaps it will not be out of place here to mention a case in
point. When my father, with a large young family, was
striving to gain au honest livelihood, he waa much annoyed by
game. On one season iu particular several acres of turnips
were eaten close down to the ground. Upon the keeper
being informed of it, he merely replied, with a
sneer, that "he would have them pecked up, that
t'ley might make a clean job of it." When this
remark carae to toy father's ears, he, of course, informed his
landlord of it, and the result was an order to have them killed
down. But, alas ! they did not make a clearance either, for I
remember hearing him say, after he had occupied the same
farm for forty years, he would be upon his oath, he believed
the game had done him damage to the amount of £2,000, and
he had uo doubt, could it be ascertained, that it was double
that sum. He thought it most probable that the poachers bad
had more of the game than came to the landlord's share, and
that many were led on from that to fowl stealing, and from
thence into the sheep fold. I trust you will not for a moment
suppose that I look upon the landed proprietors as the most
cruel, hard-hearted people on the face of the earth, and the
tenant farmers as everything lovely. As far as disposition
goes, no doubt there are six to one and halfa-dozeu to the
other, aud I trust the good sort prevails in both classes. Had
the present race of farmers been trained in the same school
aud possessed the same privileges as the aristocracy, they too
might have overlooked these great evils. Neither am I one of
those headstrong politicians who would strip off the carriage-
wheels, and unglove the delicate hand of our nobility, and who
consider it a hardship to raise the hat and pay honour to whom
honour is due. Nepertheless, I cannot go upon the principle
of " love me, love my dog ;" for, much as I respect many of
those noble and worthy gentlemen, I cannot love their de-

138

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

structive vermiae, and would recommend tliem to try the
Euglish heart of the tenant farmer, by looking to him to sup-
ply them with field sport in the shape of winged game, and
am much deceived if many would not return home with as
little powder and shot and a much lighter heart than they
have a right to do under the present system. But I canriot
conclude without attaching a great portion of the blame to
the tenant farmers themselves ; for instead of attacking the
system as a body, in a proper spirit, they are too apt to try
and heal the wounds by grumbling to each other and truckling
to the keepers, by treating them, &c., and frequently making
illnatured remarks about their landlord, when in many cases
he is not aware that they are injured, and would be most un-
willing to treat any one unfairly. With regard to the system
of game preserving, I can, in most cases, condemn it as worse
than highway robbery, on this ground — that one who goes out
to rob, may meet a better man than himself; but when the
farmer (after a promise that he should not be injured) buries
his capital in the soil, and then loses a great portion of it by
the game, he cannot defend himself. Finally, let me say to
the tenant farmers of England, instead of sitting grumbling
over your fire-places, and letting your expressions go up the
chimney — where they only end in smoke — come to meetings
like the present, speak your minds, and

Be ye like the old apostles.

Be ye like heroic Paul :
If a free thought seeks expression.

Speak it boldly— speak it all.

Face thine enemies — accusers;

Scorn the prison, rack, or rod ;
And, if thou hast truth to utter.

Speak, and leave the rest to God,

Mr. Jackson resumed his seat amid general applause.

Mr. LiLLiNGTON spoke of his diffidence to see gentlemen
deprived of a legitimate amount of sport, and asked Mr.
Jackson if he could suggest how this might be secured, and
the farmer, at the same time, have his crops secured from
"vermin."

Mr. Jackson replied, that with respect to the ground
game, he recommended that they should be killed.

Mr. Randall considered that the planting of waste-land
with timber was a very desirable thing, and would not injure
any one; the only question being, whether they could get the
trees to grow iu some situation?, especially on the coast.
With respect to raising youug fences, he was not at all an advo-
cate for cutting off the thorns He had tried it, but thought
there was a better way to go about it — that was, to take care
of the fence till five years old, and then lay them down and
bind them, especially on high land, where what they wanted
was a good high fence. The only thing was, that they had to
protect the young plants for a year or two ; but the conse-
quence was, that they could get up the fence better than
any other way. Mr. Jackson had alluded to the damage done
by trees in a certain position. Now a somewhat singular
fact had come to his knowledge. A gentleman purchased an
estate in Somersetshire, and the son finding that great injury
was done to the crops by some of the timber, was anxious to
have the trees cut down. The old gentleman, however, re-
fused to give his consent, and the son entered into a calcula-
tion of the damage done by an oak since the estate had been
in their possession, which he brought to about £900. No
doubt he went to the outside in his anxiety (o have the
tree removed ; but the old gentleman was so far convinced
that he allowed the tree to be cut down, and it sold for £80,
while it had actually cost him about £900. If he could have

his own way he should like a farm laid out iu fields of about
five-aud-twenty acres, when the hedge-rows instead of being
a nuisance would be an advantage, as affording great shelter
to the stock. He deprecated the system of gentlemen half
protecting the game, which was worse than going to the other
extreme, and stated that this had been the means of throwing
fifteen children and three women upon his parish at this very
time (Hear, hear.) If gentlemen would cnly give tenants
the privilege to kill ground game, rabbits, and hares, he was
quite satisfied that every man of principle would be happy to
preserve pheasants, and give good sport for winged game. If
these things could only be viewed in a proper light it would
do away with heartburnings and animosity between landlord
and tenant, and lead to a better understanding.

Mr. Taylor said his opinion was that timber should never
be allowed to grow in the hedgerows between arable land. He
considered that the poor thin wastes might be advantage-
ously planted wiih firs, but oak and elm required a stronger
soil. As to rabbits, he wished every one was destroyed.

]\Ir. Clarke observed that Mr. Jackson in his able ad-
dress had begun as a hewer of timber, a leveller of hedge-
rows, and a destroyer of game, and upon these three points
he (Mr. Clai-ke) had very little to differ with him. He
once went to attend a sale in the Isle of Purbeck, and he
could not help admiring the magnificent view from the sale
yard ; but, happening to carry his eyes right and left of
Knowle, he observed that there were as many hedgerows
as acres of land. Now, he quite agreed that it was essential
many of these hedgerows should be removed, but it was
also necessary that there should be some shelter upon all
farms. As to planting fences, a plan he had seen answer
admirably was to plant the quick in the side of the bank.
It was put in two rows, and allowed to grow for three years,
and then cut close to the bank ; and the fence made in this
way was so thick at the bottom that it would puzzle an old
hare to get through. He was no advocate for ground game,
and believed that if the damage thej- did were properly re-
presented to the landlords, they would act upon a difftrent
principle than thej' did. But the fact was that it was the
stock-in-trade of the keepers to profit as much as they pos-
sibly could by it. It was only the other day he happened
to read in the Times that his H.R.H. the Comraauder-in-
Cliief had had a day's shooting at the Duke of Rutland's,
and the quantity of game killed seemed almost incredible.
^^'here such a stock of game was kept it must be most
destructive to the crops, and most vexatious to tlie man who
sank his capital in the land for his own benefit and the
benefit of maukind at large ; and such a state of things
should not be allowed to exist. He believed that if they
were not to grumble quite so much, but represent the facts
in the proper quarter, they would get more redress than
they did under the present circumstances. Were every
farmer to make a rough calculation of the damage he thus
sustained from these obnoxious "vermin," he was sure it
would amount to more than was conceived. With respect
to timber, it was very desirable that they should grow it
both for useful and ornamental purposes ; but fields and
hedgerows were not the proper place, and it was impossible
for a man to keep up his fence if the banks were encumbered
with trees scattered here and there. He did not think the
waste lands could be better occupied than by planting
Scotch firs.

jNIr. Fowler, in reference to the question where timber
might be grown, said they could not do better than follow
nature itself. Look at the oak, and consider where it grew
best. In strong heavy land. An old map of the Isle of

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139

Purbeck showed that there was once there a very extensive
forest ; and there were many acres of land in that place
which might be better planted with oak than left in its pre-
sent shameful state. The elm required richer land ; and
there were many places in Somersetshire where it might be
grown much better than it was here. He did not agree in
recommending Scotch firs, but the larch firs, which he was
sorry not to see cultivated, instead of the inferior descrip-
tions. As to planting young hedges, he had had some little
experience ; but he always found the best way was to plant
a double row, keep them well weeded, and cut them the
second year, keeping them well sheltered with a good
" frith" fence, as they required to be screened from the strong
south-west winds. After they had got up a good height he
should recommend them to be laid, and after that not to let
them get up, but keep them well trimmed to a point in the
middle, as it was the drippings from the branches above that
injured those belo^f. With regard to game, he thought that
if geatlemen were to place the confidence in their tenants
they did in their keepers, they would have a greater
amount of sport afforded them, without the enormous ex-
pense they now went to.

Mr. Reader said he should be very happy to have better
hedges upon the hills than they could get ; but, at the same
time, if a man had a wide double hedge, which harboured rats,
rabbits, and everything that they detested, he had better
remove it at once and plant a new one, rather than try to im-
prove the old one, as he was convinced it would be leas ex-
pense in the end. Iq planting a young thorn-hedge he
thought they must be governed in some degree by the situa-
tion. It was useless to attempt to get a fence on their hills,
if they planted the thorns upon the bank ; more particularly
upon an old bank. He preferred planting in a ditch, and, in-
stead of clearing out, to keep filling up as the thorns grew.
They could thus get a better hedge upon the hills than by
planting on a bank. He quite agreed that there was nothing
like fencing them well, and getting them up as quickly as pos-
sible. With respect to timber, he was not troubled with trees
in his hedgerows, as they could hardly get one to grow on his
hills ; and, if it did, the south-west winds would shear it very
close without his troubling about it. He believed there was a
great deal of waste land in this county that could be planted
with great advantage, not only to Scotch firs, but in some
cases to oak. He noticed that some years ago Dr. Bain
planted some oaks upon clay at Heffelton, and they had grown
exceedingly well. Where the land was not so strong they
might plant firs, mixed with larch, which he understood was
for some purposes quite as useful when it got old. He was
told that if they got a good fir, charred it, and put it in the
grouud upside-down, it would last as long as some oak ; but if put
in the same way as it grew, it would not last so long. If timber
was grown more upon the waste lands it would be far preferable
to having trees upon farms, especially on arable lauds. He also
advocated the destruction of all gorse upon land where it
could be converted into anything like arable land, as it was a
great harbour for rabbits aad rats. With respect to rabbits,
he had nothing to complain of, personally ; but he knew an
instance of two adjoining parishes, in one of which the game
was protected by the tenant-farmer, and there was plenty of
sport, while in the other, where it was not protected at all,
there was scarcely a hare to he found, and very little winged
game, as they were all taken by the poachers. Now, the
difference in the charge to the county for the punishment of
offenders, and to the union for keeping their wives and fami-
lies, was more than 500 per cent, between those two parishes.
He thought that, if all the evils of the present system could

be laid before the landed proprietors, they would at once see
the necessity for some alteration.

The Chairman offered a few remarks in support of the
great damage done by trees in the fields and hedgerows. He
liked to see trees in the proper place, such as ornamental trees
in a gentleman's park, but they should not be in the corn-
field ; for the damage done was far greater than the value of
the timber, ten times over. He also commented on the in-
convenience of the old double hedges, which were so crooked
that men could not plough or drill properly, and stated that
his plan was to remove them and plant young ones parallel
to each other, so that the drill would come square. He did
not agree with planting fences in a ditch, but found his to an-
swer beat upon two " clods" and a " turn-clod." A plan
which he liked was to put a few black thorns among the white
thorns, two or three in a lug. The latter did not stand many
years, and as they went out the black thorns would run along
and occupy their places. He liked to see gentlemen have a
good day's sport ; but it was the rabbits that the farmers of
this county had to complain of, and, if they were destroyed, he
believed there would be double the quantity of winged game.

Mr. Jackson afterwards made a fe'w observations in reply,
commenting on the many points in which the members of the
club agreed with him, and concluded by proposing the following
resolution, which was unanimously adopted :

" That all timber required for the use of an estate should be
grown in plantations, a large portion of which may be raised
on waste lands ; that hedges for the division of lands should
be according to the size of the farms, say from 20 to 30 acre
pieces generally, and are a necessary shelter for stock ; and
that they should be formed of quick thorn, and be as straight
and narrow as possible to form a fence against stock, without
being a harbour for rabbits, rats, &c,, one of the greatest an-
noyances the farmer has to contend against."

The Chairman then proposed and Mr. Lillington
seconded a vote of thanks to Mr. Jackson for the very able
manner in which he had treated the subject, and the same
having been accorded with acclamation, the formal proceedings
of the evening terminated.

THE FARMER.

A farmer sat in his easy chair.

Drawn out 'iieath the maple's shade,

Gazing the while on the verdant lawn,
While his laughing children played.

'Twas the sunset hour, his work was done ;

And now that his toil was o'er.
He was resting his wearied form, beneath

The old tree at the door.

His eye glanced o'er the spreading fields.
O'er the meadow's green and fair,

And his heart was filled with gratitude
That God had placed him here.

Kind hearts were in that happy home ;

Sweet children, glad and gay.
Cheered the good farmer's heart, and drove

His every care away.

This was the home of happiness,

Joy's dear aiding place ;
Contentment beamed in every glance,

Shone forth in every face.

Oh ! give to me the farmer's life.

Its toiis and pleasures too,
And I will leave the town, with all

Its bustling scenes, to you.

140

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

RECENT

IMPROVEMENTS IN, AND PRESENT PROSPECTS OF,
AGRICULTURE.

At the annual dinuer of the Hexham Farmers' Club on
Tuesday, Jan. 11, Mr. Grey, in proposing " Success to the
Club," said : Gentlemen, as to the subject of discussion,
I ijeed not turn your eyes back to the time— the time gone by,
happily for us— when the country which we occupy, and which
is so richly studded with farm buildings and with full stack-
yards, and so well cultivated, was almost a barren waste. I
need not refer to the time when the countries on both sides of
the border were the suVjjects of devastation from one side or
the other ; when the fruits of industry were far too precarious
to allow of industrious habits among the people ; when cattle
were carried away and crops destroyed by an invading enemy
from the other side ; but I shall just turu back the thoughts of
those who are old enough with myself to recollect what things
were about the beginning of this century, and direct your attention
to the great changes which have taken place, the change which
the farmer could not be blamed for not having anticipated,
because what would have been the use of increasing your pro-
duce to such aa amazing extent as it has been increased,
unless there were people to feed, mouths to be filled, and
money to pay for it ? But I would rescue the farmers from
the imputation of slowness in this, because, the moment the
impulse was given, the moment remuneration was shown, the
moment it was seen we had a population to feed which could
afford to buy their beef and mutton as they do now, the farmer
put the spur to the wheel, and he has been found to produce
that which is sufficient for them. You will recollect, I dare
say, gentlemen, at the tima I speak of, when it was the habit
to allow young cattle and sheep to go in a very meagre way
upon very poor pastures ; and after they bad attained
an age when it was fancied they might be matured and
brought to market, they were taken up and fattened. Now,
gentlemen, that wont do in the present day. We had then
a scanty fleece of wool every year from the sheep, and when
the sheep got to be two or three years older they were fed.
But what is the fact now? On high ground you see that
they are taken a year sooner thaii they were at those times ;
on low ground you can hardly say that a sheep is allowed
to go till he is two years old. We should consider that a
perfect waste. Sheep are brought to market at fourteen or
fifteen months old, and you are deriving from sheep of that
age as much wool as you derived from sheep that had
gone two years longer, and occupied your ground more
unprofitably. In the same way it is with cattle ; and the
secret of raising the greatest amount of produce, whe-
ther in beef or mutton, I believe to be this, that you never
ought to allow the animal to be so pinched or starved as that
it retrogrades in the least. You should keep it progressing
from the first mouth of its birth, and never let it lose the
flesh it has acquired, because if you have an animal losing for
one month, it takes another month to make it up, and then a
month more to bring it into a regular healthy condition. The
secret, then, I believe is, and it is now pretty well understood,
that from their birth forward the animals ought to be brought
forward to the condition which they are intended to be in,
without ever losing one day. And thus you see the practice
of some of my neighbours, of storing their turnips in the fields in

heaps, 10 that the hardest frosts that come will not make the

sheep have a hungry day — they have always fresh food to go
to. In this way it is, gentlemen, that we find we have it
in our power to supply to a considerable degree tlie greatly
increased consumption of the people ; but yet we do not find
that this is overdone, for when I talk, as I do at present, upon
the head of stock, I would just turn your view to the different
prices which beef and mutton have maintained for a long
period, as compared with other articles of farming produce.
When I first recollect farming, the common way was for a
mau to select a portion of his fallow which was best suited
for turnips. That portion got all the manure which was
made upon the farm ; it was not so much as might have been,
I am sorry to say, because we recollect the quantities that
were lost, aa the stubble of the field, as compared with now-
a-days, when the machine cuts it so close that my friends
that are sportsmen complain that a partridge cannot find
a hiding-place from one end of the farm to another upon a
stubble-field. Well, that portion of fallow received the whole
of the manure ; what was left, perhaps, got a little scanty
dose of lime, and then it was expected to grow a crop of wheat.
We know what kind of crops were grown ; we know that, as
compared with now, there was not above two-thirds, or perhaps,
in many cases, net one-half, of the produce of corn. There
was not, certainly, nearly one-half of the produce of butchers'
meat which there is at this moment. Then with regard to
wool. Look at the prices which wool is maintaining, and the
desirability there is for the cultivation of that kind of stock
which not only gives you the carcase at the end, but gives
you an annual produce of wool. It is said, and
may be said truly with regard to some farms, that it
is impossible that the farmer can thrive with the average
price of wheat at 403. aud below it. I saw it stated in
one of our periodical papers the other day that the farmer would
be rviined by the price of wheat. So say I, if there are farms
which have nothing else but wheat to depend upon. This is
the case, certainly, on some small farms of cold land ; but it
will hardly be the case, as it might have been if beef and
mutton were at 4d. a pound instead of 7d. and 8d., and had
wool been at ISs. or SOa. the stone instead of 36s,, as we have
had it formerly, or instead of 423. as it is now ; for, gentle-
men, it may be of some consequence for you to know, and
some consolation to those who have much to sell, that I
know of one person who has been offered for his next year's clip
of between 200 and 300 stones 42s. a stone, to be paid within
a fortnight of his clipping it. I think there is a lesson taught
by that, when I have directed your attention to the low price
ruling for wheat aud other grain, though oats and barley
are not bo depressed ; but when I have drawn your atten-
tion to the low price of wheat and to the high comparative
price of butchers' meat, I think this lesson meets you— and
that you will take it to yourselves — that there are countries
more favourable as to soil and climate for the production of
wheat than our own; that wheat is an article which can
be transferred from one part of the world or one part of
the country to another, and is of small bulk as compared
with its value, but that no one can injure or come up to us
either in beef or mutton, or in the growth of wool. We have
pastures for summer feed : we have capabilities fgr rearing

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

141

root crops, as you all kuow, to make up the supply when the
summer food fails ; and we have the opportunity, if we have
the judgment, the skill, and the liberality to do it, to raise
beef and mutton beyond any other country ou the face of
the globe. It is very astonishing to look to the statistics of
France and of this country, and to see the wonderful differ-
ence between the amount that is produced in butchers' meat
here ; and there is this to console you in the prospect of it,
that there is now such a consumption of this description of
food that it will hardly be outdone in this country. For my
own part, I think it has ruled rather »s much too high as wheat
has ruled too low for some time past. Since I recollect, it was
hardly the case that the labouring population of this country
were able to indulge themselves with eating butchers' meat at
home. The father of a family thought himself very well off
if he could feed one or two pigs, and exceedingly well off
if be could maintain a cow; but you now see the butcher's
shop in every village, and you are often liable to he trotted
over by the butcher's cart dispensing joints of meat at
every cottage door as you go along the road. Such is the
difference in the way of living, and I am sure you will all
rejoice with me in thinking that it is so. Then, gentlemen,
since these charges have taken place iu the improvement and
in the increase of the quantity of butchers' meat which we are
now able to take from our farmers to market, has not a corres-
ponding increase taken place in corn ? because the very thing
that creates one gives a stimulus to the other. You manure
your lands that you may rear root crops, and you me guano, bone
phosphates, and every kind of combination which can increase
the quantity. The quantity increased in that respect goes again
to increase the manure iu your foldjard. You have had the wis-
dom to adopt a very different plan of reaping your com and har-
vesting it from that which prevailed when I first knew this
county. At that time you might have gone into the fields aud
into the stubbles, where it would have taken you almost up to
the knees, aud you would have seea a proportionate amount of
heads of corn scattered among it, snd which could not have
been saved in that slovenly mode of harvesting. I am giad
to see now that from one end of the Tyne to the other
you hardly see a field which, as I said before, would give
cover to a partridge. Therefore the quantity of mauure is
not only increased in your foldyards, but you increase it
also by the purchase of those foreign aud adventitious
manures which have had so great an effect iu producing
your root crops, aad those root crops produce to you what
all of you who have had experience iu farming know is so
profitable — than is, butcher's meat and wool. 1
should like to say one word in the cause of sheep-
stock. There is a friend of mine here to whom I have talked
for the last 20 years on the subject, and I am happy to say I
have no cause to change my opinion, and it is this — that the
wealth and success of a farmer may be preity well calculated
by the amount of his sheep stock. Sheep are said to be the
animals with the golden hoof, that they enrich where they go,
and that is true. They not only enrich the master, but the soil.
Their manure has a peculiarly efficacious quality, and it is dis-
tributed throughout the land in a way very different from thst
which is left in patches by horued cattle ; but there is this
also, that while you have the muttoo, probably as valuable at
the end of the sheep's life as beef, it has given you, year after
year, the fleece, which is of itself so important, and which,
in the progress of the manufacture of this country, I think
we have no reason to fear ever again seeing at a very
disastrous price. After enumerating the improvements
which had taken place iu agriculture for the last 20 years,
he continued : — If, I say, you look at these advautageu iu the

present day, you cannot but with me congratulate yourselves
upon having the benefit of all these improvements, and you
cannot but with me conceive that that progress is not yet at
an end. We have no reason to think that the ingenuity of
man is exhausted, or that the chemical combinstions which
science has brought to bear upon the produce of the land are
at an end. We need not fear yet, or halt in our progress.
We need not look, I think, with any doubt upon the time that
's to come. We still have old mother earth to woik upon,
who has shown herself always grateful for our efforts ; and
you may rely upon it, though I shall not live to see it, there
will be yet days of great progress and of great prosperity for
the agriculture of this country. I look upon the farmer as
the manufacturer of the food of the people, and you may
compare him with the manufacturer in any other way ; and if
you look to the ancient mode of thrashing and reaping corn —
to the time when a man, from early morn till dewy eve, plied
his labour upon a board in a barn, and with two sticks
thumped out most imperfectly, first on one side of the sheaf
aud then on the other — if you look to that process, and com-
pare it with the expeditious and much more perfect one of
the thrashing machine, whether by water or steam, or by the
still inferior one of horses, which many men are compelled to
employ, you will see there is a wonderful difference, not only
ia the operation, but iu the intellect which is required
to conduct these operations. The manufacturer of
the food of the people bears an analogy to manu-
facturers of other descriptions. Some of you may
recollect the old village weaver driving his shuttle from
morning to night with his single loom, aud then finishing a
web after three or four weeks' labour. That time, however
agreeable or arcadian it might be to look back upon, was
not a condition that ever had been a happy one, or ever
would be a productive one. We saw the result of it a
few years ago in Ireland, aud wherever the thigg is at-
tempted we shall see the same result ; and why is it so ?
Because it is impossible upon a small scale to introduce
macliiuery of an expensive character; and why is it so?
and there is nothing now but expensive machinery, improved
operations ia agriculture, and division of labour upon a tole-
rably extensive scale, which can produce any result that ia
desirable iu a national point of view. The object of the nation
is not to load the country with an immense peasantry, but to
raise the greatest amount of produce by the smallest number
of consumers, and to have the greatest possible disposable
amount of food for the ever-iucreasiug population of our towns
and manufactories. If we contemplate the increase of the
population in this country aa 360,000 a-year, we shall see that,
unless from wars or emigration, all the efforts we can use will
fall far short of supplying them with food. It is ou this ground
that I think that you must have farms of considerable extent
if you intend that the progress of agriculture should go on.
It is consistent ia theory that it should be so, because on a
farm of considerable extent, where all the arrangements are
regular, and the operations are conducted with skill and good
management, you have skilled hands needful for each kind of
work. If you go to the farm of a man who has eight or ten horses ,
you see as regular a system as in any other manufactory ; you
see ploughs sent to make the drill rows, you see carts putting
manure into these rows, and followed by another set of ploughs
covering that up, and then comes the sov/ drill to put in the
seed, and before night 10 or 12 acres are sown and covered in
the most promising way ; but, on the other hand, the poor
man on a small farm, with a pair of horses and a hind, how ia
he to succeed ? He makes a few rows in the morning, he
changes all the harness of hia horsi^s, and puts thew iutp the

142

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cart, and gets his wife and daughters, or whoever he can catch,
to help him to put in a little manure, and then he changes hia
horses again from the cart to the plough, and perhaps by
working an hour or two over, he gets it sown with turnips ;
but all the time it was exposed to a baking sun, and it might
be that unfortunately rain came and he was laid off alto-
gether for a week. If you compare the probable success and
cheapness of management of the one with thoae of the other,
you will find that all the hard work, all the poor hoeing, all
the parsimony employed — and which is all a poor mau has to
employ upon a small farm — is not at all adequate to the sys-
tem, the arrangemenf;, and the skilful operations of larger es-
tablishments. I have had through my hands a goo 1 many
farms of different descriptions, and for the last three years,
when I have had a small farm of £100 a-year or less to let, I
have been obliged to take the same rent, or perhaps less than
before ; but, when I have had a large farm of £500 a-year, I
have been able to realize a great advance of lent; and, if I
have had a farm of £1,000 or £1,200 a-year, then
I have had 25 or SO per cent, advance. I do not
say I rejoice in this, but it forces itself on my obser-
vation. The only liking I have for a small farm is
that it affords a kind of stepping-stone to the industrious la-
bourer to advance himself in society. I have seen instances
of this, and I have been very glad to encourage it ; but,
whether we look to individual interest or the national good, I
must give my vote for farms of a considerable size, where
there is abundant capital to employ all the improvements and

implements known, and to purchase all the manures found to be
advantageous, and to make that division of labour which is so
essential to the good working of a large establishment. Under
all progress and improvement it is our bouuden duty to try
to cultivate the minds of our men as well as to cultivate our
iand. It will be unnecessary to turn your attention to the fact
that it is mest desirable that we should produce that which the
country offers the greatest home market for, and that which
will at the same time be most remunerative. I know there
is a way of reckoning upon wheat as productive and remune-
rative ; it has been fixed upon to guide the commutation of
tithes and various other things, b>it it is proved to be a falla-
cious ground for computing the prosperity of a farmer. I
have heard many people inveighing against the low market
price of wheat at the present moment, and saying, " How
can a farmer thrive ?" But there is a fallacy in this, and
many of you will hold me out in saying that, notwithstand-
ing the very low prices, the crop of this year is remunerating,
you very much better than the crop of the two former years
did. Therefore the actual price is not a fair criterion of the
profit which the farmer is making. But, again, if you turn to
the remunerating prices that the farmer is receiving for both
beef and mutton, I need not recommend you to pursue the
rearing of beef and mutton, but more especially the enlarge-
ment of your flocks of sheep to the utmost extent they are
capable of receiving, because this I do believe is the great ob-
ject we must look to hereafter as the staple commodity of our
/arms.

BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND SOCIETY.
FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE.

An important meeting of the Council of this society was
held on Saturday, Jan. 15, at Waghorn's Hotel, Taunton, and
was attended by upwards of thirty members. There were pre-
sent— John Siliifant, Esq., of Coombe, Crediton (President),
in the chair, the Rt. Hon. Lord Courtney, Messrs. C. A.
Moody, M.P., T. D. Acland, F. H. Dickinson, J. Tyrrell, J.
Daw, E. H. Drewc, T. Hussey, J. Widdicoaibe, T. Danger, J.
E. Knollys, C. Gordon, jun , J. H. Cotterell, R. G. Badcock,
John Gray, H. G. Moysey, C. Bush, J. D. Hancock, D. Adair,
T. B. Morle, H. G. Andrews, W. E. GiUett, R. Smith, G.
Langdon. S. Pitman, G.Poole, Jonathan Gray, W. Thompson,
R. May, M. Farrant, and W. Wippell.

Abolition of the Implement Prize System. — Mr.
Gabriel Poole brought up the report of the committee, set-
ting forth the regulations made in the implement depart-
■ ment for the forthcoming exhibition at Barnstaple ; and Mr.
Poole then moved that the implement yard be open for exhi-
bition on Monday and Tuesday, the 30th and 31st of May
next ; that both the implemeut and stock yards be open to
the public on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of the ex-
hibition week, and that the charge for entrance be 2s. 6d.
on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday, and Is. on
Friday. Agreed to. It was also resolved, " That the council
in abandoning the system of prizes for implements beg to
record their sincere thanks to the judges of implements for
their valuable services, which have in past years conduced
80 much to the welfare and prosperity of the society,
and that a copy of this resolution be sent to the
judges." A communication from the Mayor of Barnstaple
(R. Bremridge, Esq.) was read, inviting the members to a
banquet during the exhibition in that town. Mr. Siliifant,
the chairman, was deputed to thank his worship for his kind
invitation, and to intimate that the council would avail
themselves of it on the Wednesday of the show-week.

Proposed Extension op the Exhibition to Arts
AND Manufactures. — Mr. Thomas Dyke Acland intro-
duced this subject in the form of a " memorandum " for the

consideration of the council. This document, which was very
lengthy, described the success which had each year attended
the exuibitions since the meetings of the society became mi-
gratory, and stated that the agricultural implements exhibited
increased in numbers from 400 in 1352 to 1,100 in 1857.
What was still more important, the practical character of the
implements had steadily improved, and the attendance of ex.-
hibitors from a distance had increased from 16 to above 40.
The increasing number of visitors, including a large propor-
tion of ladies, had led to the exhibition of many articles not
directly agricultural, with a view to their advertisement and
sale ; and in order to facilitate the disposal of the products of
local industry or talent, it was now proposed to extend the ex-
hibition of 1859 to agricultural implements, viz., in the mechani-
cal department, scientific department, domestic or economical
department, and an artistic department, &c. The memorandum
having been debated at some length, it was resolved : " That a
committee be appointed to carry into effect the proposed exten-
sion of the Exhibition to Arts and Manufactures, with re-
ference to the memorandum prepared by Mr. Acland ; that
the undermentioned gentlemen do form such committee, viz. :
Messrs. Siliifant, Acland, Walrond, G. Poole, Grenville, Moy-
sey, Pitman, R. N. Grenville, Jonathan Gray, J. Daw, J.
Tyrell, and T. D. Newman ; and that Exeter be the place of
meeting." It was also ordered that three shall be a quorum,
and that all acts of the committee be reported to the Council
at its next meeting, for their sanction and approval. Several
members of the council offered handsome donations towards a
special fund for carrying out the extension of the Barnstaple
Exhibition to Arts and Manufactures.

New Members. — The following new members were
elected, viz. : — Mr. Josiah Goodwin, Gazelle Ofl^ice, Exeter ;
Mr Robert Gibbs, Dunster, Somerset ; Mr. W. E. Elliott,
Plymouth ; Mr. Davie, Creedy Park, Devon ; Mr. J. W.
Siliifant, Coombe, Copplestone, Devon ; Mr. Landrey, Holne
Cot, Ashburton, Devon ; Mr. Edward Hockin, Bude, Cornwall ;
Mr. H. Harvey, Fenchurch-street, London.

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZliSE.

143

STEAM CULTURE,

Sir, — In my last letter I referred to the meeting
of the Society of Arts on Wednesday evening, 8th of
December, at which Mr. Halkett read a paper on the
principle of his system of^Guideway Steam Cultiva-
tion." And haviug paid considerable attention to the
subject of steam culture in general, and to Mr. Hal-
kett's plan in particular, I am induced to give you my
thoughts upon it.

It has appeared to me for some time that the agricul-
turists generally, including the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety, have mistaken the capabilities and the mission of
steam power, as applicable to the operations of the
farm. They have started with one idea only in cultiva-
tion— namely , plouff king — to which they have adhered ;
and the Society has endorsed the error by offering and
awarding their largest prize for the best mode of accom-
plishing it. I look upon this challenge of the Society as
calculated to lead the machine-makers upon " a false
scent," which has not, and cannot, lead to an econo-
mical result. I will explain what I mean by a reference
to the manner in which steam power is applied in other
departments of industry. If, for example, we go into
the workshop of an engine or machine manufacturer,
what do we see ? If you look up you will see a shaft
or spindle running from one end of the building to the
other, connected at one end with the steam-engine, and
furnished throughout its length with a numerous series of
wheels, to which are applied straps connected below with
machinery of every description used in the manufactory,
such as lathes, polishers, grindstones, cutting-machines,
&c., &c. All these may be carried on, either simulta-
neously or as they are required, without any change or
modification of the motive power, or any interference of
one operation with another. Such is also the case in all
the great manufactories in which steam power has super-
seded hand labour. Every operation is performed by
the same engine, which, with all the moving apparatus,
is so arranged as that any one operation, or all simul-
taneously, may at any moment be put in action. And
this, I maintain, is the mission of steam power in agri-
culture as well as every other kind of industry.

Now, the specific challenge of the Royal Agricultural
Society is the production of a machine for steam plough-
ing only ; and I do not hesitate to affirm that it is impos-
sible, from the very nature of steam power, for that
operation to be performed economically, or with com-
plete efficiency, upon any of the systems hitherto pro-
duced, unless it is Mr. Halkett's : to which I now beg
to direct the attention of your readers, confining myself
to facts, and leaving them (the readers) to judge bow
far it is capable of fulfilling the mission which steam
power is destined, as I firmly believe, to accomplish in
the cultivation of the soil.

Let me not, however, be misunderstood. In adhering
strictly to the terms fixed by the Royal Agricultural
Society, the three principal competitors— Messrs. Boy-

dell, Fowler, and Smith — have severally displayed great
ingenuity, and probably, so far as the object in view is
concerned, have applied the power of steam in
the only methods in which it can be applied to a
single and isolated operation, unconnected with any
other mgchanical aid. In this respect, perhaps. Boy-
dell's system would be the most complete, were it not
for its elephantine proportions, which bear so heavily
upon the land ; otherwise, with some alterations and
improvements, especially in the mode of draught, it
might be made applicable to the purpose, but certainly
not economically so. For conveying heavy goods on
common roads, in countries where there are no rail-
roads, it is admirably adapted; and the facility with
which it rises an incline of one in five is a quality that
distinguishes it from its competitors, and renders it of
great importance to governmental establishments, and
will insure it that kind of patronage. Messrs. Fowler
and Smith's systems are similar to each other in all
respects, I believe, except that the former works with a
plough, and the latter with grubbers. And here I con-
ceive the Royal Agricultural Society has committed an
injustice by the strictness of their terms, to the letter
of which they felt themselves bound to adhei'e. Mr.
Smith's was certainly the original one, and I suppose
was as capable of working with ploughs as Fowler's.
But because he adopted the grubbers, as more efficient
with the same power, and cheapei' than ploughs, he was
deprived of his claim to the prize. Being both, how-
ever, adapted only to the performance of one operation,
and not being economically superior to the common
plough, they do not come up to my ideas of the impor-
tant mission of steam-power. In addition to this, it
must be confessed that they arc a round-about method
of accomplishing a simple operation ; and the enormous
friction upon the ropes used for the traction will always
render it an expensive process. I therefore say, with-
out any limitation or reserve, that neither of the three
systems illustrates in a manner worthy of the public
patronage the capabilities of steam-power, and what I
consider to be its undoubted future mission in the cul-
tivation of the soil. It remains, therefore, for me to
describe Mr. Halkett's system, and to show how far it
is calculated to accomplish that mission by effecting au
economical, beneficial, and, above all, entire perform-
ance of the whole round of operations of husbandry,
from the ploughing of the land to the housing of the
crop.

The " guideway" system consists, in the first place, in
laying down the land with a series of permanent rails —
in the same manner as on a common railway, only at
the distance of from 30 to 50 (or more) feet from each
other. Secondly, a machine or platform of strong
timber, reaching across the intervening space between
the rails, rests upon them on eight wheels, and is pro-
pelled forward by steam-engines, one being placed at

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144

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

each end of the frame work directly over the wheels.
Thirdly, to the lower part of this platform are attached
ihe implements of husbandry of every kind, as they
are severally required for the cultivation of the soil,
such as ploughing, subsoiling, grubbing, scarifying,
harrowing, rolling, drilling, dibbling, hoeing, hand-
weeding, watering, distributing liquid manure, mow-
ing, reaping, &c., all of which it professes to per-
form in the most exact and efficient manner. Any one
who understands the inevitable precision which a rail-
way gives to the movement of whatever machine or
carriage is propelled upon it, will be able to judge for
himself how far a plough or any other implement of
husbandry, when fixed to the platform, will realize this
important exactness. The fact is, when once fixed, the
plough or other implement may break, but it cannot
otherwise deviate from the line marked out by its connec-
tion with the rails on each side. This is correct in the case
of all the implements of culture ; and Mr. Halkett
can hoe within half-an-inch of a row of plants without
touching them. Fourthly, boxes or carriages are placed,
when required, upon the framework of the machine, for
the conveyance of manure, marl, clay, &c., on to the
land; and for carting the produce, whether roots or
corn, off it to the homestead, or wherever it is required
to stack them. I ought to state, that at the headland
are placed rails, at right angles with the others, and on
these is a carriage placed on a level with them, so that
on arriving at the headland, the framework runs at once
upon this carriage, and is, by it, shunted to the next line
of rails; or it may be taken to another field, or home
to the farmyard, by means of rails laid down for that
purpose. The whole of the operations are performed
without the foot of man or beast, or the weight of any
part of the apparatus employed, pressing upon the soil,
which is left by them in a state of tilth equal to that of
a market garden.

I feel that I have given in the above sketch a very
inadequate description of the Guideway system ; but
such as it is, it will convey to the minds of your readers
a tolerable idea of the way in which Mr. Halkett pro-
fesses to cultivate the land. It is impossible in the
compass of a letter to enumerate all the advantages held
out by the patentee ; nor can any description give so
good and clear an idea of its working as a visit to Mr.
Halkett's establishments, either at Wandsworth or Ken-
sington, where it may be seen in operation at any time.
Many gentlemen, both scientific and agricultural, have
visited them ; and it is due to Mr. Halkett to state that
some who went thither strongly prejudiced against the
system were fully convinced before they came away of
its entire practicability and economic character.

I shall next consider the pecuniary part of the ques-
tion, which was the chief objection urged against the
system at the meeting on Wednesday evening. First,
as to the rails. Mr. Halkett states that he is ready to
lay down a farm with rails, at 50 feet intervals, if of
wood creosoied at £^10, and if of iron at i'20 per acre.
This certainly appears at first sight to be a heavy outlay,
and to a tenant farmer, unless under a long lease or
tenant-right covenants, an insuperable objection to the

system. On this account it was looked upon, by those
present, rather as a landlord's than a tenant's question.
This, however, does not afiect the ultimate result to
both landlord and tenant in regard to the profitableness
of the system; and when the large saving in the cost of
cultivation and in the increase of crops is taken into ac-
count, the objection will appear Isss formidable, espe-
cially in a country in which, in a very few years,
^'400,000,000 sterling have been expended in efi'ecting
an entire change in the locomotive habits of the people,
by which they can now travel at four times the speed, and
at one-third the expense they formerly did. In drain-
age too, from £"'10 to £lb per acre is fearlessly expended
by tenant farmers at the commencement of a 21 years'
lease, at the end of which he estimates that it will have
paid him double that outlay ; or if the landlord has
drained, the tenant has no objection to paying him an
additional rent adequate to the repayment of the prin-
cipal in the period of the lease. I could instance many
similar cases, in which a large outlay of capital on appa-
rently inadequate objects has proved profitable to all
parties concerned. The fact is, the farmer must
in future come to look upon the farm as a
manufactory, or at least with the eye of a manufacturer,
and its various operations as capable of being conducted
upon mechanical and economic principles as a cotton or
any other textile manufactory. Enlarged ideas require
to be disseminated amongst both landlords and tenants
on this subject. They must learn that frugality is not
economy, but that the more money is judiciously ex-
pended on the land the greater will be the produce and
profit. I have long been convinced that when the farm-
ers of England become fully indoctrinated with really
economic principles, and carry them out in their prac-
tice, no foreign nation will be able to compete with them
in the price of corn, any more than they now can in that
of cotton, woollen, and silk fabrics. Many of your
readers will think me " a fast young man" in these mat-
ters; but I assure them I am what I have always styled
myself, an " Old Norfolk Farmer," who for nearly
three-quarters of a century has watched the progress of
agriculture, and witnessed changes which are fast tend-
ing to the result I have here foreshadowed. But I must
beg pardon for this digression, and return to Mr. Hal-
kett. The following are the items of his balance-sheet,
showing the economic difference between the present, and
his, system of culture.

Suppose a tenant hires 1,000 acres of land on a lease
of 21 years, to be laid down with wood rails, at £10
per acre. Whether the landlord expends the money or
the tenant, the interest on capital and depreciation in
in value is estimated at 10 per cent., which is £1,000
per annum, or £21,000 for the whole term. If we
reckon the simple interest at 4 per cent., it gives
£400 per year, or an aggregate of £8,400 for the
whole term, leaving £12,600 for repairs and depre-
ciation.

With respect to the machinery and implements re-
quired for the new system, Mr. Halkett sets them
against the present outlay for horses, waggons, carts,
ploughs, &c., &c., which he considers amount to fully

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

145

as much. The balauce-sheet is therefore thus drawn
up : —

Capital required for stock, £2,500.
Locomotive cultivator, with 25-horse power
engines and shunting machinery complete,
£1900, aud implements £300, at 15 percent. 330 0 0

10 trucks, £300, at 8 per cent 21 0 0

Coal at 203. per day, 250 days 250 0 0

Engine-driver 43., man 23. 6d,, boy Is. per day:

313day3 117 0 0

Fi?e constant labourers 155 0 0

Labourers for hand-work oa the crops 50 0 0

Interest and depreciation of rails .

926 0

1000 0 0

£1926 0 0

Statement for a farm of 200 acres of V7ell-tilled land,
given by a valuator, and confirmed by a farmer : —

Capital for eight horses, four ploughs, harrows,
&c., £500, at 15 per cent, for interest and

di'preci»tion , 75 0 0

Horse keep 245 0 0

Four cartera, at 1 23. per week. ... £124 16 0

One horse-keeper extra 31 4 0

Three labourers 105 6 0

100 acres of coru-hoeiug, 4s. per acre .
Cutting 50 acres of corn, Ss. per acre ,

Multiplied by 5, for 1000 acres

261 6
20 0
20 0

0
0
0

£621 6
5

0

£3106 10

0

50 0

0

Deduct £50 for saving on machinery on a large
farm over a small one

Farmers' present field expenses £3056 10 0

Cultivation by steam 1926 0 0

Difference in favour of steam £1,130 10 0

This is equal to 11 per cent, upon capital for rails ; and,
when added to 4 per cent, already allowed, gives a profit
of 15 per cent.

The above is the economic working of the system ;
but this does not comprehend ill, or the greatest source
of profit. Mr. Halkett calculates that by the superior
cultivation of the land and t'!3 absence of all unneces-
sary pressure on the soil ; 1/ the facility of watering,
irrigation, and continual stirr' :g of the earth, a much
larger produce will be obta'ied, especially with deep
culture and the distribution of liquid-manure. A vast
number of advantages are g ined by the adoption of
this system, as set forth by t'le patentee, which will all
tend to increase the produce, a ad which he sums up in the
following terms ; " I have ploughed, subsoiled, har«
rowed, rolled, used the clod-crusher, the Norwegian

harrow, drilled seed dry and with liquid manure, hoed
the crops, used the scarifier, reaped corn, carried crops,
carried water, watered crops over the surface af the
ground and plants, and watered upon rows of young
plants or seed (to economise water or liquid-manure),
drilled seed between rows of standing plants, and per-
ormed the new operations of the comminutor, weed-
root extractor, and artificial-manure distributor, under-
ground watering between rows of standing plants, and
ploughing by night. The following hand-operations are
also performed with much greater facility to the labourer,
economy of time and cost, and greater regularity than
can have hitherto been performed, namely, dibbling
seed, transplanting, hand-weeding, cross hoeing, and
taking ofi" crops, &c., without in any case treading on
the ground or spoiling rows of growing plants interlined
between other rows."

One great advantage this system will have, perhaps
its greatest, over every other yet invented, is the power
of concentrating the operations upon a given time or
space. Horses will tire, but a machine were/' ; and by
a relay of men, Halkett's system may be worked upon
as well and with as much precision and effect in the
darkest night as at noon-day ; so that a farmer can
avail himself of a favourable time to get in his seed or
plough his land ; whilst, on the other hand, no weather,
except hard frost, need stop the operations of the
guide-way cultivator, the entire absence of pressure by
the foot of man or beast rendering the state of the land
of no consequence to the operations of the plough.

In conclusion, I beg to say that the above account is
taken from Mr. Halkett's paper, which has been en-
dorsed by the opinions of some of our most scientific as
well as practical men ; amongst whom I find Professor
Wilson, of Edinburgh, Mr. C. Wren Hoskyns. Mr.
Alderman Mechi, Mr. Edwin Chad wick, Mr. Robert
Scott Burn, and many others. And last, though not
least, Mr. Smith, the patentee of the steam cultivator,
has offered to give £bO, if other gentlemen will sub-
scribe an adequate sum, to test Mr. Halkett's system by
laying down a farm on his principle.

I now leave your readers to judge of the merits of
the plan. But, whatever may be their opinion on that
head, Mr. H. has assuredly the merit of having been the
first to comprehend, and adopt the true and full mission
of steam power in the cultivation of the soil, and, still
further, of having brought his system to a practical
bearing. Yours, &c.,

An old Norfolk Farmer.

London, Dec. 14.

THE CROSS-BREEDING OF SHEEP.-COTSWOLD AND OXFORDSHIRE DOWNS.

At the last meeting of the Botley and South Hants
Farmers' Club, Mr. John Twynam, of Winchester, de-
livered a lecture on " The Cross-breeding of Sheep." He
commenced by stating that the experience of late years had
fully proved that the sheet-anchor of the cultivator of the
soil was the green-crop system— crops to be converted into

manure by the depasturing of cattle alternately between
those and pulse. That the next important consideration
which presented itself was the best mode of converting them,
and the animals the most fitted to accomplish it ; and that,
in reference to at least three-fourths of the arable land of
this kingdom, the sheep stood forth as the most prominent

h 2

146

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

indispensable agent for that purpose. The lecturer then
entered into the history of the modern sheep, and to the
varieties which experience had proved to be the best
adapted for the requirements of the present day, namely,
the Southdown, the Leicester, the Cotswold, and the Hamp-
shire Downs. Amongst the finer qualities, the Southdown
held the foremost rank where the taste of the epicure is to
be consulted, old mutton required, parks to be fed ; or on
arable lands of a dry subsoil, in a warm locality, these sheep
might graze with as great advantage as any other. They
would also do well long distances without injury, making a
close bite on short herbage, but in the winter season were
not so good proof against our fickle climate in exposed situ-
ations. The Leicester, for grazing purposes, on rich pastures,
where no folding was required, the temperature wai-m, and
weight of carcass, with early raaturitj- in view, were per-
haps to be preferred to all others, especially when they re-
membered that this breed had partaken, with other breeds,
of the improvements of the day ; for the3' no longer found
them as in the days of Bakewell, beautiful indeed in sym-
metry and high in blood, but too often like so man}- rolling
tallow-tubs, fit more for the chandler's than the butcher's
-?hop, and partly covered with two-thirds of its present
weight. There was now a better iutermixture of muscle or
lean meat with fat, by which the quality of the mutton was
much improved, and the fleece was a third heavier, without
having suffered any deterioration in quality. The Cots-
wolds, in former days, were of a large, yet rather coarse-
grained carcass, with a heavy fleece of wool, possessing a
good proportion of lean, more hardy than the Leicester, by
judicious crossing with which they have been much im-
proved, arriving much earlier at maturity, yielding a fleece
of finer quality, scarcely diminished in weight, and adapted
to the same purposes to which the Leicesters alone had
hitherto been devoted, with the additional advantage of re-
taining with the cross their original hardier nature. The
produce of the cross is styled the " improved Cotswold,"
bred chiefly in the counties of Oxford and Gloucester, from
the hills ol which latter county they derive their name.
Acclimated on this elevated part of the kingdom, and feed-
ing on pasture far inferior to the rich herbage on which the
Leicesters are in the habit of grazing, it is to be expected
that they would be characterized by a disposition to im-
prove when removed into former soils and fuller keep. I
have known them wintered on the arable soils of Hamp-
shire in the open air, with hay and turnips, only become
superfluously fat ; while other breeds, fed on the same food,
side by side, have barely sustained themselves in store con-
dition. In describing the character of the Hampshire
Down, which also prevails over a great part of Wiltshire, we
must bear this point continually in mind. These counties,
from their open fields and system of 'arming, are peculiarlv
adapted for store or breeding of ewes, and a rearing of such
a description of lamb as will suit the feeders who come to
their great fairs in the summer (or the purpose of purchasing,
with the view of bringing them out the following spring as
well-fattened mutton for the London market. The aim,
therefore, of the Hampshire and Wiltshire breeds is to
combine size, quality, aptitude to arrive at early ma-
turity, and a heavy fleece of good quality, with a con-
stitution sufficiently hardy to undergo the process of
consuming the green crops and folding on the ground
•where they go, thereby leaving a full dressing for the
crop of corn which is to follow. Now, it will be at once
apparent that the task of formiug, as it were, an animal in
which Bhall be combined the necessary qualities for these

several purposes, requires the soundest judgment and con-
stant care, and is attended with many difficulties. The
better points of different breeds require to be fused into one
mould ; and this daring exploit — for daring it was declared
to be by a public bigoted to old customs, and prejudiced
against the smallest deviation from the beaten track of their
ancestors— has been made with signal success by many of
the more enlightened flockmasters of these coiinties. The}'
saw population had so gained on the heels of production,
that a greater weight of meat was annually required to be
grown ; that, simultaneously with increase of number of
sheep, they bethought themselves that to improve the
symmetry, increase the aptitude to fatten, and arrive at
heavier weights, with the same food, might be quite as
economical a mode of supplying the increased demand, as to
effect it solely by the increase of numbers. They had be-
fore their eyes the parent-breeds of the matchless South-
downs, Leicesters, and improved Cotswolds. These, in
their separate state, were unfitted for the system of arable-
land farming, as well as for the description of carcase which
has the " call" in the market at the present day. To meet
the requirements of both, an amalgamation was decided
on ; and the result was a carcase of mutton exhibiting the
early maturity of the Leicester, the muscle of rich lean of
the Cotswold, and the superior grain of the Down — a car-
case " ripe" at fourteen months old, instead of at three or
four years, as formerly. From this admixture, assisted by
the original Hampshire breed, which was founded about
the beginning of the present century, on (the then prevail-
ing breed of the countrj-) the old horn-ewe and Sussex
ram, the present new Hampshire breed was formed. No
long pedigree of what is called "purit}' of blood" can be
claimed by anj' Hampshire flockmaster: but he haa the
satisfaction of knowing that it is the admixture he has
made which constitutes the value of his stock ; for neither
of the parent-breeds from which he derived it can claim
comparison with his own for the union of qualities neces-
sary to form the most useful and best-adapted sheep for
the profitable consumption of his green crops, or so satis-
factorily to meet the demand of the consumers of mutton
or of wool (Hear, hear).

Mr. Blundell haJ noticed, in going through the Royal
Agricultural Society's show, that a class of sheep increas-
ing in favour verj- much indeed was the Oxfordshire Down,
which were something like what had been recommended
by the lecturer to-day; and thej' had assumed such a de-
cided character, that the}' might be styled a distinct class
of sheep ; and they had received the cognomen of the
" Oxfordshire Downs." This was important for all of
them to know, so that they might be induced to purchase
them.

Mr. Spooner remarked that the shorthorned breed of
cattle, and new Oxfordshire and improved breed of sheep,
were familiar examples of the benefits of judicious crossing.

Mr. James Warxer bore bis testimony to the advan-
tage of a cross in sheep. He had had crosses from sheep of
all sorts; but he thought that the lecture of Mr. Twynam
would elucidate some improvements. Those sheep which
he bought crossed with the Cotswold thrived better, and
paid him more, than any other.

Mr. TwvNAM, in reply, said that the Hampshire and
the Cotswold would be far better than the Shropshire.
With regard to the Oxfordshire cross, the greatest breeders
of them were the Messrs. Druce, Mr. Hilchman, and an- ^r
other gentleman, whose name he did not recollect, who '''^^^
came to his house in 1836, took home some of his Hamp-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

147

sLire Down sheep, found it worth while to pay attention to
the cross, and, haviug persevered, had brought them to
perfection. They would acquire an advantage, if they
purchased a new ram ; and they would have one-fourth more
twins than if they had kept exclusively to their own stock.
Mr. J. Blundell proposed, in order to reduce their dis-
cussion to a practical result, " That this meeting is of

opinion that careful and judicious cross of sheep offers to
both the breeders and graziers the best prospect of profit,
and, at the same time, the best supply of mutton to our
coneuming population, and an increased supply of wool to
the manufacturing community."

Mr. J. TwYNAM seconded the proposition, which was
unanimously carried.

THE IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE,

A remarkable improvement has recently been made
in the annual statement from the Board of Trade, which
is deserving of special notice. Hitherto we have had
no official data of the special imports into London, ex-
cept what might be gleaned from the brokers' circulars
and the records in the commercial jom*nals. The last-
published annual return, that which supplies the figures
for 1857, besides giving the total imports for the United
Kingdom, also specifles the separate imports of the
leading and staple articles into the several ports.
Hence we are able to draw some comparisons and de-
ductions which may be found uselul to our readers.
The statistics, we may again observe, apply to last
year (1857).

Commencing, then, with living animals, we find
that the bulk of the live stock we import — and these
are not very extensive — come to London. Out of
65,648 cattle imported, 41,635 came to London ; and
of 177,207 sheep, 161,543 were for the Metropolis.

Of the cured provisions and foreign dairy produce
the direct imports into London are considerable, as
may be seen by the following figures :

Kingdom. London.

Bacon and hams, cwts 366,934 107,916

Beef, salted ,, 150,940 69,369

Pork, „ „ 88,732 58,812

Lard, „ „ .... 182,860 16,549

Liverpool receives the chief quantities of direct im-
ports of American provisions, but large quantities find
their way to London on arrival.

Of butter we received in London 337,147 cwt. out
of 441,606cwt., the total imports. Of cheese 180,496
cwt. out of 393,323 cwt. ; of eggs, 215,270 out of
634,093 cubic feet. The total number of eggs was
upwards of 127,000,000.

Of foreign grain the aggregate imports into London
were 2,618,243 quarters, out of a total import of
6,847,726 quarters ; and of pulse 95,255 quarters, out
of 465,674 quarters, the total at all the ports. The
specific quantities of each was as follows :

Kingdom,

London.

Wheat, qrs. .
Barley, „ .
Oats, „
Peas, ,,

. .. 3,437,957 .
... 1,701,470 .
... 1,710,299 .
. . . 159,899 .

630.878

568,851

. 1,418,514

32,779

Beans, ,,

. . . 305,775 .

62,476

The imports of Indian corn and flour from America
are chiefly at Liverpool and Irish ports. Out of
1,150,783 qrs. of maize, but 31,664 came to Lon-
don; and of 2,178,148 cwts. of flour and wheatmeal,
only 456,779 cwts. were received here.

The imports of rice are pretty equally divided be-
tween London and Liverpool; for 1,680,739 cwts,
came to London, and 1,734,449 to Liverpool.

Of agricultural seeds much the largest proportion
out of the entire imports come to London. Thus
82,843 cwts., or about half the cloverseed, arrived in
London; 235.976 qrs. out of 1,051,113 qrs, of flax
and linseed, and 110,459 out of 220,495 qrs. of rape-
seed.

The bones for manui'e, &c., come chiefly to Hull,
Liverpool, and London, and in pretty equal quantities.
Out of a total import of 63,951 tons, 9,384 tons came
to London. Guano, another chief i'ertilizer, is chiefly
imported into the Thames : out of 288,362 tons total,
182,096 were for London. Nearly half the oilseed-
cake, 46,212 out of 99,265 tons, was received in
London.

Taking now a glance at some of the chief raw mate-
rials of commerce, we find that out of 966,212 cwts. of
raw hides 517,056 cwts. were imported to London ; and
of tanned hides in the same proportion— 3,000,000
out of 5,664,000 lbs. Out of 1,210,347 cwts. of tallow
received from abroad, 814,750 cwts. came direct to
London.

Liverpool is fast equalling London in its direct im-
ports of wool. It has always had the monopoly of the
import of the South American sheep and alpaca wools,
but of late it has been drawing to the Mersey a large
share of the Australian wools. Much of the wool is,
however, sent to London, to be disposed of at the me^
tropolitan wool sales. The total imports of sheep's and
lambs' wool into the United Kingdom last year were
127,390,885 lbs. ; of which 69,961,286 lbs. came to
London direct, and 41,247,359 lbs. to Liverpool;
while of the total alpaca wool (2,359,013 lbs.)
2,126,686 lbs. went to Liverpool, and but 133,903 lbs.
came to London.

Timber, another largo and important article of im-
port, is chiefly divided between these two great ports,
although London has the preponderance. The total
quantity received from foreign countries and our colo-
nies last year was 2,494,964 loads, in the log and split;
and the proportions in each port were as follows :

London. Liverpool.

In logs loads .... 204,027 .. 187,564

Sawn or split , 391,175 .. 223,177

Staves „ .... 49,.508 ,. 21,823

644,710 .. 412,564
These are the principal articles of import. We

148

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

have merely selected those specially interesting to the
agriculturist, in order to place at his command, for
reference, facts and figures which may have an im-
portant bearing upon his dealings. The comparison
in minor articles of import would have carried us too

much into detail. Wo may observe, in conclusion,
that the farmers of Scotland imported last year 24,006
tons of guano, and 18,663 tons of bones — an evidence
that they are not neglecting the improvement of their
soil.

REARING OF CATTLE.

In Great Britain, where animal food enters so very
largely into the general cousumption of the inhabitants,
no part of the economy of farming demands a more
earnest attention than the rearing and fattening of the
animals that are used for that purpose. A detailed
statement of the most approved mode of managing
cattle may not be unserviceable.

The calving season commences in January, and con-
tinues till June, the earliest dropped calves being always
the best, and maintaining a superiority throughout the
season. So soon as it is dropped, the calf is rubbed dry
by straw in hand ; an egg is crushed and passed down
its throat, and it is carried to a single apartment, in
which it lies undisturbed for some hours. Jn the mean
time, the teats of the cow are stripped by the fingers of
the hand, in order to discharge the first milk, which is
reckoned to be unwholesome. The calf is then intro-
duced and sucks a moderate quantity, and is again
returned to its apartment. The sucking is performed
thrice a-day : at six o'clock in the morning, at noon,
and at six in the evening The cow-house and the calf-
pens are adjoining, and afford convenience by that posi-
tion. The calf is led by a rope or halter on the head,
and when it is sucking, the end of the rope slung longi-
tudinally for that purpose behind the cow. Two calves
suck one cow, and are placed one on each side.

So soon as the calf is able to chew with its mouth
and to masticate, bruised oil-cake is placed in a box in
a corner of the apartment, which food the animal
very soon learns to chew, and it has a very nourishing
effect. Another box contains a lump of chalk, which
the animal licks, and it is found to be very useful in
correcting the crude acidities of the stomach. A rack
is placed on the sub-division of the apartments, and in
it are placed clover and vetches, which the animal
soon learns to eat. One rack thus serves two calves.

The calf continues to be fed and sucked in this
manner for three months at least, when it will be grown
strong and fit to be removed to an adjoining grass-
paddock, which must be rich in pasture, well sheltered,
and provided with a regular and ample supply of fresh-
water, and a roomy shelter- shed. An orchard suits
well for this purpose, the shade of the trees is grateful
and the grass is tender for the young animals under the
shade of the trees. At the end of sixteen weeks the
milk is gradually withdrawn, and if the grass in the
paddock be scanty, cut clovers and vetches must be
given dally in racks, and in a fresh state. The shelter-
shed must be well-littered and kept dry.

Sucking the dam is very much preferable to giving
the milk to the calves by hand from the pail ; for by

exposure the volatile gases of the milk escape ; and in
the process of sucking a quantity of saliva is en-
gendered, which is necessary for the proper digestion of
the milk, and for the secretion of nutritious juices. The
appearance of the animal at once shows the great dif-
ference of the t<vo ways of rearing ; the suckled calf
being ever sleek in the coat, light in the offal, and of a
thriving and animated appearance. The animal that is
fed by hand is heavier in the paunch, slower in growth,
and of a generally more unthrifty appearance.

By the month of July the earliest calves will be able
to be removed from the weaning paddock to the pasture
field, which must be rich and well sheltered and watered.
They remain there till the end of October, when they
are removed to the farm-yards, where they are put into
yards provided with shelter-yards, and about six or
eight animals in each yard, into which fresh straw is put
daily, and the feeding crib is frequently moved from
place to place in order that the dung may be equally
made, and get the same trampling and consolidation in
every part of the yard. Fresh tops of turnips are given
them to eat daily ; and in the early winter the tops of
mangel wurzel are added. The smallest sized turnips
go with the tops, and form the food of the animals
during the first winter, when the teeth are weak and the
mouth is delicate.

In the first part of the month of May the grass is
most generally sufficiently grown to afford a bite to
pasturing animals, and at that time the young cattle,
now about one year old, are removed to the pasture-
fields, which must be well fenced and provided with a
shelter-shed and an ample and constant supply of fresh-
water. The gates and fences must be made very secure
and impenetrable, that no damage may happen to the
cattle in trying to escape by leaping the fences, or
effecting a passage in any way. The shelter-shed, large
and roomy, is an indispensable requisite for the purpose
of protecting the animals against the scorching heats of
noon-day and the cold storms of wind and rain that
occur in autumn and in the early part of winter. No
part of pasturing economy is more necessary.

About the end of the month of October the declen-
sion of the herbage and the increasing inclemency of
the season render it necessary to house cattle, and they
are removed from the fields to the farm-yards, and there
arranged for the winter in smaller lots than during the
last winter, as the size of the animals has increased :
six or eight beasts are sufficient in one yard. Fresh
straw is given them daily in a wooden crib, latticed in
the sides and bottom, and frequently moved from place
to place. The mouths of the animals being now strong

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149

the bulbs of the turnips are given to them to eat, the
tops and roots being cut off before they are removed
from the field where they have grown. This operation
is performed by a sharp sickle in the hands of persons
employed for the purpose. Longitudinal cribs, made
of latticed planks of wood, are placed in the
yards, in which the turnips are laid every morning
by break of day, and where the cattle eat them
undisturbed. The mud and filth are very care-
fully removed by the shovel every morning before
the fresh turnips are deposited. The eating of the roots
is finished by the time when darkness sets in, which
prevents any accidents happening to the animals, from
choking or hoving, during the night. The water is
supplied to each yard in cast-iron troughs, which are
fed by pipes, with ball-cocks, leading from higher
ground, or from elevated casks, to which the water is
raised by a force-pump. One trough of five or six feet
in length supplies two yards, by being placed across the
subdivision walls. The troughs require to be cleansed
out occasionally, in order to remove the earthy sediment
that falls to the bottom. This purpose is effected by a
plug-hole in the end of the trough, by which the watery
sediment escapes, to which it is driven by a brush in
the hand, and assisted by the trough being placed with
a gentle inclination to the end which contains the plug-
hole. The troughs are most convenient when the sides
are shelving.

The young cattle are treated yearly in the manner
above described, till the third winter, when the animals
will be three years and a half old ; and then the fatten-
ing process commences. The animals are arranged by
the 1st of November in the feeding- yards, in lots of
two, and not more than four together ; it being a uni-
versal rule that, the smaller the number of animals that
feed together, the better they thrive. Accordingly,
many most eminent writers have recommended, and
many very eminent jiractitioners have adopted, the
mode of confining the animal " singly;" but the most
general practice is, two or four together. The yards
must be dry, have a good shelter-shed, and a regular
supply of water. Cattle eating turnips ad libitum do
not drink much water ; but it is better that they have
the liberty of taking or refusing it. In these yards the
cattle are supplied daily with fresh turnips, and in
quantity as many as they can consume, so as not to
leave any part to be wasted or reduced to a loss. Fresh
straw and hay are given daily in the cribs. In the
spring, in February and March, one feed of oilcake is
given daily, which hastens the process of fattening, and
improves the quality of the dung, by enriching the ex-
crements of the animal. The space of three months
may be stated, at a general calculation, as the time re-
quired to render an animal that is treated in the above
manner fat or fit to be slaughtered. But very much, if
not all, depends on the grazing state of the animal ; for,
if it comes from the pasture-field to the feeding-yard in
a "lean" state, double the above-mentioned time will
be required to bring the animal into even a medium
state of maturity. Hence arises the necessity of keeping
the animals ** always" in a forward, fresh condition

during the years of their early growth. When a more
ample supply of food is given to an animal in this state,
the fattening process commences immediately, because,
all the parts of the body being kept in a full state, an
instant readiness is afforded to the accumulation of ad-
ditional fat and fibre. But if the carcase is lean, and
wanting in the necessary quantity of muscular fibre and
ofFal to render the parts immediately susceptible of en-
largement, a time and a quantity of food are required to
produce that state of body, which are often very im-
properly included in the time required for fattening, but
which belong most exclusively to the grazing period.
Hence the justice of the remark, that cattle should be
fed gradually from their birth upwards.

The age of four years has been fixed as the most ad-
vantageous time for cattle to be fattened and sold. The
animals that are most forward in condition will be ready
in February, when the sale will commence, and be con-
tinued regularly till May, in single animals or more
from the stalls, as they become prime for the butcher.
If any animals remain in May, that are not fit to be
slaughtered, they are sent to the field to graze, and are
sold during summer, as they become ready, under the
name of " grass-fed" beef.

In the mode that has been now detailed, the rearing
and fattening of cattle becomes a systematic manu-
facture of vegetable food into fat and muscular fibre, by
means of the chewing and digestive organs of an animal.
To please the taste of these organs, and to afford them
the nutriment that is most proper for the required
purpose, constitute the whole art of the process now
described. The foundation of the system lies in the
young calf having an ample supply of the mother's milk,
continued till it arrives at an age sufficient to enable it
to live and thrive on other food. The after treatment
must be kind, always to promote the onward progress of
the animal. It is a very common mistake with rearing
of cattle, to pinch the quantity of food, in order that
they may be reared at little cost, and a more erroneous
idea cannot be entertained. An animal that is stunted
in growth, during its infancy, is never able to recover
the natural vigour ; the carcase never swells into bulk,
nor enjoys the lubricating essences, nor the nutritious
juices, that are necessary to promote the activity of
animal life. A more destructive practice cannot prevail
in any department of agriculture.

It is a very common practice to give the calves, by
hand, the milk that has been drawn from the cow, and
held in a pail or bucket, from which the calf soon learns
to drink. A pinched allowance is also given them in
order to save milk, for the purpose of making it into
butter and cheese. But if these articles are imperatively
required, the making of them need not be attended with
i"o starvation and abuse of the young animal ; for it
only remains to appropriate a certain number of cows
for the purpose of suckling the calves. House the other
part for yielding milk for the dairy. This method
answers both purposes, and removes the evil that results
from uniting them, whereby the one defeats the purposes
of the other. From whatever cause it may arise, the
fact is certain, that calves fed with milk, by hand from

150

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the pail, never tlirive so well, nor become such fine
animals as others that are suckled, even though the
quantity of milk allowed be most ample, and to the full
satisfaction of the animal. It is wholly useless to search
for theory, when the fact is so evident and certain.

The second essential requisite for the profitable rear-
ing and fattening of cattle, is the proper accommodation
during summer and winter, during the different periods
of their age and growth ; for if an ample supply of
nutritious food be necessary to supply the wants of
nature, and to advance the healthy maturity, shelter and
warmth are not less necessary to promote the develop-
ment of the proper effects of the food which the animal
consumes. During the period of suckling, the calf is
confined in a single apartment of ten feet by four, or
thereabouts; which single confinement prevents any
annoyance by the animal going and sucking the ears or
navel of the other, after sucking the dam. A door from
the passage opens into each apartment. The floor is
wooden plank, very closely pierced with auger holes,
which carry away all moisture, and afford a dry bed for
the animal. Short straws or chaff are the best litter.
In the grass paddock, whither they are removed from
the pens, a shelter-shed is indispensable, and an ample
supply of good fresh water. The summer pasturage
must be luxuriant ; the fields all well watered and
fenced, and provided with a shelter-shed opening to the
four quarters of the heavens, and thus affording shelter
from every direction.

The winter accommodation requiries very particular
attention. The supply of juicy food must be ample,
but not nauseating ; the littering of the yards must be
very frequent, in order to keep the yards dry ; and the
sheltered shed must be roomy and warm, with the bot-
tom sloping outwards, to prevent the water from stand-
ing within the shed. It is advantageous that the cattle
eat the food under cover, which protects both the ani-
mal and the food from the inclemency of the weather.
This purpose will be very easily and conveniently
effected by roofing over the whole area of a farmery,
like the terminus of a railway. It promises to be a
valuable improvement of modern times, and places the
animals, and every other thing, under cover. It pre-
vents the heavy rains from injuring the dung, and the
hot scorching suns from drying and withering the sur-
face of the strawy materials.

A very important question has been long agitated in
the agricultural world, and is yet very far from being
settled, whether cattle are best fattened in open yards
provided with shelter-sheds, or by being tied in stalls in
a roofed house ? In the case of store or keeping cattle
the question is very easily solved. A freedom of
moving about in the yards is necessary to promote the
growth and healthy state of the animal ; and the un-
limited contact of fresh air very much advances the
fruitful progress of animal life. In the case of fatten-
ing animals it is asserted that cattle fatten more quickly
when tbey are confined in a warm temperature, and that
the secretion of fat is encouraged by the animal being
deprived of the power of any movement by reason of
being tied to a stake. But the flesh of animals that
live and are fattened in a warm temperature is always
found to be loose and flabby, and wanting in the firm-
ness and consistency that are imparted by a moderately
frigorific quality of the atmosphere. A number of ani-
mals tied in confinement are always breathing the con-
taminated gases; and the advantages to health are
known to be very great of respiration being performed
in a large volume of air. The feet of cattle tied in stalls
become soft, and the animals get lame and unable
to perform any travel. The feet of cattle fed in yards
keep sound, and the flesh is much firmer, and is very
easily distinguished by the eye and the touch of experi-
ence. The animal is fattened as quickly as when tied
in a house, when the proper care is used in erecting the
yards and sheds, and when the necessary attention is
employed in keeping the yards dry and the animals com-
fortable. Less labour is also created than in removing
the dung from the feeding houses. But on farms of
any considerabla size both methods may be very usefully
employed ; the animals of the more unruly nature may
be tied in the house, and the quieter may be put in
yards, and not more than two together. The objection
to feeding in yards generally arises from putting too
many animals together, and then one is disturbed by
another goring and pushing it about. When cattle
having a thick coat of hair are tied in a house to be fat-
tened, an advantage may be obtained by clipping the
coats, in order to promote a freer perspiration, and to
remove from the skin the itching and uneasiness engen-
dered by the close covering of the hairy integument.

ON GUIDEWAY AGRICULTURE;
BEING A SYSTEM ENABLING ALL THE OPERATIONS OF THE FARMfTO BE PERFORMED

BY STEAM-POWER.

THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.-Wednesday, December 8,

1858.

T. D. Acland, Esq., in the Chair.
Mr. P. A. Halkett read the following paper :
In bringing the subject for this evening, " Guideway
Steam Agriculture." before the members of this dis-
tinguished society, I feel that it is incumbent upon me
to give as full a description of the plan and machinery

as possible ; but as the details are numerous, and I shall
not, in the space of time allotted to me by your kind-
ness, be able to enter into an explanation of all its parts,
I hope that I may be permitted to refer members desi-
rous of further examination of the subject to that which
was published last year, namely, a letter to the Secretary

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

151

of the Royal Agricultural Society, which appeared in
your Society's Journalj to the published accounts of
the system in the professional papers, and to the reports
of a meeting at Freemasons' Tavern ; since which time,
however, some very important improvements have been
invented, and, amongst others, a new system of guide-
ways by which the cost per acre may be considerably
reduced, and a new cultivator suitable to small holdings.
My invention, comprising a system of permanent way
which is fixed to the ground, renders me unable to ex-
hibit for competition at the annual shows of the Royal
and other Agricultural Societies, and the amount of
publicity which it would in consequence obtain, is
lost ; but I may truly say, that notwithstanding this,
there is a fast growing opinion that the system which
I bring before you this evening is the one which, in
all respects, best fulfils the wants and expectations of
the agricultural community upon the subject of steam-
cultivation.

The great advances which have been made by Messrs.
Smith, Fowler, Romaine, Boydell, and others, in
ploughing and breaking up the land within the last year
or two, have schooled the mind to the possibility of steam
being eligible for use in the field, and prepared the agri-
culturist to expect a system that shall perform more
than one operation.

Another important change has taken place in the
mind of the public, relative to the source from which
the profits are to be looked for in steam-cultivation ;
this arises from the belief that the commercial advan-
tages gained by Mr. Smith and Mr. Fowler are not so
much in the less cost of the operations themselves as in
the increase of crops resulting from those operations,
and in some collateral economic advantages to which I
will refer again ; but it is this better cultivation and
consequent larger amount of produce which is the most
important consideration to hold in view, and the point
in which I maintain that my system has its greatest
strength ; and I may say, without fear of contradiction,
that there has not been a competent judge, who has seen
my operations, who has not given it as his opinion that
much larger returns will be obtained by my system.
Let us for one moment look at the question of profit by
means of produce, and profit by saving on labour, and
it will be seen in which direction the most is to be ex-
pected ; in the one case let us suppose produce to be
increased, merely for illustration, 50 per cent,, or from,
say, ^8 to £12, and in the other let us suppose the cost
of field-labour to be £?>, and to be decreased in the
same proportion, namely, to £2 ; in the one case a
profit will be made of £i, and in the other of £\ .
Present produce £S, increased to £'12. Profit £4.
Present labour £3, reduced to £2. Profit £1.
There are three ways in which we may expect that
steam may prove beneficial to us — first by a saving upon
labour. It is in this direction that the endeavours of
most inventors have been turned, and it is for that only
that the Royal Agricultural Society has held out its pre-
miums to inventors. In their prize sheets the words
ran thus : " For the best steam-cultivator that shall
turn over the soil and be an economic substitute for the

plough and the spade." The second way is by an in-
crease in the produce — and the third both advantages
combined. My system is conceived in the last, but its
forte lies especially in a much better cultivation with a
view to a larger amount of produce.

I will now, as shortly as I can, describe the system
and the large machinery applicable to extensive hold-
ings, and from which, as in the case of the manufactory
producing goods at a considerably cheaper rate than
the cottage loom, we may expect the most important
commercial advantages. I will then describe the smaller
cultivator, on a perfectly different construction, and for
which I have very much to thank the engineer, Mr.
Grafton. Although it will not carry out the operations
at so small a cost as the large cultivator, yet, by its
being applicable to small holdings, it will enable land
to be laid down with this system which before could not
be thought suitable for it ; and I will, when describing
the prominent subject of the invention, the guideways
or rails, invite your attention to a system of rails which
was not brought before the public lust year, and which
will reduce the cost of the system by one-half per acre
what it then was calculated at.

The diagram (Fig, 1)* will convey some idea of the
guideway system of steam agriculture. This invention
consists in the application of motive power to the culti-
vation of the land, by attaching the implements required
for the various operations of ploughing, scarifying, sow-
ing, hoeing, reaping, or other operations of culture,
beneath a travelling-carriage, which moves on rails
placed in parallel lines across the fields to be cultivated,
by which the implements are always kept from swerv-
ing- to the right or left of the line of onward motion,
and the friction of the machinery is considerably re-
duced.

The gauge or space between the lines should be as wide
as possible, consistent with the practical application of
the travelling carriage or cultivator, in order to dimin-
ish the cost of rails by reducing the number per acre,
as also the extent of space occupied by the permanent
way. The width between the lines I have in use upon
my land at Wandsworth, or upon the piece of ground at
Canning-place,Kensington toll-gate, is thirty ; feet but
there can be no difficulty in extending it to fifty or more
feet.

At right angles to those rails along the headlands^
separate railways are made on a lower level than the
former rails, and upon each headland railway a carriage
is placed, the top surface of which is on a level with the
field rails, and upon this the cultivating machinery-
moves, and is transferred sideways from one set of rails
to another ; or home to the steading, where it may be
used for barn operations. Supposing, then, the ground
between the two first rails to have been operated upon,
the machine is propelled on to the headland carriage,
and by it transferred or shunted in the manner that car-

* This was a view of a farm laid do^n with guideways,
showing the cultivator ploughing; a number of trucks taking off
produce ; the headland rails upon which the cultivator is moved
from one set of rails or from one part of the farm to another,
and a level crossing at the road, to enable it to communicate
with the adjoining fields.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

riages are shunted on railroads, to the next breadth of
rails, down which the cultivator proceeds, and so on un-
til it has passed over all the land to be cultivated.

The methods I have adopted for laying down the rails,
varying in materials, &c., according to circumstances,
are as follows :—

A trench is cut fifteen inches at the top down to the
subsoil. This is filled with burnt clay ballast or con-
crete, and on this are laid the angular-shaped bricks, and
the earth is then covered over nearly to the top of the
rail. Angle irons, 17 or 20 feet in length, are laid
on the top of the bricks. These are fixed down at the
ends by strap-pieces, and secured by bolts to bricks in
the subsoil. The angle irons are not secured to each
other so as to form one continuous length, but are left
unconnected at certain distances, in such a manner as to
allow for the expansion and contraction resulting from
the temperature.

To test the rails, I worked the cultivator backwards
and forwards over a portion of them thus constructed
as often as would have been necessary in cultivating a
piece of land for ten years, and no movement or altera-
tion of the materials took place, nor had any part to be
repaired. Occasionally, when the machine travels over
the ground, a brush is made by self-acting means to de-
posit a coat of tar over the surface of the rails, thus giving
effectually at a small cost a preservative coat to the iron.

In this system of rails, well adapted for clay districts,
the materials being very durable, the per-centage for
renewals will be very small. In fact, the system may
be considered of an almost indestructible character.

The surface of the iron rail being angular, the tires of
the wheels of the cultivator have angular grooves, into
which the rail fits.

In the new and cheaper system to which
I have alluded, as being applicable to small farms, a
trench is cut and filled with ballast, as before de-
scribed ; upon this are placed sleepers, twelve or four-
teen inches long, and formed of pieces of branch- wood,
called " lop-and-top," cut up and split. Upon these
are fised the rails, which are constructed of creosoted
timber. This system is well adapted for a wood dis-
trict, and may be cheaply laid down.

When land is very highly rented, as in market gar-
dens, the rails being placed upon posts or small piles of
wood, driven two or three feet into the ground and
subsoil, a less loss of land occurs than in the other sys-
tem, for the land may be deeply cultivated close to the
rails ; but this arrangement is more expensive than
either of those just described.

The space taken up by the rails is of necessity so
much taken off from the cultivable soil of the farm.
This, however, is comparatively insignificant in amount ;
for, taking the foundation of the rails at two feet and a-
half, it is only the one-twentieth of the land — a loss of
about two shillings per acre, taking the rent, &c., of the
land at 403. But, after all, the space of land lost is
much less than in ordinary cases, with the open farrows
between stetches ; besides which, no farm roads are
wanted, as everything required is taken on to or from
the farm by the agency of the guideway machinery.

It may at first be supposed that a practical diflSculty
lies in the maintenance of the permanent way from
analogy with existing rails, and the keeping intact the
width of the gauge ; but it will be seen that there is a
vast difference between the speed of the railway loco-
motive and that of my cultivator, the one travelling at
the speed of forty or fifty miles an hour, while the other
travels at only two or three miles. Upon railroads the
carriages and engines travel over the same ground in a
year many thousand times, while in my system the car-
riages pass over the same spot in a year but ten or twenty
times. To allow for any slight variation in the breadth
or gauge between the rails, running-wheels are fitted on
one side of the platform, so that they have sufficient play
from side to side between the bearings, while those
wheels on the other side of the cultivator have no similar
play.

The bearings of the wheels are fitted to slide freely up
and down, resistance to their moving upwards being
offered by springs.

These springs are all of equal strength^ and the ma-
chinery is so balanced that each wheel may bear as
nearly as possible the same amount of weight ; and the
springs possess a considerable amount of elasticity, to
permit the several wheels to pass over any undulation
of the rails without transferring too much weight from
some of the wheels to others of the series. The object
in distributing the weight of the platform over a number
ofwheelsisthatthe rails or permanent way maybe ofvery
much lighter construction than if the weight were made
to rest on a less number of wheels.

The cultivator is driven by two engines, placed at the
extreme ends or sides, which are geared together by an
intermediate shaft, the ends being connected to the ends
of the platform in such a manner that the whole set,
sixteen in number, act simultaneously as driving-wheels.
By being thus constructed, the machinery can ascend
rising ground without difficulty, till the gradient reaches
the paint when iron slips upon iron, which is found to
be one in five.

The quantity of land that can be ploughed per day by
machinery, suitable to a farm of a thousand acres, is
twenty-five acres ; and two, or at the most three, men
are all that are required to conduct this or any other
operation : and when time presses, by a change of men,
double this amount, namely, fifty acres, may be done in
the twenty-four hours, because the operation can be
carried on by night as well as by day. I have ploughed
on a very dark and rainy night, and, although it was too
dark to see the ploughs, in the morning we found some
excellent furrows turned. You will admit, I am sure,
that it is of the greatest importance to be thus able to
break up the land in unfavourable weather, or for a
rapid autumnal cultivation. This great economy of
time is also available for seed-time, reaping, and carting
in harvest.

The plough having broken up the land, a " comminu-
tor," or rotary implement, is used, in character some-
thing like the Norwegian harrow, but driven at a high
velocity. I have succeeded in obtaining some remark-
able results in reducing obdurate clay to a state of the

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153

finest tilth. Its mechanism and operation I will ex-
plain as I proceed.

The soil having thus been brought to a higher state of
cultivation than it is possible to produce even with spade
labour, there can be no diflSculty in keeping it in that
condition; for it will be seen that, by the guideway
system of steam culture, the whole weight of the ma-
chinery, engines, and implements, rests upon the rails,
and that nothing touches the soil except the implements
in operation ; no horses will poach the ground with
their iron-shod feet ; the foot-prints of the guide and
ploughman will no where be seen pugging the clay and
treading into a solid clod that which has been reduced to
the fineness of garden-mould.

The destruction of weeds, earthing up, hoeing, and
stirring the earth among growing crops, can only be
performed at present during the earlier stages of the
growth of the plant, and unless executed by hand-labour
are always attended with difficulty, and more or less
danger, from the impossibility of guiding the implements
so as to operate in sufficient proximity to the plant,
without running into and destroying some portions of
the crop. By this system, however, I am enabled to
adjust the implements and cause them to travel at the
requisite proximity to the rows at all times during the
periods of the growth of the plant. In fact, the hoes
can be regulated to such nicety, that the operation may
truly be called unerring.

All other operations, such as harrowing, clod crush-
ing, &c., are effected by the difFerent implements being
adapted to the same, or to some other cultivator, and
these are lifted and lowered, and worked by the ma-
chinery, as before described in the case of the ploughs,
and may, therefore, be easily understood without fur-
ther explanation. Independently of the machinery
which carries the engines and implements, smaller ones
are constructed for the purpose of carrying manure, the
produce, water, &c. They are of the same width as the
large one, from rail to rail, but much lighter and shorter,
and the boxes or cart-bodies used are placed at either
end, directly over the wheels, of which there are four,
two on each side. These small carriages or trucks are
drawn by the cultivator, and, when required, are fur-
nished with tanks for the conveyance of water or liquid
manure ; and this may be distributed among the grow-
ing crops, either independently, or during the time when
any of the other operations are in progress. For in-
stance, the operations of stirring and distributing water,
or liquid manure, to the growing crops, may be per-
formed simultaneously by one implement, in the form
of a hollow bar or coulter, stirring the ground to a
moderate depth, whilst the water, &c., passes out at the
extremity of the bar. By this means the fluid is econo-
mized, on account of the evaporation from the surface
being prevented; the soil is not caked, nor are the roots
drawn to the surface in search of the moisture, after-
wards to be injured by the parching of the ground. ^

The next important operation to be noticed is reaping,
which is performed by a machine constructed on the
principle of Bell's or Dray's, or it may be of any other
good reaper. It is attached by suitable stays to main-

tain it at the proper level, perfectly independent of any
support from the ground, and has the necessary gear for
communicating the motion to the cutting knives and
other parts of the machine by the steam power ; and the
depositing of the crop after cutting is effected by a back
delivery.

When manual labour is required for the purpose of
weeding, transplanting, or any other light operation,
the labourers are carried on to the ground by means of
the trucks, upon which they sit or stand while the work
is being performed, or while the crop is transferred from
the ground to the truck, and by it taken away to the
homestead. Thus, it will be perceived that even the
injury resulting to the ground by men treading on it is
obviated. These trucks may be propelled either by horses
or by manual labour if desired.

The Cost. — Having described generally the system,
before proceeding to the facts and results derived from
my own cultivators, we may consider the cost of the
whole system.

First. The cost of machinery, implements, and trucks
is equal to that of horses and horse implements required
for similar work, and the interest per annum may be
taken as the same ; but in general I think a less interest
would be sufficient. In my case, for instance, with the
trucks, the travelling being upon a hard smooth surface,
there would be considerably less wear and tear than in
carts and waggons in a field.

Secondly, the cost of the rails. The wood system
is £10 per acre, and the brick and angle iron system,
is £20 per acre.

When we consider the much larger sums than £10 or
^£20 per acre which have been expended upon land, we
shall see that no practical difficulty exists to prevent
money rapidly coming in to lay down the rails when the
profits are known. The only true commercial way of
considering the question is, what will be the returns
upon the capital laid out by this system ? Do we not
know that land used to cost as much as the above sum
frequently in draining ?— that £]Q or £15 is paid in
marling land ? I have known £20 per acre paid for
valuations to an incoming tenant in a suburban farm,
and I have heard of larger sums being paid by market-
gardeners. Even on the continent (at Milan), irrigation
works have cost as much as £40 per English acre. At
Edinburgh more than £30 per acre has been paid for
the same ; and, according toM, de Lavergne, Mr. Caird,
and the Royal Agricultural Journal, upon the Duke of
Portland's meadows at Clipstone, as high a sum as £120
per acre for irrigation works has been paid.

Some express astonishment that I want to expend
almost as much as the ke simple of the land ? But what,
I ask, does this matter, there being no connection be-
tween the fee simple of the land and the amount that
you may profitably lay out upon it? Let us look at
difi'erent modes of cultivation, and beyond, as well as in
our own country. In the following table we seethe
most extraordinary variety. In one place we see the
outlay 15 per cent, upon the fee simple, in another 1,500
per cent.

154

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Fee

Simple.
£.

In England 30 . .

15 ..

Market-gardening 200 . .

la America 1 . .

On a sugar estate (with
slaves) 6 ..

Outlay. Percentage
upon Fee
£. Simple.

. 10 33

5 33

. 30 15

3 300

90

1500

Thirdly. The cost of the operations.

The reduction in the friction of the machinery in con-
sequence of travelling on a hard road, the large breadth
of land possible to operate upon at once, and the few
men required to attend the machinery in proportion to
the work performed, greatly reduce the cost of the ope-
rations, while cartage is reduced in the proportion of
the difference between drawing a weight on a ploughed
field or upon a railroad.

Ploughing is Is. 7d. per acre ; hoeing the whole breadth
of 50 feet at once, 3d. per acre ; drilling seed the whole
breadth, 5d. ; harrowing and rolling, 5d. ; scarifying
and grubbing, 8d. ; reaping, cutting, and delivery, lOd. ;
carting crops off, and manure on to, the land, ^d. per
ton per mile.

Facts and Results of the Machinery. — The
engines of my large cultivator are a Garratt's 6-horse
power, and a Barratt and Exall's 4 -horse power. They
are old second-hand engines, and, being unequal in
power and in weight, are not well-adapted to work to-
gether ; and the pistons are not tight in the cylinders-
Indeed, though I have had the metal packings looked
to, and taken in hand by a millwright and engineer, yet
are they very imperfect, allowing a considerable escape
of the steam. When Mr. Amos, the consulting en-
gineer to the Royal Agricultural Society, saw them on
one occasion, in a casual visit (but no trial taking place),
he thought that a considerable per-centage must be taken
off in any calculation for arriving at a conclusion on the
merits of my system, in consequence of their condition.
What the per-centage was that he stated at the time I
do not now remember ; but this is not of any moment, for
in my calculations I have made no deduction on that
account.

In this paper it is my purpose chiefly to deal with
facts ; but it is necessary, in considering the future of
this system, to be informed that the engines of my cul-
tivator are of a wrong construction for the purpose, and
very leaky ; nest, that the frame-work and the wheel-
work are very ill-made, and the friction consequently
very great ; and thirdly, that the weight of the whole is,
per horse-power of the engines, nearly double of what
it would be upon newly and more perfectly constructed
machines.

Ploughing. — I ploughed 12 furrows of 10 inches in
width simultaneously, making thus a breadth ploughed
of 10 feet, at a speed of 2,400 feet per hour, the depth
of ploughing, five inches ; the ground was very hard ;
the pressure of steam was 501bs. in each engine ; the
revolutions of the engines, 120 per minute — the steam-
cock was about half-open. On another occasion, I
ploughed similar ground with 481bs. in the large engine,
and 521bs. in the small one — the steam-cock half-open ;
the speed of ploughing being the same in both.

On another occasion I ploughed ground that was
much lighter ; it had been ploughed, and then levelled
and well rammed (several weeks prior) ; on this ground
I only used a pressure of steam of 321b8. in the large,
and 351bs. in the small engine.

The above statements show that, on ploughing average
land with my machine, I should use not quite lO-horse
power when turning over soil 10 feet wide and 2,400 feet
per hour ; and, taking out of a day's work of twelve
hours one hour for change of ploughs and shifting at
headlands, I have eleven hours' effectual work, which
gives the following result :

2,400 feet, the length ploughed in one hour.
10 feet, the breadth of 12 furrows.

24,000 feet, the square feet ploughed in one hour.
11 hours.

264,000 square feet plougheJ in oue day.
264,000 square feet.

And = 6 acres per day.

43,560 square feet in an acre.

Now, 10-horse power, multiplied by 5'71b8. of coal per
horse-power per hour (which is Mr. Amos's estimate
used at Chelmsford, for calculating Mr. Fowler's steam-
ploughing, and which was deduced from trials upon a
number of steam agricultural engines, and the coals at
20s. per ton) gives 571bs. per hour, which, multiplied by
twelve hours' consumption, is 6*1 cwt. per day = 61
shillings ; to which add 3s. 6d. for one man for wages,
and 2s. for another, and 6d. for oil, waste, &c., and
we have 12-1 shillings for six acres, which gives 2s. per
aero.

For a farm of 1,000 acres 25 h. p. would be re-
quired, and, taking the above as a standard, we should
have 15 acres ploughed per day; and the calculation
would stand 25 H. p. X 5-7 lbs. X 12-hours = 15-2
cwt. of coals, to which add 4s. for one man's wages,
2s. another. Is. boy, and Is. for oil, waste, &c., we
have 23-2 shillings, which, divided by 15 acres,
gives the cost at Is. G^d. per acre, with a 25 h. p.
cultivator.

If a larger amount of horse-power be thought neces-
sary for more extensive cultivation, the cost will be
lessened. With a 40 h. p. cultivator the amount of
ploughed land would be 24 acres per day, and the cost
would be Is. 5d. per acre.

If, instead of 5"71bs. per horse-power per hour we
take the coals at Gibs., it would make the ploughing, in
the case of the 25 h. p. machine. Is. 7§d. per acre ; if
we take the estimate at 71bs. of coal, it would make it
Is. 9d. per acre. If we were to suppose that coals were
only half the price, namely, IDs. a ton, the last estimate,
taken at 71bs. per horse-power per hour, would sink
from 1.?. 9d. to Is. 2^d. per acre.

There is one fact with respect to the plonghing trials
above-mentioned, to which I would beg to draw es-
pecial attention — a fact which appears to me of great
importance, namely, the small amount of force with
which the 12 ploughs were drawn through the ground
when the land was comparatively light, because I think
that this will show how, when the cultivation of a farm
is carried on without in any operation treading upon the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

155

ground, we may expect that ploughing and other acts of
cultivation will be performed by my system at much
less draught and power, and at much less expense even
than is deduced from my own trials. With horse cul-
tivation in my field, had the land been previously
ploughed, it would still have required 2 horses to plough
it again : the horses would certainly have performed a
small per-centage more in the day's work ; but in the
example referred to, we see much more than a small ad-
ditional advantage. It was there stated that I ploughed
12 furrows with a pressure of steam in the large engine
of 32 lbs., and in the small engine of 35 lbs., or say 33|
Ibs. in each. Now I found upon trial that it required
20 lbs. of steam to move my machine at its regular
speed, without any implements being in the ground, and
it therefore required only 13J lbs. additional pressure of
steam to draw the 12 ploughs. A further pressure of
131 lbs. (which would have raised it to 47 lbs.) would
have drawn another set of 12 ploughs, had I had them
to put on, and the amount of ground ploughed would
have been 12 acres in the day, with engines working
up to 10-horse power. Had I raised the steam another
13i lbs., namely, to 60 lbs., at which I often work the
machine (and with which pressure the engines are work-
ing at 13 H.p.) the cultivator would have been capable
of drawing another set of 12 ploughs, thus turning over
18 acres per day, with engines only working up to 13-
horse power.

In reference to the above, I may remark that ploughs
drawn in the usual manner have evidently a very con-
siderable resistance due to their weight on the ground,
irrespective of the resistance due to cutting the sod. In
Mr. Pusey's experiments this resistance is put down
with an average make of plough at 33 per cent, of the
whole draught ; but it is evident that this resistance, which
is a constant quantity, will, in its per-centage to the
whole draught, vary according to the nature of the soil,
whether stiff or loose. The lighter the soil, the greater
in proportion to the whole draught will be the per cent-
age due to the weight dragging on the ground. In my
case, however, the weight of the ploughs being trans-
ferred to, and borne by, the rails (for the plough is sus-
pended to the cultivator, with the point of the share
rather lower— i an inch — than the heel), the resistance
due to the weight of the implement pressing on the
ground is taken away ; and if the soil be very light or
loose, only a very small resistance will take place in op-
position to the pull or draught of the motive power.
This, I think, will explain the remarkable result of the
third set of ploughing trials above-mentioned.

Where the side of a field or piece of ground is crooked,
and the line of hedge cannot be sraightened, the crooked
part is fenced ofiF and used for pasture or in cultivation
as usual. If roads or lanes intervene between different
fields, a "level crossing" or moveable rails will enable the
machinery to pass from field to field. If a farm abuts on a
railroad, it may communicate with it, and by this means
the produce may be sent to towns, without, in its transit,
being ofi" a rail; and marl, clay, sand, or other soils, may be
brought from distances, and be deposited at any period
at a very small comparative sum ; by this alone a per-

manent increase in value may often be given to estates.
Also manure may be brought from towns and distributed
over the land at a very advantageous cost in comparison
with that on farms at present.

The Small Cultivator. — The small cultivator, to
which I before alluded, for the light operations of a
farm, or for the total cultivation of a market- garden,
would be constructed with a three or four-horse
power engine. It is in two parts. The engine por-
tion is distinct from the carriage, but is connected
with it by two bars with hooks at the ends, and diagonal
chains, which also hook and unhook readily. The dia-
meter of the cylinders of the small engine on the
Kensington Cultivator is only two inches, and the pres-
sure of the boiler is generally 401bs. This is only one-
half, or at the best three-quarters of one-horse power»
and we may well conceive that if so small an engine as
this (a mere toy) be considered sufficient to work a cul-
tivator of a breadth of 30 feet, together with its second
carriage, its weight of water, men,&c., how much larger
a breadth may be worked by powerful engines !

Ill the commencement of this paper I remarked that
it was a fast-growing opinion among farmers and many
others that steam should and would be made to super-
sede horse-labour in the field. Many farmers, taking
the view that my system realizes this opinion, have sug-
gested that the rails might be laid down over several
small farms, and the machinery be employed to work
from one to the other ; but I think that the introduction
of the smaller arrangement of machinery, by which farms
of 200 acres may be worked, will be a better plan,
although not so likely to develop the fullest economy of
the system.

The CoMMiNUTOR. — The onward motion of the com-
minutor is in a line with the axis of the revolving tines,
cutting furrows parallel with the rails on the ground.
The ground, which is previously ploughed, is made into
a seed-bed as fine as the soil of a mole-hill, by the
action of the tines, for a depth of five or six inches ;
the general depth of the ploughed or broken ground
may, of course, be much greater. When the soil is free
from large stones the screen is used, by which means
the clods not at first broken are thrown back upon the
tines for a second or third blow. I found, in working
the machine, that the roots of couch and other weeds
were blown over and deposited on the unbroken side of
the land, where they were raked up with facility.

In the hopper artificial manure is placed, and by a
manure distributor, a certain quantity, for a certain dis-
tance passed over by the machine, is distributed . The
importance of this complete amalgamation will be ap-
preciated when the bearings of chemical science upon
the point are perceived. Professor Voelcker, in a lec-
ture, says, " The efficacy of a manure, or the practical
effect of which it is capable, is greatly influenced by the
mechanical condition of the land. I may illustrate this
by referring to experiments I have made on land at-
tached to Cirencester College, where I used superphos-
phate on a piece of ground which did not yield so much
as another piece of ground where none had been; but I
took the precaution to try the manure in a third place,

156

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and here the yield was three-times as much as on that
which had not been manured. The fact is, that on clay
land superphosphates are of no use unless the land be
properly pulverized. Some farmers imagine that by
using the best artificial manures they do not require so
much labour, or any additional labour. There can be no
greater mistake, for the best artificial manures often fail,
more or less entirely, for want of proper pulverization of
the soil. It is of the greatest consequence that the land
on which artificial manures are used should be in a high
state of subdivision. Artificials can only be used with
advantage by farmers who have improved agricultural
implements and methods of tillage, and have paid a great
deal more attention to the mechanical condition of the
land than many farmers of the old school." And I may
also quote the distinguished agriculturist, Mr. Hoskyns:
" Now our knowledge of the chemical effects of com-
minution upon the absorptive powers of the soil (based
upon the most accurate demonstration of the lecture-
room, and speaking to the eye and to the mind as plainly
and irresistibly and by the same evidence, as any fact ob-
served in the field can do) is already far in advance of
anything which our present means of mechanical divi-
sion enables us to realize, even on the smallest practical
scale."

If, in looking forward to the future, agricultunsts and laud-
owners would take an enlarged view of the past and present
state of things, they would perceive that not much new land
has been added to cultivation during the last fifty yeais, nor
have the imports of food been large in proportion to the con-
aumptioD, whilst, in addition, the population ia a more meat-
consuming one. On the other hand, the population during
that time has doubled itself ; and, perceiving this, they will
see how rapid must have been the tendency to increase in in-
tensity the cultivation of laud. It is not too much to suppose
that on an average the produce per acre has nearly doubled
itself.

One principle upon which I base the profits of my system is
simply thia : spade labour is sometimes used to cultivate farm
crops ; it is more costly than horse labour by £3 an acre, and
more productive by £3 or £4. And this is true with the same
amount of manure in both case3. In testimony of this I refer
to many well-knowa experiments by industrial societies ; to
" Morton's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture," to Cuthill's pamphlets,
the '' Penny Cyclopajdia," the " Spade Husbandry in Flanders,"
by the Society for the DifFusioa of Useful Knowledge ; the
works of Cuthbert Johnson, &c. Now I can perform the
operations by steam and guideway in a manner superior to
spade labour at less considerably, after paying interest for rails,
&c., than the cost of horse labour; the difference, therefore,
in produce becomes wholly a profit.

It may be, however, desired to consider a balance sheet for
the year; I have, therefore, introduced two for farms of 1,000
acres, and also one for a market garden of 50 acres.

Statement of a 1,000 acre Farm on Guideways of creosoted
timber, at £10 per acre.

Rail capital, &c.:

Annual.

(a) Interest at {ffi^\i'^^ rails £10,00
10 per cent < Interest on capital at 4 per cent. £400
jjjyg 'I Repairs and renewals at 6 per

L cent.

600

£1,000

Farming capital, &c. : —

(b) Capital for stock, £2,500.
((.) Locomotive cultivator, with 25-hor36 power en-
gines and sliunting machinery complete, £1,9U0 ;

implemeuts £300, at 15 per ceat £330

(d) Ten trucks £300, at 8 per cent , 24

Coal, at 203. per day, and 250 days 250

Oil. &c 10

Eufjine driver at 4s. per day, man 2-3. 6d., boy Is.. . 117

5 constant labourers 155

*LRbourers for hand operations upon the crops. ... 50

Farmers' annual field expenses ...,..£ 936

Add interest for rails 1,000

C'jst of cultivation by steam £1,936

Labour at homestead, expenses for marketing, end all other
l-.bour which is paid for as in the present system, need not be
here alluded to.

Statement ly Mr. W. Rex, Valuer to Messrs. Cldnnoch and
Galsivorlhy, Land Agents, London, and a Farmer, for a
Farm of 200 acres, of well-tilled land.

Annual.
Capital: — 8 horses, 4 ploughs, barrows, horse
hoes, scarifiers, 2 waggons, rolleis, 4 carts,
£500. £ s. d.

Depreciation of stock at 15 per cent 75 0 0

Horse-keep, cnrii, 100 qrs., hay 30 tons 245 0 0

Labour, 4 carters, at 12s. per week . . £124 16 0

1 horse keep extra 31 4 0

3 labourers 105 6 0

261 6 0

100 acres corn hoeing, 43 20 0 0

Cutting 50 acres of coru at 8s 20 0 0

621 6 0
Multiply by 5 for 1,000 aeres 5

tDeduct .

3,106 10 0
. SO 0 0

Farmers' annual field expenses for ordinary culti-
vation on the fourth or fifth shift system, exclu-
sive of all extra labour for harvest, &c., but
including all that can be done by machinery in
the field 3,076 10 0

Cultivation by steam 1,936 0 0

Difference in favour of steam, . . . £1,140 10 0

Which is equal to 11 per cent, upon capital for rails, and,
when added to 4 per cent, (already allowed), gives a profit of
15 per cent.

The difference between spade labour and horse labour is
given in " Morton's Cyclopaedia of Agriculture," page 388,
article " Capital," at £3 per acre in favour of the spade, when
£8 per acre is average produce. If only £l extra per acre be
allowed the present horse farmiiig, the profit will be 24 per
cent. ; if £2 be allowed it will be a profit of 34 per cent. In
the above estimate, extracted from Morton, no crops sold off
the land, or gardening ones, are considered, only grain and
cattle feeding ones.

The balance sheet of a farm laid down with the brick and
iron rails at £20 per acre will be as follows: — Interest of
money and depreciation, £1,200 ; annual field expenses (de-
ducting £96 due to less friction by this one over the other
system of rails) £840, which substracted from £3,076, gives a

* This item refers to such operations as hand hoeings and
weedinss, combined with the travelling machinery. H nd opera-
tions are in this manner more cheaply perfonneil than they are
at present. The above includes 250 acres weeded once, and 1!50
acres weeded twice.

+ There will be saving of £200 in machinery in a large farm
over a small one proporiionably, therefore deduct at 15 per cent,
on £200.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

157

saving of £1,036, equal to 5 per cent., aud which, wheu added
to 4 per ceut. already received, makes a profit of 9 per cent, by
saving on labour alone ; to vphich, if £1 for extra produce be
added, we have a total profit of 14 per ceat. ; if £2 for extra
produce, we have a profit of 19 per cent, on capital for laying
down a most permanent system of guideways : in fact, one of
au almost indestructible character.

Explanation of Balance Sheet. — In Hue noted letter
(a) I say " Interest on capital at 4 per cent." This I suppose
to be sufficient interest, the investor being supposed to with-
draw the money from the funds or other good security. If
the money is borrowed, the interest must be larger, but it will
be seen that this makes no difference in the result.

Line (5) " Capital for stock £2,500." No account is taken
of the profit or interest the agriculturist makes upon the
£2,500, as the same amount of capital is required for horses
and horse machinery on the opposite side. Only the interest
for depreciation and wear and tear is put down here.

Line (c) " Locomotive cultivator with 25 horse power." A
eteara engine will always work up to a higher power than is
denominated by its nominal horse power, aud I could easily
make 25 horse-power engines work up to 40 horses (the
amount of horses given on the opposite side), but this is not
why I have put 25 horses in engine power as sufficient against
40 horses on the opposite side ; on the contrary, for every one-
horse power used in flesh I intend to place one-horse power in
steam. My explanation is this :— 25 horses working 12 hours
for 250 davs, aud 12 hours extra for 20 nights, are equal to 40
horses working 8 hours (or 250 days.

Line (rf) " Ten trucks, &c." The interest for depreciation
and wear and tear is put at 8 per cent, in this case, the wear
and tear not being great.

I have gone upon the broad principle of putting one-horse
power working in steam for ever horse working in flesh, but I
have over estimated very much, for one horse will cart onl-
oue ton with the load running upon the ground, while one
horse power will cart several tons with the load running upon
my guideway. I have the advantage of the less draught of
the ploughs by their not resting upon the bottom of the fur-
row pan, which in Mr. Pusey's experiments was found equal to
fully one-third loss of power ; and the draught of all imple-
ments will be less from the looseness of the soil, from not con-
solidating the ground by treading upon it ; in fact, when we
see that market gardens plough land often at 10 and 12 inches
deep with one pair of horses, this will become very apparent,
but I think it better to take to myself the advantages which
will accrue from better tillage and more frequent hoeings, &c.,
than to reduce the horse power of the engines ; in fact, prac-
tical knowledge will point to the reverse of a reduction being
the proper direction. But, howsoever this may be, there is a
commercial advantage due to the above facts in my system for
which I have not given myself credit in my balance sheet.

If land is undulatiug or hilly, it necessarily requires for its
cultivation more horses than the same acreage does upon the
flat. In the case of my system, I should require the same in.
crease of power ; but, inasmuch as the labour bill on my scale
is so small in comparison with the labour bill on the opposite
side, namely, aj £936 is to £3,076, any per-centage increase
of labour on my side tells considerably less upon profits than
it does in horse farming. It may still be objected that the
weight of the machinery (the engines and cultivators) being
considerable, an amount of waste power will occur greater
than that with horses. Now, this will not be the case, for my
machinery, including the engines, girders, wheels, and all other
parts, can be manufactured at the weight of not much more
than one horse for every horse-power of the engine, and as the

power expended in rising a hill resolves itself into two ele-
ments, the one the draught upon the implement or the load,
aud the other the rise of the whole weight a certain number of
fett perpendicular height in a certain number of minutes, and
since, in both cases, the elements are nearly the same, the
power expended will al so be nearly the same ; but as, on my
side, the advantage is found, that for every expeuditure of one,
horse power in horses I can do the same at one-foutth the cost,
so whether the land is undulating or flat, I can do the work at
a great commercial advantage.

But let me take a question of still greater importance. If
it is true that a large amount of cultivation is beneficial, or if
a soil be so stubborn as to require an extreme amount of la-
bour, how easily' I can give it 1 For instance, if I employ half
as much more machinery, men, and coals, and give an amount
of cultivation equal to 50 per cent, more, I can do this at the
increased cost of £463, namely, half of £936 ; while to do the
same on the opposite side would require an increased cost of
£1,538, which is the half of £3,076.

If the amount of labour is increased on a farm, we shall find
that on account of the cost of my operations being so small^
while the interest upon the rails is a fixed quantity, the advan
tages on my side rapidly increase. This, which is so much
the tendency of the day (especially in au increase of work re-
quiring care), is well met in my system, by its being so ad-
mirably adapted to assist in performing and in cheapening the
more delicate operations, thus facilitating double croppiugs,
increasing largely the cattle feeding produce, the head of cattle
for sale, the manure raised upon the farm, the richness of the
soil, and the production of corn.

Profits. — In consequence of the small cost of each opera-
tion, it is found that after paying the interest on the money
for laying down the rails, and aa annual charge per acre for
their constant renewal, a saving of from 20s, to 243. per acre
will be effected in the case of well-cultivated farm land. If to
this is added from £1 to £2 per acre as the increased value
of produce on account of superior cultivation, which is consi-
dered by competent judges due to the guideway system, these
two sums will form an extra profit of nearly £3 per acre. lu
the case of a more laboured and profitable cultivation, such as
rough gardening and market gardening, the additional profit will
rise as high as from five to six pounds per acre. These sums
form a profit of from 10 to 40 percent, on the capital laid out
for rails, which will be shared between the landowners and
their tenants primarily, but eventually the benefits will go
wholly to the landowners.

At first sight, the advantages in a commercial point of view
in the accompanying sheets are apparent as producing a large
interest for the necessary outlay for rails, &c. ; but not only is
this true, but to the landlord the system holds out the greatest
benefits, either with or without outlay on his part, by increas-
ing the value of the fee simple of his land, an increase in value
which holds to all the future.

For, allowance having been made for interest and depreciation
on capital in laying down the rails, the profit becomes in effect
an increased rent, and being a permanent increase of double
and treble the present rent, it will increase the fee simple of
the land to double and treble its present value, iu the same
manner as the value of land is increased by drainage, or as the
improved system of husbandry introduced into Norfolk, and
copied into other counties, raised its value from five to tenfold.
I have said permanent increase of value, for this increase is
evidently not only irrespective of the source from whence the
capital comes to lay down the rails, but of the depreciation
and wear and tear of the rails.
It is evident that the tenant under a long lease will receive

158

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

all the advantages and profits arising from the system through-
out the whole of his term.

Market Gardens. — Market gardens may be admirably
cultivated by this system, three-fourths of the present very
costly hand labour being performed by the guideway ma-
chinery, with far more benefit to the land, as testified by com-
petent judges who hare seen it in operation ; and those very
portions of the labour necessary to be performed by hand, such
as planting, cross hoeing, &c , are executed in a far more
efficient, systematic, and economic manner. By the avoidance
of walking amongst the plants for that purpose, no consolida-
tion of the ground or breaking of the young plants can take
place ; and the soil is always in a loose and friable state. That
most important and now expensive operation to a market
gardener, watering, may be done at a small cost and a greater
economy of time and water, without the injury attending the
use of water carts, or of a pipe and hose, with their unavoid-
able injury to young plants. The crops will, from the above
reasons, attain a more rapid maturity, and thus an earlier pro-
duce, with consequent larger prices, will be obtained by the
market gardener.

A respectable and intelligent market gardener, who has often
witnessed my operations, writes in a letter : — " I have inspected
the guideway on many occasions, and find it most efhcacious.
There is not an operation which this machine will not do,
whether it is trenching, hoeing', drilling, or any other nice
work; and there is nothing, in my opinion, so agreeable to the
eye as work when thus well done ; and with economy — for that
is the secret of large profits and small outlay — clays could
be rendered comparatively light, and a season got in a few
hours. The ' comminutor' cleans the ground of that dreadful
couch in one single operation, the laud being ever so foul and
stiflf, leaving the soil a perfect seed-bed, casting the couch on
one side, the stones on the other. * * The crops can be
carried without injury to the soil, for carrying crops and dis-
tributing manure are two operations very diflScult to appre-
ciate, as there are many who have grown large root crops, and
suffered greatly from the removal of those crops. I have
known many instances in market gardening where a season
has been lost owing to the weather being wet at the time of
carting. I happen to know a market gardener who grew 50
tons of mangold wurtzel per acre, and sold it on the ground ;
the person who bought it cut up the land into ribbons, so that
the gardener lost the next crop. Had the guideway been
there the crop would have been carted off, manure at the rate
of 40 tons returneii, and the laud tilled, and a fine crop of cab-
bage growing for early spring. I have often had labourers
upon my cultivator, and they always appreciated the ease and
correctness with which they could perform operations."

Rough gardening, in which the cultivation is on an extended
scale, for the growth of potatoes, mangold wurtzel, cabbages,
and sometimes corn, with its laborious and very costly culture,
and its large cartage, will receive the same advantages.

BALANCE SHEET (Market Garden.)
Statement showinu the Cost at which Vegetable Produce is how
raised for the London Markets, and the Cost at which the
same could he done by the Guideiuay System for a Holding
of 50 acres —

A steam cultivator, like the small one above described, and
of 2-horse power, but capable of working for many more hours
in the day than horses do, would cost £120, two trucks would
cost £40, aud all the implements £50 : total £210. The
wear and tear of this, at fifteen per cent., would be 123. 6d.
per acre.

In the following table all the operations that are performed

in the same manner in both systems, and therefore amount to
the same cost, are not put down.

Potatoes and Collards— (Ist Year).

Cost on the Cost by

present system, steam

per acre. per acre.

£ s. d. £ B. d.

Trenching at 3d. per rod 2 0 0 0 10 0

Cartage of manure, 40 tons.,

exclusive of filling, &c ." 0 10 0 0 5 0

Hoeings and earthing 10 0 0 4 6

Taking-np 15 0 0 5 0

CoUards, digging, 2d. per rod 16 8 0 6 0

hoeiugs , 10 0 0 2 0

£7 1 8
Hand operations 0 5 0

£1 17 6

Interest on machinery 0 12 6

Depreciation, wear and tear of rails 10 0

£3 10 0
Advantage in favour of steam, say £3 10a. per acre.

Lettuces and Savoys— (2nd Year).

Cost on the Cost by

present system, steam

per acre. per acre,

£ a. d. £ 8. d.

Cartage of manure 0 10 0 0 5 0

Trenching 2 0 0 ........ 0 10 0

Forking, Id. per rod 0 14 0 0 3 0

Treading aud raking 0 10 0 0 2 0

Hoeicgs 1 10 0 0 4 0

Savoy digging 16 0 0 6 0

Theeehoeiags 10 0 0 2 0

£7 10 0
Hand operations 0 5 0

£1 17 0

Interest on machinery 0 12 6

Depreciation, wear and tear of rails 1 0 0

£3 9 6
Advantage in favour of steam, say £4.

In market gardening watering is only practised with some
crops. It is performed sometimes by watering-pots, for the
injury to the land is considerable when it is carried out with
horses and carts. The value of such an operation, if done to
the extent of ten waterings to a crop, may be computed at
from 21. to 10/., according to the nature of the plants and the
season. It will be a small advantage if this value be taken at
3/. per acre. From 4:1. to 61. per acre is paid by many market
gardeners when watering is performed. This is for eight or
ten waterings, and is an amount which could be done by the
steam engine for lOs. an acre.

The case would then stand thus : —

Advantage in favour of steam... £3 15 0
Add value by watering 3 0 0

Deduct cost of watering ,

6 15 0
0 10 0

£6 5 0
Leaving 6/. 5s. per acre, equal to 45 per cent, profit on the
total capital, for rails (at lOZ. per acre), and implements,
engines, &c.

Lois Weedon. — The Lois Weedon system of cultivating
wheat is also one which could with great facility be carried
out by my system. I know that scientific men are divided in
opinion upon the practicability of Mr. Smith's cultivation
being carried on long without exhausting the land ; but it

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

15'J

nevertheless is a fact that for 13 years he has done so, and
certainly we may say that that which has heen done before
may, in like circumstances, be done again. The large profit to
be derived by carrying it out by my system must be my excuse
for briuging the subject before you ; and I roust add, that I
do not see how it would be practicable to carry it out by any
other system of steam cultivation. The rails forming guides
to the implements, and the implements being suspended from
above, would enable me (o cultivate at all times between the
rows of growing corn.

By my steam cultivation (after paying interest for money,
rent, &c.), 5^. per acre would be cleared per annum, with wheat
at its present low price, and without taking any value for the
straw. If such profits could be obtained for only 13 years, the
fee simple of average-priced land would have been paid twice
over. By hand labour the profits are considerably less, and
not easy of attainment oa a large scale ; while by horses it is
hardly practicable.

The West Indies. — The power which the guideway cul-
ture has for working between the rows of the standing sugar-
cane (which in some soils remain for many years undisturbed),
for the purpose of ploughing, earthing the crops, and for per-
forming the hoeings which arc so constantly required, renders
my system invaluable for this laborious cuUiva'ion. The
cartage of crops (a very heavy and constant operation) would
also be performed. A plantation would thus be rendered, in
all its field labours, independent of the inconstant and irregular
attendance now obtained, and the crops would in consequence
be greatly increased.

The capital required may be thought too great for proprie-
tors in the colonies ; but this is erroneous, the cultivation of
tu^ar being one of the most costly and the most profitable in
the world.

The money necessary to carry out my system is less than
liulf that required to purchase the slaves for the field work of
an estate in America or in Cuba ; the daily cost of the work
is far less than the keep of the slaves ; and as slave estates can
compete with free labour estates in our colonies, and the pro-
prietors succeed in making large profit?, the system which I
propose would evidently give a very large interest for the
mon?y laid out, and would free the land of the difficulty
attfched to its cultivation from the scarcity of labour, or as
has been the case in many parts of the West Indies, of having
no labour at all to put upon it, and in consequence losing its
entire value.

It must be admitted that the disadvantages under which a
new principle of steam cultivation labours iu its development
by means of home-made instead of factory-made machinery is
great ; but it surely tells much for the probable future of my
principle, that with all such disadvsntages, I had still, in a
few months from the time of completing my cultivator, per-
formed the whole range of the operations of the field, and at a
cost very small in comparison with that by horses ; while, on
any of the previously-invented principles, after more than
thirty years of trial by men, some of large means and well-
established talent, not one operation has yet been effectually
performed by steam-power but that of breaking-up the land ;
while, moreover, as I before mentioned, it is hardly in the cost
of the operation itself of breaking-up the land by steam-power
in comparison with ploughing with horses, that any claim can
be made of a saving ; for instance, Mr. TowUr's average
ploughing is, by the judges' report, about seven shillings per
acre verms seven shillings by horse.", and Mr. Smith's breaking-
up land is computed at a fraction more ; but it is rath«r in
some accompanying circumstances that a commercial advan-
tage is gaineJ, such as not treading on the ground during the

ploughing operation, and a concentration of power at suitable
seasons, enabling a reduction of horse-power, all of which I
gain in a higher ratio, for I never tread on the ground ia any
one operation during the year, and I can concentrate power in
a double degree, for I can plough, hoe, drill, seed, &c., at night
as well as in the day. Iu fact. Professor John Wilson, who,
you are aware, was one of the judges appointed by the Royal
Agricultural Society to award a prize of 500/. for the best
steam-plough, at Chester, did me the honour to visit my place,
and having witnessed the various operations, remarked upon the
poiu*, when I allr.ded to it, in these words: — "Of course that
which they gain in a degree, you gain in tha extreme ; in fact,
your system would make farming operation equal to market
gardening."

The following is a list of the operationa which I have per-
formed by my cultivators : —

I have ploughed, subsoiled, harrowed, rolled, used the clod-
crusher, used the Norwegian harrow ; I have drilled seed dry
and with liquid manure, hoed the crops, used the scarifier,
reaped corn, carried crops, carried water ; I have watered crops
over the surface of the ground and plants, and watered in rows
upon rows of seed or young plants to economise water or
'iquid manure ; I have drilled the seed between rows of stand-
ing plants, and I have performed the new operations of the
" comrainutor," weed-root extractor and artificial manure dis-
tributor, already explained ; the underground watering be-
tween rows of standing plants, and ploughing by night.

I have enabled the following hand operations to be performed
w'th greater facility to the labourer, greater economy in time
and cost, and greater regularity than can now be performed,
namely, dibbling seed, transplanting, hand -weeding, cross-
hoeing, and taking off crops — without, iu any case, treading
upon the ground, cr spoiling rows of growing plants interlined
between other rows.

Besides these operations, there are many others which are
not now performed by machinery or horses, which I expect to
accomplish by steam machinery. For instance, I have no
donbt of being able to perform dibbling seed, and also, when
required, cross-hoeiug; and the following very important
operation — which cannot be effected by horses — could be easily
done by my system, from the fact of being able to pass repeat-
edly over the same ground without treading or touching the
land, and from the facility which I have of concentrating a
large amount of power upon any one portion of land at one
time.

The ground is first ploughed one deep furrow, say, in
autumn. It is then lifted by a suitable broa.l-lifting plougbj
and laid in wide ridges, leaving broad pans of about four feet
in width. Tt:e pan is then ploughed and sub-soiled, part of
the mould at the same time becoming mixed by the operation
with the bottom soil ; it is then left for the weather and the
winter's frosts to act upon it. Afterwards the ridges are split
down and the land levelled for forming the seed bed, or the
sides may be split down, and the operations reversed, and that
lying under the first ridges be sub-soiled and exposed. By
such operations, iu the course of a short period, without bring-
ing to the surface any of the subsoil, or any more of the sub-
soil than is desired, land may be reduced to a fine deep mould.

Taking a review, therefore, of all the advantages of the sys-
tem, comprising the ability of concentrating a large amount of
power, as shown in the bouting of land, and so far as time is
concerned, by working twenty-four hours ia the day ; the
advantages of my " comminutor," the facility for performing
the most delicate operations, the absence of all treading upon
and consolidating the soil, and thereby the avoidance of injury
to growing plants ; the ability to water growing plants without

160

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

injury to them, and at a small cost ; the ability to cart at all
seasons and in all weathers ; and lastly, that this can be done
at a considerable diminution of cost, all interest on rails and
machinery being much more than covered by the saving on
labour; do we not see the vast power which steam has, not
only to master all the difficulties, and effect all the operations
of agriculture, but also greatly to improve the processes ?
proving the truth of the writings of Mr. Wren Hoskyna, in
which such a result is fore-shadowed, and in]]whose more elo-
quent words let me conclude a paper, far too long, I fear, for
the patience of my hearers. " Circurastances (says that gen-
tleman) likely to form hereafter an important fea'ure in the
history of the present time — an unprecedented expansion m
the trade cf the country — emigrdtion on an extraordinary scale
to the gold-fields of America and Australia, acting almost
simultaneously with a serious reduction in the population of
the sister-kingdom, and all tending to the same result, a home
for the scarcity of labouring hands — have created a demand for
agricultural machinery heretofore unknown, and revived the
half-abandoned question of the application of the ateam-engine
to the culture of the soil. The long-cited example of its general
use in manufactures, and the revolution it has wrought in every
other branch of art, has given place to the closer argument of
the actual and now familiar-appearance in the farm-yard itself.
The mere habituation of the eye is the best of all arguments in
cases of this kind; the farmer who has once had a travel-
ling steam-thrashing machine in his field or yard is pre-
pared to hear, if not to ask the question, why its services
should not be extended further ; he sees the simplicity of its
workmanship, and the ease and docility of its movements, and
its striking concentration of power into small compass If it
is to be expected, as most of those who have given any notice
to the subject appear to admit, that the steam engine, when-
ever it is successfully applied to cultivation, will cause a revo-
lution, as well from the manual as from the horse-power
methods of effecting it, it is not less likely that it will in a
corresponding degree improve the process itself, and present a
result comparatively perfect. Given the accomplishment of the
act, the rate of intrinsic improvement in the act it almost fore-
determined."

Mr. W. Smith would ask Mr. Halkett whether he had cor-
rectly understood him to stale that the proportion of power
required for moving the machinery itself really was five-eighths
of the whole power exerted in the performance of the work, as
stated in the paper. Another point was, in taking into account
the interest of the capital invested, Mr. Halkett merely referred
,to the cost of laying down the rails. He (Mr. Smith) wished
to know whether he had included the cost cf the machinery,
and the entire apparatus; because if the calculation referred
merely to the cost of the rails, he considered that a very ma-
terial element had been omitted.

Mr. Alderman Mechi, having had an opportunity of ex-
amining the operation of Mr. Halkett's system of cultivation
in very bad weather, had no hesitation in stating his impression
that all the statements which Mr. Halkett had just made would
be borne out by the results when put into practice. He knew
that that was not the opinion of many of his practical friends ;
but there could be no doubt that what had been done by the
locomotive engine on railways, mi-hi in soaie degree be taken
as anexampleof what was possible under the proposed syst.m.
They found that engines drew after them, at high vtlocities,
traiua of 200 tons, at a cost of not more than ba'f-a-crown per
mile for the working expenses. Might not a similar reduction
of coat he hope 1 for in at,'ricultiiral operations? If he had
correctly understood Mr. Halkett, £10 per acre was the cost
of the wooden rails, and he (Mr. Mechi) believed they could be

laid at that price. The interest of that, and the wear and tear,
he would take at ISs. per acre. He believed that it was well
understood that the cost of horse and manual labour upon a
farm was something like £3 per acre as regarded the arable
portion of the land. If 20 per ceut. on that was savtd by the
plan now proposed, that would be ISa. on the £3, which would
pay for the interest of the rails. He also understood Mr.
Halkett to say that the coat of his machinery might be set
against the ordinary cost of the horses and the usual farming
implements, which he (Mr. Mechi) believed to he quite true ;
and this, he thought, would be an answer to the gentleman
(Mr. Smith) who had just made some remarks on that subject-
They all knew that, practically, wherever tbcy could bring
steam to bear, horse-power could not in any way compete with
it, either with regard to economy, endurance, or opportunities
for cultivation. Therefore, the whole question might be said
to depend upon whether the annual saving under this system
would be equal to the interest on the amount of the fixed capi-
tal laid down in the rails. That, he thought, was the essence
of the question. But when they considered the numerous ad-
vantages of the plan which he had witnessed — that it could be
used in all weathers, except in hard frost, and used unuringly,
and also at night— there could be no doubt that the opportu-
nity of doing the work at the very time that it was wanted,
and, above all, tie superior manner in which the work itself
was done, would more than compensate for any loss of interest
upon the cost of the rails. He could only say, thai ht had
witnessed the machine at work with eight plou;;hs and two
subsoil ploughs, and the soil was lifted and thrown over in a
manner which exhibited a most favourable contrast to the ordi-
nary mode of ploughing. The ploughs, barging as they did
from the framing cf the machine, acted with perfect accuracy,
and nothing could move them from their line of working. The
implements might break, but they could not alter their posi-
tion, and would perform the work with an accuracy unknown
to horse-power. He had no doubt some of hia friends would
put him down as being rather " fast" upon this subject, but
he had applied common sense and calculation to it, and he
would say that he felt personally indebted to Mr. Halkett for
the lucid manner in which he had brought forward his system,
and the evidence with which he was prepared to prove that
which be had stated.

Dr. Matthew Truman remarked, that according to the
statement of Mr. Halkett, large farms of 1,000 acres or more
presented the greatest facilities for the full testing of this sys-
tem of cultivation ; but farms of that extent were not to be
found in all parts of the country, nor were the fields joined to-
gether in the manner best calculated for carrying out this ope-
ration. He should be glad to know what was the minimum
quautity of land to wliich this system would be applicable.
Mr. Halkett had spoken of market-gardens, but those were
cultivated in a very different manner to the generality of farm
land throughout the country. It appeared that it was not
adapted to every form of cultivation, and if the employment of
horses was necessary for exceptional cases thf re could not be
sufficient occupation for them througbont the year. He appre-
hended that unless the entire estate were laid out very much
in the form they saw in the diagram exhibited, the business of
a farm of 1,000 acres could not be comlucted entirely without
horses ; and he thought that was so much deduction to be
made from the profit that was supposed to accrue from the
adoption of this system. It appeared to him to Le a most im-
portant subject, and one in which all agriculturists must feel
a great interest.

Mr. William Hawes would raise a question or two,
which had nothing to do with the actual machinery employed,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

161

but rather with the cost at which it could be applied. He re-
garded it as uext to iiupossible that tenant farmers could iucur
the expenditure necessary to carry out that syatem whilst thf;y
stood in the position of teuauts at-will, or on short leases. Tiie
question of long or short lenses was a vexed one amougat the
agricultural community, and he thought it one of the legiti-
mate objects of this Society to look at the questioa not merely
as to the pecuniary cost of cultivating the laud, l)ul, having
ascertained the fact that a great improvement could be intro-
duced into our agricultural syatem, it became them to iiiquiie
whether an antiquated system of legislation had not tended to
retard improvement, and check that which might otherwise be
a great public and national benelit.

Mr. Mechi would ask Mr. Halkett whether he had ever
worked the engine at a higher pressure than from 40 lbs. to
50 lbs. to the square inch, seeing that railway locomotives
would commonly work st as high a pressure as 120 lbs. to
140 lbs.; and also, whether he did not think advantage would
he gained'jby working at a higher pressure than that mentioned*
making the relative cost less for wear and tear ?

The Earl of Caithness said that 120 lbs. pressure was only
au average one for railway locomotives, and a pressure of
140 lbs. might, in his opinion, be as safely employed in steam
culture as in any other operation. He would ask one question
o( Mr. Halkett with regard to these rails. It appeared from
the diagram exhibited of the machine in operation, that the
rails were laid down in long lengths, and that all such obstruc-
tions as hedges and ditches were removed. Such a course, he
believed, was attended v/ith great advantages in farming ; but
it would be a matter of cousiderable expense, either to the
proprietor or the tenant, to fill up the ditches, and clear away
the intervening hedge-rows. That was an item which he sug-
gested ought fairly to be added to the expense of iutroducinj;
the system of cultivation now imder consideration. He would
alao a&k, in what lengths the rails were laid dowii, and how
they were fastened at the junctions — \ehether fished, or it"
what way they were put together ; and further, whether they
were intended to be permaneut rails ? A friend of his had re-
marked that this system woidd be a most disagreeable accom-
paniment to a farm, inasmuch as tiie laying down of these rails
would effectuaUy destroy fox hunting, as horses would not like
to go across the fields in which tl e rails were laid. Knowing
that John Bull was very fond of foxhunting, and the English
farmer liked good horses, he wou i almost be sorry to see the
country spoiled for this old Eugli-.h sport. At the same time^
he was a great advocate for auyt'; ;ag which would enable far-
mers to employ steam as the mc tis of cultivating land. He
believed it was capable of being d ue. Whether Mr. Halkett
had exactly propounded the way i:i which it was to be elfected
remained to be proved. Mr. SpjiiU's mode of steam ploughing
fiomwhat he had seen of it, was ■ xceedingly good, and he was
sorry he had not hud the; oppor; ;iuity of witnessing it upon a
large scale. He had seen it in < peratiou at Windsor, on the
occasion ot Mr. Fowler exhibitiiig it to the Priu'.e Consort*
and the experiment was quite sufficient to demonstrate that
ploughing could : be done well by steam. He had this year
given to Mr. Fow'.er the offer to plough 200 acres of land for
a frieud of his, but^he received an answer from Mr. Fowler to
the effect that he did not uudertske ploughing himself; but
his advice was. that the farmers of a district should club to-
gether for purchase of an engine and apparatus for steam
ploughing. If that could be done, he (Lord Caithness) be-
lieved it wo\ild be a most advantageous plan. He believed if
any one would establish a steam plough in a district, and let it
out, although there might be some loss m the first instance,
yet, if the practicability and advantage of ploughing by steam

were demonstrated, the great diflSculty would be got over.
The great objection to this system was, that he was afraid
they would not get persons, especially farmers, to lay out the
large surn that was required to carry out Mr. Halkett's plan of
culture. The system itself was extremely beautiful, and, with
the rails properly laid and fish-jointed, he had no doubt exces-
sively good work could be done, without that detriment to the
laud which was occasioned by the trampling of horses' feet.
With regard to the operation of hoeing, he felt interested in
tliat process, particularly with reference to turnips ; but the
objection to this plan, as applied to turnips, he apprehended
would be, that wheu the hoeing was done by machinery, the
healthy plants might be hoed up, and unpromising plants left
behind. When the hoeing was done by hand, the strongest
plants were allowed to remain. Upon the whole, he thought
farmers generally would not regard this system with a favour-
able eye, more especially as it appeared by the diagram that
there was a little corner which, from its shape, must be culti-
vated by the ordinary mesius.

The Chairman said, that the noble lord who had just sat
down had spoken most favourably of the use of steam, but hia
lordship appeared to think the farmers were bo benighted a
class that they had not the spirit to club together to raise &
few hundreds to bring it into operation. He (the Cbairmau)
might appeal to Mr Shuttleworth and Mr. Howard whether,
when farmers were convinced of the advantages of employing
a steam engine, they did not at once procure one. He could
mention the fact that in one locality, with which he was well
acquainted, the farmers had formed a company, and had pur-
chased and si;t to work four of Hornsby's engines.

Mr. George Shackel remarked that this subject had been
alluded to by the noble lord as a tenant's question. He (Mr.
Shackel) would rather it had been introduced as a landlord's
question, as that was certainly the light in which he regarded
it. It was not to be imagined that a farmer with 7 or 14 years
lease would embark in the necessary outlay. It was not hia
wish to throw any obstacles in the way of this plan ; for
with wheat at 408. a quarter, it would be a great desideratum
with the farmer to have a system introduced that would enable
him to obtain a fair profit. With regard to the hoeing of tur-
nips, the farmers were only too glad to get plants at all, with-
out exercising any great nicety in selecting the strongest plants
in the operation of hoeing.

Mr. James Howard would say one word with reference
to what had just fallen from the Chairman. He (Mr. Howard)
Could answer for the tenant farmers, that they were not want-
ing in spirit in adopting any system that was proved to pay.
The farmers were a very calculating clas?, and he was con-
vinced that if they v.ere made acquainted with the existence of
a really good invention they would not be slow to try it. He
(Mr. Howard) had been a good deal couuecied with Smith's
steam ploughing tackle, and could state that there had been
no trouble in disposing of 40 sets of the sttam cultivating ap-
paratu?, upwards of 30 of wh.ich bad been soli to teLanta,
That fact alone was sufficient to redeem them from the asper-
sion that they wanted spirit to adopt inventions which they
knew to be really good and practically valuable. He agreed
with Mr. Shackel in considering the introduction of this sys-
tem as a laudlord's question, and if the proprietors of land
would go to the expense of carrying out this plan of Mr. Hal-
kett's, the tenant farmers would only be too happy to make
use of it. With regard to the power of traction exerted by
the machinery, he believed the Londou and North Western
Railway Company had not a locomotive engine that would
take itself up an incline of 1 in 15, at a mile an hour.

The Earl of Caithness said, with reference to the remark

M 2

162

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of Mr. Shacke), that the farmers were only too glad to get
turnip plants of any kind, and were not careful lo select the
strongest plants in the hoeiug, he (Lord Caithness) would say
that that was not the plan adopted in Scotland. He did not
mean to assert that the English agriculturist was behind the
Scotch, for they all knew what the English farmer could do,
but in Scotland the practice was to select the finest plants in
hoeing.

The Chairman took the liberty of suggesting that this
was not the time to discuss the comparative merits of Scotch
and English farming.

Mr. S. Sidney knew that the farmers of England were
rather in advance than behindhand in the desire to employ
steam in the cultivation of the land. It was in fact the want
of the present time, and if one thing was more remarkable
than another in the progress of agriculture during the last ten
J ears, it was the extreme rapidity with which the farmers had
come to make use of steam, if they had anything offered them
that they were sure would pay. Large sums of money were
waiting to be invested in that way, when once the farmers
were sure that an implement had been produced which would
not be rendered valueless by after-improvement, or reduced in
value and utility by modifications from time to time. He
feared the time had scarcely arrived when farmers were pre-
pared to give an opinion upon this plan ; and with regard to
those who were engaged in designing improvements in the ap-
plication of steam to agricultural purposes, they were so much
engaged in tryin* to perfect their own inventions that they were
not prepared to say much about other plans. When he first saw
the plan, the difficulty which presented itself to his mind was
that the sinking of a large capital in the land would not be
received in a favourable manner. Putting aside that minor
point, it was impossible not to see that the difficulties were
not mechanical, but financial. It was not easy to find per-
sons prepared to sink so large a capital in the soil as this
new system called for. He drew a broad distinction between
the farmer who was prepared to lay out from £500 to £800
for a steam engine which was applicable to the operations
of the farm generally, and him who might be inclined to Lay
down the permanent system of works advocated by Mr.
Halkett. He did not despair of seeing Mr. Halkett'splan
adopted in some places ; but it must first be done by some
gentleman who went into the matter to make for himself a
reputation without any hope of profit. He thought the
calculation of per-centages, as brought forward by Mr. Hal-
kett, was a delusive one. There was no comparison be-
tween the case of land worth £6 an acre, with an outlay
upon it of £90 per acre, or 1,500 per cent,, and Mr. Halkett's
system. In the former case the cultivation was by slaves
who were a saleable propert}', and not invested capital in the
soil ; therefore that 1,500 per cent, did not, in fact, repre-
sent the capital sunk in the land. The difficulty in Mr.
Halkett's system was that the capital was not invested in a
class of property which could be sold or mortgaged, but
which stood in the same position as the working plant sunk
in a mine. He would like to see the plan carried out by
some of those landed proprietors who from time to time
fortunate!}' came forward to employ their capital for the
public good.

Mr. Bailey Denton could not help expressing some re-
gret that Mr. Halkett still adhered to figures in estimating
the cost of the rails, which he (Mr. Denton) believed were
too low. He entirely echoed the statement of Mr. Mechi
as to the beautiful manner in which the different operations
were executed by Mr. Halkett's machinery ; but in the in-
troduction of that system, they must not only knock down the

hedges and fill up the ditches, but it would also be rf cessary
to level the surface of the country similar to the feu lands of
England. He could add, that the system of Mr. Halkett was
peculiarly suited for market-garden purposes ; and the great
reason why it had not been introduced upcn those occupations
was owing to the small scale on which they existed in this
country ; but were it possible to construct market gardens of
a size to make it worth while to try this system, he believed it
would answer very well.

Mr. Henry Smith, as a practical farmer, wished to know
whether, presuming these rails were laid down upon certain
lands upon a farm of a thousand acres, horses could be en-
tirely dispensed with, ss regarded the apparatus itself ? He
would also be glad. to know by what means the produce was
conveyed from the fields to the homestead ; also, how the
manure was carried from the farm-yard to the land?

Mr. Cornelius Walford urged the desirability of ren-
dering the discussion of this subject as practical as possible.
With the present low prices, before shown, it would be neces-
sary for farmers to adopt some other system than the present
one for cultivating the laud. Looking at the tone of the dis-
cussion, he was led to the observation, that whilst the meeting
saw the necessity for the introduction of some new method of
culture, they were not at present in a position to pledge
themselves to this or any other scheme. His opinion of the
tenant farmers was, that they would readily adopt every real
improvement that was introduced into the science of agricul-
ture,

Mr. Halkett said, in answer to Mr. Smith, that the in-
terest on machinery and implements was the same as that for
hor»es and horse machinery. In answer to the question as to
the size of the fariu, he said that the system might be used
with the small machinery for farms of only 200 acres. In re-
ply to Mr. Mechi, he thought that the question of increasing
the pressure of the steam was quite an engineering one. In
his own opinion, it would, perhaps, be better ; but if the
pressure was increased, and the cylinders were the same
size, the boiler must be enlarged ; in fact, the power
of an engine very much depended on the size of the boiler.
With regard to an observation made by Lord Caithness, in
reference to hedges, he (Mr. Halkett) always under-
stood that taking down a hedge paid for itself. He be-
lieved that it was his Lordship who remarked that by this
system larger crops would be obtained. He felt sure that one
had but to see the fine crop of mangel-wurzels grown by Mr.
Smith with his steam plough, to be convinced of the
advantages which were to be obtained by not treading on
the ground during the ploughing, while in his (Mr. Hal-
kett's) system the ground was not trodden upon at all in
any operation. In reply to Mr. Howard, of Bedford, he
said that locomotives could be made to go up a steep in-
cline if they were, by a proper arrangement of machinerj',
made to reduce the revolutions of their wheels to the proper
speed. They would then be able to go up much more than
1 in 15, even as much as 1 in 5. But locomotives were
made for speed — to go 40 or 50 miles an hour. He did not
mean to say that in any case they would be able to draw a
train up a steep incline, for the wheels would slip ; but in
his case it was quite different, for, as he had before ex-
plained, all his wheels were driving-wheels. He begged to
thank Mr. Sydney for the flattering terms in which he had
spoken of his paper. "With reference to the remarks upon
the 1,500 per cent, of outlay upon the fee-simple of land
upon sugar estates, he was only stating a well-known fact ;
this included slaves, buildings, and machinery, and he (j\Ir.
Halkett) could see no difference in the case. If the one was

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

163

mortgageable property, so were his rails. He of course only
argued upon the supposition that the system had been
proved to be valuable. He agreed with Mr. Bailey Denton
in considering the brick and iron rail, which was the most
costl}' of the two, the best. With reference to the cost at
which they could be laid down, he had had them actually
constructed, and the entire cost of material and labour
had been noted.

The Chairman, in closing the discussion, remarked that
they should not encourage in that room the notion that
farmers were, for the most part, the stupid, benighted race
which some persons^chose to designate them. No doubt
there were many uneducatedfanners,as wellaspoorfarmers;
and many tenants probably held larger occupations than
their means justified. They did not want the Society of
Arts to tell them these facts. What they wanted on the
part of this Society was to point out the importance of me-
chanical principles, and to call to the aid of the farmers the
application of those mechanical principles. The position in
which this question stood was this: In the first place, far-
mers, from the north to the south, and even including the
benighted west, were alive to the importance of steam cul-
tivation. In the agricultural exhibitions of the country it
was found that nothing tended to attract so large an attend-
ance as the announcement that a steam engine, working a
large number of ploughs, would form a feature of the exhi-
bition. At present there were three systems of steam cul-
tivation before the countrj-, two of a locomotive characters
and the stationary system. There was the locomotive
system upon a moveable railway, introduced bj' Mr. Boy-
dell. Then there was the system that had been explained
that evening, of a fixed permanent line of rails. And
thirdly, there were several forms of stationary engines,
acting upon machinery by means of long wire ropes. All
these were now before the mechanical and agricultural
world ; and they only awaited the getting over of some
practical difficulties, which they looked to the engineering
talent of the country to surmount. His friend, Mr. Mechi,
had opened the discussion in a thoroughly practical maimer.
The simple question was, whether the saving effected by
Mr. Halkett's system was greater than that of horse-power^
or rather, whether the comparison of interest upon the fixed
capital invested would show a balance for or against the
former. He might be allowed to say that he came intothe
room with some prejudice against Mr. Halkett's system,
and he was even disinclined to take the chair, lest it should
be regarded by his friends as an indication of his approval
of the plan; but he felt bound to say that what he had
heard that evening had led him to take a much more favour-
able view. If Mr. Halkett wished to win the agricultural
mind to his plan, he must show what was the utmost amount
of capital necessary to be invested, not only in the first out-
lay for the rails, but also in getting the whole system into
operation. These were matters which the agricultural mind
was apt to overrate, and which, on the other hand, the en-
gineering mind had a tendency to underrate, for they knew
very well that English engineera were ready to undertake
anything, if the money was only found them. In the same
way, he believed, the farmers were ready to adopt any
change, if it was shown — not merely upon paper, but in the
field— that it would pay them. He begged to propose a
vote of thanks to Mr. Halkett for his va'uable and highly
interesting paper.

The vote of thanks having been passed,

Mr. Halkett, in acknowledging the compliment, re-
marked that he was willing to submit his system to the

severest tests that could be applied to it. He bad invited
the examination of the most eminent engineers of the day.
amongst others Mr. William Fairbairn and Mr. Amos. He
was open to the most searching investigation with reference
to cost, and was ready to test his system in any locality in
which it might be deemed desirable, in order to prove the
correctness of the whole of his statements.

LECTURE ON "STURDY" IN SHEEP.

Mr. John (Jamgee was favoured by a large attendance in
the class-room of the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh,
on Wednesday week, to listen to his remarks on the pre-
vention of parasitic diseases of sheep, and of '' sturdy" in
particular. Mr. Gamgee alluded to the causes of sheep-rot,
to the very serious losses resulting from the great preva-
lence of filiform worms in the respiratory organs of
lambs, and occasionally to the sufferings flocks endure from
attacks of the 'hot, or cestrus ovinus. In speaking of
" sturdy," the lecturer stated that this was a disease of the
brain, attended by peculiar symptoms of giddiness, blind-
ness, imperfect co-ordination of movement, and partial para-
lysis, according to the position which the parasite causing it
held in the cranial cavitj'. The parasite is a bladder worm,
the ccenurus cerehralis, usually mistaken for a mere bag
filled with water, but which Lecke observed in 1780 to be
an animal. The cystic worm, inducing " sturdy,*' is one of
a class to which belong the hydatid in the flesh of measly
pigs (cysticercus celluloses), the hydatid sometimes found in
the human body and in various quadrupeds, known by the
generic title " echinococcus." All these cysts or bladders,
proved to have belonged or to form part of different animals,
were at one time supposed to have originated spontane ously by
the aggregation of matter, which afterwardsacquired vitality;
but, as our knowledge has advanced, more especially since
the researches of Ehrenberg in 1830, and of Eshricht in
1838, a certainty is established that all worms found in the
bodies of animals, however remote they may lodge from the
open channels which admit them into the living bodies
from without, are the produce of pre-existing parents, and
are developed from eggs. Mr. Gamgee described the para'
sites, and said that German zoologists and veterinarian.s had
caused dogs to swallow the hydatids from the brains of
sheep, with the effect of filling the dogs with tapeworms.
A few rings of the latter being given to lambs, the eggs had
passed through the body to the brain, and produced all the
characteristic features of " sturdy. There appears to be no
doubt that " sturdy" prevails among flocks of sheep in pro-
portion to the nurnber of dogs moving about pastures and de-
positing tapeworms. Mr. Gamgee has found that wher-
ever lambs can be kept without dogs, " sturdy" is unknown ;
but in mountain districts, and wherever dogs are indispens-
able, the malady decimates the flocks. Dogs that destroy
hares and rabbits are very likely to become subject to tape-
worms, and the deposit of the rings of the latter proves injurious
to the sheep. Mr. Gamgeeproposes, as a method of prevent-
ing " sturdy" — which, he believes, will prove infallible,
if properly carried out— segregation, as much as possible,
of lambs and yearling sheep from dogs ; destruction of the
tapeworm of the dog, by the periodical use of vermifuges,
such as garlic, kousso, and male fern. The fact that only
lambs become affected with "sturdy" has long been known ;
and that is easily explained, inasmuch as old sheep do not
allow of the penetration in their bodies of the tapeworm eggs.
Mr. Gamgee alluded to instruments for the cure of
"sturdy," and concluded by stating that he hoped f^irmers
would adopt the method which scitnce unerringly suggested
for the prevention of so formidable a complaint.

164

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LINSEED AND OILCAKE TRADE.

Sir, — In preaentiug our annaal circular to your notice, we j
are sorry again to have to preface it with an expression of re- ;
gret at the very unprofitable character of the trade ; unprofit- |
able alike to importer and crusher. Throughout the year 1
traasactioua have been limited in extent, speculation a dead
letter, with merchants holding out, and crushers on the other
hand (seeing no prospect of wording to o ^^'o/O. "deferring their
purchases until the latest moment also. We fear our retro-
spect will possess less of interest than usual ; no incidents to
call forth any particular comment marking the course of events
during the year, and prices fluctuating less thaa formerly.
We hope, hovcever, that a faithful record of the business done
during the past twelve mouths will be equally useful as a
register, although we have not such a retrospect to offer to
your notice as during the late war and its accompanying
speculative times. For the remainder of the present season :
v\e fear we can hold out but little prospect either, of profitable
business; but for the ensuing season of 1859-1860 we hope
there is every prob.ibility of large supplies, and with them we
trust the usual satisfactory results to all interested in the
trade.

Linseed was at 493. 6d. when the year opeised ; and the
mercantile panic at that time gradually subsiding, and con-
fidence becoming restored, we gradually improved to 523. by
end of the month (533. being paid for small cargoes to go to
outports), the enhanced value being aho greatly assisted
through the support given by Continental buyers for anything
available. In f ebruary the numerous arrivals off the coast
and desire of holders to quit their heavy stocks es-grauary
caused a reaction, and old seed was done at 48s. towards close
of the month. During March cargoes of new (1857) seed,
which was much better than the previous crop, realized 52s.
up to 53s. 6d., but old seed was still a drug at ols. to 503,,
and a very irregular trade doing. The same state of things
continued diiriog April, but at the end of that month the mar-
ket was very lively, and 543. paid for all offering. May was
rattier an exciting month in consequence of the enormous
export demand (accorapauied by a speculative forward de-
mand for oil), and 57». was once paid. The Continental re-
quirements, however, being satisfiKl, the price relapsed to 558.
during June, and up to this date the home trade had been
quite of a retail ciiaracter, prices having been influenced al-
most entirely by the exp urters. July found us with very
limited stocks, and the highest price of the year was paid,
namely, 59^., other descriptions of eeed selling at relatively
high prices, and particularly Bombay, which at this time
realized 62». to tiSs. per qr. In August, dry, parching wea-
ther giving prospect of a great cake trade, the value was stea-
dily maintained at 593. to 583. ; there was, however, great
anxitty on the part of merchants to realize going rates for
cargoes to come in, although very little was actually done, and
the home trade continued in a lifeless state ; the values con-
tinued well supported until the end of September, when a
very heavy arrival at Falmouth drove the figure to 55s., at
which an entire clearance was effected, ai.d soiiic reaction was
expected. None came, however, and although nominally prices
were sustained for three or four weeks iu October, crushers
were so well supplied that the very next batch of arrivals
were not placed until 5l8. haJ been accepted. Noveoibtr
brought fresh cargoes, and the home trade remaining in a
very unremunerative state, buyers could only be tempted to
operate as the value declined, and as low as 483. 9d. was
touched about the middle of the mouth. Since then the mar-
ket h«3 been much firmer ; but, owing to the varied quality
aud character of the seed offering, prices have taken a wide
range, namely, 49s. aud SOs. for old, up to 53s. and even 543.
for some of the very fine new (1858) seed lately in. Within
the last few days several cargoes have changed hands at 52s.

6d. and 52s., and some remain at Falmouth for sale, which
hollers are indisposed to part with, uuless at fully equal rates.
Throughout the year much less business was done than usual
on forward contracts. A few thousand quarters sold in Ja-
nuary and March at 52s. for shipment during the season
(bought by Greek houses, of speculators), part of which were
closed ia at 563. and 58s., aud s -me as low as 503 and 49s.
A small quantity also was sold during the excited markets of
July and August at 588. for monthly Hull deliveries, October
to December ; but with these exceptions, scarcely a cargo has
been placed until bill of lading in hand, and generally speaking
not until after arrival. We need not wonder at this, when ne
consider the high cost to the importer, and at the same time
remember how little inducement crushers have had to buy,
whilst cake and oil left no margin for working expenses. About
average stocks are held b^- consumers, aud as a fair quantity
may be expected within the next few months, we look for very
little fluctuation iu prices, esi'ecirtlly as so little margin exists
for change iu the value of cake, which, after all, as far as the
United Kingdom is concerned, chiefly rule the price of lin-
seed.

The prospects of supply for the season 1859-60 are un-
usually good, aud, if report speaks truly, we shall have the
largest import ever known. Russia, both north and south,
promises a large supply, and of excellent quality ; and the
East Indies equally so. It ia only natural to expect that the
high rates for some time past current at the shipping ports
must have greatly stimulated the production, aud, whilst the
growers could get considerably more for Linseed than for
Wheat, there can be no doubt to which article they would
turn their attention. Nothing has yet been done on contract,
the probability of unprecedented supplies rendering it undesir-
able, iu the opinion of our crushers, to operate, uuless at much
lower prices than those now demanded for future shipments ;
aud, for ourselves, we still hold to the opinion we have ex-
pressed for months past, that prices of Linseed are unsafe in
this country so long as they exhibit so wide a discrepancy to
the value of Wheat.

East India Seed, both Calcutta aud Bombay, have come
forward of satisfactory quality. Archangel, Petersburgh, and
other Baltic Seed, have again to be much complained of, and
the Black Sea equally so ; the Seeds grown in the districts of
Odessa and near the Sea of Azov is as fine as ever, but that
from the interior hardly bears the character of Southern Russia
Seed at all. The admixture of wild Rape and other Seeds and
rubbish still continues, and the Crushers' Association, which
was to have effected so much good in this respect, having
carried their resolutions to no practical result, the extent of
admixture is regidated alone by the will of the individual
shippers. One cargo is off the coast at the present time, con-
sisting of about half Linseed and half Rapeseed, and sold at a
price offering a premium for the renewal of such shipments,
bought also by the very last persons we should have expected
to countenance such a shipment, namely, members of that Assc-
ciatiou which so few mouths p; eviouslj- had met and passed the
following, as their first lesolution, viz.: "That, in the opinion
of this meeting, the time has arrived for the trade of Seed-
crushers to adopt measures of protection to ensure delivery of
sound unmixed Linseed." Nearly all the Seed lately pur-
chased, however, has beeu by sample ; and this can but be a
satisfactory method both to importer and crusher. The wide
rauge of prices, too, will soon bring the vexatious question of
admixture to its proper bearing, by showing importers how far
it is their interest to send forward good Seed ; and this will,
we sincerely hope, set aside the complaints attendant on the
old warranty of "average quality."

There is not much to remark in relation to the statistical
account of imports. Sic. We never shared in belief of the
short supplies predicted, and we expect the import of the year
will prove about equal to 1857, whilst that of the seafon
1853-59 will be considerably in excess of any previous one.

Iu public warehouses, aud afloat in the docks, our stocks
here consist of about 50,0C0 qrs,, namely, Eaet India,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

165

31,000 qra.; St. Petersburg, 9,000 qrs.; Black Sea, 6,500
qrs. ; Archangel and Sundries, 3,500 qrs. At Hull there
are 60,000 qra., in addition to about 35,000 qra. in the Mills ;
and at Liverpool, 20,000 qrs. Afloat there are 340,000 qrs. :
that is to say (iucluding the cargoes already on the coast, but
not yet arrived at their destination), 190,000 qrs. of Black
Sea, 12 t,000 qrs. Calcutta; 20,000 qrs. Bombay ; and 10,000
qrs. Alexandria, St. Petersburg, and sundries.

The import into London is in excess of any former year ;
but the large quantity transhipped to Hull, say 50,000 qrs.,
and re-export to various Continental places, about 150,000
qrs., leaves us with a much less quantity than usual for con-
sumption in this district. The aggregate into the United
Kingdom will be found not to vary much from last year.
Subjoined are the respective returns :

1841 363,461 qrs. 1850 603,934 qrs.

1842 367,700 1851 630,471

1843 .... 470,539 1852 .... 799,402

1844 .... 616,947 1853 .... 1,035,335

1845 .... 656,793 1854 .... 828,513

1846 .... 506,141 1855 756,950

1347 .... 439,512 185G .... 1,180,179

1848 .... 799,650 1857 .... 1,051,113

1849 .... 626,495 1853 about 1,000,000
The quantities made up from lat of July to the 30th June,

in their respective years, sum up as follow, namely, in sea-
sons:—

1843 to 1852 700,000 qrs. 1854-55 . . 1,006,000 qrs.

1849-50 600,000,, 1855-56 .. 644,000 „

1852-53 825,000,, 1356-57 ..1,100,000 „

1853-51 1,030,000,, 1857-58 ..1,053,622 „

18J8-59 will probably be 1,200,000 qrs.

Into London the supplies were furnished from the under-
mentioned places :— 55,000 qrs. Bombay; 203,500 qrs. Cal-
cutta; 440,000 qrs. Black Sea; 8,500 qrs. Baltic ; 3,500 qrs.
Archangel ; and 4,500 qrs. Alexandria. The re-export is the
largest yet known, consisting altogether of about 150,000 qrs.
against 30 000 qrs. in 1857; 45,000 qrs. in 1856; and 130,000
qrs. in 1855.

Each year varies the total supplies most curiously ; the
excess this time coming chiefly from the East Indies, balanced
by the falling off from the Baltic and Archangel. Calcutta
BupplieJ 270,000 qrs.; Bombay, 160,000 qrs.; St. Peters-
burgh, 120,000 qrs.; Archangel, 28,000 qrs.; Riga, 70,000
qrs. ; Memel, Lower Baltic, &c., Alexandria and sundries,
about 60,000 qrs. The Black Sea cargoes amounted to
440,695 qrs., discharged as undernamed : Hull, 134,250 qrs. ;
Londou, 41,920; Grimsby, 37,550; Ipswich, 12,450 ; Dover,
10,850; Southampton, 8^650; Yarmouth, 7,500 ; Lowestoft,
7,400; Leith,5,7u0; Ljnn, 3,850; Gloucester, 3,575 ; Liver-
poL>l, 3,500; Dublin, 3,300; Boston, 3,100; 102,000 qrs.
went to Antwerp ; 53,400 to Amsterdam aud Rotterdam, and
1,700 to Dunkirk.

Very little direct export took place this year from the north
of Russia to the continent, only about 85,000 qrs., or little
more than half that of 1857. St. Petcrsburgh supplied 21,000
of it; Archsiigel, 22,000; Riga, 25,000: and Memel and
auudrieg, 17,000 ; Riga also shipped 62,000 qrs. of Sowing
■Seed, about 25,000 qrs. to Ireland, and 37,000 to Belgium,
&c.

Ltnseed Oil tried very hard during the first few months
of last year to reach £30 per ton, but it was not successful
until end of April. After that it ruled at an average of about
£33 until middle of October; since when the course of prices
has been almost identical with those of the first three or four
mouths. The prices opened at £29, and reached £29 15s. a
feiv days afterwards; but the rise brought out several lots of
warehoused Oil, and the advance was at once lost. In Feb-
ruary the market was sick at £28, and an occasional sale at
even less. Oil was found scarce in March, and improved to
£29 IOj. ; but when April arrived, it had again receded to £28
lOs. Some considerable purchases were made at this time for
the American market, and a rise of £3 per ton was established
early in May, and a further advance to £33 lOs. as the mouth
progressed. A slight reaction followed during June, but in
July prices recovered, and the highest price of the year
was paid, namely, £34 10s. up to £35, for future monthly
deliveries. Until now forward prices had generally ranged
fiom 20$, to 309, p« ton iu Adraace of the value ou

the spot, but since this date there has scarcely been any
difference between them. During August very little was
doing, and £34 to £33 the quotation. In September prices
gave way, in consequence of heavy resales of oil bought some
time previously on continental account for forward deliver-
ies, and £31 lOs. was the value at tlie end of the month.
Before October had passed, £29 10s. was again tlie figure,
and early in November it sold at £28 ; but from then until
now, £29 to £29 10s., and an occasional attempt at £30, has
been the price, with a large and steady trade. The export
demand has kept stocks in a very narrow compass, that oil
is not plentiful ; and although during the last few days the
tendency has been to improvement, the make is bo large,
and the unwillingness to hold stock so great, the slightest
cessation of that demand causes a relapse. Throughout the
year the character of the trade has been most legitimate,
singulaily marked by an absence of speculation. Within
the last two or three weeks, however, a little of the old
leaven (so natural to dealings in this article) is showing it-
self, recallinar to mind the good old speculative times of
1855 and 1856. Some contracts have been entered into for
delivery, the ensuing twelve months, the price being £30,
and considerable engagements are likewise open at about
this price for deliveries up to June next. The Government
returns v/e expect to show an exportation nearly equalling
1856, nsmely, 28,000 tons; in that year a large proportion
went to Germany and the United States; but this year,
France, Holland, and the Mediterranean have absorbed the
bulk of it. In 1857 the export was 16,250 tons, in 1856
28,000 tons, and in 1855 17,500 tons. The prospects of the
seed market are likely to keep prices steady the next few
months ; but ifour anticipations as to supplies in July are re-
alized, we may look after then lor an average more assimila-
ting to that of the period antecedent to the war with Russia.
The value to-day is £30 in all situations.

Linseed Cakes. — Town-made have scarcely varied in
price for the last two years; £10 to £10 lOs. was the value
in 18.57, and £10 10s. "to £10 has been the price' of 1858 ; a
little below during the mid-summer months, and a little
above during the drought of August and September. The
consumption, however, lias been much curtailed of late, owing
to its high relative value to wheat, and consumers have
actually been giving their cattle this article in preference to
cakes, finding it more economical to do so. The value of
meat will probibly assist to maintain prices to the end of
this season ; but unless we have a greatly improved state of
things ill Mark-lane, we must not expect the present quota-
tions to hold after next spring.

The import of Foreign Cake during the past year will
be found short of 1857, by about 25,000 tons. The trade
opened in January with an active demand for all descrip-
tions, which continued throughout the month, the quotations
being £10 10s. per ton New York barrels, £10 for bags;
Western American, £9 5s.; and Square ^Marseilles, £8 12s.
6d. c. f. i. Early in February the market was quiet, but
arrivals being short and stocks reducing, there was more
activity towards close of month, and previous rates freely
paid. The demand continued throughout March, and
but for the timely arrival of large supplies, prices must have
advanced, as stocks had become exhausted. During April
we had a good demand, and sellers giving way slightly to
save landing charges, buyers were i'jduced to purchase
largely. In May a further reduction in price took place,
consequent upon the large arrivals during that month, the
quotations being £9 15s. ex ship for barrels, and £9 10s.
bajs ; Western, £9. Towards the end of the month, how-
ever, the demand continuing, and with diminished supplies,
we advanced 5s. per ton on all descriptions, and througlii.ut
June this advance was maintained. Early in July we had
n nir'et trade, but afterwards more inquiry ; the imports
then reiLained small, and no stocks in warehouse, an im-
provement in value followed, and £10 10s. to £l0 15s. was
realized for barrels; bags, £10 5s.; Westerns, £9 ISs.
During August, prices were again in sellers' favour, from
same cause, and a further advance of 5s. and, in some in-
stances, 10s. per ton obtained. In September we were firm,
but towards the close there was less activity, as also in the
early part of October. The small supplies, however, kept
prices steady, but at the end of the month they gave way
again 6s. per ton, and during all November and December

ine

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

we have li:nl ;i dragj^iiig trade at gradually declining rates,
and our qiiotatidns to-day are £H) 5s. for barrels; £9 1 5s.
ba;j;.s ; £i) l"2s. Cd. Westerns ; and square Marseilles, £8
. f. i. The sfock in warehouse amounts to aliout "J.aOOtons.

Fisii Oils. — The busineas iu this article has been very
limited during the year. Sperm Oil was £G3 in January,
rose to £87 in April, continued steady at about iliis price un-
til lately, hut is now quoted £22. Pale Seal liaa fluctuated
between £35 and £40. Southern Oil from £42, declined
to £oi, rose again to £39 iu August, and aficr touching £32
early last month, is now £36. Cod Oil opened at £30, had
advanced to £35 lOs. by Midsummer, and hsa since gradually
fallen to about £31.

Rapeseeu and other Oil Seeds. — Tne imports have
amouuted to 200,000 qra., and the re-export to 100,000 qrs.
In dock and warehouse there are about 45,000 qrs. of Rape,
and 20,000 qrs. of other oil seeds ; and . afloat, nearly 60,000
qrs. The qualities have varied s >, it is impossible accurately
to follow the course of prices ; and we must content ourselves,
therefore, with saying they have ranged from 6s. for
heated Black Sea Seei', up to 70*. tor finest Bombay. Poppy
Seed is 528., Niger 38*., Teel, Suraee, Giugtelly, and Sessame
533. to 593. according to quality.

Rape Oil. — Tiie consumption continues to increase, and a
greater proportion of English-made oil has been used than
formerly. The absence of speculation the past year has kept

prices uncoraraoidy steady; I5uglish refined Oil ranging from
40a. to 47a., ami foreign 'ia. per cwt. liigher. Brown Oil lias
borne a rclitive value of aliout 3s. Gd. leas than refined. Our
lowest quotations were in April: highest at the end of July ;
and the article is steady to-day at 458. for Ei!glish.

Rape Cakes. — We may re-write our last jear's paragraph
on this article, namily, th'it " they have been in varying de-
mand throughout the year, at about £5 10a. per ton for English,
and £6 lOa. for best foreign makes."

Tallow possesses but liitle interest in a ciicular devoted
chiefly to Linseed and its product; but alth^jugh there is little
analogy between Tallow and Linseed Oil in this country, it is
otherwise abroail, find the value of it consequently muat exer-
cise considerable influence upon tlie exportation of the latter
article ; we therel'ore continue to publish our resume d the
prices current during the year. 53s. was the price quu'.ed iu
our last, next 54s. 9d., and in February 52s. In March again,
543. 9d. to 563.; and in April it was nearly as dear; May,
543. to 53s. ; June, 53s. 6d. to 52s. ; July, SOs. to 48s, ; and
August, 49a.; September, about 503.; and the fluctuations
since are so trivial they are scarcely worth recording. To-day'a
value is 51,-=. Tbronghout the year the trade has maiki d no
features of any interest, and it haa partalen of the dulness
common to almost every article of commerce which haa tha-
rsoterised the business of the jcar 1858.

London, Jan. 1. Edwards, Eastty & Co

TRADE OF THE PORT OF HULL.

REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1858.

From the influence of the severe '"panic" both in Europe
and America at the close of 1857, the operations of the manu-
facturing and commercial classes of this country during the
past year have been characterized by so complete an absence of
Bpeculative enterprize, as to leave a depressing effect on bud-
ness generally ; nevertheless, sound and healthy action has
existed for some time in the manufacturing districts, and with
au easy money market, and the extended prospects opening
with the new year, a more active state of things may be fairly
anticipated. The trade of this port during the past year has
not continued to show that advance which under other circum-
stances was to have been anticipated. The tonnage entering
the port was last year 1,080,200 tons, against 1,083,632 tons
in 1857, showing a trifling difl'erence of 3,432 tons, whdst the
steam tonnage exhibits a slight increase, being respectively
45,993 tons, against 45,930 tons. The tonnage of vessels re-
ported inwards on foreign voyages was 743,751 tons, against
737.331 being an increase over 1857 of 6,420 tons.

Wheat.— The imports of this article have been closely
approximating to last year, the decrease being about 25,000
qrs. as compared with 1857. In taking a retrospective
view of the wheat trade since our last annual circular, we
must notice that the present year has been entirely devoid
of those serious fluctuations to which it is so often sub-
jected, a slow and gradual decline being, with one or two
exceptions, its chief characteristic throughout the year; a
bountiful Providence, for the last two in-gatherinos of the
crops, appears to have furnished the world at large with
abundaiice, and peace and plenty happily prevail. The
high price of all cereals, but more especially wheat, during
the late war, caused increased exertions— not only on the
part of our own agriculturists, but also in most of the corn-
producing districts in Europe as well as America — to stimu-
late production to the utmost ; and the improvements in
agriculture, both at home and abroad, have made rapid pro-
gress within these last two or three seasons. Thus the
country is placed in a better position as regards food for
the masses than has been the case for several years past ;
and another favourable seed time has laid the foundation for
cheering prospects for the new-born year. A monthly re-
view of the fluctuations in value would not only be tedious,
but uninteresting; suffice it to say, that at the commence-
ment of the year good red English wheat was worth 46s. to
48s per 5041bs., receded in February to 4-2s. to 45s , and
continued gradually drooping until June, when prices were

as low as 403. to 42s. ; in the month of July the animated
accounts received from the Baltic, the Rhenish Provinces,
and Germany, which countries suffered from the severe
drought prevailing, gave a little impetus to the trade in this
country, and prices advanced in July to 45s. to 48s. : but
the improvement was short-lived; the favourable promises
for our own crops, and the prospect for an early harvest,
caused prices again to recede until the end of August, when
new English wheat appeared in the market, and sold at
45s. to 47s., gradually declining during September, October,
and November, until it reached 3os. to 40s. in December.
(Jpinions differ materially as to the results of the late har-
vest ; some are sanguine enough to say that it exceeds the
crop of 1857, while others affirm it to be nothing more than
an average. No doubt the dry season was suitable to the
heavy soils, at the same time unfavoniable to the light lands ;
and were we to venture an opinion, there is a full average
crop. It is our duty merely to record facts ; and we find
that a quarter of good wheat at 40s., its present value, and
Norfolk Hour at 27s. 6d per sack, is lower tlian has been
the case for the last six years. The extreme low prices of
English wheat has occasioned foreign to be greatly neg-
lected. The stocks are about the same as last year (75,000
qra.), the greater portion of which is of secondary quality;
and we close the year with symptoms of improvement, a
slight advance in agricultural markets, and a more decided
feeling of confidence amongst the trade generally.

Barley. — Tins article baa again maintained its prominent
position amongst our imports of grain in the present year, and
though somewhat short of last year, the import is one of the
largest in the last decade, the total being 214,363 qrs. — princi-
pally from Denmark, Sweden, and the Black Sea, whilst very
little has reached us from the German provinces bordering
upon the Baltic. The home crop for the last two years
having neither been large nor remarkable for fineness of quality,
the foreign import) iiave gone freely into consumption, and
only at the ead of the year now closing, the supplies, especially
of grinding qualities, have been somewhat iu advance of the
consumption, and some accumulation in warehouse has taken
place in consequence. Prices have undergone comparatively
little variation, the difl'erence between the extremea being only
some 33. to 43. per qr. bcth on malting and grinding descrip-
tiona. The highest rates were in the beginning, and the
lowest in the middle of the year. Very fine malting qndities
of English, being extremely rare, still couuaud good prices —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

167

8»y 3S3. to 40s. per qr. of 'A'Z st., but medium English aud
foreigu rauge at about SUs. to 323., whilst grinding is at 27s.
per qr. of 30 st. for stout, down to 253. 6d. for thin, at which
rate the year closes. The stocks iu hand are 35,000 qrs.
against 40,000 qra. last year.

Oats. — -The imports are much less than last jear — say only
61,435 qrs. agaiuat 99,500 qrs. With large stocks left over
in waredouse, prices ruled lo* in the commencement of the
year, but advanced 5s. to 6s. about the middle of the year, iu
consequence of untoward accounts of the growing crops in the
Baltic provinces and other foreign parts, whilst appearances
did not prognosticate any aliundauce at home. So far uo de-
ficiency has been felt in the deliveries, albeit a portion of our
usual foreign supplies are being diverted into other channels,
and the advance above alluded to has again been lost. The
year closes with a value of 22s. to 23s. per qr. of 21 st. for
good provender, and stocks only 8,000 qrs. against 28,000 qrs.
last year.

Beans. — The imports are nearly on a par with last year,
say 55,871 qrs., against 57,526 qrs. in 1857, aud we close the
present year with prices exactly the same as at jits opening,
say SSs. to 393. per qr. of 36 stone for good foreign middles,
whilst in September they ruled some Is. higher, owing to the
almost hopeless appearance of the crops, especially in this
country. No doubt the yield all over the north of Europe
has been a poor one, though aot quite a failure, as at one time
expected. Stocks in hand are 15,500 qrs., against 9,500 qrs.
last year.

Peas. — Our imports have again been fair, say 25,821 qrs.
against 24,001 qrs. last year, and prices have been remarkably
steady throughout the year, white boiling sorts having ranged
between 4O3. to 44s., and now stand at 40s. to 41 s. per qr.
50 libs. The yield, both at home and abroad (Canada ex-
cepted) has been one of the smallest on record, and blue quali-
ties are not to be had in any quantity in any country. Present
stocks are same as last year, say 2,500 qrs.

Agricultural Seeds. — During the present year very
considerable fluctuations have occurred in the value of both
red aud white cloverseed. The supply of new red which came
forward last seasou proved considtra' \y beyond what had been
expected; though a good consumptive demand was expe-
rienced, there was yet a larger stock left at the close of the
season than for some years previously. With liberal imports
from abroad and a fdir English crop, though of indifferent
quality, all desnriptions declined, and at the close of the sea-
son had receded 123. to 153. per cwt, from the highest point.
During the summer, reports of the deficiency in the hay crop
caused some excitement, and prices rapidly recovered
Ss. to 83. per ewt. ; the principal demand being
from abroad, large shipments were made from this country to
Hamburg, Holland, and Belgium, as well as to some other
continental ports. As respects the new crop, the growth of
the present year, the reports that have reached us to the pre-
sent time from Belgium, Holland, aud Germany, tend very
much to confirm those already referred to ; aud we are given to
understand that these three couutries willrequire the greater part
if not the whole of their new crops of red to supply their own
local demands. White cloverseed, as staled of red, closed the
season with a much lower ran^e of prices than it opened, and
there was ouly a moderate stock 10 hold over. Shortly after
the season, very reduced prices were, in some Cises, accepted
rather than face another crop. The new crop of white
being much earlier gathered than the red, by the month of
Sep'-ember it was pretty well ascertained that iu Germany,
Holland, and Belgium there was a great deficiency, amounting
in several districts to almost a failure, and these reports have
only been confirmed and strengthened up to the present period ;
and prices have advanced, f;om the lowest point cfter the
seasou, £20 to £25 per ton, and holders remaining quite firm
and confident at the advance, fine seed being now quoted at
85s. to 90a. per cwt.

Linseed. — The import of this article last year was
375,285 qrs-, against 487,272 in 1857, showing a deficiency
of 112,000 qrs., which is almost entirely exhibited in the re-
duced receipts from Petersburg, Archangel, and the Prussian
ports ; the Black and Azov Seas and India having supplied us
with nearly an identical quantity with the previous year. In
addition to the direct imports, about 42,000 qrs. were received
from London and Liverpool, giving a consumption for the year
of 487,000 qra., or nearly 10,000 qrs, per.wcek ; the total stock

at present in the bauds of importers and crushers being about
100,000 qra., against 170,000 in 1857. A great proportion of
the present stock is of inferior quality. The large consumption
iu the beginning of the year considerably reduced stocks, and
before the spring imports they were almost exhausted. The
result was that the article has beeu maintained the greater
portion of the year, at prices which enabled the crusher to ob-
tain little or no remuneration above the bare cost of manufac-
ture ; still as oil and cake advanced in price during the
summer months, holders cf seed were enabled proportion-
ately to enhance their demands until the larjie simultaneous
arrival at the outports in the month of September from the
Black Sea exposed the artificial state of prices, and in Oc-
tober a decline of fully 10s. per qr. on the extreme quota-
tions of July and August liad to be submitted to. Tagan-
rog seed on the spot was worth 50s. to 51s. the commence-
ment of the year, but improved in April to 53s. to 54s., un-
til the maximum of 50s. was arrived at in July. The de-
cline in the value of the products of linseed from the middle
of August also operated to depress prices. The quality of
the supplies both from Northern and Southern Russia
proved verj^ inferior, and added much to the unremunera-
tive character of the business of both importer and crusher.
The prospects, however, for this year's business are satis-
factory ; advices from abroad (as proved by some small
arrivals at this port) speaking favourably both as to the
quality and quantity of the new crop, with a moderate range
of prices. At the close of the Black Sea seed was held at
50s, to 52s., fine Petersburg 47s. to 493., Bombay 56s., fine
new Riga 46s., old inferior 38s. to 40s. per qr. of 5 libs.

Linseed Oil. — The past year opened as it has closed,
with prices at about their lowest point. The low rates in
the beginning of the year, the reduced stocks, and the un-
remunerative character of the crushing trade, led to consi-
derable demand from foreign parts, to which the open winter
allowed free export, and prices advanced from £28 in the
first two months of the year to £31 in the end of April. The
demand from abroad continued, and the market became
considerably excited during May, when, in consequence of
scarcity, and the advanced prices of seed, the value on the
spot went up to £33 10s., after which a sliglit reaction set
in, which continued till the end of June. The export at this
period amounted to 6,671 tons, against 3,962 tons the pre-
vious year. In Jul}', however, the price again advanced ;
and iu the middle of the month it attained its maximum
during the year, viz., £34 5s. on the spot, and £35 for the
end of the }'ear. This value was maintained up to the middle
of August, when a gradual decline commenced, which conti-
nued through the months of September and October, and in
the first week of the following month the price reached i:s
lowest point, £28, between which and £29 it fluctuated up
to the close of the year. The prominent feature of the trade
has been the extraordinary extent of the exports to the con-
tinent, France alone taking 2,877 tons, against 990 tons last
year. The total exports this year are 15,000 tons, against
7,142 tons the previous year, as noted in the table3 annexed.
Stocks Sffialler than usual, estimated in all hands at 1,400'
tons.

Linseed Cakes. — The foreign import of the year has
been unusually small, beit\g only 3,600 tons, against 14,2G1
tons during the previous ytar; the market, with the exception
of April aud May, has consequently been very barely supplied
throughout the year, aud beat makes of foreign brought within
5s. per ten of Hull-made; other qualities m proportion. Of
English cakes we commenced the year with moderate stock?,
and a value of £10 per ton, which was maintained with little
variation up to March, when the limited import aud supplies
from the mills induced more activity, but without enhancirg
prices. The mild weather in the spring months caused a reduc-
tion in the value in the end of May to £9. In June and July
the long-continued drought created great fears of the failure of
the spriug-sown corn and grass crops, both in this country and
on the continent, under the iuflueiice of which contracts weie
made for cakes at £10 to £10 10s. for delivery iu winter, which
price was maintained through August and September. The
partial failure of the turnip-crop brought a few buyers into the
market in the beginning of October, but the low price of cattle-
feed, together with the extraordinary revival of pasturage after
harvest, caused the value gradually to decline, aud we close the
year with prices at £9 59., and with stocks of foreign of all

168

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sorts not exceeding 400 tons. It must be added that the
farmers, to a very great extent, have been using the inferior
part of their wheat-crop \o feed their cattle, owing to its ex-
treme low value— thus displacing, to a great degree, the cou-
sunipiiou of cakes.

Rape SEED. — The import this year is 2,4^2 lasts, against
6,100 last year, and 1,690 in 1856. The bulk being generally
on crusliers' account, but little has appeared on the marli::t. In
the beginning of the year we quoted £30 to £31 per last, a
nominal figuie, there being no demand except a trifling one for
foreigu account. Towards the middle of the year the appear-
ance of the crop, inconsequence of drought, being unsatisfac-
tory, an advance of £4 to £5 took place, and in August £30
was paid. Prices both of Danish and E&st India declined
towards the end of the year to £33 for the former and £28 to
£31 for the latter, according to condition and qualiy.

Rapeseed Oil. — Tiie trade during the year was a purely
consumptive one, at pretty regular prices : an advance took
place in the middle of May, arising from the high price of
seed, which reached £45 in August for brown English. Since
then prices have drooped about £2 per ton, .and we close the
year with brown at £43 lOs., and reflned at £47 per ton.

Rape Cakes. —The past year commenced with limited
stocks and low prices, £5 15s. being about the value in the
early mouths for fine green sorts. In April it reached £6 lOs.,
the higliest price during the year, and continued with slight
fluctuations to the end of the year, which closes with prices of
best feeding quality at £6 53. for both English and foreign.
Import this year 4,000 tons, and stocks about 300 tons.

Flax. — Although the linen trade experienced less injury
from the effects of the " panic" at the close of last year than the
other branches of our great textile mauafactnres, yet the de-
mand for fldx was of a quiet character and accompanied with
little variation in prices during the firat few months of 1858. In
the month of June the reports, which had been previously
circulated and only partially believed, of the short supplies to
be expected for shipment at the Baltic ports began to be fully
verified; this was more especially the fact at Riga and the
Prnssiau ports. Towards the end of the month it was also
found that the extremely hot weather and long-coniianed
drought had inflicted serious injury on the continental crops ;
the spinners consequently now began to be alarmed at
the prospect, and to evmce a desire to get into stock.
In July and August prices went up £4 per ton. Early
in September the deficiency in the imports into
the United Kingdom, more especially in the Scotch ports, as-
sumed a very serious aspect, and the conviction was forced
upon all parties that the very reduced stocks of flax both at
home and abroad must bring on higher rates of value ; ex-
tensive transactions in consequence took place at advanced
prices. Towards the end of October, the spinners cgain Chme
forward, being excited by the presence of buyers from France
and Belgium, and prices took a further considerable rise. In
November, the French bought on an extensive scale, both in
the Dundee and Hull markets ; and the certainty of a large
deficiency in the article to meet the demands of the spinners
in Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in France and Bel-
gium, drove up the prices several pounds per ton. The early
appearance of frost in the Baltic ports further agitated tlie
trade. The mark WPK, which on the first of J una was
quoted at £14 to £15, had now reached £58 to £60 pf-r ton.
In December, a large business was again effected with France
at extreme rates, leaving the stocks in a diminutive compass,
and totally inadequate to meet the requirements up to the
coming spring. Tne same active demand has existed both at
home and from the French spinners for flax tow, and the
prices for Archangel tow No. 1 and 2 have run up from £37
and £35 in June to £50 and £48. The market closes in an
exfited state, and the nearest quotations for the pevera! marts
of flax areas follow : WFPK £65 to £66, HFPK £63, FPK
£62, St. Petersburg 12 hds„ £59 to £60, 9 lids., £18. The
Petersburg flax received at this port during the year has ge-
nerally exhibited an improvement in the dressing, causing it
to be more adapted to the wants of this district thau in for-
mer years. The new classification adopted in the marks at
Riga has given greater satisfaction. The total imports of flax
into H\ill durint; the year amount to 17,913 tons, against
19.468 tons in 1857, 18,911 tons in 1856, and 14,909 in 1855.
Of tow and codilla. 3,252 tons (viz., from St. Petersburg 1,780
tons, Archangel 930 tons, Hamburg 80 tons, Holland 190

tons, Narva 210 tons, Petnau 10 tons, and from sundiie8 62
tons), against 3,3fcl tons, 3,859 tons, and 1,554 tons in the
three previous years. The exports of flax from this port to
France and Bel;;ium are 1,005 tons, and of tow 730 ton*,
some further quantity being in the course of shipment. The
total import of fl*x, tow, and codilla into the United Kingdom
this year is about 30,000 tons less than in 1857.

Hemp. — The total import of this article has been 4,159
tons (viz., 2,039 tons from Petersburg, 2,097 tons from
Riga, 62 tons from Bombay, and from sundries 21 tons),
being 1,200 tons above that of 1857, and about the same as
th;it of 1856. The prices of purely roping descriptions have
remained without alteration from the opening rates at the
commencement of the year — viz., £29 to £30 for clean ;
and the prospective demand for such is certainly not favour-
able to any advance in price. For the finer descriptions a
more active inquiry has prevailed of late, in consequence of
the advancing price of flax, they are still relatively so much
cheaper, and can be applied to so many manufacturing pur-
poses wherein the consumption of flax, &c , largely enters,
that there is every probability of a much-extended con-
sumption of fine haried hemp in future. The present quo-
tations are — for clean, £30 ; half-clean, £28 ; Riga Khine,
32 ; and Pass, £31 per ton.

Tallow.— Our import is 2,834 tons, against 2,174 in
1857, a large proportion of which is for the interior. The
trade has been chiefly a retail one, and the value regulated
almost entirely by the London market, which has this j-ear
ranged from .£57 to £48 10s., the price closing dull at £51
per ton.

Olive Oil. — The import this year has been 4,400 tons,
against 3,410 in 1857, and 4,920 in 1856. The market
was very steady nearly the whole year, gradually falling
from £50 at the beginning to £45 at Midsummer, and so
continued till the middle of November, when, from an im-
proved trade in the manufacturing districts causing a better
demand, accounts of a very bad crop in some places, and a
total failure in others, a sudden excitement took place, and
the price ran up to £50, where it remains at present.
Although the stocks in the kingdom of Naples are stated
to be large, it is supposed present prices will be maintained,
and perhaps a further advance take place, as the stock here
is under 40 tons (chiefly Seville), and light in other ports of
the kingdom. It is not expected that seed oil can be sup-
plied or produced so as to cause any material effect on the
price of olive.

Cattle Bones. — With hardly any stocks in the be-
ginning of the year, and few arrivals, prices continued to
advance to £7 per ton for best quality up to April, and
were maintained within 10s. of that price throughout the
season, since which they fell to £5 10s. to £5 12s. 6d.; and
these prices continued to rule to the end of the year. The
import is 17,000 tons, against 10,000 in 1857; and the
stock on hand is estimated at 2,300 tons.

Tar. — The import reached an aggregate of Stockholm
and Archangel together of only 17,527 brls., against
26,810 brls. last year. The bulk of this supply arrived in
the earlier part of the season, and owing to a slow demand
from the trade, was mostlj' disposed of coastwise, at prices
varying from 123. to 13s. per brl.; a small portion of Stock-
lio'm having been taken to warehouse, which later on
brought 14s. per brl. on the sale. No further arrivals sub-
sequently taking place, and dealers becoming generally low
in stock, there has latterly been soma stimulation in the
demand, and a large cargo of Stockholm, recently arrived,
is reported to have changed hands at about 15s. per brl.,
sold partly to the trade, and the remainder disposed of
coastwise. There were only a few shipments brought for-
ward from Archangel, which description eeenis to be fast
lo.=;ing, in the estimation of consumers, that superiority over
Stockholm which, for some manufacturing purposes, it for-
merl}^ held.

TuRPE.vTiNE. — The direct import last year was 5,000 brls.
(with about a similar quantitv' coastwise), against 7,353 in
1857. In consequence of unfavourable accounts from
America, the value advanced in the beginning of the year
from 34s. per cwt. to 4Gs. in March, and in Juno to 48s.; it
receded, however, almost as rapidly as it advanced, and the
year closes at about 40s. per cwt.

Ikun.— Tie imports this year are 19,490 tons, against

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

169

38,863 tons in 1857. The anticipation of a better demand
during the past twelve months has not been realized ; the
stocks on baud remain very heavy, both in the hands of
importers and manufacturers, and prices lower than they
have been since 1853.

Brimstone. — The import this year has been about 1 ,728
tons, against 569 tons in 1857, and 1,363 tons in 1856. The
article "has undergone several tluctuationa duriug the year,
arising from causes difficult to account for, the price vary-
ing from £7 to £ 12 per ton. The only stock here at present
consists of about 100 tons still afloat, the value being about
£8 5s. per ton for best seconds, ex ship.

Coals— The exports taken from the Custom-House lists
for the year 1858 are 129,300 tons. The deficiency com-
pared with last year of 3,545 tons arises from the colliers
being partially out in the West Riding.

Wood.— The heavy stocks of deals held in this market at
the commencement of the vear, of the imports of 1856 and
1357, on account of the shippers at Petersburg, Wybnrg,
and to a more limited extent Quebec, together with tie
very low rates of freight in the spring, had a seriously de-
prtciating effect upon the prices of wood imports generally,
which continued for the first eight or nine months of the
season. Large sacrifices had to be made by the holders, in
some cases to the extent of 30 per cent ; these cargoes were
thus forced into consumption ; a more htalthy state of busi-
ness was the result, wliicli, together with a rather improved
country demand, the enhanced prices required by the foreign
merchant, increased rates of insurance usual at the fall of
the year, combined with the prospect of a better and a pro-
fitable trade " looming in the future," enables us to report a
greater market value of the present stocks of deals, to the
extent of 15s. to 20s. per std. hnd. upon the lowest prices

obtained during the year. In balk timber the improvement
in price has not been so manifest, owing to there being few
works in progress of magnitude requiring strong timber in
the district commanded by this market. In shipbuilding
timber, elm and yellow pine only are used in consumption
for the decks and fittings of iron-built vessels. There hav-
ing been only one new wood-built ship launchedin this port
during the last two years, there is no demand for this
description of goods ; but in number and construction of
iron-built ships of great burthen, we are rivalling the
largest ports in the kingdom. Tlie supply and demand of
sawu wood, the produce of the north of Europe, have been
singularly proportionate, whereas the imports over the con-
.sumption of hewn is nearly fifteen thousand loads, which is
sufficiently accounted for by our previous remarks. The
average of stock of all kinds maj be considered about equal to
that of last year at the same period, and below that of 1856.
This opinion can only be formed by observation, as this port
forma an exception to those of London and Liverpool, wheje
the stocks are yarded by the Dock Companies, and the re-
turns can be ascertained on any given date of the precise im-
port, consumption, and stock on hand.

Shipping. — The year opened with few freights in the mar-
ket, and the rates accei)ted by shipowners were, in many
cases, unremunerative. Towards the close of the seiaon, a
decided improvement took place in Baltic freights, but the
general character of busiuess in this branch of commerce for
the whole of the past year has been discouraging ; there ia
now, however, a much better prospect, and it is to be hoped
that the recent opening up of new countries to our trade will
be productive of beneficial effects.

P. Bruce,
Secretary to the Hull Chamber of Commerce.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LIVERPOOL WOOL TRADE

General Rem.a.rks. — We commenced the year in the
midst of a pauic of unusual intensity, with trade completely
paralyzed, and the commercial institutions of the country —
and indeed of the whole world— shaken to their very founda-
tions. Several mouths passed over without any visible signs
of amelioration, notwithstanding the partial rem.oval of pres-
sure in the money market, and each successive return showed
still further retraction in our genersl exports. Although these
have latterly very much increased, it is not surprising that for
the twelvemonth they contrast very unfavourably with late
years; which, however, it must be borne in mind, were periods
of very remarkable expansion.

Home dejiand for Woollen Goods. — The activity
noticed in our last report has teen fully maintained throughout
the whole of the present year, and has been still further sti-
mulated under the influence of an early snd abundant harvest,
consequently the population employed in this important
branch of manufacture have been better off than most of those
engaged in other departments of our staple industry.

Export of Woollen Goods. — The late panic was te-
verely felt iu this branch of our trade, limiting the demand in
all markets abroad, while the reduced exports have greatly
aggravated the distress in the shipping interest, and as the
crisis was the most severely felt iu the United States, which is
our best a:'.d largest customar, the falling-off in shipments has
been chiefly to that quarter. The revival in trade was more
gradual tliere than with us, but as business is now established
on a sound footing, we look with confidence to an expanding
trade to that aud all other markets.

Consumers. — Their position during the early part of the
year was attended with great difiiculty, but they stood their
ground well. Since the clip they have had to contend with a
continuous and considerable rise in the value of wool, without,
as generally happens at Buch times, being able to obtain a cor-

responding advance in yarns or manufactured goods; but
those who were able to take afar-sighted view of the question,
and supplied themselves liberally while wools were obtainable
at moderate rates, must have tlone a profitable business. It
is with great pleasure we rtfer to the very marked impiove-
meut which has manifested itself during the last fow months
in the Bradford district, so long sufftring from prostration,
which has now resumed its wouted appearance of busy activity.
Iu the fine clotliiny trade a steady busiuess has beeu doi^e,
and from the caution exercised, there has been no accumu-
lation of goods, so that on the whole the course of trade has
been very satisfiictory. The same remarks may for the most
part be applied to t)\e flannel and hosiery trade. On the other
hand, in the blanket aud carpet districts, we regret to say that
the state of business has been very discouraging during a
great part of the year, and they have suffered iu a particular
degree from the interruption in our export trade, chiefly with
the United States. Matters are certainly looking better now,
but we fear it will still be sorae time before we are able to re-
port any very decided improvement.

Wool Trade.— In our last annual report we expressed a
stron;? opinion that this branch of busiue-s was, iu itself, in a
sound position, nevertheless it could not fail to suffer from tlie
consequences of the general crisis; and although for a loi;g
time business was almost at a standstill, in the absence of
excessive supplies, either of home or foreign aud colonial, and
no undue pressure on the part of holders to force sales, prices
remained uominiilly pretty well supported for some
time. We are happy t> state that \try few failures
occurred; these were fortunately confined within a narrow
circle iu the manufacturing districts, aud more or less involved
in speculative transactions with two concerns in London, en-
gaged as dealers in English wools, who had also suspended
payment. The liabilities of these firms being both very con-
siderable, and their operations very complicated, exercised a
most uufavourabls influence on the whole trade; and, there
beiug considerable delay in realizing the stocks of wool, it was
near clip time before the chief part was disposed of, aud ti c
unusual course of forcing off a large quantity of wool by public
auction at this period had more influence than ^undei ordinary

170

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

circumstances would have bceu the case had the amount been
teu times as large ; the result was uoue other than was to be
expected, but the extreme lownessof prices, so far from giving
any confidence, only tended to confirm the exaggerated
opinions in nome quarters entertained as to the rates likely to
rule at the clip ; iu the meantime, the market for both home
and foreign was kept in complete suspense, and any sales that
took place were at the lowest possible point. As the wool
trade was the last to feel the effects of the crisis, so also it
was the first to show signs of vitality, and as soon as home
wools were in the market, the trade having driven themselves
very bare of stocks, there was a complete rush to secure them,
which, consequently, opened at a fair advance upon the
previously current rates ; this at once induced growers to
raise their pretensions, and a considerable advance was
soon paid. The same activity has prevailed ever since
and we scarcely remember any former period when the advance
has been more decided and continuous, a result brought about
altogether by the legitimate requirements of the trade, without
any excitement of speculation. It is now at least quite appa-
rent that the growth of home wools is altogether inadequate
to supply the increased power of con«uw/)/io?i, leaving out of
the question the number of new mills started within the last
few years. We pointed this out strongly as far back ai iu
1853 and 1854, aud have referred to it iu our successive an-
nual reports since. It cannot be doubted but that for the late
panic English wools would have reached most extravagant
rates last spring, and it may appear strange that, notwith-
standiog the ordeal the trade has since passed through, prices
should now be in mar^y cases nearly as high, and even higher,
than before that period : this being the case thus e^rly in the
season, and taking into account the existing scarcity of the
raw material, together with the cheapness of food and the low
rate of raouey, there is little room to doubt that before next
clip, iu the ordinary course of events, a very high range will
be established.

Wool Imports. — Under almost every head there has
been a very considerable falling off in receipts. We
cannot at all satisfactorily account for this in the case
of foreign ; for, notwithstanding the unsettled state of
trade during a great part of the year, the position of
our markets has at least been as little discouraging as iu
any other quarter : at the same time we must admit that the
prospects for low foreign wools generally have been far from
encouraging, aud imports have in nearly all cases resulted in
heavy losses. It is chiefly in these kiads that the deficiency
exist«, and we come to the cotclusion that considerable stocks
must still remain on the other side ; but their destination will,
no doubt, greatly depend on the prospect of remunerating
prices. We havi scarcely ever known the market so bare of
supplies. All current qualities meet with ready sale at ai^-
vaucing rates, but there is still very little disposition to operate
freely in other descriptions.

Wool Exports of foreign aud colonial have greatly di-
minished. In the case cf fine colonial this is accounted for by
the requirements of our own trade having absorbed a larger
quantity than u-:nal, and they have, consequently, been worth
more in this country, while the state of trade on the conti-
nent has been more slow in recovering, particularly iu Ger-
many, where the demand has been scarcely equal to their own
domestic growth. As regards foreign our markets have sel-
dom offered much general selection, and the stocks would have
been inadequate to meet any considerable demand ; which,
however, has never existed. We do not consider that our re-
duced exports are so much the result of large direct receipts
on the continent as the consequence of the more circumscribed
demand there arisiug from depressed trade ; and, as a proof of
this, from time to time wools have been re-shipped to this
country. In British wools there has also been a large falling
off, and all kinds of combing are still ruling at much higher
prices here than elsewhere.

Australia. — The import for the year exhibits only a small
increase, and confirms the opinion we have frequently before
expressed, that the growth of wool in these colonies has re-
ceived a decided check; which is very much to be regretted, as
these descriptions are peculiarly suited for our home
manufacturers, and the demand has been each year in-
creaamg on the continent. The general condition of the
last clip does not aft'ord au opportunity for favourable com-
ment, the most important feature being the increase of

burr both iu the Sydney and Victoria districts. There has
also been a great increase iu the quantity sent home in
the grea.-e, which has, no doubt, arisen from unavoidable
circumstauces, but we do not by any means consider this ob-
jectionable, although washed wools are generally iu more
favour with the home trade; this is a point on which we must
allow the groruers to be the best judges, aud as far as oppor-
tunities permit they will, no doubt, send the wools in such
condition, as from experience they find to yield the best re-
sults. New Zealand wools continue to show the same healthy
growth, and are, in consequence, much appreciated. The re-
ceipts of Australian at this port have been less than in the
previous year, having been 16,015 bales, nearly the whole of
which has been sent forward for the sale to London. As long
as the importers there show a decided indisposition to avail
tiiemselves of this market it is useless to contend against it,
aud the Liverpool iutcre&t in thij branch of the trade is com-
paratively very small ; but it only requires to make a fair trial,
not on too small a scale, and the advantages of this port would
soon become apparent. The " Black Bali" and '• Eagle" lines
of clipper ships having been united under the able and ener-
getic management of Messrs. James Baiues and Co., and Mr.
Thomas Mackay, of that firm, being now on his way to the
colony to complete arrangements, affords the best hope that
every encouragement will continue to be given to shipmeiits
to Liverpool. The first series of the season of fine Colonial
took place in London from February 25th to March 13th,
consisting of 36,000 bales, including 16,000 bales Cape ; the
quantity was less than at the corresponding sales of the former
year, but exceeded the estimates previously formed, which cir-
cumstance, owing to the extreme sensitiveness of the trade at
that period, operated against the advance which was established
at the opening sales, and on the average the rates were about
the same as at the close in December, 1857. The second
series lasted from the 29th April to the 29th jMay, the quan-
tity being 58,000 bales, inclusive of 9,400 bales Cape ; a con-
siderable decline had been expected, which was to some extent
realized at the commencement, prices being fully 2d. per lb.
lower on the average, which, however, was partially recovered,
aud as there was good competition for superior flecks the value
of these almost reached previous rates. The third series, from
the 15th July to the 24th August, comprised 77,500
bales, including 10,000 bales Cape. The prospects of
business had by this time considerabljMmproved, and notwith-
standing the large quantity, these sales opened with spirit at
a fair advauce ; and while they proceeded this feeling was
further strengthened by theii flueuce of au early and abundant
harvest, and au average advauce of 2d. per lb. was established ;
French buyers operated freely, parlicularly iu best Australian,
but very little was taken for other Continental Marekets. The
fourth aud last series cf the year commeuced on the 4th of
November, and terminated on the 1st of December, the
quantity being 53,800 bales, including 20,700 b«les Cape :
great spirit was manifested, and prices showed an uuusuol
degree of uniformity throughout, closing flrmlj' at an advance
of fully 2^d. per lb., being as high as before the psnic for all
good current qualities. The Home Trade were again the
chief purchasers ; there was a fair competition for France, but
they were unable to pay the prices ; while for Belgium and
Germany the quautity taken was altogether insignificant

Cape of Good Hope. — This description contmues to gain
ir. public estimation, and these colonies are evidently destined
to take a high position from their peculiar adaptability for the
growth of fine wools, particularly of fair useful qualities, and
the extent to which it may be carried seems almost without
limit. The rising colony of Natal appears in particular to
offer a wide field to the enterprising colonist, there beiug au
abundance of open country well suited to pastural purposes.
A great portion of Cape wool is open to the objection of being
of a flimsy character, to obviate this a constant and judicious
infusiou of fresh blood is necessary, and, if not available in
the colony, no expense should be spared to procure the same
from Europe.

German continues to attract less attention every year, but
the receipts have been raor," than double the previous twelve-
mouth. Perhaps no country suffered more than Germany by
the American crisis, from which it has been slow in recovering,
aud this has not only curtailed the operations in our wool
markets for that quarter, but also induced the increased ex-
portation referred to.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

171

Spanish and Portugal. — The supply of the former
has been very hmited, but some sales of Leouesa have been
made lately at prices which we think ought to eucourage ira-
portatiouB ; and there ia also a good prospect for good
Segovia, Caceres, and Estremadura, provided they arrive dur-
ing the next three mouths. Oporlo showa a considerable
diminution from the previous year, when the demand for
American led to large importations of unwashed wools. During
the last lour months washed fleece has been in good
demand, at prices in proportion to the advance in English
combing wools. The lower qualities have also gone off freely,
although at a relatively leas advance.

UNiTi,D States. — The impurta of domestic fleeces re-
ferred to in our last, although disposed of at fair prices, taet
with but little appreciation either in this country or in France,
where they were also fairly tried, owiug to their imperfect
condition ; and a portion was subsequently bought for re-
shipment. Early in the year we received some quantity from
thence of fine colonial, low foreign, and East Indian and Scotch
wools, a portion of which, and of some previous arrivals, was
disposed of at most ruinous losses, but some quantity still re-
mains, chiefly East India. There is a little uneasiness on the
subject of the " Tariff," which may affect the present free im-
portation of low wools ; but if the change involves a moderate
ad valorem duty on all wools, we think, in the end, it will
prove advantageous.

Buenos Ayres and Biver Plate. — The best flocks
continue to show evident marks of improvement as regards
breed ; which could not be otherwise, considering they are
constantly receiving fresh addition of the choicest stock, both
from this country as well as from Silesia, and the iaiperial
flocks of "Ramboulli," selected regardless of expense. It is
only justice to notice the care, in many cases, displayed in the
classing of the wools ; and we are happy to be able to add tbat
the prevalence of burr was not so general in last season's im-
ports. But during the greater part of the year these wools
were far from enjoying the attention which we think the im-
proved management justly merited ; and it is only of late that
they have been more sought after, and they are now in a fair
way of coming again into favour, particularly with our home
trade. The prejudice against this class of wool, on account of
the burr, must soon subside, particularly as this is so much on
the increase in Sydney wools, and even in those from the dis-
trict of Victoria. Tne reason that the same objection does not
exist ou the continent is, that the burring machines are in ge-
neral u:e there, and perform their work very effectually. We
have lately had an opportunity of seeing some of the best ma-
chines at work on the continent, and found that they were
either English invention or had been improved upon in this
country, and so far from presenting novelty, the same machines
are obtainable here at less price. The foreigners make com-
paratively light of the burr ; but, of course, the pri^e of the
wool must be regulated by the loss in weight and the enhanced
cost in cleansing it. The inferior qualities of Mestizo, both
washed and in the grease, have been very difficult of sale;
they are in demand at present, but we have no con6dence in
recommendiug the import of this description, as there is
scarcely an opportunity during six months of disposing of them
without the unsatisfactory recourse of forced sales. We have
received a fair quantity of Cordovd, which has been saleable at
market value.

Peruvian and Alpaca. — Sheep's wool has not met with
very current sale, except the finer qualities ; through forced
sales the market has been kept constantly unsettled, and the
business has, for the most part, been confiued to speculative
operations. Alpaca : Although there has been a small in-
crease on the light import of the previous twelve-month, still
it has been much below an average, which we were quite pre-
pared to expect. The transactions that have taken place have
been mostly at a dccliue of nearly Is. per lb. upon the
prices existing before the panic (and in some cases even much
more), but without directing general attention to this article,
which we attribute in a great measure to the lightness of stocks
during the greater part of the year, and, consequently, the
attention of manufacturers has been directed more to English
wools and Mohair. There being now a fair supply on hand,
fi'i ! '."^e impediments to shipments no longer existing, we look
for a speedy revival of demand, owing to the healthy and
buoyant state of the Bradford trade. A reference to the prices
of Alpaca, Turkey goat's wool, and English combuig wools

(middle wethers), at the three following periods, show a very
striking contrast :

Sept. 1857, before
the panic ....

May 1858, English
Clip time ....

Dec. 1858, present
value

Alpacs.

3s. 2d. to3s.4d.

(33. 2d. paid).
Nominal. (In
June large sale?

at 23. 3d.
2s. 3d. to. 2s. 6d

and we may further add, that Alpaca has before invariably
ruled at a much higher price than Turkey goats' wool.

East India. — ^For some years we have recorded a rapid
and continuous increase, which has, however, for the present
time met with a check in the past year. Tfiis can create no
surprise, considering tlie very uutalisfactory prices that have
prevailed during the whole of that period, owing to the de-
pression in the blanket and carpet districts, consequent on the
suspension of business with the United States. This
description had »lso to contend with the low prices that have
been ruling for English short skin wools, and as there are
'• fellmongering " establishments nearly all over the country,
consumers have met with ready sellers close to their own doors
as usual at such periods. It will be seen that the receipts
continue to be directed almost entirely to this port, and as we
do not possess the East India trade exclusively, as is the case
in London with the Australian trade, we think this may be
taken as a free indication that ours has been found the best
niarkat. We do not think the present depression in value of
East Inr^ia wool will be of very long duration, and st
our next public sales in January we look for some im-
provement. During the last season there was a very
large proportion of inferior uncurrent kinds, which sold ruin-
ously low, and had also the effect of reducing the value of
better qualities, which have, however, uniformly commanded
higher proportionate value. If proper attention is paid on
the other side in carefully preparing these wools, we are very
far from taking a discouraging view of future prospects. They
are a description most essentially requisite for our trade, and
each year will open up a wider field for consumption.

China has met with fair inquiry, but from the limited sup-
ply the transactions have not been worthy of notice.

Russia. — There has been a very considerable falling off iu
receipts, compared with the previous year. Donskoi wool has
not been in much favour, and from the unusually large pro-
portion of inferior fleece, and the desire from time to time to
press sales, prices have ruled low, and it is only quite lately,
since these objectionable qualities have been cleared off, that
any marked improvement in value has taken place. A great
portion of next season's shipment has already been secured for
other countries; and, as the proportion of good combing par-
cels is said to be much less even than usual, there is reason to
expect that such kinds will bring their full value, prices being
still very much lower than last year. Autumn and other low
qualities have not met with general inquiry. In fine scoured
and brook washed the transactions have been unimportant,
but our market at present offers a very encourarging prospect
for this description.

Mediterranean. — These wools have not engaged any
attention, and consequently the receipts have diminished con-
siderably; there has been more inquiry of late, but there ia
scarcely any kind that could be imported to leave any profit.

Egyptian continues to take a high rank as the most fa-
vourite of all foreign wools of this class, but it is stiil open to
the objection we have so frequently pointed out, of being
mixed with inferior kinds, which detracts very much from its
merits. Fine bred parcels are of very current sale, and with
improving prospects.

Turkey Goats' Wool or Mohair has engaged parti-
cular notice, and so great has been the eagerness to secure
supplies, that they have been chiefly bought long before
arrival, and prices have consequently advanced considerably,
having reached a point much higher thun ever known before.
Some beautiful designs have been produced this season, which
hive had a " great run," quite casting Alpaca goods inio the
shade for the time.

172

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Iceland has been in good demand, but sales having, in
many cases, beeu pressed with some precipitaucy, had an un-
favourable influence ; no sooner, however, was tliis pressure
removed than the market assumed a firmer tone; and although
the advance frota the lowest point is greater than in nearly
any other description, they are still much below the highest
rates of last year ; and, the remaining stock being chiefly com-
pused of good descriptions, is held at full prices.

Bareary continues to show greatly diminiahed receipt?,
partly arising from the Emperor of Morocco having prohibited
the export from his dominions, which is to be regretted as
current qualities have generally been in favour. The loss of
other kinds, excepting good clean Tunis, has not beeu at all
missed, as there is generally a strong prejudice against them
in this country.

Domestic Wools. — From various circumstances, a short
time before the clip, prices were forced down to a point which
subsequent events proved was not at all warranted, but no
sooner were the new wools fairly in the market than a sudden
rebound took place, and we have never known a time when the
advance has been more rapid or more firmly sustained, and
while prices have been remunerative to the grower, they have
also been profitable to both dealers and consumers. In some
cases they have advanced 50 per cent, from the lowest point,

and are now even higher than before the panic. Stocks
are very moderate, and .from the extraordinary demand for
lustre wools in particular, present rates are not only likf-ly to
be fully maintained, but the most extravagant expectations
are in some quarters entertained as to the course they are
likely to take before the new clip. Irish has shown the same
buoyancy, but very little stock remained at clip time, and no
forced sales took place. The French have not operated so
freely as usua', but more has been taken for home consump-
tion, and the supply is very moderate for the period of the
year. Scotch wools have not been in much request, and laid
Cheviot iu particular has beeu very much neglected, but has
been more sought after of late. J^aid Highland h«s met with
more inquiry, but the demand has been far from active, the
stocks, however, being very light at present, and in the absence
of similar qualities of low foreign there seems a reasonable
prospect of higher prices, as they are still very far short of
last year.

Sheepskins have been rather difiicult of sale, except the
better qualities heavily wooUed in fair condition, but there
has been a mr^re general inquiry of late for all descriptions; a
con? l>ier»ble clearance has been made, aud sales can now be _
freely effected. — Hughes and Ronald, Wool Brokers,

Liverpool, Dec. 31, 1858.

REVIEW OF THE TRADE IN MANURES AND OIL-CAKES DURING 1858.

A review of the manure trade of the past year presents it in
a similar aspect with other branches of commerce, although
the causes which have led to the depression in this department
are of a different character. The high prices farmers had been
getting for their produce, together with the scarcity of guano,
led them to use artificial manures during 1857 to an enormous
extent, and the demand for all kinds of fertilizers in that year
was quite unprecedented, driving up the prices of raw mate-
rial very considerably. Manufacturers naturally expected a
similar amount of business last spring, aud provided stocks
accordingly. As the season advanced it became evident these
anticipations would not be realized. The heavy fall iu grain,
and iu the autumn the failure of the root crop, rendered far-
mers unwilling to part with their money throughout the year.
Such a course is clearly false economy, and it is to be hoped
practical agriculturists will understand their own interests
better in future thau to think of starving the soil by depriving
it of the very means necessary to render it productive. It is
not by parsimonious cultivation, but, on the contrary, by a
liberal expenditure on his land that the British farmer can
hops to hold his own in these times, when he has to encounter
competition from so many quarters.

However, the result is, that heavy stocks of manures are held
by makers and dealers all over the country. It is true those
parties who have always maintained a reputation for supplying
genuine goods have not suffered from the contraction of busi-
ness iu any measure so severely as others of doubtful cha-
racter.

If really good articles have been dull of sale, inferior and
worthless could scarcely even be sold at all.

Probably in no year has so great a quantity of rubbish
been passed upon consumers as in 1857. A better state of
things prevailed last season, and such parties have them-
selves beeu great sufferers, from the impossibility of getting
rid of their stocks. No doubt every means will be used to
pass off these stocks in the course of the coming season, aud
consumers should therefore be cautioned to send their
orders only to firms of known standing and respectabilit}-.
Price is no criterion of quality ; for whilst on the one hand
bad manure is oS'ered at very low, on the other hand it is
sold at extravagantly high prices.

In Superphosphate of Li WE I am disposed to look for a
good steady trade during the approaching season ; and any
further reduction in Peruvian guano is not likely to have
much effect upon the trade if it should take place, the supe-
riority of superphosphate over guano for root crops being
now pretty generally acknowledged.

Guano of all descriptions has been imported largely during
the year, and the stock of Peruvian in London attheprc£eut time

is far greater than at any former period, being very little short of
300,000 tons ; but owing to the high price placed upon it by
t!ie agents of the Peruvian Government, the cousumptiou has,
iu almost every district, fallen short of that of former years. At
the close of the turnip-sowing season, however, the price was
reduced £1 per ton ; but a far greater reduction must be made
to m.eet the ideas of agriculturists, with the present low prices A
obtained by them for their produce. Very little of second »
quality guano has been used. A few cargoes of a recent die-
discovery from thi! Island of Sombrero have been introduced
lately to the notice of artificial manure manufacturers, with
the idea t'lat the phosphate of lime it contained would form a
basis for their superphosphate ; but after a few trials, they
have not found it so useful as bone-ash and coprohtes, which
are now to be obtained at a very much less price, their relative
values being taken into account.

Imports of Peruvian Guano into the
United Kingdom.
1855*. 1856. 1857. 1858.

305,061 191,501 288,362 312,000 tons.

The prices of raw material have varied considerably through- .
out the year.

Bones at the beginning were selling readily at £5 ISs. to
£6 for foreign. In June, the prices had fallen to £4 15s.,
and at this low rate a good deal changed hands. Towards the
end of the summer considerable purchases, principally of Lon-
don bones, were made for France ; and the stocks here being
low, the market was soon cleared. A rise taking place m
cousequence, and the quantity on the way from South Ame-
rica being small, some manufacturers, anticipating a further
advance, commenced buying for their 1859 consumption, and
a brisk trade was done at long prices, say £53. 10s. nett for
London bones. At this period it was extremely difficult to
get foreign, every cargo being sold aa soon as offered on the
market. £5 15s. was the highest figure obtained in this port,
hut in Hull as much as £6 was paid. In October the ex-
citement abated, and a fall took place; a few parcels of
foreign, not ol the beat sort, having beeu sold at £4 10s. to
£4 15s. iu the docks.

Bone Ash selling at £6 7fl. 6d. to £6 lOs. for 70 per cent.
Phosphate in the early part of the year fell to £5 7s. 6d. to
£5 lOs. about the end of May, but shortly improved in value,
and by the middle of July had advanced to £5 15s., at which
price all the cargoes that offered were quickly disposed of for
out-ports. In the autumn a heavy decline took place, and the

* The imports in 1855 were greater than in any previous
year.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

173

article was a drug ; last mouth, however, a few cargoes were
sold, anJ a better feelin^r spraug up. Owing to a fall in the
value of leather, compared with the prices ruliug during the
Russian war, the number of Beasts slaughtered in the South
American States was very much smaller last jeur. There can
be no doubt it is owing to the limited imports of bones and
bone ash from that quarter, arising from this cause, that the
decline in value of these articles has not been far greater.

Animal Charcoal hds varied from £6 5». to £5 for 70
per cent, phosphate. The consumption seems to be diminish-
iug, perhaps owing to the uncertainty as to the quantity of
carbonate of lime the analysis may show. For Spring de-
livery £5 5s. is asiied.

CopROLiTES had a brisk sale throughout the season, at
from 703. to 75s. per ton, for ground Cambridge. This article
has since shared in the general depression, and has receded to
60s. The quantity raised is large, and very little is selling ;
but the principal raisers are not likely to give way, and possess
the means to hold their stocks.

In all the foregoing an advance may be confidently looked
for. At the present time no business of any consequence is
doing, but as the season cnmes on, and manufacturers who
have been holding out for still lower prices are forced to buy,
the trade will receive an impetus.

The Brimstone market has experienced almost as great
fluctuations as in 1857. About Christmas in that year, in con-
sequence of a combination in Sicily, prices advanced from £8
to £8 lOs. on the spot (for beat seconds). In the month of
January following there was great speculation in the article,
and stocks in Newcastle, Bristol, and Liverpool, being ex-
hausted, purchases for those markets were made in London,
and the price rose to £10 lOs., at which it remained until
April, when a decline of fully 253. took place, owing to large
arrivals and diminished consumption. From June to Septem-
ber the markets varied from £8 128. 6d. (being a further fall)
to £9 5s. (highest price). In the latter month a fall of 15a.,
and in October of 10s., occurred. In the early part of last
mouth sales were made as low as £7 59. on the spot, until a
large purchase ia Sicily caused a gradual recovery to £7 159.
On Monday last, news from Sicily sent up the price to £8, and
the present quotation is £8 to £8 5s., or for cargoes C. F. and
I., £7 15s., at which figure two have been sold to a specutiitor
this week. The nominal price in Sicily is £7 on board, and
the stock in the port is very limited. In no article have there
beeu greater fluctuations, during the past two years, than in
brimstone. The speculation is great, and it is impossible to
speak with any degree of certainty as to future prices.

Sulphate of Ammonia brought £20 in January, and in

the following month declined to £19, after which it fell steadily
to £15. The market then continued in a very depressed state
for a long period, and there were no buyers to be met with.
Sales were made of best white as low as £14 ia the early part of
August, but orders arriving from the United States caused nn
advance to £1G. The large manufaclurers made every effort
to force the market higher, but the Autumn trade being small,
it has slightly receded. 1 think this article will be rather
dearer in the Spring.

Nitrate of Soda fell from 193. in January, to ISs. ia
November. An improvement took place last mouth. Stocks
are very low, and the quantity afloat offering is tmdM. The
m»tket is very firm at present quotations.

In Sulphuric Acid a fair trade has been done. Prices
continued iirm at 0|d. aud Id. per lb. for brown and couceu-
trated respectively, with a discount of from 2-2- per cent, to 5
per cent, uutil July; when, the consumption falling off, a re-
duction took place, aud in August sales were made at 17i per
cent, discount.

Sulphur-made Oil of Vitriol is rather dearer now, aud
higher rates may be lookei for.

OIL SEED CAKES.

Linseed Cakes have not bseu imported so freely during
the last year as in 1857, more especially Baltic and French
descriptions. From America we have had about an average.
Prices at the commeucemeut of the year were about the same
as those now ruling, although in the month cf September,
owing to the general unsatisfactory prospect of the root
crops, prices gradually rose, and burrel cake was sold as high
as £11 5s. per ton, ai;d bag cako £10 15s. per ton. Since
theu feeders have brought largely into use both wheat and
barley, and prices have gradually declined. The stock of cakes
is small for the time of year, and a rise may, I think, be looked
for as soon as the articles brought into competition with it run
short.

Rape Cakes of good quality have been largely dealt in,
both 83 a manure and fof feeding, and throughout the year
have commanded full rates.

Cotton-Seed Cakes hnve not had as much attention
paid to them as they deserve ; they have, however, been ex-
tensively used in the Eastern Counties for feeding, preparatory
to placing the cattle on linseed cake. I consid<:r the descrip-
tion imported from America, crushed, with the husk taken
off, although £2 per ton higher in price, much cheaper than
that made from East Indian seed, which is crushed leaving
the husk in the cake.
35, LeadenJiall-street, London, Jan. 1. John Keene.

THE PRESENT POSITION OF AGRICULTURE

The present position of the farmer is doubtless
one of some anxiety. Seldom has the New Year
opened to bim under less encouraging auspices. The
clouds, indeed, appear to be gathering together over
his head, and he must quickly decide how and where
he shall seek for shelter. It may not be more
than a passing shower; but it is as well to be
fully prepared. Let him look about him, and see what
he might suffer from a continuance of " bad weath«r ;"
how the crops and flocks are protected ; and what will
be his best way of proceeding, with the road to market
not quite so easy as it has been. Of course one of his
first cares will bo to go over his expenditure, and to
ascertain to what extent any reduction is possible.
Farm well he knows he still must ; but these are any-
thing but the days to farm over expensively. In fact, as
some say, the time of trial is only just dawning upon
him ; the storm, that we thought had blown over, is
again thickening, and it really looks darker than
ever.

Peculiarly well-timed to the occasion, the new
number of the Highland Society's Journal has an
article, from the pen of "A Farmer," on the present

position of agriculture. This paper, too, has some-
thing more than the mere merit of being oppor-
tune; it is written with ability and fair consi-
deration of the important topic it touches on. Let
our present purpose be to show how the agricul-
turist is now situated, concurring very much as
we do with the argument and deduction upon
which such a demonstration is made. In the first
place, then, the farmer meets the change with two
very serious points set dead against him. Despite
the continuance of low prices — notwithstanding the
small promise of sunshine on the horizon, the
two heaviest items in his outlay are as high as in
the high range of a few years back. It is almost as
much a favour as ever to get the ofler of a farm.
There are twenty applicants ready to bid for it.
Political economists turn with triumph to the fact,
while landlords and agents are naturally willing to
make the best of their market. The labourei', again,
is anything but inclined to fall back upon that condi-
tion once so directly associated with wheat at a low
figure. War and emigration have alike tended to
thin his ranks, and if a man does run after a

174

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

farm, he as assuredly at certain seasons has to run after
servants f<»r harvest. This is a peculiar and unpre-
cedented state of things. The three classes no longer
rise or fall together, but one of them finds all the bur-
den on his own shoulders. He stands, as it were,
alone, without any of that customary sympathy from
the others, who, acting altogether independently of him-
maintain only their own rights and privileges. What,
ever the farmer may have lost in the last year or so,
neither landlord nor labourer have so far experienced
anything like equal reverses.

The recipe is, on the whole, a somewhat startling
one. Obviously the first means of reducing the employ-
ment of expensive manual labour is in the increased use
of machinery. We live in the very age for the
ready adoption of such a substitute. But our
northern friend couples with this an equally de-
cisive step to counteract the effects of the times.
If labour is high have less of itj and if corn
is low, grow less of it. One, indeed, would directly
tend to the other. We repeat, however, that this
sounds rather strangely with the necessity for in-
creased production of which we have heard so much of
late. But it isput and repeated with much emphasis : —
" We have no hesitation in saying that, if pi-esent prices
of farm produce and present rates of wages continue,
farmers will be compelled to reduce the demand by
throwing more land into grass, or using more machinei-y
on their farms." And again : — " The course of the ara-
ble farmer is clear — he must raise less corn, which is
not so profitable now, and, throwing more into grass,
rt'sort to the dairy or the rearing of stock. By this
means, too, he will reduce his labour account, which
is the great difficulty he has to contend with, swallow-
ing up all his profit." As to farms recently let at ex-
travagant rents — this, even in the face of the fancy for
them by amateurs and merchants, is an evil that must
soon correct itself. " Even the most energetic and
skilful management will scarcely ])roduce a satisfac-
tory balance sheet;" and "we do not claim any
creilit for foresight when we predict an approaching
crisis in the agricultural interest."

It has been often our duty to expose the utter fal-
lacy which would attribute the more recent welfare of
agriculture to any legislative enactment. This, on the
contrary, has arisen almost entirely from a combination
of circumstances of which the most far-seeing of poli-
ticians had not the slightest idea. In those lengthy
debates on the corn laws, did friend or foe for a moment
contemplate such events as the discovery of the gold
fields, the consequent emigration of our people to flou-
rishing colonies, or their employment in more than one
great war ? With such incentives and customers farming
could not but do well; and many thin king men agree with
the writer of the paper we have referred to, " that the
great experiment of free trade on British agriculture
is only now about to be tried." So far, its influence
has been of a very negative character, and those
who promised prosperity or prophesied ruin have
alike but little to take credit for. The test is
yet to be applied. " We ask farmers to exercise their
own judgment in the case : let them turn to their books,
and see what years, during the period from I80O to
1857, have been the most prosperous. We allude of
course here only to arable farmers. They will find,
doubtless, that the end of 1853 and 1854-55 — and in
some parts of the kingdom where the harvests were fa-
vourable, 1856 — were their best years. Now, free-
trade existed during these years ; but it existed also
during 18.30, 1851, 1852, and it exists now; and why
is there such a difference in the circumstances of the
farmer in these last-mentioned years and in the former,
as indicated by his books ? It will be recollected that
during the summer of 1853, negociations were going

on with Russia ; and that, as the year wore on, the re-
lationships between the negotiating countries became
more and more critical, till the climax was reached in
the spring of 1854, when war was proclaimed. It
raged with fury till the autumn of 1855, when it may
be said to have been virtually concluded ; but the effects
of it in high prices continued for some time after.
Surely no one will deny that the jnincipal cause of the
prosperity of the farmer during these years was the
Russian War."

It will be said that this view of the present condition
of agriculture is not a very sanguine one. It is taken,
however, by a man who evidently feels his case, and
who argues rationally and dispassionately. Just at
present the whole burden is on the farmer. The public
generally are prone to think only of his flourishing times
and rarely inclined to make any allowance for his re-
verses. Butjlandlords, we hope, willnotbe led away from
the actual facts, even though they still for a while may
command high rents and ready tenants. Let them re-
member how this competition has arisen, or rather yet
continues — " from merchants and others who, having
made money at their business, entering the lists of
offerers for farms, and carried away by the wild state-
ments of some enthusiasts of what science can do for
agriculture, and as to the pi'esent laggards of farmers."
But laggards those who know them best know they are
not. Noverhas the cause progressed so muchas during
the few past years. It may be maintained, on this,
that they should now be able to face and withstand
some little adversity. As it is, they have manfully with-
stood much already. And if, moreover, recent legistation
is still an experiment, we are quite willing to allow
the cultivators of the soil are better prepared to receive
it than on its first introduction. Their prejudices have
worn down, and they are both better in heart and in
head. They cannot, however, continue with pre-
sent prices thus in every way against them. There
must be relief from some quarter. Either they must
expend less in labour, and more in machinery, or the
price of produce must again rise. Above all, however
strong the landlords may feel in their own position, let
them not withhold their consideration till it is too
late. The interests of the two classes are altogether
identical, and in any time of difficulty it is the great
duty of one to think how he may assist and encourage
the ot her.

GRAIN PRICES FOR THE LAST 15 YEARS.

Sir, — It may be interesting to note the average prices of
wheat, barley, and oats during the last fifteen years; and
the following; table, based on ofHcial returns, will illustrate
the great iiuctuitioiis to which agricultural produce has been
subjected in this period. The calculation refers to the
twelve months between the 1st of December and the 30th
of November in each case : —

Average Price of
v^,.. Wheat. Barley. Oats.

^^^^' s. d. s. d. s. d.

1844 51 8 .... 33 6 .... 20 4

1845 49 10 .... 3110 .... 22 4

1846 54 5 .... 31 9 .... 23 5

1847 70 5 .... 45 3 .... 29 1

1848 50 2 .... 31 5 .... 20 9

1849 43 6 .... 28 2 .... 17 8

1850 40 3 .... 23 8 .... 16 4

1851 38 8 .... 24 G .... 18 6

1852 40 3 .... 28 3 .... 19 1

1853 50 11 .... 32 11 .... 20 5

1854 72 5 .... 36 5 .... 27 8

1855 73 11 .... 34 2 .... 27 6

1856 70 10 .... 40 11 .... 25 5

1857 57 4 .... 42 8 .... 25 1

1853 44 10 .... 35 0 .... 24 6

The relatively high prices still maintained by wheat and
barley will not escape attention. Z.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

175

THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.

The half-yearly meeting of this Society was held
in Edinburgh on Wednesday, Jan. 19, the Duke of
Atholl in the chair. There was an unusually large at-
tendance of members, between seven and eight hundred
being present. The business commenced with the election
of a hundred and eighteen new members, and that of
the secretary followed. The re-election of Mr. Hall
Maxwell was proposed by Mr. Hope Johnstone, se-
conded by the Duke of Buccleuch, and ultimately car-
ried by an immense majority, there not being in so large
a meeting above some thirty or so against it. A pro-
posal of Sir William Johnston to put at the same time
with the election of the secretary a motion for a further
inquiry into the resignation of Mr. Lawson as seedsman
to the Society, and into the dispute between the seeds-
man and the secretary, was withdrawn, and this matter
subsequently considered as a separate question. Its
discussion was attended with some unpleasant per-
sonality, as well as with great warmth, much confusion,
and really at times the chances of a serious disturbance.
A variety of motions, amendments, and explanations
were offered ; the Duke of Buccleuch, Lord Rosslyn,
Lord Panmure, Sir George Clark, Sir William Johnston,
Sir Thomas Gladstone, Mr. Caird, M.P., Mr. M'Laren,
Mr. Beveridge, Mr. Monteith, Mr. Lawson, and others
taking part in the proceedings. Finally, an amendment
proposed by Sir Thomas Gladstone, and seconded by
the Duke of Buccleuch — that the word " retractation,"
which had been used by the Directors in reference to
the issue of Mr. Lawson's pamphlet, should be ex-
punged, and the word " withdrawal" substituted — was
put and carried. The original motion, proposed by Mr.
Caird and seconded by Lord Panmure — that Mr. Law-
son's, resignation be not accepted, but that he be re-
instated as honorary seedsman to the society, disjoined
from the office of Curator to the Museum — was then
put and negatived. Lord Panmure afterwards demanded
a poll, and a scene of great confusion took place. Many,
however, had left when this occurred, and the meeting
was ultimately adjourned to that day fortnight — Wed-
nesday, February 2. We postpone any fuller report of
this untoward affair until it shall have been disposed of
at the adjourned meeting. Surely the exercise of a
little good sense and kindly feeling may save the Society
from another such a day. As the Duke of Buccleuch
very justly complained, the ?-e-issue of Mr. Lawson's
pamphlet should never have been suffered; while this has
been followed by an anonymous attack, so personally
offensive as calculated, in the opinion of the North
British Agriculturist, to defeat its especial object —
viz., the discomfiture of Mr. Hall Maxwell. To us,
however, it appears to be not merely an attack on the
Secretary, but an equally unwarrrontable insult to
almost every nobleman and gentleman who has taken
any active part in the proceedings of the Highland
Society. The fair fame of Mr. Lawson requires that
he should give the most thorough contradiction to his
having been in any way consulted on, or committed to,

this discreditable production. A variety of other busi-
ness which stood on the agenda had necessarily to be
postponed to the adjourned meeting.

TITHE COMMUTATION.

Sir, — As many of your readers may feel anxious to
know the result of the corn averages for the seven
years to Christmas, 1858, published by authority in the
London Gazette of this evening, viz. —

s. d.

Wheat 7 4 per imperial bushel,

Barley 4 5 J ditto,

Oats 3 0^ ditto,

I beg to state for their information, that each £100 of
tithe rent-charge will, for the year 1859, amount to
^^108 193. 6jd., which is a little more than 3 per cent,
above the last year's value.

The following statement from my ^'Annual Tithe
Commutation Tables" will show the worth of i,'100 of
tithe rent-charge for each year since the passing of
the Tithe Commutation Act, viz. —

£ s. d.
For the year 1837 98 13 9|

1838 97 7 11

1839 95 7 9

1840 98 15 9i

1841 102 12 5^

1842 105 8 2f

1843 105 12 2J

1844 104 3 5i

1845 103 17 Hi

1846 102 17 8f

1847 99 18 lOi

1848 102 1 0

1849 100 3 7|

1850 98 16 10

1851 96 11 4|

1852 93 16 IH

1853 91 13 5|

1854 90 19 5

1855 89 15 8f

1856 93 18 \i

1857 99 13 11

1858 105 16 3^

1859 108 19 6J

23) 2,287 2 0^

General average for 23 years .£99 8 9j
I am, Sir, your most obedient servant,

ChAKLE.S M. WiLLlCH,

Actuary University Life Assurance Society.

25, Slnffolk-street, Pall Mall East, S.W.
7th January, 1859.

N

176

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE FARMERS' CLUB.

The annual meeting was recently held in the new Club
Rooms, being the first occasion on which they had been open
for the use of the Club. These, both as to site and accom-
modation, are admirably adapted for the purpose. They
form part of the New Town Hall Buildings, and the entrance
to them 13 directly opposite the door at the north end of the
Corn-market on the other side of the passage which runs
across the upper end of the building. The first room is de-
voted to the use of the members for business meetings, &c.,
and may be described as a Farmers' Exchange. The inner
room is appropriated to the Library, and is adapted for the
meetings of the Club. Both rooms, which are on the ground
floor, and look into the Groat-market, are most handsomely
and substantially furnished ; in rooms above are lavatories
and other conveniences ; the whole wears an air of comfort,
and, separated as these rooms are from the Corn-market only
by the width of a passage, they are calculated to afford most
valuable facilities and accommodation to farmers and others
attending the market who may be members of the Club, and
will doubtless lead to a great augmentation of its numbers.
At the annual meeting, with which the rooms were opened,
Sir Matthew White Ridley, Bart., President of the Club,
presided, and after a few brief words of congratulation,
opened the proceedings by calling upon the secretarj-, Mr.
William Glover, to read the report, which embodied the
terms and reasons for obtaining this accommodation.

The business of the annual meeting having been disposed
of, the members adjourned to the Long Room of the Crown
and Thistle Inn, where a large company of gentlemen,
members and friends of the society, sat down to dinner.
Sir Matthew White Ridley Bart., occupied the chair, and
the Hon. Plenry George Liddell, M.P.,the vice-chair.

The CH.AiRm.4N, in giving " Success to the Newcastle
Farmers' Club, aud prosperity to the new arrangements,"
said to some little extent this toast divided itself into two
heads, the one partly retrospective, the other partly pros-
pective. To deal with the former in the first instance : on
looking back to the years that had passed over this society,
since its first institution, twelve years ago, they saw it had
done a good deal in the way of promoting inquiry and
creating an interest in agricultural subjects. It was known
perhaps to many members here present, many of whom
had taken an active part and evinced a steady interest in
the society, that the number of discussions held in their
late rooms— it was known perhaps to some, though perhaps
not to all — had amounted to no fewer than one hundred, on
practical subjects. At most of those he was present. Some
of them were confined to members, others arose out of
lectures given by scientific men engaged for the purpose,
and some of them were of a very able and interesting cha-
racter. It was with a considerable amount of regret that
he said they had not been able continuouslj' to maintain
those discussions for the last two years. Still, he felt obliged
to remind them that they began with every zeal and
earnestness, and, in his opinion, they had taxed the
energies of their then small number of members rather too
severely, inasmuch as thej' proposed, in the first instance,
to hold those discussions monthly. Now, he believed there
was no Farmers' Club existing in England which had suc-
ceeded in maintaining a discussion every month throughout

the year. There might be some ; but they were decidedly
the exception. In addition to the discussions which they
had held, they had also done much towards collecting a very
excellent agricultural library, and the use of the books had
not been confined to the rooms, but the members had the
privilege of taking them out. He was glad to say that a
great many of these books had been extensively used, and
had been in the hands of very many of the farming com-
munity. The time, however, seemed to have come when it
v/as necessarj' to put the farmers' club, as regarded the
public, in a better position in point of locality and con-
venience; and it was thought they might, with advantage to
the club, and with the probability of increasing its members
and of extending its sphere of utility, so place it in the
town as to combine with the library t^nd reading-room the
advantages of a room for business, which should be avail-
able to the public on introduction by members of the club.
They had succeeded, by the consideration and kindness of
the Corporation, to whom he must say they felt themselves
indebted, and especially to the committee who had charge
of the erection of those buildings in which they held their
anniversary to-day, and also to Mr. Wilson, who had acted
for them in a great many matters in connection with this
club, for the considerate manner in which they had treated the
club. He trusted the Corporation would find they had got
in the club a good, solid, solvent tenant. He could not help
thinking that the accommodation which they now held forth
to the public, namely, an outer business room, and an inner
library, museum, and reading room for the club, would be
a considerable addition to the conveniences already
afforded by the New Town-Hall Buildings; and they
were anxious that it should he made as public as possible in
the belief that many would be glad to avail themselves of
the opportunity of joining the club without delay. They
had, he thought, now placed themselves more immediately
under the public eye, Theyhad conducted their resoutces,and
managed them with considerable economy. He regretted
to say that of late years they had been obliged to husband
their resources very considerably, but at the same time they
had paid their way; and upon the transactions of the past
year they had a small balance to carry forward. Now, in
alluding to the Farmers' Club sirnply as a union, a visiting
place, and a place of call, or to some extent a place of busi-
ness for members connected with agriculture, whether as
landlord, tenant, or he might add labourer, it would be of
great advantage to them to be able to transact their neces-
sary business close to the corn-market, and without the
disturbance and inconvenience necessarily arising from
having to make their appointments at a distance from the
market. He could not conceive any institution or associ-
ated body more des -rving of support than the one which had
held its anniversary that day ; for they must bear in mind
the great necessity that now existed for every attention
being paid to the skilful culture of the soil, and the necessity
of science and exertion going hand-in-hand in the practice of
agriculture. And surely an association like this, which
dealt simply, exclusivelj', and totally apart from all political
considerations, with those matters which tended to the practi-
cal improvement of the powers of the sod, which was to pro-
vide food for the inhabitants of this countiy, an association

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

177

which had a good library, with access to a reading-room, tbe
books of which they allowed to be taken out; and wliich, at
some risk to the finances of the societ}', had taken looras in
a central position in the town, and furnished those rooms aijd
provided iheni with suitable conveniences for the trans-
action of busiuess— such a society, he did think, had ac-
quired still further claims upon the active support of the
agricultural community. He was satisfied in his own mind
that a great deal had been already done, and he looked for-
ward with confidence to a periodical renewal of the practical
discussions on agricultural sulijects, and to their being fully
attended, and carefully and judiciously, and with some
ability, would be entered upon. He trusted, likewise, that the
general public, finding the facilities which the club placed
within their reach, would be disposed to give it their support;
and that both to the club and to the public frequenting the
market it would be a great convenience. In connection with
such an institution he felt, moreover, that it was to be re.
garded not only with reference to the present moment, but to
the generations to follow. It was clear to him that as time went
on, more knowledge and more reading was required for the
farmer than before, and that this institution must be looked
to as one of the means of bettering and improving the condi-
tion of the occupiers of land in this county.

The Chairman had afterwards great pleasure in pro-
posing the health of his Grace the Duke of Northumberland.
He was glad to say tiiat in addition to much that had been
said of His Grace, and which was no more than the Noble
Duke richly and really and honestly deserved, there was this
upon this special occasion that he might perhaps say, that
he had been an early friend and promoter of this institution.
His Grace did not fail to take an interest in their early pro-
ceedings, and show it by furnishing the club with a consi-
derable number of books from his own library ; he had also
presented them with a picture on an agricultural subject
which now graced their rooms, and on various other
occasions His Grace never failed ta express an interest in
the well-doing of the society .

Mr. Anderson, in retuiuing thanks for the Vice-
Presidents, said their society might be looked upon as one
of the little tributary streams that went to form the great
societies— the Northumberland Agricultural Society for in-
stance, and from that up to the Royal Society, which had
prorluced the most wonderful effects.

Mr. G. H. Ramsey spoke at some length in proposing
"Agriculture and Commerce combined." He noticed the
reciprocal influence of the two. Dwelling, however, more
particularly upon agriculture, and tracing the progress of
this club, of which he had been one of tbe founders, he
said that they had had some of the best and most learned
papers read in their club that had been read in any farmers'
club in England.

Mr. Bell said there had been a toast given to him, he
supposed because of the position in which he had had the

honour to be placed in this county, and from the belief that
he must therefore have seen perhaps as much of the tenantry
of it as most men. He certainly had seen a great deal of
the tenantry, and entertained for them the higkest regard
and respect. He conceived that their industry, perseverance,
and skill, were not to be surpassed by those of any tenantry
in the kingdom. However attached to the county of North-
umberland, he could not shut his eyes to the fact that it had
not the climate of Sussex, nor the soil of Worcestershire ;
therefore he must say the landowners of this county were
greatly indebted to the tenantry for having broi;ght the
land to that high state of cultivation in which it now
existed. The skill and ability which were displayed in
farming in this county were, iu fact, held in such high esti-
mation, that young men were sent from all parts of the
kingdom to study agriculture under our farmers. It would
be presumptuous in him to speak of the perseverance, in-
dustry, and skill of the farmers ; they had upon all occa-
sions set an example of agricultural improvement to the
whole civilized world. It was notorious that wherever the
British farmer met the foreign agriculturist in the wide field
of competition, he had invariably borne away the prize;
and although, at this time, our love for France and French-
men was most astonishing, yet he had enough of the John
Bull in him— although, perhaps, not the most correct re-
presentative of that personage—to think there was no
country like England, and that there were no men like
Englishmen ; therefore, he hoped and trusted that wherever
the British farmer met the French agriculturist, or any other
agriculturists, he would beat them as soundly as he had al-
ways hitherto done. He regretted extremely that that great
interest, which was the mainstay of the prosperity of the
country, had hitherto been treated with worse than neglect
by the Government of this country ; for it did appear that
Government considered the whole duty of man to consist in
spinning cotton. The land had been neglected b}' them for
the sake of our manufactures. Notwithstanding this neglect,
such weie tbe indomitable perseverance, ability, and skill of
the British farmer, that, amidst difficulties and distres?, he
yet, in his opinion, was the mainstay of the prosperity of
the kingdom. He was a good deal amused the other day, in
taking up one of our provincial papers, to see there inserted
a report setting forth the wonderful advantages that the
agriculturists of the county of Northumberland had derived
from the repeal of the Corn-laws. Now, whoever the
facetious personage was that inserted that report, in hia
opinion he must have been a wretched plagiarist ; for there
could be no doubt that the report must have originally ap-
peared in the columns of our laughter-loving friend Punch,
who, although one of the most amusing of men, was not the
most correct journalist.

There were a number of other toasts, chiefly of a local
character. — Abridged from the Newcastle Journal.

SICKLES AND CYCLES.

Sir, — After reading the comprehensive and masterly re-
view of the monetary year which forms the City Article in
The Times of yesterday, my attention was drawn, not for the
first time, to a phenomenon in the past history of the corn
trade which I have never had the satisfaction of seeing no-
ticed in any public organ, agricultural or commercial, but

which appears to me sufficiently remarkable to deserve to
be known, and, if so, to occupy a small space in your
columns. It is this. For no less a period than 32 years —
ever since 1827 — the price of wheat in this country has
moved iii quadrennial periods — four years up and four years
down—with a regularity so steady and invariable that it is

N 2

178

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

difficult to cast one's eyes over the scale of " annals of ave-
rages" and escape the impresssion it conveys of a perfect
natural cycle. Such a circumstance would be less surprising
to any one who had studied the constancy of nature's opera-
tions, even in elements the most seemingly inconstant, were
it not for the many and persevering attempts that we have
seen (and happily outlived) to regulate by legislative man-
dates a tide whose ebb and flow has observed the same in-
evitable libration, unaltered and unaffected through all the
multiform attempts to " regulate the price of corn," from
the date of Lord Glenelg's Act, in I8"2f], through Peel's
Acts, and still throughout the decennial period that has
succeeded the abandonment of all Acta but the wise one of
leaving it alone.

No expansion into verbal statement will do justice to the
expressive tale which the diagram of annual prices affords to
the eye. Briefly told, however, and omitting fractional
figures, it is as follows : From 1827 to 1C31, the first quad-
rennial period, the prices of wheat rose from 58s. in the
first-named year to 66s. in the last. Thence to 1835 it fell
by regular annual stepj, 583., 528., and 463 , to oOs. Iq tlie
next four years it rose again with equal regularity, tfcrough
483., 538., and 643., to 703. in 1839. Then down by the gra-
dations of 663., 643., and 57s., to SOs. in 1843. Up again,
through SOs., Sis., and 543., to 693. in 1847. Down again.

in turn, by the regular stages of 50s., 44«., 403., to the figure
fearful to agricultural eyes of 38». in 1851. The next four
years it mounted again by the encouraging degrees of 4l8 ,
53s., 723., to the Crimean altitude of 748. in 1855 ; whence it
has declined in obedience to the same singular law of succes-
sion to 69s. and 563. in 1856 and 1857, and to the still lower
figure it holds in the year just expired, the third, and happily
the penultimate, of our present descending series.

From this statement (unavoidably tiresome and ineffective
in the mere reading) any one caring to take the trouble can
readily draw the diagram for himself, and observe the instruc-
tive, or at any rate suggestive, picture it furnishes. Whether
in our suicidally non-statistical or anti-statistical farming world
the reflections it affords will be much valued, especially at this
luckless moment of prospective declension augured by it for
the coming year, I may well feel some question ; but I am
induced to think that in the eyes of the commercial world it
may find some appreciation (quanlam valeat) as a possible ap-
proach to the disclosure of " law" in a class of prices which,
under the annual title of " The Harvest," affect and underlie
so maoy interests, and interpenetrate so importantly thecom-
moiiwealth of all. And with such view I venture, by your
permisbiou, to submit it to the notice of your readers in this
and other countries. Your obedient servant,

Jan. 5. C. When Hoskyns.

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE.

The ploughing of leys and stubbles will be done
during the whole of this mouth from being impeded
by frosts and snows of the previous months. Con-
tinue the carting of dung to the fields, earths for
composts, and stones for drains. Thrash regularly
for fresh straw for the cattle ; and push forward
such operations, that they may not impede the sow-
ing season that is now approaching.

Begin to give oilcake to fattening animals, broken
or bruised iu troughs placed in the yards, and in
the fields for sheep : it much hastens fattening, and
greatly improves the quality of the dung. Oats are
very beneficially used with it, and a portion of salt.
Ewes will now drop lambs very fast: attend to shel-
ter and the supply of food. In good weather pull
and dress, lay in pits, and remove from all lands,
turni[)S of all kinds for the live stock, that the sow-
ings may be ready. Continue the feeding of fatten-
ing and store animals as directed last mouth.

Plant, during fresh open weather, on suitable
grounds, all kinds of forest trees, especially oak,
ash, elm, and larch. The second year cut close by
the ground the ill- thriven growths of sprouting
trees, to secure a more vigorous growth ; and, in the
third or fourth year, cut off all otlier shoots, leaving
the most vigorous stem for a tree. Plant osiers in
beds or rows on low damp grounds that cannot ad-
vantageously be made arable from inundations and
similar causes. Lay the beds as diy as possible,

and done a year before planting. Cut underwood,
and fell timber during the whole of this month ; and
plant new hedges ; piash and repair old ones.

Prepare artificial manures of all kinds possible.
Flood meadows ; and, if the weather be fine, begin
to lay dung on grass lands (rough or strawy), and
then bush-harrow and roll, and pick off stones and
rubbish. Repair gates and fences ; and put grass-
lauds into order by spreading tufts of dung, mole-
hills, and by removing any obstructions.

Dig hop grounds; open the hills, and apply strong
manures — rotten farmyard dung, composts of lime
and salt; rags and briny oleaginous substances do
well. Dress the roots, and cut off the shoots for sets.

Continue under-di'aining and subsoil ploughing;
and the thrashing of grains — sell and delivei'.

In early localities, and on dry warm lands, the
sowing of crops will begin during this month.
Sow early peas on newly- stirred soils, broadcast or
by drilling. Sow beans by dibbling, or on ridges,
or by drilling on the flat surface. Sow Spring
wheat and barley on the last year's turnip lands
with one furrow of ploughing ; and Spring vetches
with a small portion of barley, or oats, or beans, for
horses and sheep feed. Sow cabbage seeds on warm
well-prepared grounds, for plants to go to the field
in May or June.

Collect manure; and prepare peats and similar
substances, for burning into ashes.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

179

CALENDAR OF GARDENING,

February is proverbially a wet moutb, and far bet-
ter it should be so than keenly frosty. If the ground
be a swamp it will be worse than useless to move it,
and no time is lost by waiting for a favourable con-
dition. There is one axiom in gardening which
ought always to be kept in sight — it is this : Every plot
of ground intended to receive a crop should once in
the year be either trenched, half-trenched, or
digged. The two former operations may be done late
in the Autumn, after which the land may be laid up
in ridges exposed to the winter frost. But simple
digging ought in general to be deferred till the time
of cropping, the manure being spread upon the sur-
face prior to operations of the spade : it should
always be performed as the work proceeds, sowing
or planting piece by piece, that the ground may be
finished olf neatly.

Kitchen Garden.

Small Salads, i. e. mustard and cress, are now in
request, and may be raised very successfully by
placing a small single light box over a jDortion of
open rich ground just moved and lying full to the
sun. We have seen boxes two or three feet long
and about two feet wide with sloping glasses, or, in
lieu of them, with frames, over which is stretched a
piece of close strong calico, made weather-proof and
semi-transparent, by first a coat of flour paste, and
then by being twice brushed over with linseed -oil.
A few inch-boards, cut so as to slope nine or ten in-
ches at back to five at the front, will suffice ; and in
such frames close rows of fine cress, and then mus-
tard seed, may be sown : these will yield a profusion
of excellent salad in a very few days.

Peas and Beans, to succeed the first crops, are
sown about the second week. We are too apt to crowd
these vegetables; rows ten or fifteen feet a]3art yield
better, and the spaces may be occupied by other
crops ; there is more air and less liability to " over-
pea" the land by this system. The early Warwick,
Cormack's May, and the Charlton pea, are the best:
the Mazagan and long-pod bean are also proper for
this early season.

Broccoli for November, and sprinkling of cabbage
for August, may be sown at the end of the month.

Carrots: the early-horn twice — first at the begin-
ning, then in the last week of the month.

Celery, for the earliest crop, must be raised over
a gentle hot- bed for the late or Spring crops. A
sprinkling of seed can be made on an asparagus bed.
Onions: either the Strasburgh or Reading are
sown in drills or broadcast : the ground ought to be
deep and rich. A very early supply of nice Summer
onions may be obtained by digging a plot of ground,
raking it smooth, and, as the work proceeds, press-
ing small last year's bulbs to about one-third of
their depth in the soil, nine to twelve inches asun-
der. These onions ought not to exceed \\ inches
in their width. Each will attempt to put forth a
flower stem ; and this, as soon as it is clearly visible,

is to be broken or cut off above the bulb. Another,
and perhaps a third, effort will be made, which being
cheeked, new bulbs will be developed, the old ones
disappearing; and these in July are frequently three-
fold, and as broad as a hen's &^g.

Parsleij, Thyme, and other pot-herbs, are sown
about the close of the month.

Potatoes: the early Manby, frame, and Lanca-
shire lemon kidney, may be planted in a warm border
by the middle of the month, five inches deep, and
covered with a layer of old half- decayed leaves.

Radishes and Lettuces are sown twice in the
month.

Rhubarb : fine seedling plants of the Scarlet Go-
liath are planted in deep and rich beds five feet apart,
but only so deep that the crowns may be three
inches below the sui'face.

Shallots and Garlic are planted much in the way
directed for summer bulbing onions, four or five
inches apart, in a ground of soft sandy loam.

Flowek Garden.

The best annuals are sown in pots or pans,^ em-
ploying gentle heat in glazed frames ; thus seed and
time are economized, while great protection is afford-
ed from cold and insects. The sorts of plants are
generally known— as Venus's-looking-glass, calceo-
larias, love-lies-bleeding, pinks—crimson and pur-
ple, and China asters.

Auriculas grow in protected pots in glass cases,
and have air in plenty, but kept from drenching
rains.

Polyanthus, in the choice and double varieties,
are to' be dressed with good maiden loam and a
slight mixture of horse dung.

Anemone and ranunculus roots may be planted at
the end of February in beds richly prepared during
Autumn; open a drill or set by dibble; in both
cases, let plenty of pit sand lie about the roots.

Do not dig the parterres and borders yet, but
rather scatter leafy manures, or old cow-dung and
fresh loam over the surface, avoiding the crowns of
herbaceous plants.

Fruit Department.

Currant and gooseberry bushes must be finished
before the buds open ; the former, by close spurring
of the laterals and shortening of the upright leaders;
the latter, by cutting clean out all very old, and
other superfluous, roots. After pruning and taking
away the cuttings, hoe and turn the surface an inch
or two deep. Raspberry bushes are to be cut back
to the bend of the rod— six rods are enough to each
root. Never dig the ground except to remove ill-
situated suckers, but mulch the surface with half-
decayed leafy manure.

If peaches and nectarines enlarge the buds, they
may be pruned, and then regularly trained.

180

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
JANUARY.

During the whole of the month the weather throughout
the United Kingdom has been remarkably mild, and in some
iaatances rather vegetative. This' mildness has led to rather
large importations of wheat, barley, and some other articles
from near continental ports ; and numerous vessels have
arrived off the coast from the westward, laden with grain. The
consequence has been that, with the exception of a slight rise
in the value of wheat in the second week of the month, millers
have purchased with extreme caution, and the trade has
relapsed into its former dull state. The future course of the
wheat trade appears to be involved in considerable doubt and
uncertainty. Some parties anticipate a revival in the demand,
owing to the limited importations from the United States ;
but, on the other hand, it should be borne in mind that the
stocks of produce in France are exteusive, and that any
upward movement in the value of food in this country would
be immediately followed by considerably increased shipments.
True, the supplies of foreign produce in the United Kingdom
are not to say very large, perhaps considerably under 2,000,000
qrs., taking wheat, flour, barley, oats, and other articles into
this estimate, but they are unquestionably sufficiently heavy
to check speculative investments; and whilst or.r farmers
continue to hold very large quantities of wheat the produce
of 1857 and 18.58, we can hardly anticipate anything approach-
ing excitement in the trade. Again, those important articles,
rice and potatoes, are competing to some extent with the
better kinds of foods, and it may, we think, be taken for
granted that the supplies of rice and potatoes are fully equal
to any want that may arise ; certaiuly the growth of the latter
has considerably exceeded the calculations made by many
parties in September last, and we may go further and say that
the general quality of the crop has turned out good. On the
continent the produce of the last crop has proved heavy, and
the growers are still shipping largely to England. We think,
however, that owing to the low prices at which foreign pota-
toes are now selling, both in London and at the outports,
future arrivals will be comparatively small. Our American
advices bring somewhat firm markets for both wheat and
flour, the prices of which have lately had an upward tendency ;
but any important rise in value is wholly out of the question,
as the quantities of produce in stock in the West is
atill enormous, and it is calculated that nearl}^ one-third of
the crop of 18.57 is still on hand. As regards spring corn,
we may observe that there has been an improved feeling in
the demand for most kinds, especially for the medium
qualities of barlej' and oats. Prices have Imd an upward
tendency, and they are likely to continue firm for some
months, arising from the limited quantities oh hand in nearly
all parts of England. The yield of barley and oats in Scot-
land last year appears to have been considerably in excess
of some former seasons. Not only have the shipments to
the South increased, but the sales for home consumption
have been large. The weight of those articles, too, has
come up to a high figure.

The higiily. favourable accounts at hand from the manu-
facturing districts have imparted considerable firmness to
the wool trade. English wool has advanced in price fully

O^d. per lb., and all other kinds have been held for more
money. The next public sales of colonial are expected to
go off briskly : certain it is that our manufacturers are un-
usually short of stock, and that the majority of them are
working to order.

Although the value of hops has undergone very little
change, there has been an improved feeling in the demand
for all new qualities. Yearling and old parcels have ruled
heavy, though oifered on low terms. It is stated by com-
petent parties that the supply of hops now on hand is equal
to two years' consumption !

The demand for live stock has been tolerably active, at
high quotations. Dead meat has sold extensively, but with
a heavy trade, arising from the immense supplies which are
almost daily received up to Newgate and Leadenhall from
Scotland and various parts of England.

The value of hay and straw in London is about oa a par
with last year. For instance, meadow hay is quoted at £2
ISs. to £4 10s.; clover ditto, £3 lOs to £5; and straw, £1
53. to £1 1 Os. per load. The demand for hay on continental
account has fallen off,

Out-door farm-labours, arising from the extreme mildness
of the weather, are very forward. The young wheats are
looking remarkably well ; but they will soon require addi- ,
tional cold to prevent premature growth, J

In Ireland and Scotland wheat has moved off slowly, at
about previous quotations. Barley and oats have commanded
rather more money, and the value of other kinds of produce
has been well supported. The stocks of potatoes are sea-
sonably large.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING
THE PAST MONTH.

For the time of year, only moderate supplies of fat stock
have been on offer in the Metropolitan Market since we last
wrote; but we have observed a decided improvement in the
general weight and condition of the beasts and sheep re-
ceived from what may be termed our leading counties.
Notwithstanding that great competition has continued
between the live and dead meat markets, arising from the
increased supplies of meat received up to Newgate and
Leadenhall, both from Scot'and and various parts of Eng-
land, live stock has been in fair request, and prices have
ruled high, prime Scots having sold at 5s., and prime old
Downs at Ss. 2d. per 81bs. Couipared with the correspond-
ing month in 1858 — owing to the continuance of mild wea-
ther on the Dutch coast— the imports of forpign stock into
London have been on a liberal scale, viz., 1,448 beasts, 7,046
sheep, 750 calfes, and 11 pigs, against a total supply
amountiug to 2,342 head in January last year.

The Norfolk season for beasts has commenced auspiciously.
The stock as yet received from that county has turned out
remarkably fine — far better, indeed, than in 1858— and we
have every reason to believe that we shall continue to draw
largely from that source during the next five months. The
Norfolk graziers have had the advantage during the last
six months of a more plentiful supply of moisture than
those residing in Lincolnshire and Leicestershire, conse-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

181

quently the supply of cattle food haa been considerably in
favour of the Norfolk producers of live stock. We have
seen scarcely any home-breds from that county for some
time past, and we think that we may safely state that that
once numerous and useful breed is now almost wholly ex-
tinct. It appears to have given way to the short-horns, of
which an unusually large number continues to arrive in
London. The extension of the short-horned breed through-
out England, as well as in Ireland and Scotland, is, per-
haps, the most remarkable event of modern times io stock
feeding. So numerous has that breed become, that many
of our once-favourite breeds have been considerably reduced
in number, and even our best Scots are now extensively
crossed with short-horns. No doubt the system is paying
well, or it would not be continued at its present extent ;
but we freely admit that we should regret to see our noble
Devons, Herefords, runts, &c., wholly driven out of the
field, to make way for animals which may eventually become
less valuable by extensive crossing. However, the increase
in the short-horns may be taken as evidence of the important
secret how the enormous consumption of butchers' meat in
this country is now met.

The quality of the foreign beasts and sheep at hand
during the past mouth has shown signs of improvement,
arising from most of the inferior stock having been shipped
to this country in the last four months of 1853, in conse-
quence of a scarcity of cattle food in the north of Europe.
Our impression is that the arrivals of stock from the conti-
nent this year will fall considerably short of 1858 ; hence
we may assume that prices here will continue to rule some-
what high. The annexed figures show the importations
into the metropolis last month : —

Beasts
Sheep
Calves

Pigs..

1,448 head.
7,046 „
759 „
11 ,,

Total

Total in 1858
1857

1856

1855

18.54

1853 12,847

1852 10,567

9,264

2,342
4,633
3,292
9,102
7,919

The total supplies of all kinds of stock exhibited ia the
Great Metropolitan Market are as follows : —

Beasts 19,805 head.

Cows 364 „

Sheep 90,620 „

Calves 921 „

Pigs 2,400 „

Comparison of Supplies.

Jan. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs.

1858 20,312 572 80,742 1,108 1,759

1857 19,949 355 81,200 1,071 2,355

1856 17,532 435 101,600 757 2,930

1855 19,717 .500 120,470 962 2,625

1854 19,687 510 95,080 887 2,279

1853 20,717 480 96,800 2,148 2,3G0

Beef has sold at from 33. to 5s. ; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 5s.
2d. ; veal, 3s. 4d. to 5s. 2d. ; and pork, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 2d. per
81bs., to sink the offal.

Comparison op Prices.

Jan., 1855.
s. d. s. d.
Beef, .... from 3 2 to 5 0

Mutton 3 4 — 5 0

Veal 4 2 — 6 0

Pork 3 0 — 4 4

Beef, ..
Mutton
Veal. . . .
Pork. . . .

Jan., 1857.
8. d. s. d.
trom 3 4 to 5 2

3 8—5 6

....3 8 — 5 0
3 8 — 5 2

Jan, 1856.
s. d. s. d.
2 10 to 4 10

2 10 — 5 0
4 2—60

3 8 — 5 0

Jan., 1 858.
s. d. s. d.
3 2 to 4 6

3 4 — 5 4

4 0 — 5 4
3 6 — 4 10

Thus it will be seen that pork still continues to sell at
comparatively low prices. The depression in value must be
attributed solely to the enormous quantities which continue
to be forced for sale in the dead markets.

The arrivals of beasts from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and
Cambridgeshire, have amounted to 9,750 Scots and short-
horns; from the northern and midland counties, 4,000 short-
horns, &c. ; from other parts of England, 4,900 of various
breeds; from Scotland, 1,830 Scots, &c. ; and from Ireland,
580 oxen, &c.

In Newgate and Leadenhall large supplies of meat have
been on show, and the demand has been far from active.
Prices, however, have ruled firm,

AGUICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, PAIRS, &c.

AYLESBURY JANUARY FAIR, (Saturday Ia3t.)-The
fair was well supplied with horses and cattle, but in sheep the
supply was very moderate. The trade ia horaes was active,
especially for the beat descriptions ; the latter realized high
prices, mferior sorts being rather lower. For milch Cows there
waa a good demaad, and though the supply was large very few
remaioed on hand, prices averaging from £13 to £20 each.
For good barren Cows trade was very brisk ; scarcely any re-
maining unsold out of the very large supply at the fair, but
inferior ones did not meet with such ready sale ; the beat de-
scriptions making £12 to £15, inferior £8 to £11 each. In
stirka the trade waa rather heavy, prices £4 to £8 each. Trade
in sheep waa sluggish, and though the supply was small a few
remained on hsnd; store wethers making 283. to 40s, store
tega 173. to 283. each.

BANBURY FAIR.— There waa a fair supply both of beef
and mutton, which found a tolerably briak sale at from 2s. 9d.
to 53. per 81b3. for beef, and ;43. to 5s. for mutton, on an
average, Messrs, Danby mi Caless had their monthly sale

as usual, which included several fine bulls, besides cows, sheep,
and a few pigs : the whole sold well.

BANWELL FAIR presented one of the beat selling marts
that has been held in this part of the country for a consider-
able time past. The supply of fat stock waa far from bein?
in proportion to the demand, and everything fit for the
shambles waa readily bought up at advancing prices. Good
beef fetched from 60a. to 67s. per cwt., and one or two prime
lota brought as much as 703., the principal purchases being
made by dealers. Cows with calves by their sides were in
request, and averaged from £15 to £17 each. Useful grazing
barreners were worth from £12 to £14 each. There was alsa
a marked improvement in the pig trade. It was altogether a
good business fair.

BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a moderate
supply of all descriptiona of bef sts and sheep, with a very
sharp market for fat stock, at better prices than have been
obtained for some time. Fat beasts 7s. to 78. 9d. per St.,
mutton sheep 6d, to 7^i. per lb.

182

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

BRIDGNOHTII I'AIR was not so well supplied as usual,
ani the attendance was correspondingly thin : the quality of
stock wag, however, good, and prices fair. Cows for the
butcher fetched 7d. ; sheep, wether T^d., and ewes 7d. There
wa9, as usual of late, little or no demand for pigs, which were
offered at very low figures. There were a few cows and calves,
which went at prices varying from £12 to £16.

GRAMPOUND FAIR.— An average supply of bullocks,
and a very dull sale, at from 553. to fJOa. per cwt. But few
store cattle offered, and not many inquiries. Of sheep there
was not a large supply : the selling price from 6d. to 6^d. per
lb. The fair was thinly attended, owing to the unfavourable
weather.

HELSTON FAIR. — In consequence of the unfavourable
state of the weather little business was transacted. Prices
were lower for bullocks of all descriptions.

MELTON FAIR. — On Monday there was a good show
of horses. On Tuesday the fair was not so large as on some
previous years, but cattle generally made good prices.

NOTTINGHAM FAIR.— The show of horses was cou-
siderably below those of former fairs, and there were very few
of even average quality. One or two fine horses offered a'--
tracted a great deal of attention, but the prices asked tended
to prevent a ready sale. Good agricultural horses were in de-
mand, but there were not many offering ; and consequently
higher prices had to be paid for anything tirat-rate. A fair
number of useful milch cows were shown, but for the best,
taking age, appearance, and condition into consideration, high
prices were asked, from which the holders would not permit
any abatement. A number of sales were effected at prices
generally varying from £13 to £18 each. We heard of a few
chaugiug hauds at as high as £20 to £21 each. Barren cows
were sorauwhat plentiful, and sold readily at from £8 Ss. to
£12 128. each, without " turn again." A few first-class heifers
were shown, the prices asked for which precluded sales being
effected. Ordinary animals brought from £10 to £12 eacii,
several sales being made at as low as from £a to £9. The
day being favourable there was a good attendance, aod a full
average amount of business was transacted.

SHREWSBURY FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— The
best fat heifer beef sold upon an average at 6^d., second-rate
cows 6d. to 6| 1. per lb., and inferior cattle at lower rates,
according to quality. Fat calves from 6d. to 6^d. per lb ,
useful store cattle making fair prices, and cows aud calves
selling well. Fat wether sheep from 7d. to 1-^d., and ewes
6|d. to 7d. per lb. Fat pigs 5d. per lb. ; stores much higher,
from 5s. to 6?. more money.

TEWKESBURY FAIR was well supplied with beasts,
but sheep were rather under the average. Beef and mutton
sold at from 5.jd. to 7d.

WELSHPOOL FAIR.— So many buyers were present, that
the supply was not equal to the demand, aud nearly all the
stock was cleared off at advanced prices. Beef from 5^d. to
e.^d., and mutton C^^d. to 7d. per lb. There were but few
horses.

WORCESTER FAIR.— There was a very large attend-
ance of bujers, and a good supply of stock in all classes, fat
and store. Many sheep went back unsold. Mutton 7d. per
lb. There was a great demand for beef, which made 7d. per
lb., equal to an advance of Id. per lb. within the last mouth.
Pigs, fat brought 8s. to Ss. 4d. per score ; stores were dearer.

YORK FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— We had a very
limited supply of all descriptions of stock, wi.ich had slow de-
mand. Fat beasts sold at 63. 6d., 78., and 78. 9d. per stone,
as per weight aud quality ; mutton sheep 5^d. to 6^d. and 7^i.
per lb. ; grazing hogs 25s. to 46s. per head as per quahiy.
Calving and dairy cows had a slow sale at 20^. to 30s. per head
below the rates of November aud December, and many unsold.
All kinds of grazing beasts were in limited supply and demand
at rates in favour of sellers. We had a good supply of pigs,
which had a fair sale. Scotch and Irish pigs Ss. 6d. to Ss. lOd.,
English porkers 6s. to 69. Sd. per stone, including the head and
feet. Bacon pigs 6s. per stone, without head and feet. Pork
hams realized 7s. 6d. per stone.

IRISH PAIRS.— Granard (County Longford). —
The supply of horned cattle was very large, and prices
encouraging. Prime beef, of which class alone the sup-
ply was hardly an average, sold from 5d. to 6d. per
lb., or gay from 50s. to 583. per cwt., at which prices
It got a quick sale. Springers in good demand, at from

£10 to £16 each ; good three and two-ytars-old heifers much
sought for ; yearlings and weanlings rather depressed in value.
There was a good supply of prime mutton, which sold at about
5d. to 5id. per lb. ; lambs maintaining their value, without
any marked change. There was an immense supply of pigs,
which sold considerably under late prices ; the first and best class
varying from about 403, to 443. per cwt.; fine farmers' bacon sold
by the flitch or side at 50s. and 51s. per cwt. Bailiebough .
(County Cavan): Beef cattle were in good demand, and
met with a ready sale, at 553. per cwt. for prime, inferior
qualities ruling at about AOs. per cwt. The buying in the
sheep department was pretty active, and nothing remained un-
disposed of. Prime wethers brought SOs. each, and rated lor
mutton at e^d. per lb. Ewe mutton sold at 5^d. per lb.
Good hoggets sold at from 35s. to 45s. each. There was a
very fair amount of business transacted in this branch. The
pig fair was large, and a great many buyers attended. Bacon
was something up, prime on the foot bringing from 42s.
to 443. per cwt. Store pigs sold at from £3 downward,
according to quality ; slips brought from £1 5s. to £1
15s. each, and suckers and weanlings about similar figures per
couple. Best milled flax brought 12s. per stone ; hand
scutched from Ss. 3d, to 93. 6d. and 10s. 3d. per St., accord-
ing to quality. Cootehill.— A considerable business was
done in cattle, although complaints of slow transactions were
made by holders. Best beef brought GOs. per cwt. The stock
of young cattle exhibited was a fair seasonable average, and the
demaud was brisk for shipment. The prices of sheep were par-
ticularly good, not only from the moderate supply, but also
from the demaud for good mutton for England. Best wedder
mutton brought 7d. per lb. There was a very extensive sup-
ply of swine, aud an equally good demand. IBacon advanced
considerably, aud stores were also in good request. Bally-
bay. — Fat cattle of a fair description sold well in all cases, and
milch cows and springers also realized pretty fair figures,
being in active request. Store cattle maintained lute
rates, and were bought actively where tl;e quality was good.
There was but a moderate supply of sheep, which sold very
freely, wether mutton fetching Q^d. to 72d. per lb. There
was an immense supply of pigs, and a large number of buyers
for the English markets. In general, pigs advanced in value,
bacon on foot being SOs., being about Ss. per cwt. higher than
at Christmas. Store pigs fetched 30s. to SOs. each. DuN-
DALK : A very excelleut demand was apparent, and the
holders cf stock seemed to feel a confidtnce in, at least,
steady prices. The amount of cattle on the ground was
smaller than usual, but the quality was good, and the demand
for them active. Prices in general seemed higher than
last year. The sheep market was very thinly supplied,
and good mutton was very dear. Bacon pigs sold well at 453.
to 503. per cwt., stores from SOs. to 60s. each. The horse
fair was a failure. Tagumon : There was only a limited
show of each description of stock, but an upward tendency was
observed on everything offered for sale. Bacon Pigs 38s. to
4l9. per cwt. Fat cattle ve;y scarce, aud m active request.
Castlebhidge : The tone of trade closely resembled that at
Taghmon. Maguire's-bridge was poorly supplied in
every department, except pigs. Beef was in moderately good
request ; young cattle, calves, and stores sold particularly
well ; springers also met a smart sale ; pigs, both fat and
stores, met a ready sale. Good bacon, on foot, 45s. to 50s.
per csvt., and horses sold well.

CHIPPENHAM GREAT MONTHLY CHEESE MAR-
KET.— ISO tons of cheese were pitched, which, for the time
of year, was a good supply, and the whole met a ready sale at
the undermentioned prices. In the cattle market there was a
good supply of fat cattle aud dairy stock, for which there was
a gooJ demand. Broad doubles 56s. to 64s., prime Cheddar
58s. to 6S3 , thin 463. to 51?., loaves 63s. to fOs., skim 233.

GLASGOW CHEESE MARKET.— Supplies were larger
than usual. There were twelve tons passed the weigh-house
scales, and one cart was shown iu the market. New 423. to
453., prime early-made 533., skim 23;!. to 253. per cwt.

GLOUCESTER CHEESE FAIR.— The supply, though
fair, was not equal to that at some previous markets, being
about sixty tons only, while the quality was but middling.
The attendance of buyers was small. For best samples the
trade was brisk, but indifferent were little inquired after. The
following are the quotations : Best skira 54s. to 583., seconds
4O3, to 483., skim 24s, to 283. per cwt.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

183

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The first monili of the new year has passed over
with a temperature more like spring than the depth
of winter, with but a slender fall of rain ; the roots
of the wheat have therefore been making progress
in the backward pieces, and gnierally the prospect
is as favourable as could be desired, the ravages of
slugs being reduced by their perishing abundantly
in the buccessive droughts. Ploughing has gone on
almost uninterruptedly, and there is every proba-
bility that spring corn will be planted as favourably
as wheat, from the forwardness of tillage. More
water is, however, wanted for the cattle, and the
springs continue low.

The wheat trade opened well at the commence-
ment of the month, but the prevalence of damp
weather, with good foreign arrivals, eventually
brought back old prices and a relapse into dulness.
The average price of the past year was iis. 5d. ;
and if the report be truthful that with an average
price less than 56s. wheat will not pay for growing,
the agricultural interest has had a year of sacrifice
to meet, instead of being recompensed, which must
have pressed especially hard upon such as have
taken new farms ; but as for eleven years previously
the average was 55s. lOd , a tenant of this term
has only found one bad year out of twelve, and has
every reason to hope for the recovery of his posi-
tion. Notwithstanding the plenty that has always
appeared of foreign samples in London, the arrivals
in this port have been less than the usual propor-
tion, viz., 657,737 qrs. only, out of 4,275,430 cp-s,
raceived in the United Kingdom. Stocks also turn
out much less than generally expected ; an eminent
house having, after much painstaking, found the
quantity to be about only 230,000 qrs. on January
1st ; but our former calculation of the quantity of
spring corn was pretty correct, there then being
about 320,000 qrs. oats, 60,000 qrs. barley, 16,000
qrs. beans, 7,400 qrs. peas, with 11,000 qrs. rye,
and 23,000 qrs. Indian corn. If, therefore, London
be taken as a criterion of the probable stocks else-
where, and two-thirds of the imports of wheat have
been consumed, it seems about fair to take the entire
stock of the United Kingdom at something over
1,250,000 qrs., which is about a month's consump-
tion in hand as a provision against future disasters.
The want of granary- room has been partly occa-
sioned by free-trade making less necessary than
formerly, from the absence of speculation, and the
more frequent sales ex ship, so that many granaries
have been converted into sufferance wharves for

general shipping purposes. Notwithstanding the
openness of the season, Baltic supplies have greatly
fallen off, wheat prices being relatively dearer there
than here ; but France has kept sending at a losing
rate, and the shipments due from the Black Sea and
Mediterranean have arrived simultaneously, and
added to the heaviness of markets. The present low
rates may certainly be traced to the abundant year
1857 in a time of peace, as much of this crop yet
appears held ; but the excessively large consumption
that has been going on for cattle-feed, and other
purposes thau milling, will, we think, be felt as the
season advances; while the perpetual rumours of
war and real preparations for it, we think, should
deter holders from making unnecessary sacrifices,
the probabilities being much more in favour of a rise
than decline. The accumulations at New York,
which were at one time feared, do not appear to
deter holders from demanding rates fully equal to
our own ; and there has been a speculative trade
occasionally, with the best wheat at 51s. 8d. per
4801bs., the average price of the first quality for six
years being 58s. per qr. The stock on 1st January
was estimated at only 150,000 qrs.

The following quotations are taken from the
market reports of the principal places abroad : —
At Paris wheat ranges at from 35s. to 40s. per qr.
Antwerp quoted 453, as the top price; 62 to 64 lbs.
wheat at Louvain was worth 54s. Polish wheat at
Amsterdam brought 54s. to 55s. per qr. Hambro'
quotations were 40s. to 45s. At Stettin red wheat
was at 40s. to 44s. 6d. The best high mixed at
Danzic brought 49s. per qr. ; Berlin prices were only
Is. per qr. less. Odessa remained too high for pro-
fitable shipment, 34s. to 35s. being the price of
Ghirka and Sandomirka. Middling new at Galatz
was 31s. per qr. Good quality at Trieste was sale -
able at 42s. Soft wheat at Leghorn was worth 39s.
per qr. The demand for Spain, with light supplies,
had sent up hard wheat at Algiers to 49s. Bed
wheat at Philadelphia was worth 42s. per 4801bs.,
white 47s. 6d. New York was still higher priced,
fine white Kentucky being worth 523. per 4S01bs.,
which, taking the weight at 621bs. per bush., equals
53s. 6d. per qr. ; while choice Missouri flour was up
to 35s. per brl., or oOs. per sack, though round hoop
Ohio for shipping brings only 22s. Sd. per brl., or
equal to 32s. 6d. per sack, which is 4s. 6d. per sack
above the price of Norfolks in London.

The first Monday in London had a brisk wheat
trade. The supply of the previous week being

iu

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

moderate, with very little foreign excepting low
Egyptian. Very few samples appeared in the
course of the morning from Kent and Essex, and
the last country reports being lively, millers readily
took all fine dry qualities at an advance of Is. to
2s. per qr. The business in foreign was limited in
consequence of the increased demands of holders,
but the prices made in retail were good. Most of
the country markets responded fully to this ad-
vance, including Hull, Manchester, Spalding,
Gloucester, and Bristol; but Birmingham, Newark,
and Louth, and some other places, were only Is.
per qr. higher, while Market Harhorough and
(jainsborough advanced 2s. to 3s. per qr. Liver-
pool in the course of the week was 3d. per 70lbs.
higher, 2d. being gained on the Tuesday, and id.
more on the final market.

The second Monday, with a somewhat better
supply of foreign wheat, had rather less of home-
growth, though the morning's show from Kent
arid Essex was increased. The market opened
with factors raising their demands ; but it was scon
found that nothing beyond the previous rates would
he given, except for some picked and scarce quali-
ties, and some red suitable for shipment to Por-
tugal, which sold at 42s. to 45s.; a clearance of
the bulk eventually took place at the former rates.
This continued firmness had the effect in the
country of increasing the supplies, which with the
damp weather pi'evailing, was connected with a
deteriorated condition, and a reserve on the part
of millers. Birmingham noted a decline of Is.
per qr.; but Sheffield was rather improved, not-
withstanding the general dulness. The week closed
very calm in London, the inquiry for Portugal and
contract out, alone preventing a fall. Liverpool
on Tuesday, improved to the extent of id. to 2d.
per 70lbs., but lost tone on Friday, with but a re-
tail trade.

The third Monday had moderate receipts, and
former prices were generally maintained for a while ;
but with a fair show from Kent, and disposition to
sell, the rates eventually were fully Is. per qr. re-
duced, still with the qualification of a generally
inferior condition arising from the mildness and
damp. In the country generally the same state of
trade obtained, and the average decline was Is.
per qr., though some places only reported a dull
state of trade, at previous prices. Liverpool gave
way on Tuesday Id. to 2d. per 70lbs., with only a
retail business on the following market, at scarcely
former rates.

The fourth Monday had fair supplies of English
growth, and a somewhat heavy arrival of French,
with httle other foreign. The near counties sent up
but few additions in the morning; but the condition
of nearly all the English on show was wretchedly

bad, and was therefore scarcely a criterion of the
state of trade. No change in the rates was, there-
fore, quoted, as picked parcels of red had made
45s. to 46s., and really fine white was equally high.
In the country, reports were generally dull.

The four weeks' imports into London were
23,711 qrs. English and 41,513 qrs. foreign,
against 13,618 qrs. Enghsh and 66,644 qrs. foreign
during the first four weeks in 1858, showing an
average of 16,306 weekly, against 20,065 Cjrs., or
decrease per week of 3,759 qrs. The four weeks'
sales noted were 396,405 qrs., against 381,981 qrs.
in 1858. The four weeks' imports into the
principal towns were 169,973 qrs. wheat and flour.
The total imports for December were 286,906 qrs.
wheat, and 237,526 cwts. flour, for the United
Kingdom.

The flour trade, after slight fluctuations in country
and foreign descriptions, has closed Is. per sack
less than at the commencement of the month, the
town trade having maintained the top price of
40s. per sack all through. Norfolks though held
at 27s. 6d. v/ere scarcely worth over 27s. per sack
at the last market, and the best French were barely
worth 32s. per sack. Scarcely any fine American
is on the market, it being dearer at home. The
stocks of foreign are very low, and estimated at
only 21,000 brls., with 12,000 sacks French on
the 1st January. The imports for the four weeks
into London have been 77,556 sacks from the
country, 5,213 jbrls. from America, and 7,977
sacks from France, &c., against 71)217 sacks
country, 20,696 brls. American, and 9,570 sacks
foreign, in January 1858, showing a decrease in
brls. of 15,483.

The barley trade, with good supplies of foreign,
and uioderate arrivals of home-growth, has very
little altered as respects value. The scarcity of
really fine malting samples on the London market
has continued, and prices have consequently been
supported, making the v^alue on a par with red
wheat of the first quality, but the heavy supplies
of inferior sorts from the Black Sea and Medi-
terranean have kept these latter below the
range of Oats of fair quahty, as 50 lbs. per
bushel has been selling at 22s. 3d. The heaviest
markets in these descriptions were the first and last,
but the relatively low price has greatly increased the
consumption, and the rise in oats has occasion-
ed a large consumption. Sweet heavy Swedish
and Danish sorts have been steady throughout.
The deficiency of our own crop being more ap-
parent with the season's advance, we think there
is a probability of an increase in the rates, though
malting sorts can hardly be dearer with the com-
petition of wheat, but these must now be in small
compass. The imports into London for the four

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

185

weeks were 17,279 qrs. native and 65,14G qrs.
foreign, against 14,570 qrs. Englisli and 39,536 qrs,
foreign in January last year, or a weekly average
of 20,605 qrs. against 13,526 qrs.

The malt trade in the early part of the moDth was
very heavy, but improved subsequently, and finished
excessively dull. Scarcely any difference can be
noted in the value, but it has been in favour of
buyers.

In oats there has been a material improvement,
consequent upon the great falling off in foreign sup-
plies, especially from the Baltic. The first Monday,
with rather above an average arrival, following a
short market, was without alteration as respects
value, and a steady trade. The second, which was
about equal to it, noted an improvement of 6d. to
Is. per qr. The third Monday being extremely de-
ficient as respects foreign arrivals, which were only
4,230 qrs., a further enhancement of 6d. to Is. per
qr. took place ; but the last market had less buoy-
ancy after the repealed advance, it being known
there were large quantities in granary, which, how-
ever, would still lose money to sell without a further
improvement. As neither France, Belgium, nor
Holland is likely to send much, from the partial
failure in their crops, and as we doubt the ability of
Odessa to keep sending on a sufliciency for the
British markets, we cannot help expecting higher
rates as the season gets on, the consumption being
immense. The four weeks' imports into London
have been 1,150 qrs. only of English growth, 11,189
qrs. Scotch, 15,790 qrs. Irish, and 80,691 qrs. from
abroad, giving the moderate weekly average of 27,279
qrs., while in November last it was 63,718 qrs. The
four weeks' exports were 5,610 qrs.

The supply of English beans has been moderate,
but of foreign good. This pulse, however, which
lately was much neglected, has gained favour,
the supplies from Egypt being expected to be re-
duced. During the second and third Mondays, when
foreign supphes were small, there was an improve-
ment in each market of Is. per qr., making the in-
creased value for the month 2s. per qr. The prices,
however, of maize and low barley seem likely to
check any material increase in the value of this pulse,
more especially as the low qualities of wheat
have been found highly nutritive for cattle feed.
The four weeks' imports have been iu native sorts
3,526 qrs., iu foreign 20,073 qrs., giving the fair
weekly average of 5,899 qrs., against 3,873 qrs. in
January, 1858. There has been an export of 1,873
qrs. in four weeks.

Throughout the month peas have been unusually
dull, and without demand. Duns and maples have
been in very limited quantity to market, and theii-
scarcity has kept them dear; and English boilers
have also been in short "supply, but the long preva-

lence of mild weather, and the low prices of rice and
potatoes, have diminished the demand for splitting
very seriously, so that they remain of less value than
maples. It is now getting so late that much rally
can scarcely be expected; but as foreign supplies
have fallen off, no doubt holders will be unwilling to
quit at a reduced rate ; and for a retail trade, wilh
small stocks, there may be some advance. The
four weeks' imports have been only 252 qrs. fiom
abroad and 1,313 qrs. of home-growth, against 213
qrs. foreign and 1,710 qrs. English in January, 1858.

The linseed trade, with moderate arrivals and a
continued export demand, has been without change
in the value of seed, cakes being rather in sellers'
favour.

A fair businsss has been doing iu cloverseed, at
advancing rates, chiefly in red qualities of a fine
description; very little English of much colour
and strength having yet appeared at market, and
foreign markets having improved. Constant sales of
fine French red have been making at several shillings
over previous prices, and fine Enghsh has ruled high.
White seed has been steady, as well as trefoil, at
fully the previous prices. Tares having been in de-
mand, the hitherto small supplies have gone ofi" well
at fully 4s. to 6s. per qr. more money, and some
holders, confident of a further large advance from
the deficiency of the crops here and in Germany,
have withdrawn their samples for the present.
Canaryseed has been dull and declining. In mus-
tardseed little has been doing ; and the prices of this
seed, as well as of rapeseed and other descriptions
used in confectionary, have remained much the
same.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Shillingfs per Quarter.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, white «?. ■•. 39 to 48

„ red ,.„ 36 45

Norfolk, Line, and yorks.,i'ed 39 44

Barley, malting — to 33 .... Chevalier .... 35 42

Grinding 24 20 .,.. Distilling 2^ 29

Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ,.„52tor.O fine 65 67

Kingston. Ware, and town made .., 52 50 ,, 65 67

Brown 50 62 — —

Rye new— — 30 32

Oats, English, feed 19 24 Potato 26 31

Scotch, feed 50 21 Potato 24 30

Irish, feed, white = ..,. = ,.. 20 23 fine 24 29

Ditto.black ...,..,,......„.. 19 22 „ — 23

Beans, Mazagan ,.-...., 36 37 Ticks .36 37

Harrow 38 39 Pigeon 40 44

Peas, new, white, boilers 40 40 Maple 4ii 42..Grey37 38

Flour, per sack of 280 lbs., Town, Households 34s., fine 35 40

County 28 ^0 Households.. 31 34

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship 27 —

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Shillinga per Quarter.
47 extra ~ 52

Wheat, Dantzic, mixed 44 — high do.

Konigsberg ........40 45 ,, — — — —

Rostock .:44 — fine 46 old 48 — —

American, white ..42 48 red.,. 41 45 — —

Pomera.,Meckbg.,& Uckermrk, red 41 44 — —

Si!esian,red ,41 43 white 42 46

Danish and Holslein.... 40 48

Russian, hard.. 39 39 ,. French, .41 42 white 41 44

St. Petersburg and Riga...... 38 42

Rhine and Belgium .*• , >.... — 46

186

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Baklet, grinding 21 26 KisUUing .... 27 29

Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 22 25 Feed 20 23

Danish and Swedish, feed ...19 24 Stralsund.... 21 24

Russian 19 22

Beans, Friesland and Holstein 34 36

Konigsberg 34 o 5 Egyptian .... 31 32

P£As, feeding 30 37 fine boilers .. 38 40

Indian Corn, white 29 30 yellow 29 30

Flour, per sack French 31 32 Spanish — —

American, per barrel, sour, .19 20 sweet 23 24

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Fo« THE LAST Six Wheat. Barley

Weeks : | s. d.

Doc. 11, 1858 .... 41 0

Dec. 18, 1858 .... 40 2

Dec. 2.5, 1858 .... 40 0

.(an. 1, 1859 39 10

Jan. 8, 1859 ....] 40 6

Jam. 11, 1859 .... 41 3

Aggregate average 40 5

Same time last year 48 4

d.
35 1
33 11

S2 !0

32 7

33 2
36 5

Oats. I Rye. Beans Peas

22 10 I 32 G 41

21 10 ]3i S 41 1

21 9 I 31 2 41 2

21 10 33 5 40 0

21 5 1 30 5 K9 9

21 4 I 27 0 31 2

21 10 31 3 40 6

1 22 8 I .33 5 39 9

COMPARATIVE AVERAGES-! 858-59.

s.

d.

■13

8

46

5

)3

4

42

11

41

3

41

8

43

3

40

4

From last Friday's Gaz. s.
AVheat ]07,'li»'' qrs. 41

Barley 90,879

Oats 1.3.-'97

Rye 46

Beans 2,8S1

Peas 1,087

From Gazette of 1858. s.

Wheat 117,485 qrs. 48

Barley 104,286

Oats 11,231

Rye 7

Beans 5,266

Peas 1,771

37

0

22

1

33

7

3:»

3

39 11

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Tkefoil, new IDs. to 21s.

Tares, Winter, new, per bushel — s. to - s.

McsTARDSEED,per bush., new 128. to 103., brown 10s. to 12s.

Coriander, per cwt 14s. to 16s.

Cakart, per qr 66s. to 70s.

IjtNBEED,per qr., sowing — a. to 64b... crushing 54b. to 58s.

Linseed Cakes, per ton... £9 lOs.to^eiO lOs.

}lAr£SEED,per qr. 68s. to 72s.

Rape Cake, per ton .£5 Ifls. to £6 Os.

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.

Cloyerseed, red 523. to 563 white 70s. to 8's.

Trefoil, 18s. to 2Is.

HEMP9EED, small, 33s. per qr Dutch — s. to 38s.

Coriander, per cwt. 163.to ISs.

Carraway ,, 42s. to— 8.

Linseed, per qr., Baltic 629. to568... .Bombay 58s, to 50s.

Linseed Cake, perton £9i03.to£ll Os.

Uapeseed, Dutch 62s. to 6G8.

Rape Cake, perton £b Os.to £6 Os.

HOP MARKET.

BOROUGH, Monday, Jan. 24.— Our market for the
season of the year continues to show a Isrge amount of activity
and from the few good samples offering au increased tendency
to improvement ia prices is observable. Our currency is as
follows :

Mid and East Rents 703. to 843. choice 1203.

Weald of Kents 54?. 65s. „ 703.

Susses 543. 60s. ,, 663.

POTATO MARKETS.

SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, Monday, Jan. 24.—
Since our last report the arrivals coastwise and foreign have
been ligb'' The trade is firm at much the same as the prices
of th"" 'ious week.

I'brk Regents per ton 8O3. to lOOs.

Flukes lOOs. tollOs.

Lincolushire Regents 8O3. to 953.

Dunbar do 8O3. to 95s.

Ditto Keda 653. to 753.

Essex and Kent do 703. to QOs.

Perth, Forfar, & Fifeshire Regents 60s. to 70s.

Ditto Reds 403. to 50s.

Ditto Rocks 453. to 503.

French Whites 40a. to 503.

COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, Jan, 15
Potatoes sell at 6J. per peck, Is. 8d. to Is. lOd. per bushel'
Leeds, Jan. 18 : We had a moderate supply of potatoes,
which sold at 75d. to 8d. wholesale, and 8^d. retail per 21 lbs.
RiCHMOMD, Jan. 15 : Potatoes 2s 8d. per bushel. Shef-
PIELD, Jan. 18 : Potatoes sell at 68. to Ss. 6d. per load of 18
stones. Manchester, Jan. 18: Potatoes 63, to IO3. per
252 lbs.

PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c.

liUlTliH.ptrcwt.; «

PrieaUnd n6tol2li

Kiel 116 126

et ...., 116 120

Carlow 104 118

Waterlord 104 118

Cork, 106 118

LiM

enc

.100 108
. SB 11^4

■Sli?o

Passir, p«rdaien..l4s.0d.toI7s.0d

ClIEEbK.percwt.:

Cheshire oj it

Cheddar 60 80

Double Oloue 62 66

HAMS:

York 80 90

Westmoreland 80 90

Irish 76 94

BACON : Wiltshire, dried .^6 68

Irish, ■,'reen 48 64

CHICORY.

LONDON, Saturdat, Jan, 22 — We have to report a fairde-
man'l tor all kinds of Cliicorv, and late rates are well supjiorted.

ENG LISII, per toil Xia 0to£13 0| ANTWERP £ 'J otojt'lO 0

HAULINOEN.... SO 10 0 I DACKUM 0 0 0 0

BRUGES 9 10 10 0 RUERNSEY .... 9 0 10 o

HAMBURG 10 0 10 10 I BELGIUM 9 0 10 0

WOOL MARKETS.
ENGLISH WOOL MARKET.

LONDON, Monday, Jan. 24. — Very little home-grown
Wool ia now on offer, owing to some of the holders having
wiUulrawu their samples from the market for the preseiit. How-
ever, the amount of business doing in all kinds is somewhat re-
stricted, owing to the firmness on the part of the staplers ;
nevertheless there is every prospect of higher rates.

BRADFORD WOOL MARKET, (Thursday last.)— The
flatness in the wool trade still continues. Very few sales have
beeu effected during the past week, but prices are well main-
tained. Ia noils and shorts there is no change to notice. Yarns:
The spinners keep well employed to order, and prices have
undergone no change. The demand for Lancashire is less
buoyant, but for this district and the Scotch markets it is un-
abated. In the export trade there is decidedly less doing, a
result most probably occasioned by the unsettled aspect of
poliiic.ll affairs on the Continent. Pieces : There is a full ave-
rage of merchaiita here to-day. The supply of goods in the
market ia remarkably small. The greater part of the goods
now producing being made to order, the transRctions of the
day are but little indication of the actual business doing.
LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, Jan. 22.

Scotch. — There is a fair demand for laid Highland wool ;
st the quotations ; stocks light, and holders very firm. White
Highland is in fair demand. Cheviot and crossed arc iu good
demand, at improving prices.

s. d. B. d.

Laid Highland Woolper241bs 11 6lo 13 0

WhiteHighlanrido IS 6 16 0

LaidCrossed do. .unwashed .... 14 0 15 0

Do. do. .washed 14 6 16 0

Laid Cheviot do. .unwashed .... 15 0 16 6

Do. do. .washed 17 6 20 0

WhiteCheviot do. .washed ,. 32 0 36 0

Foreign. — The public sales commenced here on Tuesday,
the ISth mat., when there was offered about 1,500 sheets of
English fleece and skin wool. The attendance was numerous.
The condition of the skin wool was not first-rate. The com-
petition was good for the middle and better kinds ; but the
lower kinds were all withdrawn. The East India began on
Wednesday, and have been continued up to this day. 8,700
bales have passed the hammer, aud have gone off with spirit
at an average advance on last sales of 7^ to 10 per cent. The
sales will continue to the 27th.

BRESLAU WOOL REPORT, Jan. 17.— Business since
the beginning of the new year contiiiusd very lively, and had
almost nothing to suffer from political affairs. On the con-
trary, it received a freah impulse by the favourable result of
the last Leipzig cloth fair, and we had continually numerous
purchasers in the market. The chief demand continued for
Ru&sian combing and clothing wool at 58 to 66 thalers ; ditto
scoured (from Odeaaa and Charkow), 88 to 95 ; Sileaian fleeces,
fine ones, 95 to 105 ; ditto slipcs, 65 to 72. The whole amount
of sales has been about 3,000 cwts,, the greater part of which
consisted of Russian wools, which have been mostly acquired
by the clothiers and coinbers of the Zollvereiii, as well as by
Berlin wholesale buyers. In the meantime there have been
made very extensive contracts on ths sheep's back for the
future clipping at au advance of 10 to 15 per cent, above last
year's June fair quotations. The moat eulerprizing speculators
in this mode of business were those of Vienna, the Nether-
landa, and Berlin ; but outward home- wool dealei s have equally
secured themselves many a large and renowned flock. — Guns-
burg, Wool-broker.

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, a46, Strand, Leudcn.

Report of the British CoUeg-e o/^^^

?1 ^ Health, Euston Eoad To^^.
FOR 1859. --uaa, j^ondon.

FELLOW-CoUNTETMEJf, ~~~ ' ——____

from Parliament wImtthev'5u'^«M*?''''''''i^^<^» last year, the Medionl P . •

far as the public is concer^nej Je SeTr', ^"'^^^^ ^'"^ " but whS ,T''^^t" '^^^^ «b*a5"ed

had been effected bv tbp ml "J-'e at a loss to make ouV y/^^"^'"" t'ie '-reform" consists so

a_ppears to us to be 7ste "„" ^r.' ri!'^-' ^ applaud T bu .^If l^l^^ ^^-" P-P>e at £l°

parti.XX^:^;;;^^-^;e into ^.iX^%S::^^t^^ ^- ^-^-^-^^ .... man,
f, r*l..i"^ *-^: --" know aH If .f ^-^ -"Ploy a ^0^0^^^,^^-! ^^en carried tJ

Inquisition in tl rcountr''''^r'''''''^*^'' "P°'

bas at present b:r3wS • I^t ^S^;^^"?^^'" ^e^e uV onW SetJV^*"'?''^'' ^ ^-^^^ ^^^dic:!!
hereafter find themselveTunder J! W^'""^ »"'^«« the people a.^-> '"-''^ *''° '^'^^^"■'' ^S

allowed the terrible Inquisition of r""'^'' "" ^^^'''«al Pdesthood at p' ? *'"^ ^^^^^^'on, ihev may
thought in Medicine asTn RelMon ° nd *' ^"^f "^^-^ '" thi cou.'.tr-y^^^^^tt*''^"*'^ -°"Jd be if the^
protest aga nst it, as bplno. " • ' '^"" *'"ce the Romish Pi,,., k j^" ^"^^'^ J^iust bo libertv nP
principle of liberty of tho' "If 'i','"'^'-'''^ ^^b^-ties of Unkind T. •"'' "°' '-^"^^^ ^"^''^ liberty Vf
of the earth; and^v^ 1 '^f * a d ^mn, that Engla^ owing to ^hisi'rel!

ness ? Surely not W^m ,, ^"^ J'"°?' o^" consent to an v thin" f i / ^^"""^"'^^ o^er all the nat on«

niust the downfall of EnoSd ';n, ^^'^ as sure as that liberty i.f I T ^'^^^ '"^^'-fere with the
other liberties. If you hClTMed^Kr^'"-^^ '"' ^ook^X^^l Li,™ ?^ ^^'^P'^' ^ -'"
Medical Priesthood; you must Inve p R •^■'^"'■U' •>'«" cannot havrReli ,V ?' ^ ''' *''^ ^^^^ to all
Priestcraft; and if you have a Medic-, M""?^'.^''^^«tJ'o«d; voirh ive fo ?' ^''''r*-^ ' 3'ou have a
supports the other! The late f r'^'V,^"fl"'sition, you musthVve o R V ?*"'''"'''^t' you must have
his Bio£rranhir.«l S7.„.„. ^ T*° "^'""s Morison. tha «,,.„„". '"^^^ ? Keligu.us Inquisition- fiLn.,

aw nil tu: . _ ^ ""6

fe appear to the country as having

obtained another victory. So it was with respect to the Poison Rill, which is now a dead letter,
merely bocauso it was found that Doctorcraft, beinj^ the principal moddlors with poisons, they
could not be interfered with. Even Dr. William Palmer, of Ruiijeloy notoriety, did not open the
eyes of our Parliamentary noodles on this question. The fact is, we are a doctor-ridden
country, and until people will think and jud^e for themselves, on the laws of health and disease,
they must expect to have Doctor Palmers. Look at the dreadful suicide by strychnine,
reported in the "Daily Telegraph." There we find an account of a young girl taking "an
infallible vermin destroyer," containing that cursed strychnine, which has been introduced into
the Pharmacopojia as a medicine. We hold the Medical faculty to be responsible for all such
cases. This infernal strychnine, we understand, is scarcely ever used ; then why is it not altogether
done away with from tb.e Pharraacopo^ia ? How v.ill our Parliamentary noodles now deal with
these "infallible vermin destroyers ? '' A thing more dangerous to the whole country could not
be devised. And who have we to thank for the introduction of these deadly poisons ? Why, our
friend — the Doctor! who has made them ten thousand times more dangerous by holding them out
as "medicines in certain cases," — the difference between the Doctor and the Poisoner being only
a question of half-a-grain, or even less. Think of this, and the whole question is at once made
palpable. We have attempted, by illustrations, to expose the infamy of the whole concern, and it
now remains for the people to assert their right on this all-important question. We may add that
the iilustrations are sold at the " Ilygeist " Office, 202, Strand, London, price 6d. each.

You are aware, from the newspapers, of the terrible failure of re-vaccination in the French
army by order of Napoleon the 3rd. The mortality attending the regiments at Toulouse from that
loathsome disease was frightful. It is exactly what we e.xpected, but all seems to he forgotten!

The schism which now exists between the Allopath and Homoeopathic Doctors ought to open
the eyes of the public to their contradictory theories, but we presume that, like other things, it
will be a nine days' wonder, and that John Bull will just allow himself to be treated for his diseases
right or wrong — hit or miss. Should it be so ?

As regards the Universal System of James Morisox, the Hygeist, which has now stood the
test of 30 years' most extensive practical experience in all parts of the world, (during which period
upwards of 500,000 persons have been cured of their diseases,) we have only to say, that the prin-
ciples of that system are before the world, and by them, Hygeists must stand or fall.

SYNOPSIS OF THE

10

1. — All animal bodies consist of fiiids and
so/ids.

2. — While in a state of embryo, all animals
consist enlireli/ of fluids.

3. — It is from and by the fluids that the solids
are formed.

4. — The fluids contained in the human body
are /ottr times the weight of the solids.

5. — The chief of the fluids is the blood, from
which all the others are derived.

6. — The blood not only repairs every part of
the human machine, but also carries
with it all the rubbish or decayed parts,
to be deposited in the intestines previous
to being ej-pc/Zei-/ along with the excrement

7. — The blood is the life — the primum mobile —
the first agent — from which all others
derive their origin.

8 Health depends upon the purity of the

blood.

9. — The purity of the blood depends upon its
having free outlets for its decayed par-
ticles.
Disease is induced by the choking up of
these outlet.s in the bowels, by reason of
an accumulation of glairy mucus on the
inner surface of the intestines, &c.

HYGEIIN SYSTEM
11

OF MEDICINE.

This accumulation is occasioned by any-
thing that weakens the circulation or
impairs digestion, but chiefly by the
poisonous drugs and bad treatment of
the Faculty.

12. — The impurities thus detained in the blood,
occasion every species of disease, accord-
ing to the quality of the humour, or the
particular locality in which it is lodged.

13. — All diseases proceed from one source, there-
fore they may all be cured by one medi-
cine.

l-t. — This medicine must be a vegetable purga-
tive, innocuous in itself, yet sufficiently
powerful to pervade the whole system,
clear away such mucus, and purify the
blood.

15. — The discovery of a vegetable compound,
capable of being digested, and mixing
with the blood, so as to impart to it the
energy requisite for ridding the body of
superfluous humours, was a desideratum.

IG. — This discovery was made bj' James Mori-
soN, the Hygeist, in the composition of
the Vegetable Universal Medicine of the
British College of Health, Euston (late
New) Road, London.

If these piinciples are correct, (of which we ourselves, and hundreds of thousands of others
have no doubt) then it follows that all the terrible Pharmaceutical poisons which load our Chemist
shops, and which are to be had for the asking, might be done away with, thereby saving a great
number of valuable lives. Poisonings are increasing throughout the country all owing to Doctors
having spread Poisons throughout the length and breadth of the land, and are now become quite
common everywhere. You have lately had a terrible catastrophe at Bradford, through arsenic
having got into lozenges by mistake — this very arsenic is used by Doctors for the alleged cure of
skin diseases. We would take issue with Doctors upon this very point, and contend that with
our simple Hygeian Vegetable Purgatives, we could cure, whilst they failed to cure, such skin
diseases : but the fact is, that all such deadly poisons are kept before the world to throw mystery
and confusion in the healing art, and thus form the strong bulwark of a Medical Priesthood, from
which the nations of the earth have yet to emancipate themselves.

We are, Fellow-Countrymen, your most obedient humble Servants,

TuE Me.mbers of the British College of Health,
For the Society of Hygeists.

I

IMPORTANT TO FLOCKMASTERS.

THOMAS BIGG,

AGRICULTURAL AND VETERINARY CHEMIST,
BY APPOINTMENT, TO H. R. H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, K. G., &C.

LEICESTER HOUSE, GREAT DOVER-STREETi BOROUGH, LONDON,

ff.^ii''*^' llie attention of Farmers and Graziers to liis valuable
SHEEP-and LAMB DIPPING COMPOSITION, whicli requires
no Boilinj, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for
etfectually destroying the Tick Lice, and all other insects
injurious to the Flock, pruventing the alarmin- attacks of
i'ly and Miab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby
tfreatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and
ftighly conlributing to the general health of the animal.

Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Cherai^t, &c., at his Manufac-
tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity
may be had, if required:— i auu..?

4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0 2

6 1b.

8 lb.
10 lb.
20 1b.
30 1b.
40 lb.
50 1b.
60 lb.
80 lb.
100 lb.

30
40
50
100
150
200
250
300
400
500

3

0 4

- 0 5

(cask and measure 0 10

0 15

1 0
1 3
1 7

1 17

2 5

included)

0

Should any Flockmaster prefer boUing tlie'composition, it will
be equally effective.

T ^®rJi!'Pr"^'^ ^^'° especially call attention to his SPECIFIC, or
LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB. which will he found a certain
remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in
hheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all
seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes
1^ . cu ^'."^^ ^^- P*"" gallon— sufficient on an average for
thirty Sheep (according to the virulence of the disease): also in
wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each.

IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.
"Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855.
Dear Sir,— In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would
have been replied to before this had I been at home, I have
much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in-

valuable 'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 Sheep
were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of the ' Non-
Potso7ious SpeciHc,' that was so highly recommended at the
Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention
being paid 10 the flock by my shepherd ufter dressing according
to instructions left,; but notwithstanding the Scab continues
getting worse. In December I informed the 'Agent for the
above Specific,' that tlie flock was not cured, and that it requires
iheir immediate attention. The Agent informed me they should
be at once seen to, but did not do so until^Ve weeks afterwards,
and in the mean time the Scab spread over the whole flock, that
I never saw such a disgraceful sight in my life; and when the
Dresser was sent over to inspect the Flock, he decided on not
dressing them again, as one-third of the Sheep had lost half
their wool I then agreed with an eipn-ienced dresser in Norfolk
to dress the flock, and when he saw the sheep he declined doing
them, as they were so very bad, and tlie time of lambing so
near. Reing determined to have the Scab cured if possible, I
wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the
lollowing day ; and although the weather was most severe in
I-ebruary during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an in-
valuable remedy, for in three weeks the Sheep were quite cured ;
and I am happy to say the young lambs are doing remarkably
well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and
best remeiy now m use.

" I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant,

" T„ vr TV «• „ " ^O"" •'OHN TINGEY, Esq.,

" To^*^"^; ^^'omas Bigg." .< R. renny!

In addiiion to tlie foregoing, he has very materially improved,
as well as considerably reduced the price of his Dipping Ap-
paratus; and he would venture to suggest that no Flockmasters
ought now to be without one. Price in London

New and Improved Dipping Apparatus, on Wheels £14 0 0
Ditto ditto with Iron-bar Drainer 5 0 0

D'"o ditto 4 0 0

Ditto, plain, witli Wooden Drainer 3 0 0

N.B.— Catalogues, containing List of Patrons. Testimonials,
«cc., to be had of all agents, or sent direct per post free.

BANK OF DEPOSIT.

Established a.d. 1844.

No. 3, Pall Mall East, Londox.

P^Fl^L'^^'^'^"' ""^ INVESTING MONEY are requested to examine the Plan of
J>ev'sits>Zf,''l ^^^0«'^' ^y r'-'^ - '"-gh rate of interest n.ay\e obtained with ample 41^^
JUeposits made by Special Agreement may be withdrawn without notice. '

The Interest is payable in January and July. PETER MORRISON, Managing Director.

Forms for opening Accounts sent free on application.

-riRAMPTON-S PILL OF HEALTH. Price 1,. Ijd. and 26. 9d. per box.-This excellent Family

perties of FRAMPION'S PILL OF HErLTH -'U"or m^rarri^ of n n.^ 1 ." '" '''"°^ °^ .^^^ '"^=''"=>ble Medicinal Pro-

children of all ages they are unequalled Sp VilU nnft» .^,-> . , .?' '*'? "est medicine that can be taken; and fo.'

street, and for elderly pLple*^, ori^e^rfan oIc:"o!:al' Ve" ent ^ q^rerntrnTg cln^^ ett:?rapt"ed"''ln''co„T"' """"T'.'"
;reat and increasing demand, llie Proprietor has obtained uermission from her M»i„M»'7 '"^""r adapted. In consequence of the

THE NEW YEAR.

This season has ever been rendered dear to the lovers of friendship and hospitality from the many charming
socialities connected with it. The winter-log burns ruddily j rnerry guests surround the festive table ; the
toast, the song, and the dance prevail ; and amidst music, light, and the hum of happy conversation, the
cheek of beauty shines resplendent in its loveliness, and personal attraction sways the hour. It is on those
occasions that the fair and youthful are more than usually desirous to shine to advantage under the gaze of
many friends, and therefore devote increased attention to the duties of the Toilet. Then it is that

ROWLANDS' ELEGANT REQUISITES

are acknowledged to be essential for preserving the Hair in all its decorative charm, the Skin and Complexion
transparent and blooming, and the Teeth in their pearl-like lustre.

The Patronage of Royalty throughout Europe, their general use by Rank and Fashion, and the universally-
known efficacy of these articles give them a celebrity unparalleled, and render them peculiarly

ROWLANDS' liaSSAR Oil

IS A DELIGHTFULLY FRAGRANT AND TRANSPARENT PREPARATION FOR THE HAIR,
AND AS AN INVIGORATOR AND BEAUTIFIER BEYOND ALL PRECEDENT.

In dressing the Hair nothing can equal its effect, rendering it so admirably soft that it will lie in any direction,
imparting a transcendent lustre, and sustaining it in decorative charm during the heated atmosphere of
crowded assemblies.— Price 3s. 6d., 7s. ; Family Bottles (equal to 4 small) 10s. 6d., and double that size, 2l9.
per bottle. .

ROfflAPS'

lYDOR

FOR THIS SKIN iL N 3> C O IVE F I. E X I O If

IS UNEQUALLED FOR ITS RARE AND INESTIMABLE QUALITIES,

THE RADIANT BLOOM IT IMPARTS TO THE CHEEK,

THE SOFTNESS AND DELICACY WHICH IT INDUCES OF THE HANDS AND ARMS,

Its capability of soothing Irritation, and removing cutaneous Defects, Discolorations, and all unsightly

appearances, render it

XZfDZSF:ENSABI.i: TO BVERV TOIIiET.

Price 4s. 6d. and 8s. 6d. per bottle.

AOS' ODONTO,

Compounded of the choicest and most recherche ingredients of the ORIENTAL HERBAL, and of

inestimable value in

IMPROVING AND IMPARTING A PEARL-LIKE WHITENESS TO THE TEETH,

STUEHaTHENING THE G-UlVtS,

AND IN RENDERING THE BREATH SWEET AND PURE.

Price 29. 9d. per box.

i

CAUTION,— The only g-enuine of each bears the name of " ROWLANDS' " preceding-

that of the article on the Wrapper or Label.
%* Sold by A. ROWX.AND & SONS, 20, Hatton CSrarden, tondon,

and by Chemists and Perfumers.
BEWARE OF SPURIOUS IMITATIONS

I

No. 3, Vol. XV.\ MARCH, 1859. [Third Series.

THE

FARMER'S MAGAZINE

AND

MONTHLY JOURNAL

OP

THE AGEICULTUEAL INTEREST.

TO THE

FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

LONDON :
rUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXEORD, 346, STRAND.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

ROOEBSON AND TUXSOBD,] [PWNTEB3, 246, 8T»ANB.

DR. HASSALL

ON

THORIiEY'S FOOD FOR CATTLE.

PROM THE "MARK LANE EXPRESS," 10th JAN., 1859.

74, WiMPOLE Street, Cavendish Square, 2lst December 1858

Having, on more than one occasion, been requested to make an analysis of Thorley's Well-knowv
Food for Cattle, and to express my opinion respecting it, I placed myself a short time since in communica-
tion with Mr. Thorley, desinng to be furnished with certain particulars relating to his Food. Mr Thorlev
who was previously a stranger to me, at once conducted me over his Manufactory, showed me all the inCTedi*
ents employed, and also the process of manufacture of the article. "K»e"i-

I took away with me samples of the food as well as of every ingredient entering into its composition I have
since carefully exammed and tested these, and I have also compared the samples procured at the Manufactorv
withothersobtainedby myself from other sources. . «• lue manuiaciory

I am, therefore, now in a position to express an authoritative opinion respecting the composition and
properties of Thorley's Food FOR Cattle. I would remark of it— P^muou ana

First. That the ingredients used are all of excellent quality, and are purchased without regard to expense
• ^^^°."'^: 7^}^^ *'\«^ \^^f'P^ o'" foi-mula, according to which the Food is prepared, is an admirable one no
S the obSS tended!"' '''°"''* '^ '" cheapness, but those only being chosen which are best adapted to

Having regard, thus, to the composition of Thorley's Food for Cattle, 1 find that it possesses the
followmg properties in an eminent degree-it is highly nutritious and fattening-it is a tonic and gentle
stimulant, aiding, when mixed with other descriptions of food, materially the digestive powers of an animal— a
point of great consequence, since it is an undoubted fact that much of the nourishment contained in the ordi-
nary tood given to cattle is lost in consequence of the impaired or defective action of the dio-estive or-^ans

Comparing Thorley's Food for Cattle with other Cattle Foods, with the compositionof which I km ac-
quainted, I unhesitatingly assert that it is infinitely superior to any others, at present known to me In all those
of the composition of which I have a knowledge, I have found ingredients to be present which ha've been added
so ely on account of their cheapness, that is for the purpo.se of adulteration, and to the exclusion of other more
hurtful """""^ expensive, articles. In some of the Foods I have detected ingredients which are positively

Comparing, also, the samples taken by me from the Manufactory with others procured from different
sources I found a perfect accordance in the composition of both series of samples. umereni

^ ?f^T ^"°g'"^ *^/^ ^^PO""* to a conclusion, I would notice an objection sometimes urged against the use of
Cattle F<,ods generally, namely, that the price at which they are sold exceeds considerably that of the materia?,
from which they are prepared; this can be readily shown to be a very unreasonable objection. Thorley'^
Food for Cattle is a compounded and manufactured article, upon the composition and preparation of which
much care, labour, and expense have been and are bestowed. Moreover, the refuse materials resultins from he
cleansing, grinding &c., and which are an entire loss, amount to twenty per cent. To estimate, thefefore the
value of such an article merely at the cost of the raw materials is both absurd and unjust

Neither must the value of this, or any other Cattle Food, be determined by the exact amount of nourishment
contained in them; al hough in the case of Thorley's Food this is very considerable, but the indh-ect eS
resulting from Its employment must be taken into consideration ; that is, the effects of the article in imnrovS
the appetite, digestive powers, and general vigour of the Cattle fed upon it. By the improved condition of th!
digestive organs animals may be fed upon coarser and cheaper articles of food, and from which, without the aid
of Thorley's Food, they would be unable to extract all the nourishment which such articles actually coma^n
I consider, then, that the use of Thorley's Food is attended, not with an additional, but with a considerable
saving of expense. »-""^iuciauiu

I am glad^ therefore, to be enabled to recommend— which I do strongly and conscientiously— THORrPv'«
Food FOR Cattle as. a highly important and valuable compound for the feeding of all descriptions of Cattle
Signed, ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D.,

Analyst of the Lancet Sanitary Commission; Author of the Reports of that Co7nmission -
of " Food and its Adulteration ; " " Adulterations Detected; " §-c., ^c. '

From Alfred Brown, Esq., Wandsworth, Surrey, Member of the Royal College of Surffeons.
England ; Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company, London; FeUow of the Medical
Society of London; late Demonstrator of Anatomy at the St. George's School of Medicine.

o- T 1 11^ 1 iv ,t. ,. Wandsworth, Surrey, Dec. 11, 1858.

Sir,— I shall feel obliged by your sending me another cask of Thoriey's Cattle Food. I have been makine-
experiments with it upon one of my milch cows, and think it only fair that I should let you know the results
My cow, before I used the Food, was fed upon hay, wortzel, and water ad libitum, and upon this diet she
yielded one gallon of milk per day, making two pounds of butter per week. She was five months gone with
her second calf; when she had the Food I discontinued giving her the wortzel, and gave her a measure full
(about half-a-pmt) of the Food with a peck of damp chaff night and morning; besides, she had as much irood
hay as she would eat. Upon this diet, in less than a week she doubled the quantity of milk and butter • and in
order that I might be sure that this excellent result depended upon the Thorley's Food, I discontinued'it and
returned to her former diet, and she speedily went back to the gallon of milk per day. After waiting about a
fortnight, I again leturned to the Thoriey's Food, and in a few days she increased to two gallons of^milk per
day. This experiment I repeated several times, and with the same results. I have tried the Food upon other
animals— horses, sheep, &c.— and with the most satisfactory results. I have also analysed the Food and find
tnat It contains nothing that would in any way injure the system or constitution of cattle. You are'at liberty
to make any use you please of this communication, and I am, Sir, yours, &c.,

To Mr. J. Thorley. ALFRED BROWN,

THE EARMER^S MAGAZINE.

MARCH, 1859.

CONTENTS.

Plate I.— "NAPOLEON" : a Devon Bull, thk Property of Mr. James Davy, of Flitton,

Barton, South Molton.

A Norfolk Cob, the Property of Mr. Henry Overman, op
Weasenham.

PAGE

. 187

. 188

F.R.S. 193

. 196

Plate II.— "CONFIDENCE^

Bv Cuthbert W, Johnson, Es

L, Form,

rioN

ENCH

nslated

Description of the Plates

The Herds of Great Britain

The Effect of Certain Manures on Plants

The Utilization of Waste Substances . . ' n '

Royal Agricultural Society of England : Proceedings in Council

Free Labour in 1859 ..•••*

A)..PACAS IN Australia . . . • • * ^

Trimming and Shaping with Shears Sheep to Imitate the Bakewell Mod

or Cast ...•••*
Sheep-Feeding for Manure . . . • •

On Cow Sheds and Calf Pens . . • • • . ^^^,^

On the Management of Breeding Ewes.— Kingscote Agricultural Associa
Report of Ploughing Experiments. By John Lennie
A Farmer's Life and Duties

The Selling of Grain by Measure or by Weight .

On the Different Kinds of Phosphates of Lime.— Translated from the it
Horse-Taming .

Spare the Owls and save your Wheat . . _ - „„^,, a.«i?

The Substitution of Barley for Oats in Feeding Horses.-Translated from the

French. ...•••*
Deficiency of Supplies of Flax . . • •

On Labourers' Cottages . . ' nr. ' m *

The Growth and Management of an Orchard. By Professor Ianner

Thick AND Thin Sowing . • ^^ • »* -tr^),.,^ To a

M. DE Lavergne's Notes op a Journey of Four Days with M. de Vogue. Iba

from the French
The Present Condition of American Agriculture
Hints to Emigrant Farmers
Wheel versus Swing Ploughs. By T. Bowick
Warwickshire Field Club
The Game Laws and the Farmers
Cape Wools . . . • •

The Lambing Season . . • • ii , . Pr.»r.rrTr.iT Farmfr

Implement Prizes offered by Agricultural Societies. By a Practical J^armer
The Royal Agricultural Society's Journal .

London, or Central Farmers' Club : Arterial Drainage ^ Dennis

Liabilities of Farmers for Rent in case of Fire : Lofft and others v. Denms

Ar^THE FriTHE^'R^ED TrIBES BENEFICIAL TO THE FaRMER, OR OTHERWISE ?

Agricultural Implements and the Prize System

Sale OF Corn BY "The Cental"

Homceopathic Treatment of Black-Leg in Cattle

Calendar of Agriculture

Calendar of Gardening

Agricultural Reports • • •

Review op the Cattle Trade during the past Month

Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c.

Review of the Corn Trade during the past Month

Corn Averages and Market Currencies

198
200
201

202
202
203
204
207
210
212
215
217
218

219
221
222
226
231

232

235

239

241

244

246

248

249

251

252

254

266

, 266

, 267

, 268

. 270

, 271

. 272

. 272

. 273

. 273

. 274

. 275

. 278

\

NOW READY— FOURTEEN SHILLINGS— CLOTH,

THE LAW OF THE FARM,

INCLUDING THE

AGRICULTURAL CUSTOMS OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

BY HENRY HALL DIXON, BARRISTER-AT-LAW.

STEVENS AND NORTON, LONDON.

PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH,
Neatly printed in foolscap 8vo., eacli Volume containing from 130 to 160 pages of Letterpress, with numerous illustrative Engravings

NEW EDITIONS, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

RURAL ARCHITECTURE ; a Series of Designs for Rural and

other Dwellings.
THE AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR; or Young Farmer's

Class Book.
DOMESTIC FOWL ; their Natural History, Breeding, and

General Management.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.
HORSES : their Varieties, Breeding, and Management.

DOGS : their Origin and Varieties.
PIGS : their Origin and Varieties.
COWS : and Dairy Husbandry.
THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE.
PESTS OF THE FARM.

LAND DRAINAGE, EMBANKMENT, AND IRRIGATION.
SOILS AND MANURES; with Instruction for their Improve-
ment.

London: Piper & Co., Paternoster Row; Dublin: J. McGlashan, Upper Sackville Street; and all Booksellers.

Just Published, in 2 Vols., with Portraits,

^ERSOHTAI. MEMOmS OF CHAIREES II.

By CAPT. CLAYTON Tl A t e 13th Light Dragoons),
Author of " Ubique," " Letters from the Nile."

C. J. Skeet, King William Street, Strand.

The Fourth Edition, just published, 8vo, in cloth, price 5s., by post free, 5s. 6d.,
QN TRUE and FALSE SPERMATORRHCEA; with the View to the Correction
siimX^Z'^^JZ^t'' '' ''^ ''""'""* -'"'' Cure of Sufferers from Debility of the Generative

« r» r>- 1 f J • 1 Translated from the German of Dr. PICKFORD.

literftuVe TWsis'thpfiTr^" English readers by his frequent practical contributions to German medical
Wetrusttharhi m^vtt^h f%'"f«r» "^' t''^* 1><^ 1^^« addressed himself to the non-medical reader,

p'ltert Sr^Ut:''rLUdl'MtSc:^GazeUe!'"' '''"' '"^' ""''' ^^"^"^ '^"^^^"^ ^^^^ -^'^^^^ ^^ "^^ ^^ ^ »^'«

litl^tot'amnwl^vfnl'hi \!'"''' ^T^ "" ^^' ^""^''T ^^"^ ""* distressing malady by translating this
ease of whicl tlSl kf.n J h ■ ^'^^"'^alous practices of unqualified adventurers, who profess to cure a dis-
true SnrTma orS« 3 T °' '"? ''^ ""'I'll- °''J''* "'"" '"^ ^'^ ''^'''' °^" P"^-«e^'- 1'''^ difference between

safe fuTde ifofflrpTfnr n \""'°"f V'T "^ "^'T'? ''^'"'^' '''""'^'^^ '* ^'^ accurately described, and thus a

sale gume is ottered lor the treatment of the malady."— Medical Circular

sptcr^'r'arv noS'p If h!^"= T^l '^'' '-'uT' "^ !>''' 1"-^1"^'""-'"T chapteV, that we have scarcely left ourselves

' brocl urJi^? l^Tltol'u T T""''^^. *T'''^ ""^ ^^ "'"• ^''^^''''^ ' ^"^^ '^''^ ™^deratc price at which the
Drochure IS ? -,d, places it within the reach of every one interested in the matter."-Dublin Medical Press.

Loudon :—H.Bailliere, 219, Regent-street.

PHILLIP'S AND COMPANY, TEA-MERCHANTS, 8, King William Street,
City, London, E.G., invariably sell the BEST and CHEAPEST TEAS and COFFEES in England.
Good strong useful Congou Tea,2s.4d., 2s. 6d.,'2s. 8d., 2s. lOd., and 3s.; Rich Souchong Tea, 3s. 8d., 3s. lOd.,
and 48. A Price-Current free. Sugars at market prices.

PHILLIPS & CO., send all goods Carriage Free, by their own Vans, within 8 miles of No. 8, King William
Street, City, E.G., and send Teas, Coffees, and Spices Carriage Free to any Railway Station or Market Town in
England, if to the value of 40s. or upwards.

^atnitti|ea liij tlje ^^.^--^^^^^^c:^ f ritiripl fm\m

CUFF^S FARMER^S FRIEND.

One dose of this invaluable medicine will cure the SCOUR or LOOSENESS in Lambs, Calves, Sheep, Colts,
Heifers, Steers, and all Cattle, without leaving costiveness ; and given occasionally to Beasts whilst fattening
will promote a healthy and thriving condition. It will also perfectly cure the FRET, COLIC or GRIPES in
Horses. Price Is. 8d. or 3s, per Bottle.

CUFF^S FOOT-ROT POWDER

Is a cheap and effectual remedy for the FOOT-ROT or HALT, a single Packet of which will cure One Hundred
Sheep, and large Flocks may be soon freed from the Disease by its use. It has been extensively used and
highly approved of for nearly thirty years by large Sheep Breeders throughout the Kingdom, P.ice Is.
per Packet.

CUFF^S FEY, SCAB & MANGE OIL

Will very quickly destroy MAGGOTS in Sheep, and LICE or VERMIN in all animals. It will also cure the
MANGE, and SKIN DISEASES in Horses or Cattle, and efFectually cleanse a Flock of Sheep from the
SCAB or SHAB. Price Is, Bd. and 3s. per Bottle.

SHERWOOD'S ORIGINAL DRIFFIELD OILS

Are strongly and oonfidentlv recommended for preventing GANGRENE or MORTIFICATION after Lambing
or Calving, and for Ilealing-CUTS, STABS, WOUNDS, BRUISES, STRAINS, SWELLINGS, &c., &c.. As
these Oils are in constant use by some of the most celebrated Breeders in the world, and have maintained a re-
putation about fifty years, it would be superfluous to enlarge upon their value and importance. Pints, 2s. 6d.,
Quarts, 5s. Prepared by J. H. Cuff, No. 10, Smithfield Market, London, and sold by Druggists and Medi-
cine Vendors. None is Genuine unless signed by J. H. CUFF in writing.

VINEGAR. — PATRONIZED BY HER MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT.

c o :ei' U TT ' s

Pj^TSNT 7UB.1S COMCBWTliikTSS MAI-T VINECrAB..

FAMILIES, by using this delicious Vinegar, insure purity, and effect a saving of 50 per
Cent. See Report of Dr. Letheby, Cily Officer of Health, Dr. Hassell, of the * Lancet' Commission,
and others. Sold by the Trade, in Bottles, labelled and capsuled. Wholesale

63, KING WILLIAM STREET, LONDON BRIDGE, E.C.
Six Quart Sample rent free to any Railway for 3s. 6d.

KEJATSWI^'^ COUC5-M: I^tlKEi^'f^ES.

Copy of a Letter from the late Colonel Hawker (the well-known Author on " Guns and Shooting.")

Longparish House, near Whitchurch, Hants.
Sir, — I cannot i-esist informing you of the extraordinary effect I have experienced by taking only a {'evi of
your Lozenges. I had a cough for several weeks that defied all that had been prescribed for me; and yet I
got completely rid of it by taking about half a small box of your Lozenges, which I find are the only ones that
relieve the cough without deranging the stomach or digestive organs.

I am, Sir, your humble servant,
To Mr. Keating, 79, St. Paul's Chnrchyard. P. HAWKER.

Prepared and sold in Boxes, Is. ]|d., and Tins, 2s. 9d., 4s. 6d., and 10s. 6d. each, by Thomas Keating,
Chemist, &c., 79, St. Paul's Churchyard, London. Sold retail by all Druggists and Patent Medicine Vendors
in the world.

K EATING'S PALE NEWFOUNDLAND COD LIVER OIL, perfectly pure, nearly
tasteless, and free frojii a<lnUeration of uuy kind, having been analyzed, reported on, and recommended
by Professors Tayt.or and Tii< m on, cf Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospitals, who, in the words of the late Dr.
PrRiiRA, tay th^t " The fin- .>t oil is that most devoid of colour, oc?o;«', and yZ«ro?n-," characters this will be
iouiid to possess in a high degree. Half-pints, Is. Gd. ; Pints, 2s, 6d. ; Quarts, 4s. Gd. ; and Five-pint Bottles,
10s. Gd., Imperial Measure.

79, St. Paul's Chtirchyard, London.

DEVON AND CORNWALL MANURE WORKS, AND PATENT STEAM BONE MILLS,
CATTE DOWN, PLYMOUTH.

CHARLES NORRINGTON & CO.'S celebrated SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME stands
unrivalled in the Manure Market for all Boot Crops. During the past season upwards of Forty Tons of Mangold Wurtzel,
Swedes, and Common Turnips per Acre have been grown with this Superphosphate, without other Manure.

C. N. & Co. bind themselves to the valuation of the various ingredients as given by Professor Way, in the Journal of the
Jtoi/al Agricultural Society, vol. xvi., pp. 532—42.
Price £7 10s. per Ton, in Bags, delivered to any Port in the United Kingdom.

HAYWOOD'S

IMPROVED PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES

WITH VERTICAL CY L INDER S, ^ :^'r:;

AND

IMPROVED PORTABLE COMBINED
THRASHING MACHINES,

FROM TWO TO FOUR HORSE POWER,
pONSTRUCTED to Thrash, Winnow,

\_J and Bag the Corn in one operation, are now in
extensive use, and are giving the highest satisfaction.

IMPROVED CIRCULAR-SAW BENCHES,

AND

PORTABLE GRINDING MILLS,

to suit the above sized Engines.

Illustrated Catalogues, with Prices and Testimonials,
sent free on application to

JAS. HAYWOOD, J u n„

PHCENIX FOUNDRY AND ENGINEERING WORKS,
DERBY.

London Agent — Mr. B. SAMUELS0;N,

76, Cannon Street^West.

ESTABLISHED 1812,

HAND T. PROCTORS' TURNIP MANURE.-Messrs. H. and T. P. draw
« particular attention to tins valuable Manure, which contains all the elements necessary for the full development of the
Turnip Crop, so combined, that, from their cheiuical knowledge and long experience, they feel satisfied is most advantageous to the
consumer. It has been very extensively used by most of the eminent Agriculturists of the day, and has attained a higli reputation
throughout England, Scotland, and Wales, and, they venture to say, is unrivalled for the weight and qualitv of the Bulbs which it
produces. The application of this Manure to the Turnips will be found to benefit considerably the after crops of Barley, Clover,
and Wheat.

POTATO, GRASS, BARLEY, CLOVER, and WHEAT MANURES.

ALSO,

BONE DUST, PERUVIAN GUANO, AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OP LIME,

Wakkanted of the Best Quality.

Apply to H. and T. PROCTOR, WEST OF ENGLAND DEPOT FOR ARTIFICIAL MANURES, CATHAY, BRISTOL; or

PROCTOR and RYLAND, BIRMINGHAM and SALTNEY, near CHESTER.

THOMAS HUNT and BROTHERS would
call the particular attention of Farmers and Seedsmen to
their HAND DRILLS, which will deposit Mangold, Turnip, and
other small seeds on eitber ridge or fiat in a most perfect
manner. £ s. d.

A 1-row Brush Drill 112 6

A 1-row Cup Drill 2 10 0

A 2- row Cup ditto 3 10 0

A 1-row Cup ditto for Manure 6 13 6

A 7-row Pony Drill .,..., 10 10 0

Economic Chaff Cutter 2 12 6

Hand Pulper 1 12 6

Address— Atlas Works, Earl's Colne, Essex.
Early orders are respectfully solicited. Illustrated Catalogues
sent free on application to the Atlas Works, Earl's Colne.

NOTICE OF DIVIDEND.

BANK OF DEPOSIT.— No. 3, PALL MALL EAST, LONDON, S.W.

rpHE WARRANTS for the HALF-YEARLY Interest, at the rate of 5 per cent, per
-L annum, on Deposit Accounts, to the Slst December, are ready for delivery, and payable daily between
the hours of 10 and 4.

loth January, 1859. PETER MORRISON, Managing Director.

Prospectuses and Forms sent free on application.

THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.

MARCH, 1859.

PLATE I.

"NAPOLEON": a Devon Bull,

THE PUOrERTY OF MR. JAMES DAVY, OF FLITTON, BARTON, SOUTH MOLTOK.

Napoleon, bred by Mr. Davy, is by Quartly's Earl of Exeter, the first prize bull at tbe Windsor
Show, out of Curly (97), a favourite cow of Mr. Davy's, and still in his herd.

Napoleon has only been twice exhibited in piiblic— in June, 1857, at the Newton Meeting of the Bath
and West of England Society, where he took the second prize for bulls over three years old, and in the
July following, at the Salisbury Meeting of the Eoyal Agricultural of England, where he took the first
prize of £30, as the best aged bull. The Newton show of Devon bulls was the best ever seen in the West
of England, and the judges commended the whole of the class in which Napoleon was shown. Again, at
Salisbury it is long since there were such a lot to pick from. Napoleon himself is of a very beautiful cha-
racter and quality, and considered particularly handsome.

Mr. Davy, of Elitton, is the most extensive breeder of the famous North Devons, and he has now a
herd numbering over ninety in head. He sends many of his cattle to America, Australia, and other dis-
tant parts, as well as commanding the best of the home market. Hehas just sold two bulls of very high
quality to Lord Leicester, for use at Holkham.

Mr. Robert Smith, in his report on the Chester Show, thus writes of the Davys and the Devons :
" Captain J. T. Davy's grandfather was an early and zealous breeder of North Devons as far back as 100
or 120 years ago. At his decease Mr. Wm. Davy had a portion of the herd, and bred some first-class
animals, which were subsequently bequeathed to his son Mr. James Davy, of Elitton, who has turned theni
to good account. Captain J. T. Davy has still retained some of the old family sort. It is to^ this indefati-
gable gentleman that Devon breeders are indebted for the 'Devon Heid-book.' He published his first
volume in 1851, the second in December, 1851, and the third in 1858. It is admitted that these volumes
contain a faithful report of the pedigrees of the greater number, if not all, of the best Devons. The fact
that these Herd-books have been republished in the United States is strong corroborative evidence of then-
value. In this 'Devon Herd-book' mention is made of 29 prize bulls; 27 of them are descended from
the bull Forester. Again, there are 34 prize cows ; 29 of these are descended from the old cow Curly :
both bull and cow arc of the Quartly tribe of Devons."

PLATE IL

"CONEIDENCE:" a Norfolk Cob,

THE TROPERTY OF MR. HENRY OVERMAN, OF WEASENHAM.

« Norfolk," said Lord Albemarle, at the last meeting of the county agricultural society— " Norfolk
produced good turnips, good partridges, good turkeys— good everything in fact ; and he rcniembered that
in his younger days it produced also a good breed of trotting horses. Who did not recoUect the famous
trotting Eireaway ? He was afraid that the breed was now very nearly extinct ; though he should, person-
ally, be very happy if it were not." Mr. Spoouer, one of the judges, during the course of the evening,
OLD SERIES.] O [VOL. L.-No. 3.

3^gg THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

followed on the same side : "There was ouc particular class of horses to which a noble lord at the head of
the table had called attention: the class of trotting horses, of which, as a south-countryman— never having
acted as judge at any of the Norfolk shows before— he had certainly expected to find some. If there were
any of that celebrated trotting breed existing in some of the distant nooks of the county, let them not lie
dormant. He used the word ' dormant' advisedly, because if such an animal, having powers of propagation,
were not shown at the society's meetmgs, he was asleep, or, at any rate, his master was. He trusted that
the breed had not entirely disappeared. Such horses, which had been heard of elsewhere, had been greatly
prized ; and if those present would listen to a word of advice, he would say to them, ' Cherish what re-
mains of this breed as you would that you prize and value most highly ;' because, if the good fore-quarters, fore«
legs, and action of the Norfolk trotter were once lost, they could never^be restored. What remained of the
breed should be propagated to the utmost extent."

This is good sound advice, especially in times when a clever hack is difficult to find. But we are at
any rate enabled to preserve a sample or two of the sort. Confidence is by Baldwin's well known Bobm
Hood, a Norfolk hackney of the purest blood, out of a cob mare ridden for many years by Mr. Overman.
Confidence himself stands fourteen hands high, is quite up to sixteen stone, and, in addition to sundry
other recommendations, has that greatest of all for a hack, remarkably good action. His owner, Mr.
Henry Overman, one of the Holkham tenants, has been yet more famous for another description of stock—
his flock of Southdown sheep, which, however, was dispersed in the Autumn of last year.

THE HERDS OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Chapter I.

A GLANCE AT THE PAST,

The period of Shorthorn memory may be said to date
back to about 1770 ; and it was to it, that Mr. Bates, of
Kirklevington, was wont to refer, when, ignoring " Sir
James Penny man's bull, ' ' &c., altogether, he maintained
that " the first bull was the best, and that was Jame
Brown's, of Aldborough." Whatever may have been
their comparative merits, he has long since faded into
space, and left to Hubback the undisputed title of the
Abraham of Shorthorns. The latter, who was calved
at Hurworth, near Darlington, in 1777, was one of the
yellow red-and-whites, which prevailed everywhere
until roan became orthodox. His first stock were
nearly two years old, when the quick eyes of Messrs.
Robert Colling and Waistell espied him grazing in the
midst of them. " Their quiet gig ride that day inaugu-
rated a great era for Shorthorns." Says Colling to
Waistell on that memorable afternoon. " Them's very
honny beasts." " They are" was the rejoinder; " and
that hull of Robinson's, yonder, must be the sire of
them; let's you and I buy liim?" Mr. Robinson was
nothing loth, and Hubback was sold for ^'8, with as
much unconcern as one of our best blood sires was
passed over to a winner seventy years afterwards, for a
stake of that amount at whist. Two or three more har-
vest moons waned, and Hubback passed out of Wais-
tell's hands at the same price, to Charles Colling, and
the bargain was arranged over the tea-table at Robert's
house. The latter, no doubt, retained an interest in
him, and shared in the five-guinea fees which were
forthwith charged to cow owners for his favours. This
account difiers from that given by Mr. Yoiiatt, but we
have received it from one who also heard it from the
same lips. The low price in the second instance arose

from Mr. Waistell's very natural idea that his cows were
to be bulled gratis.

This purchase set the Brothers Colling fairly afloat ;
and the new century dawned upon them as the most
successful breeders in Durham, Charles, who had
pitched his tent at Ketton, had the better herd ; but
Robert, as the fine print after Weaver fully indicates,
was the more original thinker of the two, and his pas-
tures at Barmpton were dotted with Leicesters even
still more choice than his Shorthorns. He was wont
to say, when speaking of his herd, that he and Charles
had nothing better than their neighbours, except the
Phoenix tribe, which they originally bought from the
Maynards, and from which Comet, the veritable founder
of shorthorns sprang. Mr. Mason, of Chilton, followed
hard on the same track. He had bought Lady May-
nard, the great grandam of Comet, from Charles Col-
ling, and before the sale of the Ketton herd, in 1810,
she had gone far towards making his own. Much as
he loved his Gaudy, by Favourite, he gradually got rid
of such " fool's fat" on the tail and rump ; and, as his
Portia in 1829 proved, he wrought a great improve-
ment on the open shoulders, a defect which seems to
have caught Robert Ceiling's attention much more
than Charles's. The latter also reduced both the size
and symmetry of his stock, by a cross with a dun
Kyloe, which Coates bought for Col. O'Callaghan, from
a man at Northallerton. She was bulled by Lord Bol-
ingbroke, and her daughter and granddaughter were
crossed in succession with a pure Shorthorn bull; and
it was to prove that the alloy came in with the grand-
son, that Mason published his bulky pamphlet, after
the Ketton sale. Lady and her two daughters, Countess
and Laura, and some nine or ten of their tribe, were
included under his ban ; but his somewhat gratuitous

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189

search for truth was much less intense than his desire
to send cows to Comet,

This bull was put in at 400 gs., and the biddings
went on gaily by 50 gs. at a time. It had been whis-
pered that 1,500 gs. would not stop Mr. Boazman, of
Aycliffe ; but it was not to be. Early Shorthorn his-
tory— which is, after all, little more than oral tradition
—is unusually dim on this head. Some say that he
was drawn aside and detained by a confederate of the
four purchasers, in an animated conversation in the re-
freshment tent; while others aver that (like Mr. Richard
Sutton, when he came to buy the Yarborough Hercules
at the Quorn sale) his post-chaise broke down, a,nd he
reached the scene of action only in time to make a
fruitless offer to the happy quartet — Messrs. Wetherell,
Trotter, Wright, and Charge — of £500 for their bar-
gain. It was agreed between the four that they should
only send twelve cows each, and those their boiui fide
property ; and hence it was only through a fictitious
sale that Mason was enabled to gain the long-coveted
prize. The alloy curse, which he had so perseveringly
thrown in Charles Colling's teeth, was said to have
come at last into his own stock in another shape, and
from a quarter which he least expected. As one Willy
Brack conducted the cow Carnation on a visit to Comet,
at Denton, an avenger, according to the legend, ap-
peared for Charles, in the shape of a half-bred bull,
which jumped the hedge at her salute; and from this
stolen interview came Jupiter and his black-nosed
blood. Comet was buried in the fulness of time at
Cleasby, and a sycamore in a garth, which is called
" Comet's Garth" to this day, and lately passed into
the possession of Mr. John Booth, of Killerby, duly
marks the spot for all lovers of the Herd Book.

Lord Althorp bought freely at Robert Colling's sale
in 1818, when he parted with everything but his heifer
calves. This sale bore no comparison in point of blood
or prices to the Ketton one ; and Mr. Whittaker con-
gratulated himself ever after that he had missed Lan-
caster (621 gs.), when he fully thought that he had been
the last to catch Mr. Robinson's eye, and got Frederick
(1,060) instead, for 50 gs. from Mr. Charge. Lord
Althorp also said that Nonpareil (370 gs.) did him no
great good, and that he was " never really successful
till he got the Chiltons." However, when Robert Col-
ling's heifers were dispersed, after his death in 1821,
not a few of them passed into his lordship's hands;
and when perhap^■ the finest lot of cows ever offered
came to the hammer at Chilton, in 1829, he bought
eighteen, the one from which he bred most being " No.
25, 36 gs.," who became Wiseton's dam. Eventually
the herd dwindled, as the land at Wiseton was not of
sufficient stamina to counteract such close in-and-in
breeding. It was at the third Wiseton Sale that Lord
Ducie came out with 400 gs. lor the two-year-old
Usurer, whom he fancied for his beautiful fore-quarters.
" Usurer can give shoulders to anything," was his
lordshiji's constant eulogium of him, and he used liim
extensively. He was in Lincolnshire at the time of the
sale, and is, we believe, still alive, at Mr. Nesham's,
near Darlington.

Lord Ducie was always bad to beat by hard cash. In
fact, he was never worsted but once, and that was by
Mr. Thomas Edge for a white heifer at Mr. Rose's sale at
Gotham, near Newark. Strange to say, Mr. Edge had
never bid more than 100 gs. at a sale before. His friends
rallied him in vain on his unwonted ardour. " She'll
look very well in Strelley Park," was bis only reply;
and he seemed to consider it quite a privilege to get her
for 220 gs., and sell her for ^^35, with the reputation of
being a free-martin. His lordship always seemed to
enjoy the joke; but " What, beat Tom Edge!" was
his only remark on it.

At Mr. Bates's sale Lord Ducie was as undaunted
as ever, and it was nothing but being, in racing phrase,
" a good beginner" which secured him the 4th Duke of
York so cheap. He had " determined to buy him, or
make him dear for some one ;" and he put him in so
promptly at 200 gs., that although one gentleman at
least wished to have him at two hundred more, a
sort of stagnation supervened, amid which Mr. Strafford's
sand ran down. If the first bid had only been a hundred,
three at least would have gone on. It was this sale
which first opened that Duchess tribe to the world,
which had gone on increasing, and then dwindling at
Kirklevington, during the forty years since "T. Bates,
Esq.," had been written opposite "38. Young Duchess,
2 yrs. old, by Comet, dam by Favourite, 183 gs.," in
Mr, Kingston's catalogue, on the Ketton day. She was
bulled by Comet at the time, and Mr. Bates had never
once deserted the blood except for one cross with
Stephenson's Belvidere, who was the sire and grandsire
of the Duke of Northumberland. It was with him and
the Oxford Cow, and his two Duchess heifers, that he
set forth and won every prize he showed for at the first
Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1839.
They came in a steam boat to London, and walked to
Oxford, and it was said at the time that nothing but the
presence of Mr. Bates, and the soothing effect of his
pat and his " Poor DukeV prevented the latter from
slipping off the stage into the water when he turned
awkward and declined to re-embark. With the victory
of his Cambridge cow, and eight months' bull-calf at
Cambridge next year, and his bull Cleveland Lad at
Liverpool, the royal prize winning era of Mr. Bates
virtually ceased (in fact he hardly ever showed again),
and that of the Booths began. Since then, these
two have figured as the White and Red Rose of pas-
toral history, and have had nearly as many adherents
in their far more glorious battle field. The Duchess
tribe, over which Mr. Bates had watched with such
jealousy, were still more dispersed at the celebrated
Tortworth sale in August, 1853 (which only fell some
two shillings in its average below Charles ColHngs's),
and the Americans had determined to carry the tribe off
bodily across the Atlantic, if Captain Gunter and Mr.
Tanqueray had not bid against them, Company as they
were, and upset all the wise counsels which had been
taken at Gloucester over-night.

About £151 was the average at Mr. Charles Col-
ling's sale ; £'128 at Mr, Robert Colling's ; £59 at
Mr, Christopher Mason's ; £68 at Lord Spencer's ;

o 2

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£67 at Mr. Bates's; £151 at Lord Ducie's ; £78
at Mr. Tanqueray's; £80 at Sir Charles Knight-
ley's ; £73 at Mr. Grenfell's ; £65 at Mr. Bolden's ;
aad £90 at Mr. Majoribanks's. And so the Sliort-
horn tide has ebbed and flowed for nearly eighty
years. From 1780 to 1818 it rose steadily. Then
came the depression consequent upon the Currency
measures; inattention to breeding succeeded, and at
least a better feeling set in with Mr. Richard Booth's
s.ile in 1834. The demand was up and down till the
Wiseton sale of 1848. At the Kirklevington sale it was
about the same, and then America (who had always been
great Bates men) and Australia began to show them-
selves in earnest by their purchases at Tortworth, Faws-
ley, Hendon, and Bushey, and their private thousand-
guinea bargains for the two Grand Dukes, and reached
their culminating point in 1,200 gs. for Master Butterfly.

Amid this tangled history, the Booth herd has always
played its part, long before it came out at the Liverpool
Royal with its Bracelet and Mantaliiii. Mr. Thomas
Booth laid the foundation of the Killerby and Warlaby
herds in about 1790. George Coates had not yet arisen to
prosecute his peaceful masonic pilgrimage from farm to
farm, with his notes and his saddle-bags, on his old
white pony ; and hence, though the cows from which
Mr. Booth bred were of the best class, they had at first
no pedigrees. He then selected the best of Robert Col-
lings's bulls, and hired Twin-brother to Ben (660) by
Punch, d. by Foljambe, g. d. by Hubback, all of the
Barrapton breed. After these came Son of Twin-brother
to Ben (whom he bred himself), Suwarrow, Easby, The
Lame Bull, and Albion (14) by Comet out of Beauty,
whom he purchased for 60 gs. at the Ketton sale. At
the Barmpton sale he gave 270 gs. for Pilot (496), of
the Wellington tribe, who proved the best bull he ever
had. Henceforward he only bred those bulls in the herd ;
and his sons, with the exception of a sparing use of
Lord Stanley, Exquisite, Lord Zetland's Lord Lieu-
tenant (sire of Leonard), Water King, and Mussulman
have pursued the same plan. Hamlet, out of Bracelet,
was also one of the best his son John ever had ; and one
season at Killerby he served ten cows at 20 gs. each ;
but, like Lord-Lieutenant, he was a little coarse in the
horn, as many Leonards were.

In 1834, Mr. Richard Booth sold the herd he had
gradually got together, since 1817, at Studley, which
contained many of the Anna and Young Anna tribe,
who were in direct descent from Twin-brother to Ben,
and retained only his cow Isabella, whose first calf after
coming to Warlaby was a roan bull by Young Matchem
(4422). While he was at Studley, Mr. Booth, senior,
lived at Warlaby, and had in a great measure a
joint herd with his son John, at Killerby. Richard's
year out of his business was, as he still terms it, " the
longest I ever spent in my life;" and when his father
died, shortly after the expiration of it, he removed to
Warlaby, and took to his father's herd. The grass at
Warlaby is better than that at Killerby, as it is on a
stronger soil, while the latter is more adapted for sheep ;
but the herds, from the perpetual interchange of bulls
such as Leonard, Buckingham, Hopewell, Vanguard,

and Crown Prince, have long been virtually one. The
brothers cared not so much for that elegance which
Bates adored, but went more for that compactness of
frame and depth of flash, which, along with a wonder-
ful fore-flank, is still the great Booth blood charac-
teristic.

After using Leonard, who transmitted his rare
substance and constitution to Hope, Gem, and
Hawthorn Blossom (who has brought more gold
than any other to Warlaby), Mr. Richard
Booth bought Buckingham from Killerby, and from
him and Isabella came Isabella Buckingham and Van-
guard. Buckingham was by Colonel Cradock's Mussul-
man oat of Bracelet, and strained back to Sir Charles
out of Toy by Argus. From a cross between him and
Blossom III., came Baron Warlaby and Cherry Blos-
som, and thatwiih her daughter Hawthorn Blossom re-
sulted in Plum Blossom (the dam of Windsor), Bloom,
and Benedict. Crown Prince, a son of Fitzleonard and
Charity, was put in his turn to Hawthorn Blossom, and
from their union came Nectarine Blossom, who knew no
victrix last year at Chester, Northallerton, or Sunder-
land.

The Royal and Yorkshire prize list of the Killerby
and Warlaby herds is a bede-roll unparalleled for
brilliancy. Taking the Royal alone, it shows 2S> first
premiums to their credit in its 20 years, while the
seconds and H. C.'s are legion. The illustrious twins
Bracelet and Necklace those female Castor and Pollux of
Show Yards, with Mantalini and Birthday, carried all
before them, in 1841-44 ; but thelaiter's daughter Gem,
whom Lord Speucer considered to be the best that
Killerby ever turned out, died very early. In 1844,
Mr. Richard Booth won his first prize with his yearling
heifer Bud, and gathering strength as be went on, swept
the three first prizes for cows, two-year-old and one-
year-old heifers at Northampton. After this year Mr.
J. Booth almost ceased to show, though he won the
head two-year-old bull prize with Red Knight at Lewes,
and then began a long unbroken series of triumphs for
Warlaby, descending through Plum Blossom, Windsor,
Bridesmaid, and Queen of the May, to Nectarine Blos-
som and Queen of the Isles.

Venus Victrix, the second cow at Lincoln, is the last
to which the late Mr. J. Booth's name is affixed as a
Royal winner; and after 1857, the frequenters of the
English and Irish shows, where he had been judge so
long, recognised his manly figure and hearty Northern
manner no more. The blood from which she sprang left
Killerby in Buckingham, and came back in Bloom,
whom Mr. Richard Booth presented to his brother.
Venus Victris was bought in at the sale in 1853, by
Mr. Richard Booth, and seems likely to fulfil the wishes
of the donor in founding another Killerby herd in his
nephews* hands. Unlike Altisidora of Bishop Burton
stud fame, she did not die in her ditch, but her hip is
sadly down from the fall. However, despite her mis-
fortune, she is doing good service to her young masters ;
King Arthur and King Alfred, both out of her, are let
for 400 guineas ; her heifer Venus de Medicis, by Van-
guard, who was sold to Mr. Douglas for UOO gs. as a

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191

calf in 1856, won the Dublin Challenge Cup for her
new owner; and Victrix by Royal Buck, and a heifer
calf for whicli they lately refused 300 guineas from
L'ddy Pigot, are also out of her. So much for past
glories. It remains now for us, in the steady prosecu-
tion of our task of visiting the leading herds of England,
and reporting them without any regard to ideal prece-
dence, but just as they fall in our way, to make our
first halt at Warlaby, and record what we saw there.

Chapter II.

THE WARLABY HERD.

The country between Killerby and Warlaby, which
lie about seven miles apart, is not much calculated to
interest a stranger to the North Riding; and least of
all when he traverses it under the half-raw, half-wet
atmosphere of a January sky. The route lies through
Ainderby, famed in the annals of the " Stud Book "
as the place where the mighty Velocipede " com-
manded all Yorkshire" for two seasons, after his
faulty sinew had defied John Scott's art ; and the faded
sign, which still creaks over its public house door, shows
that the village were duly mindful of the honour of
his stay. The range of the Hambleton hills, where he
won his fatal trial against The Colonel, before the St.
Leger, rise bleak and bare on the left ; and when they
stand out, on a clear day, Warlaby seems, from the
distance, to nestle almost in a hollow beneath their
shade. A glimpse of Sir Samuel, arrayed in a huge
anti-gate-opening liead-gear, and grazing amid the
cows on the pasture of Bauniston Hill, which looked
as green as if it was summer, first told us that, leaving
Velocipede's, we had reached the Crown Prince's
dominions at last; and two or three hundred yards
more, down a now leafless lane, brought us to Mr.
Booth's door.

The Warlaby land lies close round the house, and
consists of 310 acres, about half of which is in tillage,
and half in pasture ; and ever since Mr. Booth came
there, he has had the luck wholly to escape the pleuro-
pneumonia, and to lose only one cow from the " mouth
and foot" disease. The latter was most fitful and stealthy
in its attack. Mr. Booth had no idea of it till a special
messenger arrived, post haste, at the Thirsk Show-
yard, a few hours after he had left home ; and
while the cows only separated by a lane from the in-
valids escaped altogether', it seized others full a quar-
ter of a mile away. The herd, including the bulls not
at home, consists at present of about eighty head ; and
from fifteen to twenty calves are dropped every year.
Mr. Booth had twenty-six bulls, of which sixteen were
by Crown Princo, out at hire last season, at all prices
from 100 gs. to 250 gs. ; and an eminent Yorkshire
breeder bid 300 gs. for Crown Prince in vain. Some
go at eleven months ; and the season now lasts for a
year, instead of nine months, as formerly. The ex-
pense of their sending and return is shared between the
letter and the hirer ; and in spite of the perpetual
shiftings, very few accidents occur. Misfortune, how-
ever, vented itself on the renowned Buckingham, as he

and his attendant were burnt to a cinder on Ihe steam-
boat as they drew near to Ireland. The man whom
Mr. Barnes had sent specially to fetch him was last
seen holding on to the head of his bull, whose death-
bcllow fairly echoed along the shore ; and although he
was besought to leave him, he preferred to die at his
post. The Monk, by Leonidas, who goes back in
direct succession to the famous Halnaby, has not
revisited Warlaby for seven years. The Hon, Noel
Hill had him for two seasons, and then he went to
Mr. Kearney's, of Ireland, for four more. Mr. Booth's
business with the sister- isle is by no means of recent
date, as he sent them bulls from his Studley Herd ;
and at present Messrs. Barnes and Challoner, of
Co. Meath, give him 2o0 gs. for Harbinger, who is
the' ninth they have had from the two brothers in suc-
cession. Vanguard was away at Mr. Torr's for seven
seasons, as successor to Leonard and Baron Warlaby,
who spent five in those quarters ; and Hopewell has
arrived back from Aylesby, after a six-season absence,
four of which he spent in the " happy pastures" of
Meath, where he has left a host of Royal winners.
He was rejected, along with the whole of the bull
class, as being of " no merit," at the Norwich
Royal ; whereas one of his companions in the ring was
sold soon after for 150 gs., while he himself has pro-
duced about 1,000 gs. for seven seasons' hire. Royalty
is also among Mr. Booth's customers. The Prince
Consort hired Prince Alfred, in 1855—57, for his
Home Farm ; and then he crossed the Channel for a
season to the Emperor of the French, and Fitzclarence,
by Clarence, out of Nectarine Blossom, was installed
at Windsor in his stead.

When we had learnt these details, the sun shone out
at last, and beckoned us into the pasture ; but we were
not to be denied one glance round the room, and hear-
ing a few words to the illustrious herd members, dead
and living, which lent life to its walls. Above the side-
board, on which rested the massive North Lancashire
Challenge Cups which they won at Burnley, for the
best female and male in the yard (Colonel Towneley,
the donor, declining to compete) hung Bridesmaid and
AVindsor, and a small engraving of Faith, by Rasp-
berry, divides them. She might well hold the post of
honour, as, crossed with Leonard, she produced Hope ;
and from Hope and Buckingham came the renowned
Charity, who was never beaten, except as a calf, by one of
the same herd. Her greatest Royal triumph was when,
as a three-year old, in 1849, she was placed A 1 in the
cow class at Norwich; and she bred her first calf, in
the shape of Crown Prince, that modern Comet of War-
laby. Mantalini, the winner of ten prizes, hangs on the
adjoining wall. From her sprang the twins Polka and
Pelerine ; and it is from the latter that Rose of Athel-
stane traces her descent, through Rose of Summer and
Rose of Autumn.

The third oil-painting in the room is a large one of a
somewhat coarse roan bull, Navigator. He lived and
died in days when agricultural shows were quite in their
infancy; but he was the winner when Mr. Richard
Booth's uncle, Jlajor Bower of Welham, (who sold Sir

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Charles Knightley, his wonderful cow Valuable, by De-
fender (194) in 1822), took up Mr. Stapleton's challenge
to show their bulls for £50 a-side, in Duncombe Park.
Little prints of Necklace and Bracelet, from the original
paintings at Killerby, over which we have so often pon-
dered as we sat, and as often decided the knotty point
of precedence, on the score of more length, for Bracelet,
are ranged on each side of it, and Cherry Blossom is
not forgotten. We miss Buckingham, but need only
look outside for the ratification of the wise decision
of the late Mr. John Booth, to send Bracelet to Mus-
sulman, and have a cross of Col. Craddock's rare " old
Cherry tribe." Eight medals, a very small propor-
tion of those which have reached Warlaby from Hanover-
square or the Yorkshire Society, alone are ranged on
the chimney piece ; but the mind naturally reverts to
more solid testimonials, £^25 and £^15 cheques to wit,
signed by Secretaries, and, after glancing at the contents
of one or two cases, we pass the others by.

And so we leave these relics of the past, and with
Mr. Booth and Cuthbert, alias " Cuddy," as our cice-
rones, we saunter out on to Banniston Hill. The Ain-
derby steeple shows boldly out in the distance, right
above the rushy level, where the herd " wander at their
own sweet will," in the summer heat, and where, to
judge from the frequent gun flashes, jack snipe betake
themselves in winter. " Cuddy" is to the Yorkshire
short-horns, what Sir Tatton Sykes's Saarry is to its
thorough-breds. He has grown grey in Mr. Booth's
service, and as he stands there, proudly telling of each
cow to the seventh generation he has reared, in his wide-
awake, his brown jerkin, his red and purple check hand-
kerchief, twisted, hay-wisp fashion, round his neck, and
grasping an aged hunting whip, we see no reason, either
on the score of memory or ailment, to believe in his
foreboding of ^^ I may be dune, any time now." Satin,
the old dame of the herd, and some three or four months
beyond fourteen, was strolling over the hill and faraway
to the right as we entered the field, and hence the red
Vivandiere, by Buckingham, who is not many weeks
younger, was the first we came up with. Her remark-
ably nice head and eye are her most taking points, and
she is a most undeniable milker to boot. At present
Mr. Booth has three bulls by her — Prince Arthur,
Prince Alfred, and Prince Oscar, all by Crown Prince,
and she is in calf to Sir Samuel, who was gallantly
grazing at her side. This son of Charity was in Ireland
last year ; but although he is rather on the leg himself,
his stock are showing so well, that Warlaby is not
unlikely to be his permanent sphere for the future.
Princess Elizabeth, the dam of Queen of the Isles
and Lord of the Isles, is heavy in calf to him. She
was never in a show-yard, but she has, by her
queenly daughter's triumphs this year, placed herself
almost A I among the herd. Chastity came next ;
but we were more struck with the white four-year-
old sister to Windsor, who had all the character
of her distinguished brother — very neat and level,
and with rare round ribs. Our remembrances of Queen
of the May, Queen Mab, and Lord of the Valley, made
US look out very anxiously for CrowR Prince's constant

consort. Red Rose, by Harbinger, for whom a few years
since a blank cheque was offered in vain. She is a neat
and a very sweet-headed cow, of less size than most of
the others, but true as a die in shape ; in fact, a model
of milking properties, combined with quality, and a
very regular breeder.

Leaving the field, and wending our way through the
goat, some choice geese and Rouens, and some half-
Dorking half-game fowls (for Mr. Booth " likes nearly
everything on the farm half-bred except short-horns"),
we took the yard sheds in succession.

A white bull-calf. Royal Bridesman, by Crown
Prince, out of Bride Elect, with a somewhat prominent
Vanguard head, stood first for view ; and near him was
CampfoUower, a daughter of Crown Prince and Vivan-
diere, who had just calved a heifer-calf to Windsor. In
the first box in the larger yard, was a red-and-white
November calf. Queen of the Ocean, sister to Queen of
the May and Queen Mab, and bearing, except in her
colour, a strong family likeness to the latter ; while The
Soldier's Nurse, with a wondrous bosom, own sister to
CampfoUower, shared its bed. We were musing on
Royal Shows to come, when Crown Prince and his
guardian drew up for inspection at the gate. He has
never been shown, as they dare not make him fat; but
he retains all the fine form of fore-quarters, in spite of
being so poor. Asa bull-getter, he is especially famed.
Mr. Torr had him for a season at Ayiesby, and sold six
calves by him for 80 guineas each. Mr. Booth has also
recently refused an offer of 100 gs. to send four heifers
to be bulled by him, and to take a bull into the bargain ;
but it transpired, as if by way of contrast, as we stood
by a shed, waiting for the victorious Nectarine Blossom
and her fair friends, that one of the six half-Scot and
half-Irish beasts in the stalls behind us owned him for
her sire !

And now the grouping began in earnest ; as Bride
Elect, Nectarine Blossom, and Queen Mab came forth
together. " Cuddy," with a strong eye to the pic-
turesque, had disposed two calves in the back -ground,
and Mr. Booth pointed them specially out to us, but
they never got on to our notes, and we don't know to
this day what they were. Their three seniors were quite
enough to fill the eye at once. The white Bride Elect,
by Vanguard, out of Bianca, was twice beaten by Col.
Towneley's Roan Duchess, though she beat her at last.
Her show days are over, and so far she has only bred
Bridal Flower and Royal Bridesman, but she is in calf
to Crown Prince. Her breast is so splendid, that it al-
most requires a second pair of fore-legs to support it; and
as she stood fore-shortened, with her two companions
near her^ we longed for a cunning pencil or camera to
hit them off for ever an d aye. Queen Mab , who unites rare
quality and substance, and was second at Northallerton,
to Mr. Douglas's Queen of Trumps (who was sold for
450 gs., and died within a day's sail of New Orleans)
has had a roan heifer-calf to her sire Crown Prince,
which unfortunately died. She measures eight feet be-
hind the shoulders, just half-a-foot less than Nectarine
Blossom, to whom she is universally allowed to bow in
elegance of form; and, but that the other is a trifle

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

193

too large ia the hips, it is almost impossible to
pick a hole in her. Nectarine Blossom has just had
a bull-calf to Sir Samuel, which makes her third ; but
her half-sister, Orange Blossom, seems by no means
inclined like her

" To lift her head for endless spring
And everlasting blossoming,"

as she did not hold, in December, 1857, and never took
the bull again for thirteen months. Mr. Booth forgot
to introduce us to a very promising bull-calf by
Windsor, out of Blithe; and we did not see Lady Grace,
and four yearling heifers, which were in a field at some
distance from the house.

For a little change, we adjourned once more to the
bulls, and first and foremost had an audience with Hope-
well, own brother to Charity, who has lately had a severe
fall from a cow. The young Lord of the Valley, a very
stylish bull , of more substance, though perhaps not so true-
made as Crown Prince, then stood forth. He has just
been transferred over from Mr. Carr's (where Windsor
has taken his place at a 200 gs. hire) to Mr. Willis,
near Middleham, and hence there will never be a return-
match between him and The Great Mogul. Gradually
descending on the age scale came the roan Sir James,
by Sir Samuel, out of Nectarine Blossom. He won at
Sunderland last year, but he is to be rigidly kept for
" what surpasseth show" in Mr. Booth's eyes. We
measured him six feet live already, and he is also a
wonderful toucher, though not to call handsome,
and inferior in this point to his half-brother Fitz-
clarenne.

And so we strolled on, and for a wind-up took a look
at three Queens in succession. There was Queen of the
Vale, especially good behind the shoulder, and ready no
doubt, after a winter's reflection, to try issues with the
two Roses— Stanley Rose, and Rose of Athelstane, who
defeated her at Sunderland and Northallerton ; and

Moss Rose from Wetherby into the bargain. Be that
as it may, her sister. Queen of the May, has had enough
of such honours, and has fairly broken down in training.
The mischief began when she was sent with Sir Samuel
in a horse-box to Chelmsford, and stood up all the way,
hour after hour, till nature almost gave in. She still
retains all that beautiful form of fore-quarters, and rare
length, which " knocked over" the judges so often; but
she is now only a splendid ruin, slightly down in one
hip, and seems, for fear of throwing too much weight
on to her fore-legs, to stand at times arched like a bow.
She was kneeling in the pasture when we first saw her,
and had eaten the grass bare in a sort of elfin ring round
her, and she had hardly walked a hundred yards to her
box, than she favoured herself on to her knees before
her hay once more. It is feared that she is not in calf
to Highthorn. Many were wont to say, in 1857, when
she beat Victoria and Rose of Townley and won the
100-guiuea Cup at Stockton, as the best animal in the
Show (an honour which fell on Nectarine Blossom last
year) , that she was the finest young animal that ever
walked out of the Warlaby yard. We think they are
right in not transferring their allegiance to the present
plum of the herd. Queen of the Isles, by Crown Prince,
who was brought out for us last. To our eye she is
quite as wealthy, but with hardly such beauty or length
as Queen of the May. She was unbeaten as a calf at
York and Stockton, and then swept the three prizes in
succession at Chester, Northallerton, and Sunderland.
If she is never shown again, it will be her proudest
memorial that, when Mr. Booth had nothing else to
send, Col. Townley's " Diadem," and Mr. Grundy's
"Sweetheart," and thirty others entered the lists in vain
against her on The Roodee. We know we are correct
as to the number, for Cuddy, in the honest pride of
his heart, " counted them a vast of times to be suir."

THE EFFECT OF CERTAIN MANURES ON PLANTS,

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

That certain mauures produce very powerful effects
on the growth of particular plants was an early re-
mark of the cultivators of the soil. This obser-
vation, indeed, laid the foundation of the art of
manuring ; led the way to the triumphs of modern
chemistry, and of the agriculturists of our time-
It is hardly a doubtful question, Jiowever, that much
yet remains to be done in adaptinof the manure to
the particular plant whose growth we intend to pro-
mote— varying the application, as the straw or the
seed of the plant is the proposed crop.

If we dwell a little upon the readings in this page
of Nature's book, we learn many things wliich have
from time to time presented themselves for our in-
struction. The natural grasses here speak in very

plain language. The farmer has noticed, from time
immemorial, that, on the sides of roads, and other
turf-elad places, the ashes of a wood fire, left per-
haps by some wayfarer, produce on the site a patch
of white clover. Wood ashes, therefore, evidently
promote the growth of this plant. Now, as wood
ashes abound in phosphate of lime, it was soon con-
sidered probable that this is the salt which promotes
so remarkably the growth of the clover. Later
experiments very considerably supported this con-
clusion. The use of crushed bones, which still more
copiously abound in phosphate of lime, was found
to produce a similar effect. The use of bones on the
farms at Welbeck and Clipstone, half-a-centary since,
caused so remarkable wd so " spontaneous" a growth

194

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of while clover, that the late Duke of Porthaiid
coiisidcrcd it unnecessary to sow the seeds. Tlie
farmers of the nortli-easteru side of our island, who
had remarked the same thing, began even to suspect
that the seeds were imported in the crushed bones
of Holland. That the portion of the bone which is
thus so decidedly the food of clover is its phosphate
of lime, and not its decomposing organic matters,
seems to be also evideuced by several facts. One of
these has very recently been given by Mr. J. Dixon,
ill his prize essay on the manuring of grass land
(Jour. Roi/. Jff. Soc, vol. xix., p. 204). He there
remarks, " Of the permanent power of the raw bone
I can instance a case on land of which I was the
tenant for sixteen years : it was old turf, and had
been in the occupation of the proprietors for a long
time previous to my becoming tenant. The extent
of the land in question was little more than twenty
acres. About the year 1790 the then proprietor had
all the bones he could obtain in a commercial loca-
lity collected together, and broken with a heavy
hammer. No account was kept of the quantity or
value used on a given surface, but there is sufficient
evidence to show that an unusual dressing was
given.

" The soil is of a close, tenacious character, lying
on a clayey subsoil. The subsoil did not contain
calcareous earth ; at least, it did not effervesce with
the spirit of salts (muriatic acid). Some parts of
the land had a more porous substratum, and were
sufficiently dry for pasture : these particular parts
were undoubtedly the most fertile land in the dis-
trict. Such of the surface as was wet had scarcely
any other vegetable covering than the carex and
others of the coarsest grasses. It is perhaps proper
here to state that this bone-dusted land has not
been broken-up or in tillage for a very long period.
On becoming tenant, I immediately set about drain-
ing the wet parts. In this operation we found, at
from five to eight inches from the surface, much
bone, in various states of decomposition : the large
pieces, when broken, appeared fresh inside. I felt
at the time some regret that much value must have
been lost for many years, and, as I then supposed
for ever lost, on account of the manure having been
in a soil saturated with water ever since it had been
laid on. However, before my draining operation had
been completed twelve months, the coarse herbage
began to disappear, and in its place appeared white
clover, marl clover, and others of the best pasture
grasses ; and, in the second summer after being
drained, the soil was equally luxuriant with the na-
turally dry parts of the land. It is now nearly
seventy years since this land was boned, and it is
still markedly luxuriant beyond any other grass land
in the same district."

And in a subsequent page, whea alluding to the

boning of the grass land of Mr. Williamson, of Tar-
porlcy, Mr. Dixon observes, " Previous to boning,
the herbage on these pastures was of the poorest
kind imaginable — there being few of any plants ex-
cept the small carex. In the second summer after
boning, the carex had disappeared, and the pasture
had become long and thick-set with white clover,
cow grass, or marl clover, and trefoil."

Other and still more carefully conducted experi-
ments serve to show the value of such a field of
enquiry. It is only in the just-published half-volume
of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,
p. 552, that the experiments of Mr. J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert with different manures on perma-
nent meadow land have been reported. In these
trials, which were carried on during the years 1856,
1857, and 1858, the plan adopted was to apply a
number of different combinations of manuring sub-
stances, each, year after year, to the same plot of
land. And, in order to provide proper standards of
comparison, two plots were left continuously unma-
nured, and another portion was amiually manured
with farmyard manure. The land selected comprised
about six acres of the park at Rothamsted, and it
had been under permanent grass for certainly more
than a century. The land is a somewhat heavy
loam, with a red-clay subsoil resting upon chalk, and
is very well naturally drained ; the area selected is
perfectly level ; and no fresh seed of any hind has
been sown, either within the period of the experi-
ments, or for many years previously. Early in
1856 uiae plots, of half-an-acre each, were mea-
sured off for artificial manuring : two plots of a
quarter of an acre each to be left unmanured ; and
two other plots of a quarter of an acre each to be
manured annually with farmyard dung. In 1858,
four other plots of one-sixth of an acre were appro-
priated to trials with nitrate of soda. The result
upon the produce of hay by the fourteen different
applications will be found in the following table,
which gives the manures applied, and the average
produce of hay during three years, in tons, hundred-
weights, and quarters. The manures were applied
broadcast from the middle of February to the 31st
of March ; the nitrate of soda, iu April ; the farm-
yard dung and the sawdust, in the previous Novem-
ber or December : —

tons.cwts.qrs.

1. Unmanured . . . .1 3 1

2. Unmanured (duplicate plot at the

further end of the series) . .1 4 2

3. 2,000 lbs. sawdust . . .1 0 2

4. 200 lbs. each sulphate and muriate

ammonia (good samples of the

salts so named in commerce) . 1 15 0

5. 2,000 lbs. sawdust, and 200 lbs.

each sulphate and muriate am-
monia . , , . . 1 15 0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

195

tous.cwts.qrs,

6. 275 lbs. uiti'ate of sock (one year) 1 11 3

7. 550 lbs. nitrate of soda (equal in

nitrogen to the ammouiacal salts

of plot 1). , . (one year) 1 11 3

8. Mixed mineral manure, composed

of-

Superphosphate of lime :

200 lbs. bone ash .

150 lbs. sulphuric acid*
300 lbs. sulphate of potash . > 1 13 1
200 lbs. sulphate of soda
100 lbs. sulphate of magnesia

9. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,

and 2,000 lbs. sawdust . .115 3

10. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,

and 200 lbs. each sulphate and

muriate ammonia . . . 2 19 1

11. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,

200 lbs. each sulphate and mu-
riate ammoni;i, and 2,000 lbs.
sawdust 2 18 2

12. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,

200 lbs. each sulphate and mu-
riate ammonia, and 2,000 lbs. cut
wheat-straw . . . . 2 11 0

13. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,

and 100 lbs. each sulphate and
muriate ammonia , . .3 3 2
11. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,
and 275 lbs. nitrate of soda

(one year) 1 17 3

15. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8,

and 550 lbs. nitrate of soda (equal
in nitrogen to the ammouiacal
salts of plots 1, 10, &c., (one year) 2 10 1

16. 14 tons farmyard dung . .2 0 0
17-14 tons farmyard dung, and 100

lbs. each sulphate and muriate

ammonia 2 8 2

The result of these varied applications, in in-
ducing the growth of different kinds of grasses, is
thus summed up by the institutors of these valuable
experiments : That the elFect of a mixed, but purely
mineral inamire upon the complex herbage of per.
manent meadow land was chiefly to develope the
growth of the legmubious plants (clovers c%c.) it
contained, and scarcely to increase at all the produce
of the graminaceous plants, or commonly called
natural grasses. That the action of purely nitrogen-
ous manures upon the permanent meadow, was to
discourage the growth of the leguminous herbage,
and to increase the produce of the graminaceous
hay.

That by the combination of both nitrogenous and
proper mineral manures, the produce of gramina-
ceous hay was very much increased. In the parti-
cular soil and seasons in question, the increase ob.
tained by the combination was far beyond the sum
of the increase yielded by the two descriptions of
manure, when each of them was used separately.

* (sp. gr. 1.7)

That farmyard manure gave a considerable in-
crease of chiefly graminaceous hay. In the soil and
seasons in question, however, the artificial combina-
tion of nitrogenous and mixed mineral manure
yielded a very much larger increase than an annual
dressing of 11 tons of farmyard manure.

That peculiarly carbonaceous manures had little
or no beneficial effect on the amount of {iroduce of
the hay. That the little effect (if any) which the
carbonaceous manures did exhibit, seemed to be
favoured by admixture with mineral manures ; and
then (as when the mineral manures were used alone)
it appeared to be the leguminous, rather than the
graminaceous herbage, that was encouraged.

That the beneficial action of farm-yard manure on
the grass crop is to be attributed chiefly to its min-
eral and nitrogenous constituents, and comparatively
little to its large amount of carbonaceous substance.

That the large increase of produce obtained by
the combination of nitrogenous and mixed mineral
manure, being almost entirely graminaceous, the
mineral manures, when in this combination, did not
act as when used alone, in developing the highly
nitrogenous leguminous herbage. The great in-
crease in the produce of hay obtained by the con-
junction of the mineral with the nitrogenous manure
is to be attributed to the supply, within a limited
range of the soil, of a sufiicient amount of the ne-
cessary mineral constitueuis, to enable the gramina-
ceous plants to turn to the account of growth the
nitrogen at the same time artificially supplied.

The very agrarian weeds, which haunt as it were
the footsteps of the farmer of arable soils, seem also
to show the influence of manure on the growth of
certain plants. Every cultivator is aware of these
things. He sometimes, however, may have as-
signed to one cause, what more properly belongs to
another. Professor Buckman has given same excel-
lent notices in more than one of his valuable papers
on the Natural Grasses. Thus he remarks {ibid,
vol. xvi., p. 368) : " Chickweed, sandworts, ground-
sel, spurge, and dead-nettles are nowhere found in
unbroken grounds ; but in land newly brought under
tillage, they soon make their appearance," And in
the next page he adds : " But there appears to be a
most important point connected with agrarian weeds,
namely, that weeds common to good cultivated soil
appear to possess some of the most important chem-
ical principles in great quantities." The mere re-
ference to the analysis of some of the most common
weeds proves the truth of this assertion. Mark,
for instance, the large amount of phosphoric acid
which the ashes of some of these contain. The
stem and leaves of the ivy-leaved speedwell 11.0 per
cent., of its seeds and capsules 41.0, the seeds of
the dandelion 11.9, the whole plant of the corn
cockle 7.2j and of the greater celandine 15,7 per cent^

190

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Now is not the early attention of the fanner of
newly cultivated soils directed to their enrichment,
by adding to them manures containing phosphoric
acid ? and may we not conclude that this addition
enables such agrarian weeds to " spontaneously" ap-
pear ? On a future occasion I hope to be able to
extend my observations upon the action of manures
to other cultivated crops, and to report the result of
a series of experiments, which 1 have instituted on
the spontaneous production of certain plants, by
various chemical substances.

The instances which I have given of this very
curious growth of certain plants, might be copiously
extended. Several marine plants are found near
some of the German salt springs, and even around
the saltworks of Cheshire and Poland. The nettle
and one or two other plants are found near to places
where saltpetre is generated.

This inducement of the " spontaneous" growth of
plants, by applying certain substances to the soil, is
then, we must all conclude, neither a novel observa-
tion, nor one which should lead us to adopt erro-
neous conclusions as to the origin of plants, however
startling the phenomena which attends our walks.
The farmers of some of the rich soils of the hun-
dreds of Essex, for instance, if they plough beyond a
certain depth, insure the growth of a profusion of
white mustard. We have already remarked that the
site of a fire becomes speedily tenanted by totally
different plants from those growing around the spot.
Liebig alludes to other instances of a similar kind
{Organic Chem., p. 152). It seems that after the
Great Fire of London large quantities of the Erysi"

mum latifolium were observed growing on the spots
where a fire had taken place. On a similar occasion
the Blitum capitatum presented itself at Copenha-
gen, the Senecio viscosus in Nassau, and the Spar-
tlum scoparium in Languedoc. After the burning
of some of the American forests, poplars grew spon-
taneously on the same laud. It may be very true
that these things are very inexplicable to us, who do
not see the seeds of plants conveyed by the winds or
birds from place to place, or perceive the seeds when
they are in the soil ; but it is worse ignorance to ex-
plain unknown facts by merely arriving at such ab-
surd conclusions as that the seed is generated in the
soil by certain imaginary agencies. Such an explana-
tion is never offered to accoant for the appearance of
a tree or an animal in unexpected places ; and yet
the remark would be just as correct if it was ap-
plied to a colt or a baby, as to a plant of white
clover.

The power of the atmospheric currents, of insects,
and of the larger animals, in diffusing small seeds, is
but little understood by us. What minute seeds of
vegetables are carried up into the atmosphere by
strong currents of air; what force those winds pos-
sess, in this way, at great heights, is little imagined >
and there are, most probably, other modes of seed
dispersion arranged by Infinite Wisdom, with which
we are entirely unacquainted.

We may then well abstain from deceiving our-
selves with such explanations of the " spontaneous"
growth of plants, which are, in fact, merely substi-
tuting another set of words for an equally unmean-
ing conventional phrase.

THE UTILIZATION OF WASTE SUBSTANCES.

In a paper recently read before the Society of
Arts on the Utilization of Waste Substances, by
Mr. P. L. Simmonds, attention was prominently
drawn to the importance of this matter by the
many new industries which have sprung up, and the
large profits which have been made by vigilant atten-
tion to small matters, and the application of some for-
merly waste substance to a useful purpoi^e. The paper
was full of curious details and suggestive information.
It pointed out the enormous reconversion of wool now
carried on, by tearing up old worn clothes and com-
bining them with a portion of new wool. Shoddy seems
to be more generally made than wo had reason to sup-
pose; and hence we cannot wonder that our tailors'
bills become heavier, and that our garments are less
durable, since it is scarcely possible for the unpractised
eye to detect a genuine good broadcloth from a shoddy.
No wonder that the old clotlu s shops and the rag shops
are increasing so rapidly, since there is such an exten-
sive casting-off of garments which become shabby and
wnwear^ble in a remarkably short space of time ! A

speaker at the meeting gave a laughable instance of
this ; for he said that occasionally in putting on new
stockings liis feet went completely through them ! and
very many of the woollen garments made and sold,
after the first shower of rain materially alter in aspect,
and look anything but respectable. The waste mer-
chants and the rag grinders — now special trades in the
woollen districts — no doubt make their profits at the
expense of the customer ; and we learn that in the town
of Leeds the rag machines engaged in this reconverting
trade add to our annual stock of wool the equivalent of
the fleeces of 400,000 sheep.

Apart, however, from these fraudulent or deceptive
reconversions of waste material, which are mainly due
to the popular desire for cheap goods, there are very
many highly important applications of labour and skill
to the utilization of waste products. For instance, the
conversion of old woollen and cotton rags into paper ;
the manufacture of waste silk ; the application of sew-
age manure ; the refuse of the fisheries, and such like,
are all important.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

197

It is not with these, however, we propose now to deal.
We would rather call attention to the numerous insig-
nificant substances which have been or can be utilized,
that lie waste and idle around the cultivator at home
and abroad. The refuse of manufactories we need not
now allude to : science has its eye on these, and very
soon converts them to a useful purpose. But if we look
at the numerous new uses for straw and flax waste,
peat and grasses, we find a large field open. Straw
paper is now an important manufacture, and paper from
flax waste promises to use up another refuse product.

Mr. Simmonds pointed out hundreds of applications
of substances not perhaps familiar to every one. He
tells us — " The twitch or couch grass, which has
hitherto been such a troublesome weed to the farmer in
clearing his land, is now turned to several useful pur-
poses. In Italy it is used as food for horses and cattle-
Colonel Maceroni, in his Memoirs, states that upwards
of £40,000 sterling worth of this root is annually sold
by the peasants to the inhabitants of the city of Naples.
In France it has a medicinal repute under the name of
dog's tooth. It has been tried as a material for paper,
and is collected in large quantities in the fen districts,
and sold to the papermakers at 12s. a ton, instead of
being dried and burnt as heretofore. The sweepings of
our cotton and flax-mills, the outside wrappers of the
cotton bales, however discoloured or dirty, the weeds of
our fields, thistles and couch grass, the stalks of reeds
and canes, sawdust and pine-shavings, the refuse of the
Irish flax scutching mills, moss and furze, our cast-off
garments, the beggars' rags, old sacks, and worn-out
ropes, all of which we should be troubled to dispose of,
are converted by the papermaker into an article indis-
pensable to civilized man. The dry residue of the beet
root, after expressing the juice for sugar, consists chiefly
of fibre and mucilage, and amounts to about one- fourth
of the weight of the clean roots used. It is greedily
purchased by the farmers on the continent, and also the
skimmings of the boilers, which are found to be a
powerful manure. It is also useful as food for cattle.
The recovery of starch from rotten potatoes, and
damaged grain, and refuse rice, is a utilization of waste
substances ; and this has been carried further still to
advantage in the employment of horse-chesnuts for the
purpose. The French make good coffee out of roasted
acorns, and there is yet abundance of scope for experi-
mental research upon new roots and seeds. Horse-
chesnuts, which have hitherto been a waste substance,
are now utilized by removing the bitter principle, and
excellent starch, as well as vermicelli and macaroni, are
made from them in France. The following is a
plan of making flour from them. Grind the horse-
chesnuts, and mix with the pulp carbonate of soda in
the proportion of one or two per cent., and then wash
the produce until it is perfectly white : lib. of carbonate
of soda will purify lOOlbs. of horse-chesnuts, and pro-
duce GOlbs. of flour fit for bread, as the salt removes
the bitter principle from the nut. In Saxony great
care is taken to collect the horse-chesnuts, which are
regarded as a wholesome aliment for sheep, and a
specific against the rot ; these are given to the 8heep

in autumn when the green food ceases. The chesnuts
are cut into jiieces, which it is dangerous to omit, as
they might otherwise stick in the throat of the animal,
and cause its death. Sheep, as well as cattle, refuse at
first to eat this food ; but when accustomed to it they
seek it with avidity, and even like to eat the prickly
husk in which the nut is enveloped."

In the United States a large trade is carried on in
the cultivation of an ai-ticle termed " Spanish moss" —
a kind of epiphyte attached to trees in the woods in
Mississippi, Texas, and other quarters. It is prepared
as a substitute for horse-hair, &c., as a stuffing mate-
rial for upholstery purposes. This substance possesses
considerable elasticity, and may be had in any quan-
tity, at a comparatively small price.

The fibrous husks or leafy covering of the ear of
maize is extensively used for stuffing mattresses ; and
will not harbour vermin. It is also used for packing
fruit and cigars, and as a paper material.

In New Brunswick they collect the leaves of the
beech in autumn ; and, from their elastic quality, they
make better stuffing for palliasses than either straw
or chaff, and last seven or eight years.

The riband-like leaves of the Zostera marina —
known in commerce as Ulva marina — make admira-
ble stuffing for mattresses and cushions, as they repel
all vermin. They are used for the same purposes in
the Levant, and the twisted rush-like covers of the
Florence flasks are formed of them.

But there are many other substances even not enu-
merated by Mr. Simmonds, which give extensive em-
ployment, and turn to profitable use waste substances.

The manufactures of baskets, crates, hampers,
and chairs of osiers, rushes, straw, or other sub-
stances, employ at least 12,000 persons in this coun-
try, the entire British manufacture being estimated
at over a quarter of a million sterling. But in many
countries mats and baskets for packing, are even
more important than here. We imported, it is true,
mats and matting to the value of about £20,000 j but
in countries where a light baling material is an object
in transport, mats are very extensively used for wrap-
ping goods, especially in Russia, in India, in Chuia, in
the sugar and coffee producing colonies. For pack-
ing or pressing grapes, olives, figs, and dates, they come
largely into use.

Rushes are imported from Holland to the extent of
many thousands of bundles, for seating chairs, polish-
ing woods and metals, and other uses. The quantity
imported in 1857 was 547 tons, valued at £4,485.

The quantity of palm-leaves imported from Cuba, for
making hats ; of piassaba fibre (the foot-stalks of the
leaves of a palm) from Brazil, for making brushes and
street-sweeping machines ; of kittool (another palm-
leaf fibre, from Ceylon, for making stout clothes and
other brushes; and of coir, the fibrous husk of the
cocoa-nut, is now very considerable — and these were
formerly all waste and unappi-eciated substances.

Take, again, the simple articles of brooms and
sweeping-brushes made of grasses, rushes, birch, &c. ;
what an extensive trade is carried on in them ! Im»

108

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mensc quantities are made in Southwark, in the ncigh-
bourliood of Ulvorstoiie, and in Nortli Wales, of lieath
and birch. In tlic United States the manufacture of
brooms from a s.p:cies of millet-stalk, termed " broom
corn," has now become an immense trade; and they
are shipped to European and Australian markets, and
even to California. One firm in Albany ships 80,000
or 90,000 dozen annually : they are principally made
in Schenectady, New York State. In the Turkish town
of Adrianople as many as half a million dozen of
brooms are sold annually, at 3s. a dozen. In Sardinia
there is a large manufacture of brushes from the
trilobo, or Piedmontese heath sprigs.

Plaiting of straw, grasses, and chips into hats and
different articles for wear, is far from being confined
to Europe or to civilized countries. The art is indeed
found to obtain, in different degress of extent and ex-
cellence, in nearly every part of the world. In the
southern provinces of China, where in summer the
population use no other head-covering, and where the
mandarins wear those hats with tremendously wide
brims, the quantity of straw plaited is prodigious.

"When on a journey," says Tliunberg, "all the
Ja])ancse wear a conical hat, made of a species of grass,
plaited, and tied with a string." But, in addition to
this extensive use, the Japanese hardly ever wear any
shoes or slippers but such as are made of plaited rice-
straw. They cost a mere trifle, are found exposed for
sale in every town and village, and the pedestrian sup-
plies himself with new shoes as he goes along, while
the more provident man always carries two or three
pairs with him for use, throwing them away as they
wear out.

These details, in connexion with a perusal of the
paper we have referred to, which is ample and instruc-
tive in its details, will serve to impress upon us the
importance of treating nothing as insignificant. If a
dust-heap has been given as a noble fortune by a father
to his daughter ; if a waste collector in Paris can retire
with a competency, in a few years, from his gains;
and if a bone-dealer in our own metropolis can make
a pi'incely income out of the utilization of this waste,
there is scope enough for others to enter upon the wide
field, inviting industry, thought, and skill.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A iVToNTHLY Council was held on Wednesday, the
2ad of February. Present : His Grace the Dake of
Marlborough, President, in the chair ; Lord Walsing-
ham ; Lord Feversham ; Lord Leigh ; Sir Charles G.
Morgan, Bart. ; Hon. Col. Nelson Hood; Hon. W. G,
Cavendish, M,P. ; Mr. Dyke Acland; Mr. Amos;
Mr. Raymond Barker ; Col. Challoner ; Mr. Brandreth
Gibbs ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs ; Mr. Wren Hoskyns ; Mr.
James Howard ; Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre ; Mr.
Wm. Hutton ; Mr. Lawes ; Mr. Lawrence; Mr. Mil-
ward ; Mr, Pain ; Mr. Pope ; Mr. Shuttleworth ; Prof.
Sitnonds; Mr. Slansy, M.P. ; Mr. Banks Stanhope,
M.P. ; Mr, Tiiompson; Mr. Torn; Prof. Voelcker;
Mr. Jonas Webb ; Mr. Wilson, of Stowlangtoft ; and
Mr. Fuller Maitland Wilson.

The following new members were elected :

Amhurat, W. T. Arahurst, Didliugtoa Park, Brandon.

Andertoii, George, Jan., Howdeo, Yorkshire.

Bidf^cr, W. II., Syercote Manor, Tainworth.

Baker, James, Drayton Bassett, Tamworth.

Birborr, Robeit, Boleaworth Castle, Tattenhall, Cheshire.

Bloomer, G. B , Moreton Hall, Chirk.

Brooks, J. Marshall, Moslej -street, Manchester.

Brown, George, Riborough House, Barnstaple.

Buahell, Thoinas Richard John, 117, Craxford-street, London.

Byrd, Sampson, The Leese Farm, Stafford.

Canning, George Henry, Sluttery, Stratford-on-Avon.

Chapman, William, Cornhill, Ipswich.

Corderay, Edward, 24, Tooley- street, London.

Crofts, Thomas William, Lawford Hill, Rugby.

Denchfield, John, Astou Abbotts, Aylesbury.

Hevas, Horace, Alvastou Field, Derby.

Devas, Charles Frederick, Bromley Lodge, Kent.

Dix, George W., Howden, Yorkshire.

Green, Richard, Knighton, Radnorshire.

Griffin, Alfred William, Pell Wall Hall, Market Drayton.

Hiyter, Tom John, West Woodgate, Salisbury.

Hurlatone, William, Heathcote, Waaperton, Warwick.

Johnston, John Lindsay, Crondall, Farnham, Surrey.

King, John G , Beever, Newbury.

Line, John, Broom Court, Alcester.

Legerton, John Stock, Shelford, Braintree.

Moore, Thomas William, Warham, Wells, Norfolk,

Morris, Thomas, jun., Walcot Field, Lutterworth.

Paiu, John, Popbottom, Basingstoke.

Plant, T. Berley, Sheffield.

Pettenson, Captain W. H. T., Ibornden, Biddenham, Bedford.

Riley, Luke, MeriJen, Coventry.

Rist, Isaac, Tattingstoue, Ipswich.

Rogers, John Pope, Penrose, Helstone, Cornwall.

Root, William, Chipping Warden, Banbury.

Sharpe, William, Mavis Euderby, Spilsby.

Stedman, Joseph, Hall Green, Birmingham.

Stoneham, Frederick, Crayford, Kent.

Striclilar.d, J. W., Joyce Grove, Henley-on-Thames.

Sladen, Sc. Barbe, 4, Cranley-place, Bromptou, Middlesex.

Schwann, Frederick Sigismund, North Houghton Manor,

Stockbridge, Hants.
Scooues, Henry Basham, Fowie Hall, Brechley, Kent.
Spofford, Edward, Boothby Graffoe, Lincoln.
Statkey, Major, Wrenbury Hall, Nantwich.
Tanuer, Joseph, Mudeford House, Christchurch, Hants.
Thomas, Edward, The Farm, Bleddfa, Knighton, Radnorshire.
Townsend, Henry, Rydinghurat, Cranlej', Surrey.
Worsley, John, Lower Clopton, Stratford-on-Avon.
Walliugton, George, Little Hill, Wellsbonrne, Warwickshire.
Watson, Charles, M.D., 27, Alfred-place, Bedford-square,

London.
Wemyss, Hoy, AVemyss Castle, N. B.
Willoughby de Broke, Lord, Compton Verney, Warwick.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented the report on the ac-
counts of the Society, from which it appeared that the
current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers was
£3,026. The . Chairman further reported that the
authorities of Warwick had transmitted to the Society,
towards the expenses of the ensuing country meeting to
be held at that place, in the week commencing Monday,
the llth of July next, a subscription of £1,500, which
was included in that general balance. He also laid on

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199

the table, for the iaformation of members, the usual
quarterly statements of Income and expenditure, and of
assets and liabilities.

Journal. — Mr. Thompson, Chairman of the Journal
Committee, presented the following report, which was
adopted : —

1. Vol. xix., Part 2, of the Journal is now ready, and copies

laid on the table.

2. la the Miscellaneous Class (VIII.) of Eaaays, the prize is

withheld by the Judges ; but ia the Essay on Liquid
Manure Tanks aud Under-ground Pipes for Irrigation
there are some ingenious suggestions, and the Com-
mittee recommend that the author be requested to allow
it to be printed in the Journal at the ordinary rate of
payment.

Agricultural Chemistry. — Mr. Wren Hoskyns,
Chairman of the Chemical Committee, reported to the
Council some suggestions for alteration in the wording
of the notice for Members' privileges of chemical
analysis ; and detailed an interesting series of investi-
gations which Prof. Voelcker, the consulting-chemist
of the Society, was about to commence under the direc-
tion of the Committee.

Warwick Meeting. — Lord Leigh, Vice-Chairman
of the General Warwick Committee, reported their re-
commendation of the plan of the Show-yard, submitted
to them by the Honorary Director of the Show and the
Society's Contractor of Works. His lordship also re-
ported the various steps taken by the Committee in
making preliminary arrangements for the meeting. An
offer made to the Council, by the Local Committee, to
defray the expenses connected with the exhibition of
Warwickshire cheese in the Show-yard, was referred to
the General Warwick Committee for their report at the
next Monthly Council. Mr. Wren Hoskyns conveyed
to the Council, on the part of the County Magistrates of
Warwickshire, an offer to place the Judges' House in
Warwick at the disposal of the Stewards of the Society,
during the period of the ensuing Warwick Meeting.
On the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, seconded by
Mr. Hutton, the Council accepted this offer with their
best acknowledgments.

Implement Judges. — On the motion of the Hon.
W. G. Cavendish, M. P., seconded by Colonel Challoner,
the following resolution was unanimously adopted : —
" That in future the Implement Committee shall be re-
quested to nominate the Judges not later than the first
Wednesday in June, in order that they may be able to
lay before the Council on the first Wednesday in July
the names of those Judges that are able and willing to
act."

Veterinary Inspection. — On the motion of Mr.
Milward, the Council unanimously adopted the follow-
ing resolution : — " That an additional Assistant-
Veterinary-Inspector be appointed ; and that the Report
of the Veterinary Inspectors shall be furnished to the
Stewards before the Judges commence their work." — It
was then moved by Lord Feversham, seconded by Mr.
Jonas Webb, and carried unanimously, that Professor
Spooner, of the Royal Veterinary College, should be
requested to accept the appointment of one of the
Assistant- Veterinary -Inspectors at the country meetings
of the Society.

Protest. — Mr. Milward, as one of the Stewards of
Cattle at the Chester Meeting, reported that the protest
lodged with the Stewards against the award of one of
the local prizes for horses had received their most
careful investigation : they considered the animal to be
fully qualified for the prize, and recommended that it
be no longer withheld, but now paid in due course to
the winner. The Council confirmed this decision, and
gave instructions accordingly.

Member of Council. — Sir Archibald Macdonald,
Bart., addressed a letter to the Council, stating that
having served five years as a Steward, he considered
himself no longer as eligible for immediate active ser-
vice, and he thought it would be for the benefit of the
Society if his place in the Council were filled by one
both willing and able to act as Steward, and make him-
self generally useful. His farming operations, he added,
were not now of the same extent as when he first became
a member of the Council, and " as the governing body
of that important Society consisted of men eminent
either for their ability or their position, as owners and
occupiers of land, he had clearly no claim to that seat
in the Council, which he then begged leave to resign."
The Council having with great unwillingness accepted
Sir Archibald Macdouald's resignation, it was moved
by Mr. Henry Wilson, seconded by Colonel Challoner,
and carried unanimously, that the Secretary be in-
structed to write a suitable letter to Sir Archibald
Macdonald, expressing to him the great regret of the
Council that any circumstances should deprive them of
his valuable co-operation, and the high sense enter-
tained both by the Council and the Society of the im-
portant services he had rendered to agriculture.

The Council having appointed the Standing Com-
mittees for the year, adjourned to their weekly meeting
on Wednesday, the 9th of February.

Weekly Council, Feb. 9. — Present; The Rev. L.
Vernon Harcourt, in the Chair ; Mr. Fisher Ilobbs,
Mr. A. Majendie, Professor Simonds, 'and Mr. Mait-
land Wilson.

Captain Burgess, Secretary of the United Service In-
stitution, transmitted specimens of guano from Shark's
Bay, West Australia, and a portion of soil from the
same locality, sent to England by Captain Denham,
R.N., of H.M. surveying ship Herald.

The Royal Agricultural Society of Belgium announced
a second trial of reapers, to be instituted in that king-
dom this year.

The Smithfield Club presented a cask of wheat sent
to them by the Port Philip Farmers' Society, at Mel-
bourne ; samples of which, in bags, for trial, may be
had on applying at Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co., the
Society's seedsmen, by such of the members as may feel
disposed to test its merits by trial, and report the result
to the Council of the Society.

Mr. S. Kitto, having returned from California with a
supply of wheat from that country, offered to place it at
the disposal of the Council under the condition that it
should have a " fair trial.''

Captain Childers favoured the Council with an offer

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200

to communicate to the Society any information he could

aflford relating to the temperature of the Island of Jersey,

its physical character, and population, native and

resident.

M. Carl Loeffler transmitted a work on the " Breeding
of Poultry in Germany," and Mrs. Eliza Acton a copy
of her "English Bread Book;" and several foreign
societies their current transactions.

Farm-yard Sewage.— Mr. G. Rochfort Clarke,
of Chesterton Lodge, Bicester, Oxfordshire, transmitted
the following suggestions :

" I wish to bring the following observatioas oa the subject
of sewerage, under the consideration of the Council of the
Koyal Agncultural Society. The subject has already attracted
their attention ; but, cousidering that the modern plan of cou-
ductinf' all sewage iuto brooks and rivers 13 causmg an euor-
mous loss of manure, and is, at the same time, polluting the
waters of all parts of the kingdom at a rapidly mcreasmg rate,
it appears to me that the tiaae has come when the subject
should be made a more distinct and prominent branch of the
Society's operations. The collecting and applying of sewage
suitable for msnure, and the preservation ot the purity of
water in brooks, rivers, wells, and ponds, may be advan-
tageously treated of in essays, accompanied by experiments,
and followed by prizes, and in the following order :— The
amount and value of the manure which is lost to the agricul-
turist : then the ill-constructiomof cesspools, and the difficulty
of emptying them. 2. The amount aud value of the manure
which is lost to the agriculturist by the modern plan of con-
ducting the sewage iuto streams and rivers. 3. The effect of
different kinds of water on health, jrrowth, fattening, and
length of life of cattle. 4. The effect of sewage, when intro-
duced into water, on the health, growth, fattening, and
length of life of cattle. The following, amongst other prizes,
might be offered :—l. For essays treating of the above sub-
jects generally. 2. For the beat mode of coustructing cess-

pools, both for privies and as receptacles for sewage from
drains, farm-yards, &c , whether of separate houses or villages,
a>!d (or intercepting the sewage passing through existing
sewers. 3. For the best contrivances for emptying cesspools
and ponds, as regards both liquid and solid matter, with a
view to its use for agricultural purposes. 4. For the best
method of disposing of the materials when emptied cut,
whether in combination with other solid substances, or with
water, or otherwise. 5. For the best plan of collecting the
sewage of villages and towns, and of delivering the same to
the agriculturist on equitable terms ; keeping in view the
health, convenience, and advantage of all parties, and their mu-
tual co-operation, and their fair, rateable contribution towards
the labour and expense of the operations."
Professor Simonds, in recommending that this commu-
nication should be referred to the Journal Committee,
expressed his deep sense of the importance of the sub-
ject to which it related, and his assurance that many of
the vital energies of breeding stock were seriously in-
jured by their drinking polluted water.
Adjourned to February 16.

Weekly Council, Feb. 16.— Present: Mr. Ray-
mond Barker, V.P., in the Chair; Hon. W. G.
Cavendish, M.P. ; Mr. Alcock, M.P. ; Mr. Berners ;
Mr. Camps ; Mr. W. Devas ; Mr. Brandreth Gibbs ;
Col. MacDouall ; Mr. Slaney, M.P. ; Mr. Simpson ;
Mr. Bullock Webster ; and Mr. Maitland Wilson. A
letter was read from Mr. G. J.Neal,on his mode of cul-
tivating the turnip crop ; and from Mr. W. Rutherford,
oflfsring to communicate a plan he had found successful
in the management of his potato crop.

Adjourned to Feb. 23.

FREE LABOUR IN 1859.

Everything we put our hand to is doomed to change.
No human work is so comprehensive as to be suited to
all time. No human design is so perfect as not to
need amendment. Decay is a seed implanted in all
our institutions ; and though we are taught thus the
passing character of all our plans, we seem to cling to
them as infallible.

We are not pleased that our children grow beyond
our control ; we strive to maintain a parental power
over our colonies at the hazard of fatal ruptures ; we
deem it heresy to pronounce those institutions and laws
which have served our ancestors inapplicable to our
own times. This firm decision, that " what is to be,

is" this deep. rooted attachment to old friends— this

reverence for the past, is fraught with its peculiar
value ; a value that perhaps dominates over its incon-
veniences. A people that clings tenaciously to the
precedents of antiquity is not very liable to those
violent irruptions which ever accompany the adoption
of changes for which the nation is not prepared. The
movement of reform must commence individually,
approving its justice to every man's conscience before
it can assert its power collectively ; and so by the time
the people are at one with regard to the defective prac-
tice, they are prepared intelligently to adopt its amend-

ment. It is a satisfactory circumstance, that a very
large majority must be united to demand a change in
our laws, before such a change can be effected ; and the
difficulty ill obtaining the change will always be the
best guarantee that the change demanded is sincerely
and inevitably needed.

There are, however, certain laws that oppress some
classes that have not power sufficient to make known
their wrongs in such a way as to excite public opinion
to one of those majestic demonstrations which achieve
a victory and become historical. In such cases we
should recognize an injustice, and seek to remedy it
without awaiting the clarion demand of a determined
multitude.

Now the Law of Settlement is one of those institutions
which, out of the utter change of circumstances from
which it arose, should cease. Having served its
turn— having performed its evil and its good, and now
having none but an injurious effect, it should be
amended. The last twenty years have unsettled the
whole population of these isles, and settled them anew
over the surface of this habitable globe. The emigrant
ships and the railways have performed the work of
hundreds of thousands of " orders of removal " at less
expense of feelings and money both to paupers and rate-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

201

payers. When a week's wages and twenty-four hours
suffice to land a labourer anywhere he pleases in this
island, and a harvest's earnings well husbanded will
introduce him to a new world — when it is possible for
any labourer of good character to be conveyed, with
his family, at the expense of a public fund, to a region
where gold and labour are only synonymous terms, it
becomes little else than an extravagance of humanity
or law that the country should be put to great cost to
discover the proper locality of every pauper, and
charge it with his employment or support. When tlie
English labourer did answer to the title ascriptus
glebcB — when, like a tree, or any other vegetable, he
did live and die upon the spot of ground that gave him
birth, such humane consideration for his care and
sustenance might have been necessary. We will not
now inquire as to whether the law of settlement arose
from the desire of masters to keep him an hereditary
bondsman to a certain locality, submissive to their
terms, or whether it was intended to meet a cruel pro-
pensity to transplant the British labourer — an indica-
tion of which we nowhere find. Whatever may have
been, there can be no pretext of this sort now. From
the same cottage hearth, and the same class in the Sun-
day school, one is braving the dangers of New
Columbia, another is sending supplies to us from his
clearing in the backwoods of America, a third is tend-
ing sheep upon the fervid plains of New Holland,
while a fourth is manufacturing broadcloth out of the
wools at Leeds ; and is it tolerable that the remaining
one should be allowed to depend upon his industrious
neighbours to find or make work for him at his own
door ?

We have moat of us relinquished the luxury of em-
ployment at home amid the associations of our child-
hood. That is the blessing or the curse of the eldest
son. The cadet must pack off, to get his living else-
where ; and the cadet who wields the spade must not
expect more indulgence than the cadet who wields
the sword or the pen. Everybody is recognizing the
fact that the ice of our ancient institution is breaking
up. The useless, inj urious, old framework of settlement
must be removed. Portions of it have already been
carried off, and we are only anxious to see the remain-
der follow.

It will be desirable for all boards of guardians to
petition for the abolition of compulsory removals; and
if the way is not clear to an entire repeal of the law
of settlement, for an enlargement of the area of
settlement from the jsarish to the union, and for the
equalization of the rates of the whole union by a gradual
process.

Such a change in the area of settlement would have
a tendency to put an end to that jealousy — natural
enough as regards the pocket, unnatural as regards
every other consideration — which urges landowners
and rate-payers to drive the labourer to reside beyond
the bounds of their parish even while they employ
him. I say that a change such as this would tend to
reduce bickering. It would, however, only remove
the conflict from two parishes to two unions ; and it

might be that the greater importance of the union
would give a greater relative importance to a question
about a pauper's settlement. It would be of the nature
of a compromise, a part being accepted when the whole
could not be obtained. While it would perhaps pre-
vent the removal of ono in eleven, it would render
more efficient the machinery for the removal of the
ten-elevenths remaining, an efficiency that would but
give an extended and permanent character to the mis-
chief. So far as it went, the probable operation would
be beneficial; but an entire change, that would not
only prescribe this advantage to the labourer expressed
in union settlement, but throw open to him not only
his imion, but the whole country, would be such a
sensible amendment as we can hardly expect.

A law that has always been found to act adversely to
parish interests — that has impeded the labourer, re-
straining his liberty and prosperity, and yet tendering
no equivalent — a law that has encumbered production,
by the pauperism it has created and made stagnant — a
law that has prevented the cultivation of our waste
lands and demoralized our populous districts — a law
that has fed the jealousies between parishes, and given
rise to the greatest mass of dispute and litigation ever
known in any nation during an equal period of time,
its assumed object being to remove occasions of dis-
pute, should not, one would think, possess any great
claim upon our admiration or our gratitude.

If nothing beyond union settlement can be granted,
union settlement must be thankfully received — but
received only as a guarantee for that absolute liberty
to migrate, which must come. What benefit to
the labourer of Wiltshire would be the privilege to
transport himself from one part of his union to another ?
Labour must not be held where not profitably em-
ployed. Nothing less than freedom over the whole
land can adjust the balance of the wants and supply of
industry. Nothing, save national freedom, can confer
upon the labourer that reward of industry which he
merits, and which we desire to secure for him.

Let guardians look this matter well in the face, then.
Committees have sat upon the question, and blue
books enough have appeared about it : all, or nearly
all, concurring strongly in the advice to repeal abso-
lutely, but gradually, the Law of Settlement and
Removal. Parliament as yet has not moved respon-
sively to these demands. " No voice is heard," it says,
"and the amendment cannot be needed. We have
other ' fish to fry,' and can let this abuse lie till there
is a louder demand for its remedy." A petition from
each union will suffice. Be up and doing I

ALPACAS IN AUSTRALIA.— Few enterprises of mo-
dem times have beeu marked with more determined energy
or greater perseverance under unexampled difficulties than
that which Mr. Ledger has st length happily accomplished.
To the English public generally the name of this gentleman
is but little known ; bnt, unless we are greatly mistaken, the
manufacturers of this country will at no distant date owe him
a debt of deep and lasting gratitude, while his name will be
remembered in the Australian colonies as one who had contri-

202

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

buted more to the periuancut wealth of the country than any
other individual. Mr. Charles Ledger is an English merchant,
established for many yeara in Tacua, in Peru, the trade in
alpaca wool forming a portion of his business; and about six
years since he commenced carrying into effect the long-cherished
idea of introducing into Australia this valuable breed of wool-
bearing animals. The difficulties with which he had to con-
tend in carrying out this idea were of the most remarkable
character; but after six years of indomitable perseverance, and
after undergoing an amount of danger and difficulty to which
it has been the lot of few travellers to be subjected, he has
succeeded in his object, and the last Australian mail announces
the pleasing intelligence of the arrival at Sydney of 280 of
these valuable animals. The flock includes sheep of the llama,
alpaca, and vicuna breeds, together with some varieties that
have been obtained by cross-breeding. The animals were, on
the departure of the mail, quietly grazing near the city, appa-
rently well contented with the change of climate and scene
which they have experienced. The safe arrival at Sydney of
the flock of alpacas is a great triumph to Mr. Ledger, and
gives an example of intrepidity and prudence which deserves a
public acknowledgment. To collect a flock in defiance of a
Government — to divide it, like Jacob of old, for its better se-
curity—to conduct it over mountainous regions, exposed to
all the vicissitudes of climate, change of feed, the ravages of
beasts, and the jealousy and vindictiveuess of men, then to
embark that flock and convey it oyer the most distant sea?,
and finally to conduct it to a new world— to do all this com-
bines a number of feats which, in a more poetic age, would
have been the theme of song as well aa of hhtory.— Australian

SHEEP-FEEDING FOR MANURE.

and New Zealand Gazelle.

TRIMMING AND SHAPING WITH SHEARS

SHEEP TO IMITATE THE BAKEWELL

MODEL, FORM, OR CAST.

Sir,— In the Mark Lane of 13th -Dec. last, it was justly

and duly stated as follows upon the London Cattle Show :

• Why do exhibitors persist in clipping, so aa to present a

straight flat back to the eye, and rumps, flanks, plaits, and

bosoms apparently full and expanded, when the hand instantly

detects the falsity of the outward show, and reveals the

abominable attempt to thus gloss over a defective form ? A

sheep unfairly shorn and a pig unduly old ought alike to be

disqualified by the authorities."

To back the above statement, for several years I have heard
similar remarks and complaints by the spectators in the said
London show-yard about trimming and squaring of sheep. Two
years back I heard a fine old English Lincolnshire gentleman
ask the owner of a pen of short-wooUed cut-out sheep how it
was that wool should grow so overmuch longer everywhere
than it does upon the backs and loins of your sheep. "In
my opinion," said the keen, well-informed grey-headed gentle-
man, " the prize ought to have been given to the trimmer and
not to the owner of the sheep." The breeders of the short-
wools are paying the breeders of the Leicesters a fine compli-
ment by cutting their sheep into the Bakewell cast or frame •
nay, and after Mr. Bakewell's death, 63 years, which plainly
shows that Mr. B. lived nearly a century before his day. " We,
the breeders of the Lincolns," said the gentleman, " have ever
since the days of Mr. B. been aiming to breed our sheep in
his cast, with a Lincolnshire coat of wool on their backs •
wool and mutton combined, we consider the Liucolns second
to none for profit. We shear our sheep close to the skin, and
once a year, so that we have no sham hips, rumps, fore-flanks
and bosoms; of course, no wool to be found upon them two
years old to make up for mutton where it is wanted." The
Mark Lane E.xprcss being at all times ready and willing to
correct and reform all grievances practised in agriculture I
hope It will reform the squaring of sheep. The great
luminary of agriculture, Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, died 1st
October, 1795— too soon for his (jountry'a good.

Miiir 11 n . , -, Samuel Arnsby.

Milljield, Pelerborour,k.

Sir, — I observed in the Farmer's Magazine for this month
a paper on sheep-feeding by Mr. Charles W. Hamilton, and
although readily agreeing as to the value of the important
information contained in it, yet think it right to point out a
mistake of great practical importance, and which I am sure
no one more than the writer will be glad to see rec-
tified. Mr. Hamilton compares the analysis of two
samples of urine voided by a wether and ewe of the
same age, and fed on a given amount of oil-cake
per diem. He states, "The analysis of the urine was as
follows : ' Urine of t!ie ewe sp. grav. 1,009 when acidulated
with muriatic acid, and evaporated to dryness, the residuum
weighed 2.609 per cent, of the weight of the iiriue, which
when burnt with soda lime was found to yield 0.542 per cent,
of ammonia. Urine of wether sp. grav. 1.057, heated in the
same way, gave a much larger residuum, consisting of 25.43
per cent, of urine ; and this when burnt with soda lime gave
9.165 per cent, of ammonia. The comparison gives —

Urineof ewe, sp. grav. ,. 1.009 Ammonia 0.542
Urine of wether, sp. grav. 1.057 Ammonia 9.165."

He further states : " We then arrive at this conclusion —
that the urine of the wether yields very nearly seventeen times
as much ammouia as that of the ewe, and that using the am-
monia as a measure the value of the urine of the wether is to
that of the best Peruvian guano in the ratio of 9 to H."
Now, this must be most remarkable urine ; although contain-
ing 74.6 of water, it is more than half the value of the best
Peiuvian guano, and of nearly twice the value for manuring
purposes as the oil-cake on which the animal was fed. Where
could this large amount of nitrogen be derived? If, however, we
look a little closer into^the subject, the reason of this apparently
startling fact is at once clear, since it is very evident that Mr.
Hamilton has taken the per centage of ammonia in the solid
matter of the urine of the wether, and has considered it to be
the per centage of the whole bulk. Reducing, therefore,
9.165, the per centage of ammonia in the solid matter to the
per centage in the whole bulk of the urine, we obtain a result
of 2.323. Instead, therefore, of the urine of the wether con-
taiaiag seventeen times as much ammonia as that of the ewe,
it contains merely rather more than four times as much, and
instead of standing to Peruvian guano in the ratio of 9 to 17,
it stands in the ratio of 2.3 to 17.

We find, moreover, that these numbers correspond to a cer-
tain extent with the next experiment brought forward by Mr.
Hamilton. The urine of a wether fed on oil-cake and oats was
analyzed, and contained per lb. avoirdupois 252.80 grs. of am-
monia, which reduced to per centage, equals 3.27 per centage,
which is certainly much nearer 2.323 than 9.165 per centage,
as stated in the former experiment.

Mr. Hamilton seems also to have lost sight of the fact that
one of the chief reasons that artificial feeding is rendered pro-
fitable, is that the value of the dry material existing in the
animal is much greater than as contained in the oil-cake; lib.
of mutton costing 8d., whilst lib. of oil-cake costs rather more
Id. It would by no means pay to apply oil-cake aa a manure
for the land at its present price, since for the same amount of
cash more than double the amount of ammonia could be ap-
plied as existing in guano than in cake.

These remarks do not iuterf<;re with the question at issue
between Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Tuite ; nor do they but to a
very small extent detract from the value of Mr. Hamilton's
remarks, to whom is due the credit of being the first to publish
any detailed experiments on the subject. Yours truly,
iJ/<Ki/,Fe&. 15,1859. W. Spooner, Jun.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

203

ON COW SHEDS AND CALF PENS,

The climate of Great Britain most naturally induces a system
of huabandry that yields a mixed produce of grains and animals,
for the use of which articles the land is cropped in alternation,
or in yielding grains with plants for the support of animals in
a rotation of crops. The situations are not many which afiford
grains wholly without the use of animals ; if not bred on the
ground, cattle are purchased to reduce the straws into manure.
The breeding of cattle forms a chief part of the agriculture of
Britain, for the purpose of being reared and fattened into beef,
or to be sold at the age of three or four years to be transported
to other countries to be grazed and fattened with turnips. In
either way the attention is the same that is required to pro-
duce the raw material of the finished article.

The condition of the young animal lays foundation of the
future growth, and with the management of the same consti-
tutes the chief requirement in the breediug of cattle. Neglect
cr attention at that period of the age of cattle spoils or makes
the future quality.

A co-.v that produces a young offspring and yields milk is a
heavy animal, incapable of enduring travel or fatigue, and
demands much repose. The journeys must be short from the
shed to the pasture ground, which must be rich aud abundant
in grass, in order to incur little trouble to the animal in filling
its belly with a large quantity of food. The secretion of
milk requires ease in every function of the body, and it must
be indulged in every possible way. The best arrangement
directs that a pasture field of convenient size be allotted to
the use of the cows, in extent proportionate to the farm and
the number it can support. If not rich by nature, this pasture-
ground must be made very fertile by laying down with choice
grass seeds, after fallowing of the land, with ample dunging and
liming. An original state of indifferent grass may be much
improved by earthy composts in top-dressings, and sowing of
grass seeds, harrowing and rolling the surface. Draining must
be done on wet lands, and shelter is essential in high situa-
tions, procured by erecting a roomy shed with a low roof, and
turned from the boisterous aspect of the locality. The corners
of the field being planted and covered with tall trees afford a
very agreeable shade during heats and rains, and a clump of
trees in the centre of the pasture ground adds to the conve-
nience in that respect : the trees being'rubbing posts to the
necks of the animals, prevent the placing of posts for that pur-
pose, which are necessary where no trees grow in the pasture
field, A constant and ample supply of fresh water is essen-
tially necessary, and is best contained in iron troughs that are
placed in convenient use, and supplied by means of ball-cocks
with water conveyed in pipes from springs on higher grounds,
or from the provision of the farmery which adjoins.

The most approved arrangement of farm buildings directs
an open front of the square form, to look to the quarter of the
heavens ranging from east to south west, which presents two
gable ends on the extremity of the east and west wings of the
farmery. Either of.these ends — most eligibly the western — may
form the cowshed, that is entered by a door in the end, to
which the gate into the pasture field is immediately contiguous.
This proximity affords ease to the animals in a short travel
from the rest to the search of food. The shed is ten feet high
in the side walks, aud twenty feet in width, affording eight feet
for the length of the animal standing, five feet behind, and
four feet for a walk in front of the meat troughs. The ani-

mals stand iu treviseg of eight feet in width, iu which two cows
are tied to stakes placed on each side of the division. This
allows four feet to each animal, which is generally suflScieut.
The floor is pitched with stones, with an inclination, to dis-
charge all moisture to the cavity of the posterior walk. The
ventilation is effected by iron gratings at the bottom of the
side walls, and by slit boards at the top of the roof, which can
be opened aud shut at pleasure. This provision is most neces-
sary in all cases of heavy and abundant respiration as pro-
ceeds from such a large quantity of food undergoing the
ruminant process in the paunch of milch cows. It is one
chief provision of the cow-shed.

The front door of the cow-shed opens into a yard of the
farmery, from which the winter cattle are removed, from May till
October, leaving the use of it during the summer to the milch
cows. In this yard are provided a shelter shed, racks for food,
and a fresh and ample supply of water ; and in it a number of
the cows are accommodated with a most comfortable lodging,
and have a supply over night of vetches and clovers in the
winter and spring kinds, and in the first and second crops
of the latter plant. This consumption of green food, accom-
panied with an ample supply of straw for litter, will yield much
manure, relieves the cow-shed of a contaminated breathing, and
lodges the animals very comfortably both in the shed and the
yard. This supply of green food to milch cows is required, to
encourage the quantity of milk, maintain the animals in good
condition, and to increase the quantity of dung. The vora-
cious maw of milch cows is seldom satiated, and requires a
constant abundance.

Calf-pens form the next house to the cow-shed in the wing
of the farmery, and for the convenience of being suckled. The
arrangement directs a centre walk of four feet, having on each
aide of it the pens of seven feet in length, and four feet in
width, containing one calf, with divisions of board, and a floor
thickly pierced with auger holes, which discharge all moisture
into a vacuum of one foot underneath, made for that purpose,
and for a freshness of air. This separation of the animals pre-
vents any disturbance by sucking and goring, and affords an
easy access to the animal when wanted. Where veal suckling
is practised, or where the weaning calves suck the dam, the
animal is led by haller from the pen to the cow-shed, and when
fully satisfied the calf is returned to its apartment. Where
milk is given by hand, a slip-board iu the door of the pen allows
the head of the calf to pass into the pail outside, drink the
milk, and withdraw, when the board is slipped into a close
position. In both ways the animal enjoys a perfect stillneis.
A rack is placed on the top of the partitions, and iu it are
placed tender vetches and clovers, which the animal learns to
eat, and also to lick chalk, rocksalt, and bruised cake, that are
placed in a box in a corner of the pen. These provisions em-
ploy the animal, and lead into future use, and a great benefit,

A door opens from the house of calf-pens into a yard of the
farmery, as with the cow-shed, and in this yard, after the first of
May, the older calves are lodged, with the provision of ample
littering, vetches and clovers in racks, fresh water in troughs,
and a shelter shed. The animals are led to be suckled once a
day, or oftener as may be approved, and again returned into
the yard, as in the pens. When removed by age beyond the
use of milk, a lot of calves can be weaned in this yard in
winter ; but it is be)t used in wcaniug the animals gradually

204

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

from the milk, and introducing the use of vegetable food, to
become fit for the pasture field. The use is very great in this
way ; the calf in the pens is treated with the most tender
green food, is accustomed to it in the yard, and finally subsists
upon it in the fields. A sudden change is avoided, which ia
always hurtful.

An orchard furnishes a most agreeable retreat for weaning
calves that are only allowed a portion of milk. The shade of
the trees is very agreeable during heats, and a shelter from
rains, with a shed for extreme cases; the grass is tender and
delicate for the young condition, and is quickly learned to be
eaten, and a supply of water completes the accommodation.
According as convenience directs, the cows can be brought into
the orchard to give suck at the fixed time, or the calves may
be driven into the farm-yard. The cow may be most conve-
niently brought inside the orchard gate : when fed by pail, an
opening in the nearest fence will permit the head of the calf
to drink the milk, and exclude it by being shut. The position
of the grounds will direct the respective applications, which
should be made fit by the farmer, being arranged to comply
with the requireneats of use.

Milch cows require an abundance of food and of fresh
water, little digturbance, ease, shelter, and repose ; travel is to
be avoided, and any harassing occurrences. Calves being
reared must have an ample supply of food to forward a regu-
larly progressive condition, and to produce a fattening from
youth upwards. Of the ultimate perfection the foundation is
laid in the first year, and very especially in the change from

milk to vegetable food. The latter must be early tind gradually
introduced into the calf pent, the most tender and delicate kinds
being selected for the purpose, and the milk withdrawn as the
age increases and advances the use of the green meat. The
use of a yard with the pens allows the green food to be largely
used, and a separation of the calves into older and younger
divisions, which further permits the assortment of the food to
be consumed. The juxtaposition of similar purposes of use
very much facilitates the performance, and no labour is in-
curred beyond the bare necessity of the act. Distant positions
create much unnecessary labour, and a traffic of annoyance to
other purposes. The pasture field adjoining the cow-shed, the
travel is short between the accommodations: the calf-pens
opening into the cow-shed, the access is short and convenient ;
and a door from each house opening into a yard, affords a retreat
for the cows and calves, the warmest that can be obtained.
The green food is brought into the yard and placed in sacks,
and an end door of the gable of the shed opens into the feeders*
walk, and permits any food being given to the cows. In this
way the cow-shed and pens, with the two yards, form a separate
and independent employment, without giving or receiving an-
noyance in any other department of business. The arrange-
ment is simple, and incurs no extra cost, and answers one chief
object of the cultivation of land, if not the foundation of the
whole business — butchers' meat proceeds from it, and ma-
nure, without which vegetable food could not be grown, or its
production maintained. Hence the twofold value of the ani-
mal economy. J. D.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING EWES.
KINGSCOTE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION.

The Kiugscote Association, formed a little more than
twelve months since, is supported bj' Sir M. F. F. Berkeley.
R. S. Holford, Esq., M.P., T. H. S. S. Estconrt, Esq.,
M.P., J. Rolt, Esq., M.P., Col. Kingscote, Col. Nigel
Kingscote, C.B., M.P., and many other leading gentlemen,
as also by most of the agriculturists of the neighbourhood.
It has for its object the promotion of improved agricultural
practice among its members by monthly discussional
meetings ; as well as tHe encouragement of skill, industry',
Belf-improvement, and good conduct among their servants
and labourers by rewards from its funds. The meeting for
the present month was held at Hunter's Hall (the usual
place of meeting), on Tuesday evening, the 18th January,
Mr. F. Burnett (the President) in the chair. Mr, Drew,
the honorary Secretary, then read the following paper On
the management of breeding eves : —

" There is scarcely a branch of our business more deser-
ving our attention than the one I am about to lay before
you for consideration and discussion this evening, viz., the
management of breeding ewes ; the success and well-being
of the whole flock depending in a great measure on the
proper treatment of the ewe portion. It is also a subject
in which all classes of the community are concerned and in-
tei-ested ; as, of all our domesticated animals, none are more
serviceable to man , their flesh yielding a most wholesome
and nutritious food ; their fleece, too, forms a very important
and extensive article of commerce, supplying our artizans
with a commodity which, when manufactured, is not to be
equalled for service and comfort in clothing man's frail
body. Again, what an amount of legal evidence is recorded

on their skins ! every part, in fact, I may say, is converted
to some useful purpose. But to the agriculturist they are
an indispensable requisite ; and particularly so to those
farming light arable soils, no other animal making so good
a return for the quantity and quality of food consumed,
whilst at the same time they are the means of consolidating
the land by kneading it with their feet, with that efficiency
that no mechanical means yet devised can accomplish. This,
and their enriching manure, constitute the foundation of
improved and remunerative farming. In offering my
remarks on their management, I fear I shall be able to put
before you little what most of you are already acquainted
with. I trust, however, hy calling your attention to the
difi"erent heads of treatment, according to the season of the
year, each individual may be led to state his opinion and
practical experience on the same to such an extent that will
fully make up my deficiency. The acquiring and maintain-
ing a flock of ewes in good and uniform condition and cha-
racter requires a vast amount of judgment and perseverance,
combined with care and attention ; judgment in selecting
that breed or description which will give the greatest return,
taking into consideration the soil and situation where they
are to be kept, also in choosing male animals that will
rectify and improve the imperfections of the ewes ; care and
attention are also necessary in drawing the ewes to that ram
which appears most calculated to correct their faults, per-
severing in this course till they become of one uniform cha-
racter ; that is, not resting satisfied before you'obtain them
as near alike as possible as regards symmetrj', description of
wool, and general appearance, it being well known that an

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

20S

eren-matching lot of ewes is highly appreciated, and com-
mands a better price in a market than motley or mongrel-
looking ones. The ewe should have a straight and broad
back, wide loins, deep breast, good neck (or scrag, as termed
by some), the head rather long, but not broad, an open
cheerful countenance crowned with a tuft of wool, which not
only adds to its beauty, but is in a measure a preventive
of sore head, and last, not least, a robust hardy constitution.
I will commence with or at about the time of weaning the
lambs — a period that must be partially regulated by circum-
stances, as how you are provided with proper and suitable
food to keep them in a healthy and thriving state, as also if
there is any tendency lo scour ; if so, the sooner in reason they
are removed from their dams the better, a change of the sys-
tem which is most effectually accomplished by a change of
food — being the likeliest means of checking it. In an ordinary
way I believe the first or second week in June to be as good a
time as any ; this will allow of having the ewes washed and
shorn. A few days should then intervene for them to get ac-
customed to the loss of their coats, or at any rate the weaning
of the lambs should take place at as great a time as possible
from the shearing of the ewes, either as long before or as long
alter ; for if they take cold at this time, it is more than pro-
bable it will fly to the udder, producing inflammation, which
often turns to mortification, and generally ends in the death
of the ewe. I prefer deferring the weaning till after the shear-
ing, as it cannot well take place soon enough for the milk
to subside to any great degree ; consequently the ud-
der would be very susceptible of injury, and which
may occur in washing or shearing. I do think (un-
less especial care is taken in driving to the place
of washing, and allowing them to get cool before commencing)
this to be the most dangerous operation of the two. Again :
if the lambs are allowed to remain a few days after shearing,
they take cold ; the lamb's sucking would in some measure be a
means of preventing its spreading to that extent it otherwise
would. On removing the ewes they should be put into a bare
pasture, and at a distance, where the bleatings cannot be heard
by either; otherwise both will be much excited, taking a longer
time to settle and content themselves. After a day or two the
udders should be carefully attended to, and those that are full
and hard — causing a stitfneas in the ewes' walking — should
be occasionally milked. As soon as they have forgotten their
lambs, and the milk is reabsorbed, I believe it a good plan to
dip them in a solution of arsenic, soft soap, pearl-ash, and
black brimstone, to free them from the irritation and annoy-
ance of insects. Those not intended to be kept on for stock
should now be drafted off and placed in better keep ; in ad-
dition to which a small quantity — say three-quarters of a
pound — of linseed-cake each daily may be given, I do believe,
with profit and advantage. The time of putting the ram to
them varies in different locaUties : for this neighbourhood the
first week in October for long-wool ewes I believe to be a very
good time. Downs may be put a fortnight earlier. They
should now, and for three or four weeks previously, be kept tole-
rably well, for the purpose of bringing them quick to the ram ;
and the better condition they are in, the greater number of
twins they are likely to produce. The usual custom is to turn
the ram at large with from fifty to sixty ewes, which I repeat
again should be carefully selected to that ram most calculated
to rectify the several defects they may possess ; every facility
should be afforded, by trimming the ewes' tails, and the shep-
herd be particular to see that he does his work ; it is best,
however, to smear his breast with reddle or some other colour-
ing substance, and which may be changed at stated intervals :
it serves as a guide in drawing them for the lambing pen, as

well as being a more ready detection in case the ram should fail
in doing his duty, not being always to be relied on, even when
apparently performing his work satisfactorily. Many of us
know too well that such sometimes is the case. I have myself
had sheep of different ages cease to get lambs, even after
doing their work well for one and two years. This mode of
proceeding by some breeders is not approved of, believing that
from the high condition rams are often in, and the heat of the
weather, they become careless of their work, allawing many of
the ewes when coming up fast to go by. The plan they re-
commend is to keep the rams in small paddocks, placing a stag
with the ewes to ascertain when they are in season, then
bringing them to be served by such ram as may be considered
best suited for the ewe. When served, they are taken to a
field, and in the course of a week or ten days a different teaser
is placed with them, to show if any should return (it must be
borne in mind this would require the constant superintendence
of the shepherd, and almost day and night). It is alleged,
however, the extra trouble will be amply repaid, by the greater
certainty of their being in-lamb, and that a sheep will serve
80 thus treated as easily as one allowed to run at large will
60 ; or that three will do the work of four for the first three
months. After conception it is not necessary to keep them
particularly well ; but at the end of that time I do think it
requisite to pay particular attention to their diet, as I am of
opinion that this is as critical a time as any of their gesta-
tions ; and I attribute many of losses, and some of our want
of success — such as the ewes casting their lambs, shedding
their coats, weakness after lambing, and a short supply of milk,
the lambs dropping water-bellied, rickety, weak in their limbs,
and otherwise dull and mopish — to some neglect, or not sup-
plying them with proper and nourishing food at this time.
My reason for arriving at these conclusions is that iu seasons
when roots have been plentiful and hay scarce, consequently
my ewes been supplied plentifully with the former, and spa-
ringly of the latter, invariably I have had greater casualties,
both as regards ewes and lambs, than when the reverse has
been the case, or when they have had plenty of hay, and tur-
nips sparingly. I also think that should there be a great
quantity of rain about this time (or I should say from now to
the time of lambing), so as to make the ground wet and
tender in feeding off turnips, it would be better to remove
them for a few days to a field of old seeds or dry pasture,
having known great losses occur ; and I have sustained such
myself, by allowing them to remain on turnip -land when very
wet and dirty ; consequently if running on pasture, whenever
the weather is unpropitious they should have dry food of
some kind. If on turnips, give them moderately ; at the same
time, plentifully supplying them with hay. When within
three weeks or a month of lambing, they should be bounti-
fully supplied with the most nutritious and invigorating food
procurable, for the purpose of giving strength and vigour to
the system, and creating a sufficiency of good and wholesome
food for the offspring. This brings me to the time of lambing,
which usually occurs about 21 weeks after conception ; but
often, I have observed, rather longer with a ram than with a
ewe lamb. The lambing-pen I prefer having in an open, dry,
airy place, taking care to well shelter it from the north and
east winds ; having always experienced less losses when so
situate than when for the sake of warmth a low, close, damp
place has been chosen. Shelter from the cold and wet being
necessary for a short time after lambing, temporary huts,
made with hurdles and straw, should be provided on each
side of the pen, or at least on the east, west, and north ; so
that advantage may be taken when the wind or rain comes
from these quarters. The ewes, when they come into the penj

P 2

206

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

should have every care and attention paid them, and be used
as quiet and gentle as possible. No stranger, or any dog,
ought to precipitately enter their abode. After yeaning they
should be placed in the huts, prepared as before stated, for a
day or two, that they the more easily be under the control
of the shepherd, and the ewe in some degree recover herself,
and the ram gather a little strength. From the huts they
should for another day or two be turned into a well-sheltered
fold, prepared for their reception, with a shed to run to in
case of foul weather ; or, if the pen will allow, a part may
be appropriated for the purpose, as sometimes, if turned out
too soon, and the wind be very cold, death from swelling and
mortification will probably take place. When milk is re-
quired for sucklinp;, it is much belter to keep back a ewe for a
day or two, that has an abundance, than it is to administer
cow's milk, as they seldom do with it, particularly weak ones ;
or a ewe that has brought a dead lamb may be reserved for a
few days : if a shepherd well understands his business, he need
never be at a loss when to supply a lamb with a meal of
milk. I once had a shepherd that lambed his ewes two
years following in this way. He would insist cow's milk did
more harm than good : and I do say I never had one bo suc-
cessful in rearing lambs. When an unnatural preseutation
takes place, or a ewe in any way requires assistance, great
care as well as experience is necessary to be observed; too
much haste oftentimes proving fatal both to ewe and
lamb. On the other hand, it is not well to delay
help too long ; the ewe, by so much heaving and strain-
ing, gets tired and worn out, and becomes so weak as
not to be able to bear up under the severe operation.
In all difficult cases, I at once administer a dose of medi-
cine— either 3 oz. of salts or 3 drachms of aloes, with a
little ginger. This assists the bowels, and tends to allay
the fever which invariably accompanies these cases ; then,
in the course of four or five hours, a scruple of opium, as a
means of easing the pains, and preventing them from heav-
ing or straining ; keeping up the system by giving gruel
sweetened with treacle, and a small quantity of port-wine
added, or what I think equally as nourishing, a pint or pint
and a half of linseed mucilage, given three times a day.
They should now have plenty of roots hauled to them about
the seeds or grass-fields, with as much good hay as they
will eat, but, if it can be avoided, not again placing them
on the turnips, the lambs seldom doing at all well when
confined on them. Those having twins should, in addition,
have a hw oats or a little linseed-cake, as I believe it would
be the means of creating a good quantity and quality of
milk, and that the subsequent thriving of the lambs depends
in a great measure on a good start. As the season advances;
and their natural keep (grass) begins to be their chief food,
they are commonly turned adrift, to do the best they can
for themselves. They should, however, be kept as few to-
gether, and changed as often, as circumstances will admit.
The last few years, by another method — that of hurdling off
the seeds, giving a fresh tie or fold daily — it is affirmed
the sheep do much better, and the keep goes much further.
How far this is correct or otherwise, I should not like to
take upon me to say, as I have only tried it one season ;
but, if my experience on that occasion is worth anything,
my opinion would be the reverse of its advocates'. Most
of the diseases our sheep are subject to being little under-
stood even by much more experienced persons than myself,
I must not attempt to describe them. We know that, if in
good condition, in nine cases out often, the surest and best
remedy is the knife. I will close my remarks with a few
words on the treatment of our Chilver tegs, which, if not

directly, is indirectly connected with the subject before U8
— that is, as the spring advances, and they begin to change
their teeth, the roots should by all means be cut for them,
as, if allowed to gnaw them, as is the too common practice,
they will scarcely eat enough to keep them in growing con-
dition. The expense of cutting will not exceed Id. per
head per week. This saving in hay will quite compensate
for the extra quantity of roots consumed ; and I am certain
that, when turned to griss, they would be from 2b. to 33., if
not 3s. to 43,, per head better for the outlaj', and, conse-
quently, more likely to grow into good ewes.

Mr. Thomas said : Mr. Drew had entered so fully into the
details of the subject, that little remained to be said. He quite
agreed with Mr. Drew, as to the desirability of shearing the
ewes previously to weaning the lambs, beheviug the sucking of
the lambs a great means of preventing inflammation of the
udder should the ewe take cold from washing or shearing. He
was in the habit of having his ewes dipped once and his lambs
twice in the course of the season ; he thought it highly advan-
tageous to do so. He liked to be in a position to allow them a
fair quantity of roots, with plenty of hay for at least a month
before lambing, but did not approve of confining them on tur-
nips after lambing, as he had always found them to do better
placed on pasture, and supplying them there with swedes and
mangold wurzel.

Mr. Butt in a great measure agreed with what had fallen
from Mr. Drew ; but as regards hurdling off the seeds in sum-
mer, he had tried it several seasons, and certainly thought it a
more economical plan than allowing them to roam at large,
the keep going further ; the lambs also, from being allowed to
precede the ewes did well ; he must, however, admit, that as
the keep became old, they did not feed it down quite ao close
as he could wish.

Mr. Blackwell was of opinion that a liberal supply of
turnips did not hurt at any time, provided they had plenty of
hay along with them ; he had also known ewes and lambs do
well on young turnips in dry weather ; he thought turnips
(if young) much better for producing milk than swedes.

Colonel KiNGSCOTE felt greatly interested in the dis-
cussion going on. He wished to know if it was advisable for
lambs after being taken from their mothers to have access to
water or not ? as he had often observed the drinking place
where lambs were runuiug fenced off, and he could not
help thinking that in very dry warm weather water was
necessary.

Mr. Drew in reply to Colonel Kingscote's enquiry said :
It was the opinion of many that water had a tendency to make
them scour : for himself, he thought that if they always had
had access to water no injury would arise from the practice;
but if for a time kept from it, it then became imperative to
continue to do so. Until the last four years he was not in the
habit of allowing them water ; the last year, however, of not
allowing it, the shepherd removing the hurdles one day in very
warm weather for some cattle to drink, neglected to replace
them ; consequently the lambs got to the pool and drank con-
siderably; they afterwards commenced scouring, which we could
not stop, and 27 of them died in about six weeks. Since that
time I have never kept them from water, and have not sus-
tained any loss.

Mr. G. Babber thought it very desirable to remove the
ewes from the lambing fold as soon after yeaning as could
with safety be done, placing them about in small lots in warm
well-sheltered spots to gather strength. He was of opinion
the ewes and lambs would do on turnips for a short time, care
being taken to provide shelter; and in case of rain straw should
be shaken about for the lambs to lie on. Curdling of the milk

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

207

ia the stomach is a complaiat young Iambs are very liable to,
and often proves fatal. The best and surest remedy he had
ever applied was a tea-spoonful of carbonate of soJa, dis-
solved in a little water, and given immediately it is mixed.

Mr. Long believed the subject under consideration to be a
very important one : he in the main agreed with the previous
speakers : no doubt the descriptions, quantity and quality of
food had a good deal to do with the well-doing of the flock.
He believed, however, a good shepherd to be a matter of great
requisite, a little neglect on his part sometimes proving very
disastrous. He had never before heard the remedy named by
Mr. Barber for curdling of the milk in lambs. He hoped
he should find it eiDcacious, as it was a general complaint.

and if it was a means of cure, it should be made generally
known.

Mr. Ford, Mr. Tanner, Mr. Price, with other members also
took part in the discussion.

The Chairman [said he had listened with considerable
attention to the proceedings of the evening. He cer-
tainly was very much gratified by the manner in which the
subject had been brought forward and entered into : so much
had been said, and the time almost at hand for closing the
discussion, he thought it would be well to pass a resolution ;
which was accordingly done. It approved of the management
as prescribed by Mr. Drew.

A vote of thanks to Mr. Drew closed the proceedings.

REPORT OF PLOUGHING EXPERIMENTS.

By John Lennie, Lauder Barns, Lauder.

lPremiu7n — The Gold Medal^

With the view of testing the draught and examining the
work of ploughs of different construction, working at various
depths, and thereafter ascertaining the result as to produce of
crop for comparison, several ploughs were collected on this
farm, on the 19th day of February, 1856, under the auspices
of Sir Anthony Maitland and the Lauderdale Agricultural
Society, the acting committee of which were present.

The field upon which the trials were conducted is situated
in the northern part of Berwickshire, about twenty miles in-
land, and has an altitude of 540 feet. The ridges ploughed
lie due north and south, and have nearly a uniform fall to the
north of 1 foot in 16. The soil is clayey loam, 8 inches deep,
resting upon a retentive red sandy clay subsoil, traversed with
veins of moorband. In 1847 it was in summer-fallow, when it
was thoroughly drained, subsoil-ploughed, limed, and sown
with wheat and grass seeds for two years' depasturing. It has
since been farmed on the fifth rotation, and was, when ploughed>
in two years' old lea, and in medium fertility.

The following observations have reference to ten of the
ploughs which were brought forward. Three of these — viz.,
Howard's prize wheel-plough, the Carrington Currie plough,
and the common or Small's plough — were each drawn by two
horses. The Marquess of Tweeddale's Yester plough, and
Small's plough fitted with a large mould-board for deep work^
were drawn by three horses abreast, with compensation-lever
swing-trees. The five remaining teams were an exact duplicate
of the above, and all of them were placed on ridges contiguous to
one another in the order tabulated. Three ridges were allotted
to each of the four ploughs with three horses, and a couple of
ridges to each of the two-horse ploughs. The ploughmen had
no further instructions before commencing work, than that they
were to plough as they did respectively at home. The dyna-
mometer employed was Slight's, and the observations given are
the average of several taken down. This also applies to the
depth and width of furrow-slice.

It will be observed from table No. I. that the two Yester
ploughs, although the heaviest drawn, give the greatest sec-
tional area of soil turned over for the power employed, as well
as for each horse used. Howard's wheel-plough comes next,
notwithstanding its great weight when empty, as much power
being required to overcome its own weight as is spent in the
turning over of a substantial furrow-slice in a soil of more
than medium tenacity as that given. It was the first of the
two-horse ploughs, was remarkably steady in its motion, and
showed less oscillation on the index of dynamometer than with
any of the other ploughs when tested. Small's plough at all

the depths showed favourably, and the Currie least so of any.
When the horses were pushed to their utmost walking pace,
for the purpose of testing the influence of the velocity of the
plough upon its draught, the dynamometer showed ho varia-
tion either in ascending or descending the slope from the power
given : it is therefore not tabulated. It is, however, of great
importance, as it shows the necessity of procuring horses which
naturally walk with a quick step, as they can overtake more
work in a given time, with the same effort, than sluggish
heavy-limbed animals. Although there is little variation in
the draught of the plough in ascending the hill from that in
its descent, yet the exertion of the horses is in ascending
greatly increased from the mere carriage of their own weight ;
and this farther shows the value of active animals, of good
muscular energy, as they do not require to spend the same
amount of efi'ort as heavy ones.

The frequent delays caused by affixing the dynamometer to
the implements, and noting the observations, prevented the
time taken to plough each allotment being kept with any degree
of accuracy. All the work was, however, done about the same
time, and at the usual rate, less the stoppages. The additional
breadth turned over by the three-horse ploughs more than
compensates for the third horse, besides the extra depth
attained. The twelve horses attached to four ploughs turned
over 11 poles 8| yards more surface than the twelve attached
to the six ploughs, besides two men's work being saved.

On the 12th day of March the whole of the allotments were
sown by the broadcast sowing-machine with 4^ bushels of
Sandwich oats per acre. The ridges worked by the three-
horae ploughs got a single tine of the harrows to close the
interstices of the furrows before sowing, yet leaving sufficient
mould to cover the seed.

All the portions brairded well and regularly. The braird
on the ridges of the two-horse plough was rowed along
the furrows, especially that on the ridges of Howard's and the
Currie ploughs ; while on the ridges of the three-horse ones
the braird was scattered and irregular, and as the season ad-
vanced became blanky — the Yester plough most so. Howard'a
at this time looked to be early, and the best of the whole, and
continued to look so until cut. About the beginning of July
the Curtie promised to be the earliest, but was comparatively
thin and short on the ground. The whole was reaped by the
sickle on the 17th day of September, although the Yester por-
tion would have required two days longer to have been equally
ripe as the others.

The oats were cut on the 17th September, and put up in

308

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

itooks of six sheaves on each ridge, every alternate stook
being afterwards led off the ridge on the east side of each
allotment, and weighed on the cart unthrashed. The weight
of the oats when thrashed being deducted from the gross, gives
the weight of straw, chaff, and loss, as stated. The results are
given in table No. II.

Howard's prize wheel-plough gives the greatest amount of
produce both in grain and straw, taking its combined plots, as
given ia table No. III. The work was exceedingly well exe-
cuted, especially that of No. 4, the man having a premium
awarded him. The work of No. 9 was nicely cut, but not so
well closed as it should have been. This plough, from its
light draught, and being easily held, promises to come into
extensive use. It is so constructed that it can be adjusted to
any kind of work in the field by the ploughman with facility.
The furrow-slice is rectangular, the sole of which is cut flatter,
and is cleaner taken up, than that of any other plough the
reporter has seen working. Although the mould-board is
fully a half longer than that of Small's or the Currie plougb,
yet the pressure being only on the lower edge of the furrow-
slice, and not against its whole side, as with them, its draught
is greatly lessened. Small's three- horse plough is next, taking
also its two combined plots, and gives the highest produce of
oats in No. 6. Small's two-horse plough, giving a rectangular
furrow, follows, and maintains its long-established character as
a good implement. The ploughing performed by both teams
was well and uniformly done. The Currie plough, giving a
high-crested furrow- slice, is furthest behind in point of produce
of any of the two-horse ploughs, although its work on both of
its allotments was well executed, that of No. 3 being awarded
a premium as the best ploughing on the ground. This plough
seems to be getting rapidly into disuse. Although its work is
very uniform and pleasing to the eye, its false cut with the
heel, left at the bottom of the furrow, is a great objection, as
it increases the work of subsequent tillage, while the frequent
narrow furrows lengthen the operation of ploughing, and in-
crease its cost ; and the difficulty of keeping the irons in
proper working trim obliges the ploughman to visit the smithy
too often.

The high-crested furrow sometimes shows an advantage over
the rectangular one, when the laud is in good condition, and
sown immediately after ploughing. The frequent narrow fur-
rows with high apes facilitate the action of the harrows, and
give an equally-covered seed bed and uniform braird, while the
other shows best when time intervenes between ploughiug and
Bowing, so that the action of the weather may put the more
substantial furrow-slice into a mellow and friable state before
sowing. On the other hand, when the high-crested furrow is
subjected to the action of rains and frosts, the high point of
the furrow is worn and washed away, sufficient mould being
awanting to cover in the seed properly.

The reporter has repeatedly tested for comparison the pro-
duce from a high-crested and that from a rectangular furrow.
In the field reported upon in the year 1846, forty-five ploughs
competed at a match in two classes — ploughs turning a rectan-
gular furrow- slice, and those giving a high-crested one; the
best of either class to be awarded the Highland Society's medal,
along with the firat money-premium of its class. This was
adjudged to a Carrington Currie plough's work, with a beau-
tifully-executed high-crested furrow. On the crop being care-
fully tested, for the purpose of reporting to the Agricultural
Society, it was found that the premium portion gave the least
produce of nine plots tested, five of which were rectangular
and four high-created.
As to ploughing matches generally, the reporter ia of opinion

that they are too much directed to the execution of fine work i
upon lea ground, and that an object would be obtained if agri-
cultural societies would follow the example of the local society
here, which has resolved to divert its premiums from the
ploughing of lea to the ploughing of land after the turnip crop.
This is expected to have beneficial results, as in such cases the
ground is invariably sown down with grass seeds for two years' J
depasturing ; and it will be more satisfactory for the Society ^
to promote the better execution of work which is to form the
basis of three crops— than for that which is to produce only
one, as in lea; while the hurried and careless manner with
which land after green crop is frequently worked, with the
consequent eyesore of flanked ridges in pasture-land, may thus
be lessened.

The Yester plough is farther behind in point of produce than
any of the others : it, however, exposes to the action of the air
the greatest surface of soil in a loose and broken state, and
gives sufficient soil to fill up interstices before sowing, with
enough of mould remaining to cover the seed. When we take
into account that the common three-horse plough is second
in point of produce, the result upon the whole may be deemed
satisfactory as far as regards deep ploughing. The Yester
plough probably went too far into the subsoil in one operation,
as the laud upon which the trial took place had not been at
any time worked other than in the ordinary way, with the ex-
ception of the subsoiling in 1847. The test of produce after
deep ploughing, where part of the till is worked upon, cannot
be held as conclusive, continued operations being required to
bring out its full effects, and care being taken not to mix too
much of the bottom soil with the top at one time, but to do so
gradually year by year, giving a fresh portion of it to be acted
upon by the atmosphere, and rendered soluble. On the home-
farm of the Earl of Lauderdale this has been practised with
uniform success for the last five or six years, throughout the
whole course of the rotation : and I have no doubt but that
system of culture, as introduced by the Marquess of Tweeddale
at Yester, will be adopted more generally than it has yet been.
It may be said that it is more easy and economical to work 6
or 7 inches of the soil, and retain it in well-manured condition,
than 9 or 10 inches. But as the working of the larger body
of soil costs less than the smaller, as shown before, besides the
additional depth attained, lessening the expense of subsequent
tillage, may it not also carry a heavier crop ?— will it not be
more ready to take full advantage of the organic natural aids
to vegetation, and thus be kept at less coat in a state of fer-
tility than the smaller body of soil ?— and will not the air per-
meate the large, loose, and broken furrow more thoroughly,
and thus eliminate from it a greater amount of inorganic in-
gredients than the shallow body of soil? One thing is cer-
tain, that its resting on a deeper and drier bed maintains its
temperature, keeps it in tilth, and allows it to be worked
earlier, with less use of harrows and rollers, while its longer
continued capillary attraction supplies moisture to vegetation
at a period when that would be wanting. The deficiency of
the shallow high-crested furrow strengthens this idea, A dis-
tinguished English agriculturist lately said, that "he contended
that aeration was as necessary to the roots of a plant as to its
leaves."

To carry out deep tillage in all its integrity, it must go hand
in hand with thorough drainage and the stirring of the sub-
soil, which latter essential can be best effected, and at least
expense, with Reid's wheel subsoil-plough. It ia lighter in
draught, steadier to work, and easier held than the Deanston
subsoil-plough, which the reporter used for some time before
trying Reid's with an improved coulter and tail-board. With
this he has subsoiled upwards of a hundred acres, with every

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

209

satisfaction. A good plan of overtaking work with it is to 1 clods than it is when every furrow is done at one time. Next
subsoil oaly every alternate furrow ; this enables the wheels rotation it should be again gone over with the subsoiler, taking
of the soiler to work better, from the furrow being clearer of I care to cross that which was previously done.

No, I.— TABULAR STATEMENT of Draught avith Soil-Turner and power employed.

1

2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Name of Plough.

Small's plough .
Yester plougli . .
Currie plough . .
Howard's plough
Small's plough .
Small's plough ,
Yester plough . .
Currie plough . .
Howard's plough
Small's plough .

No.

Imp, Stones.
12
16

8
14

8
12
16

8
14

8

§ s

Inches.

10
5^
6i

n

10
6

6i
H

12

9

10

9i
12
13

n

10
10

tuo

.2 53

^

1^ s

n

02 O t3

% <" ^

1 ^

2 02

bo

i

in

Q

Inches.

Stones.

97 9-12

48

120

56

m

25

65

26

59 5-12

30

114

50

130

54

57

32

. 65

26

J 65

34

Stones.

50
60
27
30
32
54
58
34
30
34

Stones.
49
58
26
28
31
52
56
33
28
34

2 'S

5^

>s-^

^■a

°^ a

3 O

-^ u o

""a

^ ^

o ja

02 "S

w a

Inches.

Inches.

2

32^

2 1-12

40

1 11-12

24|

2 4-12

32*

1 11-12

29|

2 2-12

38

2 4-12

43i

1 9-12

28^

2 4-12

S2i

1 11-12

32i

No

. II.— TABULAR STATEMENT op

Produce.

No.

Name of

Si

II

•- a

n V

g? a

d .

■" -a

si

S-3

as »^

<

<

o,

s s a

Plough.

o "

a> o
K2

go
a2<

o

1

s S

a « "

Psota

2 £,

CO 3

(—1

CO

"S

o

1

.Sw S3
1°

Horses

Yards.

Sheaves.

Sheaves.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Sheaves.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Bushels.

1

Small'a ....

3

4000

612

107

1122

376

746

740

5159

2600

7759

61 38-42

2

Yester

3

4016

582

103

1100

367

733

701

4938

2497

7485

59 19-42

3

Currie

2

2614

396

96

990

332

658

733

5024

2534

7553

60 14-42

4

Howard's . . .

2

2550

390

86

1034

332

702

740

6040

2858

8896

68

5

Small's

2

2570

422

108

1034

340

694

794

5102

2499

7601

59 21-42

6

Small's

3

4176

622

90

1056

364

692

720

5536

2912

8448

69 21-42

7

Yester

.S

4240

606

9S

990

335

655

691

4714

2411

7125

57 17-42

8

Currie

2

2755

430

108

1122

359

763

755

5334

2509

7743

59 31-42

9

Howard's . . .

2

2710

426

102

1210

362

848

760

6318

2697

9015

64 9-42

10

Small's

2

2730

466

120

1254

393

861

826

5926

2705

8631

64 17-42

No. III. — TABULAR STATEMENT of Produce on Allotments combined.

V

.a

^"a

m

1"

d

O .

m "^

%-a «

Name of Plough and Furrow cut.

TS £

«S

gT3 o

•s s s

No.

«;r

£Ph

"^ « r

M ^ «

01 IN

S 3 =

^d

^2

ats in
421b
per 2

02

S5

^

^

o

Yards.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Lbs.

Bushels.

1 & 6

8176
8256
53j9

10,695

9,702

10,358

5512
4908
5143

16,207
14,610
15,301

131 17-42

2 & 7

Yester ploughs, deep

116 36-42

3 & 8

Currie ploughs, high-crested furrow

120 3-42

4& 9

Howard's ploughs, rectangular furrow

5260

12 358

5553

17,91).

132 9-42

5&10

Small's ploughs, rectangular furrow

5300

11,028

5204

16,232

123 38-42

— Joomal of Agriculture.

210

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

A FARMER'S LIFE AND DUTIES.

On the recent presentation of the Testimonial to Mr.
John Clarke at Long Sutton, that gentleman gave the
following sketch of his career.

The outlines of a life like mine cannot he very
interesting, or possess any remarkable features worth
your notice ; for I was born where I now live : " I
till the land my forefathers tilled." Still it may not
be inappropriate to this occasion, and may tend to en-
courage some of my young friends present to prosecute
a course of industrious usefulness — I say, to encourage
my young friends ; for bear in mind, we do not all pos-
sess the same natural powers, either mentally or physi-
cally ; we can, however, by industry and care improve
both ; we can strengthen our minds by reading and
study and mental eSort, just as we can add vigour and
hardihood to our bodies by athletic exercise and manual
labour. Now, I verily believe that few young men
have commenced their career under more disadvantageous
circumstances than myself, as respects mental acquire-
ments and effort. I frankly and freely tell you it was in this
way I became impressed with the foolish idea that my
family was well to do ; if not rich I should do very well in
the world, and therefore might enjoy myself. A more
fatal idea to prevent mental effort could not take pos-
session of the mind ; consequently field sports, cricket,
and the like, had full predominance ; and so I went on
from year to year. I, however, attended to farm duties
dsdly, and for twelve years worked hard on my father's
farms and our own, as a constant ploughman ; and for
twelve harvests I stacked a large proportion of the
corn, and in the various labours of the farm took my
part ; this I don't at all regret. I never heard a man
complain that he worked too hard, or attended too much
to his business in his young days ; recollect that, in the
main, nothing but persevering industry can achieve suc-
cess ; superior talent is of great value, but careful per-
severing plodding industry will beat the finest talents
in most cases. Well, young, inexperienced, and self-
sufficient as I was, I recollect at the age of seventeen or
eighteen I came to this resolution (for I felt it was in-
cumbent upon me to adopt and persevere in some defi-
nite course)—?, e. That I would endeavour 1st to make
myself a good member of society, 2ndly a good
parishioner, and 3rdly a good and useful man of busi-
ness. There cannot be a doubt that resolutions of
this sort made in youth, and conscientiously acted
upon, would be of vast benefit to the community. We
have all our several duties to fulfil, both in public
and private. The world, and particularly that minute
portion of it with which we are immediately connected,
should be the better for our living in it ; otherwise
we nearly live in vain, or live wholly for ourselves.
Well, to become a good member of society (a vast
deal is included in being a good member of society), I
set about making myself useful ; I became a teacher in
our church Sunday-school, and was superintendent of

another for many years. I took great interest in music,
and in promoting good congregational singing. I
managed a large Friendly Society (this I have done for
upwards of forty years). As lime rolled on, I became
greatly interested in other matters. The days of plough-
ing matches and prize stacks were scarcely known : the
only way we had of encouraging either the one and the
other was by frequent inspections ; and though some
evil arose from these inspections, it served to
promote the very object I and some of my young friends had
in view. The evil was this : It was the invariable custom for
the ploughmen around Long Sutton to do their best on the
Saturday to leave their primest work, so that passers-by on
the Sunday might view it. This soon led to a good deal of
Sabbath-breaking ; and groups of young men might be seen
every Sunday taking their stroll round the district or through
the marshes to see the straight furrows or the best stacks ; and
I regret to say, finishing their walk at " The Wash ;" and
more particularly on tidal Sundays, when many disgraceful
scenes were enacted. Long Sutton Fair was at this time
merely a servants' holiday ; and it was no uncommon thing
for young men of more strength than wit to try their prowes s
in boxing, and many such matches came off in my early days ;
so many that it became a matter of serious thought as to,
what should be done to put an end to this disgraceful course ;
for it was notorious that if a young man was known to be a
fighter, he had to defend himself from more than one chal-
lenger at these meetings ; indeed, the test of championship
seemed to be put off to this very meeting, and I recollect, as
a ploughboy, hearing of the arrangements got up for the
strife. Well, things could not go on so. A meeting was got
up at Sutton, called a drawing-match — that is, the ploughman
who could draw the straightest furrow or make the best ridge
received a copper teakettle, or some equally homely but useful
prize. I thought this far better than boxing-matches and the
like ; and at once did my best to encourage it, in which I was
aided by several friends. This was our first effort in plough-
ing matches. We kept it up for some years with very good
effect. It drew off from Sutton many refractory spirits ; the
zest for drinking and boxing was allayed ; and as the parties
were thus divided, the worst features of Long Sutton Fair
subsided. It is now a quiet, orderly meeting— in fact, a pat-
tern of a convivial, pleasant assemblage of servants for mutual
recognition and congratulation— a meeting of a very useful
kind, as serving to keep up great nationality of character and
feeling— a holiday which no one grudges, but that all desire
consistently, in reason and in moderation, to enjoy. The
Long Sutton Market was soon after this time established,
and the fair assumed a higher character. A better order of
things prevailed ; a decided elevation in the character of our
population was to be noticed, owing, I believe, to the many
public meetings held — such as bible, missionary, tract meet-
ings, and others, aided by extended and efficient religious
teaching in the pulpit and Sunday-schools. Gentlemen, it
was by giving my best aid in all these movements that I en-
deavoured to become a good member of society.

But I resolved to fit myself for becoming a good parishioner
— that is, I resolved to see wherein I could be useful to my
pariah, either to aid as I best could in the management of

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211

parochial business, or ia correcting any of the abuses or irre-
gularities that had, or may, in the course of time, have arisen.
When I commenced business, now over forty years ago, the
poor were managed by assistant or deputy overseers, who re-
ceived each a handsome salary (for at the time I speak of we
had two). The parish doctor received from £100 to £110;
bailey-cous tables, at handsome salaries — £35 each. At this
time the poor had nearly the mastery over the overseers ;
for it was only requisite for the pauper to go to a magistrate
and make oath that he was destitute, and at once to receive a
peremptory order for relief, and it was at the peril of the over-
■eer to refuse it. The rates were consequently very high for
relief; but added to this it was customary to pay the rents of
a great many paupers' cottages, so that the poor's-rate became
au enormous burthen (6s. to 7s. in the pound). A few of us
set about its reduction, and many unhappy dissensions we
had. We speedily got rid of the assistant-overseers, most of
the cottage rents, and by establishing a system of labour
either on the roads or otherwise, materially reduced the
relief list, and consequently the rates, as I believe with
real contentment to the poor. A great many gross in-
equalities had crept into the rate-book, and I have now in my
possession the book which I made out under direction of
our committee, which so forcibly showed the absurdity of
some of the ratings, that we soon had these rectified. Then
there was the making the rate (highway-rate) ; that is, a chosen
or customary party went to the vestry, an adjournment was
soon moved to the Bull Inn, a capital dinner and wiue,
was provided, the rate was made, and the dinner bill paid out
of it. The charities came next to be considered. These were
in a most unsatisfactory state. The lands were let to the
friends and relatives of the tiustees at low rents. The trustees
were very few in number, and in some charities nearly extinct.
The church rates also engaged our serious attention : they
were very heavy, and included mole catching, sparrow catch-
ing, besides all footways and bridges, &c. The steeple was
always under repair, and I believe much money was fictitiously
expended upon it. The rates had been collected for eight
years without being accounted for. What would our church-
rate abolitionists say to this? Well, we set about reforming
all these matters, and we gradually effected them, and in a
way that works satisfactorily up to this time. — I often wonder
what our zealous young reformers would have done in those
days ! those were real reforms in parochial affairs ! now, I
reckon them only gleaners in the reform field. All this was
not done without some odium and uukindness. It was thus
that I sought to make myself useful as a parishioner.

I have one more point. I resolved to qualify myself to
become a useful man of business, both in public and private.
Well, this I found to be the most diflicult thing to attain to ;
and which I have not, nor ever shall attain. However, there
was nothing like setting about it. I recollect very well bor-
rowing of Mr. Thomas Peele a number of Evans and Ruffy's
Farmers' Journal, the agricultural newspaper of forty years
back. I was greatly interested in reading about Holkham
sheep- shearings and Woburn gatherings, ploughing meetings
and the like. I soon began to take unusual pleasure in such
matters at home ; and although we had no matches to test
the skill and powers of our workmen, yet the best of them
were pretty well known in the district — such as Carter's Will,
Forster's Billy Percival, Mr. Peele'a George Barton. As
time passed on, the whole country became aroused by the
success which attended the Holkham and Woburn meetings,
and the Holkham system of agriculture. Agricultural societies
began to spring up here and there, were soon on the
increase everywhere, and it was not likely that the

inhabitants of this district, who have always stood promi-
nent in promoting every improvement likely to benefit their
country, would long be without a society of their own.
In the meantime I paid great attention to the introduction
into this district of new varieties of grain, seeds, turnips,
mangolds, cabbages, kohl-rabi, chicory, carrots, lucerne, and
sainfoin ; and after a time the whole country was aroused
to enquiry, and now you hear of new "sorts" every where, and
every body getting them. I also endeavoured to promote im-
provements in culture, such as autumn culture, subsoil plough-
ing, hollow-draining : on the latter subject permit me to state
that I wrote and published the first pamphlet ever printed at
Long Sutton (this was by Mr, Swain). I also undertook to keep
up a breed of large framed and heavy-wooUed sheep for the
use of the neighbourhood. It was in this way that I sought
in my small capacity to be a useful man of business. I now
come to the business of this to me very interesting day, and
wherein I have been enabled to act more in a public capacity.
I have said that Long Sutton will never be behind-hand in
promoting improvements ; consequently the establishment of
an Agricultural Society was often talked over, and at length
a fitting time came, and it is one of the many good things
which have emanated from this annual meeting for the benefit
of J the neighbourhood. It was at a meeting of this association
held on January 23id, 1837 (twenty-two years next Monday),
that the Long Sutton Agricultural Society was mooted. The
following Friday, February 3rd, was fixed for holding the
meeting for establishing the society and drawing up the rules,
and by adjournment tothel7tb, when they were finally carried,
and the society established upon its present basis. The ope-
rations, however, for the first year were restricted to the
parishes of Long Sutton, Sutton' St. James, St. Edmund's,
and Gedney, but in the following year it was extended to its
present boundary. W. Skelton, Esq., was appointed treasurer,
and myself secretary. The premium list comprised prizes for
stock, and rewards for labourers; and this order was maintained
with varied success up to the meeting of 1S44, when the prizes
for stock were discontinued. In the course of the first year
an amalgamation was attempted with a similar society formed
at Holbeach, which failed. In 1839 we numbered 130 mem-
bers. In 1841 Mr. Skelton was elected president of the
society, and myself treasurer as well as secretary. In 1843,
the fir&t prizes were offered for mowing wheat, which speedily
had the effect of putting down all prej\idices against that
course. In 1844, the first prizes were offered for hollow-
draining. In 1847, the first prizes were offered for allotments.
In 1854, the All-England or Champion ploughing class was
established, and the first educational prizes were given. In
1857, the steam- plough was introduced, the potato-digger,
and a large collection of implements was exhibited. In
1853, steam-ploughing and steam-cultivation in several of its
best phases, a clever locomotive steam-eugiue, and an econ-
omical reaping machine were shown ; indeed it has been
my aim as your officer to introduce to your notice specimens
of our most useful implements, or such as were obtaining the
greatest popularity, in order that they might be seen, and,
if approved, adopted. I have now gone through with this re-
view, which is chiefly about myself. I ask you to forgive this
egotism : you must pardon this setting forth of my doings; it
is meant in some sense as an answer to your distinguished
token of approval. You have this day honoured me above and
before all others in this district : this splendid testimonial is
the first given here to any individual for services of this charac-
ter, by the general public. I shall not stop to point out the
great benefit this society has conferred upon the locality : these
beautiful and valuable tokens are a sufficient testimony that

212

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

you think it a valuable society, and that you approve of my
cfiforts in helping to conduct it. I wish they had been more
worthy your approval. What I have done has been from a
strong sense of public duty. I am a true believer in the prize
system : to it we owe the improvements in British agriculture.
I believe that we have mainly to look for our prosperity as

farmers — to agricultural improvements, in the judicious adoption
of the best breeds of stock, the best modes of culture, the
best varieties of grain and of roots, the best implements, the
best manures, and the best and most economical management
of the whole. It is in this way we may — and I would add,
that we will— defy the whole world to beat us.

THE SELLING OF GRAIN BY MEASURE OR BY WEIGHT.

There is no subject to which the attention of govern-
ments, in most countries that have made any progress in
civilization, has been more frequently directed than that of
weights and measures ; and there is none the legislation
about which has given less satisfaction. How are we to
account for this ? Before any legislation was attempted on
the subject, there was as great a variety of weights and
measures as there were petty principalities, of which the
present kingdoms are made up : the inhabitants of each
petty state were as wedded to their own weights and mea-
sures, as if upon their existence depended their own liberty.
The certain effect of any compulsory measure under such
circumstances would, we believe, have been rebellion and
revolution ; and the real consequence of a permissive mea-
sure has been, as we see every day around us, an inter-
minable confusion— a perfect Babel of weights and mea-
sures. But other circumstances have tended to produce
dissatisfaction. Often those who ventured to legislate on
the subject were little practically acquainted with it, and
did not consult practical men as widely as they ought to
have done; and hence inadvertencies were made, which,
though slight in themselves, became most serious when, on
being attempted to be carried into practice, they were found
at every hour and transaction to be grating on the conve-
nience of the public. In former times the necessity of legis-
lation on this subject was little experienced from the want of
communication between different parts of the country, by
means of trade and otherwise ; hence the annoyances now
felt at such a variety of weights and measures were scarcelj^
experienced then ; and hence also the difficulty found in sub-
stituting the imperial for the local measures and weights ;
they both became jumbled together, and new standardg
were actually made out of the mixture. Now, however, the
country appears to be ripe for legislation again, if we may
judge from the meetings which are constantly being held,
and from the deputations which are being appointed by dif-
ferent mercantile communities to represent their case to
Government. In the sale of corn, more than in anything else,
there is great room for improvement in weights and measures.
The present method of transacting business by means of the
imperial quarter is found to be cumbersome, and liable to
lead to disputes, and is, in fact, in every way unfitted for
affording those facilities so necessary in great mercantile
transactions.

We are not going to trace the history of the dif-
ferent standards that were used for the sale of grain
from the earliest periods up to the present day. We
will refer the reader for this information to the discus-
sion which took place at the monthly meeting of the
Highland Society in March 1857, and which was reported
in all the agricultural periodicals of the time. We will
begin with the year 1824, in which a great attempt
was made by the Legislature to " ascertain and establish
uniformity of weights and measures," by passing an Act.

Previous to the passing of this Act, every county had its
own standards of weight and measure by which the grain
was sold ; and the Act passing into law did little to remedy
this evil, though its avowed object was to produce uniform-
ity. We quote from the paper of Mr. M'Lagan, read at the
meeting of the Highland Society referred to above : " There
were several defects in theAct:— 1. None but scientific men
were examined by the commissioners previous to the framing
of the Act. The advice of practical men, or men engaged
in trade, would certainly have been of use in the composing
of any measure on the uniformity of weights and measures.

2. Two pounds were retained— the troy and the avoirdupois.

3. Heaped measure was also retained. 4. Existing weights
and measures were allowed to be used, provided they were
marked so as to show the proportion they bore to the stan-
dard weights and measures. The effect of this measure was
the introduction into Scotland of new weights and measures
which were never contemplated by the Act." The weak
point in this Act was what is noted as the fourth defect
above. It prevented being done all that the Act contem-
plated to do. It is clause 16th, and enacts " That it shall
and may be lawful for any person or persons to buy and sell
goods and merchandise by any weights or measures estab-
lished either by local custom or founded on special agree-
ment : Provided always that in order that the ratio or pro-
portion which all such measures and weights shall bear to
the standard weights and measures established by this Act
shall be and become a matter of common notoriety ; the
ratio or proportion which all such customary measures and
weights shall bear to the said standard weights and
measures shall be painted or marked upon all such custom-
ary weights and measures respectively." The framers
of the Act must have been shortsighted indeed if they ever
expected to abolish all old and local weights and measures,
and introduce uniformity with such a permissive clause in
the Act. The consequence was what was foreseen by all
capable of judging in the matter; the confusion became
greater than ever, and the Legislature was obliged to inter-
fere again. Accordingly, in 1835 an Act was passed,
repealing the said clause of the Act of 1824 in the following
words :— "So much of the said recited Acts as allow the
use of weights and measures not in conformity with the
imperial standard weights and measures established by the
said Acts, or allow goods and merchandise to be bought or
sold by any weights or measures establisLed by local custom
or founded on special agreement, shall be and the same are
hereby repealed." Again: "All local or customary mea-
sures shall be abolished ; and every person who shall sell
by any denomination of measure other than one of the
imperial measures, or some multiple, or some aliquot part,
&c., shall, on conviction, be liable to a penalty not exceed-
ing the sum of forty shillings for every such sale." Again :
" Every person who shall use any weight or measure other
lian those v-vuthorised by this Act, or some aliquot par

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213

thereof, or hereiu-before described, or which has not been so
stamped as aforesaid, &c., shall, on conviction, forfeit a sum
not exceeding five pounds ; and any contract, bargain, or
sale made by any such weights or measures shall be wholly
null and void."

We have thought it proper to quote these clauses from
the Acts to show the real position of the question, as many,
not being aware of the Act of 1835, have the impression
that to produce uniformity in the sale of grain we should
have another Act passed enforcing by penalty the sale of
grain by the imperial quarter. It will be seen from the
quotations that the Act of 1835 is stringent enough ; and
all that is wanted now is that the authorities carry out the
provisions of the Act. We may as well, however, mention
here, that though the Act of 1835 appears plain enough,
there is a discrepancy in its interpretation between the
English and Scotch judges. In England there have been
decisions which appear to favour the opinion that local mea-
sures may still be used in transactions ; thus it was found
legal to sell wheat by the hobbett, a Welsh measure. In
Scotland, on the other hand, the reading of the Act has
been literally interpreted, and any bargain made by any
local weight or measure has been held to be null and void ;
as, for instance, the selling of crop by the Scotch acre, or the
measuring of drains by the Scotch chain, or more recently
the selling of potatoes by the boll, even though in making
the bargain the boll should be mentioned to be of 4 or 5 cwt.,
or any other weight. This latter case was decided by
Sheriff Barclay, of Perth, the grounds of whose decision are
most ably given, and are well worthy of a perusal. In so
far as Scotland, therefore, is concerned, there is no doubt of
the meaning of the Act, and all that would be necessary to
produce a uniformity of decisions in England and Scotland
would be a short declaratory Act.

Such, then, is the law regarding the selling of grain and
other farm produce ; but what is the practice ? Let every-
one answer this question for himself by turning to the
reports of the sales of grain, &c., in the different market-
towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, where he will
scarcely find any two of them alike, and where he will
be puzzled at finding the names of many local weights and
measures of which he never heard before. And if he has
been studying these reports for some years, he will have
observed in them the gradual substitution of weight
for measure in many places, in defiance of the threatened
penalties of the Acts of 1824 and 1835 against all who sell
grain otherwise than by the imperial quarter. Year after
year the law is becoming more and more honoured in the
breach than in the observance — legal enactments are
yielding to public convenience. Surely the law must have
been framed on wrong principles, and its requirements must
be felt as irksome and inconvenient, when such a decided
and wide-spreading violation of it is being perpetrated in
such a peaceable manner.

What are the objections of people to the statutory provision
of seUing grain by measure ? The principal objection is, that
it leads to disputes in transactions. A ny one at all practically
acquainted with the subject must admit this. There cannot
be a more uncertain method of ascertaining the quantity of
grain than by measure. Even in measuring liquids, due pre-
cautions must be taken to arrive at correct results, by attend-
ing to the force of attraction between the liquid and sides of
the vessel. And if such difficulty is found in obtaining accuracy
with an imcompressible body as a liquid, how much greater
must it be to get correct results in measuring such an article
as grain, in which the pickles can be packed so closely to one

another as to make a material increase in the qnantity con-
tained in the measure ! Hence the quantity or weight of the
grain in the measure will vary according to any circumstance
which has a tendency to compress its bulk. Thus the greater
the height from which the grain is poured into the measure,
the greater will be its weight ; any motion causing a vibration
in the floor during the operation of filling the measure will
also cause the same bulk of grain to weigh more, by shaking
the pickles closer to one another ; the force with which the
roller is placed on the measure before the grain is rolled, will
also cause a variation in the weight. In short, so liable is this
method of selling grain to error from the trifling causes men-
tioned above, that seldom will the same man obtain the same
result with scientific accuracy, when weighing the same grain ;
though we admit sufficient accuracy may be reached, with
care, for all practical purposes. Need we be surprised, then,
that differences in the weight per bushel, and in the quantities
contained in any measure, so often occur, when the grain is
weighed, first, say on the stone floor of a barn, directly from
the fanners, and afterwards, under entirely difi'ereDt circum-
stances, on the wooden floor of the loft of the buyer. And
need we be surprised at the disagreeable disputes which
arise therefrom between buyer and seller ? Hundreds of in-
stances of this kind occur every week in the transactions be-
tween farmers and dealers, and between merchants
in the same and in different towns. Let us take one:
A farmer was in the habit of sending all his barley
to a brewer, leaving the price to be fixed by him. Every lot
gent in, when tested by the bushel measure of the brewer,
weighed lighter than it did when measured on his farm ; he
sent his bushel measure to be tested by the Dean of Guild —
it was found to be all right, and was stamped accordingly : but
still the same disparity continued in the weight per bushel of
his barley when tested by his and the brewer's bushel, though
the latter was also duly stamped by the Dean of Guild.
Again, a farmer sold barley to a party in Edinburgh twice,
and both times the weight per bushel on the farm and in
Edinburgh differed : the average difference was half-a-pound
per bushel, for which 43. 6d. was withheld by the buyer for
over-weight on the whole lot, which was 16 quarters, and the
buyer retained into the bargain the half-pound of barley per
bushel which produced the over- weight, and which, for the 16
quarters, amounted to 64 pounds — equivalent in value to
43. 6d., according to the rate at which the rest of the barley
was sold. Thus, then, on these 16 quarters the farmer lost
9s., or more than 6d. per quarter, for giving what he thought
was the just weight and measure of bis barley : for the
greatest attention was paid to the sacking of it. It may be
asked. Why did he submit to the loss when he was so certain
of being right ? The barley was tested in the presence of his
servants, and mixed with other lots before he was aware of the
difference ; and even though this had not been the case, his
bushel measure was miles off, and there was the uncertainty
of producing a result, under the different circumstances, the
same as what he got at home, even though his own bushel
measure were used. These are only two out of hundreds of
cases that might be adduced, to show how those disagreeable
disputes arise in grain transaations. Similar differences, only
more aggravated by their magnitude, are as liable to occur in
those large grain ^transactions which are daily taking place
throughout the kingdom, while the course of trade is at the
same time much impeded by the slow process of measuring
instead of weighisg grain.

Public opinion is divided as to the expediency of changing
the method of selling by measure for that of selling by weight
under present circumstances. We believe that all are agreed

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

that the latter method is far better adapted for the convenience
of trade ; but some object to any change, on account of the
interference it will necessitate with private interests. We
have, then, two parties— those who wish it legalised to sell by
weight, and those who wish to adhere to the present system,
the selling by measure. To the former class belong almost all
the extensive merchants, millers, and dealers in corn through-
out England, Scotland, and Ireland ; to the latter belong
principally a large proportion of those agriculturists who are
accustomed to sell their grain in stock markets, such as Edin-
burgh, Dalkeith, &c. ; while we have reason to know that in
those districts where selling by sample is the practice, there is
a pretty strong feeling among farmers in favour of selling by
weight. And we may mention [further, that farmers are gra-
dually and tacitly giving in their adhesion to the selling of
grain by weight, by their adoption of the practice of sacking
their grain directly from the scales, without measuring any of
it but the four first bushels. There is no doubt, then, that
the great majority of those connected with the grain trade,
whether they be producers or purchasers, are in favour of
selling by weight ; and there is as little doubt that, even un-
der the present law, far more grain is sold by weight than by
measure. We have, therefore, little hesitation in affirming
that there is a great preponderance of opinion in favour of
selling by weight.

Such being the case, it becomes those who are in favour of
the present system to give due weight to the opinions of the
other party. Let them not attempt to throw obstacles in the
way of an amicable settlement of the question. Let them not
try to enforce the present law by penalties without due consi-
deration. The first penalty imposed will be the knell of the
present system ; it will raise a storm that will not be quelled
but by the sacrifice of that system which they are so anxious
to uphold, viz., the selling of grain by measure. A question
such as this is not to be decided by the exaction of penalties,
but by the rules of justice, and by what is found best for the
convenience of the public and the purposes of trade. Let them
not be misled as to the state of public feehng and the senti-
ments of Members of Parliament. The influential meeting
held at Liverpool lately, which was attended by gentlemen
connected with the corn trade, and representing various
markets in the country, was no bad exponent of public feeling.
The following was the resolution unanimously adopted: —
" That this meeting do therefore recommend to the trade in
Liverpool, and elsewhere throughout the kingdom, that from
and after the first day of February next, the weight of 100 lbs.
avoirdupois be adopted and used in all sales of grain, flour, and
meal." And this was passed, let it be remembered, in the face
of an existing statute, which enjoins the selling of grain by
measure, and which some gentlemen consider it the wisest
plan to enforce by penalties. And what is the feeling in Par-
liament ? The proceedings of the last session will answer this
question. Mr. Bass introduced a short Act rendering the
selling of grain by measure or by the imperial quarter com-
pulsory, as in fact the present law does : it passed the first
reading, but was thrown out at the second reading on the re-
presentation of one or two of the Chambers of Commerce
throughout the country.

While we caution the one party against attempting to force
upon the country a system which is found to be most incon-
venient, we would urge upon the other not to be rash in re-
sorting to legislation on such an important subject ; for there
are some strong reasons and serious objections against hastily
substituting weight for measure in the sale of grain. At none
of the meetings held to confer on this question have we seen

sold in other countries, if we except only the great meeting at
Liverpool, where it was stated by some gentlemen as a good
reason for adopting 100 lb. as the standard weight for selling
all kinds of grain, that that was the standard used in Canada.
We have now a most extensive trade in corn with other coun-
tries ; and it would be advisable, were any change made here,
to communicate with the principal corn-exporting countries,
so as to have one uniform standard over the world. We
throw out this suggestion in the hope that it will be taken up
by those who are moving in this matter. If there is the pros-
pect of effecting this desirable object, viz., the obtaining a
uniform standard over the world— say, 100 lb. or its equivalent
—it would certainly be better to delay making any change for
a time.*

It cannot be denied that a serious objection against the
change from measure to weight is the interference with private
interests and arrangements which it will cause. In England,
measure is sanctioned in the Tithes Commutation Act. In
Scotland, rents are agreed on by the imperial bushel ; ministers'
stipends are paid according to measure; and many other
private agreements are made which would have to be re-
adjusted were there a change in the law. It might be said that
grain might he sold by weight, even though these arrange-
ments were in existence and unaltered. It could only be done
by those who are never called upon to give evidence of the
price of grain sold throughout the year for striking the fiars
prices ; but farmers and others who are summoned to give
evidence in the striking of the fiars, must continue to sell by
measure till some adjustment be made between weight and
measure in present agreements, and the fiars be struck ac-
cording to weight, and not according to measure, as at present.
Now many consider this an insuperable objection to making
the change from measure to weight. It is, no doubt, at all
times with great reluctance, and not without strong reasons,
that the Legislature would sanction any measure which would
disturb existing agreements between private individuals. But
if this can he done with justice, and the consent of all parties,
the objection vanishes. Now we do not consider the present
method of striking the fiars prices (we allude to them parti-
cularly, for it is by them that all agreements in grain in Scot-
land are settled) such an insuperable objection. When the
Act of 1824 was passed, it was provided that juries were to
be sworn in every district and county where it was necessary
to make the proper adjustments in private agreements between
the old system and that introduced by the Act, which
was the uniformity of weights and measures. And if
it was done before, why cannot it be done again ? We would
have as much confidence in the verdict of such a jury as we
have in the results obtained according to the present hap-
hazard method of striking the fiars. There is no subject on
which legislation is more called for than the fiars ; and we are
glad to find that the county gentlemen of Edinburgh, having
called the attention of the Commissioners of Supply through-
out Scotland to the irregularities and uncertainties of the
present method, we are now on the eve of legislation on it. A
more favourable opportunity then, could not be got for efi'ecting
the change from measure to weight, so as to conform to the
plan now advocated of selling grain by a uniform standard of

* While this paper is passing through the press, we have heard
that a meeting of merchants was held at Berlin about the llth
of last month, at which it was agreed to cast aside measure
(except as a mark of showing quality), and to sell all grain by
weijht— wheat, rye, barley, and oilseeds, per 2,000 lbs. ; oats per
1,300 lbs.; other corn and potatoes, per 100 Ihs. In all changes
that have been recently made in the standard of selling grain,
lOOlbs., ora multiple of it, has been fixed upon as the most

conveiiient, and in anticipation of the decimal system being
the slightest allusion made to the manner in which grain is j adopted through time.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

215

weight. We rejoice to think that the fiara pticea are brought
forward as an objection to the change from measure to weight
in the selling of grain, as the whole subject will then be brought
before the public, and its weak points exposed. We ate as
desirous of having an improvement in the method of striking
the fiars prices, as we are of being allowed by the law to sell
grain by weight.

It will be asked. How is it practicable to adjust present
agreements if the change be effected of selling grain by weight
instead of measure ? We suggest with much diffidence a plan
which has occurred to ourselves. Let a jury of proprietors,
tenants, and others interested, be impanelled, and evidence be
led before them of the weight of the grain per bushel or per
quarter for a number of years ; let the average of the several
weights given in be struck. The average thus obtained will
be held to be the average weight of grain grown in the county
for which the evidence was led, and will be used for converting
the measures of grain mentioned in particular agreements into
the relative weights. Thus, supposing that the rent per acre
of a farm in a particular county was 4 bushels of oats, 3 of
barley, and 2 of wheat, and that the average weight per bushel
for that county was found to be 42 lb. for oats, 55 for barley,
aud 62 lb. for wheat, then the converted rent would be 168 lb.
of oats, 165 of barley, and 124 lb. of wheat ; and as the fiars
prices would be struck at so much per 100 lb., it would be
easy to reduce these to their money value.

As it is always safe, at the commencement of any agitation
for the change of a system, method, or practice, to bring the
difficulties prominently forward tending to prevent such a
change, so that each may be met on its own ground, we have
been desirous of doing so at present. We will therefore men-
tion as another objection to the change from selling by measure
to selling by weight, the alteration that will be necessary in
the Excise laws in the collection of the malt-tax. But if the
Legislature consent to make the selling of grain by weight
legal, all these difficulties would soon be swept away, as, in our
opinion, they are not so great aa at first sight they appear to
be. But it is necessary that they should all be mentioned, so
as to meet with due consideration before the great change is
made.

The question of selling grain by weight is eomewhat com-
plicated by not a few insisting that it should be made law
that the natural weight per bushel, or any other imperial mea-
sure, should always be mentioned in any sales of grain. It
does appear strange to us that those who are anxious to abolish
the selling by measure, should still insist upon retaining a
measure in transactions in grain. If any such measure be
used, the same liabilities to disputes will remain as are com-
plained of at present. We have seen, in the cases adduced in
this paper, that no two men will fill a bushel measure, with the
same grain, so as to obtain the same weight. Why, then, go
to the Legislature and demand that the selling by the quarter
should be abolished, and at the same time ask that an aliquot
part of it or itself be retained for use, so as to aid them in
judging of the quality of the grain ? There ia surely great in-

consistency here. Though the weight per bushel of grain, or
its specific gravity, ia mentioned now in transactions, there is
no law compelling the stating of it, but it has sirnply become
the practice to do so, and that only within a few years ; for the
time is not long past when all grain was sold by measure,
without any reference whatever to weight. We understand
that it is not the intention of those who adhere to the resolu-
tions passed at the Liverpool meeting to petition in favour of
the bushel or any measure being retained to aid the parties
buying and selling to judge of the quality of the grain. A
good judge of grain does not require to know its specific
gravity ; he will tell the value of it by merely handling and
seeing it. A knowledge of the natural weight per bushel
weight, or, what is the same thing, the specific gravity, how-
ever, will be an aid to those who have not sufficient skill or
experience ; and if it is found necessary to continue the prac-
tice for such, it may be done without rendering it compulsory
by law. There are many conditions often stated in making
bargains, which are only binding on the parties immediately
interested ; and the specific gravity of grain may, with great
propriety, form one of these conditions ; indeed it would be an
important element in bargain-making. We are not of the
opinion of those who maintain that the weight per bushel of
grain is the principal criterion of its value. We will agree
with them so far, that it is only one of the standards of judg-
ing of the value. Dantzic wheat, for instance, weighing 62 or
63 lb, per bushel, will often bring 73. or Ss. more per quarter
than some of our Scotch wheats weighing 65 lb. per bushel.
So also wheat grown in East Lothian will oommand a higher
price than wheat grown in some of the higher districts of Mid-
Lothian, though the latter will weigh more per bushel. The
practice followed in Edinburgh market is reckoned a model ;
we take up, therefore, at random the report of that market of
8th December, and we find there that wheat weighing 63f lb.
brought 41 3. and 483,. and weighing 59 J lb. brought 39s.
and 433. 66. ; so barley weighing 55 lb. brought 278. and
323. 6d.; and oats weighing 4H lb. brought 223,, while that
weighing 4]f lb. brought only 2l3. 3d. But why should
grain be made an exception to the ordinary practice of dealing
in the other articles of consumption ? There is surely as great
difference in the specific gravity of the varieties of coffee as
there is in that of grain ; why then do we not insist upon
knowing the specific gravity as well as the weight of coffee
when we purchase ? Why should the dealers in grain not be
as good judges of the quality by looking at it and handling it,
as the dealers in all other articles ? If it be found just, wise,
and expedient to sell these articles by weight, which vary as
much in specific gravity as grain, why should we be enjoined
by Act of Parliament to adopt a more uncertain method for
the latter? We may be sure that the common sense of the
countr}' will not much longer tolerate such an anomaly, and
that sooner or later we will have all the grain in the country
sold by weight, which is the most natural, as it is the most
correct and unvarying, standard of quantity. — Journal of
Agriculture.

ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PHOSPHATES OF LIME,

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH,

The Academy has charged M. Boussingault and me with the
examination of a note of M. Moride, containing observations,
and the results of many experiments, on the phosphates of
lime employed as mamure, and particularly on those of the

compositions called minerals, masses of which, more or less
considerable, are found buried in the soil.

It ia not the first time that this important question has
called for the investigations of science : a great work, now in

216

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

course of publication, of our illustrious permanent secretary,
M. Elie de Beaumont, is at this moment drawing the atten-
tion of the public to the same subject.

There would indeed be an immense benefit to agriculture in
obtaining phosphate of lime, assimilable by plants, to the same
extent as phosphate of ground bones acidified, imperfectly
carbonized, or mked with organic azotous substances, such as
are present in the refuse of sugar refineries.

Under these coaditious phosphate of lime, by virtue of its
interposition in the midst of organic tissue, presents itself in a
state of extreme division easily assailable by acids.

In England its divisibility, as well as its dissolubility, are
still further increased by treating the bones with sulphuric
acid, which forms sulphate and bisulphate of lime, attacking
even the organic tissue, so that the osseous fragments become
soft and friable.

In presence of the carbonate limestone of the soil, or of that
which is added to the bones thus disintegrated, the excess of
acid is found saturated, the organic azotous matter becomes
spontaneously changeable, and the ammoniacal products of its
decomposition co-operate of themselves to the nutrition of
plants.

Effects analogous to these take place when we employ car-
bonized bones in powder, mixed with the blood used in effect-
ing the clarification of sugar or syrups; there are added to them
reactions equally favourable, dependent on the porosity of that
animal charcoal, capable of condensing the ambient gas, and of
yielding them gradually afterwards to the absorbent organs of
the vegetables.

It is not known to be entirely the same with mineral phos-
phates ; endowed with a very strong cohesion, the mechanical
means by which, even to this day, we are only able to treat
them, are insufficient to reduce them to a state of division
comparable to that of phosphate of bones.

Besides, have not the importations of mineral phosphates
from Estramadura into Great Britain, produced amongst the
agriculturists all the favourable results that are expected from
them ? One of us, M. Dumas, had the opportunity, in 1850,
of stating this fact, during a mission with which he was charged
by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, relative
to the agricultural improvements introduced into England,
Scotland, and Ireland :* it does not appear that they have
since succeeded in obtaining.in Great Britain as good effects
from the mineral phosphates as from bones, or the black resi-
dues of the refineries.

On his part, M. Moride, who, with M. Bobierre, has ren-
dered indisputable services to agriculture, by analyzing the
manures deposited in the Government dockyards, and exposing
certain frauds in commercial manures, has proved by direct ex-
periments the insolubility of many mineral phosphates in the
weak acids, in the state in which they are now offered to agri-
culturists ;t and he has thought it his duty to caution these

• See the Reports on Drainage, the Retting of Flax, the Peat
Mosses, the Bakeries, and the Commercial Manures, published by
the Minister, and in the Memoirs of the Central Society of Agri-
culture in 1850.

+ In order to demonstrate the solubility of certain pulverized
phosphates, M. Moride has taken of each of them 0.05 j;r., and
treated them with 10 cubic centimetres of acetic acid during ten
minutes at + 65 degrees. The filtered liquid was precipitated

last, by pointing out to them the means of detecting the
mineral phosphates mixed, whether it be with organic matters
or with the phosphate of bones, or with the bones black of the
refintries. For this purpose he recommends particularly the
employment of acetic acid in a boiling state, which attacks
and dissolves these last, whilst it leaves the others intact, and
the incineration of which yields, with the phosphate of bones or
the black of the refineries, white ashes ; whilst the mineral
phosphates produce red or brown ashes.

We shall render to agriculture a still greater service if we
discover the means of economically dividing the mineral phos-
phates to the state in which they readily become assimilable
by plants.

M. Morin thinks that we shall attain it by dissolving these
natural phosphates by powerful mineral acids, in order to se-
parate them from the sand ; then by precipitating the solution
with ammoniacal and magnesian liquids, afterwards adding to
it animal or fermentable matters.

This process, probably efficacious, would undoubtedly be too
expensive ; at least, it could not be executed in localities
where they have not the opportunity of applying to it the dis-
sipated vapours of c'llorhydrate acid, and add to it afterwards
either magnesian sea-water or ammoniacal water condensed in
the refrigerators of oil gas, or hydrate of lime ; and every-
thing leads us to hope that we may succeed in reuniting eco-
nomic conditions of this kind which admit of utilizing the na-
tural phosphates.

Whatever may happen, M. Moride will have effected a useful
object at this moment, on which we perhaps found, upon the
incomplete preparation of mineral phosphates, great expecta-
tions, by calling the attention of agriculturists to facts which
were little known to them.

We have, in consequence, the honour of proposing to you to
address to this young scholar the thanks of the Academy, re-
commending him to follow up his useful investigations.*

Pa YEN,

Member of the Academy of Sciences, and Permanent
Secretary of the Central Society of Agriculture.

by ammoniac, and the phosphoric acid sought for in the calcined
precipitates, by adding some drops ot azotic acid, and taking up
again by distilled water, in which they add azotate of silver. The
following are the results obtained thus :—

Phosphate Phosphate
Specimens. of dissolved by

Lime. Acetic Acid,

Phosphate (pure or calcined)

powder (bones) 99.20 .... 0.2.54

Bone dust calcined while 92.00 .... 0.288

Bone charcoal fit for refining ..73.10 .... 0.800

Black residue of refinery 63.40 .... 0.340

Opatite of logrozan (Estrama-
dura) 9425 .... 0.000

NoduliB from the Ardennes .... 66.00 .... 0.000
Do. in black dust of commerce . 70.00 .... 0.000
Do. of the Ardennes calcined ..62.00 0.000

The opatite had left dissolved by the acid 26 millifemes of oxide
of iron. The three following specimens had yielded 84, 26, and
28 milli^mes of oxide of iron and alumina.

M. Worine has further stated that the phosphates of bones are
soluble in seltzwater, eucrate ef lime, and in peat animalized by
means of fermentation ; whilst the natural phosphates which he
has examined are insoluble in them.

• The recommendations of this Report are adopted;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

217

HORSE-TAMING.

Sir, — Numerous articles on this subject in the papers
have attracted my attention, embracing a variety of
theories, in all of which the use of drugs is said to perform
a prominent part. It is the conflicting and erroneous
opinions advanced in these paragraphs that have induced
me to adopt this method of laying before the public the
principles of the theory practised, if not by Mr. Rarey, by
his confreres, with equal success, in the states of Ohio,
Illinois, and other parts of the Union.

This art is not of very recent discovery. In a work pub-
lished about the year 1814, on the art of "Taming Wild
Horses," is given Willis J. Powell's system, in which he
describes the process, similar in manj' respects to the fol-
lowing : He repudiates the use of drugs, as being quite un-
necessary, although he says, " I have made use of certaiu
ingredients before persons, to disguise the real secret ; and
many believed that the docility to which the horse arrived
in so short a time was owing to those ingredients : but j'ou
will see from this explanation that they were of no use
whatever." His process was somewhat slower than that
practised in the present day. He says that, by his secret,
" a horse is tamed in from two to sixteen hours ;" whereas,
I have seen the same performed in less than one hour.

The fundamental principles of this theory are founded on
the leading characteristics of the horse, which seldom re-
ceive that attention they justly deserve from horse-breakers
and those who have the care and management of this noble
animal.

The horse is so constituted that he will not offer resist-
ance to a demand made of him, which he fully comprehends,
if made in a way consistent with the laws of nature.
Being totally unconscious of his strength, beyond his ex-
perience, but little force is i-equired to subdue him, if
properly applied. He will allow any object, however
frightful it may appear, to be taken round him, o\er him,
and on him, that does not inflict pain, after he has once
examined it by smell, and more narrowly by the touch.
This last characteristic has caused a diversity of opinion,
and, united with the sense of smelling, has led to many
remarkable delusions respecting the use of strong oils or
drugs for the taming of wild horses. It is a prevailing
opinion that the sense of smell is the governing sense of the
horse. Hence comes the idea of drugs being esteemed in-
dispensable in horse-taming, the fallacy of which may be
easily proved : Can your readers, or any one else, give me
one single reason how scent can convey any idea to the
horse's mind of what we want him to do.^ If not, scents
are of no use for taming the horse. Everything we get him
to do, without force, must be accomplished by some means
of conveying our ideas to his mind. I say to my horse,
" Go on ! " and he goes ; " Wo ! " and he stops. The
meanings of those two terms have been taught him, by the
tap of the whip and pull of the rein that first accompanied
them. If he is thus taught to go on and to stop when told,
to go to right or left as required by the voice, it is quite
certain that much more might be taught him by using
proper means to improve his intelligence. And how long
do you suppose, reader, a horse would have to stand and
smell of a bottle of oil, &c., before he would learn to bend
his knee when told, to lift his foot, or lay down, &c. ?

Thus you see the absurdity of trying to break a horse by
means of drugs and articles to smell of, or medicine given
him, of any kind whatever.

The only true method of breaking horses, and that which
I shall briefly describe, is that which takes them in their
native state, and improves their intelligence. Caresses,
scratching in parts not easily reached by the animal him-
self, giviug food or water after long abstinence has caused
hunger or thirst, and the careful use of various tones of the
voice, are useful in the tuition of the horse. A liking for
the pupil, and tact in training it— which, if they be not
natural, are almost as difficult to acquire perfectly, as to
become a poet — are essential qualifications in the tamer of
all animals, throughout their various grades of intellect.

I will now attempt briefly to describe the system of horse-
taming I have seen successfully practised in the Western
States of America, on animals of all kinds of dispositions ;
those taken wild from the prairies, where they have been
subjected to no restraint, and the stubborn, vicious mule,
have alike submitted to its influence in a manner almost in-
credible to the most sanguine.

Horses are of two kinds : the one is timid, and appears
only to fear man ; but the other class are of a stubborn or
vicious [disposition, and although they are not wild, and do
not require taming in the sense it is generally understood,
they take much more subduing. Great tact and skill are re-
quired in their management, before a complete reformation
can be effected. I will first speak of that kind which only
fear man; and to persons who understand the philosophy
of horsemanship, these are the easiest trained. When we
have a horse that is wild and lively, we can train him to our
will in a very short time ; for they are quick to learn, and
always ready to obey.

Taking a jockey-whip in your hand, with the lash point-
ing backwards, enter the stable alone. It is very disad-
vantageous to have anyone in the stable with you; you
should be entirely alone, so that there is nothing but your-
self to attract the attention of the pupil. When you have
entered the stable, stand stationary with the whip held as
directed, and the left arm, bent at the elbow, projecting
forward. In this position, allow him to look at you a
minute or two ; and when his curiosity is somewhat satis-
fied, approach him slowly, with your arms in the position
directed. Go neither too much toward bis head or croop, so
as not to make him move backward or forward, thus keeping
the horse stationary. If he does stir, move also vei-y cau-
tiously to right or left, which will keep him in one place.
As you get very near to him, move a little to his shoulders,
and stop a few seconds. If you are in his reach, he will
turn his head and smell your hand ; not that he has any
preference for your hand, but simply because it is project-
ing, and the nearest part of your body to the horse. This
all colts will do ; and they will smell your naked hand just
as well as of anything you can put in it, and with as good
an effect, however much some men may have preached the doc-
trine of giving them the scent of drugs from the hand.
When the horse smells, you caress him very gently at first,
merely touching him, so that your hand may pass along as
smoothly as possible on the forehead ; or the side of the
head and neck will answer the same purpose, if more con-

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venient. Favour every inclination of the horse to touch
you with his nose, and always follow each touch or commu-
nication of this kind with caresses and gentle words. By
repeating the same words in a kind, steady sort of voice, he
will soon learn to know as well when fear, love, or anger
prevails, as you know your own feelings, two of which, fear
and anger, a good horseman should never feel. After you
have succeeded in handling his ears, he may be verj^ cautiously
haltered, and the bridle then carefully put on. Proceed by
stroking and caressing the head, neck, sides, .and back of
the horse to his tail, and then his legs and feet, until he will
allow himself to be rubbed and handled all over, and his
feet lifted without betr.iying any nervousness or anger.

All this operation is not magnetism, or galvanism ; it is
merely taking away the fear a horse generally has of man,
and familiarizing the animal with his master. As the horse
experiences a certain pleasure from this handling, he will
soon become gentle under it, and show a marked attach-
ment for his person.

Some horse-tamers recommend that all horses should be
thrown in the manner I shall presently describe, in order to
obtain perfect obedience. They must be taught to fean
love, and obey, the two first of which must be obtained be-
fore we can expect the latter ; and it is b}' this philosophy
of obtaining fear, love, and obedience that we may govern
any horse whatever.

If thehorae is of a stubborn and vicious disposition, and
has not that regard or fear of man it is desirable he should
have, if when you enter the stable he lays his ears or turns
his heels to kick you, a few sharp cuts with the whip must
be given, quick and with precision, about the legs, pretty
close to the body, just sufficient to frighten him, and no
more. If you wish in this way to frighten him, j'ou must
do it at once ; but never go into a pitched battle with
the horse, and whip him until he is infuriated, for you had
better not touch him at all; it will do him no good, but an
injury, to strike a blow, unless you can frighten him. As
soon as j'Ou have so frightened him that he will pay some at-
tention to you, approach him again, and caress him a good deal,
and then put the halter or bridle on ; but a horse of thia
nature should have been haltered before, if practicable.
What is now to be done is to implant in the animal, with-
out pain or flogging, a full and undoubting knowledge of
the superior physical power which the intellect and inge-
nuity of man places at his disposal. This is generally ac-
complished by throwing the horse in the following manner :
Fasten a strap round the pastern of the left fore-foot; then
taking the other end of the strap in the right hand, and
with the left over the neck, take the off-side rein of the bridle ;
then by pulling it, and lifting the foot at the same^time, the
horse will be brought to the ground, if he be not a very
powerful one. Or the following plan, if the operator prefer,
will answer the same purpose ; it is frequently adopted by
professionals in the Western States for throwing very power-
ful animals. It consists in raising one of the fore-feet of
the horse, doubling the knee, and keeping a strap around
the fetlock, fastening the foot close to the arm or shoulder.
The horse then stands on three legs. Having next put on
a surcingle, pass a long strap through it, fastening one end
round the fetlock of the other fore-foot. Attach the other
to the surcingle when the animal is down, so close as to de-
prive him of the use of the limb.

When either of the above courses has been adopted, the
horse is confined to the ground very nearly in the attitude
represented in the Illustrated London News, entirely power

less, in which position he may be caressed or handled as the
operator thinks proper.

If he has much fear of any particular object, or there is
anything that it is wished to make him accustomed to, it
may be now introduced ; an umbrella, for instance, may be
opened and shut near his face. And by every practicable
method teach him —what men and horses are slow to learn
— that imaginary dangers cause more fear than realities-
This may be done by firing a pistol, beating a drum, and
many other experiments. This once accomplished, he sub-
mits to the necessities of the case ; his spirit of opposition is
broken ; and by similar treatment he may be taught many
things that it is almost impossible to impart by any other
system extant. S. E.

SPARE THE OWLS AND SAVE YOUR
WHEAT!

The following sensible letter was addressed to the Times in
favour of the Barn Owl.

Sir, — In your impression of the 9th inet. I saw a sensible
letter headed " An Owl's Larder," from Mr. Ellis, of Leicester-
shire, who, I make no doubt is a benign gentleman, from his
advocating the cause of a valuable and much persecuted bird,
viz , the white, or barn owl. Many sportsmen give an indis-
criminate order to their keepers to destroy all vermin but the
fox, and among them (in many cases in the ignorance of both)
the poor owl is ranked. The consequence is, in some districts,
they are nearly extinct, and where this is the case the stacks
and barns swarm with mice. Last summer I witnessed the
getting in of a small stack of wheat in Shropshire, which the
owner supposed would yield enough for his family, of wife and
three servants, for eight or nine months. All that be got from
it fit to send to the mill was 4^ bushels. 400 mice were
killed, and as many more, we supposed, escaped. These ani-
mals, as well as young rats, require vegetation and water
At dusk they come out, and out at the same time comes the
owl. No doubt they were created by an all-wise Providence
to keep these vermin under, as the rook is for the destruction
of the wireworm, and the toad for slugs. If it were not so we
should be eaten up. They know by instinct how to go about
their calling better than we do. If the rook and owl do pilfer
a little at times when pinched by hunger, the labourer must
have his hire; and with all our sagacity we cannot master
them like they can. The cat kills more game in a season than
the owl in his lifetime, and the farmer, with salt and chemicals^
which cost him a good deal of money, cannot keep the wire-
worm out of his land.

In former days, in the country, they had the " owlert" hole
in their barns, as regularly as the pitching hole, for his ingress
and egress, many of which I find are stopped up. During five
summers in the vicinity I have mentioned, I have only seen one
owl skimming the meadows at nightfall. This year an unfor-
tunate one flew over the cricket-ground at dusk one evening,
when the first thing that occurred to a young sportsman was
to fetch his gun and shoot him. This is being worse than
people we call barbarians, for'in India they religiously, and by
law, protect two useful birds— the Brahmin kite and the adju-
tant. In Barbary the stork is safe, where they say, " On the
houses they choose for their nest no evil cometh."

I remain, your most obedient servant,

London. Orbilius.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

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THE SUBSTITUTION OF BARLEY FOR OATS IN FEEDING HORSES.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH.

The extreme drought of 1857 having considerably re-
duced thf; return of oats, the sowings which we hoped to
find sufficient for our wants have not answered our
expectations. From the month of January we perceived
that the harvest of 1858 would be deficient, and we re-
quested one of our neighbours to lend us a crusher of
the manufacture of ofM. Cambray hoping by its em-
ployment to reduce our consumption of oats. This
neighbour did not employ it, being under the influence
of his servants, who finding that it added considerably
to their labour by its use, had in a manner refused it,
caring little otherwise to economise their employers'
oats. This neighbour kindly granted our request so
much the more readily, that, according to him, his
crusher was of no value, as his servants could not make
it work. Having examined the mechanism, we found
that they had placed in the gearings, for purposes too
apparent, small pieces of wood, which absolutely stopped
the working. After having removed the obstacles,
cleaned and greased the machine, we got it to work well ;
but it did not continue long on account of the system of
the cylinders, which were grooved, the edges of which
were soon blunted, to the extent that the grain passed
without being crushed. We have since replaced this
crusher by one of M. Legendres flatting crushers
(aplaiisseursj, from St. Jean d'Angely, the cylinders
of which being smooth and solid, are almost indestructi-
ble. It is also preferable for the grain to be flattened
rather than broken, because in the latter case it forms
itself into flour, which clogs the mouths of the horses,
and flies into their eyes and nostrils when they blow
over it.

I state these facts only to point out on the one hand
that very frequently the employment of machines in the
hands of malevolent or inexperienced persons become
useless, and, on the other, that a system, however
attractive at first inspection, sometimes fails in practice.

By means of this instrument we have been enabled to
reduce to one-sixth our allowance of oats, and might
probably reduce them still more. Oats crushed or flat-
tened double their bulk ; barley increases in bulk only
one-third. In the meanwhile the stock of oats is
being reduced; and the price having risen much above
the ordinary rate, we entertained the idea of replacing it
by some other kind of grain. M. Millet, who had re-
sided a long time in Spain where barley is exclusively
substituted for oats in feeding horses, persuaded us to
adopt its use. We have still a sufficient stock of this
grain (spring barley), which we had intended for the use
of our people, but at the low price of wheat there was
no perceptible economy in such an application of it, and
we did not hesitate to give them pure wheaten-bread,
in order to appropriate the barley to the feeding of the
horses.

The price of oats at the beginning of March, 1858,
was already, for winter oats weighing 50 to 51 kilo-
grammes per hectolitre, from 10 to 11 francs; and for
spring oats weighing 40 to 41 kilos, per hectolitre, from
8 francs 50 cents, to 9 francs. Spring barley of good
quality, weighing from 62 to 63 kilos, per hectolitre,
worth 8 f. 75 c. to 9 f. Besides this, we knew that the
weight of the oats includes all the husk which covers the
grain, whilst barley has only a pellicle, the weight of
which is much below that of oats. An equal weight of
barley, therefore, contains a much greater quantity of
flour, and is consequently more nutritious.

After making some calculations we have been satisfied
that the employment of barley in feeding our horses will
eff'ect a considerable saving, and we decided, in spite of
some little resistance on the pait of our labourers, and
blame from some of our neighbours, that barley should
henceforth replace oats in the daily rations of the stables.
These contained four stout horses, two of them five
years old, and about IS^ hands high, and the other two
rather smaller. It only remained to determine in what
proportion with the oats we should give the barley.

One of the strongest of our horses is employed ia
two ways. He ploughs, does the carting of the farm
with the others, draws our four-wheeled carriage, goes
in the tilted cart, and sometimes is used for the saddle.
This double service requires a little more food in corn
than was given to the other horses which were exclusively
employed in tillage. It was resolved that the ration per
day of whole oats 17i pints (10 litres), at the periods of
heavy work, reduced to 12|to 14 pintswith lighter labour,
should be replaced by 11 i pints of barley. The other
horses being rather smaller, and which received in times
of heavy labour 9 pints of oats, reduced at other periods,
was allowed about 5^ pints of barley, reduced according
to circumstances, as with oats. The two other horses,
which were allowed 14 pints of oats during heavy labour
and reduced according to circumstances to 9 or 10 pints,
were allowed 9 pints of barley, with reductions according
to the work.

The hay which our horses were then eating was
not of the best quality ; we gave them about 241bs.
each per day : this was a large allowance, but that of
straw had been withheld during the winter on account
of its scarcity. The harvest of 1857 yielded but little
forage or straw, at least with us ; the straw was pre-
served for the flocks, and what they rejected was used
for litter. Our horses and cows were littered with
young heather well mixed with herbage, forming a litter
sufficiently fine and proper for dung. Our dung-hill
bottoms of this year being composed chiefly of marly
earths, we have renounced for the season littering the
stables, &c., with marl, which would have supplied a
compost unsuitable to the nature of our soil.

220

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Barley was supplied to our horses broken or flattened,
and in spite of the fears of our labourers and neigh-
bours, and even the doubts of our veterinary surgeon,
they have preserved their spirit, vigour, a shining sMn,
and good health ,• and our saddle-horse has not relaxed
in his pace. In the meanwhile our teams have been
employed in working the Dombasle plough, drawn by
two animals only, on all our fallows, which are of a
close nature, stony, and often in rather steep undula-
tions. The work is continued at an average of ten
hours, and sometimes more.

The ejections of the horses exhibit no indications of
the barley they receive, and it was not till the 6th July
that they ceased to have that ration, and resumed the
winter oats, of which the crop, injured by the frost of
the season, has been very scanty. We give it to them
flattened, and in less quantity than of the spring oats.

What led me to speak of the ejections of our horses
was, that one day in going to Loches, the chief town of
the Arrondissement in which we are situated, we ob-
served upon the road horse-dung that was literally
crawjwerf with grains of whole barley; and we judged
from that, that if our horses had received their rations
of barley unbroken, we should have seen justified the
prediction which we had opposed, namely, that our
horses would lose their strength in eating barley. In
fact, a great part would have passed into the stomach
and intestines without being digested. Another ob-
servation that we bave made is, that since our horses re-
ceive their corn broken or flattened, the fowls no longer
come to scratch ia their dung to seek there the nourish-
ment ejected from the stomach of the animals.

An old soldier has assured us that in mixing whole
barley with cut-straw, the horses would masticate and
digest it better. This is worth a trial.

Since the experience of three mouths has proved to us
that broken barley can well supply the place of oats in
feeding horses, without injury to their vigour or health,
let us see by a reference to figures, what are the econo-
mic advantages to be derived, from this substitution :

8. d.

1 Horse 17^ pints oats 0 8J

„ „ lOi pints barley 0 5|

0 3

2 Horse, 8^ pints cats 0 4^

„ „ 5J pints barley 0 2|

Saving ,

2 Other horses, 28 pints oats . .
„ ,, 17i pints barley.,

0 \\

1 2
0 9

Saving 0 5

The saving for the four horses is, therefore, as fol-
lows :

First horse 3d.

Second horse l|d.

Third and fourth horses . . 5d.

9id. per day.
Or £14 8s. Hid. per year.

The prices current given are those of the markets of
Blere, Amboise, Loches (Indres-et- Loire), for 1858.

It appears that at the last market of Blere, which
is important, oats were worth 12 francs per hectolitre.
I ought to state that it is rarely that oats reach and
retain the price they have done since the harvest of 1857,
and that it ought to maintain and even surpass it after
that of 1858. Spring barley rarely exceeds the
price of 10 or 12 frances per hectolitre. That of winter
barley, or cscoitrgcon, being lighter than that of spring,
but heavier than even winter oats, never attains those
rates. Cora Millet,

(Corresponding Member of the Imperial
and Central Society of Agriculture.)

The following observations on the same subject, are
translated from the Agricultural Chronicle, of the
second fortnight of July 1858, in the Journal of Prac-
tical Agricullure of that month.

" Our readers will see that Madame Millet has shewn
that the crushing of oats admits of a diminution of
allowance in a given proportion. This consequence has
been strongly opposed by M. de Behague, who adduces
an experiment, in which he had found a team consider-
ably weakened by the new system. Bat Messrs.
Renault and Moll have satisfactorily explained the
anomalies that they had observed in the use of crushed
or flattened oats. After crushing, that grain is nearly
doubled in volume or bulk ; and many agriculturists who
distribute the allowance to the cattle by bulk, have given
in crushed or flattened oats the same measure they were
accustomed to supply of whole oats, which was exactly
to reduce the food to the extent of one-half, imposing
upon the animal a severe fast. It is by weight only
that we can compare diff'erent allowances, such as has
constantly been done by M. Dombasle. To conclude
this incidental question, let us add that according to
men who fully understand horses, and feed a great num-
ber of them, the crushing is of no real service except to
old animals ; whilst for young horses, and other animals
in the strength of life, it is desirable to continue giving
them whole oats.

" But it is no longer a question of oats, but of what
can be substituted in lieu of them .' Madame Millet
recommends crushed barley, in the proportion of 5 J
pints of barley to 8f pints of oats. M. de Behague
thinks that rye boiled may be recommended, in the
same proportion with oats as is given in barley above.
M. Bella states that he has found it useful to replace
half the allowance of oats by an equal quantity of boiled
rye. M. Bailly, who commonly gives about 201bs. of
oats, has substituted for this allowance 15;^lbs. oats and
4f lbs. of boiled rye. Everybody has acknowledged
that too great a proportion of either barley or rye oc-
casions founderings, whilst no inconveniences are ex-
perienced by mixing them in proper proportions. As
to the manner of administering the new food, opinions
appear to vary considerably ; and the question appears
to us to be determinable only by extended experiments.
M. Delafond is of opinion that we ought to be con-
tented with a simple maceration in water ; the rye being
put into a cask, water is poured upon it to the extent
of filling up the interstices, and at the end of six hours

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

231

the grain is quite fit for use. M, Delafond thinks that
this maceration is much better than boiling, which
furnishes a food too pasty. It is proper to state that
the siliquas of colza mixed with the boiled grain
remedies in part this inconvenience, and otherwise form
of themselves a nourishment that ought not to be neg-
lected. We may add that in lieu of barley or rye,

buckwheat or steeped maize might be used instead of
oats : even wheat may be substituted, if treated in the
same manner by maceration.* This must be arranged
by individuals, so as to give the least costly and at the
same time the most wholesome food, consulting the
averages, and substituting one grain for another, taking
weight for weight."

DEFICIENCY OF SUPPLIES OF FLAX.

Notwithstanding the enormous increase in the foreign
imports and home production of fibrous materials, the
manufacturers are all complaining of insufficient sup-
plies. Flax, cotton, wool, and other animal and vege-
table substances used for spinning, weaving, &c., are
greatly behind the demand for manufacture, and for
consumption and export. The mill-owners and manufac-
turers are now putting their shoulders to the wheel, and
trying to remedy this evil. The provincial journals are
filled with notices of meetings of the various parties in-
terested, to consider the best plan of operation for bring-
ing about the desired efiect. Chambers of Commerce,
manufacturers, and mill-owners are laying their heads
together, to decide what are the best steps to be taken to
drawhitlier larger supplies.

The Manchester cotton-spinners have formed their
Cotton-supply Association, and are moving energeti-
cally, calling upon every producing country, and every
locality fitted to raise cotton-wool to send their in-
creased supplies.

The woolstaplevs, and wool manufacturers also, of
Yorksh're, have just been agitating for further supplies
of the raw material, and are casting their eyes about to
discover from whence they can draw larger quantities
of wool. And now we perceive the flax-spinners and
linen manufacturers are in equal straits, and are
seeking to promote the culture of Flax in India and
elsewhere.

Now let us examine the position of the supply of
this important raw material.

According to the latest returns, there appear to be
now in the United Kingdom 417 flax mills or factories,
with about 1,300,000 spindles, and 8,700 power looms,
employing 80,2G0 persons. Of these, 139 factories are
in England and Wales, 168 in Scotland, and 110 in
Ireland. Scotland and Ireland emjjloy two-thirds of
the hands, and keep 846,000 of the spindles going.
Now by the present accounts from Ireland, we find
that there are now, on the average, of idle and partially
employed spindles about one-eighth of the whole num-
ber, that whole number being about 600,000 ; and all
the mills totally out of work, caused chiefly by the
dearth and scarcity of the raw material. The imports
of foreign fibre for the past year fell far below the re-
quirements of the trade, and the home cultivation does
not extend proportionately to the demand. In the
last twelve months the price of hand-scutched flax has
advanced nearly 50 per cent. Capitalists (we are told
by the organ of the Irish linen trade) ready to invest

largely in the erection of power-loom factories for the
weaving of linen, are kept back from engaging in the
enterprise because of the state of the markets and the
famine rates for flax. The produce of the 260,000
acres now under cultivation with flax in Ireland is fully
absorbed by the wants of local factory owners and the
demand for continental markets. Supposing, too, any
free- trade measures were carried in France, the linen
manufacturers of that country would be able to
take 10,000 tons per annum of that quality of flax
which cannot be raised on their own lands. The Irish
flax-spinning trade, we all know, is of vital importance
to the general commerce of Ulster : every incidental
circumstance that affects the linen manufacture gives
its peculiar tone, in a greater or less degree, to all
other sections of trade, from that of the highest mer-
chant to the humblest shopkeeper.

But it is not only Ireland that is affected by this
deficiency of supply ; the evil presses equally great on
English and Scotch spinners. Hence the linen manu-
facturers of Dundee and Leeds are uniting to consider
their prospects and the remedies.

The Chambers of Commerce of these two towns have
agreed that a Flax-Supply Association, composed of the
various flax spinners and manufacturers in Great
Britain, should be formed, and a fund raised to send
out intelligent and practical men to instruct the natives
of India in the growth of flax, and to point out to them
the advantage that would accrue to them by improving
the quality of the flax straw.

Although there is necessarily a limit in this country
to the extended cultivation of flax, owing to the ex-
hausting nature of the crop, and the stipulations in
leases, which, in many cases, prevent its culture, yet
there is no reason why in India and our Colonies, where
there is abundance of cheap land at disposal, its pro-
duction should not be stimulated and extended. In
India it might be produced in abundance ; and there
does not appear to bo any valid or sufficient reason
why, with land so much cheapei", and the cost of labour
so trifling, the fibres of India — some of which excel,
if they do not surpass, the best of Fairope — should not,
with a little encouragement, care, and perseverance, be-
come a large and constantly increasing item of import
here.

Four years ago the Agri-horticultural Society of the

* This grain ia now cheaper, measure for measure, than
barley, oats, or beans, and its use in feeding cattle and pigs is
extensively nractiaed. — TraJislator,

Q 2

222

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Puujaub took very active measures for the promotion
and extension of flax culture in India, having special
regard to the fibre. Even the present limited cultiva-
tion of flax, carried on solely for the sake of the seed
as an oil-producing staple, is considered remunerative
by the landowners and growers ; and the more impor-
tant produce, from its fibre, would necessarily very
considerably increase the profit to be derived from
greater attention to the culture, &c.

Several tons of the best seed were ordered out from
England. Premiums were offered for the largest ex-
tent of land placed under cultivation with it: liberal
prices were offered for the produce. Several sets of
heckles, of the ordinary kind in use amongst the flax-
growers of Ireland, such as the natives might be taught
to use with little difficulty, and which would enable
them to prepare a fair merchantable article, were or-
dered ; and a dozen combs, used for stripping the seed,
with a few handbrakes, made on the most approved
plan as models, should the flax cultivation be greatly
extended. In the course of a year or two subsequently,
the land under flax in the Punjaub produced, we be-
lieve, about 5,000 tons of seed and 15,000 tons offibre;
but we have not heard what was the quality or pecu-
niary result of the experiment on the fibre, or what was
the opinion entertained of the article exported.

But growing flax is not growing rice, or oil seeds, or

pulse, in the careless and mixed manner of the Indian
natives ; nor is the preparation of it to be left to inex-
perienced individuals. Something more than combs
and heckles will be required before an article will be
produced in sufficient quantity and quality to compete
with the home-grown material, or even to supply the
place of that from Europe and Egypt. Unless the
most improved methods of preparation are adopted —
and the cultivation will require a vast deal of care to
meet the desideratum — a superior fibre will not be pro-
duced to realize a sufficient price to pay all concerned.
The importance of the question of flax may be judged
of by a comparison of the progress of production,
manufacture, &c. In 1850 we imported 1,822,918
cwts. of flax, dressed and undressed. In 1857 our
foreign imports only reached 1,624,204 cwts. The
quantity of linen and yarn exported in 1850 was in
value ^^4,845,030, and the quantity kept for home
consumption was valued at £9,700,000; together,
igl4,545,030. In 1857 the value of the linen and yarn
exported was upwards of .£6,000,000 ; and if we as-
sume the proportion used at home at about £11,000,000,
we have a total of £17,000,000. But there are the
other products of seed, oil, and oilcake to be added,
which bring up the total present annual value of our
commerce in flax to nearly £22,000,000 annually;
making this a very considerable interest.

ON LABOURERS' COTTAGES.

The slow and very gradual upward progress of the
social system renders it very probable, if not absolutely
certain, that much time will yet elapse before the
amelioration of the labouring classes be placed on the
permanent security of deriving an adequate competency
from the awards of social distribution ; and until this
only true and legitimate ground be obtained, which can
only apply to a generation yet unborn, the existing race
can only be benefited by the humanity and kindaess of
their employers, who are men of wealth, or who are
prompted by benevolence to extend the means of com-
fort to the labour which supplies every demand and
operates every enjoyment. The social system affords
but a scanty recompence for the moil and toil of labour;
and when this irksome bondage is accompanied with an
uncomfortable accommodation, the burden of life ap-
proaches an almost insupportable condition. The
lowermost grade of society is placed far from the ad-
vances of the improving world, and much time is spent
and a long misery is endured before the progress of
amelioration reaches the abodes of poverty and neg-
lect. A comfortable accommodation is fully equal in
necessity to the adequate supply of the necessaries of
life : the want of the former destroys the enjoyment
of the latter, and the external sensations are as acute
and affecting as the inward appetites and cravings of
nature.

Till within the currency of the jiresent century, and
in many places at this present time, the single cottage

of a labourer is limited to one apartment, on the ground-
floor, in which the whole family is huddled as in a pin-
fold, where the decencies of life cannot be preserved.
There is no second-floor ; and the beds being placed on
the ground, the habitation is nothing better than the
stall of a stable, in which the animal eats and sleeps,
and performs every function. But this very shameful
arrangement has been gradually removed by introducing
the second-floor for the sleeping apartments, and also
some back premises for scullery accommodation. This
alteration has proceeded from manufacturing towns,
which have ever formed the germs of freedom and the
cradle of human improvements. Yet very much remains
to be done : in many districts of country no change has
yet happened ; the old buildings remain, and even form
patterns for new erections. Within not many years
past, the provision of better cottages and general
accommodation for the labourers, both in town and
country, has engaged very considerable attention ; and
various publications have been made, of designs for
dwellings, with estimates and general (jbservations. Oar
remarks will notice these designs in detail, and conclude
with our own ideas, which have been derived from a very
extensive practical acquaintance.

The first notice alights upon a book of designs that
has been devised and published by Mr. Weaver, an
architect, of Somersetshire. These plans adopt the very
essential requisite that the sleeping apartments be placed
on a second-floor, and the elevations are very justly

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223

correspondiug with that idea. But the accommodation
on the ground-floor is confined to one sitting apartment
joined with a wash-house and pantry, and a wood-house
is some times attached. This provision is little or
nothing better than the old and yet prevailing pinfold,
or stall, in which a whole family is contained, and hud-
dled together without distinction of age, sex, or the
occasion of meeting together. A scullery and pantry
are filthy though necessary adjuncts, and never should
form an integral part of any accommodation, but merely
an attachment for the purpose of making more useful
the body of the habitation. The front of the single
cottage extends only in the length of one room, and
consequently is wanting in the lively appearance which
is presented by the house of two rooms, and the door
being in a porch attached to the east or west end of the
cottage is deprived of the sunny warmth which is very
conducive both to comfort and pleasure. In most cases
the door in front of any house is most inviting and also
most agreeably convenient. A narrow front, with a
length backwards, does not convey an agreeable idea of
a house, nor does it present an aptitude of an equal de-
gree with the extension in front. If two rooms be so
placed, one behind the other, the posterior one is cold
and gloomy, instead of being accessible to light, and
hence enlivening. In large erections these positions are
unavoidable, but in the case of cottages the adoption of
an open front is easy. Mr. Weaver places one cottage
wholly behind another ; and the latter being only one
room in width in the front, gives to the group of two
cottages an ill-arranged appearance, besides altogether
immuring the posterior cottage and shutting it out from
heat and light. Equally unhappy is the placing to-
gether in an angle the doors of two distinct cottages ;
in the case of four being grouped together, it brings into
too near a contact the business of two families, the
mixing of which causes jars and broils and endless
quarrels and disputes. The fire-place of any house is
awkwardly fixed right opposite the door, as in several of
the present designs ; it is best placed on a different side
of the cottage, or has the door opening upon its site, and
concealing the view.

The style of building, the Old English, is probably
the best for the cottages of the country ; but Mr. Wea-
ver's is perhaps too ornamental, and the very plainest
kind is most becoming for the country labourer ; and for
upper servants the style may be a little advanced.
The roof projecting at the eaves and over the gables
very much protects the walls, and is a good adoption.
A porch to the front central door is also a useful addi-
tion : it affords some little interior room, and breaks the
front line of uniform sameness.

The cost of Mr. Weaver's cottages is high, from £"'100
to £150 in each separate design. Our own experience
and extensive correspondence has found the average ex-
pense of a single cottage to be £80 to £''90 ; and it
understands plain work and no ornaments whatever.
The cost of cottages should be expended in providing
accommodation, and not in useless devices.

There is a very great want in the designs now noticed in
the total absence of any back premises, as poultry-house,

pigstye, wash-house, and for fuel and ashes. As before
observed, these accommodations should not form an in-
tegral part of any house, but placed behind the cottage,
and built in a low elevation. A square area behind the
cottage is the most convenient arrangement, and we
think Mr. Weaver has very much neglected the
labourer's comfort in not showing these very necessary
appendages.

The explanations of the designs are short and meagre j
the digging of the foundations, the draining of it, the
flooring, and the site and aspect of the cottage are little
noticed or altogether omitted, and the mention of a
garden nowhere occurs. This article is the very first
accommodation in providing country cottages.

We meet Mr. Weaver's views most cordially in having
the sleeping apartments in three rooms, on a second
floor sufficiently elevated ; and we like the style of
building, though the cost is too large. Here our agree-
ment stops. We wish to see two rooms on the ground
floor — a sitting-apartment, with boiler and oven ; and a
better room ; a back area with the small accommodations,
and a garden attached in not less extent than one-
eighth of an acre in extent. There is a want of variety
in the designs ; all the plans are square in the shape,
similarly designed, and uniformly elevated. Besides
the square and the rectangle, there are many forms
which may constitute a cottage, single or grouped.
Variety is pleasing ; and a uniform sameness tires the
observation and palls the appetite of curiosity. The
inventive power seems wanting, which, beyond all other
qualities, stamps the professional aptitude.

A book of designs for the dwellings of the labouring
classes has been composed by Mr. Roberts, who is hono-
rary architect to the Society for Improving the Condition
of the Labouring Classes, and published by the Society
at Exeter Hall. The plans have relation to buildings in
cities or towns, and also in the country ; the former
being joined and largely grouped, and the latter all
double or two together. The same objection exists as
in Mr. Weaver's ground plans — in having only one
living-room with scullery, which latter is only a useful
appendage, and not a special division. The porch, open-
ing by an inner door into the living-room, is formed in-
side the house, and consequently occupies a space of the
apartment unnecessarly, as it can be placed outside, and
not interfere with the inner extent. A second-floor is
most justly allotted to the sleeping apartments ; and
the size is very conformable. The style of building is
very neat and appropriate ; the elevation is suitable, and
the proportions just. But a still more uniform same-
ness prevails than is seen in Mr. Weaver's designs ; the
plans differ little or nothing in the arrangement of the
apartments, or in the elevations. The ground plans
are entirely the same throughout, in a front living-room,
with a scullery behind, and extending longitudinally
or laterally. The only difference is seen in the porches
being alternately placed outside and inside the dwelling,
and in the elevations being wholly plain, or having a
gabled front placed on alternate sides of the two cottages
that are joined together. The front of one cottage is
plain, and the other gabled, and in the next plan the

2U

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

position is reversed ; and another design has a wholly
plain front, and placed between the alternated ones.
Such is the utmost stretch of the variety that is shown.

The objection is repeated which was urged against the
last-mentioned book of designs, that no back buildings
are devised, which are so very essential to the comfort
of any human habitation. The fuel, ashes, firing, pig,
and poultry should and must be accompaniments to the
rural dwelling, and the want of them forms a most
miserable and glaring deficiency. The wash-house must
not be forgotten, as cleanliness is a great promoter of
healch, and the filth of its processes must be removed
from the living-rooms. And the want of a garden in
both sets of designs shows an ignorance or carelessness
that is incapable of making the arrangements that are
universally known and generally acknowledged to be
essential to the comforts of labour. It may be said that
these adjuncts are left to be added in the circumstances
of the different localities. On thi3 understanding, the
fact should have been mentioned and explained in an ac-
companying essay or notice, as au implication of any
essential truth betokens a deficiency of statement, and
a total want of it may suspect or establish an utter
ignorance.

The Royal English Agricultural Society has awarded
to Mr. Goddard, architect, Lincoln, a competition
prize for the best essay and design on the subject of
labourers' cottages. The designs contain two cottages
joined longitudinally, and each dwelling has on the
ground floor only one living apartment, with a scullery
or pantry behind. The want of a second sitting apart-
ment renews the former objection. The arrangement of
three bed-rooms on the second floor is most proper, and
the elevation of the cottages is very just. The author
has made a very valuable step beyond Messrs. Waver
and Roberts, in forming a back area of smdl buildings,
which makes a large addition to the value of the designs.
The door of the cottages is placed in the ends, and there
is only one to each dwelling — consequently the ventila-
tion will be imperfect, owing to the want of a tra-
versing current of air between two doors when placed
on the opposite sides of a house, and cleanliness will be
prevented, and filthiness encouraged by every ingress
and egress from one door. This objection is a fatal one
in point of health and comfort.

In any of the publications mentioned, no notice is
made of the site of the cottages, or of the aspect which
it obtains. This consideration is of much value in the
formation and location of human dwellings. The
climate of the country in most cases must determine the
position of the habitation ; and in Britain the most
eligible direction is that the front of the house embraces
the south, as being the mildest and warmest quarter of
the heavens. In South Wales and in the south-west
corner of England the south is a rainy and stormy point,
and the front of houses is necessarily turned from it :
but in all other parts of the kingdom the south is the
preferable quarter; the west is generally boisterous
and rainy ; and the east, though bringing sharp colds,
is drier than the west, and less stormy. When the
nature of the ground, or anyloctil circumstances, render

necessary a deviation from the southerly position of
dwellings, the front is best turned to the south east, but
not reaching the full complement of the quarterly divi-
sion of the compass. We find that the ancient Romans,
with their usual acuteness, paid an essential regard, even
in the mild climate of Italy, to the position of their
dwellings, and gave directions not to be mistaken :
"yEdificium, unius lateris longitudine in quo frons erit,
meridianam partem respiciat : in primis angulo recipiens
ortum soils hyberni, et paululuai ab occidente avertatur
hyemali. Ita proveniet, ut per hyemem sole illustretur,
et calores ejus restate nonsentiat et lecto fruatur aspectu"
(Palladius, de Re Rustica). This rule can be applied
without exception all over Britain, especially in the
northern parts, where the west winds are very boisterous
and rainy ; and even in South Britain, where the
southerly winds are very wet and boisterous, and main-
tain the character of " pluvialis auster," the easterly
frontage of dwellings is preferable to the western quarter,
which is more windy than the east, but less rainy than
the south. It has been recommended to place a cottage
so that the sun shines on every side and end of it during
the daily circuit of the heavens, and this position will
require the front to face the south east ; the east end
of the house would receive the rising sun, the front will
be warmed by the rays of the midday, the west end will
receive the afternoon sun, and the back part be cheered
by the last effulgence of the setting luminary. But
many circumstances will concur to prevent the adoption
of this rule to any extent.

Having stated our objections to the designs of the
three chief contributions of the present time in the matter
of labourers' cottages, and having noticed the points of
agreement betwixt the arrangements which these books
contain and the suggestions of our own experience, we
proceed to lay down these our notions on this very
important point, and to state such reasons and give such
directions in advance as are justified and can be
allowed by the irresistible current-going advancement of
human civilization.

Our introduction consists in three adoptions — that
every cottage have two living apartments on the ground
floor, three sleeping rooms on the second floor, and a
back area of small accommodations, where the acts of
cleansing are performed, and where articles are con-
cealed which never should be seen. Having laid down
these premises, we proceed to describe the accommoda-
tion and building of a cottage in the ideal, and atthe same
time the very possible conditions.

The foundation must be dug to a solid stratum of some
hardened body, on which a building can be raised. A
depth of two feet will generally find a firm foundation,
and the trench must be at least three feet in width,
which will allow a projection of 9 inches on each side of a
wall of 18 inches in thickness. The undermost layer
must be formed of large flattened stones of sufficient
weight to take and retain a very firm bed, and afford a
secure resting for the wall. Where stones cannot be
got, a bed of concrete or bricks must be used, and pro-
jecting on each side of the wall, on filling the trench.
The bottom of the excavated area of the cottage must

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

225

have an inclination sufficient to cany the water to one
of the four corners, where a drain will receive and con-
vey it from the dwelling. The whole area must be filled
with small broken stones to the height on which the
floor of the cottage will be laid, and the top filled
and levelled with mortar, for the purpose of
supporting the flooring bricks. This interstitial
cavity below the floor, and the water being
gathered to a corner by the slope of the bottom of the
excavation, and carried away by a drain, will pro-
vide a dry flooring to the cottage, which is a most es-
sential advantage to any human habitation. The thick-
ness of the walls may be 18 inches of bricks, or 2 feet
of stones, and treated with mortar in the usual way. The
sub-division walls will be 1 foot of thickness in bricks.
The height of the walls above the floor will be 14 feet
which will place the bed rooms in the side walls and
partly in the roof; or the height of 18 feet will allow
the walled position of the sleeping apartments. The
pitch of the roof may be l-Sth above the rectangle ; and
slates are the best materials for covering, and tiles next>
and then thatch, which admits a flatter hypothenuse or
side of the roof. The roof projects over the gables and
side walls, as it tends much to keep the walls dry, and is
also a kind of ornament to the humble dwelling.

The exterior length of the cottage is 40 feet, which
allows two living apartments in length, and of very suf-
ficient size, after deducting the width of the inner
and outer walls. The width is 20 feet over walls.
The door of entry is best in the front of any
habitation, and must be central, and dividing the house
into equal halves. A porch is a useful and ornamen-
tal appendage, as it aff"ords some little interior accom-
modation, and breaks the exterior sameness of bare walls.
Like the preface to a book, it may indicate good treat-
ment and comfort within. The back door opens be-
hind, in the furthermost corner of the back wall of the
living apartment, and leads directly into the back area;
ventilation is thus promoted, and not by a blast or
strong current of wind, as when the front and back doors
are placed directly opposite, but by a zigzag direction of
air, which introduces fresh respiration, and removes the
contaminated effluvia, without causing any perception of
colds or currents. The side walls of the ground floor
rooms are 9 or 10 feet high, in order to give the inesti-
mable advantage, along with the constant introduction
of unrespired gas, of the inmates breathing in a large
volume of air. This point has ever been much over-
looked ; but not one is deserving of more serious atten-
tion. It must be joined with the removal of every filth
from the living apartments to the back area of small ac-
commodations. The floors of the rooms are paved with
flooring bricks, and the best room may be boarded, as
local circumstances direct. The walls are covered with
two coats of plain plastering, and the roofs of the rooms
are ceiled. When the bedrooms are })laced partly in
the roof of the cottage, the ceiling will be fastened to the
purlings and joinings of the bearers. The flooring
of the sleeping apartments is of plain boards, and
grooved. The stair springs from the kitchen at the back
wall, and rises to the second floor, in the centre of the

cottage. The cavity beneath the stair affords a cellar of
neatness and convenience. The best room is provided
with a small fire-place, of the common size ; and in the
kitchen is placed a fire-place of larger dimensions, with
an oven and boiler, on each side of it. These articles
are the permanent occupants of the cottage.

The back area of small buildings is confined in extent
to the length of the cottage, and extends backwards in
the extent, to admit the necessary number of accommo-
dations. These small houses are — Washhouse, fuel,
ashes, privy, pig-sty, lumber, and poultry-house. The
exterior surrounding wall is 10 feet high, and the build-
ings lean to it, with one side of a roof, and are 12 feet
wide. Poultry are natives of a warm latitude, and
require much warmth ; and they form a very agreeable
and profitable employment to the labourer's family. It
is a good design to place the poultry-house under
the roof of the cottage, and forming part of the house,
occupying a width of six or eight feet between the two
fire-places, and thus enjoying the heat of the fuel. The
door opens backward into the area, and being provided
with a pane of glass in the upper part, will admit the
necessary light. The length of forty feet will allow two
sufficiently large apartments after the deduction of the
poultry-house ; when it is not introduced the cottage
may be thirty- four or thirty-six feet in length. The
placing of the poultry-house in the immediate con-
tiguity of warmth is a large improvement in the design-
ing of labourers' cottages. The back area or open space
is indispensable for the feeding and assembling of the
animals.

The site of cottages should be on dry ground, near to
or fronting a road, and surrounded by or forming the
front line of a garden of one-eighth or one-sixth of an
acre in extent. The aspect is best in the south and
south-east quarters, for the reasons before given ; and,
in the words of Palladius, " ita lecto fruatur aspectu."
The preferable style of building is the plain Old English,
with as much ornament as fancy or ability may direct.
The two vents will form two chimneys in the centre of
the cottage, standing on a square platform across the
roof, and joining in the angles of a square or hexagon.
The windows are of diamond panes of glass, in light
iron frames ; and one-halt must be made to open, and
that at pleasure. The northern parts of the kingdom
require the stronger construction of wooden sashes
and timber frames. Climate is the parent and promoter
of ornament ; and the substantial naked style of build-
ing in Scotland has been compelled by the boisterous
and savage elements to which external fabrics are ex-
posed. This consideration will have influence in choos-
ing the aspect and fixing the style of execution of build-
ings.

The preferable mode of supplying water to all coun-
try buildings, as farmeries and cottages which are not
far distant, is, by seeking a spring of water in some
higher ground, and directing it, or a natural issue of
water, in a covered conduit or pipe to a cistern or tank
to hold a quantity, from which a pipe will convey the
water to every required locality, and the consumption
regulated by a ballcock. One pipe will serve several

226

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cottages ; and the ruin- water from the roofs of all the
houses, collected in a cistern, will supply a jet of water
after each occasion in the privy, which will convey the
excrements in a sloping direction to the ashes-house,
where a rich compost will be formed of the mixtures for
the use of the garden.

Such a cottage as has been now described will cost
the average sum of £80 to ^90 ; and this upon our
own authority of experience and much inquiry, which is
corroborated by Mr. Goddard's estimates in the prize
designs to the Royal English Agricultural Society. The
estimates of Messrs. Weaver and Roberts, before noticed,
seem to us to be too high. It is wholly useless, and
very iujudicious, to expend on such matters an ex-
pense beyond what the social system will allow, or to
force an advancement till circumstances are in existence
to support it. It is very : readily conceded that this
support is now alive, and has existed for some time,
and most loudly demands the extension of an imperious
benevolence in the affair of the accommodations of
labourers. But with this very strong auxiliary induce-
ment, a prudential caution is always to be recommended,
as a much too far advanced movement very frequently
causes a retrogression or a noxious stagnation. Palla-
dius, before quoted, expressly says, " J5dificium, pro
agri merito, et pro fortuna divi, oportet institui."

Though this pointed observation may not now apply
in direct force at this day, yet the meaning is evidently
circumstantial — that cottages be built according to the
estate of the inhabitants and the ability or benevolence
of the propietor ; for such are the ruling directors of
our times, and by them all movements in such matters
must be governed.

The expression of Palladius is quite in accordance
with the fashions of feudalism — that the condition of the
labouring class depends on the charity and benevolence

of their employers, and also upon the value that accrues
to the rich from the employment that is exacted.
Labour has not yet risen above this degradation, and all
the boasted civilization of the present age has not
emerged from the mud of the feudal arrangements.
In the country, more especially than in towns, the
labourers depend on benevolence, and many steps of
advancement remain to be surmounted before the total
emancipation be effected. In the meantime a gradual
progress goes on very steadily, and the present purpose
consists in leading the progression in a judicious man-
ner, and by no means pushing so far a-head as to lose
sight of the essentially attendant circumstances. These
are the social conditions of labour, as marked by the
grades of society, and the manners and habits it pos-
sesses of following the career of advancement. The
latter must be chiefly guided by the former considera-
tion, and be regulated by their instructions.

When cottages are grouped by any number being
joined together, an expense is thought to be saved ; but
we agree with Mr. Weaver, that grouping is not eligi-
ble beyond four dwellings, or rather should be restricted
to two cottages, which may be joined by a longitudinal
central wall, along which are placed the best room and
the kitchen ; the former constituting the front of the
cottage, and the latter joining the back area, and opening
into it. Such cottages have the ends for front, and the
door is in a porch on the side, and placed in the joining
of the kitchen and best room. The porch opens in the
line of the cottage, and consequently the door enjoys
the benefits of the chosen aspect. The end of the cot-
tages lines the gardens, through which a side-entry
leads to the back area. A number of cottages placed
together occasions much scandalizing and gossip, and
idle assemblages.

THE GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT OF AN ORCHARD.

BY PROFESSOR TANNER.

The orchards of the West of England do not receive
that attention which their merits justify and demand.
Their value may be considerably enhanced by adopting
a judicious system, and I shall endeavour in the fol-
lowing essay to notice the essential points of manage-
ment upon which success depends.

In selecting a piece of land for an orchard we have to
consider the character of the soil and the climate of the
district. The character of the soil which is most suit-
able for the growth of the orchard is indicated by the
district in which they flourish most luxuriintly. A
review of the apple districts shows that they are on the
corn stones and marls of the old-red-sandstone forma-
tion. A strong soil is not at all objectionable provided
it is of calcareous character, and upon a moderately dry
subsoil. They are by no means confined to such soils ;
but where they are grown successfully upon soils of an
opposite character, it is by artificially producing those

conditions which are most desirable. For this reason,
although circumstances may make it desirable to raise
orchards upon land which is not naturally calculated for
them, yet this obstacle can be overcome by the adoption
of such measures as will be hereafter described. We
thus bring the question of soil within a narrow compass ;
for with this exception of excessively heavy and light
soils, there need be no preventive so far as regards the
nature of the soil.

The subsoils are more influential than the surface
soils. We can ameliorate and alter the latter, but we
cannot effect any great change in the former. There
are none more uncongenial to the apple than poor re-
tentive clays, and especially when they are yellow and
acrid in their nature. This description of earth is par-
ticularly unfavourable for all kinds of vegetable growth,
and when the roots of the apple trees pierce into it there
is immediately a stagnant growth, which is soon mani-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

fest by the unhealthy appearance of the trees. Subsoils
of this character may be improved by deep drainage,
but they will still retain that peculiarly sour nature
which is so repulsive to vegetation.

The climate also admits of considerable latitude as
regards the growth of apples, but the quality varies very
materially. The Kentish apples are very different from
the West-country fruit of Hereford, Devon, and So-
merset. The moist climate of ihe latter encourages a
very juicy fruit well suited for the manufacture of
cider, but the apples grown in the drier climate of the
East of England are remarkable for being dry and full-
flavoured, superior for a table fruit, but of far less value
for cider. We also have many gradations between the
two, but it is clear that the fall of rain and the moisture
of the air modify the quality and uses of the apples of
the district. The highly-developed flavour of some of
the American apples which are produced in hot and dry
districts still more forcibly illustrates the effect of
climate.

This influence of climate is by no means reserved to
the question of quality, but extends also to the quantity
of the produce. In this respect a dry climate in spring
or early summer has many advantages. This will at
once be evident to any person who has compared the
orchards of the East of England with those of the West.
In the former districts, when the blossom is produced,
their prospect of a crop is very much greater than in
the moister climate of the West. Here we often have a
beautiful promise, but no fruit ; and this is compara-
tively rare in the East of England. This is mainly
referable to the greater influence which frost has upon
the blossom or the bud when it is moist ; and thus the
humidity of our western climate renders it exceedingly
general. The bud will stand a " black'' frost far more
safely than a " white" frost.

The aspect of the land has influence on its climate, as
rendering it more exposed to the cold winds, which
often render white frost partial. Many a spot sheltered
from the current of the wind escapes the " hoar" frost,
whilst it is general along its course. The natural for-
mation of the district has its influence also, for if the
prevailing winds are along the course of the valleys, and
these gradually narrow, the volume of the air becomes
more and more confined as it proceeds, until its influ-
ence is really very destructive both to the blossom and
the trees. Orchards thus situated have far more dam-
age done to them than others apparently more exposed
on open plains. The intensity of Ihe winds in these
gradually-contracting valleys is a source of great loss in
orchards.

The altitude varies in its influence according to other
conditions of climate. In the East of England, it would
generally be prejudicial to the quality of the fruit, as the
loss of heat would be detected in an apple deficient in
flavour. On the other hand, in the West, we find the
higher* orchards are often more productive than those
below, in consequence of greater freedom from the

* I do not here include very elevated ground, where, of
course, the opposite is the case, but I speak of hilU of from
four to five hundred feet high.

' ' hoar" frost. In the valleys the moisture is always
greatest ; and here the fogs lie, and hence there is
frequently on the low lands a white frost when it is a
black frost higher up the hill.

For these reasons, I consider that a calcareous loamy
soil upon a dry subsoil is the best for an orchard ; that
the latter is more important than the former ; and that,
in selecting a soil for planting in the West of England,
we must give the preference to a south-eastern aspect,
avoiding alike the damp of the valleys and the violence
of the wind which sometimes gather within them.

The first step in the preparation of the field for being
made into an orchard is to secure a free and deep drain-
age. Where this does not exist naturally, it must be
supplied artificially. The nature of the soil can alone
decide the distance and depth of the drains; it is suffi-
cient for me here to say that it must be done as effectu-
ally as possible.

The field, if in good grass, may require little more to
be done to it except to secure a proper surface drainage ;
but should the land be of an inferior character, it may
be desirable to break it, in which case I should adopt
this plan : Having marked upon the ground the lines in
which the trees are to be planted, let the plough com-
mence on this line ; and a furrow-slice being turned
over, let the ploughing proceed as if for gathering the
field into lands, in the centre of which the trees shall
stand. A second plough is to follow in the furrow of
the first, and throw up its mould over the last furrow-
slice. When the first plough returns for its second round,
there will be a trench ready to receive the turf about to
be ploughed ; and, as the following plough completes the
work, we get the turf buried ten or twelve inches deep.
The work must, however, be done with a narrow furrow
throughout. Thus a deep soil is secured : the surface is
slightly rounded ; but if not sufficiently rounded, it
must be done by manual labour.

If the soil is in an unhealthy state this should be done
in the autumn, as the frosts of winter will sweeten it
very much. As soon, therefore, as the work has pro-
ceeded thus far, the trees may be planted as hereafter
described, and the working of the land may be pro-
ceeded with. This will, of necessity, vary with the
description of soil, for whereas a good loam would need
little preparation, an adhesive clay must do so. It is far
from a sound policy ever to entertain the belief that the
trees are to a great extent independent of the land be-
tween them, for if such land is in good condition, the
roots will meet within a few years. It is, therefore, as
important for the early growth as it is for the maturity
and productiveness of the orchard, that the soil should
be got into a good condition. With the exceptions of
our best quality soils, the growth of corn between the
trees is objectionable, and for this purpose green crops
and grass are decidedly preferable, because they do not
impoverish the land of those materials which the apple
requires : turnips, vetches, trifolium, clovers, and grass
offer abundant choice, according to varying circum-
stances.

The selection of fruit for an orchard is a point of con-
siderable importance, and local experience comes into re-

228

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

quiremeiit. I have prepared a list of cider fruit from
the best districts, with a description of the character of
those varieties.

From these the planter will be able to select such
as are most likely to suit him. If the climate is par-
ticularly favourable and the soil good, the best and
most valuable sorts may be selected, care being taken
to have a fair admixture of harsh and austere fruit ; for
the keeping quality of the cider depends upon this lat-
ter property. The varieties under such circumstances
may not only be select, but also few. On the other
hand, when the circumstances are not favourable, the

more hardy varieties are to be preferred, and also a
greater assortment, so that if the crop of one tree is
lost others may escape ; and the irregularity in the
blossoming of an orchard thus gives a greater chance of
a crop. Sweet apples are generally more liable to lose
their crop than sour apples ; and often when the frost
takes the former the latter escapes. The bright-coloured
apples produce, with few exceptions, the best cider,
whilst the green fruit produces inferior cider. The
quality of cider varies also with the soil producing it»
and if we except the calcareous soil, we shall find that
the richer soils, although producing more cider, yield

Name of Fkuit.

Description.

Bearer.

Character of Fruit.

Growth of Tree.

Alban

Red and green

Indifferent

Firm and juicy

Delicate.

Brierley's seedling

Yellow

Good

Firm and austere

Free.

Brienton's seedling

Yellow and red

Medium

Firm and juicy

Free.

Buaberry

White and small

Great

Soft and sweet

Cockagee

Red and yellow

Great

Soft and sharp

Free.

Cornish

Russet and green

Good

Firm and juicy

Upright.

Cowan red

Red and large

Good

Juicy

Free.

Downton pippin*

Yellow

Small

Firm, juicy and sweet . .

Medium.

Elton's yellow kernel

Yellow

Good

Firm and rich juice

Free.

Foxley

Orange and red

Great

Firm and ji icy

Upright and hardy.

Fox whelp*

Dark red

Medium

Midcile-size and juicy

French crab

Green aud red

Great

Firm and sharp

Upright and handsome.

Fair-maid of Taunton

White

Good

Hard, mild, sour

Grange pippin . .

Yellow and red

Great

Firm, juicy and sour

Medium.

Grange apple

Yellow

Medium

Firm and juicy

Free.

Glassbury Norman*

Pale yellow

Medium

Small size

Garter apple ..

Red and yellow

Medium

Large and juicy

Free.

Golden Harvey*

Red and yellow

Medium

Rich juicy fruit

Medium.

Green apple

White, small

Excellent

Hard aud sour

Hogshead

Deep red . .

Great

Firm and austere

Upright and handsome.

Hagloe

Yellow

Great

Firm and tart

Upright and handsome.

Harveys*

Green and russet

Great

Firm and sweet

Upright and handsome.

Hawthorn Dean

White

Early & good . .

Large and sour

Jersey bitter-sweet

Red and yellow

Excellent

Hard and bitter-sweet . .

Kingston black apple

Small apple

Good

Rich juice

Free.

King bearer

White

Very good

Sour

Free.

Large stire

Yellow and red

Good

Firm aud sharp

Upright and handsome.

Lowley bitter-sweet

Yellow and red

Very good

Austere

Free.

Leominster bitter-sweet

Red aud white

Prime

Soft

Maiden's blush*

Dark red

Good

Firm and sharp

Hardy and upright.

Marshal crab ..

Yellow and brown

Great

Firm and sharp

Vigorous aud upright.

New woodcock*

Streaked aud round . .

Good

Medium size

New red must*

Pale red and green

Great

Firm and acid

Hardy, spreading.

Old red must*

Pale red and green

Great

Firm and acid

Fine showy tree.

Pawsau*

Greenish yellow

Great

Firm and sharp

Vigorous.

Pig's nose

Long, red and white . .

Good

Mild sour

Red streak*

Green, red-streaked . .

Good

Firm and sharp

Vigorous and upright.

Red Ingestrie . .

Red

Good

Firm and juicy

Large and handsome.

Roraril*

Pale yellow . .

Great

Medium size aud juicy . .

Red Norman* . .

Yellow, brown & red . .

Good

Large aud austere

Free.

Queen apple* ..

Red

Good

Mild sour

Siberian pippia*

Yellow

Great

Firm and juicy

Upright.

Siberian Harvey*

Bright red and green . .

Great

Firm and auatere

Elegant and upright.

Stead's kernel*

Yellow & ruaaet. spots. .

Good

Firm and austere

Small-leaved.

Sykehouse

Orange red & yellow . .

Great

Firm and juicy

Large, spreading.

Skirm's kernel* . ,

Streaked and ovate ..

Medium

Small and juicy

Sweet Arthur . .

White

Early & good . .

Large and sour

Slackangal

Red and yellow

Excellent

Hard and sweet

Trevoider

Yellow and red

Good

Firm

Very hardy.

Woodcock

Dark red and yellow . .

Great

Firm and austere

Uptight.

Warwickshire* . .

Gold aud green

Good

Firm, aromatic

Delicate.

Wme

Dark russet

Good

Firm, aromatic

Upright and slender.

White court pendue

Yellowish , .

Good

Firm aud sweet

Spreading: fruit pendent.

Whitmore

White, yellow and red. ,

Good

Firm and sweet

Luxuriant.

Wormsley

Yellow and red

Good

Firm and juicy

Vigorous.

White clustering apple

Small apples

Great

Juicy

Yellow Siberian

Yellow

Great

Firm and austere

[Jpright and handsome.

Yellow Ingestrie

Yellow

Good

Firm and juicy

Handsome.

Those marked with * are considered the superior varieties for cider.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

an inferior quality than poorer soils. Much of the
variation depends upon the management of the cider,
and must be considered separately from the present
subject, which is confined to the productio7i of fruit.
If the situation of the orchard exposes it to the wind,
smaller apples should be selected, as they remain on the
trees more firmly.

There are regular opportunities for the purchase of
trees for orchards through nurserymen, and when this can
be done with men of character, it saves much trouble
and time. There are many reasons, however, why a
farmer should not be entirely dependent upon these
sources of supply. Of late years the varieties of cider
fruit have been very much neglected, and it seldom hap-
pens that a farmer can rely upon the sorts he purchases.
Besides this, where there is much orchard land, the
purchase of new trees becomes very expensive ; for
these reasons, amongst others, a farmer should be pre-
pared to raise his own fruit-trees, and I now proceed
to describe how he should do so.

Carefully selected fruit of the sorts required should
be gathered as soon as fully ripe, and stored away care-
fully for one, two, or three months, until the fruit be-
comes perfectly mellow. The pips should then be taken
out and kept separate, and the sort plainly marked upon
each packet. In a well-prepared piece of garden
ground, the pips should be planted in February in rows
two feet apart, and about eight or nine inches wide in
the rows. In the following November let the plants
be taken up, all side-shoots trimmed, and cut off close
to the stock, and the roots shortened. They are then
planted in ground which has been double trenched, at
the distance of nine inches in the row and two feet be-
tween. In the following November they are to be
transplanted again ; the side-shoots within one foot of
the ground should be trimmed off close to the stem, and
those above shortened back a. little.

Here they remain for eighteen months, and during
this time the plant must have every opportunity of en-
larging its stem, and this will be most effectually done
by stopping the growth of any side shoot within one foot
of the ground, and by checking the growth of any very
fast growing branches above ; but this should not be
done except in cases of rapid growth, for a good covering
of leaves is calculated rather to feed than otherwise.
At the expiration of this time (say in the months of
March or April) the head is to be cut off about one foot
from the ground, and then grafted. The original stem
is now known as the slock, whilst the graft is called the
scion. The scion is carefully fitted against the edge of
the stock, and both are bound with wet matting. After
this the parts are well covered with ffraftinff clay, which
is made by beating together three parts of clay with one
part of horse-dung. Some persons prefer grafting upon
the crab stock, on account of its hardy character. It
is also said that they root more freely, and grow more
luxuriantly upon poorer soils than better varieties of
the apple. It is evidently very important to secure
hardy stocks, especially when climate and soil are not
very favourable.

Great care is necessary in the selection of grafts, for

apart from the choice of variety, to which I have before
referred, there must also be judgment shown in securing
grafts which are in a vigorous state. This is necessarily
determined by the character of the parent plant. If this
is young, there is an energy of growth throughout the
tree ; whereas when it becomes old, there is a torpidity
of growth, and a feebleness of development, in which the
graft participates in common with other parts of the tree.
Many persons in selecting their grafts are indifferent
with respect to this, and much of the inferior fruit of
late years is to be traced to this. The grafts should,
therefore, be taken from trees of the variety required
whilst they are in their full vigour.

I do not think we shall be far wrong in admitting
that as regards vigorous development we cannot rival
the earliest apples which were introduced into England;
and much of the degeneracy now observed has, no doubt,
resulted from neglect as to the quality of grafts used.
In my Prize Essay on the Farming of Devon, it is
stated that " After they are forty or fifty years of age,
few apple-trees are worth standing, although instances
are on record of orchards producing abundantly when
200 years old. The orchard of Buckland Priory, which
was one of the first planted in Devonshire, was in full
bearing and well stocked at this age."

When the graft has made sufficient growth (say five
or six feet from the ground), it must be " headed back."
This will be done in the spring after the grafting, if the
soil is in good condition ; and has been kept free from
weed throughout the entire period of the plant's growth.
In the following autumn the trees may be removed, and
planted four feet apart. Any branches which make an
excessive growth should be checked, so as to allow the
tree to grow into a nice form. At six or seven years
old the tree will be ready for planting in an orchard.

The ground having been prepared for the orchard, we
have first to mark oiit the positions of the trees. These
should be planted in rows ; but the distance between the
trees must be regulated by the climate and soil. If both
are favourable, then the trees will make a large growth,
and must have proportionately more room ; whereas, if
they are unfavourable, the distance must be decreased.
If shelter is required, then closer planting is desirable ;
whereas, if not needed, the greater width will admit the
sun and air more freely, and stimulate a more luxuriant
growth. For these reasons the distance between the
trees will vary from 25 feet apart, under unfavourable
circumstances, to 50 feet apart where these are favour-
able ; but 35 to 40 feet will be an ordinary width.

The direction of the rows must depend upon local
climate. If the situation is exposed to strong and cold
winds, then the trees may run from S. E. to N. W., and
some hardy sorts be planted for meeting the wind.
This direction also allows the sun to penetrate the trees
most fully.

The position of the trees being marked upon the
ground, we have to prepare for their planting. A cir-
cular pit, six feet across, should be dug 18 inches deep,
around the spot marked for the tree ; and into the
bottom of this pit some turf, or similar matter, should
be thrown, so as to give a good foundation for the tree,

230

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The young trees, which have been taken up as recently
as possible, should have their roots topped back, and
then placed in the holes intended for them. The roots
must be spread evenly round the tree, and some fine soil
thrown amongst them ; after which the hole should be
nearly filled up with other soil. If the soil is dry, a
few bucketsful of water will be serviceable to each tree ;
and in three or four hours after, complete the treading
of the soil and the levelling of the surface.

Deep planting is very objectionable except in rich
loams, and even here 18 inches will be quite deep enough.
Generally speaking the depth of 12 inches will be suffi-
cient for the trees, and more especially so when the soil
becomes less favourable to tjjeir growth. The roots
being kept near the surface receive greater supplies of
heat, and are more healthy and energetic in their
growth. For this reason also many trees which are
planted on poor soils are planted on the surface, and
mounds of soil cast around them. Each tree should be
secured by a strong stake, and protected from stock by
thorns bound around them. This will be sufficient
for sheep, and heavier stock should not graze orchard
land.

The earlier pruning of the tree must be such as will
favour its development and its right form. This will
simply require the shoots from the stem below the main
shoots, which are the future limbs of the tree, to
be pinched off at their extremity about midsummer, and
in the following autumn cut off close to the stock. The
main branches after they have made the growth of two
summers must be cut off about a foot from the top of
the stock, and from each of these two or three shoots
may be allowed to rise the next season, and these being
trained into proper position will soon take the new form
given. There are various ways of directing these shoots,
for instance by the use of cross-sticks and a cord, or
what is better, a frame or hoop. A tree which has been
thus trained may afterwards be kept in proper order
without much trouble as regards pruning. The tree
should be examined every, winter, damaged and decayed
boughs should be cut off, and long and over-grown
rambling branches should be headed back. The object
should be to keep the centre of the tree open so that
the sun and air may have access — to get an even and
regular distribution of fruiting wood throughout the
tree — and to avoid over-crowding any part of it. Thus
every part of the tree will gain strength, and a vigorous
production of fruit will probably result. If this is
attended to every winter, the orchard will be kept in its
prime for a longer period of time, and produce far more
fruit than if the trees are left to themselves.

When the pruning of the tree is neglected the crowded
state of the branches prevents the free access of air, and
consequently the tree becomes over-grown with moss.
After a few years this moss quite rots the outer bark of
the tree, and the orchard gets into a thoroughly unpro-
ductive state. The best course to be adopted in such a
case is to have the orchard well pruned so as to let in the
sun and air. The removal of the moss must be accom-
plished by having the stem and principal branches
scraped, and after this these parts should be white-

washed with lime fresh slaked in water and applied whilst
warm. This will favour the healing of the bark, and
by attention to the pruning its recurrence may be pre-
vented.

When a ree suffers much from canker, the best plan
is to head it back to the stock, and regraft it. This in
many cases succeeds, but much depends upon the stock ;
for, if this is disposed to disease, it will spread through
the tree even after grafting. Prevention is far better
than cure, and especial care should be taken to guard
against producing canker by grafting with scions from
weak, worn-out trees.

Orchards are also much injured by attacks from the
caterpillar of two or three months, which are concealed
in the blossom or leaves, and generally known as blight.
Burning weeds and rubbish, so as to let the smoke pass
slowly through the orchard , is the best plan to check them .
The woolly aphis (Aphis Imiigcra) is also a very great
pest in some orchards. The aphis, in the autumn, lays
her eggs ; these become partly developed in the spring
into females, and the remainder in the autumn into
males. They throw out the honey-dew which is so well
known in our orchards. No doubt, if the habits of the
aphis were better understood, we might destroy it more
than at present ; now, however, our best procedure is
to use lime about the trunks and larger branches.

Orchard-land is generally kept in turf, but is very
often cultivated. Upon rich, calcareous soils it is less
necessary to break the turf than when the soil is either
poor or deficient in lime. Hence, if we observe the
districts in which it is usual to break the orchards up,
we shall find that this is the class of soils. The advan-
tages which result from breaking are, that the soil is kept
more permeable to the roots ; and the use of manures,
by increasing its fertility, adds to the luxuriance of the
growth. It is evident, therefore, that any system calcu-
lated to impoverish the soil cannot be suited to orchard
lands. Our object should rather be, by the growth of
green crops, to add vegetable matter to the soil ; and, by
occasionally breaking the surface, we promote the as-
similation of this matter by the fibres of the roots. The
use of lime as a manure is an excellent plan, and espe-
cially if made into a compost, and then dug into the soil
for two or three yards round the stem of the tree. As
&food for the apple-tree lime is especially valuable, but
it is equally so as an ameliorator of the soil, in which it
frees the alkalies the roots require, and decomposes the
vegetable matter which is so valuable for promoting the
fruitfulness of orchards. The use of farm-yard manure
is most beneficial on poor and close soils, when spread
upon the turf, and both ploughed in together, because
the soil gets the addition of fertilizing matter together
with an admixture of the turf, which will render the soil
more open. If the dung were simply spread upon the
grass, it would be giving additional strength to the turf ;
and this is by no means desirable upon these retentive
soils. If, on the other hand, we have a porous soil to
deal with, the firmness of the turf does not interfere pre-
judicially with the access of the air into the soil.

I know of no system under which orchard-land can
be kept in such excellent condition as that adopted in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

231

some of our Kent orchards. Here we have in the
centre, between the rows of apple-trees, filberts and
black currants planted. This land is regularly culti-
vated by the fork, and yard-manure is applied occasion-
ally ; but the chief dependence is upon frequent stirring
of the soil. The trees are kept nicely pruned, and the
wood which is allowed to remain is profitable and fruit-
ful. I have seen crops raised under this system worth
more than the freehold value of the land producing
them. Although this is a system which cannot be car-
ried out in the West with equal profit, still it affords us
an example from which we may derive some useful hints.
At the least, such a system, compared with the neglected
condition of many West of England orchards, shows a
contract as striking as any within the limits of agricul-
tural operations. In the former we have the orchard
managed with the care of a garden : scarcely a useless
branch to be seen, and the soil clean and free from weeds.
In the latter we see trees crowded with dead
branches, and covered with moss and blight, presenting
the appearance of a forgotten piece of woodland, rather
than trees preserved for the production of fruit.

In gathering the fruit from orchards, the first step is
to pick up the windfalls ; and these are heaped separate
from other fruit, because, being unripe, they produce
cider of very harsh character. This being done, the
gathering of the general crop is commenced. There are
one or two points to be borne in mind in gathering
the crop, as the quantity of the cider depends upon their
being attended to.

The weather should be dry ; and the cooler it is the
better, provided it does not freeze the fruit. The longer
the fruit will hang upon the tree the cooler will the
weather be, in all probability. The fruit should be
allowed to become as ripe as possible, and, when it
reaches this stage of maturity, the sooner the apples are
collected the better. Most persons have women picking
up the fruit as it falls ; others send a man, who, with
the aid of a long and rather stiff rod, furnished at the
top with a small hook, gently shakes the branches,
whilst the women gather up the fruit at once, and either
put it in heaps in the orchard, or send them away in
carts. In doing this, great care should be taken not to
damage the fruit-spurs by the use of heavy and unwieldy
poles. The careful cider-maker will have his fruit
frequently gathered and removed under cover with as
little delay as possible, so as to allow them to hoard and
become mellow where they will be safe from the washing
rain. He will also be careful in the assortment of his
fruit, separating apples of marked difference in colours,
and not using them until mellowed.

The yellow apples will generally become ready
first, then yellow and red, and, after these, the red ;
whilst the red and green will be later, and the green the
last. Being separated in this manner according to
colours, these heaps are again to be noticed as regards
their mellowness. It will not, however, do to grind all
of one sort alone ; for, as I have before said, the
keeping character of the cider depends upon the pre-
sence of the juice of our harsher varieties. The two
former may generally be worked together, viz., the

yellow fruit with the yellow and red, whilst the red and
the red and green will go together ; but the green should
be kept to itself. In this way we gain the advantage of
selection by colours, which gives a juice less liable to
excessive fermentation, without the disadvantage of a
want of power to keep.

I have strictly confined my remarks in this essay to
the production of fruit ; and I feel convinced that the
West of England possesses in the apple a fruit capable
of far more profitable growth than has yet been accom-
plished, and especially by the manufacture of the fruit
into cider.

THICK AND THIN SOWING.

Sir, — There is a great horror amoagst farmers of thin sow-
ing. If by chance the plant miase?, or is eaten, great is the
outcry. But how is it we never hear anything of the losses
arisiug from thick sowing? Simply because one is visible,
the other invisible. I will venture to assert that for every
pound lost by thia sowing there are ten lost from thick sowing.

The money lost this season, owing to thick sowing, amounts
in the barley crop to — I might venture to say — tens or hun-
dreds of thousands of pounds. I will point out one instance
out of many v/ithin my knowledge.

One farmer drilled 2\ bushels per acre on a clay bottom
soil, and got an excellent crop, with a good sample, which sold
for 403. per qr. His neighbour, who persisted in his old
quantity of 4 bushels per acre, got 3 sacks less per acre, and
13s. less per qr.

I could multiply this case by thousands. The fact is that»
with our modern process of drilling and high farming, every
seed vegetates and branches considerably. In a season like
the past, we get, by thick sowing, a close, dense, top-heavy
crop, weak below : no air circulates beneath it : down it goes
prematurely, and you have as a result a mass of soft, light,
frothy straw, and lean raiseruble undeveloped kernels. Ten
to oue but much of your young clovers are destroyed by tha
want of air and light. This remark applies equally to oats and
to wheat.

If a landlord added 5s. to 7a. per acre to his rent, great
would be the grumbling; and yet many a farmer throws away
with complacency a bushel or two of seed per acre, destroying
thereby a large portion of his return. I hear occasionally of
absurd quantities of seed sown. So long as I can get 11
quarters of oats from 2 bushels, and 5 to 6 quarters of wheat
from 1 bushel, and a good crop of barley from 6 to 7 pecks, I
am content to be pitied by the thick sowers.

I do not meau to lay down oue general rule for all soils and
climates ; but I say, try aud compare various quantities, which
is easily done on a small scale, and arrive at your own con-
clusions, as I have done. Taking the country generally, I am
sure that there is ample room for amendment in this respect.

I think Mr. Caird in his Times'' reports estimated the yield
as 11 for 1 : on my farm it is 44 for 1 in oats and wheat. I
will always make a polite bow to any farmer who tells me that
he has tried, for a series of years, comparative quantities, and
has chosen that which paid him best.

I am qtiite sure we get more weight of straw from moderate
than from thick sowing. I remember showing an Oxfordshire
farmer a piece of oats dibble! at 1 bushel per acre. He said,
" You have much more straw than I have, although I sow 5
bushels per acre." It is curious that farmers, who are so care-
ful about singling out their turnips, should so overcrowd their
corn crops. I hope my agricultural friends will excuse this
gentle " touch up," especially as I sincerely wish them all
many happy and prosperous years. — Yours faithfully,

Tiptree Hall. J. J. Mbchi.

232

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

M. DE LAVERGNE'S NOTES OF A JOURNEY OF FOUR DAYS WITH M. DE VOGUE.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH.

30th Maj', 1858.— I arrived at Bourges at half-past
three o'clock, and set out with M. de Vogue for his
factory at Maziefca, which is only half an hour's ride
from the city. This factory, now one of the most im-
portant of Berry, has been entirely established by him
on the site of an old domain. Its principal employment con-
sists in making turnplates for railways, of which it can produce
one per day, at aa average price of 4,000 francs. Two fine
hot-air blowing machines, a handsome finiahing factory, and
forty houses for the workmen, built by M, de Vogue at an ex-
pense of 1,700 francs each, and let at a rent of 8 francs per
mouth, with 15 ares of garden, complete the establishment.
We examined several of the houses, which are commodious and
well furnished.

The ancient domain has become a farm managed by a
farming bailiff. It contains 80 hectares of land. M. de Vogue
calls it his menagerie, because he keeps choice animals at it.
I saw there again the Ayrshire Bull, which obtained for him
the second prize at the last show at Blois. I also found there the
Southdown ram, which had the first prize at the same show :
it then belonged to M. de Bouille. There were handsome
cows produced by an Ayr-Berrichon cross. An Ayrshire cow.
which obtained the first prize at the Universal Exhibition ;
fine lambs, of the Southdown-Berrichon cross ; and an Alder-
ney cow, which gave abundance of milk, the cream of which
appeared to us very yellow and buttery.

3l8t. May. — After passing the night at the handsome hoaae
of the manager of the factory, we set out for another forge at
Ivoy-le-Pre. We crossed the forest of Saint Palais, which con-
tains 2,000 hectares, a noble forest, which belongs to the
State. On leaving it, we visited the ancient abbey of Lorois,
which now belongs to M. Lupin. The proprietor was absent,
haviug gone to see the works of an artesian well which he has
had sunk at one of his farms. We found his steward, who is a
Belgian. He showed us the dairy, composed wholly of Dur-
hams and a Durharri-'Norman Across. A steam-engine, fixed,
works the thrashing machines and other agricultural im-
plements. We crossed some fine fields of wheat and oats, to
inspect in a pasture 300 Southdown and crossed Southdown-
Berrichon lambs. M. Lupin is probably the largest cultivator
in France. He farms himself 1,200 hectares (nearly 3,000 acres),
divided into six domains. We saw the ruins of the old church,
where were interred the Seigneurs de Sully, and the fine
cloisters of the abbey with its columns covered with ivy.

In passing the chapel of Anguillon we visited the half-ruined
manor which formerly belonged to Sully. It is one of those
unpretending castellanies of the sixteenth century, which, pro-
perly speaking, were oi;ly turreted farm-houses. Become
quite a domain, it has not much changed its appearance.
From the high and narrow terrace is a pretty view of the mea-
dows, irrigated by the little Sauldre river.

We arrived at the Foundry of Ivoy, where I recognized one
of those ancient forges, established at an uuknown epoch, upon
a fall of water in the middle of the woods. There are pa-
triarchal families of workmen, who manufacture iron of a
superior quality. It serves for artillery, the fabrication of
which they overlook. New houses are built for the workmen,
as at Maziferes. We took a road which M. Vogue has opened,

and which brought us to a high furnsce which he has con-
structed, with all the new improvements. It has a hydraulic
wheel of 10 metres diameter, a forge-bellows of great velocity,
and a steam boiler heated by gas from the furnace. Other new
houses for workmen constitute the whole of the village, with
the dwelling of the Registrar, with whom we passed the night.

Near to Ivoy there is a small curious town named Henriche-
raont. It was the chief town of an independent principality
which belonged to the house of Sully, and was united to the
Crown i?) 1769, being about twelve leagues in circumference,
Hearichemout was founded by Sully, and named thus after
Henry the Fourth. The foundation of the great minister has
prospered, for it no?/ reckons more than 3,C00 souls. '.

June 1st. — The industrial part of our journeyj is finished,
and we shall in future only see^ cultivation. We shall begui
with a domain which has-been' worked /or : forty years' by the
same metayer. M. de Vogue accusesTiim playfully of abusing
bis position by resisting all kinds of change, because he is sure
of not being turned off. He is & good specimen of the old
cunning peasantry, dull and obstinate. We saw, however, fine
English wheat dressed with guano, and a nice dwelling, quite
new, where this metayer is, according torhis own expression,
lodged like a ci-devant. " You see, now," said M. de Vogue
to him, " that you were wrong not to hire my domain of me
when I offered to let you have it for 1,100 francs." " But,
Monsieur Js Marquis, I^ am not at all sorry about it." " How
is that ? my half now brings me in 2,000 francs." " And mine
does the same, but I have not the purse of M. le Marquis."
" In fact," said M. de Vogue, ."he is right ; for I have made
many improvements of which he^takes the profit." We left
this old reasoner, baptizing him " ilie agriculturist in spite
of himself."

From Lorois we had still in view the plain of the Sologne, of
which we followed the boundary without entering upon it. We
touched upon it, however, and found the lands of the domain
which we saw, cold and silicious. A little further we found
ourselves upou[au extensive table land, which three years only
ago was covered with heather. Now, that heather is replaced
with rye aud oats further than the eye could see. The rye
extends over 50 hectares, the oats over 90. The road opened
by M. de Vogue, for the transport of his minerals, crossed this
desert, where the flint appears everywhere upon the surface,
and uo other dwelling is seen than a station for the carmen
The primitive condition of the soil is still seen upon some'
scattered points, which bristle with heather and'smaU furze.
The rest is_one entire mass of green and waving verdure. We
are at a loss to conceive by what bands these fine harvests
have been raised. With five hectolitres (about 13| bush.) of
charcoal, they sow upon a' single ploughing, and the oats spring
up to a miracle.

These heaths were formerly burthened with customary rights;
the neighbouring proprietors had the privilege of sending on
them their flocks. Nothing being possible with such liabili-
ties, M. de Vogue conceived the idea of dividing theaa ; and,
by dint of perseverance, he has succeeded in it. Surveyors,
nominated by both parties, have amicablyfremodelled the can-
tonment. There were some contests for the boundaries; but
all is now finished, and each is master of his own land. The

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

233

expense of cultivation amounts, for rye, to 175f.; clearing,
50f. ; three harrowings, 15f. ; five hectolitrea of charcoal, 75 f.;
seed, two hectolitres, 30f. ; for sowing, and mixing the char-
coal, average expense 5f. ; average harvest, 20 hectolitres,
300f. The straw is considered as paying the expence of har-
vesting, cleaning, and thrashing. The net profit should, there-
fore, be 125f. ; but the chapter of accidents is such, that in
reality it is much reduced. This year, for example, rye being
at 9f., the crop scarcely suffices to pay the expenses.

For oats the expenses are diminished bj' one-third, as they
require only two harrowings and 2^ hectolitres of charcoal.
M. de Vogue thinks that four consecutive crops may be taken
with the same charcoal without impoverishing the soil. These
successive crops cost a little less than the first, because the
labour is estimated at only 25 fr. I asked him if he intended
afterwards to let the land resume the heath, or whether he pro-
posed to establish a domain upon it ? He has not yet deter-
mined this question, but he is inclined to think that the ex-
pense of forming a domain would be too great, and he would
prefer converting it into a sheep farm, as is done in Scotland.
It is certain that the p'asturage is better than formerly. A
singular phenomenon occurs ; the small sorrel which was rarely
seen amongst the heather, springs, on the contrary, on all
sides on those lands which have been dressed with charcoal,
when they are again left to themselves. What is the cause of
this fact, and what conclusion may we draw from it ?

We started from Ivoy to go and pass the night at tho
chateau of Aubigny. We crossed a forest formed by the
union of the wood of Ivoy with that of Aubigny. The united
propertiss form a block of more than 3,000 hectares, belonging
to M. de Vogue. The history of this estate of Aubigny is
remarkable. When King Charles VII. was only sovereign of
Bourges, the rest of the kingdom being occupied by the
English, a Scotch noble named John Stuart, Earl of Lennox,
came to his help with his armed retainers. In acknowledg-
ment, the king ga?e him the lands of Aubigny, which descended
to his posterity. The property having reverted to the Crown
in default of male heirs, the King of England, Charles II., as
belonging to one of the branches of the House of Stuart, de-
manded its restoration of Louis XIV , who gave it up to him ;
but be obtained at the same time a decree, which placed it in
the hands of the Duchess of Portland, his mistress, and the
natural son whom he had by her, and who then became Duke
of Richmond in England, of Lennox in Scotland, and of
Aubigny in France. The Dukes of Richmond were, as Dukes
of Aubigny, admitted to the French parliament, but as fo-
reigners they were not received.

During the revolution, the estate of Aubigny was seized and
put up to sale, but no purchaser presented himself. They
could only sell it for 34,000 francs ; and out of that sum, one
of the two chateaus which belonged to it, and which stood in
the village of Aubigny, and was purchased by the Commune,
went for 15,000 francs. The second chateau, therefore, which
was called the Chateau of the Forest, with the woods and
domains, remained as national property, except that the feudal
rights were abolished. In 1807, Napoleon caused the lands to
be again brought to sale, but still no purchaser could be found.
In 1814, the Duke of Richmond who had been aid-decamp to
the Duke of Wellington claimed the property. A special
article of the treaty of Paris gave it up to him, and he enjoyed it
for thirty years, and the peasantry still recognise him as their
old master the Englishman. A circumstance not less remark-
able than the foregoing, was the cause of his losing ito Col-
lateral heirs raised a question of succession, and main-
tained that this estate, being situated in France, ought to be
subject to the French law of succession, instead of belonging

to the eldest sou, as in England. This claim gave rise to a
celebrated action at law, which the Duke of Richmond lost.

It was then that the estate was put up for sale, and pur-
chased by Messrs. Chevreux and Legentil, who have re-sold it
to M. de Vogue. In cutting down a large part of the old
forest trees which had begun to decay, he has preserved those
which might contribute to the beauty of the landscape. These
vast woods shelter many wild animals. In a single battue
they have taken in it a dozen wolves. We reached the cha-
teau at sunset. Its towers rise in the midst of the forest, and
on the border of a large moat, and is a perfect specimen of the
middle ages. We should call it the Chateau of the Sleeping
Beauty in the Woods. We entered by a fortified gate into a
court-yard covered with grass. A winding stone staircase in
one of the towers led us to the interior, where we found vast
apartments, scarcely altered for adaptation to modern resi-
dence. A long gallery, which occupies one of the wing3, is
covered with paintings ia fresco, half effaced, which should be-
long to the fifteenth century, and represent the ancestors of
Aubigny of the House of Stuart, some on foot, others mounted
on war horses. This gallery is temporarily occupied with the
extraordinary crops produced by the clearings.

2nd June. — At break of day I opened my window, which
looked out upon the moat. This feudal feature, which has
aot been altered since the days of Charles VII. (1422),
gives the idea of incomparable calmness and solitude. The
same sun still rises behind those venerable trees whose roots
are bathed by the same waters of the moat.

The estate of Aubigny has, besides the wood, a dozen
domains. We visited several of them, and met everywhere
metayers who still talk like the peasants of Moliere : "J^allons,
j disons, favons hen besoin d'iaii pour les aveiies ; bo n jour,
lot'' maitre ; comment se porte not'' maitresse .<"' Not only the
language, but the costume of the past is retained. A young
shepherdess wears a hooded woollen neck-handkerchie^ as we
see them in the anc'ent paintings ; indeed, the coat of arms of
Bourges are supported by the pnstourelle (the shepherdess).
Fortunately, if the shepherdesses have not changed, the flocks
have been improved. Most of these are of the pure Solognote
breed, but strengthened by a better treatment. These poor
animals are very warm under their fleeces, the custom of the
country being not to shear them till Saiut John's day. We
found everywhere new homesteads, reconstructed dwellings,
courts levelled, enormous heaps of marl extracted from the
depths of the soil, and fine crops coming forward. Ia the
domain that adjoins the chateau, and which is farmed by M.
de Vogue, we saw a magnificent field of lucern, handsome
crossbreeds of oxen and sheep, and even attempts at pisci-
culture. O naiad of the Ncre — of that river which, according
to the ancient historian of Berry, was " sown with trout and
paved with crawfish — " what would you say to this ?

The fields here are surrounded with enormous hedges,
called " bouchures,"* formed of large trees, the branches of
which are bent to the ground, in order to interlace them with
each other. These hedges must be a great hindrance to the
cultivation, on account of the innumerable pollards which grow
up from them, whose deformed trunks effectually shut out the
light and air. The roads, cut up by the carriage-wheels, wind
under these thickets, which preserve the humidity in winter,
and render the road impassable. The air is impregnated with
unhealthy exhalations, and hurtful animals of ail kinds find
refuge there. The whole has a wild and forest-like aspect.
We must not forget that this country is one of the most
thinly-peopled parts of France : the arrondissement (district)

* A technical term, only local, and untranslatable.

234

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of Sancerre, iu which we are, has not quite forty inhabitants
per 100 hectares. There are only the Landes, the Lozere, and
the Alpea which have leas.

We set out from Aubigny, to visit another property,
called " Boucard." We saw a^ain, in paasing, other heaths,
treatei), like that of Ivoy, with charcoal. At this time, M. de
Vogue has the intention of establishing an entirely new
domain ; or, at least, of annexing these cleared heaths to an
existing domain. He has selected for this purpose what they
call here a manceuvrerie (local) — that is to say, one of those
small domains elsewhere termed locatures, borderages, or
closeries, which are originally only dwellings almost without
land, let to workmen on condition of a certain number of days'
labour. This manceuvrerie will become, by the annexation of
the heaths, an important domain, and they are in course of
adding to it new buildings. But what drew our attention more
than these structures was, a provisional grange erected in the
midst of those ancient heaths, with some beams, brooms, and
branches, to thrash there the corn collected upon the clearings.
M. de Vogue calls it his squatter's house, and he has fixed
there a Pinet machine, which works with three horses and
thrashes 40 hectolitres per day. All around is a desert, and
one might fancy oneself really iu America.

Until now we iiavo remained in the canton of La Chapelle
d'Anguillon, very near the Sologne, and one of the most
barren in the department. We climbed a hill which
separated us from the valley of the Sauldre, when appeared
before us another horizon, that of the canton of Vailly, one
of the most fertile and best cultivated. To the siliceous suc-
ceeded the argillo- calcareous soil. The summits are still
crowned with woods, but the slopes and bottoms are covered
with cultivation. The estate of Boucard, which M. de
Vogue owns in this valley, was left him by his grandfather'
M. de Langeron. The arable land is divided into twenty
domains, of which half are let out.

Whilst thelands of Ivoj' and Aubigny have great difficulty
to realize 15 francs per hectai-e of net profit, in spite of the
eiForts of the proprietor, here we find them let at 30 and
even 40 francs per hectare, so superior i.s the nature of the
soil. Twenty years ago the whole of this country was with"
out means of communication : M. de Vogu6 has largely
contributed towards the opening of roads — one entirely at
his own expense, and of others he has paid a part of the
outlay.

We passed on to Jars, an ancient castellany, erected into
a farm in 1760 by M. de Langeron. This fief belonged
formerly to the Rochechourart family, and has given its
name to one of its branches. One of its possessors, the
Chevalier de Jars, an intelligent, amiable, and brave
man, was one of the adversaries of Richelieu. After having
passed eleven months in the Bastille, he was condemned to
death, and went to execution, but was reprieved on the
scaffold. An exile successively in England and Italy, he
returned into France only after the death of the Cardinal,
where he again played a part in the Fronde. Less than
1 00 years after his death his fief became a farm. It is
true that the magnificent chateau built by Richelieu has
not lasted much longer : cultivation alone survives every-
thing.

We arrived towards evening at Bouchard. Here is
another chateau : inhabited for more than 100 years past, it
has remained such as it was at the commencement of the
eighteenth century. It is here that the Duchess of
Navailles, to whom it belonged, was exiled by Louis XIV.
for having caused the windows of the Maids of Honour of

the Queen to be grated. The poor lady had time to reflect
there on the danger of misplaced severity.

We dined in the gallery of the chateau, ornamented
throughout with very large pictures of hunting, copies after
the original of Oudry, which are, I think, at Fontainebleau.
These pictures are admirable, of a species adapted to
France, and the best possible decoration for the chateau.
A portrait of the Duke of Navailles, in the costume of a
Marshal of France, ornaments the chimney, from whence he
looked down upon us with an air of sufficiently bad humour.
At his feet is written the following inscription, half effaced :

Cest ici que cherche le sage
Liberie sans libertinage,
Doux repos sans oisivete,
Et qu'aft'ranchi de Pesclavage
II trouve lafe'licite'.*

What slavery does he refer to .' Is it that of a court life ?
Must we see in these verses an allusion to the exile of
Madame de Navailles ? Be this as it may, if the verses are
poor the sentiment is good. M. de Langeron, who had
succeeded the Navailles, occupied himself with the manage-
ment of his estate ; he had his accounts, accompanied with
annotations, bound in red morocco, gilt edged ; these
volumes must contain curious details on the rural economy
of that age.

They lodged me in the same room of the Duchess
of Navailles, the furniture and wainscoting of which are
all of that period. The bed of the Duchess, as wide as it is
long ; the arm chairs with armorial bearings ; the walls,
hung with old tapestries, representing the history of Joseph ;
the high chimneypieces, the large fire-dogs, the remem-
brance of that noble victim of duty — all these presented
more than was required to excite and occupy the imagina-
tion. It seemed to me that I saw her there, seated in one
of those great arm chairs, with costume and looks equally
severe.

3rd June, — I have occupied as small a space as I was
able in the immense bed, in which six persons might sleep
at their ease, and have had no uneasy dreams. I passed my
morning in a walk round the chateau ; the ditches are half
filled up ; but they are about to take away the mud which
fills them, to throw it as manure upon the lands. The old
wych elms are no longer cut in shapes — the garden no
longer cultivated. We see only, near the flight of steps, a
few Provence roses and forgotten peonies, which flower
again every spring. On the exterior walls of the chateau
are engraved on all sides these two inscriptions, which were
doubtless the devices of the ancient seigneurs de Boucard —
" Viclrex patientia fall," and " Sat ciio si sat 6e?ie."t The
old manor has need enough of the reminiscence, but I fear

much that its destiny will well prove stronger than its
patience.

This property was formerly managed by farmers-general,
an institution convenient enough for the proprietors, but
very unprofitable for husbandrj', M. de Vogud, who has
undertaken the defence of this kind of farmers, in his letter
to General Canrobert in 1852, has, nevertheless, suppressed
them himself in order to assume the direction. Besides the
farmed domains, he still occupies round Boucard 600 hec-
tares on the metayer system. We have visited many of
these metairies, and found within all the signs of improve-
ment evident. Sainfoin covers the soil everywhere with its

• Here the wi^e man seeks liberty without libertinism, sweet re-
dose without idleness ; and freed from slavery, he finds happiness.

t " She conquers who bears fate patientlj'," and " Quick
enough, if happy enough."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

235

rose-coloured carpet ; everywhere they begin to grow beet-
root and lucein. Large purchases of guano admit of
manuring better, without diminishing the corn crops. They
usually manure in the country at the rate of 20 cubic
metres to the hectare, but M. de Vogue puts on 30 and
even 40 metres. But what struck me still more in the
improvements was the air of contidence in these metayers ;
all hasten around him as soon as he arrives ; all come
to talk of their affairs and their children ; and the old
grandmother, who can scarcely hobble, brings him her
grandchildren.

There is certainly much to be said against the metayer
system; but this when understood and practised, is the beat the
situation of the country will admit. It is not the fault of the
present possessors that the country is without capital; they are
obliged to accept it such as it is, and when we cannot have
good farmers everywhere, who advance money themselves,
metayers are better than farm servants. Everybody gains by
it— the metayer first, who is in a situation more elevated
than a simple stipendiary, and profits on his part by expen-
diture he could not himself incur ; the proprietor afterwards,
who finds in this connection the guarantee he has need of in en-
gaging in costly eflforts. I have in no place seen this in-
valuable harmony between labour and capital more sensibly
than here.

We close this interesting tour at a farm worked by a son
of one of the ancient farmers-general. Fifteen hectares of
beet-root, yielding an average of 40,000 kilogrammes ; fifteen
hectares of fine lucern, and 40 hectares of wheat ; an appara-
tus for cooking the beet-roots to mix them with hay and cut-

straw, and ferment them before giving them to the animals ;
80 head of Durham Charolaise cattle, with a handsome bull —
such was the farewell bouquet of our journey. Unfortunately
all these animals are now very poor, because fodder has failed ;
but the young farmer has taken his measures that they shaU
no longer want.

We ought to have finished at Piseau, the summer residence
of M. de Vogue, situate on the bank of the Loire, in front of
the town of Cosne ; but time presses, and I cannot go there.
The lands attached to it are let to farmers in the environs of
Paris, who make of it a profitable occupation. Thus is com-
pleted the series of combinations that may be applied to the
cultivation of the soil. On certain points metayers, on others
farming by labourers, on others farmers of distant origin, on
others native farmers. M. de Vogue employs all these means
at once, according to circumstances ; he reunites, in fact, all
the conditions of agriculture, from the lands of the banks of
the Loire, which are worth 5,000 francs per hectare, to the
heaths of the Sologne, which were not worth 200 francs before
the clearings.

Such, then, is this large property, viewed under its most
favourable circumstances. I do not believe that any large
English proprietor fulfils more punctually the duties of his
station ; no one better than M. de Vogue could take his repose
in an elegant leisure, but he has preferred to consecrate his
life to a useful work. He overlooks and directs all himself,
without in the meantime withdrawing himself from the world.
Leonce de Lavergne,
Member of the Institute, and of the
Central Societe of Agriculture.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.

Standing, at this time, midway between two harvests,
we are afforded the opportunity to glance retrospectively
at the results of the past season, and anticipate to some
extent the coming one. It is not my purpose, in these
letters, to notice the fluctuations in the prices of corn,
and to daguerrotype the conditions of our markets ; but
rather to give, in epitome, a general view of our agri-
cultural progress, and bring to the notice of your readers
any valuable discoveries which may tend to assist the
labour of the husbandman. The intimate relations which
bind our two countries together, and which make the
prosperity or adversity of one a subject of weal or woe
to the other, are surely sufficient inducements for me to
write and you to read of our advancement ; and it would
be strange indeed if, in a series of letters, some valuable
facts were not elicited. It is only the rabid partizan
who assumes all excellence to be concentrated in his own
land ; the more just, intelligent, and conservative know
that whilst America is far behind England in a perfected
system of agriculture, and, to improve her breeds of
cattle and the productiveness of her exhausted lands,
must import the means and knowledge from her "mother
isle," there have still been made in this vigorous na-
tion wonderful strides in the production of labour-saving
tools, many of which it would be well worth your while
to adopt, and some of which you have adopted already.

What would especially facilitate this desirable inter-
change, would be for your intelligent farmers and our

own to exchange visits ; to attend each other's agricul-
tural shows ; to sit at each other's banquets ; and to
go to each other's farms. In this way we would get to
know each other's worth. But as this can only be to a
very limited extent, it must be left to such as have seen
both countries to give, through such media as your
columns, the results of their observations.

An Englishman visiting this country is at once struck
with the rugged and uncultivated appearance of our
farming districts. In some States are to be seen on
every farm the stumps of old forest trees thickly studding
the ground, interfering with the progress of the plough,
and marring the beauty of the fields. In others, boulders
and outcropping rocks are equally noticeable. Here he
will see a great stretch of country as hilly and unpro-
ductive looking as the mountain districts of Scotland ;
and there lie thousands of acres of swamp lands and
morass, which in England would be thorough-drained,
and producing heavy crops of corn. But throughout
the great region of the West, how different the appear-
ance of things ! In midsummer the traveller rides for
whole days together over rich prairie lands covered with
the most luxuriant crops of Indian corn, wheat, and
grass, presenting, as far as the eye can reach, swaying
billows of verdure. When it is considered that the ter-
ritory of the United States extends over three million of
square miles, that their population is so small com-
pared with that of Great Britain, and that every de-
ft

236

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

scription of manual labour bears an enormous price,
it will be readily understood that there are but slight
inducements for our farmers* sons to waste their lives
in striving to redeem the homestead farms which
have been impoverished by their ancestry, when,
within a few hundreds of miles, there are lying untilled
millions of acres as fertile as any which you possess in
Kent or Suffolk. This state of things has developed
two characteristics in Americans, viz., a very feeble
attachment to localities, and a wonderful growth of the
inventive faculties. Do they wish to raise better crops ?
instead of duplicating the patient experiments of Mr. Al-
derman Mechi or Mr. Lawes, they sell their ancestral
acres for whatever they will bring, and with the proceeds
purchase larger and more fertile farms in the West. Do
they find it impossible to hire labourers to gather their
teeming harvests, except at unreasonable prices ? they
get some friend to invent labour-saving tools that for a
moderate price will perform the work of twenty or forty
men. And thus, whilst it must be candidly acknow-
ledged by every American that our systems of farming,
as compared with your own, are shiftless and crude,
our annual aggregate of product continually augments,
because new territory is each year put under cultivation.

If, however, we do not follow the examples you set
us, we are kept informed as to what you are doing. We
are a reading people, and by means of our agricultural
press are made acquainted with the sayings of Professor
Voelcker, and Mr. Johnson, and the doings of the Mar-
quis of Tweeddale, and Mr. Booth of Warlaby, The
Mark Lane Express is as well known, and many of its
best articles are as well read here as they are at home.

I found that there was a general impression prevalent
in Great Britain that our cotton crop was by far the
most valuable to the country ; and I do not remember
to have met with a person who realized the national im-
portance of our Indian corn. In the last report of our
Patent Office, the statistics show that Indian corn ranks
as the most valuable of our crops, the annual yield being
600,000,000 bushels, and its value £60,000,000, The
wheat crop is valued at £20,000,000; and cotton comes
next in order. Our hay is worth only £400,000 less
than the cotton crop.

The average value of Indian corn to the farmer who
is near any considerable market is 2s. per bushel, or
one-half that price if unshelled and sold "in the ear,"
as it is termed. Where the producer is at some dis-
tance from market, this small price will not warrant his
paying the railway charges on the grain ; and it is con-
sequently more profitable for him to feed his corn to
hogs, and sell them alive to the agents of the great
slaughtering establishments which abound in our western
cities. On our higher-priced lands in the old states it
is more profitable to raise crops which give a greater
profit in a small bulk. And, especially is this the case
in the slave states, where the high price of labourers
and the cost of their maintenance, added to the expense
of maintaining their non-working masters, require the
cultivation of such crops as cotton, tobacco, and sugar
to obtain a profit.

The spring of the past year was in many parts of the

country disastrous to winter wheat, and throughout the
West the rains continued so long, and the ground became
so sodden with wet, that it was impossible to procure a
good start of Indian corn until too late to give a perfect
ripening and full crop. Even as many as three and four
plantings of seed were made in some instances, before a
set could be got. Wheat sotted in the ground, or else
was attacked by rust, and spring grain even suffered
from the same causes. The venerable Secretary of the
New York State Agricultural Society gives me the fol-
lowing reliable statistics of the wheat crop of 1858, and
the prospect for the current year.

About 15 per cent, under that of 1857 in
quantity, but superior in quality.

An average crop.

An average crop, and excellent quality.

20 per cent, less than last year, owing to
the wet spring, summer drought, and
attacks of insects.

About one-half a crop.

New York . .

Pennsylvania
Maryland. . . .

Virginia ,

North Carolina
Kentucky . . . .
Tennessee . . . .
Missouri

Ohio.

Good.

About twQ-thirds crop.
■ 20 per cent, less, but more laud in culti-
vation,
y,.., . r Southern part an average, central only one-

1 third.

Indiana One-half to two- thirds.

Michigan Two-thirds, quality excellent.

Taking the. whole country into consideration, the ag-
gregate wheat crop is about three-fourths of an average
crop per acre : but from there having been much more
territory under cultivation, the yield is only about one-
fourth less than that of 1857. Throughout the West
the streams were greatly swollen by the long-continued
rains, and many thousands of acres of crops were en-
tirely swept away.

Estimated product for 1858.
Bush.

New York 22,000,000

Pennsylvania.... 20,000,000

Virginia 20,000,000

Kentucky 10,000 000

Ohio 25,000,000

Indiana 15,000,000

Illinois 18,000,000

Other States .... 50,000,000

Total 180,000,000

1859.
Bush.

20,000,000
20000,000
18,500,000
8,500,000
22,000,000
13,000,000
14,500,000
42,000,000

158,500,000

The hay crop has been fair. Potatoes about an aver-
age crop ; but the whole family of cereals may be fairly
reckoned the same as wheat.

We have welcomed with open arms a new plant,
which in your columns has for its only champion " Tne
English farmer in Belgium." I refer to the sorgho, or
Chinese sugar-cane, introduced here in 1854, and with
only some half-dozen acres in cultivation in 1855, it has
run throughout our territory as electricity through iron,
until it is estimated, with every appearance of probability,
that there have been over 100,000 acres in cultivation
the past season, and this enormous area is likely to be
doubled in the coming spring. It has been found to
flourish in every one of our States, and has in turn
yielded crops of excellent forage, syrup, and in some
cases of sugar and other products. A well-known sugar
refiner of Philadelphia, Mr. Lovering, has made from

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

its juice every grade of sugars, from common Musco-
vado to best loaf; and Mr. Jno. W. Reid, of New-
York, and others, have produced excellent brandies and
other spirits, by simple processes of distillation. The
last spring a new series of varieties of the same plant
were introduced by an Englishman. Mr. Leonard Wray,
who discovered them in Caffraria some years since. He
gives to his plants their Caffrarian name of imphee, or
im-fe, and to each one of the varieties its specific name,
such as Bn-ya-ma, B-en-gJia, Vim-bis-chu-a-pa, &c.
These new varieties have been cultivated to a limited
extent, and with varying success. I have a good sample
of sugar made from them as far north as Illinois, for
which I am indebted to the secretary of the agricultural
society of that state. Mr. Francis believes that the
north-western states will ultimately produce all the
sugars needed for their home consumption ; and in this
opinion many careful men coincide. There can bo no
doubt but that this cane will have an influence upon the
plantations of the tropics ; but it will never be felt until
the best processes of manufacture are fully developed,
and large capital has been invested. And this will not be
brought about for years. In your climate the new cane
can never succeed, for the simple reason that it will not
mature. It flourishes best on clay loams, and requires
several weeks of hot weather and unclouded sun to
develope the full saccharine richness of its juice. As a
forage crop it may prove a source of profit to you. As
much as ten tons of dried forage have been taken from
a single acre ; but I very much doubt if you would be
able to dry it sufficiently for stacking. If used at all, it
will probably be fed out as a green crop when the stalks
have attained a height of say three feet.

The causes mentioned in another place have militated
against the prosecution of a regular system of under-
draining in this country. Almost every farmer in this
country is the owner of the farm he occupies, but it is a
very rare exception to find a person having much capital
invested in his operations. The outlay requisite for
even a small beginning of drainage is not within his
power to make, and hence it is that what with this, and
his scepticism as to the profit of tile drains, there are
many thousands of acres — yes, millions of them — so wet
as to yield only fractions of crops ; and the whole
amount of tile annually laid has not exceeded two mil-
lions of feet.

The most illustrious example we have of the benefits
of thorough drainage is the farm of Mr. John Johnston,
near Geneva, in this state. Mr. Johnston is an intelli-
gent Scotchman, who commenced his operations nineteen
years ago, and has steadily pursued them to this day,
despite the scepticism and ridicule of neighbours and
friends. Up to 1855 he had laid 210,000 tiles, or over
forty-seven miles; and the result is that when, some
years since, on the farms of six adjoining neighbours the
midge had so destroyed the wheat that the average yield
was not above seven bushels per acre, his own gave three
quarters and five bushels. A new impetus will, liow-
ever, be given to tile drainage by the very successful
operations on the Central Park at this city. This work
is under the direction of Mr, George E, Waring, jun,,

agricultural engineer, who follows the system suggested
by the experience of the best English engineers. The
soil being generally clay loam, the drains are laid out at
distances of forty feet from each other, running down
the line of the steepest descent of the land. Grade
stakes are set at the intersections of the drains, and at
various points along the lines. The levels of the tops
of these stakes are then taken, with reference to an arbi-
trary horizon which is the same for the whole system of
drains. From these levels is calculated the depth of the
drain at each stake, the same being in accordance with
the following principles, viz. : No drain is to have a fall
of less than 1 in 200 ; no drain to run with decreasing
fall as it approaches its outlet, when it is possible to
avoid it ; and small drains to deliver into the lops of the
larger tile of the main drains. When it is necessary
from the undulation of the surface to lessen the fall of
the drain as it approaches its outlet, a small brick basin,
or a large tile set on end, receives the flow, lessens its
velocity, and retains its silt, allowing only clean water
to pass out through the drain. The drains are, when
practicable, placed at a depth of from 4 to 5 feet from
the surface, and the drains of each tract of twenty acres
are collected in a " silt ba?in," having a capacity below
the outlet of about three cubic feet for the reception of
silt. These silt basins are continued to the surface of
the ground, and are covered by locked cast-iron covers,
on opening which the silt may be removed, or the opera-
tion of the drains watched. Exact plans of each system,
and records of the depths, and sizes of the tile, are kept ;
so that future alterations and additions may at any time
be made. The whole system is a very complete one,
and its results have been unexpectedly beneficial. The
magnitude of this work, and its accessibility, will
assuredly bring tile drainage into much greater favour ;
and when the cost of tile can be lessened, its use will be
much more general. At present IJ inch round tile,
with collars, costs 14 dollars, or 58s., per thousand',
and an acre can not be properly drained for less than
about Is. 4d. per rod.

The demand for a steam plough has been severely felt
in our western states, and large inducements have been
held out to inventors. The Illinois State Agricultural
Society offered this year a prize of five thousand dollars
(£1,000) for an engine capable of ploughing, drawing
loads on common roads, and furnishing motive power
for the various farm operations as required. At the
Society's show at Centralia, one competitor entered the
yard mounted on his " fiery chariot," and competed for
the prize. The jury in their official report state that the
machine " is well adapted as a stationary engine for farm
purposes, and that with improvements it can be made
useful for ploughing on our prairies ; but that it is not
as yet such a machine as will entitle it to the premium
offered by the society." They, however, awarded J. W.
Fawkes, the inventor, the sum of £100. On the day
following the trial, a public exhibition was made of its
powers, and the secretary of the society assures me with
better success. The inventor claims the application of
po^er to a single drum or propelling wheel, which has a
diameter and width each of six feet. The front part of

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the frame rests on two guiding wheels three-and-a-half
feet diameter, and sixteen inches wide on the tire, which
prevents their miring in soft ground. There are ad-
justible spuds in the periphery of the large drum to pre-
vent it slipping. He guides his machine in a manner
something similar to Boydell. It draws a gang of six
ploughs, each turning a twelve-inch furrow. These are
attached to a frame, which, by means of chains and a
windlass, is hoisted and lowered by the engine when it is
required to turn at the ends of furrosvs. The turning is
done in three-sevenths of a minute. It is worked by
two men, an engineer and a fireman, consumes but little
fuel and water, and pumps the water into the boiler
when either stationary or in motion. Its regular rate of
travel when at work is three miles per hour ; and it can
be made to start, stop, back, and turn to either side, by
a gentle touch of the operator. It is claimed that it will
plough twenty acres of sod per diem, at a cost of 2s. per
acre. This one of twenty horse-power (American com-
putation) costs ^500. Although this is evidently not a
complete success, yet from certificates from respectable
engineers and farmers which I have seen, I make no
doubt but that it warrants us in expecting much from
its future performances. There can be no question but
that we shall ultimately see steam applied to the harvest-
ing of our corn and gi-ass crops as well as to ploughing ;
and I rejoice to see the earnest competition which is
going on between English and American mechanics to
bring about these desirable results.

To give you some idea of the number of agricultural
implements annually produced in this country, I may
mention that the great house of Nourse, Mason, and
Co., of Boston, manufactured and sold last year f fly -
one thousand ploughs ; and a firm in Illinois built four
thousand two hundred reaping machines, which is,
doubtless, twice or three times as many as have been
made by all your makers since they were first introduced
by Mr. Bell. The royalty paid by this firm to the
widow of the patentee at £b on each reaper is the snug
sum of £21,000, which for one year's income of a once
poor mechanic is not so bad.

Hand in hand with the magical progress of your Aus-
tralian colonies, has marched our California; and at the
present day its agriculture exhibits a remarkable evi-
dence of prosperity. It may not be uninteresting to
look back for a moment upon its past history. In 1769
and '70 the first settlements were made in Upper Cali-
fornia (at San Diego and Monterey), by the Mexicans.
Without improvement of its agriculture, with no com-
merce or manufactures, the country remained under their
listless sway for eighty years, until by the treaty of
Guadaloupe Hidalgo, it was annexed to the United
States. The tide of empire then set toward its shores,
and like some dream 'of Oriental fables, it has grown
into magnificent proportions. In 1856 there were pro-
duced 367,154 qrs. of wheat, 403,653 qrs. barley,
45,554 qrs. oats, 20,683 qrs. Indian corn, 721,018
bushels potatoes, 258,982 lbs. wool, 452,173 lbs. butter,
24G,U3 lbs. cheese. There were 81,703 horses,
17,713 mules, 520,276 head of cattle, 192,271 sheep,
138,910 swine. Of fruit trees there were 1,071,713, of

grape vines 1,317,957. Her crops of wheat average
more to the acre than the best wheat- growing districts
of the older states. The climate and soil are capable of
producing the vine, olive, fig-tree, orange, lemon, pome-
granate, the cork-tree, prune, date, tamarind ; and be-
side these the quassia, Egyptian senna, rice, tobacco,
cotton, mulberry, madder, and multitudes of other pre-
cious articles of commerce. Of the future of California
it is impossible to judge ; but if it does not belie the pro-
mise of the present, it must become a wonderful empire.

Of agricultural societies under state or county organi-
zation we have nearly eight hundred, and their influence
is in general of a salutary nature. This same want of
individual capital amongst the farmers prevents the
accumulation of funds by donation, and as the society
must in great measure depend upon its receipts ac the
gates to pay its expenses, care is taken to make such
displays as will draw a large concourse of spectators.
Hence it is that you may notice in your American agri-
cultural exchanges, frequent criticisms upon the greater
attention bein:j paid to horse-trotting on the trial track,
at the expense of a thorough examination of the cattle or
implement on the ground ; or of the ofiicers of certain
societies lending encouragement to exciting displays,
which would scarcely come within the province of a
purely agricultural association. But with all our im-
perfections, there is very much to challenge the approba-
tion of sensible men, and what is bad will right itself in
due course of time. At the meeting of the United States
Agricultural Society, held at Philadelphia in 1856, there
were in one day over seventy-five thousand persons on
the grounds, and wherever the show has been held the
concourse has been vast. At Louisville, in '57, there were
Herefords on exhibition, which had been brought some
six hundred miles by railway ; and this year at Rich-
mond, Va, there were animals, implements, and pro-
ducts from equally great distances. The number of
entries of all kinds was not so great as at some former
meeting, but the herds are spoken of as being of excel-
lent quality. The number of entries were— of cattle
110, horses 191, sheep (pens) 51, swine (pens) 24 ; and
the amount of premiums offered about £''1,600, exclu-
sive of gold, silver, and bronze medals, and diplomas,
for implements and manufactures. The annual busi-
ness meetings are held in the City of Washington, in
January, when valuable papers are read, and interest-
ing discussions held upon agricultural topics. The
present government of the Society are using every
endeavour to increase its influence and utility, and with
a fair share of public assistance there can be no doubt of
a favourable issue.

The greatest interest is felt by our fruit growers in
the labours of the American Pomological Society, which
in September last made its tenth annual display. The
wide diversity of our climates enables us to produce the
fruit of every part of the world, and the task of testing
the merits of the multitudinous varieties of our com-
monly cultivated fruits, of unravelling the confusion of
names, and distributing the most suitable fruits to each
section of country, is no slight one. The good already
accomplished by this society is almost incalculable, and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

239

the zeal of its working members seems to suffer no
abatement.

There was introduced into the House of Representa-
tives, during the last session of Congress, a bill by Hon.
Mr. Moniil, providing for donations of over six millions
of acres of the public lands, to the several States, to
provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the
mechanic arts. It is proposed to distribute the land on
the basis of Congressional representation, allowing
20,000 acres for each Senator and Representative in
Congress. This will give New York 700,000 acres ;
Pennsylvania, 540,000 ; Ohio, 460,000 ; Virginia,
300,000; Massachusetts, 260,000; and to the other
States in proportion. The proceeds of these lands are
required to be invested by the various States in safe
stocks, yielding not less than 5 per cent, interest, the
capital to remain undiminished — a perpetual fund. The
interest is to be applied to the internal economy of a
college for the teaching of agriculture and the mechanical
arts, and in no case to the erection of buildings. Any
State not providing such a college within five years from
the passage of the bill, forfeits its claim to its benefits.

The bill was passed by a vote of 105 to 100, in the
House of Representatives, but no decisive action has
as yet been taken by the senate. It will, however, in
all probability be made the subject of special legislation
during the present session. It has met with great favour
from our press and the public, but I cannot but think
it is somewhat premature, for if each State were to erect
the required college, it would be a matter of impossi-
bility for us to find teachers and professors competent
to fill the several chairs, without importation from
abroad. The better plan would perhaps be to found a
national agricultural normal school, as complete in
appointments and as thorough in course of study and
practice as our existing naval and military academies.
In such an institution a corps of teachers could be
educated ; and when once this were done, the several
colleges might be endowed and erected.

In my next communication I hope to give you a
sketch of the agricultural colleges already founded in
this country, and some further notice of the more valu-
able discoveries and inventions.

Neiv York, January \st. H. S. O.

HINTS TO EMIGRANT FARMERS.

Uucle Sam, it is currently declared, has farms for all the
husbandmen " in creation" — a fact which his irameuse terri-
tory, not to speak of wh«t, through " inevitable destiny," he is
bound to annex, will almoat sanction. But Uncle Sam, like
his progenitor, John Bull, has peculiarities of soil and circum-
stances which commend or condemn bis real estate, and to
some of both, with your leave, will I attempt to draw the at-
tention of the agricultural readers of the Express, and espe-
cially such of them as may contemplate emigrating here. 1
write only of what I have seen and know in both the eastern
and north -western sections of this country — the only two in
which Scotch farmers, judiciously advised, can have any inte-
rest iu choosing a settlement.

New Englaud farming ia literally up-hill work — hard and
unremunerstive. The soil is generally poor, stony, and sterile,
with the exctption of the river bottoms, where it is one-third mea-
dow, to two thirdii quagmire, with but few exceptions — among
them the valley of the Connecticut. When natural circum-
stauces favour, money may be made ; hut, generally speaking,
the New Euglaud farmers are hard working, poor men, I
might add, also, that they are generally poor farmers, and
blmd in particular to the organic fact that " muck's the
mither o' the meal kist." As it may be of some little interest
to your readers to have an intimate description of the process
of farming here, I will take the liberty to give one, premising
that my data are drawn from facts connected with a farm in
which I had some pecuniary interest ; and, of course, their
accuracy may not be questioned.

The farm alluded to was, seventy years ago, covered by a
dense forest of pine trees, which were hewn down by cue of
the revolutionary heroes who had emptied his old " Queen
Anne" in the faces of the red coats from the top of Bunker's
Hill, followed Washington for a short time, and retired with
his honours — in the shape of sundry deeply indented scars — to
enjoy his olium cum dignitate, when he had hewn, hacked, and
hoed it out of the realm of old Mother Nature. The farm, six

years ago, when I became interested in it (and it is similar
now), consisted of 64^ acres. Of this surface, six acres are
covered with tall spruce, hemlock, beech, oak, and birch tim-
ber. There are two acres of orchard ground, all apples. Of
arable land there are 26 acres, one-half of which may be called
good— including the house and bjru lot, and the garden. A
meadow, which produces a considerable crop of the aquatic
grasses, monopolises 4 acres ; and the rest is pasture land,
which means land where the trees have been felled, and which
is three-fourths covered with scrub oaks and small bushes.
This description will hold good as to the average of inland
farms of the same size. It is situated 30 miles from the nearest
railroad, and 40 miles from any considerable market. The value
of this farm is now about £500.

The stock kept on the farm comprises four working oxen,
one yoke or pair, five years old, and the other four years.
Other oxen or steers are variously kept, hut at present there
is one yoke of three year-olds, three two year-old animals, and
four calves. There are four milk cows, three heifers rising
three years old, four two-year-old do., and five heifer calves.
One horse, seldom used for farm woik, and thirty sheep and
lambs, fill up the list. The value of the stock will range in
the vicinity of £150, which sura will include the value of three
hoggs kept on the farm. Add £100 for farm implements and
odds and ends, and as much for the fodder necessary to sustain
the stock throughout the wia(er season (for in summer it shifts
for itself), and the total value of farm and contingencies —
house furniture calculated into the amount — will be less than
£1,000. Audit must be recollected that this is the price of
what is here called a good farm. Throw a light four-wheeled
waggon into the list of necessaries, and £1,000 will cover all
the expense.

And now let us speak of the produce. The heaviest yoke of
cattle will bring about £30; a couple of cows £12 ; a dozen
of lambs £7 ; a fat hog— say 500 lbs.— £6 ; hens, chickens,
and turkeys, 3 dols. ; butter (what can be spared from family

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THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE.

use), £6; beans, £i; wool, £10; potatoes, £2; and bay,
£10. I put a low figure on the last two items, aa it is gene-
rally the rule to keep as much stock ou the farm as will use
its produce in these articles, and also all the carrots end tur-
nips raised, of which there are very few — say £100 — and you
will have the full value of what can be spared from the farm
for market during the season. Keeping contingencies in view,
but little further inroad could be made in the stock than that
atated — but the sum immediately above specified will include
that extension up to its reasonable limit. Deducting the ex-
penses of tear and wear of implements, repairs on houses,
taxes, &c., a diligent farmer will be well off if he can make 4
per cent, of interest oa hia investment. But theu the farm
and its produce are his oivn, aud the improvemeuta are also his
own ; and knowing this, he can hold his head much higher
than he could do at home, at court day, with a lank purse,
and au exacting or a needy landlord. That fact itself ja
worthy the sacrifice of a good percentage. However, there
are circumstances under which the emigrant farmer could do
much better, as I will subsequently show. In fact I may as
well state at this point, that I would not advise a Scotch
farmer to settle himself in New England, as he never could
mould himself to the circumstances which would surround him
in various shapes, some of which will be readily inferred from
what follows.

Of the 26 acres of arable land spoken of, four are, on the
average of years, planted with Indian corn or maize ; two with
potatoes ; cue with beans — which are not of the description
you raise iu Scotland, but a kind used for food, aud, out of
Mexico, principally used in New England ; one acre with
wheat, and one with oats, which grow here miserably, and never
produce a paying crop under any circumstances ; aa acre ol
buck wheat, and as much for kitchen garden purposes, and the
growth of carrots and turnips closes up the list. This will
occupy ten acres of the lot. The remainder is devoted to the
produce of clover aud ryegrass hay — in proportion to the
breadth of cereals of the previous year, and the natural grassee
all of which come under the denomination of hay. The farm
I speak of produces about 40 tons per annum— about a sixth
part only of the whole being good. The Indian corn land will
not yield more than 100 bushels from the four acres. Pota-
toes will produce about half the quantity the same breadth of
laud will yield under the Scottish system of cultivation ; wheat
is always a precarious crop, and seldom does well ; and oats
aud turnips are miserably poor. Carrots grow well, and also
beets. Pumpkins are planted among the corn, and grow ex-
cellently, furnishing capital living for pigs. Cabbages produce
liberal crops, and garden stuffs are always plentiful. Some
farmers grow vast quantities of apples, which are cut and dried
for family u^e, made into cider, or sold at market. But these
items, like eggs, sre the guidewives' perquisites, and must be
sacredly considered so.

The hay and grain being now secured (the latter end of
September), ploughing has commenced. Imagine a sturdy
fellow, with a long goad, shinting and pricking half-a-dozen
sturdy oxen, who are dragging a stump of a plough held by
two men, the while a third one bears with all his might on the
beam, in order that it shall penetrate into the soil to the
greatest possible depth. Imagine a furrow at least 15 inches
broad, and nearly as much in depth— when the boulder stones
will permit— and a general zigzaginess of the course of the
plough, which would give one of your Ayrshire prize winnera
" a scunner to look at," and you have a specimen of that de-
partment of husbandry. It ia the most unscientific process
imaginable, and could never be learned by a Scotch farmer
lccu«tomed to the turning over of the atumpless and stouelesa

glebe. If his arms were not jerked out of their sockets during
the first five minutes of his apprenticeship, he would vow never
to use them again during another five in such " wanchancy"
occupation.

The " breaking up" being accomplished, gathering in of the
Indian corn harvest commences, followed by the securing of
the root and fruit crops. These snug — the maize stocked
ajcay in the upper chamber of the homestead, and the apples
and roots stowed away in the cellar of ditto, with the pump-
kins, squashes, turnips, and carrots piled on the barn floor, the
cider barrels being first filled — the spring manure must be
looked after. All hands go to the swamp, where they dig aud
cart home large quantities of mossy soil, which they place in
the cow yard, that it may have the full benefit of the rains of
the succeeding winter and spring, and where the floods may
wash the -liquids from the stable aud byre over and out of it,
and down the roadsides and gutters. In the spring this
clabber ia carted to the fields, and contributes very materially
to effect nothing for the crops to which it is applied. In sum-
mer the sun contrives to do for the little manure made what
the rains and snow do ia winter.

Fencing ia nest attended to. All the fences here are of
stone or wood. The frosts are so severe as to heave the earth
aud displace both kinds of protcctiou ; but the labours of early
spring hinder all but temporary repair until late autumn comes.
This job is a hard one, and requires skill in building, and with
the axe that one not to the manner born could not success-
fully exert.

Then follows the preparation of fuel for the coming winter.
Shouldering his axe the farmer proceeds to the woods, where
he cuts down for family use as much wood as would serve a
country weight in Scotland for a couple of years. Stock and
branches of the trees are cut into lengths of four feet — then
split into sectious — three or more, according to their girth —
aud piled up until the snow falls, when the firewood is drawn
home iu sledges. All this furnishes hard work, aud that of
such a nature aa to make it uncongenial to one brought up to
Scotch farming. The sawing and resplitting of the firewood,
with making aud mending far jx implements and hErness, with
attending to the cattle — shehing a bushel of Indian corn now
and then — taking it to the mill — paring and drying apples for
the guidwife — talking politics — sleigh riding, and going to
church once a month when a preacher turns up, fill up the
time till spring. The domestic aud other duties and pleasures
are occasionally varied by a "breaking-out spell," when the
snow comes down eight or ten feet deep, when the roads have
to be dug out, or the snow so sodden that travelling on it is
impossible.

"When the spring opens, which is about the middle of April,
ploughing and planting with the hoe commence. The hoe ia
the favourite implement used for planting both Indian com
and potatoes. Its use is very laborious and very dilatory.
The whole surface, after the crops come up, has to be hoed
over at least twice. The close of the hoeing season often en-
croaches on the commencement of hay time, which lasts as
least a month. With the thermometer at 90 to 108, the sea-
sou ia a very severe one on the field labourer. Bush-cutting,
to clear up the pastures, and repairing of houses aud barns
with such incidental labours as belong to the farm, fill up the
summer and autumu to the point at which I started.

The New England farmers, as a class, are not so healthy as
those of Scotland. They are extremely liable to fevers, which
proceed from the great changes from heat to cold vs'hich cha
racterise the seasons, and from the use of much salt food.
Fresh meat is a great rarity with them, and salt pork its most
common substitute. They are a very intelligent class of men ;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

241

but, like most farmera everywhere else, as obdurate as mules
in resisting every scheme of improvement. No class of men
are so wedded to the practical wisdom of their agricultural
ancestors. They are very iiidependeat and high-miuded—
keeping away from bargaining. At that they have no equals.
You would call their genius iu.this respect cheating ; but, alas !
old moral notions are of little service in this new world.

The school is to be found everywhere over the face of New
England, and open to all free of charge, or almost so. Town
taxes only amount to about 4a. 6d. per caput per annum, and

that covers everything in the way of general taxation — for
roads and everything else — schools included. The character
of education is not very higb in country districts, but the
library and the newspaper do much to help it oa. The ob-
servances of religion are pretty strictly attended to ; although
it is not at all unusual to see a youth carry a gun or a fishing
rod in his hand past the church door on a Sunday on the way
to his sport. There are few polemics among us. Political
demagogues are the prevailing crop. But I must stay this
rambling. — Ayrshire Express' United States' Correspondent.

WHEEL VERSUS SWING PLOUGHS.

BY T. BOWICK.

" Facts are chiels that winna ding,
An' canna be disputed."

I do not assume the office of dictator, but rather appear as a
learner desirous of further information, and the elucidation of
both sides of the question. With steam tillage looming in the
not far distant future — whether under the shape of Fowler's
Ploughs, Smith's Cultivator, or Halkett's " Guideway"— it
may be thought late in the day to take up the pen on such a
subject. But believing that the death-knell of the plough will
not be sounded in our day, I embrace the leisure of a winter's
evening to jot down a few thoughts thereon, original or other-
wise.

It is usually found that local customs hayc some solid basis,
and it is not wise rashly to depart therefrom. By doing so,
many a one has had to gain wisdom, and pay the heavy fees
in the School of Experience ; while the j jg-trot practitioner
has been reaping a goldeu harvest in the well-trodden path.
Therefore we do not ask from our brethren on the north of
the Tweed either a hasty acquieseace in, or a churlish dissent
from, anything that may be advanced. Take the remarks for
what they are worth. If all is chaff or verbosity, cast it aside;
but if there is any grain of truth — even although disagreeing
with a previously-formed belief — let it have its due weight in
practice. Although upwards of three hundred wheel ploughs
have been introduced into Scotland during the last three years,
there is still a considerable amount of distaste— [l do not call it
prejudice, for that is a weed that I hope does not vegetate
freely in the minds of the intelligent farmers beyond the Tweed)
—with which they are regarded. But those who have known
and used the best of both classes of implements — who have
both a Scottish and English experience — ought to be ia the
best position for the formation of a correct judgment on this
point. I have, therefore, obtained from men of undoubted
ability and position, who combine the two requirements above
named, opinions that I have no hesitation in endorsing.

We have at present nothing whatever to do with the ploughs
turned out by Howard, Ransome, Bali, Busby, or Hensman in
the south, aj a class J nor of Kirkwood's, Scoular's, Cowan's,
Ponton's, Sellar's, or Barrowman's, in the north. It is simply
the prmciple of Wheels or no Wheels— a. principle often ob-
jected to, as being a piece of unnecessary complication, with-
out any counterbalancing advantages. But there are those ad-
vantages, whether you choose to admit them or not. Compli-
cation they can hardly be charged with, since we see daily
proofs to the contrary. The system in Scotland fortunately
does not send the lads to the fields at so tender an age as with
us. But here you often find good regular ploughing turned
out by youths who would only be entrusted with the " ora
horse" in Scotland. Strange proof of complication this ! In

a neighbouring parish — where, however, a considerable stimulus
has been exerted by a few men of intelligence and industry —
we mean Berkswell, the majority of the ploughmen are lialflans
— the implements manufactured at Bedford or Ipswich — and
the turning over of the soil second in quality or quantity to no
district with which we are acquainted. The late lamented Earl
of Aylesford, whose seat is in this parish, held an annual
ploughing match on the Home Farm, at which it was a perfect
treat to see the work, the workmen, and the tools. The fact
is, that a good wheel plough, when well set, depends far less
for the perfect execution of its work on the skill of the holder
than does its swing compeer of the most approved construc-
tion. It was but this morning that we saw a ploughman en-
gaged in the double operation of ploughing and, at the same
time, removing a partial range of hurdles which threatened to
interfere with his return furrow. Over some ten or twelve
chains of its length he never touched the plough with a finger,
while the furrow was laid correctly and beautifully, at the ap-
proved dimensions of six by nine. Not that there is no room
for the due exercise of skill and judgment in the use of this
implement ; for with it as with any other, we find that the
quality of the work is proportioned to the skill of the plough-
man. Still, we do contend that with a secondary amount of
ability, the results are cent, per cent, in favour of the wheels.
A first-class ploughman is undoubtedly a great acquisition
on a farm, and the yearly or half-yearly feeing markets fully
recognise this. Some farmers loill have such hands at what-
ever cost, and, like the late Mr. Gorrie, in the Carse of Gowrie,
grudge not the extra few pounds thus entailed. But it is evi-
dent that all cannot obtain the best men ; and on the gene-
rality of Scotch farms, probably not more than one or two of
such will be found. Hence arises one advantage of the im-
proved wheel ploughs, in that you can obtain as good and
equable work, or nearly so, from the second or third-rate
hands, without any deterioration to that produced by the
others. The farmer obtains the advantage, and is rendered far
less dependent ou those in his employment. His foreman, or
himself, can see, if needful, the setting of the wheels, which
are simple of adjustment, and readily altered according to the
nature of the work. The new lever neck is an efficient con-
trivance for giving the ploughshare more or less dip into the
land, while the coulter fittings afford unequalled facilities for
placing this part in any required position. All the wearing
parts can also be readily replaced in the field by a ploughman
of average capacity, which saves many a weary and tedious
journey to the smithy. Their strength and durability are be-
yond question, and with new wearing parts, as required, they

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

retain the firmly-framed mellowness of a new plough— the
desirableness of which all practical men are agreed upon, as
an old shaky plough, of whatever make, is of far heavier
draught than when it sported in pristine glory. There is no
reason why one of these ploughs should not, with moderate
care and attention, be equally serviceable at the close of the
longest lease or " life-rent" as at its commeucement. A. well-
known East Lothian agriculturist, who has successfully used
them on his farm, says that his men consider them more diffi-
cult to turn at the end of the field. Good ploughmen in the
south complain of swing ploughs for this and other reasons.
Custom would speedily remove the barrier in either case. At
all events, we find Scotch ploughmen in Eagland almost in-
variably preferring the wheel plough, and acquiring the plan
oihalanchig on the furrow wheel in turning at the land's end.
With deep ploughing, say eleven or twelve inches, this is in-
deed tight work when turning to the left. But as far as turn-
ing is concerned, wheel ploughs could be much more advan-
tageously worked in Scotland than in England, since the
country is generally laid out in larger fields and wider lands.

Before coming to the important question of draught, there
is another objection to which we would refer. It is obviously
the interest of the farmer to obtain an implement of the most
generally-useful character ; not a plough or a harrow which
could Duly be economically worked on one portion of his farm,
while for the remainder it was valueless. We by no means
advocate the imdlnm in jtarvo principle as desirable for farm
utensils generally. There are old-fashioned ploughs, such as
the Kentish turn-wrest, which may be converted into a broad-
share, scarifier, or horse-hoe, and do all these operations mode-
rately well. Such great conglomerations are often, in plain
language, great humbugs. But a Scotch farmer often wishes
a plough which will not only do its legitimate turn-over work,
but can also be used, by a " ribbing" process, if memory serves
aright, for opening and closing the bean, potato, and turnip
ridges. Here, again, the wheel plough is conaplained of,
though with what justice we cannot profess to say, as we in-
variably use and prefer the double mould or ridging plough for
these objects. However, in the Warwick neighbourhood, we
find thst they are pretty freely adapted for this purpose by the
addition of a small block of wood to the forepart of the frame,
on the near side. And we have there seen, on farms well
managed by Roxburgh men, ridging of a character that would
please the taste of the nicest connoisseur. Taking Howard's
P. P. plough, for instance, you can use it for this purpose in
May or June ; apply a paring share to it, and skim foul
stubbles, two inches deep, in September, turn over the clover
or " seeds" for wheat in October ; divest it of the mould-board,
and add a penetrating share, so as to form a first-rate subsoil
plough (following another plough) at Christmas, on the laud
for next season's roots. In these varied capacities, saving the
ridging above referred to, we have repeatedly used this plough,
and found it as good a common plough as ever when the parts
were replaced. A Berwickshire friend, now farming his own
property in this county, who has had an extensive experience
on both iides of the Border, says he is convinced that " no
plough should be without wheels ; but a good wheel plough
should also be a goodawiug plough; and there is no difficulty
in obtaining such ploughs. I do not under all circumstances
use the wheels." The occasions in which he dispenses with
the wheels are probably in the cross-ploughing of cloddy land,
or on wet sticky soil, where the land wheel clogs, and in which
case a " foot" should be used iustead of the wheel. A very
practical fcUow-couutryman, Mr. Bower, of Long Bennington,
writes me ou this subject, that he finds another great advantage
in these ploughs. " When I break \ip," says he, " clover

stubbles for wheat, after harvest, in dry weather — which I con-
sider the best season for strong soils — I can plough with a wheel
plough when a spring plough would scarcely face it at all.
I also use Howard's in breaking up land for green crops, and
in ploughing ten inches deep with four horses, without strain-
ing or hurting the plough in the least." For the latter descrip-
tion of work, our own experience is, that a heavier plough, of
the same make, is invaluable. Some agriculturists express
their decided conviction that on the lighter descriptions of
soils alone are wheel ploughs any considerable advantage ;
while others say that on heavy soils and deep loams the most
favourable comparative results are obtained. We would strike
the balance midway, and say that for all soils, saving very
stony land, or steep hill-sides, their use would be found de-
sirable. This reminds us of the noted report given respecting
Ransome's ploughs, at the Southampton meeting of the R.
A. S. E., in days gone by. The two-wheeled ploughs, one-
wheel ploughs, and swing ploughs were tried in classes, both
on heavy and light land, according to the tastes of the exhi-
bitors. " By this arrangement not only was the quality done
by each implement displayed, but a fair opportunity offered
itself for observing and comparing the quality of the work as
executed in the same soil, and under the same circumstances,
by the three classes of the implements. The skill of the indi-
vidual construction was also manifested ; and on this occasion
the remarkable result came out, that one particular plough ex-
celled all the others, whether working with two wheels, with
one wheel, or without a wheel. This plough was one of the
three in the field, from the manufactory of Messrs. Ransome,
marked Y L. When fitted with two wheels, its performance
was like that of a planing machine ; the furrow slices were cut
vertically from the land, the floors or bottoms were left per-
fectly flat and clean, and the slices were deposited at an angle
of about 45°, with such truth that they could be turned back
to their original horizontal bed without gaining or losing
ground. According to the generally received principles of
perfect ploughing (whether they be correct and equally suit-
able to all soils and modes of culture or not), it is imagined
that practice has, in this instance, closely approached to their
fulfilment. How did it happen that the same plough proved
to be equally fit for light and heavy land ? Messrs. Ransome
changed the mould-board from one adapted to light land to one
suited to heavy land, an alteration effected in less than five mi-
nutes ; and abundant proof was afforded to, and acknowledged
by, the judges, that one given form of mould-board is utterly
inadequate to suit both sods" {vide Jour., vol. v., page 367).
This firm has been in the plough trade for a long series of
years, and as far back as 1785, the late Robert Ransome, of
Ipswich, took out a patent for " making shares of cast-iron."
Since then, other candidates have made most rapid and suc-
cessful advances for public favour — so much so that the name,
Howard, Ransome, or Ball, may almost be regarded as the
synonym for a first-class wheel plough.

But some people tell us that on land of a hilly character the
wheel plough can never make headway, as it is heavier, and
apparently more unwieldy than the swing construction. Now,
although we cannot here boast of mountains rivalling the noble
Grampian chain, there are yet elevations under culture which
manifest the same class of difficulties as may be met among
their glens and brae-sides. Take the Cotswolds, in Glouces-
tershire, for instance. On these escarpments will be found a
system of husbandry peculiar to the locality, but admirably
adapted thereto. If my reader has ever travelled the bleak
road from Cirencester to Stow-on-the-Wold, on a biting, blus-
tering morning in March, he requires not to be told that there
are heavy physical obstacles with which the district has to con-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

243

tend. A stiff north-easter blowing off the Scandinavian range,
and eddying among the many deep dells of the Cotswolds, will
remind him of crests to be surmounted, and braes to be ploughed
by implements of some kind or another. The soil is often thin
and brashy, the rock at a very shallow depth, and stones in
many cases numerous. Surely, here, then, the improved wheel
plough must hide its diminished hend ! la many cases it does
so. We find the wooden beam and handles prevailing, with
cast mould-board, and wrought-iron shares. These are turned
out in the locality much the same as is practised in Scotland.
But the mould-board is often on a very incorrect principle —
occasionally manufactured of wood — and the draught dyna-
mometrically severe. There are, however, exceptions even here.
First-class wheel ploughs are making a steady, onward progress.
If a leaf of practice is worth a volume of theory we are ready
to adduce the former. A farmer on the Cotswolds, whose
practice is second to none I have elsewhere seen, kindly
addresses me on this point. He is the occupier of over one
thousand acres in the neighbourhood of Northleach : — "I have
worked (says he) Howard's ploughs for the last three or four
years, and consider them the best for general purposes, doing
their work well, and much superior to any others I ever had
I think them better adapted for ploughing light stony land,
and having two wheels you can the more easily set them — with
greater truth ; and when set, requiring comparatively little
strength to hold. You will in very stony land break a few
shares ; but their cost replacing is not expensive ; neither any
blacksmith to pay — a great nuisance saved, as they are very
doubtful after being ' done,' and frequently the plough goes
badly. I work twelve of them in preference to others. They
are particularly good for ploughing our old seeds — (•' clover') —
for wheat, and old sainfoin for swedes and turnips after burn-
ing— a system not pursued iu your neighbourhood."

It does not follow that because an implement is iu itself
heavier than another, that its draught is either literally or
proportionally greater. Look at the case of a six- horse portable
engine and thrashing machine — the former weighing fifty-five
hundred- weight, and the latter three-fourths of a ton less.
Yet on the road it is not needful to put more strength to one
part than to the other. And my own impression is, that of
the two, the lighter part is the heaviest draught for the horses.
This arises from the greater longitudinal as well as lateral
spread of the thrashing machine between the wheels ; while
the engine is a firm compact body, occupying less space. So
of wheel ploughs, which you often find from fifty to seventy-
five per cent, heavier than a swing plough for the like work-
At Paris, in 1855, Ball's plough, which looks fully as heavy as
any other, registered 380 lbs., with a furrow of 8 in. by 10 in. ;
while at the trial on Mr. Alexander's farm, near Laurencekirk,
in November last, one of the best swing ploughs registered
694 lbs., when cutting 6| in. by 9^ in. I readily admit the
comparison to be incomplete, without a knowledge of the tena-
city of the respective soils, and other attendant circumstances,
although it does seem that the difference is indeed great.
However, there was also one of Howard's ploughs on the
ground, at Bent of Halkerton, which registered 369 lbs. at
6| in. by 9 in. ; while its most successful compeer at the same
dimensions is given at 560 lbs. Surely, there must be some
ground for reasoning from a fact like this. At another trial
in my native district, also in November last, at Carcary, near
Brechin, there was at least one hundredweight of difference
in favour of the wheel plough, as compared with the swing at
the like depth. Equally successful results have been reported
from Athlone, and the neighbourhood of Perth ; the former
ploughicg match being adjudged by men who stand in the
first rank of Scottish agricultariats — Messrs, Watson, Keillor ;

Dickson, Saughton Mains ; and Elliott, Laighwood. The Perth-
shire Advertiser, of November 25tb, says that "the time for
executing the allotted task of a quarter of an acre to each
plough was three hours and fifteen minutes. About thirty
minutes before the time fixed, the Bedford plough had finished
its work, and one of the Scotch ploughs within three minutes ;
but a considerable number of the latter having still a good deal
of ground to turn over, the time was extended for half an houn
and even with this extension, many of the ploughmen had
great difficulty iu bringing their work to a close." We must
not omit to add, that one of the Scotch ploughs showed the
same draught on the dynamometer, viz., three cwt., as Howard's.
Having repeatedly tested the draught of a good plough, under
different circumstances — such as increased or lessened depth
or width, with the coulter at different angles, with wheels and
without, with or without the skim, drawing from the end or
middle of the beam, or from the body, with additional weight
on the plough, at different paces, up-hill, or down-hiU, or level
work, et hoc genus omne — we know full well the care that is
needed, in order to ensure a correct reading of the dynamo-
meter. We would almost go so far as to say that the nice
fluctuations may be given either way, if the object is to serve
a given purpose. Plate XII. in the Cyclopedia of Agriculture,
with the corresponding article at p. 724, from Morton's well-
known pen, will fully illustrate our meaning. But the Scottish
trials appear to have been made with care and correctness, and
often in the presence of those whose tastes were not in favour
of the superior implement. It is true that the ploughman was
a flrat-rate hand, but he had to compete with first-rate hands.
It is true that the wheel ploughs were the best of their kind ;
but it is not less true that in these instances in which the
approximation was closest, local plough-makers bad become
aware of the trials, and lent their aid in bringing new coulters
and shares — and in more than one instance, new ploughs — all
of which were in advance of those usually found in practice.
Whereas, at the present moment, I doubt not but many ploughs
in the north will show nearly twice the draught of a good
wheel plough, with the same size of furrow slice. I make this
remark cautiously, but not without fair proof thereof.

As a whole, these and other trials exhibit the draught as a
saving of fully one-third in favour of the wheel plough. This
is a matter worthy of the deepest consideration. With prime
wheat not much over Ss. per bushel there is every reason for
retrenchment. And if the writer is correct in his remarks
here is an item of an important character. The saving on one
plough being considerable, how much more must it be when
multiplied by the ploughs of a large farm or of braid Scotland —
"Frae Maidenkirk to Jobnie Groat's !"
Sir John Forbes lately remarked, that " with three and a
half millions of arable acres in Scotland, a saving of an hour
per acre in ploughing three-fifths of it would be a gain to the
country of 100,000 working days of ten hours each ; a saving
of 1 cwt. of draught in that operation (to 150,000 work horses)
represents an enormous amount of tear and wear." To enter
a little further into details, we may take the arable acreage of
Scotland at fifty-six thousand acres over Sir John's estimate.
Now, according to the statistical return for 1857, this would
give the following extent of crops on a farm of 500 acres :—
59 acres wheat and barley.
136 „ oats, rye, and here.

9 „ beans, peas, and vetches.
91 „ roots and fallow.
205 ,, clover.

Total 500 „
Our object is not (o construct a rjtution, and we, therefore,
follow the statistical order; but takiug the clover, or "sueds,"

214

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

as being of first aud second years' growth, we can see how (by
seeding down a portion of the oata after roots) a five years'
course could be coustructed— or something nearly approaching
thereto. On a well-managed farm of this size there would be
some 500 acres of ploughing annually, allowing the roots to be
preceded by three furrows. I know there are many farmers
who would manage meJium soils with less than 400. The
cultivator — and especially Biddell's scarifier in Norfolk — is to
some extent exchanged for the plough. A good Warwickshire
farmer, who has travelled in Scotland, and profited by it, says
he is not in favour of the land being often ploughed, especially
if it is of a light description. " On my farm," he adds, " I do
not generally plough more than three times for five crops.
First, plough up the seeds for oats ; second, manure and plough
for beans and peas — then scarify for wheat ; third, give a deep
furrow for swedes — afterwards scarify for barley, and sow down
to seeds again." But to return from this digression. With
126,471 working horses in Scotland, the strength for such a
farm would be about nine pairs. Although the calculation is
seemingly high, we simply give it as founded on these data
A saving of one-third in draught ought to show it somewhere;
either in the corn-bin, in the earlier finish of the operation, or
in effecting a deeper and more complete tillage of the soil. It
is not too much to say that it would show itself, to a greater
or less extent, in all these respects. If we take Sir John's
hypothesis of an hour per acre saved in the operation, from less
expenditure of strength, we gain at least eight weeks' plough-
ing of a pair of horses— no mean adjunct it will readily be
allowed. We believe, however, that the saving would mani-
fest itself in a less obtrusive, though not in a less tangible
form. Mr. Lennie's Gold Medal Report of Ploughing Expe-
riments, in the Journal of Aciriculture , gives some tabular
results of a valuable character. Comparing the produce of
oats, after ploughing performed by Small's, Howard's, Tester,
and Currie ploughs, he says — " Howard's prize wheel plough
gives the greatest amount of produce both in grain aud straw,
taking its combined plots, as given in table No. III. The work

wag exceedingly well executed, especially of No. 4, the man
having a premium awarded to him. The work of No. 9 (both
Howard's) was nicely cut ; but not so well closed as it should
have been. This plough, from its light draught, and being
easily held, promi;es to come into extensive use. It is so con-
structed that it can be adjusted to any kind of work in the
field by the ploughman with facility. The furrow-slice ia rec-
tangular, the sole of which is cut flatter, and is cleaner taken
up than that of auy other plough the reporter has seen
working."

There are other matters to which we might refer, were out
object to aim at " special pleading." We have endeavoured,
in the preceding remarks, to show that wheel ploughs are not
the complicated pieces of mechanism which some people give
them credit for being ; that they are simple of arSjustment, and
can readily be repaired ; that they are decidedly advantageous
to the farmer in improving the work of his second-rate hands ;
that they are easier for the ploughman, lighter for the boises,
and of national importance as a saving of useful power. If
anything has been advanced contrary to facts I will gladly
acknowledge the mistake. If aught has been said in a dog-
matical or discourteous toue, the writer honestly regrets the
same. But he lays down the pen in the fullest couvictiou of
haviug adduced facts worthy of unbiassed consideration ; and
thoroughly believing that at no distant date will wheel ploughs
predominate on the North of the Tweed. 1 doubt not but
the leading manufacturers are disposed to do their part to-
wards it. It is for their interest to do so, for, as one of them
recently expressed it, " the Scotch are excellent in correspond-
ence, and prompt with remittances" — a character to my country-
men which I feel some amount of " Hieland pride" in repeating,

" Rear high thy bleak majestic hills,

Thy sheltered valleys proudly spread j
And, Scotia, pour thy thousand rills,

Aud wave thy heaths with blossoms red."

Sloneleigh Abbey Farm, Keuilworlh.

WARWICKSHIRE FIELD CLUB.

The annual meeting of this society was held on Monday, Jan.
31, in the Society's Rooms, Warwick, when a very interesting
paper was read by the Vice-President and Honorary Secretary
on bone in the lias formation ; a subject of great importance
to agriculturists. The president's chair was occupied by C.
Wren Hoskyns, Esq.; and among the gentlemen and archajo-
logists present were the principal scientific men of the neigh-
bourhood, together with the members of the " Field Club."
In introducing the principal paper, the President drew the
attention of those present to the immense fund of knowledge
and observation which the field meetings gave, at the same
time noticing the operations of the societies having Warwick,
Worcester, and Gloucester for their centres.

It may be necessary to state that, during the summer months,
the members meet together under the designation of the "Field
Club," and explore or examine the botanical, geological, and
other peculiarities of the neighbourhood ; and last year the
bone-bed at Knowle was examined by the Club. The visit to
Wenlock-abbey showed them abundant relics of the ancient
Silurian epoch, principally coral, and long since passed away ;
and a splendid view from a plateau, similar to that of the cele-
brated city of Lisbon from the Tagus ; aud, lastly, the dip of
the millstone grit with the Wenlock limestone.

Mr. Brouie then gave his promised quota to the proceed-
ings of the day. The productive researches of the geological
section during the summer months induced him to draw their
attention to the result of the first meeting of the season, held
at Knowle. The lower beds of the lias, as its name implied,
consisted of layers of limestone, clay, and shale, containing a
variety of organic remains, chiefly marine shells, with occa-
sionally fish, Hzards, and portions of insects and land plants.
Some of these strata, he continued to say, are well exposed at
Wilmcote and Harbury, in this county. We have here, at all
events, indications of terrestrial conditions, and a sea of no
very great depth, highly charged with carbonate of lime. They
are not only interesting on account of the many beautiful fos-
sils they contain (and of which the Warwick Museum has a
very fine and instructive series), but are also valuable for va-
rious economical purposes; more so, indeed, than any of the
upper portions of this formation throughout its range iu Eng-
land, except iu Yorkshire. The Bone Bed at Knowle. —
Some of these beds occur at Knowle with fossils; but the suc-
cession there is less easy to trace out, because they are not ex-
posed in any open section, being quarried by a shaft ; and the
works are now diacontinned. As far as he could judge, from
the small quantity of limestone and shale visible, he was dis-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

245

posed to consider them aa the equivalent of the saurian beds
in Gloucestershire; and the more so because the latter is full
of a beautiful small ammonite, which characterizes it, viz., the
Ammonites plus, which is found in equal profusion in the same
land iu Somersetshire and Gloucesterihire. It is impassible
to say whether the insect beds occur at Knowle ; but it may
be inferred that the thickness of the lower lias here is not very
great, and it is of very limited extent in this district. The fact
of the presence of this formation at this spot is worthy of note,
as it is the only patch of lias for several miles, being what is
called an " outlier," that is, lying away from the main mass.
In many places these outliers form prominent hills or " knolls;"
and the village of Koowle evidently derives its came from this
circumstance, though not, perhaps, so prominent or distinct as
other outliers often are. This patch of lias occurs along a line of
" fault" iu the midst of the ted marl, by which it is surrounded
on all sides, and is eleven miles distant from the chief escarpment
of the lias on the south. The whole outlier is about a mile and
ahalfinlengthby half amile in breadth. In order to explain the
subject more clearly, he briefly pointed out the range and ex-
tent of the lias in Warwickshire. It might also be traced
along the banks of the canal, near Hampton. A small section
might be observed in the adj scent bank, resting on the red
marl ; and this section presented, on a reduced scale, the lowest
strata at the base of this formation, similar in some respects to
the basement beds visible in Gloucestershire, Worcestershire,
&c. The bank appeared to consist of clay, with an included
layer of sandystone, containing casts of the small bivalve
shell called Pullastra arenicola : and although no actual bone-
bed was here observed, there was sufficient evidence to show
the occurrence of a sandy bed connected with it, belonging to
the base of the liasaic system ; and, indeed, it is highly pro-
bable that if the section were more exposed, the bone bed it-
self would be detected. Hitherto this is the most northern
poiut where it has been observed ; and the Field Club did a
very good day's work in noting this fact, slight as it might
appear to the uninitiated. Having explained the peculiar for-
mation of the hills at Knowle, the rev. gentleman proceeded
to state several facts connected with the bone-beds generally,
from which we select the following : — The bone-beds in the
lias consist of a thin dark-coloured stratum, containing com-
iuuted fragments of fish and saurians with teeth and copro-
litea, always occurring at the base of the lias. It has been
noticed at Axmouth (Devon), Auscliffe and Watchett (Somer-
set), Westbury, Wainlode Cliffe, and Coombe Hill (Glouces-
ter), and near Wilracote, in this county (Warwick), the two
extreme points being 140 miles asunder, its furthest northern
limit being Knowle. Here and at other places, the only shell
impressed in it is the Pullastra arenicola, which apparently
created furrows when its foot (crawling) passed over the soft
mud, now sandy stone. Even this pseudo insignificant mollusc
served to identify the bed. The value of even a single fossil
in identifying a single stratum over a wide area deserves
Bttention ; and those of the members commencing the study of
geology will find it both useful and encouraging to bear this
in mind ; no fact, however trivial to careless eyes, will be
overlooked or deemed unimportant ; for it may lead even
to great results, and indeed one recorded fact is worth a hun-
dred hasty generalizations or ill-advised theories, and he who
makes good use of ^i<(Ze things in science does his work well,
»nd certainly is a far more useful member of society than the

masses who pass through life without' an object to attract
them, or without ever having done anything worth recording.
The abundance of animal remains on these bone beds would
favour the opinion that the phosphate of lime might be useful
for agricultural purposes, just as the crag in Suffolk and the
upper green sandstone at Cambridge are marked and largely
exported for the same purpose. With this view, he sent up
some specimens of the bone bed (among other things) to the
Great Exhibition ; and the only drawback to its application to
agriculture is the quantity of iron pyrites with which the
stratum is charged. But the iron is not without its use iu
other ways. The mineral waters of Cheltenham are well
known ; and although it cannot be positively proved (no well
sinking ever having yet reached the red marl there) that the bone
bed exists under the town, it may be fairly inferred that it
does, from its contiguity to it not many miles distant on the
road to Tewkesbury. Whether the bone bed is there or not,
the mater which rises from the red marl, and passes upwards into
the lias through certain cracks or crevices, obtains its valuable
medicinal qualities from the quantity of sulphuret of iron [iron
pyrites] disseminated through the clay, and such anabundauce
of it as the bone bed contains would have more or less effect
ou the saline waters emanating from the red marl below.

The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to the Rev.
Mr. Brodie, for the paper and remarks he had given, cordially
hoped with him, that an impetus would be given to their
movements. The application of bone-dust to agricultural
ends was an important, a very important question, and espe-
cially to their farming friends. (Hear, hear). The upper
green sand, as had been stated, had yielded a considerable
quantity of bone-dust for exportation ; and he believed it had
been used in the hop districts to a vci-y great extent, proving
a most valuable manure. Singular to say, the pre-Adamite
world seemed to furnish us with manure derived as it were
from the entrails of animals, upon which [i. e., the manure]
the farmer of the present day grows his turnips ; and no doubt
(he continued) he does grow with that manure, because it is
the only form in which the phosphate of lime can be obtained.
There was but one locality whence the phosphate of lime
could be used in the same way as the super-phosphate pro-
duced from the bones of animals recently dead ; and the bone-
manures were not only universally used, but they were the
cheapest source; and though he must admit they were not pre-
excellent, still the gain in economy was great. It was thus
that antediluvian remains had actually furnished manure sent
from Birmingham, London, and all the metropolitan depots
throughout the country, as better calculated to produce that
most important "crop" — the turnip ciop.

The vote was carried con amore ; and, after a discussion on
the preservation of Shakspeare's house at Stratford, and other
points of purely archseological interest,

Mr. Brown, of Hilton Park, moved a complimentary vote
to the president for his able address. li was accorded and
acknowledged.

The proceedings then became purely scientific and palseon-
tologieal.

A visit was paid subsequently to the Cotton End Quarries,
and Mr. Ferry, the secretary, directed attention to the nn-
bedded bones of a labryntbidon. Mr. Brodie conjectured the
remains to belong to the huge animal's cranium. The party
then adjourned to dinner at the Woolpack Inn.

4i6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE GAME LAWS AND THE FARMERS.

The opening paragraph of her Majesty's Speech
refers with much satisfaction to the decrease of
pauperism and crime. The absence of the one may,
indeed, tend very much to the suppression of the other.
In the rural districts, more particularly, necessity has
been generally the incentive to dishonesty. As an al-
most natural consequence, people with the opportunity
of doing well will not care to do wrong, and our work-
houses and our prisons are alike relieved. In fact,
there is just now bat one serious class of offence asso-
ciated with the habits of the farm-servant and village-
artizan. Sheep stealing, stack burning, machine
smashing, and other such malpractices have long since
gone out of use. But poaching still offers all its
irresistible attractions. We have yet the every-day
case of the father of a family committed for a month
or two, for snaring a hare or a pheasant. We continue
to read of midnight onslaughts, fearful affrays, the
shedding of blood, and even of the further loss of life.
While we have successfully combated with other evils,
we leave this one quite unscathed. The preservation
of game is still regarded as a great good, worthy of all
the protection the Legislature can afford it. And
farmers lose their money, labourers their liberty, and
keepers their lives in the maintenance of such a system.

The field sports of Great Britain have long stood
pre-eminent. They have tended, indeed, in no slight
degree, to form and distinguish our national character.
The dash and enthusiasm of fox-hunting will teach a
man to charge at anything. The cool skilled courage of
the cricketer will always serve him in good stead ; and
the energy and bottom of the stalker or shooter go
equally to make a man sound in heart and body. For-
tunately, moreover, such pursuits are attended with
but few drawbacks. Hunting has hardly an enemy,
without it be the game-preserver. Cricket is the
amusement not of one, but of all classes of our country-
men ; and the sportsman who steps fairly out to find
his own birds, and get a shot here and there, has a wel-
come as hearty as any. It will be in an evil hour
when we attempt to interfere with or do away with our
people's pastimes, be they those of high or low.
But is this monstrous over-preservation of phea-
sants, hares, and rabbits really an English sport ?
If we wished to show a foreigner what an English
sportsman was, and what he could do, should we take
him to a battue ? Is there anything either manly, in-
vigorating, or even skilful, in the conduct of such a
business? Let him picture four or five gentlemen
" placed" in rides and corners, with one gang of men
to drive the game up to them, and another set of ser-
vants to load their guns for them. Let him see the
cover swarming with hares, and the air darkened with
pheasants. And let him watch these great English
sportsiuuii blazing away into the middle of them, with
scarcely the need for either aim or exertion. They

have not to walk half a mile the whole day through.
There is neither the pleasure of seeing their dogs
work, nor the excitement of beating up to and spring-
ing their own game. There is far too great an abun-
dance for anything of that kind. Their only point or
challenge is the continuous " cock"-" hen" cry of a
beater; and their only relief to this monotony of
slaughter the hot lunch, which is ordered at the head
of the wood for two o'clock.

We boldly maintain that this is not sport, or, at any
rate, certainly not the sport of Englishmen. Is it then
worth upholding, if we but consider the monstrous
abuses and injustice with which it is maintained ? The
over-preservation of game does injury to almost every
class such a practice can in any way affect. It is the
one great drawback to the popularity of the country-
gentleman, to begin with. What, as often as not, will
he do with this immense quantity of game when it is
once carted ? Does lie not send it as systematically to
the poulterer as would the vei-y poacher he is so bitter
against ? Is not his keeper an unwarrantable spy over
the whole district, making bad blood and ill-will
almost everywhere he goes? Then, again, as regards
the farmer, this excess of vermin is the greatest impe-
diment he can have to contend with. Leases, liberal
covenants, or even compensation for the damage, can
avail him but little, if all he has done is to be wantonly
undone again in this wise. But no tenant ever yet really
received actual compensation for such description of
losses; while in the majority of cases he has
hardly more than nominal recompence. We
have galloped through wheat in July, that, as the
occupier admitted, '' you could not hurt,"
with two game-preserving landowners, each equally
reluctant to allow it was his fault. We have seen
keepers come methodically round, to drive the game
in again after feeding, from another man's lands into
their own master's covers. The uncertainty as to
whom it belongs, or to whom he should properly look,
has beat many a farmer before now, as it will beat him
again. In fact, no man, however striving or able, can
contend against too great a head of game. He
loses not merely his money, but with it his indepen-
dence and self-respect. How can any one feel, who is
perpetually dogged and directed by another's servant,
and whose greatest enemies are positively the other's
perquisites? " The rabbits belong to the keeper ;"and
we can well imagine what this official's animus will be,
when he sees an occupier exercising his now just right,
and destroying those on his own holding. How he will
follow every shot, and try to make out " It wasn't the
rabbits only Mister was after !" In short, a gamekeeper
with his present excess of authority, and leave and li-
cense to go when and where he pleases, is a positive
curse to a country. He creates dissension between
landlord and tenant ; he is continually laying traps and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

U7

pitfalls for the workpeople of the place;" and he more
often than not destroys sport rather than conduces to it.
For the sake of showing a good head of game, and with
an eye to his own rabbits, how many a gallant fox has
fallen before him, and how many a blank day has " the
country" had in consequence! The man, in a word, is
in a false position. He is invested with a power and im-
portance far above his proper station in life, and he can
scarcely fail to go wrong. Like Phaeton, with the
horses of Apollo, he holds the reins that never should
have been entrusted to him. As a man of capital, in-
telligence, and s])irit told his late landlord, when he
met him recently in town, "We should never have
parted, as you know, sir, if it had not been for the
keeper; but I could not stand him." And the other's
only answer was the echo — " I know it."

We trust never to see the English gentleman denied
those sports and pastimes that endear him so much to
his own home. We repeat, there is good policy in en-
couraging them. But we deny that battue shooting is
sport; and we hold that the rearing of hares and phea-
sants wholesale — too often at another's cost — and then
slaughtering and selling them wholesale, is incompa-
tible with the character and fine feeling of a gentleman.
There are hundreds of tenants, whose farms swarm with
game, that do not get a brace in the year; they
are bespoke by the dealer. Others are certainly
more liberal, and it was only within this
week or so we came across a flaming paragraph de-
tailing how many hundred hares and pheasants Lord
Smashford and two or three friends had killed in two
or three days ; and how, with his lordship's customary
liberality, these had been " distributed amongst the
poor and the tenanti-y" ! A fine compliment this, cer-
tainly. What John Ploughman does not want, you
can let the farmers have.

Mark the greeting between the squire and his tenant
at the cover side. Visit the latter at Ins homestead,
and note the brush twined over the mantel-piece, the
portrait of the favourite horse, or the well-cherished
print of my Lord and his Hounds. There are no truer
friends to field sport as it should be, than the farmers;
and for this reason let them not fear to speak out. We
would not have them follow the mere lead of any other
class. But in these times they must not shirk an
abuse that is a manifest injustice to themselves, and a
wrong to all. The produce of the country is wasted,
the lower classes continually tempted and trapped, and
a spirit of inquisition exercised wholly un-English in its
character, and unwholesome in its influence. Our
lands can be turned to a far better use than feeding a
plague of hai'es and rabbits ; and there is fortunately
employment enough for our labouring population to
keep them above the degrading duties of spies and
watchers. As a simple question of economy the point
is all one way ; and prosecution expenses and keeping
poachersin prison are items in a county's expenditure
that might be put to a far higher purpose. No " estab-
lishment" of keepers and their subordinates can ever
set off" such an unprofitable outlay.

Some have already begun to speak out. Mr. Jackson,

by his address at the Winfrith Club, has commanded
an attention that clearly shows how much maybe done.
We publish with this a resolution from the farmers in the
neighbourhood of Blandford, in hearty support of what
he has advanced, as well as in sympathy for the
manner in which he has been attacked. But Mr.
Jackson needs no such commiseration. The highest
compliments paid to his address have been the impotent
answers attempted to it, and the petty indignities
levelled at himself. You may often test the strength
of an argument by the opposition it encounters.

Sir, — Having houonred the Wiufrith Chib by giving their
discussion on Game, &c., tlie benefit of your extensive circu-
lation, I take the liberty to a?k that the enclosed may also
find a place in your colamua, to show that other Dorset farm-
ers are ready to support free speech in the right direction,
altboiigh coming from one so insignificant as myself.
I am, Sir, yours truly,

T. S. Jackson.

Blandford, Jan. 29, 1859.
Sir, — I am directed by the committee of the Blandford
Farmers' Club to send you the copy of the resolutions come
to by them this evening, and to state that you are perfectly at
liberty to make what use you like of it.

I am. Sir, faithfully yours,
Mr. T. S. Jackson, W, H. Atkinson.

Rempstone.

Copy.
" That the Blandford farmers beg to express to Mr. T. S.
Jackson their entire concurrence iu and approval of the sen-
timents uttered by him in his lecture delivered to the Win-
frith Farmers' Club, on the 17th November last, and also
their sympathy with him under the unpleasant consequences
entailed upon him by the free expression of his ideas on that
occasion, and they regret that any person should have thought
fit to cavil at the remarks there made, or the mode iu which
he expressed them."

To THE Members of the Blandford Farmers'
Club.

Gentlemen, — It affords me very great pleasure to thank
you most sincerely for the expression of your approval of my
sentiments on Game, &c.

So unexpected a proof of kind feeling coming from such a
respectable body of agriculturists more than repays for the
attack made upon me by those who must have known they
were misrepresenting the tone of my address; for it is evident,
on reading the discussion, that it is anything but " a wholesale
attack upon the aristocracy."

The only cause for regret I see in the matter is, that any
English paper should be so unfair as to allow certain charges
to be inserted against an individual, inviting an answer, and
then to refuse the reply ; however, I rejoice to believe that
this little opposition has only strengthened our cause, and
given it greater publicity. Trusting it wdl result in much
good, I am, Gentlemen, yours sincerely,

Rempeston, Jan. 31, 1859. T. S. Jackson,

MS

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE CAPE WOOLS.

The sheep-farmers of South Africa are at last be-
ginning to understand the impolicy of the course they
have so long pursued of shearing their sheep twice a-
year, instead of allowing the fleece to grow to a full
twelvemonth's staple, which would realize a much
better price in the home-market, and better meet the
requirements of the trade.

Southern Africa is fast overtaking the Australian
colonies in the production of this valuable export; for
while the imports of the latter have been almost sta-
tionary or rather declining within the last six years, the
Cape has doubled its exports. In 1853 the total im-
ports of wool from the colonies were 177,267 bales, of
which 22,998 bales came from the Cape of Good Hope,
and the remainder from Australia and New Zealand.
Last year the total imports of colonial wool were
218,608 bales, of which 56,032 were from the Cape,
against 152,576 from AustraUa. The Cape Colony and
its adjuncts now rank second on the list of exporters of
wool to this country, taking rank after Victoria, and
heading New South Wales, which used to send double
the amount received from Africa. A consideration of
these facts cannot fail to give importance, in the eyes of
the British public, to our South African colonies —
possessions which many Ministers have been disposed
to abandon as expensive and troublesome settlements :
and yet this productive development of important
staples — wool, skins, hides, tallow, wine, and grain — are
only in their infancy.

A good supply of wool is essentially important to our
commercial greatness, and to the continued prosperity
of our woollen manufacturers. Already these are be-
ginning to complain of insufficient supplies ; and where,
but to our colonies, are we to look for increased quanti-
ties ? The large demands for wool for the continent,
for America, and other quarters, keep up prices ; and
the yearly progress in the production of wool is not so
large as it might be if proper exertions were made.
With the exception of South Australia and New Zea-
land, our other southern settlements at the antipodes
are sending us less wool than they did a few years ago ;
and the total import last year of foreign and colonial
wool was much below that received in the previous year.

Looking at the growing importance of the South
African wools, we are glad to see the wool-growers there
are alive to their own future interests in endeavouring
to improve the quality of the staple so as to raise the
character of the Cape wools in the British market.

Previous to 1833 the only sheep, with few exceptions,
to be found in the Cape Colony were the broad-tailed
Cape sheep, bearing no wool. But in that year a few
merino sheep were brought over from Australia by a
trading-vessel, and were found much superior to the
fat tails, and admirably suited to the country. The
■wool exported in 1833 was but 11 3,000 lbs. ; now it ex-
ceeds 16,000,000 lbs.

Flocks of the purest-woolled sheep — Cheviot, merino,
and other breeds — are now to be found in the grazing
districts of the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Free Dutch
States; recently, too, the Angona goat has been intro'
duced, and is becoming a great favourite.

Our last files of Cape papers are full of instances of
the marked desire to retrieve the character of their
wool, which has hitherto been considered of inferior
staple, and wanting in that peculiar fineness suitable for
many of the large manufacturers. The colonists are
importing valuable rams to improve their flocks, and it
seems quite a rivalry with the farmers who shall have
the best stock of rams ; but they have hitherto very
inconsiderately spoilt that they spent so much money
to accomplish, by clipping the wool when half grown.

In one of the recent annual wool-circulars, Messrs.
Hughes and Ronald, speaking of Cape wools, observe :
" This description continues to gain in public estimation,
and these colonies are evidently destined to take a high
position, from their peculiar adaptability for the growth
of fine wools — particularly of fair useful qualities ; and
the extent to which it may be carried seems almost
without limit. The rising colony of Natal appears, in
particular, to ofier a wide field to the enterprising
colonist, there being an abundance of open country,
well suited to pastoral purposes. A great portion of
Capo wool is open to the objection of being of a flimsy
character; to obviate this a constant and judicious in-
fusion of fresh blood is necessary ; and if not available
in the colony, no expense should be spared to procure
the same from Europe. The great demand here is now
for wool of strong fibre — a property that the Saxony
sheep possess over the Fi'cnch, and hence the introduc-
tion of the forner will be desirable. No species of wool
of immature growth ever attained this strength of
fibre, and is therefore unsuited for the manufacture of
strong cloths, so much in demand for export."

Although we doubt not the Saxony rams, now largely
imported into the Cape Colony, will be an advantage,
yet we also consider the beautiful French breeds im-
ported by several of the sheep-farmers, will, if their
fleeces are allowed to grow to maturity, realize first-
class prices, do a credit to the importers, and retrieve
the character of the wool of the Eastern Province.
The short-wools, from Algoa Bay, are seldom looked
at, dui'ing the sales, until there is nothing else for the
manufacturers to buy.

The Fort Beaufort Agricultural Society assembled
recently a meeting of farmers, at Haddon, for the pur-
pose of discussing the best means of raising tlie cha-
racter of the Eastern Province wools in the home-
market ; and although it was admitted that a sheep
shorn twice in the year will yield a gi'eater weight of
wool than it would if shorn only once a year, yet it
was shown that the wool was only of half the value.
The farmers present, after full discussion of the best

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

249

means of regaining the character for good wool formerly
enjoyed by the colony, pledged themselves not to shear
their sheep's wool under a ten months' growth and well
got up. They also determined on appointing an agent,
to send home the wool of such members as were de-
sirous of selling- in the London market, under the
guarantee and mark of the Society, with the owner's
name in full on each bale.

Wool has made the Cape Colony what it now is ; its
towns, villages, and lands owe their value to wool,
England itself is mainly dependent, in her present
gi-eatness, on wool ; and its acknowledged worth is ra-
pidly inducing other nations to cultivate its growth.

Russia is holding out inducements for experiments on
an extended scale in her vast dominions. India and
America are also fast bringing themselves into notice
as wool-producing countries. The quantity of wool
now received from India nearly equals that from the
Cape. Her soil, her climate, her race of hardy enter-
prising men — all favour the rapid and successful growth
of wool in South Africa; and it is a well-known fact
that there is a tendency (attributable to the very dry
nature of the climate) in wool to become fine. Yet
we hear of dirty, kempy, ill-washed, short wool — a
character which ought not longer to attach to Cape
wools.

THE LAMBING SEASON.

The importance of this subject to every sheep-breeder
prevents the necessity of an apology for so repeatedly
recurring to it on the approach of every season. My
great aim and desire is to call immediate attention to its
many details in management, and to the various methods
and plans in general use for ensuring a prosperous
lambing season.

The Pp.,eparation op the Ewe Flock. — One of
the most important is the preparation of the ewe flock
for this hazardous and interesting time. This must
chiefly depend upon the variety and nutritive value of
the food supplied. Ewes depastured upon good grass
pastures through the winter, with an occasional supply of
roots in precarious and severe weather, so that they are
kept in a fair and thriving store state, generally produce
a healthy fall of lambs., without much loss to the flock.
My own flock is always wmtered in this way, except
that they are daily supplied with a few mangolds, rather
than with an occasional supply in bad weather. The
usual allowance is at the estimate of a small mangold to
each animal per day, commencing on the 1st of January,
By this course the stamina of the ewe is upheld to the
time of lambing, whereas an occasional feeding only
causes restlessness and worrying in the animal — they are
running after every cart; and what is worse, this
irregular feeding is injurious to the constitution, and
fever is induced after parturition. Ewes cannot be kept
too quiet, and they must be fed with great regularity
and upon food of like nature — a change from grass to
turnips, from turnips to mangolds, from mangolds to
swedes, or vice versa, or again to grass ; or if these
various roots are given them on grass, or in inverse
order as named, it is almost certain to have a decidedly
bad effect upon some of them. Great care, then, I re-
peat, must be given to keep them well, wilhout any
violent changes, taking care not to get them up into too
high condition. Depend upon it, much of the success
in the season is owing to their previous good manage-
ment. If their condition is too high, fever and mortifi-
cationare the certain accompaniments of lambing in many
cases, besides a short supply of milk, the secretions for
which having gone into ihe animal's fatting matters. If
their condition is too low, then typhoid fever, loss of

milk, sloughing of wool, and in very many cases death
ensues, or the animal becomes a worthless crone, A
moderate allowance of oats, or cut chaff from oat-
sheaves, is a very useful addition in very bad weather,
but not necessary or desirable throughout the winter.

Ewes wintered upon coleseed or turnips, if they are
not too " fresh," generally do well, provided the food
itself is of healthy quality ; but I have known very
serious losses arise from wintering them on mildewed
crops of either sort. To keep the ewe flock thriving
and healthy, it must be fed upon good and sound food,
without much variation in kind, as I have already said.
It is also indispensable that, as they are wintered, so
they must continue on such keeping till the season is
over. It will by no means do to take them from tur-
nips or coleseed to grass in order to lamb, or vice versa ;
but if such a change is imperatively necessary, it must
be very gradually made. It is, however, better to per-
mit them to lamb upon the same kind of keeping as
that upon which they have been kept for the three pre-
vious months, and then make the change,

I am by no means sure that the customary plan of
collecting them into "a lambing pen " or paddock is
the very best course ; at all events it should merely be
for the night, to have free egress in the morning to
rove about their fields. Close confinement after a win-
ter's freedom is bad ; besides, the paddock soon becomes
tainted with various matters connected with the lambing
season, and contamination with mortifying substances
is sure to produce the like effects in whatever animal
comes in contact with them. Air, exercise, abundance
of nutritious food, and cleanliness are great elements of
success in every lambing season, I highly approve of
the roomy paddock, well sheltered, and provided with
many separate pens, closely made, and through which
the rough storms can find no entrance. In this pad-
dock I would collect the flock on dark nights and un-
settled weather, but on the fine and moonlight nights I
would leave them in the field, provided the shepherd
could have a fair oversight of them. I am convinced
that this is the most healthy course, and with ordinary
care no loss of lambs will take place. It is at some in-
convenie nee to the shepherd ; but bis accustomed ear, if

250

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

not the eye, will detect anj' signs of pain ia any particu-
lar ewe, and then his judgment must dictate the best
course to be pursued. I have so often written upon the
mode of treatment during the pains of parturition and
subsequent treatment, that I feel ashamed to recur to
it so often ; but our readers are many, and from the
great increase in the circulation of the Mark Lane
Express, so new to me, that I may be permitted again
to recapitulate a few of the heads of the management of
ewes in the lambing season.

\st. The Shepherd. — He ought to be a careful,
patient, kind, and cautious man. His care must be un-
ceasing, his watchfulness incessant, and his industry in
providing every requisite of food, shelter, and indi-
vidual conveniences for each case must be unlimited.
He should provide himself continually with the follow-
ing aids : a crook ; a cord, and small button hook, for
bad presentations ; a small phial of laudanum, to ad-
minister a spoonful to allay pain in bad cases ; and a
bottle of milk, well sweetened with treacle, for like
cases, to refresh and restore the ewe, and occasionally to
aid the young lamb if the dam is short of milk. In
distant fields he ought to have a lambing-house, pro-
vided with a fite and warming appliances for starved
lambs ; and his time should be wholly given up to the
ewe flock during the season. On no account must his
hands come in contact with putridity.

2nd. The Ewe. — This, I trust, is in a healthy and
proper state for lambing — free from disease, and in good
store condition. When the actual pains of labour have
commenced, the shepherd should examine her to ascer-
tain that the presentation is right ; if so, she may be
pretty nearly left to herself ; but if the labour is pro-
tracted^ he must render assistance, otherwise the lamb
will be a dead one when it comes. She must be gently
laid upon her side, the fore-fingers to be inserted in her
barren, and one leg after the other be brought forward,
keeping the nose or head in its proper place. He may
then gently draw with one hand, while with the other
he must endeavour to open the aperture, and put back
protruding skin, &c. Having thus by degrees made
room and brought the lamb forward, he may then take
both hands, and with moderate force pull the lamb away.
He must immediately clear its nose, and open its mouth,
and encourage it to draw its first breath. As soon as it
breathes freely, and the ewe is a little rested after her
severe labour, he may proceed to suckle it, taking care to
clear the udder from all wool likely to be drawn into the
stomach by sucking. The choice of a dry warm place
for the lamb and a nice tempting root or cabbage for the
ewe will complete the case, unless it is a very bad one.
He must in that case give a tablespoonful of laudanum,
to lay her quiet and keep her from paining, till the parts
in a great measure resume their proper position and
functions. On no account apply sharp oils or dressings
to the w^omb — a little lard or oil is preferable. On the
morning following parturition, after the application of
laudanum, the ewe will require a little gruel or cordial-
stimulant, but nothing likely to induce fever ; should,
however, fever come on, she will require very careful
nursing — a dry shed, bran and oats for food, with sliced

turnip or mangold, and a constant supply of gruel or
possett. The gruel made from wheat-flour mixed rather
thin with a little salt ; the possett as above, i. c, milk
with tieacle or coarse sugar. As she improves a little,
her possett may be half water, half ale, thickened with
flour, and a little ginger, peppermint, or carraway may
be added. On no account let her get wet.

3rrf. Wrong Presentations. — These are the most
difficult cases, and generally arise from some foolish
mismanagement. The shepheid's dog may have run
them too fast; they have jumped over ditches; the
hounds have alarmed them, or some such cause. Well,
the ewe is examined, and " the lamb is wrong." The
shepherd must now bare his arm ; take a little lard, and
but his hand ; then carefully and gradually insert it into
her uterus, and force back the lamb into the womb if
necessary, and if possible turn it right ; then take the
cord on his finger, and place it on the, fore- legs, and
gently draw the lamb forward, and so away. It is some-
times impossible to get the lamb right. The cord must
then be put upon each leg separately, and the lamb
drawn away piecemeal. A right presentation is the nose
lying between the fore-legs ; but occasionally the hind-
quarter comes first : in some cases it may with safety be
thus drawn away. Of course, the ewe in such cases will
require the best nursing, as named above. I merely
give these more important outlines ; the whole subject
would occupy several papers.

FANNY'S BARN- YARD SONG.

Chicky ! chick ! chick ! 0, come along quick ;

From my little fingers a crumb you may pick.

Quake ! quake ! quake ! says the white old drake.

And the ducks shake their tails with a short little shake.

Quacli ! quack ! quack ! says the one in black,

And they E.plit their throats as they answer, Quack !

Cock-a-doodle-do ! here's a health to you,

And the rooster bows to the feathered crew.

Cluck ! cluck ! cluck ! I wish you much luck,

Says a mother hen to a setting duck.

Pe ! pe ! pe ! O, praj' wait for me,

Says the turkey brood, as plain as can he.

Gobble ! gobble ! gobble ! my snout's in a hobble,

Says the strutting cock with an ufjly bobble.

Pot rack ! pot rack ! I'll quit such a pack.

Sings the Guinea-hen, as she flies the track.

Taint never no use, screams a sensible goose,

To mind the rude ways of fowls what is loose ;

Then hissing aloud to the wondering crowd,

She waddles away, quite happy and proud.

Now the peacock tries, with his hundred eyes,

To astonish and awe ; but the Shanghaies rise,

And clearing their throats, flap their short-tailed coats,

While they sweep the baru-yard of corn anl oats.

Then the Poland duck, with his comb in a tuck,

Gives a foreign twirl to his best tail curl ;

While a bantam swell goes on tiptoe a spell,

To escort for a while a Cochin belle.

Then they crackle and crow, hiss, gobble, and blow,

And all speak at once, both high and low.

Hush ! hush ! hush I cry the Muscovies, hush !

^^'e are whispering secrets as soft as mush ;

Then bowing around, almost to the ground.

They, bobbing, retire with a murmuring sound ;

And chicky ! chick ! chick ! 0, come along quick,

Brings order again, while a crumb they pick.

— Journal of Commerce.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

251

THE IMPLEMENT PRIZES OFFERED BY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

BY A PRACTICAL FARMER.

I have read with interest, and no little concern, the
report of the proceedings of the Bath and West of Eng-
land Society relative to the abolition of prizes for imple-
ments at their meetings. I am an old practical farmer,
and, I may add, an old judge of implements, having at-
tended at many shows. I have lived long enough to see
vast improvements in agricultural mechanics brought
out under this system of prizes ; and I most strongly
advise to " let well alone."

The prize system began in the last century. The
Holkam and Wobourn sheepshearings were the great
progenitors of the system ; but it was not till the general
establishment of agricultural societies, and the offer of
prizes by them, that agricultural mechanics attained any
decided advancement. It is an undoubted fact that the
great advances made in agricultural mechanics is attri-
butable mainly to the encouragement held out to mecha-
nicians by the suitability of the prizes and premiums offer-
ed by these societies ; and the science is still advancing,
and most satisfactorily too, under the system. Why,
then, are we to have such bold, such rash, innovations ?
Surely the love of change, or the hope of saving the
society's funds, has not been the object. I have the
pleasure to know several of the Bath and West of Eng-
land men. No men deserve greater credit, or possess
greater zeal and ability to conduct a society ; but I do
not favourably look upon them in the light of origina-
tors. They are capital managers, and show great indus-
try and taste in their respective departments ; but when
they set about a revision and a remodelling of the fun-
damental objects of their society, I do demur to their
judgment. It is no light thing to attempt to make a
great and decided change in the most important part of
the society's operations. I think they are wrong, and
will repent their doings : their show will now be an
implement bazaar, and nothing more — no trials— no
awards.

Every Englishman knows the true meaning of the
word "prize," and duly honours it ; but it is only the
initiated who would fully understand the true meaning of
the words "certificate of merit" — a scheme advocated
by some of our leading manufacturers, and others.
Our countrymen's habits are slow to change. They
love old-fashioned words, particularly if full of mean-
ing. The word " prize" always gives its full signifi-
cance ; it will be long before " certificate of merit" would
convey as much. Besides, what implement is without
merit, less or more ? and the certificate would merely
certify to its correctness. Depend upon it, our common-
sense men of business would be far more likely to pur-
chase a prize implement than a certificated one.

Now, let us look into the subject a little, and -see
wherein lies the difference. The old plan gives first,
second, and occasionally third prizes; then we have

high commendations, commendations, and frequently
special commendations in every class. The new scheme
gives certificates of two classes or grades. The great
design (as I have always understood it) in the trials of
implements is to test the respective merit of the various
implements brought under trial ; and the duty of
the judges is to award to each the place, and position,
and encouragement it deserves. Hence a first prize for
one, a second for another, a third for another, according
to Iheir degrees of merit ; then follows a high commen-
dation perhaps in several cases, then a commendation in
several others ; or if anything richly deserves it, a special
commendation for some particular adaptation, whilst
those without any particular merit are passed unnoticed.
No arrangement as to the awards of certificates can de-
fine or denote the merit of each implement better than
the above ; and I can see no advantage, save the econo-
mizing the society's funds. On the contrary, a consi-
derable number of these certificates must be awarded to
each well-contested class, or many highly deserving im-
plements are unfairly discarded and disgi'aced ; whilst,
on the other hand, if an award of certificates is made to
several, who is to judge which is considered to be the
best ? for they are placed too much upon a par
with each other. The public expect the judges to test
and bring out the merits of each implement ; and then
properly designate such by some graduated prize or
token of merit, which they take to be their guide in
making their purchases. Failing this, of what value are
either prizes or certificates ?

It is said that " the implement- makers do not want
money prizes." I beg pardon — my experience is quite
to the contrary. I believe all the " little men" prefer
money prizes. It may be that some of Mr. Caldwell's
" big men" would like an honourable certificate quite
as well. I believe it. They have already such a long
list of prizes to ornament and illustrate their advertise-
ing sheets — i. e., of prizes obtained here, and obtained
there, yes, in almost all parts of the world — that some
little deviation from this stereotyped list would be
pleasing ; moreover, it would be new, and would also
better suit our mechanical aristocracy — a sort of star-
and-garter order, or blue-ribbon. Oh, no ! They don't
want your money—

" I write not for your farthing, but to try
How I your farthing writers can outvie."

But what is to be done with our " little men" ? Depend
upon it, our humble but meritorious mechanics — those
men who have expended much of their slender means in
biinging out a deserving implement — do not despise
money-prizes. Besides, they do not believe in certifi-
cates. " Give me a prize which I can blaze abroad," say
they, " that the world may know I've won." I have
frequently been requested by exhibitors to change a

252

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

commendation for a prize, however small — the word
" prize" being a sort of talisman to customers.

I think no one knows, but the actual judges, with what
intense anxiety, for the most part, exhibitors contend
for the prizes. I have seen many so agitated as to be
unable properly to adjust their own implement or ma-
chine, and have had to do it for them. On the other
hand, the precision, dexterity, and careful attention to
every detail in others has been most admirable, and
almost ensured success. The winning of a prize is the
cause of great elation to many. " You have made my
fortune," says one; "It's worth thousands tome,"
says another. The telegraph, carrier-pigeons, and other
quick and available means are resorted to, in order that
"our people at home may know." I have also been dis-
tressed to witness the despondency of other men, who
have exhausted all their means to bring out and patent
some novel invention of more than doubtful utility,
trusting that the judges will award it a prize, and thus
make a way for its sale or the disposal of its patent
rights. I have known these fail, and the makers return
home to be made bankrupts. These are important
considerations to be taken into account ; and from them
I would argue the desirability of upholding a system
that has grown up with the progress of our improve-
ments, that has worked so admirably, that has brought
out such a vast amount of talent and enterprise. I
trust that no speculative alteration will retard the on-
ward movement. What would our inventors of imple-
ments for steam cultivation have thought of a poor cer-

tificate of merit rather than the £500 prize ? If I know
John Bull aright, he does, and ever did, prefer to replen-
ish his breeches-pocket. Small money prizes pay some-
thing, and is a consideration with many. What would
the honest, hard-handed workman think of his certificate
after spending months in bringing out a clever, useful
implement ? He looks for immediate benefit, and it is
this hope of reward that has nerved him for the task. I
have every confidence in our great society, and believe
it will not lightly give up such a stimulus to inventors.
I would much rather such prizes were doubled — not to
benefit the established firms, and almost unconquerable,
inimitable houses ; but to bring out latent native talent
of humble origin — some George Stevenson in agricul-
ture, and the like in mechanics. I am a firm believer in
the prize system. It works well, from the dame's school
to the highest collegiate honours ; from the humble
ploughboy to the princely exhibitor of cattle. It is
thorough English. John Bull will do anything under
encouragement of a cash stimulant. Let us, then, set
our faces against any retrograde movement. British
agriculture has attained its proud pre-eminence under
the prize system ; let us rather extend it to every be-
nighted district, than curtail it in a single one.

[It must be clearly understood that the West of Eng-
land Society will not give even a certificate of merit,
Tliere will be neither trials nor awards. Manufacturers
may show off their wares in work if they^uZease, but the
Meeting itself will be merely an exhibition. — Ed.
F. M.]

THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S JOURNAL,

At this comparatively quiet season a number of the
Society's Joi{/*naJ will be received with a far better wel-
come than it would command in the middle of harvest.
One can picture a man then just breaking the cover, and
throwing the goodly volume aside, perhaps never to re-
turn to it again. Now, however, with a long evening
before him, he is almost certain to give the new number
some attention. At a little after date there is one just
ready to his hand, the general issue of which has taken
place. This is in some respects a remarkable part ;
curious, in the first instance, as not containing a single
prize paper. We miss, accordingly, the County Reports,
which by this time are no doubt nearly exhausted. Still,
any such omission must not be taken as altogether telling
against the character of the contents. If there are no
prize essays, there are the names of many writers who
have distinguished themselves in this wise. Mr. Clare
Sewell Read, for one, claims the opening article on the
recent improvements in Norfolk Farming ; Mr. Robert
Smith reports ou the exhibition of live s-tock at the
Chester Meetings Mr. Henry White has a similar paper
on the Cheese Show ; while Professor Voelcker
not only instinicts us on the use of liquid manure, but
has another and more attractive article on the
composition and value of cotton cake. Then Mr.

J. C. Morton estimates the cost of horse-power;

Professor Henfi'ey talks aptly on the structure of roots ;
and Messrs. Lawesand Gilbert detail some further ex-
periments with different kinds of manures. All these
gentlemen, if we recollect aright, have been successful
competitors for the premiums of the Society. They
are as?ociated here with Sir Archibald Macdonald,
who, as the senior steward, introduces the several re-
ports from the judges of implements at Chester, and
with Messrs. Ransomes and:>ims, who supply some ac-
ceptable directions for working portable steam
engines. In another division, Monsieur Trehonnais
writes on horse labour in France j Mr. Herbert
furnishes some statistics of the cattle sent for con-
sumption to the metropolis ; and Mr. Wright gives a
very good essay on the management of a herd. It
will be seen from this that the favours of the number
arc very nicely distributed, and that implements and
stock have each alike proper consideration allowed
them. Still there is no one great article ; and useful
as this issue will be found, it is as a whole by no means
up to the high-water mark of some former parts.
Amongst its more especial recommendations is the
absence of any too long or too learned treatises — a mis-
talce the conductors had latterly been rather prone to
admit of. Indeed nearly all our quarterlies are more
or less liable to the same charge; and a subject must

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

253

be more than usually smartly handled to ensure such
laborious effusions being looked into. But too often
they are never read at all.

By far the most readablepaper in this number of the
Royal Agricultural Society's woi-k is Mr. Robert Smith's
report on the Chester stock show. It is a long way
the best thing of the kind the Journal has ever had,
and quite a reference for future Stewards to turn to.
But it is at the same time something more and some-
thing less than an actual report of the meeting. We
have carefully-prepared tables, showing how the differ-
ent breeds of animals have increased or declined in
the entries at these anniversaries. VYe have passing
notes — often enough but too brief and passing — of the
merits of the winners on the Roodee in July last.
The strength, however, of the paper — and wonderfully
strong it is — lies in the introductions to the several sorts
and classes now I'ecognized in the prize sheet. Had Mr.
Smith given equal time to the points of the individual
animals lie saw at Chester, as he has done to their
histories and qualities, he must have produced a yet
more valuable article. As it is, we never saw so much
useful information better condensed. He has a few
great facts to tell us of all the different breeds,
bo they cattle, sheep, or pigs ; while of the origin
and progress of some, we repeat, that he epitomises quite
an interesting story. Take for example his opening to
the short-horn classes, in which he traces them faii-ly
back to the Teeswater, and comes on with them through
the Collings, Masons, and Bates, up to the Booth blood,
''now, by almost universal consent, recognized as
the best tribe of short-horns in existence." He tells
you what the bulls from this famous Warlaby herd are
now letting for, and has a glance at all the great
short-horn sales of the time. In fact, it is really
quite fortunate that the paper of Mr. Smith and that
of our Commissioner appeared simultaneously, or
one might possibly have had the credit of taking
his notions from the other. The senior steward
treats equally well, but at less length, of the rise of
the Hereford and Devon ; while, perhaps, next to the
Durhams his most interesting notes are on the early
history of the Leicester and other long-woolled sheep.
Mr. Smith, it must be borne in mind, has himself been
a very successful breeder of cattle and more par-
ticularly of Leicester sheep, so that he speaks with
higher authority on such matters than he even
would as a steward of the yard. In his estmate of
how the shorthorns stood at Chester, he has to
refer to the injurious effects of an abuse
we have ourselves long continued to complain of: —

" A review leads me to the opinion that, although
the shorthorns have now become more the general stock
of the country, and were shown in unusual numbers at
Chester, they were not there superior to the best-bred
animals that have been exhibited in former years. The
young animals, especially the males, are not improving
as they ought from such parentage as we have been
accustomed to see at j)revious shows. The high con-
dition of the cow and heifer stock is tinnatural and
opposed to common sense. Are such animals really

in a state for breeding and milking— 'One (at least) of
the uses of the beast ? It would be well if more atten-
tion were paid to the lean meat of a shorthorn, and less
to superfluous fat. It would be better to err on this
side with our first-class bulls rather than to encourage
male animals of a smart heifer-like cast, without
lean meat — ' quality, loith substance,' being really
essential."

We have in other parts of this number some further
confirmation of how the uses of the shorthorn are ex-
tending. Mr. Herbert, in his live-stock statistics, asks —

" What are the breeds of beasts and sheep which
form the supplies exhibited in London ? From a analysis
of the stock exhibited during the past year, and founded
on the most careful observation, we have arrived at the
following conclusions : —

Per-Cenlage of Beasts shown in tlie Metropolitan Market
in 1858.

Shorthorns 3300

Heteforda 9 25

Devons 500

Lon^horns 100

Crosses 16 00

Highlanders 2 00

Polled Scots 400

Ayrshire 025

Irish crosses 8 00

Welsh runts 1-50

Irish 9 00

Bremen, Tonning, Dutch, and German . . 950

Spanish and Portuguese .. ^ 1°50

10000

" The above table shows that the shorthorned breed
of beasts now stands at the head of the list of stock for
what may be termed general consumption. They have
gone on progi'essing at a wonderful rate since the com-
mencement of the present century, and they are now to
be found in almost every county in England, as well as
in Ireland and Scotland, We may further observe that
half-bred beasts, between the Scots and shorthorns,
have considerably increased within the last twenty
years. The changes in the various breeds in this
period have been remarkable. Whilst the shorthorns
and crosses have increased, the Herefords, Devons,
longhorns, and polled beasts have declined considerably.
The same may be said of Welsh runts; but we find a
great increase in Irish crosses, no doubt with the short-
horned breed imported from this country."

Mr. Wi'ight, again, in his management of a herd, at
once gives us to understand his own choice is the short-
horn, although honestly admitting, as he does, that his
experience of them shows " they have less disposition to
milk than feed." He has a word, too, for the manner
in which the breed is so surely developing itself:
" During last autumn I had an opportunity of inquii-ing
of a gentleman, himself an extensive grazier in Aus-
tralia, how far these high-priced animals repaid their
spirited importers ? He stated that they were highly
profitable, as all trials of pure shorthorn bulls, or of
crosses with them, had been attended with eminent
success."

One does not care to be always complaining, but we
certainly could wish these able reports had been backed

s 2

254

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

by equally-good prize-lists— a very easy matter to
manage; at least, so one would iinuuiuc. It is im-
possible, however, to follow Mr. Smith's commentaries
by the prize-sheets tacked on to this part. If, as he
tells you, JNIr. Booth's prize cow Nectarine Blossom
was a " magnificent beast," Mr, Stiatton's second prize
" a good animal," and Mr. VVetherell's Moss Rose
" highly commended," but that he thinks the age of
the second prize cow " must have carried some weight,"

we naturally turn to see the relative ages of these
animals. The first and second arc to be found readily
enough ; but tlie third, or highly commended, with
some difficulty — about fifteen pages further on, in a
thoi'ough jumble of cattle of all kinds, without even a
break or a line to separate one sort from another, and,
after going through sheep, pigs, and even poultry, to
reach her. What can be the argument against some
more orderly and convenient arrangement ?

LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB.
ARTERIAL DRAINAGE.

The iirst monthly meeting of the Club for the
present year took place on Monday, February 7, at
the Club-house, Blackfriars. Mr. John Thomas,
of Bletsoe, the new Chairman, presided, supported by
Messrs. Robert Baker, Owen Wallis, J. J. Mechi, J.
Tyler, W. Gray, James Howard, J. A. Williams, C. E.
Amos, S. Skelton, H. Cheffins, G. Wilsher, E. Purser,
E. B. Waite, M. Reynolds, W. Eve, W. Heard, J.
Cressingham, S. Sidney, C. J. Brickwell, G. Smythies,
J, G. King, J. B. Spearing, W. Bennett, R. Holmes,
J. R. Dagg, S. W. Squier, J. Wood (Croydon), D.
Christie, J. Coleman, D. Reid, C. Hayward, J. Bailey
Denton, P. A. Halkett, Hammond, W. Banwell, G. S.
Harrison, T. Haslam, G. Whistler, &c., &c.

The subject for discussion, introduced by Mr. J. A,
Clarke, of Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, was " Arterial
Drainage, including the state of our Rivers and Water-
courses."

After a few introductory remarks from the Chairman,
Mr. Clarke said : Gentlemen, arterial or trunk drain-
age appears to have been asleep for several years, and we
have had complaints of a scanty rain-fall that has left the
soil comparatively uncharged witli water ; lowered our
springs ; made drink for cattle scarce in ponds, wells,
and ditches ; and kept the half-filled rivers pretty
regularly within the brim of their wandering channels.
But if we have not recently suffered from severe floods,
which a wet season, however, would bring down upon
us more disastrously than ever, the periodical overflow
of some streams, the injuriously high level of others, and
the inefficient and obstructed condition of thousands of
brooks, drains, and water-courses intersecting the sur-
face of the kingdom, are all the time working far greater
evils than those which occasionally startle the public
when a river happens to break loose and sweep away
their property. The nature of these evils, to which
through long custom we so quietly submit, will appear
in the course of my paper. I will just say here that
another kind of " inundation" seems threatening to
make itself felt by the farmer more heavily than before ;
I mian the abundance of low-priced bread-corn : and I
bring the subject of river reform before you, because I
believe it to be one of those great measures of relief and
means of profit which are now so urgently needed by
the cultivator of the Soil, When prices rule low, our

only resource lies either in a diminished expenditure
or a greater produce, or indeed in both. At present,
the agricultural mechanic is doing his part toward meet-
ing the difficulty, by reducing steam tillage to a prac-
tical reality ; and undoubtedly, if the tenant-farmer is
left to fight the battle of the corn market single-handed,
the steam -cultivator promises to he one of his ablest
weapons. But we look to better subsoil drainage as one
of the surest provisions ' ' against a rainy day : " and here
comes in the duty of the landed proprietor to render
such an improvement possible upon his estate, with all
its after-results of deep tillage and high management,
by opening an adequate out-fall for any amount of
drain- water. An unlooked for high range of prices has
been only postponing the fulfilment of several great
helps which the landowners and the legislature can
rightfully give to the " unprotected" farmer. And
among the coming questions affecting our welfare, such
as Agricultural Statistics, a Tenant-Right Law, cheap
Transfer of Land, alteration of the Law of Settlement,
and so on, this one of our General Drainage is not the
least important and momentous. You see I connect
the subject with legislation, and after briefly adverting
to the facts of the case, I propose to consider the necessity
for Parliamentary interference, and to offer my views of
the way in which that assistance may be conferred.
To convey an idea of the extensiveness of the subject, I
must be a little geographical. The drainage of our
island passes off to sea in a generally eastern direction ;
the largest English rivers, except the Severn, emptying
upon the low east coast, and those of Scotland (all but
the Clyde) following the same course. Of English
rivers, the principal points of deliverv are the estuaries
of the Ilumber, the Wash, the Thames, and the Severn ;
their respective drainage areas being very large. The
Yorkshire Ouse, Trent, and other Humber rivets radiate
into the counties of Westmoreland, Stafford, Warwick,
Leicester, Derby, and Nottingham ; traversing broad
meadows throughout their course. The sluggish Wash
rivers, the Ouse, Nene, Wclland, &c., embrace in their
system of flat valleys parts of Lincolnshire, Rutland,
Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, Buck-
inghamshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk,
and Norfolk. The Thames and its feeders extend in-
land into Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucester-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

255

sliire, Wiltshiie, Berkshire, Hampshire, besides Surrey,
Middlesex, Kent, and Essex ; fringed with peaty or
more solid wet lands. The Severn, stretching inland
through the counties of Gloucester, Worcester, and
Salop, into Warwickshire, Staffordshire, and Mont-
gomeryshire, with the Wye and other tributaries rami-
fying through the counties of Monmouth, Hereford,
Radnor, and Brecknock, bring down the rapid floods
from the Welsh mountains, and frequently deluge large
tracts of the wide-spreading plains. In addition to
these chief drains of the central counties, we have
streams from the lake district, the Welsh high lands,
and the southern, eastern, and northern provinces ;
aggregating into considerable estuaries round the coast-
line, such as the Eden, Lune, Ribhle, Mersey, Dee,
Conway, Towy, Taflf, Usk, Avon, Parret, Taw, Tamar.
Dart, Exe, Test, Arun, Rother, Stour, Medway,
Crouch, Blackwater, Colne, Orwell, Yar, Tees, Wear,
Tyne, and Tweed ; not including an innumerable suc-
cession of outlets of more or less importance. These,
with an immense network of channels branching from
them, together with all the mill-streams and other ac-
cessories of the main arteries already named, form our
natural drains for the whole of England and Wales,
Now, Solomon says, " All the rivers run into the sea. "
But the grievance is that they don't; for whether or
not the oriental streams with which the wise king was
familiar may have all overflowed at intervals like the
Nile and Jordan, it is certain that English fresh waters
at the present day seem inclined to linger in the valleys
and repose on the meadows, or wander anywhere rather
than roll straight down to the ocean. In some cases
the outfalls, or river- mouths, are in a defective state;
but, generally speaking, the exigencies of their alluvial
deltas or estuary marshes have caused them to be to a
considerable extent opened, embanked, and watchfully
preserved. Thus, great outfall works have been exe-
cuted on the river Dee, be'ow Chester ; in Somerset-
shire, at the mouth of the Parret and its connected
rivers ; in several harbours and estuaries along the
shingly coast of ihe Channel; in East Norfolk; in the
estuaries of the Ouse, Nene, and other Wash rivers ;
and in the streams converging to the Humber : while
in Scotland we have the example of the Clyde improve-
ments ; and, again, the similar dredging of a deep
channel for the Tay. But many great alterations and
improvements yet remain to be carried out. However,
it is the inland course of the streams that principally
calls for amelioration. These natural arteries are em-
ployed for every purpose that water is good for,
and the water is thus detained for such uses, in
spite of drainage necessities, instead of being con-
ducted speedily to the sea. They are dammed into re-
servoirs, intercepted for canals, especially in the cen-
tral, northern, and western counties ; and besides
being neglected and choked wiih weeds or with osiers,
or obstructed by strangulating bridges, innumerable
brooks and rivulets are suffering from the diphtheria of a
water-mill, or a succession of mill-wheels appropriating
the whole descent of the stream. Sometimes, hundreds
of acres of meadow are ruined by the piciuresque
dilapidations of a mill mentioned in Domesday, or by

the pounding of the water for the sake of a few baskets of
fish. Not that there is any objection to the employment of
running water as a motive power, or a means of trans-
port, or a supply for towns, as an ornament in a park,
or for the refreshing of a meadow; provided that damage
of greater consequence is not inflicted upon any interest,
and that there is an amply capacious channel for the
outlet of ihe heaviest downfall, without overflow and
without injury to lands by the prevention of the best
husbandry. How many among the myriad water-
courses of our country are all that can be desired in this
respect, I cannot undertake to say ; but the following
record of actual disaster — to say nothing at present of
the still greater mischief of good culture prevented —
shows the prevalence of defective and ill-managed rivers.
Take a few cases of violent inundation from the precipi-
tous western districts. In 1845, Cumberland and
Westmoreland, where every year heavy losses are
suffered from the suddenly descending mountain-
streams, experienced a series of terrific floods. From
only two days of a tremendous rain in October (the be-
ginning of the wet season), all the rivers were swollen
and overflowed. Tlse Eden, Lowther, Eamont, Lune,
and Petteril dtstroyed a large amount of property:
thousands of pounds value of railway-bridge scaffolding,
timber, and materials were carried away ; hundreds of
stooks of corn were swept out of the fields ; the
uncut crops washed flat upon the ground, and the
corn-mills on the rivers stopped by the flood. Again,
in July 1852, the river in Kendal swelled from a
tliunderstorm, overflowed the streets, washing out the
tan-pit?, bearing away everything loose in its current.
In the neighbourhood, bridges were swept away, the soil
was completely washed away from the potato-plots, and
" a whole fleet of hay-cocks was seen sailing down the
Kent," and the rushing of numerous gills and becks in-
flicted similar damages in many towns and valleys. In
December of the same year the floods were severely felt
throughout North Wales, At Carnarvon the Cadnant
river, bursting its banks, destroyed much property ; and
the estuaiies of the Seiont and Gwysfai, which flow from
the Llanberis and Cwellyn lakes, overflowed, de-
molishing a bridge, and covering a considerable
breadth of flat Imd with water. In South Wales the
valley of the Towy and vicinity of Carmarthen suf-
fered from an extraordinary inundation in the winter of
1847-8. Again, in 1852, great disasters occurred in
various counties, particularly to railway and other
bridges ; but the storm floods of July, 1853, wrought
an immense amount of destruction. At Cwm Neath no
less than seven bridges were swept away. The Taff
ravaged the upper part of Brecknockshire, and the ad-
joining vale of Neath. Brecon town was flooded and
filled with mud, and many of the houses completely
gutted. A villa near Builth, with five inmates, was car-
ried away, and the whole district was swept clear of hay,
potatoes, and all moveable articles. The rivers Nedd
Vechan and Mellte bore away their bridges, and de-
vastated corn fields and meadows. The Neath inundated
various farms, clearing off the hay and drowning the
cattle, while the farmers barely escaped with their lives.
At Lougharne, wheat as well as hay crops were greatly

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The district of Marras Pendine and Amroth
was completely overflowed, and a great number of houses
inundated, the inhabitants escaping through the windows
and roofs. The water carried before it bridges, culverts,
hay-ricks, and everything which stood in its way. The
expanded inundations of the broad-flowing Severn cover
a very great tract, and its tributary streams commit a
more ruthless order of depredations between their spring
and junction. The worst floodings in 1848 were those
of the Severn, the Wye, and Warwickshire Avon ; the
chief places being at Hereford, Pershore, Evesham, and
Stratford. In February, 1852, the Severn and Wye
rose to an alarming height ; the former river, at Glou-
cester and Tewkesbury, rising in one hour 18 inches
upon the meadows. The lower part of the city of Here-
ford was so flooded by the Wye, that the inhabitants
were driven to their upper rooms, and ferry-boats were
established in the streets. In September of the same
year, the counties of Worcester, Gloucester, and Here-
ford were visited by a tremendous tempest ; in conse-
quence of which the Severn rose at Worcester, in one
night, from its low summer level, so that its banks were
overflowed, and its surface covered with uprooted trees
and crops, furniture, and drowned animals. In the
valley of the Teme, which river came down with a
" head" similar to the " bore," or tidal phenomenon on
the Severn, the number of sheep washed away in the
parish of Powick alone was 2,000, and some carcases of
the cattle were drifted into the Bristol Channel. Great
damage was done to the grain and meal in the various
mills. At Henwick mill, a rick of hay of about 12 tons
was bodily moved by the flood. The hop-yards, which
abound in the Teme valley, suffered greatly ; at one
hop-yard, near Shelsley, poles and hops were washed
into the stream ; several houses, and many gardens and
roadways were destroyed; and at Stonebridge, the
Leigh brook, rising 20 feet above its ordinary level, de-
molished a house, drowning its inmates, and scatter-
ing it in fragments over the neighbourhood. The
river Froome overflowed its. banks at many points ; and
numerous smaller streams, accumulating into rivers,
broke their embankments, flooding hundreds of acres ;
and the Hereford and Gloucester mail, together with
one of the passengers, was lost in the Froome, near
Dormington. All the Vale of Gloucester, comprising
a vast flat district on each side of the Severn, was one
■^vide-spreading sea, the water covering the fences,
leaving only the tops of the trees visible. The parishes
of Sandhurst, Longney, Elmore, and other villages near
the river, were completely deserted, the inhabitants
having fled to more elevated country. In some localities
the houses were completely submerged, only the chim-
neys remaining visible. At Gloucester, the dock ware-
houses, and even one of the churches, were inundated ;
and the city was three nights in darkness, owing to the
flooding of the gas-works. At Tewkesbury, boats were
employed to rescue the inhabitants. At Shrewsbury,
the abbey church, and nearly eiff/if Jiundred hottses,
were under water ; and the deluge extended for several
miles over the surrounding country. In December, the
Severn, hardly subsided, again rose; the houses in
Shrewsbury again suffered, and the meadows for many

miles were flooded to the depth of several feet — so that
in many places along the Shrewsbury and Chester, and
also on the Shropshire Union, and Shrewsbury and Bir-
mingham railways, as far as the eye can reach, the land
was completely drowned, to the vast damage of seeds
and plants then in the ground. The almost unprece-
dented fall of rain during the latter end of 1852 pro-
duced similar disasters in the south-western counties.
At Bath, the river Avon overflowed, the water reaching
10 feet above the ordinary level, and inundating a great
many houses, the inhabitants taking refuge in their
upper apartments, and receiving supplies of food by
boats. In the neighbourhood of Bristol an immense
amount of property i*as destoyed. The central basin
of Somersetshire, or the marshes and moors about the
rivers Parret, Axe, and Brue, between Bridgewater,
Wells, and Glastonbury, were completely under water,
rendering all traffic wholly impossible. The meadows
around Taunton were flooded ; and at Langport and
upon Sedgmoor, the water accumulated to a disastrous
depth and extent, to the heavy loss of the graziers and
farmers of that rich pasturing district. In Devonshire,
the river Leman and Teign, at Newton Abbot and other
places ; and in Cornwall, the river Camel, near Bodmin,
flooded their contiguous lands with great damage. Few
districts are more afflicted by inundations than the valley
of the Thames. In 1846 all the low lands for miles
above and below Windsor-bridge were flooded several
feet in depth ; and a great portion of the Home Park
of the Castle was completely under water. Again in
1847, and again in 1848, many thousands of acres in
the same neighbourhood were overflowed by the Thames
and the Kennett. In July, 1852, similar floodings
occurred, the hayfields between Swindon and Chippen-
ham being indicated only by the appearance of scattered
haymaking machines and other implements. In No-
vember and December of the same year, the valley from
Vauxhall to Windsor was a vast lake. Oxford teas
standing in a sea of water, the Cherwell and Isis being
miles in width, a vast amount of cattle and agricultural
produce being carried away from the vicinity, and
several lives lost. It was computed that 6,000 acres
on the Oxfoi'dshire side of the Thames were under
water from September, 1852, to February, 1853. At
]Maidenhead, Reading, Ealing, Uxbridge, and many other
places, the principal cern fields were overspread tcith
several feet of icater, and the number of houses inun-
dated was enormous. At Farringdon, the sheet of water
was of amazing extent ; and at Cricklade, Lechlade,
and other places, the farms were under water, heavy
losses inflicted, and great numbers of families reduced
to starvation. The Thame is in so choked a condition,
that there have been 17 floods in twelve months, and a
third of the hay harvest of 1853 was washed away.
Much land in Epsom, Dartford, Lewisham, and Charl-
ton, was overflowed in 1852. On the North Kent
Railway, the valley of the Medway and the marshes
along the Thames were one expanse of water for miles.
Parts of Chatham, Rochester, and Strood were also
flooded. The damage to property and to health in
the suburbs of the metropolis was beyond estima-
tion. After the excessive rains of July, 1853, the

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257

low lands on the South -Western Railway were over-
spread with water and thousands of floating hay-
cocks; at Guildfoid, Chertsey, Woking, and Bat-
tersea, the flood was several feet deep ; Windsor and
Reading suff"ered as usual. At Newbury, Sonning,
Burghfield, Oxford, &c., &c., many hundreds of acres
of meadow were cleared of their hay ; wheat, barley, and
oat crops were flattened and spoiled ; and at Banbury,
for miles on the eastern side, the country was entirely
deluged. Taking the Midland districts, we find that in
the winter of 1848, the Avon, Welhnd, Ouse, Learn,
and Soar, all overflowed their banks, committing in-
numerable depredations and great inconvenience at
Newton, Clifton, Market-Harborough, Daventry, Lei-
cester, Coventry, and Leamington. In the following
winter, the flood which periodically encompasses a
great portion of the Midland Railway rose with un-
wonted severity, so that the whole country from the
source of the Trent to its junction with the Humber
became owe ?jas^ inland sea, more than 150 miles in
length, and occasionally spreading for miles on either
side ; and on the margin of its smaller tributaries in
Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Staff^ordshire, and Notting-
hamshire, the same inundations were found to spread
themselves. In the winter of 1852, the Trent and Soar
converted the valleys around Nottingham and Leicester
into sheets of water, and parts of the railways at Lough-
borough, Crow-mills, and Stamford were carried away.
At Birmingham, the river Rea causedan alarming flood,
covering the country with water, destroying a great
amount of property, and stopping the machinery of
various manufactories. The Leen and Erewash, the
Derwent, and other streams, also overflowed ; and be-
sides the damage done to so many towns by their streets
being inundated, the corn sown over large districts was
seriously damaged, and hay in the following summer
was rendered scarce throutjhout the Midland counties.
In the winters of 1848 9 and 1852, the valley of the
Nene, between Northampton and Peterborough, suflfered
from extraordinary floods ; and again in the summer of
1853. In the latter season, too, the Ouse overflowing
swept away many sheep, and rendered the hay crops
nearly valueless, particularly in the vicinity of Bucking-
ham. Manchester, Rochdale, the West-Riding of
Yorkshire, between Goole and Selby, and Doncaster,
and along the banks of the chief rivers, were localities
heavily visited by the floods of those years. Farther
north, the valley of the Tyne, the neighbourhood of
Darlington, the vale of Pickering, aad some other dis-
tricts, were inundated. In the Eastern counties the
Ouse and Nene periodically deluge broad tracts of
meadow, and often arable land ; the Fen Level often
greatly suffering from the breaking of its embankments
by the excessive hydrostatic pressure of the swollen hill
freshes. Then the Essex valleys are in a most deplor-
able plight. During the summer floods of 1853, im-
mense injury was done there to sheep and lambs, to hay
and corn crops. The vicinity of Chelmsford was com-
pletely deluged with one wide expanse of water. Many
hundreds of acres of hay were destroyed, thousands of
hay-cocks floating down the rivers, a hundred per hour
passing through Box-mill flood-gate, near Ilalstead.

Taking the course of the river through the Yeldhams,
the Hedinghams, and the northern part of Ilalstead
meadows, the aggregate amount of grass and hay floating
down this one stream m.ust have been at least 50 tons.
Along the banks of the Stour and Colne, hundreds of
acres of meadow were entirely drowned, and hundreds
of tons of the transported hay lay embedded in the river,
impeding the current and choking up the numerous
mill-wheels and flood-gates. Great calamities were ex-
perienced in many other localities ; an entire field of
flax was floated away near Writtle ; and in Baddow Mead
Hundred the damage to the wheat crop was estimated at a
sack per acre. Theseitems, picked up by my own observa-
tion, or gleaned from newspapers of the period, do not com-
prise any thinglike complete details of damage done by half
the flooding streams of our country ; and you perceive
that the marsh and fen districts situated at various
parts of the coast around our island, but chiefly in the
Great Level surrounding the Wash, have not been men-
tioned at all. In fact, being constructed and conserved
upon system, under companies or local acts, with
drainage taxes to defray the cost of the works, the Fen
rivers do not overflow their margins ; and when a deluge
does take place, it is from the failure of some embank-
ment or other artificial erection. However, were an
action brought against the English streams to recover
the value of even what I have enumerated as losses ex-
perienced by all the various interests and classes in town
and country — manufacturers, millers, agriculturists,
landowners, and the community at large — the sum would
amount to an immensely heavy figure. But I have not
made out half the strength of the case against these in-
continent rivers. There are greater evils than those
arising from the occasional or frequent destruction of
produce and property by violent inundation. And it is
only because we have been for ages accustomed to have
our valleys wet with sodden meadows, and spacious dis-
tricts of flat arable land cultivated with the very shal-
lowest ideas of infiltration and aeration as means of
lertility, that we do not hear louder complaints and de-
mands than those which are forced out by some unusual
deluge. To be sure, we have articles in newspapers and
reviews setting forth the damage to property and danger
to public health incurred by the present condition of our
arterial drainage. The Royal Agricultural Society's
county " Reports" notice the necessity for amelioration ;
active under- drainers and improving farmers perceive
the impossibility of carrying out first-class husbandry
without better outlets for the rapidly-increasing amount
of water to be discharged. But the reason why there
is not a more wide-spread agitation and appeal to the
Legislature, may be because the great body of those who
directly or indirectly suffer are looking upon amendment
as almost hopeless from its cost and from the apathy or
conflicting viev^sof different interests concerned. I have
not time to illustrate the various kinds of injury perma-
nently and perpetually caused by defective brooks and
rivers : but take some of them. That the bulk of coarse
hay furnished by marginal meadows, without asking any
return of manure, does render them of considerable
value to the upland farms with which they are commonly
associated, is perfectly true ; but it is also the fact that

258

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

this value is hazardous and precarious, owing to the
capricious irrigation or sedimentary manuring of the
stream that may serve as your Nile ; so that if one year
you get a fair pasture, in another it is too watery to be
grazed. Tf for one or more years (according to locality)
your hay-harvest is successful, the next season utterly
spoils your crop, leaving also a gritty aftermath that
stock cannot relish. The farmers in the Trent valley,
by the Ouse, Nene, Thames, or Severn, in the rainiest
as well as the drier counties, are pretty well agreed in
declaring that while the small winter floods compensate
for any damage they may do by the cheap manure they
leave behind, the great floods of wet seasons inflict very
heavy injury by hanging upon the land. And, in their
view, no doubt it would be a famous thing if by some
tolerably cheap improvement the channels could be made
of just that happy dimension and capacity which would
overflow every winter with shallow and not long-con-
tinued flooding^, yet convey speedily off the waters of
any heavier or sudden summer downfall. Such good-
natured and elastic river courses as these may not be
attainable ; but in many cases the fitful streams might
be made to water the contiguous meadows properly, in-
stead of stagnating to a great depth upon the surface,
and so produce a finer quality and richer abundance of
either herbage or hay. Occasionally may be found a
reach of meadow liable only to slight floodings, and
having a gravelly porous subsoil ; and the luxuriance of
the grass in such a situation indicates what might be
obtained on many other drowned lands with a well-
managed overflow and proper drainage. But why are
our large water-courses so generally bordered with
meadow and pasture I Not because the soil itself is
specially adapted for grass-bearing ; not because of fine
fattening property in the herbage, or its peculiar healthi-
ness for sheep or cattle; not because rich cheeses or a
great amount of other dairy produce can be made there.
No ; these low moist grounds are mown and grazed
simply because of their over-wetness for tillage and
their insecurity from the ravages of inundation. Under
present circumstances, in fact, this is the cheapest way
of making use of them. But, with the exception of some
tracts which with good drainage would make excellent
grazing land, and others which might be converted into
real and profitable catch-meadow, a large proportion of
the grass is naturally poor, and the land would be far
more valuable if dried and turned under the plough.
There nre numerous examples of such lands lying barely
three feet above the water level, which when pierced
and tapped with underdrains, and cultivated and cropped,
have yielded in one year more vegetable food than dur-
ing many past years of haying and grazing. The Bed-
ford Level farmers once maintained that they should be
ruined without their wonted winter floods, because their
weak lands, under natural sward or laid down for years
with grass-seeds, needed continual moisture ; but at the
present day they ridicule the idea of merely making the
best of a bad situation: insteai of that, they have
altered the situation; and having dismissed the floods,
they soon opened up a more profitable order of culture ;
auci vihsn y :n look at their immense wheat harvests and
their magnificent crops of sheep, fed succulent coleseed,

you acknowledge at once how superior is the present
productive arable to the once-famous pasture and
hay. I consider that somewhat similar results would
follow the effectual drainage of our river valleys ; and
thus, while the defective streams are injuring some
grounds that might become good water-meadow, in the
far greater number of instances they prevent fertile lands
from being managed either as good arable or pasture.
Then there is a very large extent of land not subj^'ct to
actual inundation, but which lying immediately adjacent
to the drowned flats, and delivering its drain-water upon
them, is incapable of efficient subsoil drainage (with all
the good farming dependent upon it), because the floods
dam back the outflow from the main ditches, overriding
the outlets of the underdrains just at that season when
their rapid emission is most required. But the evil
effects of river-floods are not only agricultural ; for, in
the neighbourhood of towns, just where the meadows
may be rented as " accommodation land" at £2 or ^3
or more per acre (and the proprietors might therefore
doubt the advantage of drying them), sanitary consi-
derations demand our care. Every man thinks his own
home peculiarly healthy, until the Registrar- General
dispels the pleasing illusion, and the tabular statistics of
public health prove most undeniably that districts
abutting upon a flooding river, or intersected with
marshy hollows and choked rivulets, are above all others
(excepting crowded and filthy cities) the haunts of fever
and glandular disease. Thus Northampton, on the
sluggish Nene, which overtops its banks, held up as a
navigation and pounded back by mill after mill along its
winding course, is shown by the " returns " to be one of
the (ew most deadly places in England ; and typhoid
and milder but enfeebling maladies constantly visit the
villages that inhale the hot-weather malaria of the
swampy meadows. The Ouse has a like unhealthy
character, as shown by the excessive rate of mortality
in Buckinghamshire; Huntingdonshire, &c.; and, indeed,
so have all our gloomy and lifeless rivers, as exemplified
at Norwich, surrounded by the heavily-flowing Wensum
and Yare — at Colchester, on the dull and tardy Colne
— at Salisbury and the fashionable Bath, on the inactive
and cheerless Avon ; and the smaller towns and parishes
flanking the streams are the hotbeds of intermittent fever,
rheumatic and liver complaints, and scrofulous and pul-
monary disorders, aggravated if not originated by the
cold damps and poisonous exhalations from which the
inhabitants have no means of escape. Trunk drainage,
however, would prove a marvellous preventive. I am
informed that at the village of Cople, in Bedfordshire, the
Duke of Bedford cut a deep brook which relieved the
parish of stagnant water, and although up to that time
typhus fever was rarely out of the parish, only a single
case has since happened in a period of eight years. The
Duke is cutting a deep brook or drain, at the present
time, through the adjoining parish ; and in that county,
as well as in others, many landlords might employ the
surplus labour in straightening their watercourses, ex-
changing angles of land where necessary, and save or
reclaim ground enough to pay all the expense. I have
now alluded to the four great mischiefs arising from the
defective state of our rivers and watercourses — namely,

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259

actual damages by deluge — the prevention of agricul-
tural improvement in the immediate vicinity of the
streams — the injuries sustained by the lands situated
above the reach of floods, but suffering from obstruc-
tions to their drainage — and the calamitous influence of
the reeking and pestilential valleys upon the lives of
a great proportion of our population. Were I to enter
upon a consideration of the various obstacles causing
the damage, the nature of the new works or enlargements
required, and the means by which opposing interests
may be reconciled or compensated, and the burden of
the improvement equitably apportioned according to ad-
vantages conferred, my paper would be prolonged far
beyond any reasonable limits. t>ne of the most general
impediments is the utilization of a stream for water-
power; and, as Captain Blithe said two centuries ago,
" mills drown and boggify more gallant land than them-
selves are worth to the commonwealth." Thus, the upper
valley of the Nene has thirty-three mills inalengthof sixty
miles ; the river Welland, between Market Deeping and
Market Harborough, is much obstructed by flour-mills ;
and upon a small stream in Dorsetshire there are no
fewer than five mills within a total distance of four miles.
The escapc-weirs are geoeraliy inadequate to the dis-
charge of the excess of downfall, which therefore over-
spreads the low lands ; and, besides this, the water-level
is often held up for the purpose of navigation. As I
have before said, no single method of improvement will
apply to all districts : in one case, a small breadth of
land injured may not be half so valuable as the mill or
factory causing the mischief; in another, it may be pos-
sible to purchase and abolish a long line of mills, and
set the waters free. In one valley you may accomplish
the same end cheaply by substituting steam for water
power, with a compensation for the greater expensive-
ness of this motive-power, or by building windmills
instead ; in another, you may have the assistance of the
millers, and provide their wheels with a more copious
and regular supply. In one case there may be a canal
couipaity to treat with for total removal ; in another,
you may unite a better navigation with securer drainage.
In one instance there may not be a sufficient area of
land to warrant a complet 3 measure, and you must be
satisfied with an improved regulation of the irrigating
waters ; in another, half measures would defeat the
object in view, and there may be ample means in the
town and country interests combined, to relieve from all
possibility of flood and give a deep outfall to the hitherto
soaked and hurtful lands. As a fine example of what a
district may accomplish in arterial drainage, I may refer
you to a description of the " Rye and Derwent Drain-
age" in Yorkshire, given in the Itoyctl Agricultural
Society's Journal of 1853. In this case, under a local
act of parliament, 27,000 acres were charged for the im-
provement ; and i;20,000, out of the ,£30,000 raised,
was paid to the three mills for their adoption of steam
instead of water power. The pecuniary advantages of
the works are apparent, from the fact thit a single
flicd, su h as firquently overf.ov,'ed liiu land, has bcei)
known to do more damage, if fairly valued in money,
than the vfhole sum expended under the act. For de-

tails of the present Nene Valley improvement — now,
unfortunately, in a stagnant plight, the causes of which
may be traced to great errors committed in times gone
by — I may refer you to an " Essay on Trunk Drain-
age," written by myself, in the Society's "Journal"
for 1854. In this case only one out of a long succes-
sion of mills is to be removed, and the water-power of
the remainder increased ; the navigation is to be bene-
fited, 20,000 acres made secure from their present fre-
quent floods, 7,000 acres more provided with a better
outfall, and Wisbech harbour improved. As long as Eng-
lish communities will permit typhus, and cholera, and
all sorts of virulent diseases to decimate them at will,
without taking resolute measures in town sewerage and
water supply, they can scarcely be expected to awake
from their apathy with respect to river devastation
and injury ; and, in all probability, we shall reiterate in
vain the statements of ctdamity and needless disadvantage
to which they passively t-ubmit, as if the condition of
things they were born to admitted of no progress or
relief. But it is certain that the question of arterial
drainage is slowly advancing : the rivers grow worse
and worse ; the improving drainage of the upper country
sends down increasing volumes of water ; and even the
millers are complaining, not because the more water the
more power, bat because it comes down so quickly (a
heavy downfall raising the level of brooks and rivers in
half the time formerly taken), and passing by them over
their weirs, is thus lost; instead of remaining stored up in
the districts above, to be forwarded by convenient instal-
ments, like the waters of streams regulated and equalized
by lakes out of which they flow. From Mr. Bailey
Denton's admirable and reliable estimate of the propor-
tion of drainable land in England, which has yet been
drained, we learn that, after all these years of preach-
ing and practice, of Government laws and land-drainage
companies, pipe and tile-machines, and the steam
draining-plough, not two-thirds or three-quarters, no,
only one-sixteenth has been permanently subsoil-
drained. Add to this, if you like, a similar extent of
temporary drainage, and still there is only a fractional
part of our drainable lands thus improved. And if
subsoil-drainage has already aff"ected the main arteries
to such an extent, what will be the consequence to them
of drainage carried on to five or ten times the present
amount ? Then consider what a large proportion of the
heavy winter rainfalls, absorbed in undrained soil as in
a sponge, and evaporated during the summer months,
is at once carried away and discharged by under-drains.
For instance, on the Hiuxworth estate, in January and
February, a thousand gallons per acre per diem were
discharged, which without under-drains, would have re-
mained to be dissipated by the dry winds and warming
sun of spring ; and you will thus have an idea of the
additional quantity of water that has yet to be sent
down into the natural watercourses of the country. As
agricultural improvement extends — and drainage is sure
to proceed vigorously as a resort against low prices —
it is clear that the river-valleys will feel a greater pres-
sure every year ; and there is therefore more hope of
all parties joining to open a commensurate passage for
our drain water, and to guard against both the in-
sidious injury and sudden catastrophes of floods. Now
comes the question. By whom are the desired im-
provements to be eftected ? Well, the cost ought of
course to be defrayed by the district benefited ; and
thosK who pay their money should, according to Eng-
lish usage, have the contiol of it. But by what organiza-
tion or under what autliority are the works to be under-
taken and maintained? That a universal issuing of
Sewers commissions under the Great Seal would an-

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swer the purpose, we cannot for a moment believe,
seeing thart navigations continue to pen-up our streams,
to float barges over shoals, bridges contract their chan-
nels, and mills dam back our drain-water, in spite of
sewers ' presentments" of the evils, or of their decrees
fixing the legal " heads" and falls. They cannot touch
half the small drains which unneighbourly neighbours will
not cleanse for us ; still less provide the additional water-
way demanded by annually augmenting delivery ; and still
less could they deal with mill-dams or ancient canals. The
power of a local act of parliamtnt is the authority upon
which all our modern fen drainages, our harbour and
outfall works, our internal river improvements, and
many enclosures of salt-marsh from the sea are at present
effected. But so many difficulties are connected with
the procuring of local acts, that, if this is to remain the
only course open to us, it is pretty certain that hundreds
of flooded valleys will continue in a hopeless plight. The
voluntary initiation of relief measures, the getting up of
an agitation, and the carrying of an act of parliament for
a larger or smaller district, when no organization and
no court of appeal previously exists, requires a boldness
and independence of mind, a degree of enterprise, and a
harassing and expensive series of preliminary proceed-
ings, which not only deter proprietors from attempting
to combine, but place the subject of river-improvement
beyond their thought as chimerical or incapable of real-
ization ; and the expense is often enormous. I cannot
ascertain what has been the united cost of the acts of
parliament for our numerous Fen-drainings, but I have
no doubt that, if we could add together the sums
expended in the mere obtaining of the acts
for all the piece-meal estuary works, embanking, sluice-
building, digging new cuts, or scouring and enlarging
old ones, we should find an amount wasted that might
have completed a large portion of the work. In the
case of the Eau-brink cut, on the Ouse above Lynn, the
first act, in 1795, contemplated an outlay of ^"40,000 ;
yet, owing to a heavy and obstinate contest, ttie pro-
moters alone had to spend £12,000 in merely carrying
the bill. In the estimated cost of the Nene Valley drain-
age, which was to come to ^275,000 altogether, the
expense of the act of parliament was set down as
£10,000 to begin with. But, as in the Bedford Level
and other lowland tracts, vast works comprehending
very extensive districts have been carried out, main-
tained, and improved by companies and corporate bodies
acting under parliamentary authority, so I believe one
general Act embracing the whole kingdom may enable
river-reform to be instituted on a great scale without
any necessity for a local act in each separate case. We
have a grand example in the late arterial drainages of
Ireland. I have not time to describe them ; but they
exhibit a boldness of conception and vigour of execution
vphich place them affiong the most extraordinary series
of engineering works ever undertaken. Independently of
the surveys and repoi'ts made of 452 districts, works were
carried out in 122 districts, extending into nearly every
county in Ireland; relieving the lands of 3,100 pro-
prietors, opening up and improving very extensive lines
of inland navigation, increasing mill-power, and ame-
liorating the climate and sanitary condition of large tracts
of country. They include nearly 1,800 miles of river-
course opened and new cuts excavated, at an average cost
of only £800 per mile ; besides the construction of
weirs, locks, sluices, removing mills, blasting rocks,
embanking salt marshes, tapping bogs, &c. ; the total
outlay being about £2,000,000. About 192,000 acres,
including some of the finest alluvial lands, were relieved
of floods ; while most important works have been exe-
cuted towards the improved drainage of 140,000 acres
more ; carrying off the waters from catchment basins
havuig aa area of 7,000,000 acres, or 11,000 square
miles ; more than one-third of the entire surface of Ire-

land. This is a scale of operations (I may say, in the
words of a competent witness) " without a parallel
in Europe; having been effected, for the most part, in
the short space ot ten years, and mainly by the energy
of one individual," Mr. Mulvany, the drainage com-
missioner. The chief of the works were undertaken to
find employment for the wretched population during
the famine ; both their design and execution pro-
ceeded from the board and its engineers ; and the
blue-books contain abundant testimony to the effec-
tual and valuable character of the improvements;
though, of course, out-fall works are not followed
in every case by immediate results, but are profit-
able from the facilities supplied for better husbandry.
Now, observe that these undertakings were not bur-
dened with the expense of local acts — the parliamenfary
authority consisting of Government acts ; so that the
law-costs, evfn during the progress of the operations,
such as juries, suits, arbitrations, registry, and expenses
of that kind (which in public works in our own country
swallow up so much money), scarcely exceeded £1,000
for the whole 122 drainages ; because the direct legal
business of all kinds was done by the solicitor of
the Board of Works, and his clerks, for their s;ilary,
without additional charge ; while the central estab-
lishment, consisting of the commissioner, secre-
tary, accountant, clerks, draughtsmen, and com-
puters, were paid by the Government . and not
charge^ to the works- If each district had been
obliged to procure an act for itself, of which the law-costs aloue
would have hten, say £500 each, there would have been many
tens of thousands of pounds added to the total outlay. It is a
difficult matter to obtain data on which to ground an accurate
comparison between the cost of passing local acts iu England,
and of the preliminary proceedinga taken uuder the povverfl of
general a^ts, such as the exiatiug Inclosure, Exchange, and
Improvement of Land Acts, or a proposed General Drainage
Act ; for the facts as to the expense of locai acts are withm
the knowledge of parties who may not feel disposed to give
the information. But the difference must be considerable, as
a very slight acquaintance with parliamentary proceedings will
suffice to mform us that £800 to £1,000 is a very sajall sum
to expend in carrying a private bill through parliament, even
if unopposed ; whereas the proceedings of the Inclosure Com-
mission furnish us with an agreeable contrast •of expenses
under a general act. By the Annual Report of the Com-
missioners, presented to the Secretary of State for the Home
Department on the Slat of January, 1858, 1 find that the cost
of the preliminary proceedings in the twenty-two cases of in-
closures therein recommended for the authorisation of the
legislature, amounted to £365 7s. 8d., being an average ot
only £16 128. 2d. for each inclosure ; yet there was an average
of 277 acres each case, or 6,092 acres altogether. The act of
parliament authorising these twenty-two iuclosures (an annual
act being passed for giving the necessary authority), is obtained
entirely without charge to the parties mterested in the in-
closures to which it relates, and is a curiosity to some of us
from its containing no unnecessary verbiage, the enactment,
following a short preamble, being merely iu these words :
" That the said several proposed inclosures mentioned in the
schedule to this act be proceeded with." The prehmmary
proceedings under a general drainage act, such as I shall pre-
sently refer to, would be of the same nature as those uuder the In-
closure Acts ; the expenses a little exceeding those above quoted.
Consider how the facilities provided by the machinery of a
general act might hasten our long-deferred river-improvement.
After all, the real reason why our valleys are over-watered and
unhealthy is to he found in the low state of drainage-opinion
throughout the country: indeed, those of us who are familiar
with level districts naturally possessing " a fall" of many feet,
and yet careless about the state of internal ditches, so long as
the v.'Bter keeps below the open grips which gridiron the sur-
face across ridge and water-furrow, do not wonder at the '
amazing degree of resignation marifeated by the flooded in-
habitants of our inland river-valleys. As the clay-land farmer
will still plough his four-inch furrow, either unconscious of the
wealthy subsoil beneath, or not daring to speculate in an ex-
pensive deep-culture without security of tenure to ensure him

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

261

the fruits ; so these people contiaue mowing heavy hay-crops
or grazing good grass, by help of the waters they bathed m
or skated ou wheu children, and never drcatn of greater profit if
the floods were assuaged, or of salubrity with less expanse of
cold water aud olTeusive mud ; or if they anticipate such ini-
provemeiit, cannot risk anything upon the chance feasibility of
confining the streams and achieving a perfect drainage. Now
a general act, partitioning the kingdom into districts or drain-
age departments, and establishing an organization for suptrin-
teudiug the outflow of our waters, would create (as it were)
a public opinion ou the subject, by ofl'ering machinery for
comprehensive or isolated improvement to the attention of
owners, tenants, and townsfolk. In these days of profuse ad-
vertisement, we do not conceal our wares until customers
spontaneously inquire if we have them: to dispose of our
goods we must " push" the trade ; aud instea'd of waiting for
new wants to arise, must make those wants by offering to
supply them. So would a general drainage act operate : by
providing the remedy, it would stimulate the spirit of improve-
ment in districts now blind to the misery of their state because
ignorant of the advantages they might enjoy. In Ireland,
numerous as are the " works" undertaken, they only amounted
to a fourth of those applied for. What would be the nature
of the proceedings under a general act? The Irish drainages
were executed by the Government Commissioners, under the
following regulations : Any one or more persons interested in
a district memorialized the Board, engaging to defray the cost
of preliminary proceedings if the work did not go on : the
Board then made inquiry, a survey, and report, which was sub-
mitted to a meeting of the proprietors ; and if the owners of
one-half the extent of land m the proposed district (with the
consent of tenants under lease) gave in their assents, the
drainage was proceeded with, and where one individual pos-
sessed more than half the number of acres the other owners
could outweigh his decision. The expense was charged upon
the lauds of all the proprietors in proportion to the benefit
considered by a valuator to be conferred on each part. Much
of the money for these works was obtained by private loans on
[^ the security of the lands to be drained, for which debentures
were issued ; but the principal funds were advanced by the
Treasury, to be repaid by instalments in 12 up to 40 years.
But in our own country a very different style of procedure
would probably be adopted, in order to be palatable to a
people accustomed to regard local self government as the bul-
wark of their political freedom. We never could submit to
have the Government engineer offering us a scheme of im-
provement with the alternative of " this or none." It appears
to my mind that a general act for this kingdom should ap-
portion the whole surface (as I have before said) into drainage
districts ; each including a main river or water-course, with
all its branches aud feeding ditches from the outfall to the
very source — being, in fact, the entire catchment basin of the
stream. And this because each river system is independent of
all others ; while its separate divisions, whether in the estuary
delta, the upper valley, or the thousand feeders along its
course, are mutually affected by and dependent upon each
other. Not that all rights and responsibilities upon the river
are to be swamped and set aside; but a jurisdiction is to be
established over all. To conserve and improve the drainage
of a district, to regulate all matters concerning mill-power,
irrigation, or inland navigation, let there be trustees or com-
missioners ; either a representative body, or sort of water-
parliament, elected by all the different interests, or constituted
in a different manner, if this were considered objectionable or
unlikely to answer the end in view. Proper officers might be
appointed to watch over and examine every portion of the
tract, from the tidal harbour to the farm ditch, through which
may run a right of water-way ; and a model for such duties
may be found in our fen drainage management. The district
could devise, support, or oppose any scheme of improvement
as at present ; and there would exist an organization for sub-
mitting proposals to the direct sanction or rejection of all par-
ties concerned. The advantage of the general act would be in
its provisions empowering the district board (however consti-
tuted) to deal with mills, properties, &c., and rate the charge
for outlay, &c., according to fixed principles laid down for
different cases, thus obviating the necessity for the host of
local acts that would otherwise be necessary for draining the
kingdom, and which, because of their very number, will never
be obtained. This is merely thrown out by way of collateral
auggtitipii ; but that a t'juf.ial act ui tojiic iJoscrip! ion is re-

quisite, I most firmly believe. It is evident that general rules
for compensation, &c., could be framed, after due investigation
of the existing state of things throughout the country, be-
cause our riviTS are capable of being classified, according as
they subserve the purposes of flour-mills or factories, naviga-
tion or simple drainage, and so on ; and the remedial measures
will be similar in certain descriptions of cases : as where
water-mills must be removed, or steam-power provided in
place of the water, or the water-power itself increased ; where
navigation must be abandoned, or, on the other hand, may be
combined with better drainage; and so on. And there is
already a sufficient number of precedents of the purchase of
mills aud canals, and compensations of all kinds, to guide us
in framing a new general act, comprehensively embracing all
specific cases likely to arise. A measure of this kind, laying
down principles upon which claims are to be regulated, would
be a novelty ; but one approaching to the general character I
have been insisting upon is already before the public. For
in the spring of 1852, a Bill for the " Drainage and Embank-
ment of Lauds" was presented to the House of Lords by the
Earl of Carlisle, who, on withdrawal from office, brought in and
left it as a bequest to the Ministry succeeding that of which his
lordship was a member. The provisions (comprising 133
clauses) are so important, aud so nearly answering to the re-
quirements of the country, that I must give you a brief outline
of them ; although no legislation ou the subject has taken
place from that time to this. Instead of dividing England
and Wales into districts, it is left for any persons inte-
rested to apply by memorial to the Enclosure Commis-
sioners, accompanied with maps, plans, and estimates of
proposed works ; the Commissioners are then to con-
vene a meeting of all parties concerned ; aiid if the
assents received represent three-fourths in extent of the
land, they may diclare the lands, etc, to be a "draiuage
district." Proprietors vote without regard to the amount
of tlieir interest; and teuauts are considered jointly with
owners, where the lease is of longer term than 14 years,
and the rental under two-thirds of the clear annual value.
At a meeting called for the purpose, a body of trustees, not
less than six nor more than nine in number, is to be chosen
by " the persons interested in the greater portion in exttnt
of the lands, etc., represented at the meeting ;" and the
election is for seven years. The same meeting is also to
elect a Committee of Works, to which trustees are eligible.
In case of neglect or refusal to elect these bodies, the Com-
missioners appoint them themselves. The Board of
Trustees, with proper officers, is to make all contracts for
works ; raise funds ; render annual accounts, open to public
inspection ; submit to the Commissioners, once a year, a
detailed plan, specification, and estimates, etc., of the works
proposed'to be undertaken in the district during the ensuing
year; and, in fact, be the responsible managers. The Com-
imittee of Works is to supsrvise the execution of the
works ; the Board of Trustees to superintend the Com-
mittee. The Inclosure Commissioners are to determine
disputes between the two bodies. No works are to be
undertaken without the approval and order of the Com-
missioners ; and they are to report their proceedings an-
nually to one of the Secretaries of State. The moneys
required are to be raised by rate, assessed upon the whole
of the lands in the district, in proportion to benefit re-
ceived ; or by mortgage upon the security of the lands to
be drained, by way of terminable annuity : and any owner
may appeal to the Commissioners, if dissatisfied with the
assessment of the trustees. This, then, is the organization :
Initiative and executive local representative bodies, govern-
ing the water-interests of separate districts, and charging
the expenses of improvement and maintenance upon all the
lands, the owners of three-fourths the extent of land binding
the minority to contribute ; and all under the controlling
head of the Inclosure Commission. What " works" may be
executed.^ The trustees may alter any weirs, dams,
streams, &c., or construct new works for discharging floods,
or lower the water-level of a river, provided they do not
lessen the water-power or supply to mills, towns, or fac-
tories. Then they may purchase and remove any "mill,
factory, weir, dam, or other work of obstruction;" or, not
agreeing for the purchase, they may take the same, and
award compensation— that is, with the express avithorisa-
tion of the Commissioners. Nothing is said, however,
.".bout s^'.';,stitut!ng steam or wind-power instead of the

362

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

water. If a mill derive increased water-power, it mny bj
rated accordingly. They may " make, erect, or put down
main cuts or drains, embankments, roads, walls, dams,
engines, catchwater and other drains, aqueducts, tunnels,
sluices, culverts, training jetties, gates, fences, and also
stop up or divert any road or remove «ny bridge, and
make any new road or bridge, and also from time to time
repair, alter, or remove any sluice, floodgate, hatch, tunnel,
road, or other works now made or to be made, aud divert,
deepen, widen, cleanse, and scour any ditch, drain, water-
course, or side-cut now existing or to be made, and also do
all such things, and erect and maiutain such steam and
other engines and machinery, and execute all such works
as maj' be necessary or conveaient for the purposes of this
Act." And they may construct works through lands not
proposed to be drained, by making compensation. They
may make reservoirs and embankments, diverting surplus
waters into them, for the better application and extension
of water-power. For supplying water to mills and works
on any stream, with the consent of the proprietors of three-
fourths of the value of the water-power, the Commissioners
may authorize and direct the proprietors to elect trustees
for making and maintaining reservoirs and embankments,
to be charged upon all the mills, etc., along the river
that may be benefited. Works may be made within
the jurisdiction of other boards of trustees or the
Commissioners of Sewers, subject to an appeal to
the Board of Trade. The trustees may purchase
land for their works, but not more thau three acrea of auy
person, unless by agreement, without an Act of Parliament ;
and the claims of proprietors, when land is required, is to be
refered to arbitration, or to a jury, under the " Lands Clauses
Consolidation Act." The Commissioners are to make a final
award upon the completion of the works; and the trustees
are to keep and maiutain the works ia repair, aud also at the
expense of the district sustain any outfall or embankment
which may be necessary, but lying without the district. Or-
namental waters, or the water-supply of towns, or the limits of
parks, are not to be trenched upon without consent of the
owners. Tliereis a clause saviug Local Drainage Acta, Com-
"^issioners of Sewers, &c. ; aud then, one provision which
/eaves a difficulty — no work is to he made if " injurious to the
navigation of any navigable river or canal." The act empowers
any individual owner or any number of owners to obtain a
right of exeoUing works through the lauds of other proprie-
tors, without the intervention of any board of trustees, by
appealing to the Inclosure Commissioners. This meets a
want which is felt in innumerable cases of deep subsoil-
drainage on estates which have to drain through the shallow
and circuitous water-courses of less iutelligeut cultivators.
The Act of 1847, carried by Lord Lincoln, (the latest legisla-
tion on the subject,) gives us a similar remedy in such cases,
where it would be worth oar while to make the works, and pay
compensation out of our unassisted pockets. But there is no
law at present by which an opposing minority can be made
contributory to the expenses, however much they may be be-
nefited by the works ; and our Land Drainage Companies,
while possessing very great powers aud facilities, are unable to
levy rates upon dissentient proprietors. Lest the proposed
general act should be viewed with jealousy, as placing too
much power aud arbitrary authority in the hands of the lu-
closure Commissioners or other department, anything like
Bureaucracy, as exercised in France, being as repugnant to
the feelings of Englisiimen as to the spirit of their laws, I
wish to explain briefly the working of the Inclosure-ofRce, and
to show that it possesses facilitating rather than centralizing
powers. And for the following particulars, which further il-
lustrate the great advantage ol a general statute, I am in-
debted to John Wm. Tottie, Esq., of that office. 1. laelosures
may proceed on the assent of persons representing two- thirds
of the entire interest in the land to be effected. 2. The
valuer, who is the officer empowered to carry out the inclosure,
is appointed by the majority of persons interested, attending
a meeting specially called for the purpose, the Coraraissioners
having no power to appoint, except in cases where the majority
in number and value cannot agree. The same provision as
No. 1 is contained in the Drainage and Embankment of L-^nds
Bill, whereby three-fourths of the interests may bind the en-
tirety--a moat valuable provision, as one individual will
sometimes prevent the improvement of an entire district.
The Commissioners' Report, befoie alluded to, shows the ex-

teLt of ti^eir opf-ratia.-!P, ccmpriaiiig 767 f p;;licEitions fo' inclo-
sure, 681 of which have been completed, or are in progress,
for the improvement of 4 88,42<! acres of land. A large num-
ber of applications are for exchanges, under powers that cannot
be too generally brought under the notice of landed proprie-
tors, for their value in laying land together for convenience of
occupation, and also for laying together lands held under the
same title and subject to the same charge, because the lands
taken in exchange under these powers enure to the same
uses and are subject to the same charges rs the lands
giveu in exchange : the official charges for these
exchanges seldom exceed £3 to £5. In addition to the
before-mentioned dutie?, considerable powers have been
exercised under the various drainage acts, as shown in the
subjoined table ; aud these powers have likewise been
exercised in all cases, as far as possible, through local agency ;
the parties applying for loans being required to submit their
plans of drainage through local inspectors acquainted with the
respective districts, rather than through the medium of officers
sent down into the country from town.

Title of Act.

Public Money Drainage Act

Laud Improvement Company's Act

General Land Drainage Company's
Act

Private Money Drainage Act

Scottish Drainage Act

West of England Drainage Com-
pany's Act

Amount ap-
plied for.

4,000.000
1,262,890

I 399,119

122,045
37,350

} 166,462

£5,987,866

Number of
Applicants.

3,179

348

106

133
16

20

3,802

I have hardly touched upon the minor drains and ditches con-
veying the water of one farm through another, or dividing
different properties, and subject only to such maintenance as
the drainage-ideas or good-nature of occupiers may choose to
bestow — improvement not possible to be enforced, aud only
positive injury to the farms further back, rendering occu-
piers liable to a suit for damages, or to being taken before
two Justices of the Peace, as ordained in the Act just men-
tioned. A far larger extent of land is damaged, or denied the
first iinprovemeut of deep-drainage, by these myriad drains
aud water-courses, than by all the brooks and larger rivers ;
and they are already made such matters of endless squabble
between occupiers, that some stronger interposition of the
legislature is required than the mere appeal to the magistracy
which this law provides. Instead of passing one statute to
let us •' scour aud cleanse" outlets through intervening pro-
perties (like the Act referred to), and, finding that useless,
pass another " for widening and deepening, " and then
another (that would be needful), giving power to
" straighten," and so on — a fresh Act tor every new difficulty
a drainer may meet with as the work extends — would it not
be a better plan to relieve neighbours of such iiritatiug duties
as binding one another down to the strict letter of piece-meal
legislation, by the bolder course of establishing au authorita-
tive supervision over all the drains together ? It would be a
great simplification of matters if all these smaller drains, as
well as the larger arteries now spoiling good land, were in-
cluded, as I have before said, in the drainage districts, aud
placed under the supervision and control of the local board
and its officers. Complaints could be easily made ; and the
responsibility of taking action would rest on broader shoulders
than those of a poor tenant. Lord Carlisle's Bill expressly
provided that the trustees of a district might enforce the
cleansing and scouring of drains and sewers of all kinds by
the parties liable. Where there are no trustees, it authorizes
similar proceedings to those of the present law, namely, doing
the work for a defaulter (of course with a warrant, if upon
his land, and not a mere boundary drain), and recovering the
outlay ; but it goes a step further, and grants the " deepen-
ing" of such water-courses, subject to an appeal to the
Quarter Sessions. Of course, with a general Act, dividing
the kingdom into districts, a direct supervision and manage-
ment might be established. I do not admire a centralized
government : preferring, as far as is expedient, to administer
my own affairs. Yet I do thiuk that some such measure as I

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263

have lightly sketched out would be applicable to our present
situation, without trenching too closely upou the liberties of
the subject. There appears, however, to be a feeling, with
some parties, in favour of a universal arterial drainage car-
ried out by the Government, according to the designs and under
the inspection of commissioners : with a staff of hydraulic en-
gineers like those of our neighbours the marshy Hollanders, or
of our own India, cr of iNorthern Italy, where a warm climate
renders water almost an institution of the country, and irri-
gating liquid is measured out to the husbandman almost by
the quart. But, of course, under any system short of absolute
despotism, it must be left for every locality at any rate to say
whether it will remain drowned or no. We certainly do per-
mit the Government to aid us in many ways besides " pro-
tecting person and property"': it carries our letters, enlightens
the inventive minds of would-be patentees, surveys and maps
our country, has jurisdiction over tidal streams aud marshes,
lights our shores, and makes charts of rocks and soundings for
shipping, secures us a penny-a-mile ride by the railway, and
violates theoretic political economy by fixing (not the standard
value of precious metals, but) the fare we are to pay poor
cabby ! Whether the same power that figures so well as a mili-
tary storekeeper (on "the Weedon system") would shine
better in drainage works I cannot tell ; but it is c'ear that
Government can collect statistics and institute surveys ; and I
shall therefore close my lengthy address by making the follow-
ing proposal : As a prelioiiuary step to the framing of a
general act of parliameat, let a Eoyal Commission be ap-
pointed to examine the real drainage condition of the whole
country, reporting upou the needful works aud other require-
ments of our river valleys, soraewhat as another commission
has already done for our tidal harbours. What extent of
ground in this kingdom is subject to inundation ? What
still larger area is imperfectly furnished with outfalls for
drained arable and pasture? What actual damages are
periodically suffered ? What does the country lose by the
extent of good husbandry prevented? In what degree do
the town and rural populations owe the prevalence of disease
i to the stagnant or delugmg rivers ? What are the special

evils and obstructions to be removed in each district ? How
could these be equitably abolished ? In which cases would
the increased value of the lands or other benefit pay for ame-
lioration? Where are the cases in which improvement would
be too costly ? We ought to possess' full and clear answers
to these and similar inquiries ; but at present, all we know is
fragmentary, collected by iudividuah who, with all their pains-
taking, cannot measure the mischief or form a just idea of the
alterations required. To arrive at approximative statistics on
all these points (iu many cases not needing a minute survey)
a commission need not expend a very heavy sum of money.
And then, still further, besides inquiring into the most satis-
factory methods of dealing with conflicting claims and interest?,
with a view to the framing of a general act, investigations of
an engineering character might be instituted — as, for instance,
into the maximum daily downfall and the possible discharge
of districts varying in climate and geological structure ; the
augmentation of drainage delivery, by improved farm manage-
ment ; the effects of the tidal flow in different river channels ;
the rate of deposition of alluvial sedimcut upou salt marshes,
and so on — most important points for the guidance of the drain-
age engineer, and without a knowle(;ge of which in greater ful-
ness than at present exists, works will be made of unsuitable
dimensiors, and money may be squandered in vain. As an
illustration, I may mention that the usual tables of average
rainfall were utterly inaufficient to guide the Irish drainers in
designing conduits of the right capacity for conveying away
the sudden floods ; aud it it was only after a long and patient
registry of observations in all parts of Ireland, they discovered
that from half a cubic foot up to thirteen cubic feet per minute
for each acre of catchment basin had to be discharged from
diflferent districts, dependiag upon locality, state of culti-
vation, aspect of the lauds, aud other circumstances. Neither
were they at first prepared for the great additional volume of
water which deicended as the upper works proceeded, and as
under drainage began to deliver into main ditches water that
had previously passed into the air by evaporation. Tlie col-
lection of such engineering data, being of a more prolonged
character than the simple examination of districts aud inves-
tigation of the social aud legal questions connected with the
improvement of river drainage, could be better cairled out
pethftpa by aome otheiorganizatioa under oae of the Goverumeut

departments ; but the appointment of a drainas;e commission,
consisting of individuals conversant both with engineering
aud agriculture, and capable of taking broad views of the
multitudinous claims and interests that would come before
them, is a step that the Government could easily take, and one
that would undoubtedly win the approbation of all classes of
the community. There are plenty of precedents, too, for such
a proceeding on the part of the Crown, as keeper of the soil of
the kingdom, to be found in the records of fen drainage, ex-
tending indeed back to the early institution of our Commia-
sions of Sewers.

Mr. Bailey Denton (Stevenage) would be glad to
say a few words upon this occasion, because the magni-
tude of the subject was such as all must acknowledge.
Everybody adaiitted, that sooner or later something must
be done. It was ouly a question of time ; and many
efforts, besides those of the Earl of Carlisle, had been made to
promote legislatio.i on the subject. Lord Carlisle, however,
happened to introduce his bill just at that juncture, which
rendered it opportune ; though from circumstances the attempt
had not been repeated since. In that year (1852) when Lord
Carlisle introduced his bill, more rain had fallen, thau
had fallen in the aggregate in the four years which had
succeeded. Now, during those four years drainage had
much progressed ; aud he believed he had made it clear, by
certain experiments t f his, that every acre of clay land
drainage added very largely to the influx of water into the
valleys (Hear, hear, from Mr. Mechi). Mr. Clarke himself
had referred to the Hinxworth tables, which showed that a
thousand gallons per acre per diem were discharged into the
valleys from drainage. He (Mr. Denton) might add that
those tables showed, contrary to the expectations of many
men who did not believe in the porosity of clay, the clay
lands that had been properly drained had, within 24 hours
of any heavy rain-fall, and after the lands had become
saturated, discharged at least one moiety of the quantity
which had fallen on the surface (Hear, hear). Now,
he need not dA-ell on the importance of improving the arterial
drainage of the country. He had remarked that, at the time
when Lord Carlisle introduced his measure, there seemed to
be an almost unanimous desire for arterial drainage. la the
four mouths of November, December, January, and February,
1852-53, there was a rainfall of 16 inches ; the average fall in
this country, in those months, during the last forty years,
having been 11 inches. Since 1852-53 there had not fallen in any
corresponding period more than 4|^ inches average. With these
facts before them, they had no dilliculty in understanding how
it was that the interest in the subject of arterial drainage had of
late years decreased ; in fact, so little interest had it excited
since the winter of 1852-53, that he had met with persons who
thought that there was no necessity for any drainage at all;
and he had almost felt that in his own case " Othello's occu-
pation" was " gone" (laughter). But nature always balanced
herself; aud, sooner or later, they would have a downfall,
which would make many people regret that they had not
taken advantage of Lord Carlisle's measure, and had slept during
the dry winters which succeeded its introduction (Hear, hear).
He quite concurred in what Mr. Clarke said about the desir-
ability of having a central commission, and of the division of
the country into districts ; such a commission was required for
many reasons. In the first place, as regarded the main arteries,
they were obliged to go to Parliament for powers to interfere
witii them, and having obtained those powers, they frequently
pledged themselves to works which it was afterwards found ic-
conveuient to carrv out (Hear, hear). In the Nene case it was
necessary to go to Parliament a third time to perfect the scheme ;
and after all, it would be found that the undertaking was one that
would not warrant the outlay — the area was too small to warrant
the expense that had been incurred and must be incurred. If
there were a central commission, it would operate in such a
manner that they would avoid the immature chsracter of all
parliamentary plans, and have an opportunity of retracing their
steps — they might stop at any moment en making a proper
application ; whereas, under the present state of things, when
they had pledged themselves to Parliament, they must go on,
though iucurring inevitable loss. So disastrous had been the
result on the Neue, that bonfires were now made in the neigh-
bourhood of Wisbeach of the materials used in the unfinished
works. There not being money enough to carry out the original
scheme, what had been done already was a failure, and hence
all who we; concerned ia it were ditgusted, These resuUs would

261

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

be avoided under a central drainage commissiou. Then, iu what
position were they with regard to the minor streams, those
streams which, as regarded under-drainage, were more im-
portant even than the main streams ? It was a positive fact, as
Mr. Clarke had stated, that they could not in any way deepen
or straiten a stream. He had been in that room when much
discussion had taken place on the subject of deep drainage;
and he could tell them, from experience, that there was greater
force in the impediments which Nature had imposed than
in all the arguments which he had heard against deep-
drainage in that Club. What was their position in this re-
spect? The improvement made iu the law by Lord
Lincoln's Act extended merely to the clearing out of exist-
ing shallow aud tortuous streams. To avail themselves
even of that slight improvement, they were obliged to go
before Justices. A man must appear against his near
neighbour before two other neighbours, the justices; and
the result was that there were not half-a-dozen cases, he
believed, in which proceedings had been taken under
Lord Lincoln's Act. It was a common belief that the pie-
sent companies had no power to deepen and improve outfalls.
Acting as he did for one company, and knowing what was
contained in their Act, he would assert that, practically,
they had no power at all. Their powers were such as
necessitated an appeal to a jury or to arbitration, as in
railway compensations ; and this involved an expense and
difficulties which amounted to a positive prohibition of pro-
ceedings. So far from the companies having the powers which
they were supposed to possess, he would repeat that, owing to
the impediments placed in their way, their nominal powers
were of no utility. He might advert to the fact that there
existed throughout Lombardy, -where water was used with
great care and paid for with great willingness, a power of car-
rying water through an intervening property, from the source
whence it was obtained to an estate where it was considered
desirable to use it. It appeared to him a disgrace to the
intelligence of this country that there should not be power
here to conduct water from a property where it was inju-
rious to another where it was wanted, and to deepen aud
straighten existing outfalls. He had been accused of never
coming to that room except when he wanted to speak on
his special subjects ; but, for his own part, he thought it
was a great compliment to the Society, to imply that the
members only spoke on subjects on which they were
informed ( Hear, hear). What he had said was said with
earnestness ; and he trusted that it would assist in
throwing light on the subject.

Mr. R. Holmes (Arundel, Sussex) said the subject under
discussion was one in which he had taken great interest for
many years. He had the honour to be cleik to a connnis-
sion of sewers which had jurisdiction over nearly 8,000
acres of land ; and his experience convinced him that there
ought to be a general commissiou, having powers similar to
those which were entrusted to the Commission of Sewers.
The district to which he alluded embraced a very large ax-ea
in Sussex, including a tidal harbour; and the improve-
ments effected of late years were such.that almost the whole
of the sluices had been lowered something like four to five
feet. Great benefit had been derived from what had been
done, and sewers rates to carry out the improvements had
been in most cases cheerfully paid, even to the amount of
20s., 4O3., and GOs. an acre. The jurisdiction of the
commissioners extended generally to lands wiiich were
liable to flood-water. They wanted power to drain land
which was dammed back by mill-streams, cana's, and
other liise impediments. A paltry little mill, which was
rented, perhaps, at only £50 a year, caused the water to
flow back on two or three hundred acres of land ; aud in
such cases, the obtaining a fall of three or four feet would
be an immense benefit. He entirely concurred with Mr.
Clarke as to the necessity for extending arterial drainage.

Mr. Alderman Mechi (Tiplree) rose principally to thank Mr.
Clarke for the very truthful and able paper which he had read. His
own opinions on this subject were- expressed very fully many years
ago. He believed they could hardly over-estimate the damage
which was done by the heading back of water. He had heard
millers Eay that so instantaneous was the check caused by
ehuttin? oir a mill, that if two milla were a mile or a mile and
a half from each other, they could tell immediately what was
happening at the upper mill cr the lower mill, as the case
might be. He quite concurred in the opinion that the loss

which was occasioned by these impedimenta was not at all
counterbalanced by the advantage which the millcra reci ived ;
and to buy them off, by some such means as had been sug-
gested, would in his opinion be a great benefit to the country.
In former times the law threw its mantle of protection over
the millers, aud very naturally, because the country had only
wind and water to prepare its daily bread ; but the introduc-
tion of steam had so cheapened the cost of grinding, that he had
heard a miller declare that he could grind 100 qrs.of corn with
143. 6d. worth of coal. He admitted, however, that vested inter-
eats must not be sacrificed (Hear, hear ^. That the courts ; f law
had allowed considerable latitude to millers no one could deny.
He had met with cases iu which when the wood-work was
worn out, it was replaced with v.'ood raised an inch higher,
and afterwards with another iuch under the same pretext,
and thus very valuable lands had been injured, and the law-
did not afford any remedy. He knew one instance in which
a miller would not allow the occupier of a meadow to put a
pipe under a small stream, though the effect would have been
to render that meadow four times as valuable as it was. Lest
the water should be interfered with, tbe miller would not allow
a pipe to be placed in the bed of the river. They were all
now aware that water would penetrate through heavy clays.
A few years ago it was generally believed by the farmers of
this country that in the case of purely aluminous clays it was
no use making drains, as water would not go through them.
He was happy to find, however, that that opinion was gra-
dually dying out. It had taken fifteen years to convert some
persons, notwithstanding all the evidence which he phced
before theai (laughter) ; but they at length appeared to be con-
vinced. The fact that only oue-sixteenth of the land which had
required draining had been actually drained showed that there
was still a large amount of prejudice to be removed ; but he
was very glad to find that the minds of agriculturists were
getting more and more enlightened on the subject.

Mr. R. Baker (Writile) said his own farm was bounded
by a river for the greater part of a mile ; and when he first
took the farm, in harmony with the principle of Solomon's de-
claration that all rivers ran into the sea, his ditches ran into
the river. But from time to time the encroachments of the
river had been such, that the water was for the whole extent
one or two feet, and in many places several feet, above the level
of the farm ; and the resnlt was, that he had been obliged to
cut another channel parallel to tae river, and intercepting the
water. Of course it was open to him to resort to a court of
law ; but this would perhaps have been ruinous, and he there-
fure submitted to the inconvenience to which he was subjected.
Looking at the question in a general point of view, he must
say it was one that deeply concerned the nation at large. They
all knew how expensive it was to obtain an Act of Parliament
to carry out any particular scheme ; but if there were a gene-
ral Act, that obstacle to improvement would be removed. AU
incloaures were formerly effected under the authority of sepa-
rate statutes ; but there was now a general Act applicable to
all cases, and the expense attending inclosures was very greatly
diminished. Iu principle he could see no difference between
inclosures and drainage ; the grand object to be secured, in a
national point of view, being the production of the greatest
amount of corn that could be obtained from the land. He
hoped that before the new reform bills changed the character
of our legislation, and while farmers still exercised some influ-
ence over a large proportion of the Members of Parliament,
efforts would be made to secure a remedy for the evil in ques-
tion, and that a short general bill would if possible be obtained
during the present session. That this was a very important
question in a densely populated country like curs, no
one could doubt who calmly reflected on the matter. As was
observed by Mr. Mechi, what was once a necessity of the coun-
try for the grinding of corn had ceased to be so. Steam was
now found to be a cheaper motive power than water. The
same remark applied to windmills. Windmills were not iuju-
rii;us, like water, to the surrounding neighbourhood ; but not
being so cheap as steam they were all disappearing, and probably
CO more windmills would be erected. He hoped to live long
enough to be able to say that no more water-mills would be
built ; but the vested interests connected with water-mills,
canals, and waterworks were so considerable, that a large
araouat would be required to purchase them. Common seuae
of course required that the minor interest should be sacrificed
to the major, and that the production of food for the country
should have precedence over every other object.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

265

Mr. Williams (Baydon, Hungerford) observed that tie
gentleman who introduced the subject appeared to differ from
the wise king; of Israel in his declaration that all rivers emptied
themselves into the sea. Was it not possible that the
reclamation of lauds in the Lincolnshire district had been
carried so far as to do away with the outlets for the rivera
there ?

Mr. S. Sidney (Peckhara) said this was not merely
a tenant-farmer's or landlord's, but a national question —
a question affecting in the closest manner the cultivation of
the soil and the production of food (Hear, hear). It could
not be solved Batisfactorily without a great amount of
labour and a large expenditure of money, and the money
required could not be supplied by the parties interested, but
must in great part be contributeri, by the whole nation. Mr.
Clarke, who had so ably introduced the subject, had done
good service some years ago, by meana of an admirable paper
in the Journal of the Royal AgricaUural Society. They all
knew, however, that in this country, although it might be
right that a particular thing should be done, it could not
until the public were convinced that it was right ; and unless
such men as Mr. Clarke, Mr. Bailey Dentou, and other
gentlemen present whose modesty had prevented them from
speaking:, reduced their information to paper, and circulated it
among the persons to be influenced, the purse-strings of the
nation would not be unloosed for the accomplishment of the
object. It had occurred to him that in this matter very ex-
cellent service might be rendered by the Royal Agricultural
Society. That Society had no doubt done a great deal for
agriculture; but he was one of those who ventured to say
that it might do a great deal more, and that, having acquired
the confidence of the public, it should actively exert its influence
to retain that confidence. He thought, for example, that that
Society might advantageously appoint a committee to draw up
a number of questions, to circulate them among persons who
lived on the borders of rivets, and who were therefore subject
to the evils of alternate flooding and dry seasons ; and with the
assistance of the answers, draw up a report for the guidance of
Parliament. That would prepare the public mind to yield the
funds required for the removal of the evils which had been so
well pointed out by Mr. Clarke. He thought it was premature
at present to go to Parliament to ask for a Commission. The
public had been disgusted with the action of commissions
(Hear,_hear), because many commissioners had proved utterly
unfit for the duties they undertook to perform ; and if a com-
mission were now appointed for the carrying out of im-
provements in arterial drainage, the lowering of mdl-dams,
and the compensation of milier?, it might reasonably be ap-
prehended that these important duties would be entrusted to
raw ignorant and inefiicieut hands (Hear, hear). As to Mr,
Baker's allusion to the contemplated reform of Parliament,
he did not believe any parliament would ever entertain feelings
of hostility to the agricultural interest.

Mr. J. Howard (Bedfor.i) said, although he frequently at-
tended the meetings of the Club, he seldom took part in the dis-
cussions, the subjects being generally of a purely agricultural cha-
racter ; but he thought that on a question of this kind those who
were cnijoged iu pi actic&l agriculture might fairly look for assist-
ance from those who were in a different position. The whole
country, in fact, was deeply interested iu arterial drainage. The
health of the entire district comprised in the valley of the
Ou3e had bepu very seriously affected by the damming-up of
that river. Far be it from him to advocate iujustice to the
ownera and occupiers of mdls on that river; and he thought
that if the suggestions of Mr. Clarke were carried out,
such persons ought to be dealt with iu a liberal spirit
(Hear, hear). Mr. Clarke had alluded to the injury doiie
by main drains, and parish drains or ditches, and he could
corroborate what fell from him on that subject. Up to
about eight years ago, the village of Cople, near to where
he resided, was Bcarcely ever free from typhus fever. At
that period the Duke of Bedford cut a new ditch to drain
a portion of the parish, and since then there had been
only one case of fever. He thought, therefore, that great im^
provement might be made iu the watercourses of various
parishes. He had himself witnessed the damage done to some
of the low-lying parts of his district by the overflowing of the
main ditches ; and he particularly remembered that, two or
three years ago, the young wheats were flooded two or three
times before Christmas. There might be great difficulty in
carrying out the improvements which Mr, Clarke advocated;

but of this he felt quite certain, that if the work were left to
the localities themselves it would never be effected (Hear,
hear).

Mr. Owen Wallis (Overstone Grange, Northampton)
said no one present could be more sensible than he was of the
utility of arterial drainage when properly conducted. There
could be no doubt that a great deal of laud suffered very ma-
terially for want of sufficient outfall, particularly land which
lay immediately above the water-level of the large streams.
But if drainage was to be effected at the cost that had been
incurred in the valley of the Nene, of which he was unfor-
tunately a native and a resident, it had better be let alone.
There hundreds of thousands had been expended, hundreds of
thousands more would have to be expended, and he believed
there was not a proprietor in the valley who was sanguine enough
to expect ever to receive one shilling for his pound. He did not
mean to say that the work had been improperly begun ; he knew
many of the gentlemen with whom the scheme originated, and
they were undoubtedly men of the highest character, actuated
by a desire to do good to the valley ; but a great mistake had
certainly been made, and he hoped it would be a lesson in all
future draining opftrations. Mistakes of that kind did
more to retard the work of drainage generally than any preju-
dice which had to be overcome. It was doubtful whether
many cases the draining of flooded land was so beneficial as
some persons supposed. He had occupied land which had been
only partially flooded, undoubtedly to its iujary ; but adjoining
laud that was deeply flooded had received great benefit : and
he knew other occupiers of land on the Nene, who feared that
if drainage were carried out to the extent proposed, the best
description of meaduw-land would be materially injured by the
process. The great source of injury along the borders of the
various streams was unquestionably the mills. They held up
the water ; and whenever there was an opportunity of raising
the weirs, it was seized, and thus the evil was increased.
There was, indeed, a law to protect thf)se who were injured in
that way; but the process was so disagreeable, that hardly
any one had recourse to it. In his own district there was a
fall of something like 160 feet between Wisbeach and North-
ampton, and yet they were paying an enormous sum for an
outfall.

Mr. C. E. Amos, (Consulting Engineer of the Royal_ Agri-
cultural Society,) said : Being a native of Lincolnshire, he
had had frequent opportunities of noticing the outfalls of
the rivers in that part of the country. It was quite clear
that a great evil existed, but it was not so clear what was
the remedy. It would not be sufficient to overturn the
mills, because the present outfalls would not take away the
water, acd the expense of getting proper outfalls \yould be
too heavy to be borne by the district which received the
immediate benefit. The first requisites were to increase the
area, and to deepen and straighten the outfalls. But it
was impossible for the agricultural interest to bear a heavier
impost than it was doing already ; and if drainage was to
be carried out eftectually, it must be dealt with in a com-
prehensive manner.

Mr. Clap.ke, in replying, observed that lie gathered
from what had fallen from the'difi"erent speeches that it
was the general opinion that the question was not yet suf-
ficiently ripe for any active step towards securing legislation,
but he should be happy to do anything in his power for the
diffusion of information. In illustration of the advantages
derivable from a general drainage Act, he stated that from
a return issued recently by the Inclosure Commissioners he
found that the total cost of proceedings in twenty-two cases
of enclosure, embracing 6,000 acres of land, was £365,
showing an average of little more than £16. He hoped
that at no distant day they would be able to congratulate
each other on the attainment of a practical issue to that
discussion.

On the motion of Mr. Gray, seconded by Mr. Skelton, a
vote of thanks was awarded to Mr. Clarke for his paper ;
and on the motion of Mr. Howard, seconded by Mr.
Wiltsher, it was resolved,

" That the committee be requested to take into con-
sideration the question discussed that evening, at their next
monthly meeting."

The proceedings terminated with a vote of thanks to the
Chairman.

2GG

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

LIABILITIES OF FARMERS FOR RENT

IN CASE OF FIRE.

COURT OF QUEEN'S BENCH, Jan. 21.

LoFFT and others v. Dennis.

This important case came on for argument before the full
Court upon demurrer. Mr. Godfrey appeared for Mr. Capel
Loffc, of Bridge«ater, Somersetshire, barrister-at-law ; the
Rev. Th03. Setilewood Gleadowe, of Fodesley, Sliropshire,
clerk ; and the Rev. Frederick Elwes, of Wixoe Rectory, Hal-
stead, Essex, clerk, plaiutiffs ; and Mr. Puipson and Mr. Joseph
Kay appeared for the defendant, who is a faruier, residiug at
Wickeu, in Cambridgeshire. Mr. Jackson, Haverhill, attorney
for plaintiffs ; Mr. Cross, Ely, for defendant.

By the statement of the defendant's case it appeared that
defendant was tenant, under the plaintiffs, of a farm called
" Spinney Abbey," in the pariah of Wickeu, Cambridgeshire.
At the time when he entered into possession, there were the
usual farm buildiaga and conveniences ; no agreement was
made respecting insuring the buildings, but the lessors effected
an insurance, paid the annual premiums, and sometimes em-
ployed their tenant to pay the policy for them. Tne defen-
dant, knowing that the buildings were so insured, and not
being bound to insure, and believing that, if the buildings
were injured or destroyed by fire, the less' rs would be bound
to restore them, did not effect any other insurance upon the
premises. After the defendant had been in possession for
many years, the premises were destroyed by a fire, which took
place in June, 1856, and thereupon the plaintiffs applied to the
Royal Exchange Insurance Office, and received the full value
of the damages (about £1,000) which had been caused by the
fire. They refused, however, to rebuild the premises, or any
psrt of them ; and subsequently, when the rent became due,
they brought an action against the defendant for his rent,
making no reduction on account of the destruction of the farm
buildings. The defendant objected to pay, on the ground that
his landlords had received the value of the buildings, and re-
fused to restore them. These facts he stated in the form of
an equitable plea to the plaintiffs' declaration. The plaintiffs
objected by demur to these facta, as being no answer to their
claim.

It was contended for the defendant that the claim was a
most unrighteous one, and that there were many authorities
in the books to show that it could not be established. The
defendant relied on various cases decided, and particularly on
the case of Brown v. Quilter, 2 Ambler's Reports 619, in
which the ihen Lord Chancellor said : " The justice of the case
is clear, that a man should not pay rent for what he cannot
enjoy, and that occasioned by an accident which he did not
undertake to stand to. I am much surprised it should be
looked upon as so clear a thing that there should be no defence
to su^h an action at law, and that such a case should not be
considered as much an eviction as if it had been an eviction of
title, for the destruction of the house is the deatrnction of the
thing. When an action is brought for rent after the house is
burnt down- there is good ground of equity for an injunction
till the house is rebuilt." Defeudant's counsel further relied
on Lord St. Leonard's Handy Book, in the 15th letter of
which it is thus laid down : " If you (the landlord) have in-
sured, although not bound to do so, and received the money,
you cannot compel payment of the rent, if you decline to lay
out the money in rebuilding."

The counsel for the plaintiffs stated that there were pecu-
liar circumstances which led to the non-reinstatement of the
premises, and for which the defendant had himself alone to
blame. Immediately after the money was received from the
Insurance-office, the Rev. F. Elwes, one of the plaintiffs, went
to the farm witli his builder, to make arrangements for the
reinstating of the buildings ; but he withdrew when he found
that the defendant, who was only a yearly tenant, eet up a
claim to have a lease. By that claim he prevented his landlords
from accepting an offer to purchase the farm, which was after-
wards sold at a loss of £750. The defendant paid the rent for
three successive half years after the fire, without any claim to
a set-off ou the ground of the buildings not having been re-
stored. Tne farm was sold last summer, and it was not till
after the sale, when the defendant was called upon for the
half-year's rent to Lady-day (£235), that he laid claim to such
set-off, although, as a yearly tenant, he might have previously

quitted possession. But for his own obstinacy the premises
would have been reinstated soon after they were destroyed.
On the question of the legal right to recover the rent, plain-
tiff's counsel replied upon the case of Leeds v. Cheelham, 1
Simons' Reports 146, decided by Vice-Chancellor Sit John
Leach, which was opposed to the authorities cited in favour of
the defendant.

Lord Campbell said that by the law of Scotland, if premises
were burnt down, the tenant was relieved from the payment of
rent ; but by the law of England, if there was an absolute
covenant to pay rent, the covenant must be performed, though
the tenant derived no benefit from the premises. So also in
Scotland, where shootings were rented, and it turned out there
were no grouse, the payment of rent might be resisted. But,
by the law of England, it was no answer to an action for the
rent to say that the premises had been burnt down ; nor was
it any ground for the interference of a Court of Equity. It
was said the plaintiffs had insured, thon^ih they had not en-
tered into any covenant to do so, and had received the money.
It might be that they would act unhandsomely, if, under such
circumstances, they did not lay out the money in rebuilding,
and harshly, if they brought an action against the tenant for
the rent ; but that was not the equity which formed the
ground for the interference of a Couit of Equity. The case of
Leech v. Cheetham (1 Simons, 148) was an authority on that
point by a court of co-ordinate jurisdiction, and by it this
Court ought to be bound. If the defendant wished to over-
turn it, he must go to a Court of Error ; but he (Lord Camp-
bell) must say he entirely approved it. It made no difference
that the landlords had received the money, for they were not
bound to lay it out. His lordship added some strong expres-
sions in favour of Lord St. Leonard's Handy Book, and said
that if it were proposed to make it lav, he should support such
a proposal ; but at present it was only the opinion of a learned
judge, and the Court could not be governed by it, contrary to
a most solemn decision.

The other judges (Justices Wightman, Crompton, and Hill)
were of the same opinion, that the plea was uo answer to the
action. — Judgment for the plaintiffs.

STRENGTH OF FOOD.

When wheat is low, and meat is high, turn wheat into meat ;
And when wheat is high, sow more land with wheat,
Which will lower the price of the bread we eat.

Sir, — We now greatly require the agricultural chemist to
know the strength of wheat in feeding cattle, sheep, and
swine ; and if meat can be produced at less per lb. by wheat
than by cake, beans, i r barley, &c., &c., &c., it is highly
expedient and wise to use it. If a farmer means profit,
he ought to feed upon the cheapest food, and send it to the
dearest market when fed. Farmers ought to know the
strength of the food they feed nith, as well as the strength
of the manure they lay on their lands. Not knowing the
strength of each, they knotv not whether it is cheap
or dear. For the want of knowing chemistry in both, the
farmer works without a line or rule, which is monstrous in
the great age of discovery, and over the middle of the nine-
teenth century. Whilst agricultural chemistry is in its in-
fancy, agriculture will keep in the cradle, and require lead-
ing strings as in the strength of food and artificial manures,
according to the Mark Lane Express and the Farmers'
Magazine and common senfe. If every kingdom or country
was to increase the growth of wheat per acre in proportion
to England, the human race upon the earth would not con-
sume the wheat grown yearly; it must, if used, be con-
verted into meat. Our gigantic improvements in agricul-
tural implements will find their way to all parts of the earth
to cultivate their land with ; and our great improvements in
agriculture, nay, in cattle, sheep, and sw-ine, will find their
way into far distant climes, all of which will produce an
immense quantity of food for man, so that the British far-
mers may prepare themselves for an increase of produce of
the land to compensate them for the diminution of price.
An abundance of corn in the market will make bread cheap,
and a low price of corn will soon cheapen meat.

Samuel Arnsby.

Mill/iehl, Pelerhorough, 1859.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

267

ARE THE FEATHERED TRIBES BENEFICIAL TO THE FARMER,

OR OTHERWISE?

At the Knighton Farmers' Club, Dr. Davia, of Knighton
read the following important paper : —

" Not being, I am sorry to aay, a practical farmer myself, I
have no observations of my own worth submitting to your no-
tice. Two or three agticuUural neighbours whom I have con-
sulted, and one devoted ornithologist, told me that the birds
moat injurious to the crops in this country are the rook and
sparrow. To the consideration of these, therefore, I have con-
fined myself. But the observations I have gathered may, as
you will see, apply to other tribes of birds ; and as regards
them, I have consulted the best authorities I could find. And
first, Mr, Yarrell, the writer on British birds, in his chapter on
rooks,says: 'The balance between injury or benefit derived from
rooks by the agriculturist is a question which general opinion
seems to have settled, by considering that the original injury
is much more than counterbalanced by the amount of benefit
conferred by the consumption of thousands of destructive
grubs of the common cockchafer, and of the wireworms of
several sorts. These, and probably many others equally in-
jurious to vegetation, are searched for aud devoured with
avidity, forming a very large proportion of the food of this
very numerous species of British birds. Early in the morning
rooks visit meadow-land, while the grass is yet wet with dew,
and break their fast on worms and slugs, which the moisture
of that period induces to crawl forth. Later in the day, they
may be seen either searching newly-ploughed ground for the
various insects there exposed, or again visiting pastures for
similar purposes. There they are accused of injuring the
grass by pulling it up by the roots : but it has been stated
and I believe truly, that this ia an error arising out of the fol-
lowing circumstance : In searching for grubs which are con-
cealed in the earth, and supported by eating the roots of the
grass, the rook pulls at the blade of grass with its bill ; and
when the grass comes up readily, the bird knows that there
are under it insects which have destroyed its roots, and in this
way detects them : but if the blade of grass is firm, the rook
goes to another part of the ground. In a field where grubs
are abundant, the rooks scatter the grass everywhere, so as to
give the appearance of having rooted it up, while they have
only exposed the depredations of the insects by which the
roots were destroyed.' The author of the ' Journal of a Natu-
ralist,' Mr. Knapp, speaking of the readiness with which rooks
detect the places where grubs are sure to be found, says : ' I
have often seen them alight on a pasture of uniform verdure,
and exhibiting no sensible appearance of withering or decay,
and immediately to commence stocking at the ground. And
the rooks seem to have learned by experience how to select
those plants which are most likely to afford them some recom-
pence for the trouble they take in grubbing them up.' Mr. Jesse,
in his instructive ' Gleanings,' says : ' A gentleman once
showed me a field which had the appearanca of having been
scorched, as if by the burning sun in dry weather. The turf
peeled from the ground as if it had been cut by a turfing
spade ; and we then discovered that the roots of the grass
had been eaten away by the larvae of the cockchafer, which
were found in countless numbers at various depths in the
soil. Tbe field was visited by a great quantity of
rooks, though there was no rookery within many miles of

the neighbourhood, who turned up and appeared to devour
the grubs with great satisfaction.' " To prove their utility on
other occasions, two or three quotations from the " Magazine
of Natural History" were given. " An extensive experiment
seems to have been made in some of the agricultural districts
on the continent, the result of which has been the opinion that
farmers do wrong in destroying rooks, jays, sparrows, and in-
deed birds in general, particularly where there are orchards.
In our own country, on some very large farms in Devonshire,
the proprietors determined a few summers ago to try the result
of offering a reward for the heads of rooks ; but the issue
proved destructive to the farms, for nearly the whole of the
crops failed for three successive years, and they have since been
obliged to import rooks and other birds to re-stock their farms
with. A similar experiment was made a few years ago in a
northern county, particularly in reference to the rooks, but with
no better success. The farmers were obliged to reinstate the
rooks to save their crops. In speaking of the continent, I
ought to have added that the Chamber of Deputies in France
lately passed an act to prohibit the destruction of birds in a
particular district. They had been recklessly killed ofl', and
the consequence was that the harvest was destroyed in a green
state by myriads of reapers in the form of hungry insects. A
well-authenticated historical fact is related by Mr. Waterton,
the venerable naturalist. The American colonists got it into
their heads (in New England Province) that the little crow
was a terrible destroyer of their crops, and a reward of 3d. a
dozen was offered for its destruction. The useful race of birds
was extirpated, but what followed? The insects, no longer
checked, caused the total loss of the grass ; aud in 1749 the
colonists were obliged to get hay from Pennsylvania, and even
from Great Britain. Then the inhabitants would willingly
have given twice as much to bring back the tribe of birds.
Other instances of a similar nature are on record. Books, also,
eat grain, and during the seed time the early-sown grain re-
quires to be watched to keep the rooks away. They will also
occasionally steal a few cherries and green walnuts, and in se-
vere weather peck holes in turnips or potatoes. There is rea-
son, however, to believe that the visits of rooks to turnips
are beneficial. Farmers have suffered great injury of late
years, particularly it appears in Hertfordshire and Essex, from
the attacks of the large brown grub, the larvse of a very com-
mon grey moth called the corn rustic (Agrostis segetmm of
entomologists), from four to seven of which I have known to
be found eating their way into the bulb of one turnip. These
the rook eats and keeps under, as it seems his province to
do. ' Whenever,' says Mr. Waterton, ' I see a flock of rooks
at work in a turnip field, which in dry weather is often the case,
I know that they have not assembled there to eat either the
turnips or the tops, but that they are employed in picking out
a grub, which has already made a lodgment in the turnip.'
In short, it appears, that after making the largest probable
allowance for their destruction of a portion of the crop of
which they preserve the rest, they are still the cheapest
labourers employed upon a farm. And it is a great mistake
to regard every creature as an enemy and rival that tastes
the food we make use of. We must not forget the sparrow,
our smaller enemy. Mr, Knapp, in the 'Journal of a

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Naturalist,' after describing the sparrow, says — ' I have
called them plunderers, and they are such ; they are bene-
factors likewise, seeming to be appointed by nature as one of
the agents for keeping from an undue increase another race of
creatures, and by their prolificacy they accomplish this. In
spring and the early part of the summer, before the corn
becomes ripe, they live on insects, and their constantly increas-
ing families require an increasing supply of food. We see
them every minute of the day in continual progress, flying from
the nest for a supply, and returning on rapid wing with a grub,
caterpillar, or some reptile, and the numbers captured by them
in the course of their travels are incredible, keeping under the
increase of these races, and making ample restitution for their
plunderiuga and thefts. When the insect races become scarce,
then the corn and seeds of various kinds are ready, their appe-
tite changes, and they feed on these with undiminished enjoy-
ment. As a proof that the produce of our corn-fields is not
the only food on which sparrows subsist, we may point to the
same tribe of birds in London, where thousands of them esist,
to whom corn must be little known. But a London sparrow
requires to be well cleaned before the true colour of his plumage
appears. If one of these begrimed soot-collectors be placed
near a bright trim sparrow from a barn door, it is difficult to
calculate that the rustic and citizen are birds of the same
feather. But it may be necessary to show that the evil to be
met is as great as has been represented ; that the ravages
of insects would, if unchecked by the birds, be of so serious
a nature. Let me observe then that the generation and
growth of swarms of insects is rapid, almost beyond credi-
bility. But we have proof of their prodigious increase. Take
the flesh-fly for instance. He is an indefatigable scavenger,
and it is well he is so. A small mass of decaying flesh sends
forth an intolerable stench, and if all the animal matter
which it casts upon were left to accumulate, it would not
only affect our senses but our health also, were it not for
the millions of busy beings whose business it is to clear
the putrifyiug mass away. The flesh-fly covers its nutri-
ment with millions of eggs. These eggs turn to maggots in a
couple of days. They increase their weight 200 fold in 24
hours, and their voracity is such, that Professor Owen states
that there is no exaggeration in the assertion made by Linneus,
that three flesh-flies would devour the carcase of a horse as
speedily as a lion would. Then these flies serve another office
in the economy of creation ; besides cleansing away putrid
iTiatter, they serve for the food of numberless birds. They feed

upon death ; and having sported their hour, find their end in
the stomach of the living bird. Mr. Rowell calculates that
but for this check flesh-flies would in six generations produce
flies sufficient to cover the whole earth to a considerable depth.
It is only lately that the habits of birds have been accurately
observed, for even the father of English natural history, Gil-
bert White, held mistaken notions about the small birds^ In
his • History of Selborne' he says, ' the willow wrens are
horrid pests in a garden, destroying the pears, cherries, cur-
rants, &c.' The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert says this sentence
of White's has been the cause of murder of these most inno-
cent little birds, which are in truth particularly the gardener's
friends. Many are under the impression that they make great
ravages among the cherries, yet I can assert that they never
taste the fruit. They peck the aphides, which are injurious to
the fruit trees. I have seen them pulling the leaves of the
cherry tree so near the fruit that any person might be deceived,
and think they were eating it, but they were actually pulling
the insects from the leaves. They feed on the lice, which seem
to have been intended by Providence as food for these little
soft-billed birds, the gold-crests, and many others. The ques-
tion for discussion does not call for a view of the subject on the
score of humanity ; nevertheless I would trespass one minute
longer to express my agreement with an anonymous writer of
the present day, that there is not one of the motives to cruelty
which operates so widely as unmixed wantonness without any
sort of object. Nothing is safe, provided it be small enough to
destroy, which approaches within reach of many people's hands
or feet. To see a living thing and desire to kill it, are with
them inseparable acts. Mr. Darwin tells us that on some of
the islands he landed on in the Pacific, the birds are so tame
they can be struck with a stick, and that the sailors, as they
wandered through the woods in search of tortoises, took a
wicked delight in knocking the poor confiding birds on the
head and leaving them to rot. ' Assuredly,' says the writer I
spoke of, ' Providence has done nothing without an object ;
and is it to be supposed He contrived creatures who, like our-
selves, are fearfully and wonderfully made, and breathed into
them the breath of life, merely that we might beat out their
brains by random blows as we pass along ? Here is a won-
derful assemblage of animate nerves and blood-vessels, and di-
gestive organs, beyond even our power to comprehend, and
can it possibly be the end of their creation that \fe should
gnorantly crush them like a piece of dirt ?' "

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, AND THE PRIZE SYSTEM.

The principal implement makers, a few years ago, formed
themselves into a company, called " the Association of Agri-
cultural Engineers." It is from this body, we believe, that all
the organised opposition to money prizes has emanated. The
great majority of the exhibitors of implements at the Royal
Agricultural Society's shows subscribed their names to a
memorial, which was addressed to the Council, praying for an
abandonment of annual trials, and also for the abolition of all
money prizes. The Council very wisely divided the imple-
ments iito three classes — [the division is now extended to
four] — one of which was to be tried in each year, and they
still more wisely determined to retain the money prizes and
competitive trials. They, however, attended to many sugges-
tions as to the way in which these prizes should be adjudi-
cated, and these trials conducted. As the evils of the old

system have been very ably exposed by Mr. Howard and others,
it may not be uninteresting or unprofitable to glance at some
of the chief objections which are still urged against implement
trials in gf.neral, and the Royal Agricultural Society's prizes
in particular.

By way of preface, we would observe that all this hostility
to money prizes comes almost exclusively from those engaged
in the implement trade. No doubt prizes are bothering
things ; they satisfy only one maker, while they disappoint
dozens. The man who secures the second prize thinks he
should have had the first, and all the rest of the defeated aspi-
rants consider they should have had some share of the spoil,
or some word of commendation. The fortunate winner is not
exactly a happy man ; he is always dreading the defeat that
may await him next year by some competitor improving his

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269

machine, and catching a wrinkle or two from his success. So bis
laurels sit uneasily, lest they should be soon snatched from him.

There is no good in looking back 12 or 15 years, to rake up
every mistake that implement judges have made, or to criticise
the hurried and imperfect trials which were then common^
The subject in those days was not well understood, and cf
course errors of all sorts have occurred. But we will confine
our remarks to what has taken place during the last four or
five years, and while we readily admit that the system as now
adopted by the Royal Agricultural Society is by no means
perfect, and is capable of still further improvements, we think
we shall show that the prize system has, during that period,
been of very great service to the farmers of England,

One of the chief accusations against the prize system is, that
it creates an " unhealthy mania for somethiag new" — " a
straining for novelty, and a restless desire for change." If, as
some manufacturers assert, many implements are perfect, of
course it is useless to try to improve them ; but where is that
agricultural machine to which we can point and say, it is ia
every respect perfect ? We might single out the Banbury
turnip-cutter. This very excellent machine has been but
slightly improved since it was first introduced, and has, when
competing as a slicer of rooti for sheep, stood unrivalled.
Then let it take its prizes and wear its medals till snother and
better machine can be produced ; and should that day ever
come, the farmers will at once know it from the trials of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and will buy the improved ma-
chine as readily as they have patronized Mr. Gardner's useful
invention. But it by no means follows that because an imple-
ment is altered, that therefore it is improved; nay, more, the
general result is, that if the original be very good, the second
edition does not answer. " Let well alone" is a first-rate
maxim, even in prize implements, for alterations too often in-
crease complexity, while nothing so delights the eye of a prac-
tical judge as simplicity. No doubt there are all sorts of
dodges to secure prizes, and catch the public gaze, which gloats
over any novelty ; but they will not go down with the plain
farmer-judge, though they may be extolled and brought into
notice, as something really very clever, by a learned theoretical
steward. However, we can confidently assert that during the
last four years no one can mention a single prize implement at
any of the great shows that is not well adapted for the
every-day purposes of the farm, nor point out a novelty which
has received a certificate of merit that ia not a useful and meri-
torious invention. If there be any fault now, we think it is
that the judges are rather too cautious in praising a new im-
plement, and seem inclined to give it a timid commendation,
rather than a gold medal or special prize. One great object
of prizes is to direct the farmers' attention to the best machine
and implement of its class; and surely Howard's ploughs and
harrows, Coleman's scarifier, Garrett's and Hornsbj's drills,
Clayton and Shuttleworth's thrashing machines, Tuxford's
portable and Barrett's fixed engines, are the best of their
class, though there may be others that have received com-
mendations, which, of course, are very good and very useful
machines.

But, say the opponents of the prizes, these awards have been
given 80 hurriedly that there has been no^.time to really prove
the capabilities^or find out the defects of. the machines. These
remarks do not applynow. The trials, which formerly occu-
pied three or four days for all the implements, were last year
extended over eight days for only one-third of the former num-
ber. And surely a jury, formed of some"of the best practical
farmers this kingdom can produce, aided by excellent engineers
and men of sound science, with all the appliaacea and means to
boot for proving and testing machinery, must find out the i

merits of a machine with greater exactness than any one can
hope to do among the bustle of the show-yard, or from the
laudatory remarks of the maker. Persons unacquainted with
the trials of implements at the Royal Agricultural Society's
shows have but a slight idea of the exacting tests that are
applied. There is the steam break, the gauge, the dynamo-
meter, and what not ; so that, in awarding prizes to implements,
the judges have not much chance of following their own fancy,
as they cannot disregard the demonstration of these tests. Of
course, simplicity, cheapness, durability, good workmanship,
and the like, come in for their share of reward ; but all these
qualities are more easily reduced to a certain rule than the
points of a cow or the form of a horse. However, if a wrong
award is made about cattle, the people only fancy there is a
mistake, and the matter is not long remembered ; but if an
error is made in an implement prize, it is proved to be wrong,
and the mistake is hardly ever forgotten.

It is contended that other branches of national industry
flourish and increase without the aid of this " artificial stimu-
lus." But at all shows and exhibitions there are prizes, or
medals, or certificates, or honourable mentions, or some hono-
rary reward. Government, if it require a design for a monu-
ment, or a plan for public ofiices, offers a temptmg prize.
Now, we can see no sort of good that would result from sub-
stituting certificates for money prizes for agricultural imple-
ments. What harm does the cash do? The great makers,
the chief leaders of the opposition, do not want a £10 or £20
prize ; but to the smaller men such a sum does not prove
altogether unacceptable. The old argument, that too great a
distinction is made between two nearly equal implements,
when one has the prize and the other is merely commended,
has lost much of its force. When there was a certain fixed
money prize offered for, say, the best harrow, the jadges could
not divide the prize, but had to give it all to that which they
thought the very best. But now that there are £15 or £20
to distribute among the class of harrows, the judges have
bracketed two implements for the first or second prizes, and
have sometimes even divided the sum pretty equally among
two or three of the best makers.

To expose the inefficiency of the prize system, the conflict-
ing awards about the reapino machines are constantly quoted.
Now these awards were made by one set of judges, and it is
not often that men like to contradict themselves, so we may
suppose they had good reasons for reversing their decisions.
It happened thit the best machine in 1855 wss not the best
in 1856, jet the 1855 machine was so improved by 1857, that
it again bore off the first prize, and will certainly hold that
superior position until the other machine makes another step
towards perfection, or a better one is invented.

Then, manufacturers complain of the expense of these com-
petitive trials, and aay that the farmers are the sufferers, as they
eventually pay for all this. Of course they do ; and so they
do for all the expenses the exhibitors are at ; for all the time
spent by masters and men at these shows — for all the cost of
transit — for every grand letter of the emblazoned name — for
every woid of the stupendous catalogue — for every dab of that
soft blue paint, and every drop of that brilliant varnish. But
what really is the extra coat of the trials over and above the
ordinary expenses of exhibiting implements? The Society
find horses, coals, corn, straw, and every material for the trials ;
all that the exhibitor has to do is to furnish hands, and these
would most likely be wanted for the arranging and selling the
articles at the stand. We remember, at Chelmsford, where
there was no prize offered for steam engines, that one celebrated
firm built up a large brick chimney, to show off their fixed
engine. Now what was the cost of that chimney, compared

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

with the cost to those mauufacturera of the Society's trials at
Chester last year ?

Again — cau we, iu cheaper implements, gather any fruits
from triennial instead of annual trials ? Mr. Howard has not
entered the lists with his matchless ploughs for three years.
He tells UB that the coat of these trials is paid by the pur-

chasers of his ploughs " by an extra per-centage." Has he
reduced his price one shilling now that he has escaped this
expensive ordeal for three years, and everything is cheaper now
than it was then ? At any rate, we hope he will not make us
pay any more after he has passed through the dreaded Warwick
trials next Ju\y.— Oxford Journal.

SALE OF CORN BY "THE CENTAL."

It is only a winter or two since, that the grave men
of Liverpool, by way of a little agreeable relaxation,
took to snowballing each other. They entered, indeed,
with so much energy into the amusement, that from
playing they very nearly came to fighting ; and, if we
recollect aright, the police had ultimately to interfere.
Unfortunately for either children of alarger or a smaller
growth, we have had no winter this year, and hence
the staid merchants of that thriving city have had to
look about fbr some other as congenial a pastime.
They have been not very long in finding it, and are just
now in the midst of some such another civil war. This
would threaten, however, to be a more serious matter.
In place of the yielding melting snow, the good people
of Liverpool have laid their hands on far more massive
missiles. They are pelting one another now with
weights and measures, and throwing bushel-baskets
and dangerous centals straight at each other's heads.
Business of course is necessarily interfered with, and
the dispute is said to be daily becoming more personal
and belligerent. Authorities have declared that, in a
row, a man may do a deal of mischief with so simple a
weapon as a pewter pot. A sharp. edged, well capped
bushel-measure, or a nicely poised hundred-pound-
weight, might be even still more efiective; and it is
really time to look out. Let the skirmish only get a
little hotter, and we shall have the police driven back,
the military sent for, and the Riot-Act read.

The difference began iu this wise :— For some time past
both the buyers and sellers of corn have almost every-
where been insisting upon the necessity of some uni-
formity of weight or measure. So far, it would have
been impossible to have had people more unanimous.
But in the detail, however, of how this is to be arrived
at they are seldom so readily inclined to agree. In fact
they rather agree only to differ. There is scarcely a
speaker at a meeting, the writer of a letter to a news-
paper, or a person you get into conversation with, on
the subject, but has some pet plan of his own. In that
memorable discussion at the Central Farmer' Club
but a year since, upon this very question, most of
the members who voted either with Mr. Waliis
or Mr. Skelton, still did so under a kind of pro-
test. Every one had something to propose he fancied a
little better ; and had the Chairman only been willing,
he might have gone on putting resolutions the whole
night through. Then one local meeting suggests this
infallible system of uniformity, and another is equally
urgent as to the merit of something diametrically op-
posite. Iu the meanwhile the Government looks on
complacently enough. It will wait of course until

these good folks have quite settled amongst themselves
what they do want, and then it will be time enough to
talk to them.

In this dilemma the merchants of Liverpool have
come to the rescue. They have voted themselves judge,
jury and arbitrators, and kindly consented to decide the
point. With the simplicity of true genius, they
have unravelled this Gordian knot by one straight cut
at it. Weight is preferable ] and, after the 1st of
February, we buy and sell by w'eight only. We call this
weight the Cental, and we hereby command all other
markets to adopt it. Naturally influenced by so high an
authority, other places at once succumb. Glasgow calls
a meeting, and is declared unanimous. Hull does some-
thing of the same sort, and it straightway gets abroad
that all the great towns are in favour of the cental system.
" Only look," as people say, "how well it is working
in Liverpool !" And, when we do look, it is nothing
but the old story over again. The Cental even here,
inthe land of its birth, has quite as bitter enemies
as it numbers warm friends. The merchants of
Liverpool, who forwarded us their decree are now for-
mally protested against as not representing the mer-
chants of Liverpool, and their proceeding is said to be
"merely the work of a few individuals, some of them
not connected with the trade at all." In a word, from
the letters we have lately received it would appear to
be but another reading of the Three Tailors of Tooley-
street, Glasgow, too, has revolted ; and Hull already
"gives the new weight the slip." All this, however, is
scarcely more than could have been expected, when we
find the law-givers have no power over their own
subjects.

On first hearing of this movement, we still pointed
to the Government as the only proper quarter
from which any such step should emanate. " It
is very evident," we then wrote, " something
' official' must be done, otherwise we shall have other
great markets rooting up all custom, and, like Liver-
pool, making laws for themselves. It can scarcely be
expected that they will quite agree as to the best sys-
tem, and so with a new method here and another there,
we shall have ' confusion worse confounded.' It is high
time for the Government to interfere. " We can really
do no better than repeat this. What we so clearly antici-
pated has already come to pass, and taking Liverpool
itself as the example, we have "confusion worse con-
founded." Even admitting the right or policy of any
private body of men attempting to make laws for the
whole country, we should question very much whether
the best plan has been here hit upon. There could cer-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

271

tainly be none with which the general body of buyers and
sellers were less familiar. However good the decimal
system may turn out to be, it was hardly prudent to
commence it on so vexed a question as the buying and
selling of corn — a branch of trade that it has been,
perhaps, less associated with than any other. We are
strongly inclined to trace this resolution back to some
enthusiastic student of the currency question — an
intricate business, that has led to more wild talk, if not
work, than almost anything else to which a man could
devote himself. But if we are to give our "ten-
pennies" for hundred pound weights, the country, we
fear, will require something far more unanimous than
this edict of the Liverpool Association to enforce such
an alteration in our habits and customs.

A series of letters received on this subject, are
all noticeable as arguing the same way. The first
of these, from a Liverpool merchant, describes the
present state of things there, as brought about by
the recent resolution: — "In this market, sellers and
buyers are now, to a great extent, in hostile array
on the subject. One will sell by the Cental only ;
another is equally firm in refusing to buy, except by
the former weight. Declarations and counter-declara-
tions have been signed and published ; and each party,
as usual in such cases, claims the preponderance in in-
fluence and importance for the subscribers of its mani-
festo. The struggle seems to wax hotter daily, to the
great interruption of business, and almost approaches,
if it has not in some cases reached, personal hostility.
Nothing can show more strongly than this the necessity
for legislation ; and, indeed, it must appear to your
readers extraordinary that so many of the leading corn
merchants of the large and influential port of Liver-
pool should have shown so little practical knowledge of
the world as to attempt the important step of chang-
ing, not only the long-established customs, but the set-
tled and legalized practices of the country, without all
the assistance which it is in the power of an Act of
Parliament to afford."

Then Mr. Moss, writing from Manchester, says — " I
believe there would not be more than one in every ten
of the corn trade in this city in favour of the new
scheme. I myself think it a bad one, inasmuch as it is
impossible to get a test of quality in any other way than
by measure ; therefore the measure cannot be aban-
doned." And for a third, a whole army of merchants
and factors from Liverpool, enter a formal protest
against sale by the Cental ! We have already in-
timated that Glasgow has recanted, and other towns
more quietly withdrawn from the new scheme to which
they had momentarily committed their markets.

There is but one inference to be drawn from all this.
Everything tends to show how desirable it is that
Government should at once take up the question.
Any honourable member who would devote himself to
its consideration might do a great public service, as
well as earn for himself some merited popularity. It
might, perhaps, be as well, in the first place, to ask for
a Committee, although the only advantage of this would
be to test one man's experience and opinions by those

of another, and so to arrive at the most feasible plan.
We repeat that it would be hopeless to comrt on any-
thing like unanimity from the witnesses called. But the
country generally is so sick of the present systemless
system, and consequently so far ripe for a change,
that almost any uniformity that came out under the
sanction of the Government would be certain of wel-
come and respect — even were it simply the better to
maintain the use of the imperial bushel. With the
Country Party in office we should hardly be driven to
Liverpool for legislation.

HOMOEOPATHIC TREATMENT OF BLACK-
LEG IN CATTLE.

Sir, — As no cure appears yet found for this disorder in
cattle, I am induced to send the following account of treat-
ing a case, which, if not blackleg, was very like it. Tea
years ago I had five or six cases, which being treated by a
cow-doctor, all died ; since then I have been free from it
until last June, when one of my yearling steers was found
in the morning very lame and otf its feed ; one hock was
swollen, and the stockman pronounced it blackleg. At
10 a.m., when I first saw it, the disease had made rapid
progress ; the swelling was extending rapidly upwards ;
the skin over the part chiefly affected had, when touched,
a peculiar crackUng sensation, like parchment ; one knee
was also a little filled ; the animal could scarcely stand, and
lay down again immediately it was left alone ; the eyes were
staring ; respiration quick and interrupted, and the muzzle
with that peculiar grin which animals have when in pain.

I gave it immediately aconite (3rd dilution) 2 drops, in
an ounce of water, and in an hour's time repeated the dose ;
an hour after the second dose, bryonia (3rd dilution) 2
drops, also in water, and then continued aconite every 2
hours until night, when about 10 o'clock another dose of
bryonia was given. Towards evening the animal became
much easier, and towards 7 o'clock got up of its own accord,
and ate a little mash and hay. The next day it was much
better; and in about 10 days was turned out again quite
well, as it has continued ever since. The second and third
days he had aconite at 6 and. 1 1 a.m. and 4 p.m., and bry-
onia at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. ; after that 2 drops sulphur to a
dose, morning and evening for 3 days, then only every
morning for 4 more days. The remedies are so inexpensive
that they are worth trying by any person whose cattle are
afflicted with this disorder.

The medicines bryonia and aconite of the 3rd dilution
and sulphur of the 6th are to he procured from any homoso-
pathic chemist, in bottles of tincture Is. each ; so for 3s.
the experiment may be tried, and if it fails we shall only
be where we were before. A medical man recommended
me to substitute arsenicum, 5th dilution, instead of bryonia,
should I not be successful in other cases.

I should say that in the above case the animal recovered
so rapidly, that had it not been for the skin adhering to the
first rib for 8 or 9 days, I should have thought the swelling
might have arisen from some injury such as a sting.

I enclose my address, which may be had by applying to
the editor of the paper. Should any readers of the Mark
Lane Express try the above remedies, they will confer a
great benefit to the proprietors of animal, if they will kindly
send the result of their treatment to your paper.

Dec. 28, 1858.

273

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE.

Sow oats and barley on dry lauds, and during dry
weather; also Spring wheat, vetches, peas, beans,
and flax-seed. Sow lucerne on well-prepared laud,
trenched, or very deeply ploughed, and richly-dunged.
Sow carrots and parsnips —best on good warm sandy
loams, in good condition from previous usage, with-
out the present application of fresh manure, or
applied in Autumn, and ploughed underground.
Steep the seeds in leys of urine, and dry them with
lime. Sow sainfoin, and dress the young plants with
gypsum. Apply artificial manures as top-dressiugs
on young wheats, barleys, and clovers — soot and
salt, malt-combs, rapedust, nitrate of soda, pigeons'
dung, and gypsum. Sow cabbage- seeds for Summer-
plants ; and lay composts on grass lauds.

Plant hops in hills six feet distant each way : use
well-rotted dung, and place four sets in each bill —
one in each corner, and cover lightly with earth,
leaving the upper end of the set just in light of day.

Continue the planting of forest trees, and of
young hedges ; but cease if dry weather sets-iu.
The cutting of underwoods will now be finislied.

Watered meadows may now be stocked with light
animals. Set traps for vermin ; and spread mole-
hills.

Plough fallows for green crops, and clay lands for
bare fallows, if the weather be dry. Shut-up the
fields that are intended for hay ; and finish laying
composts on grass lands. During wet weather thrash
grains, and carry dung from the cattle yards to the
heaps in the fields.

In some, or rather in many, situations this month
will be the busiest with ewes dropping lambs. Feed
amply with juicy succulent food, as beet, cabbages,
and turnips ; and use the necessary shelter, which, in
many situations, is as necessary as food itself. The
shclter-slieds must be littered frequently, to keep
them dry — best with chaff or short straws. Pemove
the ewes and lambs to the pasture-fields from the
lambing-paddocks, regularly, as the lambs get strong.

Keep the poultry-houses dry and warm, and set
all kinds of eggs for hatching : feed amply, and pro-
vide clear spring water.

Finish the killing of hogs for bacon ; and keep all
young pigs for Summer stores, and for early feeding
next Winter. The latest fattening bullocks must
now be sold, or pushed forward by superior feeding.
The long days will now requii'e a greater supply of
food, as daylight always induces animals to eat
more.

CALENDAR OF GARDENING.

March is the month of business, and every favour-
able moment must be seized, because the varied
character of the weather is not only likely to per-
plex, but it frequently happens that drought sets-in,
for the Spring, about the third week, and then it
will be too late to hope for the success of many of
the lighter seeds. Begin, therefore, early to dig,
manure, and sow plots for the main crops of peas,
beans, and all the summier vegetables, remembering
that carrots require pure and very sandy loam,
without interspersed manure; that beet and parsnips
do well on stronger land, but require the dung to be
placed low in the ground.

The soil should be rich for cabbages, Brussels
sprouts, broccoli, cauliflowers, and kailes. Cauliflow-
ers must have very rich ground, with much manure
lying in the trenches below the roots. Guano-water
is an excellent liquid manure for them.

Transplant and sow for Summer-hearting cabbage.
Sow some Dutch seed of red cabbage, and green-
curled savoy, for Michaelmas.

Sow the best French lettuce seeds, round spinach,
and repeat this, in small quantity, every three weeks
henceforth : in the meanwhile, the Winter prickly-
spmach will yield freely for some months, if the
weather prove showery.

The true Spanish onions for large bulbs, and the
Strasburg for more common kitchen use, should be
sown early, in deep and rich ground. Leeks are
sown to be transplanted.

To produce good radishes, the ground must be
nght aaid rich, with moisture and warmth sufficient
to push them on rapidly— a frame and lights are al-

ways advantageous. A sprinkling of Dutch turnip;
a little celery for succession. Small salading, nas-
turtiums for pickle, parsley, basil, and pot-herbs,
namely, fennel, dill, borage, burnet, sorrel, are to be
sown during the month.

Plant mint, thyme, sage, marjoram, lavender, rose-
mary, and rue.

Get in early potatoes; none surpass the ash-leaved
kidneys; the second early, as the Champion, pro-
lific, and others that ripen in August ; aud, avoiding
manure, select or prepare peaty or sandy ground, if
possibla. The disease prevails less on poor dry soils
than on richer grounds ; thence the mildew may con-
stitute a cause of the disease.

FRUITS.

Prune fruit trees and currant bushes ; mulch the
roots, and prepare the Summer- gro'nih. Dig the
ground between the rows, and cover with compost
of leafy dung. Do the same round the rhubarb
plants.

FLOWERS.

Sow hardy annuals after the middle of the month,
as pinks — including the Indian kind — larkspur", and
mignonette : the half-hardy are raised in frames.
Herbaceous plants may be set or divided, and put
into new situations.

Cut box ; plant edgings ; turn over gravel, or put
down fresh ; sweep lawns ; and keep all things in a
neat clean order.

Have a pit, bricked or cemented, to receive all
vegetable refuse, straws and horse-droppings — baled
over by liquids and soap-suds from the kitchen. A
good manure may be got by careful collecting.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

273

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
FEBRUARY.

The continuance of remarkably fine weather has had a bene-
ficial influence upon agriculture generally. In all parta of
England outdoor farm labours are very forward; and the
almost continuous light showers of rain have produced a
more abundant supply of water, the scarcity of which had long
been felt, especially in the midland counties. As regards the
general appearance of the young wheat plants, we may ob-
serve that it is favourable, notwithstanding that in many coun-
ties the plants stand in need of frost to keep them in check.
As yet, however, it has not been found necessary to eat them
down to protect the crop.

The wheat trade has continued in a very unsatisfactory
state. Consumption is progressing steadily; nevertheleas
prices have shown a disposition to give way, arising in some
measure from the total want of speculation, but chiefly from
heavy stocks in the hands of the home-growers, and the
prospect of extensive importations from France as the year
progresses. At present there are no indications of an im-
provement either in the demand or value ; and, as far as our
judgment carries us, there is no chance of high quotations
during the whole of the year in the event of our crop turning
out a fair average one. Potatoes and rice — two important
articles of consumption— are still competing with wheat, at
low prices ; and there is no disposition on the part of the
millers to purchase wheat beyond immediate wants. Although
some extensive supplies of barley have come in from abroad,
the demand for that grain has continued steady, at full cur-
rencies. Fine malting samples have been very scarce ; conse-
quently they are selling at comparatively high rates. Oats,
beans, and peas have varied but little in price, and the de-
mand for them has ruled steady.

Our leading cattle markets have been but moderately sup-
plied with fat stock, in which a steady business has been
transacted, at slightly improved rates. The slaughtering of
stock for London consumption in Scotland and elsewhere is
still carried on extensively.

Owing chiefly to the unfavourable state of the political
horizon on the continent, the wool trade has been much less
active, and in some cases prices have been with difficulty sup-
ported ; however, the trade may be considered in a healthy
state. The public sales now in progress will to some extent
regulate the value of wool for some time. The new clip is
turning out extremely well ; but the stocks in the hands of
the flock masters are nearly all worked up, and we see no
reason to anticipate large importations during the year either
from abroad or our colonies. The quantity of wool now in
London is about 34,000 bales.

There has been a moderate, but by no means active, demand
for hay and straw, the prices of which have ruled about sta-
tionary. Meadow hay has changed hands at £2 15s. to £4
lOs., clover ditto £3 10s. to £5 5s., and straw £1 43. to £1
9s. per load. Full average quantities of meadow hay are still
in stack, and the export demand has almost wholly ceased.

The root crops are lasting better than was at one time an-
ticipated ; yet the demand for linseed, rapeseed, and cakes
has been rather extensive, at very full prices. Present quota-
tions appear safe, when we bear in mind that the importations
of linseed from our coloniea, as well aa from Russia, are not

likely to be in excess of last year, during which the anirals

were very moderate.

Great inactivity has prevailed in the demand for wheat,
maize, and some other articles, in Ireland. In prices, how-
ever, very little change has taken place. Oats have ruled a
shade lower ; and we may further remark that the shipments
of grain, &c., to England have continued on a very moderate
scale, even for the time of year. The exports of stock, how-
ever, have been seasonably good.

Neatly the whole of the Scotch markets have been steady
for fine wheat, barley, and oats. Meal, too, has been rather
firm in price ; but other articles have commanded very little
attention. The exports to the South have continued liberal ;
and we understand that farmers still hold more than an ave-
rage supply of wheat, inferior barley, and oats.

The total stocks of foreign grain and flour in warehouse in
the United Kingdom are estimated at 1,400,000 qrs. ; a
quantity sufficiently large to exercise much influence upon
value, although very limited importations are anticipated this
year from the United States.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING
THE PAST MONTH.

Compared with many previous corresponding periods of the
year, the supplies of fat stock on offer in the Metropolitan
Cattle Market, during the month just concluded, have been only
moderate ; and as regards the beasts, in but middling condi-
tion. Nearly aU kinds of sheep, however, have appeared of
full average quality ; consequently, the actual weight of mutton
disposed of has rather increased than otherwise. Notwith-
standing that very large supplies of meat, slaughtered in Scot-
land and various parts of England, have been received up to
Newgate and Leadenhall, the demand for stock has continued
steady, and in some instances prices have had an upward ten-
dency. The high value of hides, skins, wool, and offals, in
various distant parts of England, has no doubt checked arri-
vals of live stock ; but, on the other hand, it has induced
many parties to slaughter for consumption in the metropolis.
The quantity of meat now daily consumed in London is fully
equal to, perhaps considerably in excess of, most previous sea-
sons, and our impression is that it will continue very large for
some time, as trade and commerce continue to flourish, and as
our artizans almost generally are well employed. Increased
consumption cannot fail to have considerable influence upon
prices, and apparently those now ruling may be taken as the
standard for the greater portion of the present year. If we
were in a position to believe the whole of the reports which
have come to hand to the effect that a great scarcity of stock
exists in nearly all parts of the United Kingdom, higher quo-
tations, even with open ports, might be anticipated ; but such
a conclusion might lead to erroneous calculations on the part
of the breeders and graziers : consequently, losses might result
from our taking too sanguine a view of the trade. Higher
quotations would, in the ordinary course of things, lead to in-
creased importations from Holland and Germany, which from
their increased weight — we here refer more particularly to
sheep, which of late years have undergone the usual process
of crossing with our beat native breeds— may eventually have
a greater effect upon prices than appears to be generally

274

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

imagined. Not that we anticipate low prices from importa-
tions ; but we may fairly state that increased weight of meat
from abroad must keep in check extravagantly high rates here.
In our leading grazing districts the health of both beasts and
sheep continues good, and the losses by disease for some time
past have been comparatively trifling. The weather has con-
tinued remarkably fine for the time of year ; nevertheless, the
pastures generally exhibit a poor appearance.

The following return shows the numbers of stock exhibited
in the Metropolitan Market in the course of the month : —

Beasts 17,694 head.

Cows 499 ,,

Sheep 79,691 „

Calves 1,034 „

Pigs 2,557 „

_^ Comparison of Supplies.

Feb. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs.

1858 18,276 466 69,070 1,091 1.559

1857 17,629 457 74,430 1,172 1,975

1856 19,642 495 90,950 673 2,614

1855 17,436 385 91,180 596 2,705

1854 20,091 520 92,441 1,023 2,279

The arrivals of beasts from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and
Cambridgeshire, since we last wrote, have amounted to 10,500
Scots, short-horns, and crosses ; from other parts of England,
4,000 of various breeds; from Scotland, 1,826 Scots and
crosses ; and from Ireland, 120 oxen, &c.

Although stock is still dear in moat parts of the Continent,
the importations into London have been moderately exten-
sive, viz. : —

Beasts 1,630 head.

Sheep 5,124 „

Calves 1 ,055 „

Total

Same time in 1858 ,
1857
1856
1855

7,809
2,320
4,720
3,087
2,839

1854 10,683 „

1853 12,433 „

„ 1852 9,123 „

« 1851 11,828 „

Beef has sold at from 39. 2d. to 53. ; mutton, 3s. 6d. to
5s. 6d. ; veal, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 6d. ; and pork, 3s. to 4s. 2d. per
Bibs., to smk the offal. In February, 1858, beef realized 3s.
to 4s. 2d. ; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 58. 2d. ; veal, 4s. to 5s. ; pork,
3s. 2d. to 43. 6d. per 81bs.

A few lambs have made their appearance in the market, in
excellent condition. Shorn sheep have sold at 8d. per 81bs.
beneath those in the wool.

Up to Newgate and Leadenhall about 50,000 carcasses of
each kmd of meat have been received from distant parts,
chiefly by railway. On the whole, there has been a good con-
sumptive demand at full prices. Beef has changed hands at
from 3s. to 48. 6d. ; mutton, Ss. 2d. to 4s. 8d. ; veal, 3s 8d to
48. 8d.; pork, 23. 6d. to 4s. 2d. per 81bs. by the carcase.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE,
FAIRS, &c.

ASH BOURN FAIR.— There was but a small show of
cattle, and very few customers, .owing to other fairs falling
on the same day ; anything good, however, sold well. There
were a_ few fat sheep, which were easily disposed of, making
7d. to 7|d. per lb. But few horses, and sales flat. Mr. Tom-
linson, of Bradley Pastures, exhibited a most remarkable short-
horned bull, weighing one ton, which he had previously sold
for £32 lOs.

BANBURY FAIR.— There was a good supplv both o'
beef and mutton, which went off briskly. Beef fetched from
4s. 6d.to 48. Sd., and mutton a>)out 5s. per 8 lbs. on the aver-
age prices.

BATH FAIR.— The supply of poor stock was so extensive
r«„» %\"u^ / ^V^S- Prices were of the most extensive
^auge. iat beef and mutton were iu very short supply, and

the demand being of a very limited description prices were
quite nominal.

BEDA.LE FAIR.— We had a small show of all kinds of
stock, owing probably to Northallerton beast fair being held
the previous day. In-calvers and lean stock were high. Sales
were quickly made. Beef, 7s. to Ss. per 8 lbs. ; mutton, 6d.
to 7id.perlb.

BIDEFORD FAIR was far better supplied with stock than
it had been for years past. Cattle dealers drove in their cat-
tle in large herds, and the facilities which the rail offers
brought many buyers. Cows and calves, lOs. 6d. per score;
steers (two years old), £18 per pair; steers (three years old),
£23 per pair ; barreners, 7s. to 7s. 6d. per score ; hoggets,
268. to 303.; fat sheep, 6|d. to 7d. per lb.; couples, £2 28.
to £2 5s. The whole was in middling condition, and sold
freely.

CARLISLE HORSE FAIR could not be called a thin
one, as there was a number of good animals shown. The
market was not very brisk, yet a good deal of business was
done in the course of the day, and many horses were disposed
of at high prices. Among those shown we did not observe a
single hunter, carriage, or harness horse, there being only
three moderate blood horses, suitable for carrying a lady; we
may say the fair consisted of work horses. The prices for the
best horses were from 30?. to 50/., and those of inferior quality
from 15L to 25/. An eminent horse dealer from Glasgow,
having been in Cumberland for two or three weeks previous to
this (air, purchased 21 all-work horses, of the best quality, the
cost averaging nothing less than from 40/. to 50/. ; and one at
Carlisle, previous to baviug, 46/.

DORCHESTER FAIR.— The best beasts readily found
purchasers at from lis. 6d. to 13s. per score, while cows and
calves were anxiously inquired after, prices ranging from 10/.
to 16/. The sale of barreners was rather slack in consequence
of the high prices asked, which checked business, and rough
ones could scarcely find purchasers. In the horse fair there
were plenty of good animals adapted to agricultural purposes,
the best descriptions of which sold3at from 33/. to 40/., but
inferior were quite a drug. In pigs there was not much done,
and the supply chiefly consisted of such as were more fit for
the sty than the butcher.

EXETER FAIR.— There was a large supply of cattle.
Fat beef, 10s. to 10s. 6d. per score ; cows and calves, 12/. to
18/. ; barreners, 63. 6d. per score ; working oxen, 151. to 20/.
each ; and steers, 10/. to 15/.

KANTURK FAIR, Feb. 17.-(From our own corres-
pondent).—There was a very good attendance. The show
of horned cattle was only middling, and the prices being
low a good clearance was effected. Sheep and pigs were in
great quantities, and good prices were obtained. The fairs
held in this town are now becoming important, and no better
opportunity can be had of disposing of cattle to the numer-
ous farmers around this locality, where good breeds are much
wanted.

YORK FORTNIGHT MARKET.-Calving and dairy
cows were in about equal supply and demand, at prices steady
upon late markets. A moderate number of all kinds of
grazing beasts had good sale, at rates a little in favour of
sellers. Fat beasts and mutton sheep were in average supply
and demand. Beef 63. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per stone ; mutton S^d.
to 6id., and in rare instances 7d. per lb. Grazing hog sheep
were plentiful, and had good sale at 253. to 45s. per head, as
per breed, size, quality, and condition. A good supply of
pigs, which had fair demand. Pork pigs 6s. to 63. 3d. ; bacon
ditto 6s. per stone, including the head and feet. Pork hams
realized former prices.

IRISH FAIR. — Graigue (Carlow) was well supplied
with stock, and the demand for all descriptions was brisk ; in
fact, nothing left the fair unsold worth notice. Springers
brought from £12 to £18. Beef sold at £3 per cwt. ;
in one case a farmer refused £30 for a fat cow, and subse-
quently lost his market for this high figure. Store cattle
much in demand ; two year old heifers sold at from £6 to £9,
strippers £8 to £10, three-year old bullocks £9 to £1 1, calves'
£i to £5, Sheep scarce, and in request, and brought from
6. ^d. to 7d. on their legs. Mr. James Dowling sold a lot of
prime wedders at 478. per head, and a lot of six fat sold at £3
per cwt. Pigs sold from 42s. to 45s. per cwt., being about an
advance of 48. during the past week. Prices were generally
remunerative, stock rating high.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

275

REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The month of February has brought with it a
fair portion of rain, and lessened the anxieties that
were being entertained respecting the future ; but
a heavy arrear is yet due, and required to raise the
wells to their usual height as a security for the
summer months ; and should the fall be deferred
beyond April, much inconvenience must be felt —
should no positive injury result. But while the
rain has been deficient, the weather has been so
mild and the atmosphere so surcharged with
moisture as greatly to damage the condition of the
wheat thrashed, notwithstanding the fine state in
which it had been harvested ; and this circum-
stance happening at the time when a low and un-
remunerating range of prices has long prevailed
has proved quite a calamity to growers, as it has
deprived them of the common opportunity of
reahzing at will. Such, indeed, has been the de-
terioration of the samples offering on the London
markets, that some millers have for weeks together
abstained from purchasing; and others, to keep up
the quantity of their first-class flour, have been
paying 55s, to 58s. per qr. for fino Danzig descrip-
tions for mixing ; and these sorts are now in such
small compass, both here and in the places of
growth, that should the March winds fail in their
season, it will be difficult to maintain the high
quality of town manufacture. This state of things,
with heavy markets in France, has kept prices
from the expected rally on the turn of the year ;
but the current rates in the exporting countries
have been little favourable to business with this
country, and imports lately have been on a
diminished scale, with almost no winter in the
Baltic ; while American prices remain so much be-
yond our own, that shipments of flour from France
have commenced for New York and Canada, with
a very fair margin for profit. The state of politics
has not as yet influenced prices, and a pacific set-
tlement seeming more probable than recently, the
threatened storm may pass over ; but, with the
gigantic preparations made by France, Austria, and
other countries, should a spark light on the mate-
rials prepared, the waste and damage to countries
growing corn must soon seriously enhance the
value of all sorts of grain and^forage.

The deficiency of the fall of rain for the last two
years is a circumstance, too," that should not be
overlooked. Should this deficiency not be made
up, and only an average supply be forthcoming,

will this be sufficient under such circumstances ?
And should the fall of rain now due be added to an
average supply, may it not come too violently or
continuously to suit the corn ? And, on the other
hand, if another year's drought be commenced,
will not the crops be in jeopardy ? These consi-
derations, we think, should make holders pause
before they accept unremunerative rates ; but
where such an abundance has been reaped, as some
affirm, as to make present prices remunerative,
the case is altered, and the principle — " Sell and
repent," with something in your pocket, may still
hold good.

We annex a list of current prices in several
places of export : Choice 62 to 64 lbs. per bushel
red wheat at Louvain was worth 43s. to 44s. per
qr., it being of the same value at Antwerp ; new
white Belgian 6l to 62 lbs. per bushel, 42s.; 63 lbs.
red Mecklenburg wheat at Hambro' was up to 45s.
6d. free on board ; 61 to 62 lbs. Holstein, 42s. 6d.
to 44s. Fine wheat at Paris only brought 38s. per
qr., and flour 29s. per sack. Fine Polish at Am-
sterdam was quoted 51s. 6d. per qr. : at Berlin the
top quotation was 49s. per qr. The rates for the
best high-mixed at Danzig were 52s. per qr. free
on board, with little offering. Native wheat had
risen at Leghorn to 51s. 6d., but good useful
Marianopoli could be procured at 39s. to 43s. per
qr. Algiers was as high as 46s. for hard native
wheat. At Odessa, though business was calm,
Polish wheat was quoted 38s. 4d. ; and the best
Ghirka, 39s. 5d. per qr. Soft Ghirka at Taganrog
was worth 33s. 6d. ; but the prices at New York
for Western red were 46s. 8d. per 480 lbs., and
white Michigan 50s. per 480 lbs., which, at 62 lbs.
per bushel, equals 51s. 8d. per qr., while the top
price of Missouri flour was equal to 50s. per sack,
or 10s. above London quotations.

In the present four weeks' review we have in-
cluded the 31st of .January — it being on a Monday,
leaving out the last day of February, to be in time
for publication.

The first Monday in London commenced on a
fair supply of English and short one of foreign
wheat. The morning brought but a moderate show
of samples from Kent and Essex : those that were
dry went off readily at fully the former rates. The
sales in foreign were hmited, in consequence of the
demands of holders, and prices were rather in their
favour. Most of the country markets were well

376

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

supplied, with little change of value, and some
dulness from the quantity offering; but Hull,
Spalding, Norwich, and a few other localities were
occasionally dearer Is. per qr. Liverpool, at the
first market held on Tuesday, was also firm ; but
the following Friday was less business-like, though
not quoted cheaper, and the trade in town closed
heavily.

The second Monday's supply of foreign wheat
fit for milling was very small, and exclusively from
France ; but there was a fair quantity of home
growth. The near counties sent up but a moderate
show, with a great preponderance of parcels out of
condition. The few lots of really fine and dry went
off steadily at unaltered rates ; but the bulk being
rough and damp was not disposed of, though
lower prices would have been accepted. The same
want of condition being the general complaint in
the country, many places— as Manchester, Bir-
mingham, and Wolverhampton — were very dull,
while Newcastle, Derby, Lincoln, Leicester, and
Nottingham gave way Is. per qr., Hull, New-
market, and Sleaford alone sending more cheerful
advices. Liverpool, on Tuesday, had a good con-
sumptive trade on full terms ; but the business on
Friday was retail at previous rates, and London on
that day was very dull.

The third Monday had again but little millers'
wheat in the foreign supply, with only a moderate
arrival of English growth. The quantity from
Essex and Kent was short ; but this day was re-
markable for the very wretched plight of the sam-
ples— many years having passed since such a show
was on the London market. Dry lots, both old
and new, which were very few in number, went off
without any reduction in value ; but it was difficult
to affix value to the bulk then showing, and, of
course, very little business was done — town millers
being obliged to supply their necessities at the
foreign stands, where they had to pay high prices in
retail. Much still being offered in the country in
the same unsatisfactory state, the prevailing reports
were towards decline"; Leeds, Boston, and Bir-
mingham noting a fall of Is. per qr. At Hull the
rates were firm, notwithstanding ; and so they were
at Gainsborough and Worksop. Liverpool was
cheaper on Tuesday from id. to 3d. per cental, and
there was no rally on Friday, either here or in town.
The fourth Monday had a very small supply of
foreign wheat, and less than an average quantity
of home-growth, the morning's additions being
only moderate from the near counties ; but with
these the over-left samples of the previous week
were offering, giving the appearance of a greater
quantity than of late. There being very little im-
provement in the new samples, another dull mar-
ket was the result, only the lots that were fine con-

tinuing to sell freely ; but the foreign trade was
somewhat benefited by this state of things, and
full prices were consequently reahzed, there being
but few fine Danzig on offer, and indeed but little
in store. The country markets subsequently held
all proved dull as well as the town trade.

The four weeks, therefore, show no positive de-
cline ia the value of fine wheat, and the mean
average of the last four weeks shows a rise of lOd.
per qr., being 41s. 3d. against 40s. 5d. for the
four weeks in January ; while the London averages,
which give a later view, show 44s. 2d. against
43s. lid., or a positive gain of 3d. per qr., not-
withstanding the deteriorated condition and large
sales in the country, which were about 65,000 qrs.
beyond the first four weeks in January.

The four weeks' supplies in London have been
28,883 qrs. English, 27,440 qrs. foreign, against
16,141 English, 33,969 qrs. foreign in February,
1858, or a weekly average of 14,081 qrs. against
12,529 in February last year.

The quantity exported 'has been small, viz., 282
qrs. wheat, 895 cwt. flour. The imports for
January into the United Kingdom were 263,299
qrs. wheat, 205,467 cwt. flour, against 342,841
qrs. wheat, 304,688 cwt. flour in Januai'y 1S58 ;
which shows a diminution of 79,542 qrs. wheat,
99,221 cwt. flour in an open winter.

The flour trade has been very quiet for the past
four weeks, with very little change, though dull: 28s.
per sack doubtfully paid was the opening price for
Norfolks, and they closed at 27 s., the town trade not
having varied throughout. Prices appear to have
sunk too low for further reduction, especially in fine
sorts, which are becoming increasingly scarce. The
importations from France, though not heavy, have
nearly all been at a loss of about 3s. per sack, and
it is vain to expect fine qualities from America
when their best samples are 10s. above our own.
The parcels that arrive from the United States
are nearly all quite unfit for the London markets,
and Liverpool advices agree with town reports.
The supplies in London in four weeks have been
72,276 sacks of country sorts, 6,556 sacks foreign,
mostly from France, and only 173 barrels from
America, against 75,621 sacks English, 6,611 sacks
7jl34 barrels foreign, in February 1858.

The barley trade has almost been stationary, for
the four weeks noted. Malting sorts have remained
scarce and dear. Stout foreign has not been plenti-
ful, and therefore its value has been kept up ; but
the low light sorts from Odessa and other Eastern
ports, coming freely, have rather fluctuated when
arriving in quantity ; but their relative cheapness
as compared with oats has kept them from declin-
ing more than about 6d. per qr., a large con-
sumption still obtaining in mixture with oats.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

277

The four weeks' imports into London have been
12,980 qrs. Enghsh, 60,186 qrs. foreign, against
11,382 qrs, English, 43,523 qrs. foreign the same
time last year, shov/ing an excess in foreign this
month of 16,663 qrs. The imports into the
United Kingdom in January were 143,138 qrs.,
against 94,154 in January 1858. The malt trade
has been steady through the month, with scarcely
any change in the values.

The four weeks' supplies of oats have been re-
markably small, but the late advance in prices and
the large quantities in granary have contributed to
make business dull in this grain, with a disposition
finally to easier rates. So steady have been mar-
kets, that on the third Monday, with supplies shorter
than for a long period, including only 260 qrs.
foreign, there was no liveliness in the trade, dealers
being content to work off their stocks, and buying
from hand to mouth. Some large transactions,
however, have taken place for future delivery in
Russian qualities, including some from Petersburg,
deliverable in May or June in London, at 19s. 6d.
in the river. Wethinktheserates will 'pay, as Hol-
land and Belgiumhadonlyabouttwo-thirds of acrop.
Ireland will not send so many this season, and our
own crop is deficient. The supplies into London
have been in English quahties 1,664 qrs., in Scotch
11,980 qrs., in Irish 6,897 qrs., and in foreign
30,366, giving only a weekly supply of 12,726 qrs.,
or about half an ordinary average, against 17,264
qrs. weekly in February 1858, while in October
last the weekly average was 66,498 qrs. The im-
ports into the United Kingdom for January were,
75,765 qrs., against 61,528 qrs. in January,
1858.

Beans, after long commanding high prices, espe-
cially in the sorts fit for splitting, on the last Mon-
day were reduced fully Is, per qr,, with less
demand ; but few seem likely to come this season
from Alexandria, where prices have risen to 30s.
per qr. free on board, from scarcity : but as France
has a store, and the English crop holds out better
than expected, and the demand must reduce as the
season advances, there does not seem much pro-
spect of high rates, excepting in retail, as the crop
gets used up. The London imports, in four weeks,
have been 5,503 qrs. English, 1,148 qrs. foreign,
giving an average weekly of 1,663 qrs., against
1,881 qrs. in Feb., 1858. The total imports for
January into the United Kingdom were 49,030
qrs., against 42,274 qrs. in Jan., 1858, the increase
being French.

Peas have been dull throughout the month, for
consumption; but the seed-season has influenced
duns and maples favourably, which closed about Is.
higher than they commenced. Boilers, notwith-
standing their relatively low price, have been much

neglected, the absence of frost having greatly
lessened their use, as well as an increased con-
sumption of lentils ; and also from the low prices
of potatoes, rice, and bread. The overleft stock
of white will probably be used eventually for
horse-food, at much the same prices now ob-
tainable for boiling. The great scarcity of
maples has raised their value to 47s. per qr., duns
and boilers being about 40s. per qr. The imports
into London, for four weeks, have been 1,873 qrs.
in all sorts of English, and 584 qrs. foreign, chiefly
white. In February last year they were 1,730 qrs.
of home growth, and 204 qrs. from abroad. The
imports for January into the United Kingdom
were 6,882 qrs., more than half from Canada,
against 1,769 qrs. in Jan., 1858.

Linseed throughout the month has supported
its price, or rather gained about Is. 6d. in value
per qr., notwithstanding that crushers complain
that they crush without profit from the low prices
realized for oil. Cakes have sold well, at full
prices : and thsre has been a continued export de-
mand for Linseed, as well as a good inquiry for
feeding.

The seed trade has about reached its zenith,
those who commenced as timid buyers of clover-
seed finding out our surmises correct about the
crops in this country as well as abroad, especially
in the South of France. Red cloverseed has risen
most probably to its full height, as farmers are re-
luctant purchasers at present rates, with low prices
for all their produce. 90s. has been made of fine
English red, and still more of fine white seed.
Trefoil has not been excited, the demand not being
very active. Tares have also proved a very defi-
cient crop ; and though the high prices paid have
somewhat checked the demand, 10s. per bush, has
been paid for fine small foreign. Canaryseed has
ruled dull, at moderate rates. Hempseed, rape-
seed, and the sorts used in confectionary, have been
selling steadily, at former prices.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Shillings per Quarter '

Wheat, Essex and Kent, white... •••••k...... 39 to 48

„ red ....w,^.,,.^ 36 45

Norfolk, Line, and Yorks., red 39 44

Baelet, malting ...... — to 33 .... Chevalier .... 35 42

Grinding 24 26 .... Distilling 28 29

Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ,...52 to 60 fine G 4 66

Kingston. Ware, and town made », 52 60 ,, 64 66

Brown 50 52 — ~

Btb new — — 80 32

Oats, English, feed 19 24 Potato 26 80

Scotch, feed 20 24 Potato 24 29

Irish, feed, white... 20 23 fine 24 29

r>itto,black 19 22 „ — 23

Beans, Mazagan 37 39 Ticks 37 38

Harrow 39 41 Pigeon 41 44

Peas, new, white, boilers 40 40 Maple 42 46.. Grey 38 39

Flour, per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households 348., fine 35 40

Country 27 29 ...... Households.. 30 84

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship ,. •••»» 26 27

278

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Foe the last Six

Weeks : s. d.

Jan. 8, 1859 ».». 40 6

Jan. 15, 1859 .,.. 41 3

Jan. 22, 1859 »... 41 9

Jan. 29, 1859 .... 41 7

Feb. 5, 1859 .... 40 10

Feb. 12, 1859 ....; 40 11

Aggregate average; 41 2

Same time last year 47 7

Wheat,

Barley.
s. d.
32 2

33 1
36 10

Oats,
s. d.
21 5
21 4
21 8
21 10

21 9

22 4

21 9

22 8

Rye.
s. d.
30 5
27 6

30 10

32 6

33 6

31 2

31 0

32 8

Beans

Peas.
s. d.
41 3

41 8

42 6
41 11

40 11

41 5
41 7
40 4

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Trefoii., new I9s.to22s.

Tares, Winter, new, per bushel , ., — s. to — s.

Mustaudseed, per bush., new 128. to 16s., brown IDs. to 12s.

CoEiANDES, per cwt l4s.toI6s.

Canabt, per qr. 64s. to 6gs.

Linseed, per qr., sowing — s.to 643... crushing 54s. to 58s.

Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 lOs.tojeiO 10s.

RAPE8EED,per qr 68s. to 72s.

Rape Cake, per ton £b lOs. to £6 Os.

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.

Cloveebeed, red 608. to 683 white 743. to 90s.

Trefoil, i8s.to21s.

Hempseed, small, 33s. perqr Dutch — s.to 38s.

CoKiANDEE,percwt. 168. to 18s.

Caerawat ,, 42s. to— s.

Linseed, per qr., Baltic 628. to 568.... Bombay 58s. to 60s.

Linseed Cake, perton ., £9 108.to£ll Os.

Rapeseed, Dutch ....o... 62s. to G6s.

Rape Cake, perton £5 Os.to £6 Oe.

HOP MARKET,

BOROUGH, Monday, Feb. 21.— There is no alteration
in our market, which remains firm at the following quo-
tations : —

Mid and East Kents .. .. 703. to 843. choice 1203.

Weald of Keuts 54s. 658. „ 703.

Sussex 54s. 60s. ,, 66s.

POTATO MARKETS.

SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, Monday, Feb. 21.
Since our last report, our supplies coastwise have been
heavy, but from foreign ports moderate. The trade has been
inactive, and prices in general rather lower than during the
previous week. The following are this day's quotations :

York Regents per ton 8O3. to lOOs.

Flukes , IOO3. to IIO3.

Lincolnshire Regents 7O9. to 90s.

Dunbar do SOs. to 95s.

Ditto Kedg 6O3. to 7O3.

Perth, Forfar, & Fifeahire Regents 60s. to 708.

Ditto Reds 45s. to 55s.

Ditto Rocks SOs. toGOs.

Foreign Whites 453. to 653.

BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS, Monday, Feb. 21.
— Since Monday last the receipts of potatoes, coastwise and
by railway, have been moderate. The imports have amounted
to 150 tons from Dunkirk, 91 tons from Roueu, 5 sacks from
Boulogne, and 44 tons from Harlingen. For moat kinds the
demand rules steady, and prices are supported.

York Regents SOs. to lOSs. per ton.

Lincolns 75s. to 90s. „

Essex and Kent 70s. to 903. „

Scotch 453. to 95s. „

Foreign whites 40s. to 55s. „

COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— York, Feb. 12 : Po-
tatoes sell at 6d. per peck, and Is. 8d. to Is. lOd. per
bushel, Leeds, Feb. IS • We had a good show of potatoes,
which sold at 7^d. to 8d. wholesale, and 9d. retail, per 211b8.
Sheffield, Feb. 15 : Potatoes sell at 6s. 6d. to 93. per
load of 18 stone. Richmond, Feb. 12 : Potatoes 2s. 8d,
per bushel. Manchester, Feb, 15 : Potatoes 6s. to 93, 6d,
per 2521bs.

ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.

LONDON, Monday, Feb. 21.— Since [our last we have
little alteration to note. The stock of old is' working up close,
at irregular prices. We are getting a small supply of new, the
price of which is hardly settled. Old Butter 96s, to lOOs.,
new 134s. to 1368. per cwt.

BELFAST, (Thursday last.)— Butter: Shipping price, 1058
to 112s, per cwt.; firkins and crocks ll^d. to 12d. per lb.
Bacon, 503, to 543.; Hams, prime 728. to 80s., second quality
60s. to 66s. per cwt. Prime mess Pork, 788. to 8O3. per brl, ;
Beef 120s. to ISOs. per tierce; Irish Lard, in bladders,
668. to703,; kegs or firkins, 60s, to 64s. per cwt. Pork
45s. to 493. per 120 lbs.

GLASGOW, — A good supply came forward to the weigh-
house, where there were 20 tons passed the scales. Only one
cart was shown in the bazaar. Prices rather better. Prime
early-made 563., late-made 44s. to 493., skim 268, to 288. per

Ciflt.

BRITISH WOOL MARKET.
LONDON, Monday, Feb. 21.— Since our last report, the
transactions in all kinds of English wool have been rather
lioiited, owing to the near approach of the public sales of
Colonial. In prices, however, we have no change to notice.
The supply of Wool on offer is limited; and the inquiry for
export purposes is very limited.

Per pack of 2401b8.

Fleeces— Southdown Hogs £18 10to£19 0

Do, Half-bred Hogs 18 10 19 0

Do. Kent 17 10 18 0

Do. Southdown Ewesand Wethers 16 10 17 0

Do. Leicester do 16 10 17 10

Sorts— Clothing, picklock 18 10 19 0

Do, Prime and picklock 17 10 18 0

Do. Choice...., 16 0 17 0 .

Do. Super 14 0 15 0

Do. Combing— Wether matching ... 19 10 20 0

Do. Picklock 16 10 17 10

Do. Common 14 0 15 0

Do. Hog matching 22 10 23 10

Do. Picklock matching 17 0 18 0

Do. Superdo 14 10 15 10

LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, Feb. 19.
English combing wools have met with rather more inquiry,
which has partially arrested the decline, which may be quoted
OJd. per lb. from the highest point ; and if confidence was
restored there would be an immediate reaction, stocks being
very low.

8. d. 8. d.

Laid Highland Woolper241bs 11 8to 18 6

WhiteHighlanrido 14 0 16 6

LaidCrossed do. .unwashed .... 14 6 16 0

Do, do. .washed 15 0 16 6

LaidCheviot do. .unwashed ,.,.15 6 17 6
Do. do,, washed .,..,. 18 6 22 6

WhiteCheviot do. .washed 32 6 40 0

Foreign. — Some considerable sales have been made, which
are supposed to be intended for export, and the supply of all
kinds IS very limited.

MANURES,

PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO. &o.

PERUVIAN GUANO,(perton, for 3010118) £\i h 0 to £ 0 0 0

Do. Do (under 30 tons),,,. 13 6 0 0 0 0

BOLIVAN GUANO none 0 0 0 0 0 0

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c.

Sulph. of Copper-j jE s d. jE s d,

37 0 0 to 39 0 0

Sod

')"^'j^l6 15 0to£17 10 0
29 0 0 30 0 0

14itr&t6

(pert
NitratePotash \

or Saltpetre /
8ulpht. Ammonia 14 10 0
Muriate ditto.,. 23 0 0
SuperphospUt. >
^of.ime.„.>

6 10 0

Arkaif."::."} " 0 0

Gypsum I 10 0

Coprolite 2 10 0

an"Vi- (
triol, for Wheat (
steep., Ist qual. J
Ditto, 2iid quiihty 24 0 0 S8 0 0

Salt 10 0 16 0

Bones,Du8t,perq!.l 0 0 110

Do.i-inch 0 19 0 100

Oil Vitriol,)

concentrated,? 0 0 1 0 00

per lb J

Do. Brown 0 0 OJ 0 00

OIL-CAKES.

Linseed-cakea.perton— 1 Marseilles .£9 lOOtoXlO 0 0

Thin Americn,brls£10 7 6 £10 150 English 10 10 0 0 00

Ditto hags 10 0 0 10 10 0 Rape-cakes.prton 6 00 6 10 0

Thick do. round (none) 0 00 | Cottonseed cakes 8 10 0 8 0 0

John Keen, 35, Leadenhall-street,

(Late Odams,Pickford,and Keen.)

Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suffolk.

Prentice'sCereal Manure for Corn Crops pertonj£8 10 0

Prentice'sTurnip Manure „ 7 0 0

Prentice'sSuperphosphateof Lime ,, 6 10 0

Manufactured by Hodgson & Simpson, Wakefield, and
Matthews & Co., Driffield.

Nitro-Phosphate per ton £7 10 0

Ammonia-Phosphate ,, 6 0 0

Vitriol, Bone, and Manure Works, Howden Dyke, Howden.

Ammonia Phosphate pertonilSlO "

Anderton's Turnip Manure ,, 8 0 0

Super-Phosphate of Lime ,, 7 0"

Printed by Bogefson and Tuxford, 846, Strand, London.

IMFOBTANT TO FLOCEMASTERS.

THOMAS BIGG,

AGRICULTURAL AND VETERINARY CHEMIST,
BY APPOINTMENT, TO H. R. H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, K. G., iiC.

LEICESTER HOUSE, GREAT DOVER-STREET' BOROUGH, LONDON,

Begs to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable
SHEEP-and LAMB DIPPING COMPOSITION, which reqiiires
no Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for
effectual/y destroying the Ticlc Lice, and all other insects
injurious to the Flock, preventing tlie alarming attacks of
riy and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby
greatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and
highly contributing to the general health of the animal.

Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemi^t, Ice, at his Manufac-
tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity
may be had, if required : —

4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, j ar included £0

6 1b.

30

8 lb.

40

10 lb.

50

20 1b,

100

80 1b.

150

40 lb.

200

50 1b.

250

60 lb.

300

80 1b.

400

100 lb.

500

(cask and measure
included)

0 10

0 15

1 0
1 3
1 7

1 17

2 5

0

Should any Flockraaster prefer boiling the Compoiition, it will
be equally effective.

He would also especially call attention to his SPECIFIC, or
LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, whicli will be found a certain
remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in
Sheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all
seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes
in lamb. Price 5s. per gallon — sufficient on an average for
thirty Sheef (according to the virulence of the disease); also in
wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. e^ch.

IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.

"Scoulton, near Hlngham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855.
'Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would
have been replied to before this had I been at home, I have
much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in-

valuable'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 Sheep
were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of the 'Non-
Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the
Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention
being paid lo the flock by my shepherd after dressing according
to instructions left ; but notwithstanding the Scab continues
getting worse. In December I informed the ' Agent for the
above Specific,' that tlie flock was not cured, and that it requires
their immediate attention. The Agent informed me they sliould
be at once seen to, but did not do so until_^rc weeks afterwards,
and in the mean time the Scab spread over the whole flock, that
I never saw such a disgraceful sight in my life; and when the
Dresser was sent over to inspect I he Flock, he decided on not
dressing them again, as one-third of the Sheep had lost half
their wool. I then agreed with an experienced dresser in Norfolk
to dress the flock, and when he saw the sheep he declined doing
them, as they were so very bad, and the time of lambing so
near. Being determined to have tfie Scab cured if possible, I
wrote to yon for a supply of your Specific, which I received the
following day ; and although the weather was most severe in
February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an in-
valuable remedy, for in tliree weeks the Sheep were quite cured;
and I am happy to say tlie young lambs are doing remarkably
well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest aucl
best reraoiy now in use.

" I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant,

" For JOHN TINGEY, Esq.,

" To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNY.

In addition to tlie foregoing, he has very materially improved,
as well as considerably reduced the price of his Dipping Ap-
paratus; and he would venture to suggest that no Flockmasters
ought now to be without one. Price in London,

New and Improved Dipping Apparatus, on Wheels £14 0 0
Ditto ditto with Iron-bar Drainer 5 0 0

Ditto ditto 4 0 0

Ditto, plain, with Wooden Drainer 3 0 0

N.B. — Catalogues, containing List of Patrons, Testimonials,
&c,, to be had of all agents, or sent Jirect per post free.

CURTIS ON MANHOOD.— SHILLING EDITION.

A MEDICAL ESSAY ON NERVOUS AND GENERATIVE DISEASES.
Just Published, the New Edition, 120th Thousand, with numerous Plates, in a sealed envelope, price Is., or

sent, post-paid, by the Author, for 14 stamps.

MANHOOD : the CAUSE and CURE of PREMATURE DECLINE, with plain
directions for perfect restoration to health and vigour ; being a Medical Review of the various forms
and modern treatment of Nervous Debility, Impotency, Loss of Mental and Physical Capacity, whether re-
sulting from youthful abuse, the follies of maturity, the effects of climate, or infection ; with Observations on
a new and successful mode of detecting Spermatorrhoea, and other Urethral Discharges, by Microscopic
Examination ; to which are added, curious and interesting cases, with the Author's recipe of a Preventive Lotion.
By J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle-street, Piccadilly, London, whose practice, extending over a period of
20 years, affords a complete guarantee to patients that the utmost skill and experience will be made available
in the treatment of their cases.

At home for consultation daily, from 10 till 3, and 6 till 8. Sundays from 10 till 1.

REVIEWS OF THE WORK.

" CoRTis ON Manhood.— This is a truly valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old."
— Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1856.

" Curtis on Manhood.— The author has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which
is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently premature old
age."— Daily Telegraph, March 27. 1856.

" Curtis on Manhood. — The book under review is one calculated to warn and instruct the erring with-
out imparting one idea that can vitiate the mind not already tutored by the vices of which it treats." — Naval
and Military Gazette, Feb. 1, 1851.

•' We feel no hesitation in saying, that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be found
useful— whether such person hold the relation of a parent, preceptor, or a clergyman." — Sun, Evening Paper.

Published by the Author: sold also in sealed envelopes by Gilbert, 49, P.iternoster-row ; Hannay, 63,
Oxford-street; Mann, 39, Cornhill, Loudon; "Herald" Office, Taunton; Lockyer, Lincoln; Hey wood,
Oldham. street, Manchester; Howell, 6, Church-street, Liverpool ; Ashley, Post-office, Newbury ; Ferris and
Score, Union-street, Bristol; Pierson, Shrewsbury; Jiill, Braintree ; Thew, Lynn; Peat, Chichester; Lur-
cock, Maidstone; Cook, Ipswich; Huscroft, Bury St. Edmunds; Dove, Swindon ; Jearey, Bridewell Alley,
Norwich; Smith, Rose Crescent, Cambridge; Slatter, O.vford ; and by all Booksellers and Chemists in the
United Kingdom.

FOR THE HAIR, THE SKIN, AND THE TEETH,

are universally held in high estimation ; and the fact of the distinguished Patronage they enjoy, their general use in all countries
and the numerous testimonials constantly received of their efficacy, sufficiently prove the value of their «ivr Ar* A«e av
OI£," "KAIiVBOR," and "ODONTO." tn.a.^As»t»aM.

THE FIRST PRODUCTION IN THE WORLD

For the GROWTH and IMPROVEMENT of the HUMAN HAIR, is

umm OIL

proved beyond question hy its successful results for MORE than HALF A CENTURY past, and when other specifics have

failed.

THE 1B:EA«I$9 WHI^KEHS, AM1> lEU^TACHIOS

it Is unfailing in its stimulative operation. For CHILDREN it is especially recommended as forming the basis of A Rw att
TIFUL HEAD OF HAIR. ii-iuig lue ua^is oi a ujiAU-

Its invaluable properties have obtained the Patronage of Rotaltt, the Nobilitt, and the Aristociiacy throughout Eurone •
while Its introduction into the Nursery of Royalty, and the high esteem in which it is universally held with numerous
Testimonials constantly received of its efficacy, afi-ord the best and surest proofs of its merits.— Price 33 6d 'and 7s • Famiiv
Bottles (equal to four small), 10s. 6d. ; and double that size, 21s. ' ^^^^

lette?s^^d^"lSi:i?a"tufe: ^TToVInT^^ f^^l'^l ^11 Tn^ ' " ^<^^^^^P«' MACASSAR OIL." &c.. in white

A BEAUTIFUL COMPLEXION,

AND SOFT AND FAIR HANDS AND ARMS,

Arc realized by the use of

ROWlANDS'KiiyDOR,

This Royally-patronized and universally esteemed Specific exerts the most soothing cooling, and purifying action on the
Skin eradicates Freckles, Tan, Pimples, Sjjots, Discoloration and other Cutaneous VisUaUom, and renders

THCffi SKIlf CI^EAM, I'AIB, A]¥I> B1.007ffl]¥0^.

, 9;^??T?®^:~'^'*® '"'i"''^^ " ROWLANDS' KAL YDOR," &c., are on the Wrapper, and their Signature, " A. ROWLAND
and SONS," in Red Ink, atfoot.—Price4s.6d. and 8s. Cd. per bottle. ^ s »^uib, .a. nuwi^AjMij

WSZTE AND SOUND TISSTH

Are indispensable to PERSONAL ATTRACTION, and to health and longevity by the proper mastication of food.

i08'

I M

Compounded of ORIENTAL INGREDIENTS, is of inestimable value in

PROVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE TEETH
STRENCrTHISNING- THIS CrUlMES,

And in rendering

THE BMEATM S^FEET A]¥I» :PU«E.

It eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of incipient decay, and polishes and preserves the enamel, to which
it imparts a

As the most efficient and fragrant aromatic purifier of the Breath, Teeth, and Gums ever known, ROWLANDS' ODONTO
has, for a long sei-ies of years, occupied a distinguished place at the Toilets of the Sovereigns and the Nobility throughout
Europe ; while the general demand for it at once announces the favour in which it is universally held.— Price 2s. 9d. per box.

CAUTIOKT.— The words "ROWLANDS' ODONTO" ai-e on the Label, and "A.. ROWLAND & SONS, 20, Hatton
Garden," engraved on the Government Stamp affixed on each l)ox.

Sold by the Proprietors and by Chemists and Perfumers,

OF SPURIOUS IMITATIONS ! !

*** BEWARE

ft d i^ HA.^^*^-^-- '..

^fc^H"^ H-^'

No.4, VoL.XV.I APRIL, 1859. [Third Series.

1

THE

FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

i

i

AND

1

MONTHLY JOURNAL

j
i

TFTE AGEICULTURAL INTEREST.

«

MttimU^

1

TO THE

i
1

FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

LONDON :

[

rUBLlSHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

BOQEBSOM Ain> TDXVOBD,] [PSINTEB9, 246, STXAHD.

^

DR. HASSALL

ON

THOBLEY'S POOD POR CATTLE.

PROM THE "MABK LANE EXPRESS," 10th JAN., 1859.

74 WiMPOLE Street, Cavendish Square, 21s* December, 1858.

'^tztiit'^^i t:£i^z:iiT^7:':u,^%,^.^t enters mto >'« --p-f jj- „,^r;

sin" cter% examined and tested these, and I have also oompared the samples procured at the Manufactory
'•?:* "Lt^tno^Ta 'ptmorro' Tp'Ss an authoritative opinion respecting the composition and
^f ?,S:rriLrurd?re'a1,^Sr,oe;.."nr;\\r*^^^^^^^ "'f-^ "^"^ '» -fZ ' no

futfil the objects intended. _ f m„„^T,,^'c -Pnmi vor Cattle 1 find that it possesses the

quainTeriunhSin,ly assert that it is i^^^^^^^^^

''Tomparing, also, the samples taken by me from t^^ Manufactory with others procured different

:reTt^ufh°an afliele merely at the COS. of the raw m^^^^^^^^^^^

Neither must the value o t!..', «; '"J °*'' ."J"'' ,3°;o'„S ^'^^^^^^^^ but the Indirect effects

saving of expense. . recommend— which I do strongly and conscientiously— Thorley's

From Alfred Brown, Esq., Wandsworth, Surrey, MemDer of the Eoyal College ?' ^i^*"^;

OOCieiy ui A.UUUU11 , Wandsworth, Surrey, Dec. 11, 1858.

Sir,-I shall feel obliged by your sending me -othe-as. of T^^^^^^^ ^o^kTow Te Te^Sf.

experiments with it upon one of my milch cows, and t^inkit only fair that ^J^^ y ^^.^ ^.^^ ^^^

M? cow, before I used the Food, was fed upon l^^y'/^^^f/,' f^^JJ^^'/k She was five months gone with
yielded one gallon of milk per day, making two PO!^"^^«°f^""fP"\^~rtzel and gave her a measure-fuU
her second calf; when she had the Food I discontinued gmng her ^^^ ^^^^^^^J'J^^^^ l,ad as much good

(about half-a-pint) of the Food with a peck of damp ^^/^ "^f * Xled the Sa^^^^^^ and butter; and in

hay as she would eat. Upon this diet, in less tl^^'?,^^^^^, J „non the Thorlev's Food, I discontinued it, and
order that I might be sure that this excellent result depended upon the Thorley s |ooa, ^ ^^^^^ ^

returned to her former diet, and she speedily went back to the gallon »» "^ ^ ^^ ° ^ H^^^ of^^nilk per

fortnight, I agai,. leturned to the Thorley's Food, and in a iew ^aj she ^"c.ea ed to^t^^^ ^V^^^

day. This experiment I repeated several times, and with the ^^^^f '"^^ I ^/J nnSyged the Food, and find
animals-horses, sheep, &c.-and with the most satisfactory results. ^ ' f.^^.J^^'" .^3^ You are at liberty
that it contains nothing that would in any way inj ure the system or constitution ot cattle, x ou ar y

to make any use you please of this communication, and I am, Sir, yours, «c., ALFRED BROWN.

To Mr. i, Thorley.

UMA li-

nr\

THE EAEMEH'S MAGAZINE.

APRIL, 1859.

PLATE I.

CLARETj A Hereford Bull,

THE PROPERTY OF MR. RICHARD HILL, OP GOLDING HALL, SHREWSBURY.

PLATE II.
COTHERSTONE; a Thorough-bred Stallion,

THE PROPERTY OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EARL SPENCER.

CLARET; A Hereford Bull,

THE PROPERTY OF MR. RICHARD HILL, OF GOLDING HALL, SHREWSBURY.

Claret, bred by Mr. Hill, is of the purest Knight
blood, and a Hereford of the very highest de-
scent. He was calved on August 24th, 1856,
and is by the Knight (185), dam Primrose, by
Sibdon (1385).

In 1858, at the Chester meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, Claret took the
first prize of £25, as the best two-year-old bull.

At the Hereford county Meeting, in the autumn
of the same year, he took the first prize of his class.

And at Bridgnorth, he again took the first prize
for young bulls.

Claret is a remarkably handsome specimen of
the Hereford, while he unites good looks with a
capital hardy constitution, and a most excellent
quality. He is rather a dark-coloured bull, but
both his sire and dam were of the orthodox light-
red.

We had to record the show of Herefords at
Chester as a very admirable one, and that
last held in the native county was thought
never to have been equalled. At both these it will

OLD SERIES.]

be observed Claret distinguished himself, while the
family have long been wsR-known in the strongholds
of the white-faces. In 1855, Restorative, a half-
brother to Claret, in addition to several other local
premiums, carried off the Great All England
Sweepstakes at Ludlow, for the best bull of any
breed. Candidate, another half-brother, was a
winner at Salisbury.

Mr. Robert Smith, in his " Journal Report,"
thus writes of the rise and value of the Here-
fords :

"This race of cattle, which has long been dis-
tinguished for its splendid oxen, was shown in
greater numbers at Chester than at any previous
meeting of the Society, with the exception of
Shrewsbury, and formed one of the most attract-
ive classes. Their placid and beautiful counte-
nances— denoting that general mildness of temper
so necessary for the success of the grazier — to-
gether with their substance of flesh in proportion
to bone, could not fail to strike all who beheld
them. The Herefords clearly come under the same
U [VOL.L,— No. 4.

280

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

denomination as the Devons, viz., the 'middle-
horn' tribe of cattle : they are considered to be
an aboriginal breed, and descended from the same
stock as"the Devons. Little is known respecting
their origin, further than that for many generations
they can be traced as the peculiar breed of the
county from whence they take their name. Yet a
few years since they were not of the same uniform
appearance of colour as now, there having been
some herds self-coloured like the Devon and Sussex
breeds, and opinions have been published that this
was their original character. Subsequently we find
the grey, the mottled, and the white-faced, each
with their distinct admirers and their successful
breeders. This sub-division of a race of animals
(it may be readily imagined) would occur from the
use of a self-coloured bull with a white-faced cow,
or the reverse ; but that the race was originally red
with a white face, is clearly indicated by the almost
perfect uniformity of colour which the breed of the
county now presents. The Hereford cattle have
hitherto been held in high estimation for the
rapidity with which they feed and the quality of
their flesh, together with the working powers of
the oxen, which display the activity of the Devon
combined with the strength of the Durham.

"The calves usually run with their dams in a
natural state— a rude state of things which the
breeders ought to alter, as its present effect is to
depreciate the value of the whole race. In this
thickly populated kingdom it is necessary that

both milk and flesh be produced. We hope to be
excused for making this allusion, particularly as
we are aware that not only can these cattle be
greatly improved by cultivation, but that their milk
is of a superior quality, and yields a return equal
to that of any other breed possessing similar pre-
tensions to flesh.

"Among the earliest breeders of celebrity, of
whom anything is known, the names of Tully, Yeo-
man, Skyrene, Williams, and Weyman, may be
mentioned as some of the most successful. Sub-
sequently those of Tomkins, Price, Hayton, Jones,
Hewer, Jeffries, Knight, and Smithies. These,
too, have passed away ; and in our present day we
see recorded in the Society's Journals an increasing
number of competitors from different parts of the
kingdom. This proves that the value of the breed
is becoming more appreciated. A few years since
they were almost exclusively in the hands of the
tenant farmers of their native county ; they now
form the principal breed of the counties of Mon-
mouth, Radnor, Brecon, Salop, and parts of the coun-
ties of Gloucester, Worcester, W^arwick, Stafford,
Wilts, Herts, Dorset, Somerset, and Cornwall. There
are also some good herds in North Wales and
Scotland, for which districts their hardiness of
constitution, thick but mellow hides, wavy, soft,
and moderately long hair, render them peculiarly
adapted. Recently a considerable number have
been exported to America and the Australian
colonies, where they are rapidly gaining favour."

COTHERSTONE} a Thorough-bred Stallion,

THE PROPERTY OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EARL SPENCER.

Cotherstone, bred by Mr. Bowes in 1840, is by ,
Touchstone out of Emma, by Whisker, her dam |
Gibside Fairy by Hermes— Vicissitude by Pipator— j
Beatrice by Sir Peter.

Touchstone, by Camel out of Banter by Master
Henry, has long been famous as the most success-
ful stallion of the day. His box at Eaton was one
of the local attractions of the recent Agricultural
Meeting at Chester, where the old horse was to be
Been still fresh and well,

Emma, foaled in 1824, has been almost equally
renowned in the stud. She was the dam of Mundig
and Cotherstone, two Derby winners, as well as of
Trustee, Mickle Fell, Trustee, Black Beck, and
others, Emma died in the autumn of 1852.

Cotherstone was a magnificent horse when in
work ; in fact, we never saw a Derby winner show
more power and substance. He left the Turf in
his fourth year, and was at once purchased by the

late Lord Spencer, and taken to Althorp, where he
has since continued. His stock first came out in
1848, and he is the sire of some very good winners.
His portrait, however, is more especially present-
able here as being the sire of the best thorough-
bred hunting stallion entered at the last meeting of
the Royal Agricultural Society. Curiously enough,
the Chester Show added yet further to Touchstone's
honours,asthe£tallion the judges selected was Spen-
cer by Cotherstone,and Cotherstone by Touchstone.
The prizj horse, although a very neat one, has by no
means the size or substance of either his sire or
grandsire. It would have been a great thing to
have had either of them on the Roodee at such a
time.

Cotherstone's companion in the print is Mr.
Wilson, the stud groom at Althorp. We refer the
reader for any further particulars to our List of
Stallions for the season in the present number.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE*

681

THE HERDS OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Chapter III.
THE BUSHEY HERD.

The North-Western traveller, who may have a glance
to spare from his newspaper or his book, cannot have
failed to observe a low square range of farm buildings,
grouped near some haystacks on a "gentle emi-
nence," near Watford, while the white chimneys of
the Squire's peep coyly out from behind a clump,
in an undulating lawn to the left. If the " Herd
Book " is a name unknown to him, he passes
it by as a comfortable English homestead, to which
he may expect to find a dozen winsome marrows
on his route North ; but if, on the contrary, be
has ever dived into that vast hereditary Peerage of Hoof
and Horn, with its "Queens," its "Blossoms," its
" Duchesses," and its " Butterflys," it suggests to him
many a pleasant recollection of Marmaduke, and the
slashing biddings for Great Mogul.

The view from the hill on the foreground, where Mr.
Wetherell's glass fell at last to so brilliant an average
on that

" Merrie afternoon iu May,"

is very comprehensive. The visitor who longs to com-
bine pedigrees with the picturesque, must stroll as far
as Bushey Heath, if he would catch a glimpse of the
once-mitred Abbey of St. Alban's, and the Keep of
Windsor ; but here Moor Park, Cassiobury, The Grove,
and Hazlewood, all contribute their quota to the richly-
wooded panorama on the West ; while Scots Wood, High
Wood, and Bury Grove afford snug lying to the foxes
of Lord Dacre's hunt, and shelter to the shorthorns
against the " angry East." The Bushey Grove pro-
perty, which is somewhat intersected by lanes, consists of
a farm of 400 acres, of which from 170 to 200 are mown
every year. Its soil, which rests on a chalk substratum,
is of rather thin staple, and very productive of blue peb-
bles and flints, which are nevertheless turned to ample
account, as paving for the raised causeways in the cattle
yards ; but it renders a much more sterling ac-
count of itself in the three hundred tons of mangold-
wurtzels, stacked in long array near the straw-yard, and
which were just being brought into use, for the first time
on the day of our visit.

It is about sixteen years since Mr. Stewart Marjori-
banks commenced breeding Shorthorns. Disregarding
pedigrees, and trusting to care and high-feeding, he at
first bought a promiscuous lot of cows at a moderate
price, and crossed them with the bull Mambrino (7196),
who was bred by John, Earl of Spencer. This herd
was sold off in the June of 1850, at the low average of
£29 14s. for 59 head. The foundation for a second
herd was immediately laid. Several cows and heifers of
roundabout blood, it is true, were included among the
new purchases ; but still the germ of better things was
to be found in Rennet and Dowager Queen (which had

many crosses of Booth's best blood), Mary of the
Gwynne tribe, and some few by Bates's Cleveland Lad
2nd. They were crossed with Lord Foppington
(10437) bred by Mr. Fawkes ; but the new blood had
not sufficient time to develope itself in three years, and
in May, 1853, the 66 head only averaged ^£33. Lord
Foppington and Sir Ronald, and several cows and
heifers were purchased by Mr. Wilson for his Royal
Highness the Prince Consort, who was then just begin-
ning to form a herd ; and the selection of their Bushey
Grove successors was placed in the hands of Mr. Tallant,
who had become Mr. Marioribanks' bailiff on the October
previous.

This time, no pains or money were spared to procure
first-class stock. Herds were inspected, from Cobham
to" Cannie Aberdeen." Theagentsof Col.Towneley and
Mr. Marjoribanks were found competing for a Jeweller
heifer to the tune of two hundred at Mr. Grundy's ;
and Mr. Cruickshank, like another Lord Ullin, was
"left lamenting" (with a pocket full of guineas)
that his herd had been rifled of its fairest daughter,
Khirkee the First. King Arthur was hired as a
cross from Mr. John Booth ; while Marmaduke, a com-
bination of The Duchess and Princess blood, was
bought at the Hendon sale, when only seven weeks old,
for 100 gs., and a 300-guinea cheque was borne back by
Mr. Culshaw to Towneley Park from the Chelmsford
Royal Show, in lieu of Master Butterfly 2nd. At the
end, however,of four years, Mr. Marjoribanks " hedged''
again, and ^90 2s. 5d. was the splendid average for 59
lots. The plan is not exactly orthodox, but it had at
its third test the merit of being as successful as it is
dashing and novel ; although, in spite of the greatest
skill and care, it must place Bushey at a sad disadvan-
tage, when the pets of the Warlaby and Townley here's,
&c., have to be confronted for a battle royal. Mr.
Marjoribanks, who had won many local prizes, never
entered the Hanover Square lists till the summer of
1855 at Carlisle ; when four yearling heifers and the
yearling bull Panmure formed the lot, and although only
one of them earned a commendation, the whole five
found a purchaser in Comte de Seraincourt, for 100 gs.
each. At Salisbury, however, in 1857, Bushey came
out with Great Mogul, beating, among others, Mr.
Richard Booth's Lord of the Valley in the bull- calf
class, and was second to him in turn at York ; while at
Chester he was second as a yearling bull to Viscount
Hill's Hetman, and then held his own against all comers
at Northallerton. His next appearance in public is,
we believe, deferred till 1860, as he has a more
important mission to achieve for posterity than laying
on fat and flesh for Warwick gazers.

The incidents of the last Bushey sale, and the beauti-
ful bloom in which the lots were brought to the ham-
mer, quite form an epoch, like Ketton, Wiseton and
Kirklevington, in shorthorn lore. Great Mogul then a

u 2

Q82

THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE.

seven-months' calf, was bought in, after some very
rapid 50-guinea volleys, at 400 gs. ; while Master
Butterfly 2ad departed to Mr. Cruickshanks' Highland
home for 400 gs., where he died not many weeks
since from affection of the brain. The same gentleman
fought it out, bidding for bidding, up to 490 gs. for
Marmaduke, but did not care to go on after the decisive
"five hundred guineas!" from the lips of Mr. Har-
vey Combe, who had no notion of seeing him go over
the Border. Mr. Marjoribaiiks's fancy for a calf by
The Duke of Glo'ster had induced that gentleman to
oppose Mr. Banks Stanhope at Hendon for Marma-
duke, and at this sale nearly all his cows were in calf by
him. One heifer of his blood alone remains at Bushey
Grove; but he has set a most unmistakable mark on
the herd of his adoption, where nine-tenths of his
calves have been heifers. Old Cambridge Rose, that
remnant of Kirklevington, has been in the fashion, and
her Moss Rose is among the sweetest-looking of the
Cobham calves. Gracious out of Graceful, and Ayah
out of Asia, are nearly as beautiful as they can be ; and
those cousins-german. Samphire out of Sea Weed, and
Saucy out of Saucebox, and Looy, who reproduces her
mother Leila's beautiful head, complete a half dozen
which would be hard to beat in any herd. There may
be a little lightness of thigh and coarseness of head and
horn in Marmaduke ; but his undeniable top and won-
drous crops and shoulders atone for all ; and his rich-
haired daughters will, with their sire help to shoot the
average not a little on the 23rd inst.

But we must not wander in the spirit from Bushey to
Cobham, closely as we once alas ! were wont to connect
them. The Bushey herd No. 4 is already, to judge from
precedent, through quite half its allotted span, and ri-
pening gaily for dispersion. Since the last sale there
have been considerable alterations in the farm buildings.
The last chimney of the old farm house has bowed its
head to the ropes, and fell as we were viewing Crutchey,
by Booth's Prince George, out of Pink by Tinsley, in
the scrupulously neat straw-yard, and thinking from her
nice snug make that she could not fail to be a bull
breeder ; while divers old cow-houses and pigstyes have
alike yielded to fate and the stonemason. There are
now upwards of 60 loose boxes on the premises, with
some fifty head of cattle in them, not including the
dozen polled Galloways, who act as scavengers among
the rough grass, and are tied up the week before Christ-
mas in beds of chaff and cavings. The cows were wont
to be tied up before, but now they are housed in boxes
thirteen feet by nine, while those for the young stock
are rather smaller. The zinc troughs at the head of
each manger run the whole length of the buildings, and
are supplied by a pump ; spar compartments of about
four and a-half feet between them help the ventilation,
and the name of each animal is nattily painted above it.

Entering at one corner we first came vis a vis with
White Rose, a cow of fine substance and especial loins
and ribs, by Whittington (12229), out of Windsor
Flower, by Earl of Scarboro', the Windsor winner.
She was bought as a heifer from Mr. Wetherell, and
won some prizes in that eminent breeder's hands. Pepita

a roan and a very good milker, but with the bloom
rather off her, from recent calving, represents the Bates's
Refiner blood. She was bought by Mr. Strafford with
Camelia (who has since been sold to the Emperor of the
French), at Mr. Chrisp'ssale, where they ranked among
the best. Mr. Lax's Ravensworth tribe is represented
in Myrtle by The Vicar (15408), out of Rosa, who
unites with fine quality of flesh and substance a some-
what old-fashioned head. Her neighbour, Annie, is by
Captain Shafto, the prize bull at the Northampton
Royal ; and her compact little form, snug shoulders,
and well-sprung ribs, have been well reproduced in her
clever bull-calf. Baron of Bushey, by Booth's Brides-
man. Master Butterfly has a worthy representative in
Red Butterfly, out of Vestris 2nd, who was bought from
Colonel Towneley for the same sum that Mr. Cruick-
shanks gave for her brother at the sale ; but she is
not three years old, and is not likely to enter
a show-yard yet. Ruby 4th, by Horatio, who came
from Col. Towneley along with her, strains back to Lax's
Duke, and is, save and except Lucy, the most massive
cow in the yard. She was highly commended in her
class at Chester ; and her bull calf, Bravo, was lately
parted with to Mr. Samuel Brooks, of Manchester — a
new acquisition to the Short-horn owners, and already
the president of a society.

Anon we came across old Kirkee, who was bred by
Mr. Grant DufF, county Banff, and was one of the two
cows retained at the 1857 sale. She was well bought in
at 130 gs., as she has proved herself, by producing five
heifers in succession in 50 months, the most profitable
cow that ever came to Bushey. There are several
crosses of Booth and Bates' blood in her; but her
daughter Kirkee III. by Booth's King Arthur at her
side does not fulfil anticipation. The Kirkee numbers
are now given up ; and her last calf is Queen of the
South by Melbourne IL, who is now among Mr.
Dudley ^larjoribanks's shorthorns at the Bushey Hall
farm. His sire, Melbourne I., was bought as a
bull calf from Mr. W. Smith, of Rasen, and died
while he was being prepared for the Lincoln Royal.
Queen of the South, who is possibly going to Warwick,
is a wonderful grazer, and fine as a racer in the bone ;
and 200 gs. was offered for her in vain when four months
old. The daughter of Earring, who stands next her, is by
Wilkinson's Monarch, and has a heifer calf. Telltale, by
Windsor Second. Monarch made her somewhat harsher
in the hair than her dam, but her calf gets the quality
back. Passing by Mayflower, a very nice cow of Lax's
Magician tribe, we come to Coquette and Rosa Bon-
heur, botli by Towneley's Horatio and the first purchases
for the new herd. Rosa's quarters are not so good as
Mayflower's ; but we may seek in vain for other faults,
and she has the honour of being the dam of Cock-o'-the-
Walk, the first calf that was ever dropped to Great
Mogul.

Passing into the other yard, we find the Spencer
blood well represented in Young Daisy and Lucy
Ilnd. The former, who has a strong touch of the
old fashion about her, and a somewhat thick neck, was
bought at Mr. Spearman's sale. She is by Lord Spen»

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

283

cer's Zadig, dam Wild Flower, by Bates's Duke of Rich-
mond, who fell to Mr. Maynard's nod on the Kirk-
levington day, Lucy II. is by Lord Foppington, and
the only cow retained with old Kirkee at the second
sale. Her dam, Lucy, was by Mambrino, the first
thorough-bred bull Mr. Marjoribanks ever had, and, with
the exception of Lord Foppington, she is full Spencer
blood. She has all the characteristics of the Wiseton
herd, a slight absence of hair, and close texture of flesh,
and inclined, from age, to be a little patchy, but still
with fine character and a sweet head and horn. Lady
Spencer, by Usurer out of Sibyl by Lord Warden, is
rather leggy, and " disappoints the pedigree," which
is unbroken in purity from Lord Spencer to Mason.

Two very remarkable heifers of very opposite styles
stand near them, over which many a good judge has
already lingered minute after minute, and hardly made
up his mind then. Elegance, who was bred by Mr.
William Smith, is a complete combination of Booth and
Bates, as she is by Lord Raglan, a son of Harbinger,
out of Variety, a daughter of Bates's Third Duke of
York. She has very fine length, great in her girth, and
as even as a die, with the exception of a sliglit
fall from the hip to the rump. She has never been
shown yet ; but if she goes to Warwick, she will require
a good deal of getting rid of, in the two-year-old class.
Vesta is of Booth blood on both sides, as the first glance
at her Queen of the Isles' sort of head will tell,
through Royal Buck and Leonidas. She is a heifer of
a richer colour and squarer build than Elegance, but not
quite so much length. Her ribs and loins unite in a
very remarkable degree, and the former has, if possible,
more prominence than the hip. Helen by Booth's
Bridesman, dam by Captain Shafto, is very good in the
chine, and altogether a capital heifer, but she is unfor-
tunately just too old to show as a yearling. Ze-
nith by Booth's Prince George, dam Zenobia III.
by "the handsome Belleville," is a high-class animal who
has still to come out. Own sister to Mr. Wetherell's
renowned bull Statesman is here also, in the shape of
the white Silver Bell, by Earl Scarboro', a heifer with
beautiful flesh and hair, but perhaps a trifle too much
length. Wafer Witch is also from Mr. Wetherell's herd,
and runs back on her dam's side into the White Rose
and May Flower — a fine old tribe, of whose sound consti-
tution Mr. Lax was so justly proud. She was the last
we looked over, with the exception of Queen Bess III.,
who stood in the farthest corner of her house. This red
hsifer is all Booth, except one cross of Lawson's Wel-
lington, and her close rib and loin do the great York-
shire herd full justice ; but she is a little light of bone,
and hence the judicious cross with Great Mogul
seems likely to hit.

Six out of the nine young bulls are by Great Mogul,
who traces his descent through thirteen crosses, two of
them Favourite's, to the dim antiquity of " Jolly's Bull."
Oddly enough, he just reversed Marmaduke's rule, as
he has hitherto got all bull calves, save two. He is by
Grand Turk, bred by Mr. Bolden, out of Victoria 8th,
who WES bought before calving for 60 gs., when she was
eleven years old, She never bred again, and was

sold as barren at the sale for 61 gs., leaving
this splendid memorial of her brief stay at Bushey.
Mr. Marjoribanks had every temptation to let him
go, as Earl Fitzwilliam's agent and Mr. Cart-
wright, a Lincolnshire breeder, both bid close up for
him ; but the almost moral certainty of winning with
him his first royal prize at Salisbury was worth thrice
375 gs. to Mr. Marjoribanks. His flesh and hair are
very grand, and so are his hind-quarters and thighs,
though he falls off slightly behind the shoulders, a fault
which was the only one that any one could urge against
him on the sale day. Of his bull calves, so far, three
are white and three roan. Both Great Magician and
Will-o'-the-Wisp have all their sire's fine quality and
rich hair ; but perhaps the former, as compared with
h^ half-brother, might strike an observer as having a
rather finer stamp of head, and the latter rather more
length of quarter. Corporal Trim has a good deal of
the Tempest character about him ; and Jack Sprat
glories in a white coat as curly as a Scot, or the love-
locks on Statesman's forehead. The son and heir, Cock-
of-the-Walk, out of Rosa Bonheur, is a very taking
calf — a deeper and richer roan than his sire, and looks
as if he had, with his fine straight top and his well-
formed shoulders, an eye to the " Lammas Meadows"
festival next July. Lord of the South, by Windsor II.,
out of Earring by Harbinger, is just eligible for the bull-
calf class, and has a rare top and crops ; and Baron of
Bushey, by Bridesman, just seven weeks his senior,
stands next him, and is, as Mr. Tallant terms it, " a
true Lax," compact and well put together, and with
fine character throughout. Tell Tale and Lady But-
terfly were the only heifer calves ; the latter right
worthy of her dam Red Butterfly, and the very
picture of her.

Only one more remained, and that was a little
Alderney calf, the very image of a fawn, which was cosily
housed in a pig-sty. We might well regard it, with
Sir Lytton Bulwer, as

" At dusk and dawn a lonely Faun,
The last of the Grecian dreams,"

when coming weary with the contemplation of fore-quar-
ters and sirloins to refresh the eye with a peep at future
spare-ribs and bacon in the long range of pig-styes, we
found that all their occupants save five were gone, and
that no less than a hundred had been sold off last year.
And so foiled in our search, we put up our note-book,
and strolled into Mr. Tallant's office, as a refuge from
the bitter wind ; and when we had looked at the painting
of the ancient steer, we once more sped back from
those quiet pastures and straw-yards, to the " moil
and dust of life" in the great lamp-lit metropolis of the
world.

Chapter IV.

MR. WETHERELL'S HERD.

It is now upwards of forty years since this celebrated
judge of Shorthorns first fell into the Durham fashion,
and commenced breeding them, on the farm near Pierce
Bridge, where he was born, The rising fame of hj§

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native county in this department of pastoral enterprize
had been about coeval with his own birth ; and long
before he commenced his maiden herd at Holm House,
in 1816, " the haughty southrons" had learnt to regard
Durham as a very Goshen of cream and beef, and as
holding a sort of charmed existence, under such
proverbially cold and weeping skies. In fact they
had no excu'ie for thinking otherwise, seeing that for
six long years, confirmation in the shape of — " The most
wonderful Durham Ox, for whom his owner has refused
the surprising sum of two thousand guineas ; iveighs
thirty-five hundred tveighl ; admission only one shil-
ling" had been emblazoned on the iront of a yellow
caravan in almost every town and village in England ;
and they had been invited at allhours, personally, through
a speaking-trumpet to " step up, Gentlemen, and judge
Jar yourselves." Comet's thousand-guinea sale in
1810 had also been well buzzed about from farmstead
to farmstead, till it traversed the whole length and
breadth of the island. The majority of breeders consi-
dered, on hearing it, that Durham and the Collingses
were playing either a very dashing or a very deep game ;
while more speculative philosophers, who could not have
indicated the region of the sirloin if they had been led
up to a beast, argued that, as the new shorthorned kind
had originally come from Holland, the Comet biddings
were only a revival in another shape of that Tulipomania
which had once driven the country of dykes stark mad ;
and that our Government ought at once to interfere as
theirs did.

Be this as it may, those spirited biddings which Mr.
Wetherell heard as a lad beneath the lime trees at
Ketton, were not lost upon him ; and hence, eight
years afterwards, he set out on the Barmpton day with a
determination to go in merrily on his own account.
Thirty-four of the cows, and four of the heifers under
twelve months old, had been knocked down before he
ciught Mr. Robinson's eye ; and then lots 41 and 43 —
Lady Anne and Cleopatra, both of them full of George
and Favourite blood — became his for 100 and 133 gui-
neas, and wended their way to Holm House that night.
Their luck was rather chequered, as Lady Anne died in
calving twins, and Cleopatra followed up a heifer
which never bred, with the very first-class bull Belzoui
(1709), by North Star (459). As he had hired this bull
from Robert CoUings, and used him for two seasons
before the sale, Mr. Wetherell did not care to bid for
him ; but, although he was eleven years old, the " by
Favourite, dam by Punch" strain induced that rare
judge, Mr. Lax, to give 72 guineas for him. Time,
however, proved him to have been the real lode star of
the Holm House fortunes, as he got not only the famous
Rosanna during his stay, but. two rare bulls, Magnet
(2240) and St. Leger (1414), the latter of which Mr.
"Wetherell sold to Mr. John Rennie, of Haddingtonshire,
for 250 guineas. This was not Mr. Rfinnie's only high-
priced purchase from him, as he gave him 500 guineas
for three cows, whose portraits, in a long array over the
Aldborcugh sideboard, still keep the memory green of
his maiden herd. They were three sisters by Comus,
oat of a cow bred by Mr. Carter, of Theakston,

who was a near neighbour to old Mr. Booth, and made
an extensive use of his bulls.

In 1828 Mr. Wetherell sold off all his Shorthorns,
and left Holm House ; and in 1833 we find him living
" beneath the Gothic shade" of Durham Cathedral, and
commencinganew herd at Newton Hall, some three miles
distant. His spirit and fine judgment had still greater
scope in this second essay. He bred the Duke of Cla-
rence (9010) and King Dick (9269), and sold the latter
at fourteen months old to Lord Hill for 120 guineas.
He also gave 250 guineas for The Earl of Durham (5965),
to Mr. Miller, of Ballumby, Perthshire, but he
died in less than six months, leaving only three of
his get behind him, which, by way of set-off to such ill
luck, averaged 106 guineas at the hammer, when under
twelve months old. The estimation in which the herd
was held speaks best through the fact that at this sale in

1847 four animals realized 500 guineas.

It had been strengthened from time to time by very
spirited purchases. Emperor (1839), with his dam
Blossom, and his grandam Spring Flower, passed into
it at Mr. Hutton of Gate-Burton's sale, for 250 guineas,
100 guineas, and 70 guineas each ; and in 1846, Em-
peror justified his price by upholding the honour of the
district, as first prizeman in the second class, at the
Royal Show at Newcastle, against two dozen rivals.
Mr. Banks Stanhope's prize heifer also met sixteen at
the same show, and Lord Feversham's, Mr. Booth's,
Mr. Trotter's, and Mr. Wetherell's, were all highly
commended. Barmpton Rose was also an illustrious
unit in the Newton Hall herd ; but after Mr. Wetherell
had bred Princess Royal from her, he sold her in-calf
with Buttercup to Mr. Henry Watson, of Walkering-
ham, at her prime cost, 53 guineas ; and at that gen-
tleman's sale she and her nine descendants made 1033
guineas. Mr. Wetherell had originally purchased the mare
Morsel for about the same sum, sent her to Physician, and
sold her when she was in-foal of The Cure ; and so, in this
instance, the embryo calf Buttercup became the dam of
Butterfly, who, when crossed with the once neglected
Frederick, produced not only the unbeaten but the
highest priced bull that the world ever saw. This is
not Mr. Wetherell's only connection with the Towneley
herd, as Mr. Eastwood purchased Blanche 5th, by Bates's
renowned Duke of Northumberland, out of Blanche
2nd, from him, and bore off Roan Duchess, by Whit-
tington, out of Red Duchess, by Cleveland Lad 2nd,
as well. Red Duchess and Blanche V. were both bought
by Mr. Wetherell from Mr. Mawe, who had in his turn
bought Blanche V. from Mr. Bates. Mr. Eastwood's
pair kept each other company, not only in the journey
to Lancashire, but through their daughters in after-
years, in the yard at the Chelmsford Royal, where, after
passing into Col. Towneley's bands. Roan Duchess 2nd
was first in the Cow class, and the red and white
Elar.che G.h next to her.

It was with Blanche 5th and Red Duchess that Mr.
Wetherell commenced his third herd at Kirkbridge, in

1848 ; and three years after. The Earl of Scarborough,
(by Roan Duke, a pure Bates bull,) who was bred by
Mr. Mawe, and bought along with his dam at the Tctley

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

285

sale, carried off the head prize at Windsor, for the best
bull ia Class I. Still his success had many serious
drawbacks, as twenty-four of his cows died of
pleuro-pneumoaia, and thirty-three cast their calves;
but the herd was gradually rising into note once
more, when, in consequence of circumstances well
known, Mr. Wetherell gave up his Kirkbridge farm,
where he had once hoped to end his days, and went
to reside about a mile off, at Aldborough. He
did not, however, relinquish breeding entirely ; and,
faithful to the blood of The Earl of Scarborough, he
brought his daughters, Lady Scarborough and The
Duchess of Northumberland (who goes back with two
crosses of Belvidere to " Sockburn Sail," by John
Coates's bull) along with him ; and these, with Moss
Rose, Cosy, and a few others, formed the germ of the
fourth herd, which is just about to come to the hammer.
The herd, which numbers about fifty head, fifteen of
them bulls, is at present located at the High Grange,
near Melsonby, where Mr. Wetherell took quarters for
them in consequence of not meeting with a suitable farm.
A drive of three miles from Aldborough brings you to
the spot, which is nearly the most elevated in the neigh-
bourhood. Diddersley Hill, with its sparse covering of
whin and heather, stands bleak and brown on the south,
partially intercepting the view towards Richmond, which
is seven miles away. There was once a castle on it, and
as you pass through a half-crumbling turreted archway,
you fancy that, even if it be only tenanted by the owls
and the bats, there must of a surety be one still ; but
not one stone is left upon another. You soon find that
your castle is in the air, and that you have just passed
through the mere portal to a moor. Mr. Wetherell's
holding is up two or three fields to the left. The farm-
buildings look desolate enough, and exposed to all the
fury of the west wind, but there is a snugness and com-
fort in all the arrangements down to the canvas cur-
tains, and the whin bushes on the gates, which proves,
without even seeing the result in the beautiful con-
dition of the cattle, that Mr. Wetherell and his trusty
herdsman, John Ward, have not battled with the elements
in vain.

It was a pleasant change, after being almost frozen as
we sat, to leave our gig and find ourselves among the
bull calves in a comfortable stable, whose stalls have
been boxed off for their little Herd-Book occupants.
Royal Oak, by Lord Mayor (14828), out of Oak Apple,
was on the extreme right, and the herd boy was soon at
his side to make him hold up his head, and show off his
handsome dark roan frame to the best advantage. He
is a remarkably well-made calf, with a very broad back,
straight quarters, and rich hair, and promises to be a
high wrangler some day. Mr. Wetherell sold hi? sire.
Lord Mayor, to Sir Antony de Rothschild, when eigh-
teen months old, for 250 guineas ; and his dam. Oak
Apple, goes back through Anti-radical (1642) — which
pretty well fixes Ms date — to the original Holm House
blood in North Star. Next to him is perhaps a still
sweeter calf to the eye, in the shape of Lord Aberdeen,
who is rather a lighter roan, and with the most blood-
like of heads. He is also by The Lord Mayor, out of

Moss Rose, and she was shown in-calf with him at
Aberdeen, when she was second to Mr. Douglas's
Britannia, for whom that gentleman gave Colonel
Towneley 500 guineas. Comfort, a white heifer out of
Cozy, the dam of Lord Mayor, next claimed attention
for her own and her half-brother's sake ; and then we
found the meaning of the two names exemplified to the
full as we passed into the first yard, which was quite a
straw paradise, such as departed Victorias and Bracelets
may be supposed to revel in when Royal Society and
breeding toils are o'er.

The roan Passion Flower, by Whittington (12299),
out of Magic Flower, was the first to come forth on the
left, and, like old Cozy, she has never been in public.
She is a great milker, and shows a great deal of breed-
ing, combined with fine handling, and rich hair ; but
she is not quite so good-looking as her sister, Windsor
Flower (so called after her sire's victory there), who was
sold to Mr. Stirling, of Keir, for 250 guineas. The
white Lady Scarborough followed, and is stately in her
presence, as her dam was in name. Her fine broad
back, prominent breast, and round ribs, are her especial
points, and she is in-calf to Alderman. Lord Scar-
borough and Statesman are both out of her ; then
comes the heifer Silver Bell, who was sold to Mr. Mar-
joribanks when a nine months' calf for 100 guineas ; and
last of all Stanley, own brother to Statesman. Her
ladyship has more elegance than Cozy, by Cother-
stone, who was turned out by her side, and seemed
a fine large roan cow, whose contour was rather
destroyed by a slight temporary injury to one of her
eyes. Two roan Lord Mayor calves — one of them
Lady, out of Countess, and the other Bloom, out
of Lucy — of the Killerby blood, succeeded. Both are
the same age to a day ; but good as Lady is in every
point, Bloom would beat her if they came together,
and we doubt if there is anything much superior to her
in the herd. Next came Roseleaf, by Whittington, a
thick good heifer with a white heifer calf by Lord
Scarboro' ; and then the bull side of the yard was
opened, and the white Catton, the dark red and white
Lumley, and the white Stanley, dashing out playfully
with tails erect, made us the centre of such an im-
petuous triangular duel, that at first we were for taking
refuge, notes and all, in an ignominious flight. How-
ever, they soon came to a truce, and our peace of mind
was restored. The two first are capital specimens of
Lord Scarboro's get, out of Young Magic Flower and
the Duchess of Northumberland; and Catton especially
has a wonderful back, and is very rich and fine in the
hair. Stanley is also very well made, and bids fair to
be as good a bull as his brother, to whom he is as like
as he can be.

When these young roysterers had been dismissed to
their boxes, we had the treat of the afternoon, as John
Ward and his aide-de-camps grouped the three Roses —
Moss, Ayrshire, and Stanley — side by side, in the yard.
The roan Moss Rose, who is in calf to Statesman, and
will be six in April, stood at the head, showing ofi" well
that rare back and loin and round ribs, over which the
judges at the agricultural societies have so often pon-

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

dered. She was bought from Mr. Harrison, of Greta
Bridge, as a six months' calf, along with a bull, for
120 gs., and is through Cotherstone (6903) and Nancy^
of full Killerby blood on both sides. Her public life
has been latterly like Yellow Jack's and Hyllus's on the
turf, a series of splendid seconds. In 1857 she was
first, it is true, at Middlesboro' and Barnard Castle ;
but then came a H. C. at Salisbury, and a second to
Nectarine Blossom at Sunderland, and to Victoria at
York. Last year she and Mr. Douglas's Britannia
were always at cross purposes, and it is curious to note
their rise and fall in the judicial barometer. At Chester,
when Nectarine Blossom won. Moss Rose was highly
commended, and Britannia passed over ; and at Aber-
deen Britannia won, and Moss Rose was second. Nec-
tarine Blossom then reappeared on the scene, and
kept up her Chester charter at Northallerton, where
Moss Rose was second, and Britannia highly com-
mended. Her daughter Ayrshire Rose by Whittington,
who is in calf to Wisetonian, has so far run a successful
course among the white and green ribbons, as she has
been first at Barnard Castle and Grantham, and second
to the renowned Queen Mab at The Durham County.
Still, perhaps, the eye will insensibly rest upon the
youngest Stanley Rose, by Earl of Derby, as the
fairest of the lot, and the most likely to give Mr. Booth
and the rest of the short-horn trainers some trouble in
shows to come. Rose of Athelstane and Queen of the
Vale were both before her at Northallerton ; but she
beat the latter in turn at Sunderland, and since then she
has gone on improving. Her thighs, twist, and shoulders
are especially fine, and we could have stood there much
longer, just for the sake of seeing her lift her gay little
head, and come marching straight towards us with that
massive Bride Elect bosom, as proudly as if the War-
wick wreath was already her own.

When this celebrated trio had returned to " the place
from whence they came," Wisetonian, whose sire and
dam, Usurer (of whose character he has caught not a
little) and Sybil, both by Lord Warden, were sold at
Lord Spencer's sale — made his bow. He was followed by
Alderman, by Earl of Derby out of Cosy, who is very
first-rate in the union of the rib and loin, and has pecu-
liarly long hind quarters. Earl Derby's greatest son,
however, was still to come in Statesman (a delicate com-
pliment we presume to Lord Stanley), and in a minute
or two that curly white head, which first saw the light
on the 20th of November, 1855, was seen looming in
the distance. He is a very grand bull, whether you
stand beside him and admire his true cylindrical shape

and fine length of quarters, or measure him 26 inches
from the huggins, without any of that " nipping
'em," which " Cuddy" so deprecates. As yet, he has
only earned two H.C.'s from the Royal Society in 1857-
53, when Bon Gar^on and Fourth Duke of Oxford
won ; and the latter just beat him again at Northaller-
ton by his marvellous handling. Still he was first last
year, not only at Sunderland, Grantham, and Guis-
borough, but ousted Heir-at-Law at Aberdeen, after the
latter had beaten all Ireland to smithereens at London-
derry. His brother Lord Scarborough followed ; but
although he has rare quality, and an exceedingly good
head and back, his shoulder-points are not quite so
correct as they ought to be, and hardly close enough to
the neck vein. The white General Havelock by Whit-
tington is rather a good thick-fleshed, than an elegant
show bull ; but he bore his part with Venus, Alderman,
Ayrshire Rose, and Stanley Rose, in sweeping off every
shilling on the shorthorn prize-board at Barnard Castle,
last autumn.

Anon we adjourned to a range of boxes behind, from
which Venus, by Whittington, and a winner at Guis-
borough, was first ordered out, and certainly she is as
sweet as her name, which she bids fair to perpetuate in
her calf. Governess, by Archy Moore ; whom we had
seen along with the white Bell Flower, by Statesman,
jn the first yard. Governess is the only calf that
Archy Moore ever got for Mr. Wetherell, as he was
very early sold to go to Australia. He was a son of
Field Marshal (12875), whose daughters — Crocus,
Countess, Cobweb, and Cowslip, all of them roans, and
Crocus, perhaps, most to our mind — were housed in
pairs hard by. Wall Flower also struck us as a very
good cow, soft and of remarkably fine quality. She is
the dam of Bell Flower and Water Witch, who
departed to Bushey Grove, as a six months' calf, for
^0 gs. Lady Stanley and Miss Lumley were the last
brought out for view, both of them with a strong dash
of the Cotherstone blood in their pedigree, through his
son Crusade, whose winning powers were well known,
not only in the Highland and Yorkshire Societies.
The former was, perhaps, rather the compacter built,
and the latter, better in the hair ; but grand as the herd
was, it was difficult to get up one's enthusiasm beyond
zero on so bitter a day, and we gladly turned our back
on the High Grange, and its high-bred tenants, with the
hope to meet them again under a milder climate, and
amid biddings fast and furious on the coming nineteenth
of April. if J

THE COMPOSITION OF LIQUID MANURE.

BY rriHEEKT TV. J01I::30^', esq., f.r.s.

The opinions of the English farmers as to the
composition and use of liquid manure are com-
monly much too unsatisfactory. This want of ac-
curate information, as might be expected, has often

caused considerable disappointment and waste of
capital, and thus the returns from the use of liquid
manure have seldom sufficiently rewarded the owner
for his outlay. The researches, therefore, of Pro-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

287

fessor Voelcker, just brought before the public,
will be highly useful. They will assuredly tend to
convince the farmer of the advantage to be derived
from the analysis of the proposed liquid fertilizersj
so as to enable him to place a money value upon
their contents.

The great error in using liquid manures usually
consists in not reflecting that these must be divided
into two great classes : first, those which are highly
concentrated ; and secondly, those extensively
diluted with water; The action of these upon the
soil are too generally regarded as precisely similar
— although we must see, upon a little reflection,
that while the chief value of the first class consists
in their solid contents, the fertilizing power of the
other commonly resides in an equal degree in their
watery portion. Thus the Flemish farmers dress
their sandy soils once or twice annually, with only
ten hogsheads per acre at a time, of their rich
liquid manure ; but the Italians, who use the
waters of the Po mixed with the sewage of Milan,
and the holders of the Edinburgh and Clipstone
and Hampshire meads, who have also a very diluted
sewage manure, apply it by hundreds of tons per
acre, repeating the soakage in some places every
eighteen days during the greater portion of the
year. The rich liquid manure of Flanders, of
which we have heard so much, is in fact regularly
manufactured by almost every Flemish farmer, in
capacious tanks. We are told that these skilful
cultivators would as soon think of parting with
their cowhouse or their plough as with their tank ;
and no expense or trouble is spared, it seems, to
keep it well supplied. The farmers of Belgium
would place little vaJue upon some of the merely
discoloured waters which we are ever and anon
apt to dignify with the name of liquid manures.
Let us dwell for a moment upon the description of
the liquid manure, which I had some time since
occasion to give, prepared by the continental
farmers, and ask ourselves, whether this at all re-
sembles the kind of fluid v/e have been wont to so
hopefully experimentalize with ? The Flemish
farmers' hquid manure is obtained by collecting
and fermenting the drainage of their stables and
stalls into underground reservoirs or pits till it
attains a slimy or mucous state. It is usual to allow
this fermentation to continue for some time. There
is in Flanders a difference of opinion as to the best
age of the fermenting liquid ; some of the chief
farmers consider it should be six months old before
it is used. By this protracted fermentation some
of the solid portion of the manure is rendered more
soluble, whilst a considerable quantity of ammonia
is formed, and dissolved in the liquid. Sprengel
found that a given portion of the urine of the cow,
which when fresh contained 205 parts of ammonia.

held 487 after it had been fermented, and 1,622
when (previous to fermentation) it had been mixed
wth its own bulk of water (Farmers' Almanac,
vol. ii., p. 47). If tlien, I repeat, we remember a
few of these useful facts, we should not be so apt
to expect a profitable result from the use of a very
limited portion of merely discoloured pond water.
The experiments of Professor Voelcker, to which
I have already referred, were made upon six speci-
mens of liquid manure, and these were obtained
(Jour. Roy. Ag. Sac, vol. xix., p. 522).

1. From Westonbirt, near Tetbury.

2. From Badminton.

3. From the Royal Agricultural College Farm

at Cirencester, collected in 1857.

4. From the same, collected in 1858.

5. From Tiptree Hall, clear liquid.

6. From the same, muddy liquid.

They all had a dark colour and disagreeable
smell. And what is a very useful fact to remem-
ber, their specific gravity corresponded with the
amount of solid matters which each kind con-
tained. So that this affords a very easy way of
ascertaining the value of a decomposing liquid
manure, since to a certain extent the specific gra-
vity of these liquids may serve as an indication of
their relative fertilizing power.

The solid contents of the hquids examined by
the Professor, and their specific gravity, will be
found in the following table. These then contained,
of organic and mineral matters, in grains per
gallon, and were of specific gravity, as follows,
viz., that from

Solid Contents. Sp. Grav.

Westonbirt 418 I'OOG

Badminton 601 1*007

College Farm, 1858 ..111 1*0014

Tiptree, clear liquid . . 29 I'OOOG (sic)

Tiptree, with sediment . 95 1"001

These specimens contained of phosphoric acid
and of nitrogen, in diflferent states, equal to am-
monia, the following amounts, given in grains per
gallon.

Phos.Acid. Nitrogen.

Westonbirt 27 114

Badminton 9'5 22

Cirencester, 185/ 2*3 26

Ditto, 1858 4-8 37

Tiptree, the clear 2"3 4

Ditto, the muddy 3*7 5

From these and other data the Professor pro-
ceeds to work out the most valuable practical por-
tion of this and similar enquiries, viz., the economy
of distributing on the land the liquid manures thus
analyzed. He takes as a basis for his calculation
the estimate of Mr. Mechi, that the cost per ton of
delivering liquid manure at his farm may be taken
at from l^d. to 2d, per ton, and that upon an

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

average from 45,000 to 50,000 gallons per acre,
are annually distributed by the steam engine
through pipes over his Tiptree Farm ; or at from
about 200 to 223 tons per acre. Such a large
amount, if it were only mere water, however, must
be productive of considerably good effects: it is
equal to a depth of two inches of water per acre,
or one-tenth more than the average fall of rain in
Essex. The value of this large amount of water,
especially for grass land, must be considerable; it
is one, however, which the Professor does not in-
clude in the following estimate of its value. He
observes, when speaking of the Tiptree liquid
manures, that, " assuming its composition not to
vary materially at different periods, 50,000 gallons
of liquid manure, with the sediment, would yield
50,000 + 5'476 grains, or 273,800 grains, or in
I'ound numbers 39 lbs. of ammonia.

"Peruvian guano yields from 16 to 18 per cent,
of ammonia. To produce the above-mentioned
39 lbs. of ammonia, we should require 2 cwt. of
Peruvian guano of the best quality. At £13 per
ton, the 2 cwt. would cost 2Gs. For this outlay of
money the same amount of ammonia would be ob-
tained which is yielded by 50,000 gallons of Mr.
Mechi's muddy tank-liquid.

"Deducting the clay and earth which swell the
amount of solid matter in the muddy tank-liquid,
and taking no account of the suspended organic
matter, which may be done with propriety, since
account has been taken of the nitrogen, the only
valuable portion in it, we have as nearly as possible
the same weight of solid matter in 2 cwt. of Peruvian
guano which is contained in 50,000 gallons of the
Tiptree liquid manure. But the solid constituents
of Peruvian guano being more valuable than those
in the liquid, a balance would be left in favour of
guano. Allowing 4s. for sowing 2 cwt., 30s. would
cover the cost price and expense of applying the
guano.

" If 1 ton of liquid manure, according to Mr.
Mechi's estimate, costs for delivery 2d., 50,000
gallons=500,000lbs., will cost £1 l7s. 2d.

" The fertilizing matters in 50,000 gallons of
liquid manure thus will cost for delivery 7s. 2d.
more than the price of the materials and expenses
of application would amount to, were they put
upon the land in the shape of Peruvian guano.
Whether or not it is good economy to spend
£1 17s. 2d. for the delivery of fertilizing materials
which are intrinsically worth about 26s., or at the
most 30s., is a question which may be safely left in
the hands of practical men. It is a question which,
I think, cannot be answered in a general way. On
some soils, I beheve, even a larger expense for de-
hvery may be incurred, whilst on others less than
a quarter the expense may be ruinous."

The nature of the soils to which liquid manures
are most beneficially applied, varies almost as much
as the ordinary composition of these fluids. As a
general rule, the deep light sandy soils, resting on
a porous substratum, are the most benefited by
these fluids. It is true that the loamy clays of the
Tiptree Hall Farm are benefited by the application
of even 200 tons per acre, of a weak liquid ; but
then this well-drained farm is situated in, perhaps,
the driest portion of the driest of our English
counties ; and then again, in other cases, as in the
successful application of the urine of the horse, by
Mr, Dickenson, to Italian rye-grass, on the strong
clays of Middlesex, the application was so suc-
cessful, not for its amount of water (it was, in Mr.
Dickenson's case, applied from a common street
watering cart), but for the ammonia, and other
matters which the liquid (one-])art water, two-parts
urine) contained. The composition of the urine pro-
duced by the horses, the cows, and the pigs of Mr.
Huxtable, collected together in the same tank, and
quite undiluted with any other drainage, was some
time since ascertained by Professor Way {Jour.
Roy. Aff. Soc, vol. X., p. 613); and it may be
useful to remind the farmer that the following
analysis exhibits the composition of the putrid
urine or tank-water of the homestead, after almost
all its animal matters have passed into the state of
ammonia; but, as the Professor adds, with this ex-
ception, there is no difference between the urine in
the two states, and the analysis for all practical
purposes equally represents the value of fresh tank-
water as a manure. Two analyses were made of
the urine from the Huxtable tank. The mean result
was that each imperial gallon contained 356'45
grains of ammonia per gallon. Each gallon con-
tained 120S'42 grains of solid matter, viz. —

Combustible matter 397'63

Incombustible matter 81079

The incombustible matter or ash was composed
of—

Silica 8-18

Phosphoric acid 8"91

Sul|)huric acid lo5'l6

Carbonic acid 100*05

Lime 21-24

Magnesia 9"49

Peroxide of iron 14"02

Potash 353-01

Chloride of potassium 34 86

Common salt 152 26

Sand 3-56

810.74
The analysis of this powerful liquid manure is of
the more general importance, since almost every
stock-owner has the power of collecting it in con-
siderable quantities. It may be applied, too, in either
the fluid state, or what in some of the German

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

289

States is deemed the better practicej by causing it
to be absorbed in heaps of earth, or other col-
lections of dry porous materials.

There is another powerful liquid fertilizer — sewer-
water — which is also of very considerable im-
portance, and this will, I trust, be remembered by
my friend Thwaites, and the other metropolitan
commissioners, when they are constructinj?, in the
counties of Kent and Essex, the great interce])ting
sewers for London and Southwark. The reader
must not, however, suppose that the strongest
sewer-water is nearly as rich in ammonia as the
urine of his live stock. Some specimens of London
sewer-water, examined by Way {Jour. Roy. Ag.
Sac, vol. XV., p. 153), contained about 4r26
grains per gallon, another 17'96 grains only. But
these, although poorer in ammonia than the urine of
the farm-yard sewage, have commonly the greater
advantage of being obtainable in much larger pro-
portions. And let me again repeat, in all ordinary
applications of solutions to our crops, more
especially to the grasses, the quantity applied can
hardly, in our climate, and on porous soils, be too
copious, or too frequently repeated. This fact is
constantly impressed upon me, in my own experi-
mental plot of grass land, watered by sewage.

For wherever, through the occasional imperfect
repair of my distributing troughs, even a slight
dripping of the fluid takes place, there the grass
around grows with a far greater rankness than on
any other portion of the plot.

We may conclude, then, as a guide for other
and more varied trials, that it is an error to sup-
pose that weak liquid manures can be usefully
applied to* our growing crops in very limited pro-
portions, but that especially for our pastures we
can hardly repeat the watering too often. At
Edinburgh they thoroughly sewer- water their
grass at intervals of about 18 days, and the Scotch
farmers prefer it when in its richest state, that is,
when it flows to them in continued dry weather.
Let us remember these things, when we are apply-
ing liquid manures, and not fall into the too common
error of rendering a most valuable agent worthless
by over-taxing its powers. It is the more important
that the composition and use of liquid manures
should be well understood, since there is httle
doubt but that the agriculturists of our country,
when the legal and other obstacles which have
hitherto retarded the use of fluid fertilizers are
removed, will reap a rich harvest by their extended
employment.

STEAM CULTIVATION.
TRIAL AT TEDDESLEY PARK, STAFFORDSHIRE.

Some years ago an amiable and chivalrous nobleman
sought to revive the gallant pastimes of the middle
ages. With no small trouble and expense he succeeded
in getting up a pageant, which was styled a Tournament,
and in which gentlemen most uncomfortably cased in
armour, broke innocent lances upon each other's plated
breast, and were duly rewarded for their prowess at the
hands of a Queen of Beauty. Happily for the good
sense of Englishmen this chivalrous re-enactment has not
been repeated, and other pursuits more in accordance
with national tastes and the spirit of our times now
engage the leisure hours of our aristocracy.

It was a pageant of a very different nature that at-
tracted a large concourse of people to Teddesley Park on
Tuesday last. The interest all seemed to feel in the an-
nounced tournament must have exercised a very strong
sway over the visitors' minds, to have induced so many to
encounter the blast of the hurricane that blew, and the
torrents of rain that fell. Tlie venerable old oaks,
and the magnificent beech plantation in the park, groaned
as they bent under the storm that hissed and liowled
through their leafless boughs. The cattle themselves
had sheltered under the lee of hedges ; and yet men of
all ranks were seen plodding their way, bending to the
blast, some on foot, some on horseback, some in vehi-
cles, towards a large field at some distance from the

farmstead, where the trial was to take place. There
the four rival schemes for the application of steam to
the cultivation of the soil had been invited by the noble
proprietor of Teddesley to a challenge trial of their re-
spective merits.

Although the weather was as unfavourable as it could
possibly be for the bystanders, its severity did some
service in reducing the trial to two competitors only.
Four systems had been announced for competition ; but
only three machines made their appearance on the field
of battle, and these were Mr. Fowler's steam-plougb>
Mr. Smith's cultivator, and Rickett's digging machine.
Bray's traction engine was nowhere to be seen. On
the day previous, each champion had selected his own
ground ; and at an early hour on Tuesday the steam
was seen torn in thin shreds by the wind on three dif-
ferent parts of the field. Rickett's digging machine,
which had propelled itself that very morning from Staf-
ford, attempted to get upon the land ; but the most
strenuous efforts could not accomplish this object, and
it had ultimately to withdraw altogether from the contest*
Evidently Mr. Rickett's beautiful machine, ingenious
though it be, is not calculated for doing work upon moist
ground.

Now the two earnest rivals had the ground to them-
selves, and, nothing daunted by the rain and wind, they

290

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

went to work with all the eagerness of a life-and- death
struggle. Smith's apparatus was his five-tine cultivator,
and the machinery was that used by Lord Hatherton upon
his own farm for the last two years. The labourers, all
belonging to the estate, were evidently quite an fait of
their task, and it was an interesting feature of the day's
trials to watch the regular working of the implement.
No stoppage, no hitching anywhere ; everything went on
as smoothly as if the cultivator had been drawn by a pair
of well-trained horses. At each end a simple reversal of
the gear turned the implement short upon itself, a lifting
of the hand being the only necessary signal. As to the
work accomplished, nothing could exceed its perfection.
The whole surface, beaten though it had been by the
treading of folded sheep, and the hard rain which still
fell now and then in torrents, was beautifully smaslnd
up, to use Mr. Smith's own graphic expression, and the
whole staple thoroughly pulverized to a depth varying
from eight to nine inches.

Mr. Fowlrr, on the other hand, was trying also a kind
of cultivator adapted to the balance-beam of his well-
known plough ; but the tines, arranged in a single
diagonal row, though they were six in number, utterly
failed to accomplish their object. The soil was loosened,
it is true, to a depth of about nine inches ; but owing,
no doubt, to the disposition of the tines, tlie surface was
not nearly so well pulverized as with Smith's cultivator.
A single glance sufficed to determine on whose side was
the palm of superiority.

Both implements were carefully timed ; and it was
found that Smith's cultivator broke up 1 acre 1 rood 18
perches in one hour and a-half; whereas Fowler's
did only one acre during the same space of time.
The inferiority of Fowler's cultivator was so evident,
that a further trial became quite useless. Mr. Fowler
gave up the contest ; but his matchless swing-plough
was then attached to the gear, and on it went as it is
wont to go, fully redeeming the cultivator's defeat.

If any one present had come to the trial-field with
any doubt in his mind about the practicability of steam-
ploughing, he must have returned home a wiser, because
a convinced man. On, went the plough with its four
shares, not only upturning the soil, hue thoroughly pnl-
verizing it, and leaving it in that mellow, spongy tilth
which is the goal of every ploughman's ambition, and
which can only be accomplished with steam as a motive-
power, and an implement which leaves the surface
without even the tread of a ploughman.

Fowler's gear on this occasion was the same as thatl e
showed at Chester ; but it is right to state that his ma-
chinery has undergone, since that time, several radical
improvements, which, by rendering it more simple and
less ponderous, have greatly increased its power and
efficiency. With the new gear no strap is needed, and
therefore the difficulties arising from a wet Aiy are
entirely removed. A shaft with cog-wheels is directly
connected with a drum fixed beneath the boiler, vnA
round which the rope is wound up several times i i
grooves, as with a pulley ; and it is through this shaft
that motion is communicated to the endless rope. We
recently saw this improved machinery at work near

Chelmsford, and can testify to the beautiful simplicity
of the gear and the singular efficiency of its working.
It is to be regretted that circumstances should have pre-
vented Mr. Fowler from bringing this improved tackle
upon the trial-field at Teddesley ; for, although he ex-
hibited a small model of it, yet nothing short of the
actual working of that beautifully-contrived machinery
could give an idea of its transcendent merits.

It would be invidious, and to a certain extent out of
place, here, to establish a comparison between the two
rival systems that tried their respective efficiency on
Tuesday. The controversy has waxed too hot, of
'ate, to induce us to side with either party ; and yet we
are compelled to draw some conclusions from what we
observed. We do so fearlessly, for we have the con-
sciousness of having no bias towards either party, and
also because the difterence between the two systems is
sufficiently marked, to render the task of our criticism
comparatively easy and less liable to recrimination.

We think that everyone who witnessed the trial, will
agree with us in saying, that no implement can compete
with Smith's cultivator, in simplicity, easy working,
and efficiency ; and it is obvious that for the purpose
of breaking stubbles and other autumnal operations,
and cleaning land by exposing the weeds on the surface,
instead of burying them as it is done with the plough,
Mr. Smith's system is unrivalled. On the other hand,
when plough work is wanted — that is, when the land is
in that state of thorough cleanliness which is the rule of
good farming, and when the under part of the staple
needs be exposed to the influence of the atmosphere to
renovate its fertility — Fowler's swing plough knows no
equal.

As regards the gear we rather hesitate to express an
opinion. It is obvious that this is the knotty point that
forms the gist of the controversy between the two sys-
tems. Without assuming the right of deciding this
vexed question, we think it useful to point out the con-
siderations which ought to decide which traction is the
best. It is acknowledged by all who have either paid
attention to steam cultivation or practiced it, that one of
the most serious items of its cost, is the wear-and-tear of
the wire rope. The whole question between the windlass
and the pulley systems lies in the settling of this point.
On the one hand, it is obvious that with the windlass a
greater length of rope is necessary ; and if greater power
be used, such as is required in ploughing for instance,
we apprehend that the tight coiling of the rope upon the
drums, would seriously injure it by the pressure it would
have to bear ; whereas, with the endless system this evil
is not to be apprehended. There is another point upon
which some doubts exist in our mind, and that is, whe-
ther Mr. Smith's shifting anchors could stand the strain
of a 12-horse power engine. Even with the compara-
tively light draught of his cultivator, we observed that the
man in char^ce had to maintain the anchors with a lever
to prevent their slipping ; and there naturally arose in
our mind the question, what would be the result if a
heavy four-furrow plough had to be pulled, instead of a
light cultivator ? We leave the decision of these points
to those whom it may concern ; but one thing is certaia

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

991

— and it may be pointed at by Mr. Smith as an answer
to any criticism of his system — the machinery, gear, and
implements that we saw at Teddesley on Tuesday last
most admirably accomplished the task they had to per-
form ; and as nothing else was aimed at by Mr. Smith on
that trial, he may justly claim the palm of victory. But
had it been a ploughing match, Mr. Fowler would have
most undoubtedly established the unrivalled superiority
of his system.

Mr. Williams, of Eaydon, had sent his newly- invented
cultivator ; but owing to its not being provided with
drums to haul up the slack of the endless rope, it could
not be attached to Fowler's gear. However, late in the
day, when all the company had left, temporary arrange-
ments were made, and it was propelled a sufficient

length to test its great excellence and efficiency. The
work, in fact, could stand a comparison with that per-
formed by Smith's cultivator, and it has the farther merit
of taking a breadth of six feet, which must greatly ex-
pedite the work. Altogether, we think that this culti-
vator is likely to draw the attenlion of steam agricul-
turists, as it is certainly contrived with singular ingenuity
and practical experience.

It is but just to record the excellence of the arrange-
ments made by Lord Hatherton and his agent, Mr. Bright.
The most bountiful hospitality was extended to all
visitors ; and the keen blast that swept over the trial
field, the piercing cold rain, and constant exertion
thereby rendered necessary, sufficiently whetted every
one's appetite to render excellent fare the more welcome.

THE STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS.

It is well for the agriculturist to get " a wrinkle"
now and then from those marvellous men of business
in the great cities. While we have none but con-
jectural farming statistics to dazzle the world with,
what a sensation are the manufacturing classes able to
make with the exact number of their spindles, the list
of furnaces in work, and such details as those we now
subjoin ! Of course these " textile" people form only a
small portion of the vast population of " cunning
craftsmen" occupied also in "fictile," "ceramic,"
chemical, iron, and all sorts of metallic manufacture,
besides innumerable industries in wood-work, stone-
work, machine-making, dying, mining, quarrying, and
the fabrication of articles of dress, ornament, or utility.
But if the clever fellows engaged in those particular
branches are content to let Government keep national
books about them and their proceedings, without being
deemed unwarrantably inquisitorial, and with ad-
vantage to their ait or business, why should we farmers
dread the prying eye of public "enumerators," or
either refuse or else falsely fill up the columns of their
schedules ? The Census busybodies did get out of us
how many folks are farmers and graziers ; how many
labourers we employ ; how many of our agricultural
counties are unable to provide work and subsistence
to the hands and mouths born in their towns and
villages, and are thus obliged to draft ofl" their multi-
plying inhabitants to the big factory districts, or drive
them away as emigrants to strange countries, to grow
bread in the wild back woods, or shear sheep in the
wilderness. Would any harm be done, would not en-
couragement be furnished by collected and published
" returns" of such items in agricultural progress as the
increase in number of acres subsoil-drained, the amount
of steam or other motive-power applied to farm pur-
poses, and so on ? Take the following as an instructive
and suggestive example : —

Factories for spinning and weaving cotton, wool,
worsted, flax, and silk in the United Kingdom. — (From
a Parliamentary Paper, Session of 1857,) The number

of these factories in 1856 was 5,117, worked by 137,711
" horse-power" of steam, and 23,724 " horse-power"
of water-power, and employing 682,497 male and
female workpeople. The history of the increase of
motive-power is told by the following table : —
The "horse-power" was,

in the year Steam. Water. I Total.

1838 75,083 27,926 | 103,009

1850 108,113 26,104 134,217

1856 137,711 23,724 | 161,435

— the increase of power from 1838 to 1856 being no
less than 58 per cent.

Can anybody tell us what amount of steam and
water-power the agricultural industry of the country
employs, in addition to its great team of about a million
farm-horses and oxen, and how fast is the use of steam
engines extending? Plave we now 15,000 or 20,000
farm-engines at work, of the united "power'' of
120,000 to 160,000 horses, and increasing at the rate
of 2,000 engines every year ? Perhaps Mr. Mechi will
be able to furnisli some pretty sound estimate, when
the subject comes before the Farmers' Club next May.

The increase in the number of hands employed in
the factories under consideration has grown, we are
happy to say, in a more rapid ratio than the application
of mechanical motive-power.

In the year 1835 there were 354,684 hands,
„ 1838 „ 423,400 „

„ 1850 „ 596,082 „

„ 1856 „ 682,497 „

— the per-centage of increase from 1838 to 1856 being
61, while that of the power was 58.

What have the agriculturists to say on this point ?
It is a fact that during the twenty years from 1811 to
1831 the number of families engaged in farming pur-
suits increased only 7 per cent., while those of the whole
of Great Britain increased 34 per cent.

The following table shows at a glance the ratio of
progress in activity and industry of the different
branches of manufacture referred to : —

292

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Increase percent, (in decimals), 1838 to 1856.

No. of Factories. Power. Hands.

Cotton .. 21.495 .... 62.419 .... 46.355

Woollen.. 13.842 .... 25 929 44 305

Worsted.. 26.201 107.692 .... 177.583

Plax 6.377 65.226 84.268

Silk 71.641 52.955 63.650

In looking at the first tabular statement of motive-
force emploj'ed, represented by mechanical " horse-
power," it will be observed that while the total increase is
great, there has been a steady diminution of the amount
of water-power, the total increase of power being due to
the multiplication of steam engines, which — with those
of new factories, those erected in lieu of water-wheels,
and those substituted for engines of smaller power —
have nearly doubled in total effective force in a period
of only eighteen years.

The substitution of the unremitting and constant
power of steam for the fluctuating and uncertain power
of descending streams is a hopeful indication for the
farmers and inhabitants of low lands and valleys, for so
many rivers and watercourses will run the freer, with
improved district drainage, and healthiness following
as a consequence. No one has yet ascertained the
amount of water-power engaged in driving not factories
only, but the myriads of flour mills and "works " of
all kinds throughout the length and breadth of our

country wherever rivers are found to flow. Data for
comparing the power thus taken advantage of, with
the extent of the mischiefs occasioned by the damming
back of the streams which are every year being re-
quired to discharge larger volumes of drain water,
would be exceedingly valuable. And were the state of
the case clearly made known to the nation, we should
oon have a substitution of steam for water-power
along the course of many rivers, the abolition of mill-
wheels altogether in some districts, and a vast augmen-
tation and extended use of the water-power in others.

Whether it be possible or not to ascertain how many
portable and fixed steam-engines, and of what com-
bined power, are employed in thrashing, chaff-cutting,
grinding, pumping, sawing, &c., for " the agricultural
interest " we hope that steps will be taken to keep a
record of the number of steam-ploughs and steam cul-
tivating machines supplied to farmers from the com-
mencement of the new practice now fairly inaugurated.
By-and-bye we shall be able, with such facts before us,
to estimate the total saving in labour, the number of
horses displaced, and their share of provender given to
beef-making animals instead, and the probable increase
of produce and advantage to our husbandry — now
threatened with various discouragements and low
prices, that make long faces.

THE CORN LAWS OF FRANCE

A considerable degree of agitation prevails in France
at the present moment, on account of a new corn law, a
draft of which has been presented to the Chamber of
the Council of State, for their consideration and approval,
bj the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce.

In 1821 a law was passed for the establishment of the
sliding scale, whish was remodelled in 1832, and con-
tinues the law to the present time ; but in 1853, in con-
sequence of the deficiency in the crop of wheat, a decree
was promulgated suspending the law for the time being,
and this suspension has been annually renewed every
year since, without repealing the law of 1821, During
the intervening period of thirty- eight years there have
been nineteen years of low prices, and nine years of ab-
solute scarcity In these latter seasons France was
only saved from famine by the temporary suspension of
the sliding scale ; whilst in years of abundance the law
had no eff'ect in preventing low prices, for during Ihe
nineteen years referred to, the average price of wheat
was under 15 francs per hectolitre (or about 4s. 6d. per
bushel). The eff'ect of the law has proved very injuri-
ous to the farmer, for it prevented him from exporting
wheat, except when the price was at the minimum ;
whilst, on the other hand, it allowed importation only
when that grain had attained the maximum price.

The question of the abrogation of the law of 1821 is
considered as decided, every enlightened person in
France being convinced that it is no longer in accor-
dance with the actual circumstances of the country. It
therefore remains the subject of debate with the French

people, whether an entire free trade in corn, or a fixed
duty for the purpose of protection, should be resorted
to. The former, we believe, is likely to be adopted,
with the reserve of a duty, as a measure purely financial,
of 1 franc per hectolitre (or 2s. 6d. per imperial quar-
ter) on importation ; exportation to be at all times free.

This alteration is strongly opposed by the agricul-
tural committees of diff'erent arrondissements, and by
some of the French writers ; not, however, on the
ground formerly taken, of the inability of the French
farmer to compete with foreigners, but on that of the
protection granted to the iron and coal trades, which
compels them to buy those materials at the dearest
market, whilst they sell their corn, silk, wine, and mad-
der at a cheap one. There is reason in this objection ;
and we can hardly think that the French Government,
in adopting free trade in corn, will allow the protection
laws on iron and coal to remain on their code.

The benefit of the decree suspending the sliding scale,
and admitting the free export and import of corn, re-
ceived a very satisfactory illustration last year. The im-
ports of wheat and flour for 1858 amounted to 1,431,014
metrical quintals (about 2 cwt. each), whilst the exports
reached 4,224,963, being an excess of exports over the
imports of 2,793,919 metrical quintals. One of the
chief arguments of the advocates of the sliding scale is,
that, if a free trade at all times is established, the ports
of the Mediterranean seaboard will be inundated with
wheat from Egypt and Southern Russia ; or, at any
rate, the fear and apprehension of such an influx will

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293

tend to keep down the price of wheat in the Southern
Departments. ButM. de Livergne, who is a powerful
advocate for the abolition of the sliding scale, and of
free import and export at all times, shows that this ap-
prehension is founded on wrong data. In Le Journal
d' Agriculture Pratique of the 20th January last, in
animadverting upon an article in a previous number by
M. Andre, he writes: " They can," he says, "bring
to the French ports of the Mediterranean, Russian
wheats at less than 10 or 12 francs per hectolitre in
ordinary years, including the expense of transport, and
the profits of commerce rated as high as we can
imagine them; and when we reflect that Russia has
every year an excess to export ofbO or 60 millions of
hectolitres, we see nothing but imminent danger in free
importation.

" Certainly, if these facts were true, the dangerwould
indeed be very great ; but are they true ? Turning
over a few leaves, I see, at page 43 of the same number,
in the table of the prices current of agricultural pro-
duce, the actual price of wheat at Odessa, and find it
to be 16 f. 70 c. for the first quality, and 15 f. 50 c. for
the average qualities, which are both higher than in
three-fourths of France. How to reconcile these prices
with the affirmation of M. Andre we cannot conceive.
Which is it that is deceived, he or the price-current?
What compels me to believe that it is not the latter, is,
that during the whole course of the year 1858, notwith-
standing the incessant operation of free importation
and the lowness of our own prices, that of wheat has
never fallen at Marseilles below 18 francs per hecto-
litre. Where, then, are the fifty or sixty million hecto-
litres that Russia can export every year, and which can
be poured into our ports at 10 francs?"

This argument is unanswerable, especially when it is
further considered that France, like the United King-
dom, is an importing rather than an exporting country,

and that she has required an excess of imports, on an
average of 30 years, of at least 1,000,000 hectolitres per
annum, to make up the consumption. That country is
at the present moment, like England, suffering under a
plethora of wheat, the result of two favourable years,
and the price has been accordingly reduced — certainly
not by the largeness of the importation.

We are glad to find France at last disposed to reci-
procate with England in the freedom of commerce, there
being every reason to expect that the other continental
governments will in time follow the example. Belgium,
Holland, Sardinia, and Switzerland have already adopted
it, and with the best effect. It is this, and this only,
that the British producers, whether agricultural or
manufacturing, require, to enable them to compete with
all the world. " A clear stage, and no favour," is their
motto ; and a few years of perseverance will, we firmly
believe, put them in possession of it.

We will not conceal our opinion, however, that in
France the farmers stand on a different footing from
those of the United Kingdom, and that in order to reap
the benefit of any change in the law, an entire alteration
of the land system is indispensable. Whilst the pre-
sent law of inheritance exists, and the land is liable
to continual subdivisions as successive inheritors
die off, until the holdings are reduced in size
to mere patches of cottage garden ground, no
improvement can take place either in the culture of the
soil or in the condition of the cultivators, to enable
them to stand against competition or bear the results of
the vicissitudes of seasons. This is a consideration
which will ere long force itself upon the French
Government, who, whilst anxious to relieve the agri-
cultural distress, finds itself hampered at every step by
a law which acts as a prohibition to all progress either
in the condition of the soil or the proprietors.

THE WANT OF SYSTEM IN THE EDUCATION OF THE FARMER.

Something more than twelvemonths since, when con-
sidering the case of the labourer, a society of agricul-
turists came to the conclusion " that the progi'ess in
mechanism, science, and the arts renders an improved
judicious education essential to the labourers, while it
would be highly advantageoiis to thefarmers." They
felt, in fact, their own wantj and in saying all they
did for their men, could not forbear adding a word for
themselves. There was something, as we took it, very
suggestive in such a rider, and we are in no way sur-
prised to find the same association now following this
meeting up with one more directly addressed to their
own case. If progress in mechanism and science ne-
cessarily demands a higher tone in the character of our
workmen, the same cause must most essentially con-
duce in a yet greater degree to our own advance in the
social scale. Agriculture, indeed, is coming itself to be
systematically treated as a science, and it is to the ex-
tension of this system we have now to look. The

farmer of modern times must be more methodically
prepared for the place he is to fill. There was a day,
and not a long distant one either, when it would seem
anybody would make a farmer. A lad, whose conduct
or wits hardly fitted him for anything "better," was
put to it as a ready-made business, in which he could
not well go wrong so long as he did just as the people
had done there before him.

Strange as it may sound, we have but very
little improved upon this. Like the poet or the
propliet, the agriculturist is still a heaven-born genius.
If he is really well educated, it is as anything but as a
farmer; and if indifTercntly, he is even less prepared
for our present reading of what such an occupation
should be. The latter is now by far the greater evil of
the two. In a past age, it was held to be a very fatal
mistake to bring up a boy above his business; and the
other extreme was but the too common consequence.
If he was not to be " a fine gentleman," he was an

294

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

illiterate boor, with scarcely a thought or an aspiration
above his own labourers and companions. Fortunately
we have outlived such an era ; and a good education
is no longer considered as being above a tenant's proper
station or right. When Mr. Colville pooh-poohed the
piano, and wished to return to the golden age of the
maid with the milking-pail, he could not.find any one to
support him. And although it may be politic enough
for the master even yet to know how to draw a furrow
himself, the interpretation of his duty is susceptible of
a far higher reading. " Science, the arts, and me-
chanics," as they said at the Farmers' Club, have, by
this, gradually increasing calls on his attention, and it
will be to his best interest not to neglect them.

The important question, after all, is as to when the
education of the farmer should or does actually
commence? Up to a certain time most lads must
receive the same kind of treatment. They learn
to read, write, and cipher ; and at the meeting
the other night there was a pretty general opinion
that Latin and Greek could do them no harm.
So far, and any boy of the middle or even higher
classes in society migiit be well grounded, without ever
touching on the important point of " What he's going
to be?" But there is a limit to all this. The soldier goes
to Sandhurst or Addiscomb, the merchant as a clerk to
London, the divine to the university, and the futui-e
farmer to Cirencester or Kennington. If he does, he is a
grand exception to what has so far been the common
course of things. Or, if, as we may assume he does 7iot, he
leaves Horace and Homer for farm accounts, the rota-
tion of crops, and the diseases of cattle, as he will
study them in company with some practical authority
of repute. There is more probability of this ; but
still such an apprenticeship is by no means the common
lot. The greater chance is, that he only leaves school
" to look about him." If his father should be en-
gaged in rural pursuits, he goes home to assist, and to
get that inherent knowledge of the business only
to be acquired under such circumstances; that is, by
doing very much as he likes. As a principle of educa-
tion, we should say that young men are generally be-
yond the beneficial influence of any rule or sys-
tem when they are thus left to themselves under the
family roof. And yet it is in this wise that the ma-
jority of our farmers liave learnt the rudiments of their
profession. While one brother is grinding at the law,
and another walking the hospitals, " John" is
troubling himself very little about his business, until
Maryaiine hints that if they are ever going to be
married he had better look out for a place of his own.
And then the old people start them, and John really
begins at last to learn farming in earnest. And much
credit to him that he has got on so well as he has
done.

Even admitting that a man might and often does
acquire a practical knowledge of his profession in this
way, there are yet many things that it is almost im-
possible for him to pick up at home. His education
wants " pointing," as it were, for the pursuit forwhicli
be is intended ; and we must accept it as a very
evident truism, that the more one really knows of
his business the more likely is he to succeed in
it. Now, the development of modern agriculture
has made this same " pointing " more and more indis-
pensable. In the days when we all did just as we had
done, a lad might perhaps have learned the whole art
of farming on the farm itself. But he can scarcely do
80 now. Science, mechanics, and the arts are by this

part and parcel of his daily avocations ; and it is alriiost
as necessary for Lim to be well grounded in these,
as in tlie mere routine of plougliing, sowing, and
reaping. In fact, science and the arts bear directly on
these ; and the man who has not some proportionate
knowledge of their effects works more or less in the
dark, as well as at the mercy of many who are sure to
play upon his ignorance. What would promise to guard
him against the tricks of some of the manure dealers so
surely as a personal acquaintance with chemistry ?
What shall secure for him the best implements but some
practice in mechanics ? And youth, be it i-emembered,
is the time for learning. Many who had not the op-
portunity in their younger days have gradually edu-
cated themselves in these matters. But self-educated
men are ever exceptional ; and the farmer who is to
have, as he should have, a knowledge of such sciences,
should obtain it ere he ventures to report himself up
to his business.

There are already, as we have said, establishments
especially provided for supplying such information;
and others, no doubt, would spring up as more and
more use was made of them. The application rests
now altogether with the farmers themselves; and those
who are content with giving their sons merely a reading
and writing education, just fitting them for anything,
or rather for nothing, may rest assured that they are
not affording their children that fair chance they should
have. Mr. Bond, indeed, would go so far as to both
test and stimulate the proficiency of our agricultural
youth by a sys'.em of public examination. Hitherto, all
attempts at this have been unmistakable failures. Nor
are we very sanguine as to such a means ever meeting
with any very general support. There can, of
course, be no objection to each separate institution
having periodically such an ordeal of its own ;
but we question very much whether any numier
of young men of " one-and-twonty " would go up for
" honours." However, there is a manifest inclination
in many jilaces to foster advancement by this or some
similar agency. Both the Highland and West of
England Societies have for some time been moving in
this direction ; and Mr. Bond calls directly on our
national society also to look to it. Here " lies hid in
embryo the Royal Agricultural Society's most success-
ful operations and her proudest t'iumiihs."

Just at this time Mr. Bond is especially em-
phatic on the improvement and education of
our agricultural population. During the same
week that he read his paper at the Central Club
"On the Education, Discipline, and Introduction
of the young Farmer to Life," there was published
by the Suffolk Society a prize-essay in his name on
"The Elevation, Improvement, and Education of the
Labouring Classes." Perhaps, if anything, there were
portions of the Club paper which assimilated in style
more with what a Discourse might be, than an every-day
address of one farmer to his fellows. The essay, how-
ever, goes even beyond this. It is filled with references
to and quotations from the Scriptures, abounds in ex-
hortations and lamentations, is written up to the
precept of " Love the brethren," and concludes with a
short prayer. We question the taste or policy of
thus continually introducing the most sacred subjects,
while we have the highest authorities to support
us in saying such a practice is commonly attended
with more harm than good. Mr. Bond has already
deservedly distinguished himself as a writer and speaker
on agricultural topics, and his papers hitherto have
struck us as being singularly well composed. But
we fear the tone of his more recent efforts will rather
tend to defeat his intentions, good as we must allow
them to be.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39S

PROGRESS AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE:

A LECTURE DELIVERED AT THE BEDFORD WORKING MEN's INSTITUTE

BY MR. CHARLES HOWARD, OF BIDDENHAM.

Mr. Howard said :— Perhaps many of the
working men I see before me, upon reading the
notice for this lecture, may have asked themselves
the question — What have we to do with agricul-
ture ? I think very much, and that no class of
the community has so deep an interest as the
working classes in this subject, for this reason:
you spend a larger proportion of your income in
the purchase of agricultural products than any
other class, and, therefore, to you any improve-
ments or discoveries, by which more produce is
raised from the soil, Is a question immediately
affecting your interests, as it influences the price
of the 4lb. loaf and leg of mutton. The farm-
ers are a large class of the community of this
country, numbering considerably above a quarter
of a million. I am aware you working men
have been taught to look upon us as inferior
in energy and intelligence to the trading and
commercial classes ; we have been called chaw-
bacons, clod- poles, and our heads said to be
as thick as the clods we cultivate, and other polite
names ; and only a few weeks since, the editor of
one of our newspapers, and designated in some quar-
ters the leading paper of the county, having occasion
to speak of us, described us as leather-headed; but
as that gentleman informs me he contemplates
some day becoming a farmer, we shall then have a
most brilliant exception. I feel it, therefore, a
great comfort, having undertaken to deliver this
lecture, to know that you will not expect much
from one of these clod-poles, and, consequently,
none of you will go away disappointed. I admit,
farmers, as a class, are neither great talkers nor
writers, nor do they study to become so; for it has
so often occurred that those who have been either
the one or the other have been anything but good
or successful farmers. It was so with poorTusser,
who wrote some 250 years ago, and it was said of
him : —

"Tusser, they tell me when thou wast alive
Though teaching thrift, thyself couldst never

thrive ;
So, like the whetstone, many men are wont
To sharpen others when themselves are blunt."

My business, to-night, is with the working classes;
with others I have nothing to do. Many I see
here I know full well do not answer to that descrip-
tion; and,when I tell them this is the first time I have
appeared before an audience for such a purpose, I
must ask of them — and I am sure they will grant
my request — a lenient criticism. I will not weary
you with any further apology for my appearance
here this evenihg, but will at once direct your
attention to the subject which your worthy Chair-

man and Committee have requested me to bring
before your notice, viz., " The Progress and
Importance of Agriculture." " Liebig, one of
the most eminent men of laodern days, has said
that there is no profession which can be compared
in importance with that of agriculture, for to it
belongs the production of food for man and beast;
on it depend the development and welfare of the
whole human species, the riches of states and all
commerce; and there is no other profession in
which the application of correct principles is pro-
ductive of more beneficial effects, or is of greater
and more decided influence. Agriculture was the
original occupation of man, and has, throughout
all ages, been his chief employment ; for ever since
the hour when the command was first given to
man to till the earth and subdue it, owing to his
natural desires and wants it has been a necessity.
The first of arts, and now among the noblest of
pursuits, it received the earliest attention of man-
kind ; and, from that time to the present, it has
been improving, and will, doubtless, go on advanc-
ing so long as mankind continues to increase.
From all history it will be found that wherever it
has been encouraged, cities, republics, and empires
have risen into greatness ; and where it has been
neglected, these mighty states have fallen from
their high position."

From the earliest ages, the cultivation of the soil
was man's great delight; and a desire seems to
have been implanted in almost every man's breast
to be the occupier of a piece of land ; for, now-a-
days, there are plenty to be found, particularly of
a town population, who think their fortunes are
made when they commence farming, but how sadly
disappointed many of them have been ! I admit
that the pursuit of agriculture is one of the most
healthful and delightful occupations; but I must
inform you, it is not the road to wealth; for, while
our brethren engaged in commerce and manu-
factures speedily line their pockets and sump-
tuously live, we must be content with a slower
process of making money, and more humble fare.
But we envy not these gentlemen their riches or
their luxuries; give us the sweet green fields to
roam in, and a happy home, they are welcome to
the riches ofttimes obtained in a murky ofiice in a
crowded thoroughfare.

When Adam was expelled from the garden of
Eden, where he had been placed to dress and to keep
it, the fiat went forth that by the sweat of his brow
should he earn his bread, by tilling the ground
from whence he was taken ; therefore I may pro-
perly call our first parent a farmer ; and so soon
as his sons were able to work, the one was a tiller
of the ground, and the other a keeper of sheep.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The three brothers of the seventh generation from
Adam— viz., Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal-Cain— made
certain great class improvements, which clearly
intimate that one was a syHteraatic stock feeder,
and another a maker of agricultural implements.
And Lamech, when Noah was born to him, said,
"This same shall comfort us concerning our work
and toil of our hands, because of the ground
which the Lord hath cursed," thus showing that
Noah was engaged in the culture of the soil.
Agriculture was, however, not much engaged in
until after the Deluge, when it formed the principal
occupation of Noah and his descendants. Noah
took into the ark with him a large knowledge of
husbandry ; and the practices of his family round
the skirts of Ararat were repeated on the Eu-
phrates, and taught throughout all the countries
of the dispersion. Abraham, also, belonged to a
wealthy pastoral family, and we read of his large
possessions of flocks and herds; of his son Isaac
sowing in the land of Gerar, and receiving in the
same year an hundred fold. The wily Jacob, as he
has been often called, was also much engaged in
the cares and duties of pastoral life, and exhibited
no ordinary knowledge of his calling; for we all
know by what cunning device he obtained pos-
session of a large share of the flock of his father-
in-law, no doubt thinking, as many do no\v-a-days,
that the rich old Laban ought willingly to have
given him a dowry with his daughters. From
that incomparable narrative, the history of Joseph,
we learn that all the children of Jacob, from their
own words to Pharaoh, that their trade had been
about cattle from their youth, had desired, when they
came into Egypt, that they might settle in the low-
lying lands of Goshen, as producing the best pas-
tures for their flocks — displaying no mean judgment
in the quality of the soil; and, when they had
Pharaoh's permission to locate in this spot, he
said to Joseph, " If thou knowest any men of ac-
tivity amongst them, then make them rulers over
my cattle." And that great man who was raised
up by God to deliver his people out of the hand of
the Egyptians, Moses, also attended for forty
years the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law. Al-
though the farmers of the present day have been
called a grumbling, growling, discontented lot, yet
it is a comfort to us, as a class, to know that there
was one, and only one man, so renov/ned for his
patience, that it has passed into a proverb, and
that man was a very large farmer; for we read
that the honest, upright, and patient Job, the
greatest man of the East, had 14,000 sheep, 6,000
camels, 1,000 yoke of oxen, and 1,000 she asses.
There were other large farmers. Elijah found
EUsha, the son of Shaphat, ploughing with
twelve yoke of oxen, himself being with the
twelfth yoke, plainly showing he was not above
his business, and setting an example worthy of
being more followed by the farmers' sons of
the present day. The noble king David, who
in his youth was a shepherd boy, no doubt was
a skilful husbandman, and saw that his estate
was well managed, for we read that on his royal
farm he had eleven overseers. The estates, too, were
large in those days, both of the kings and their
subjects ; for we find that Uzziah, king of Judah,

" had much, both in the low countries and in the
plains, husbandmen also, and vine-dressers, on
the mountains, and in Carmel, for he loved hus-
bandry." I need not further multiply mstances
that agriculture was the chief employment of these
ancient worthies, and we have proof that they
excelled in the art. Their implements were light,
simple, and rude, yet they were most efficient for the
powdery and thirsty soil of Palestine ; and a sure
evidence of the goodness of their farm practices
exists in the abundance of their harvests— no peo-
ple can be said to have farmed ill, who for years
and centuries in succession reaped from thirty to
a hundred fold.

Having thus briefly reviewed the Bible history
of agriculture, I will now proceed to speak of
it as practised by the Greeks and Romans. The
Greeks considered it a most important and be-
neficial art, and paid the greatest attention to
its practice; and there was probably "ot a
leader among them who did not assist, with his
own hands, in farming operations. Hesiod is
the earliest writer who giv'es us any detail of their
management; and from his writings it may be in-
ferred thathe understoodhis subject, for he observes
that fallowing or frequent ploughing m spring or
summer is of great advantage; and he advises the
farmer to be provided with a spare plough, that no ac-
cident may interrupt the operation— a piece of advice
that our plough makers would not object to see more
carried out in the present day. He also directs
the ploughman to attend to his employment, to
trace the furrows carefully in straight lines, not
looking around him, having his mind intent upon
what he is doing. Xenophon, who lived three
hundred and fifty-nine years B.C., was, however,
their great agricultural writer, and in his " Essay_
the following interesting narrative occurs : In his
time the Greek landed proprietor no longer
laboured upon his farm, but had a steward as a
general superintendent, and numerous labourers;
yet he always advises the master to attend to his
own aff"airs. " My servant," he says, " leads my
horse into the fields, and I walk thither for the
sake of exercise; and when arrived where my
workmen are planting trees, tilling the ground,
and the like, I observe how everything is performed,
and study whether any of these operations ma,y
be improved." After his ride, his servant took his
horse, and led him home, " taking with him," he
adds, " to my house such things as are wanted ;
and I walk home, wash my hands, and dine off
whatever is prepared for me, moderately." And
again, he observes, like a keen, sensible man as
he was— and I would have you remark it, those
of you who think any man can be a farmer-
he says, "No man can be one, till he is taught by
experience; observation and instruction may do
much, but practice teaches many particulars which
no master would ever have thought to remark
upon. Also, before we commence the cultivation
of the soil, we should notice what crops best
flourish upon it, and we may even learn from the
weeds it produces what it will best support."
This good man would have shone, had he lived at
this time, and set a noble example, not only to
farmers, but to the class to which he belonged.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

297

viz., the landed proprietors ; for it seems he ac-
quainted himself, most thoroughly, with what most
concerned him, the good management of his estate.
The Greelcs, too, had a good knowledge of ma-
nures, as much or more than many farmers of the
present day. Xenophon recommends green plants
to be ploughed in, and even crops to be raised for
the purpose, for such enrich the soil as much as
dung. Another of their writers, Theophrastus,
shows still more knowledge, for he recommends a
course that has made the Norfolk farming so
eminently successful, viz., the mixture of soils,
particularly clay upon sand, stating it as his con-
viction that this system would produce crops as
luxuriant as could be effected by the agency of
manures. They also hoed their crops, and
kept them free from weeds. One of their wri-
ters, referring to the latter, says : " Besides the
hindrance they are to corn or other profitable
plants, they keep the ground from receiving the
benefit of a free exposure to the sun and air."
Their land was generally let upon lease, and I
will give you a specimen of one dated in the
lOSth Olympiad, 345 years before the Christian
era, and from its brevity and simplicity I
should suppose that no lawyer had anything
to do with it. It has been often quoted, but it
may be new to some present. It is a lease by the
iExonians — the townspeople or demos of yExone
— of a piece of land called the Philais, near
Mount Hymettus, to a father and his son for
forty years, for 152 drachmas a year.

" The demos of ^'Exone let on lease the Philais
to Autocles, the son of Anteas, and to Anteas the
father of Autocles, for forty years, for 152 drachmas
a year ; the said land to be farmed by them, or
planted with trees as they please ; the rent to be
paid in the month of Hecatombeson. If they do
not pay it they forfeit their security and as much
of the produce as they stand in arrear. The
iExonians not to sell nor to let the said land to
any one else until the forty years have elapsed.
In case of a loss on the part of the tenants by
hostile invasion, no rent to be paid, but the pro-
duce of the land to be divided between the ^Exo-
nians and the tenants. The tenants are to dehver
up half the land fallow, and all the trees upon the
land : for the last five years the jExonians may
appoint a vine dresser. The lease to begin, with
respect to the corn land, with Eubuliis the Archon
entering into office; but with respect to the wood,
not before Eubulus goes out of office. The lease,
to be cut upon stone, to be set-up by the magis-
trates—one copy in the temple of Hebe, the other
in the Lesche ; and boundary stones to be set-up
upon the land, not less than two tripods on each
side. And if a tax should be paid for the land to
Government, the said tax to be paid by the j-Exo-
nians, or, if paid by the tenants, to be deducted
from the rent. No soil to be carried away by dig-
ging of the ground except from one part of the
land to another. If any person makes a motion
in contravention of this contract, or puts it to the
vote, he shall be answerable to the tenants for the
damage."

" In this short lease," Mr, Caird observes
(from whose work we get it), "there is much of

that plain common sense, which fairly recognises the
interest and duties of both parties, and which is so
often lost sight of, in the perplexing labyrinth of
modern legal phraseology." From these extracts
from their writings, and from this lease, I think
you will agree with me in saying that the Greeks
had a very considerable knowledge of agriculture;
but as they became enriched by commerce and
manufactures, they neglected what was, and ap-
pears always is to be, the least profitable, viz., the
cultivation of the soil, and it consequently declined.
The estimation in which agriculture was held by
the Romans is pretty generally known ; the most
illustrious citizens deemed it their most honourable
employment. Generals, who put themselves at
the head of her armies, pushed her conquests, and
carried her eagles round the world, could handle
the plough as well as the sword ; they retired from
the conquest of kingdoms to the management of
their farms, and thought themselves fortunate if
they were relieved from the services of the State,
so as to enjoy the pleasures of rural life.

" In ancient times, the sacred plough employed
The kings and ancient fathers of mankind.
Who held the scale of empire, ruled the storm
Of mighty war; then with victorious hand,
Disdaining httle delicacies, seized
The plough, and greatly independent lived."

The writers upon Roman agriculture are numerous,
and from them full information is obtained. The
illustrious Cato dedicated a volume to his son;
Varro composed an agricultural treatise ; Virgil
immortahzed himself in rural verse; Columella and
Pliny also wrote largely; and from these we gather
that agriculture was well understood, and it has
been thought by some writers to be nearly equal to
that pursued by the present farmers of England.
Cato is reported to have esteemed him the best hus-
bandman who annually procured the most food for
cattle. In those days, there were agriculturists very
far in advance of their fellows; for Pliny records a
story of an industrious and ingenious husbandman,
who being in advance of the knowledge of his time,
cultivated a small piece of ground upon an im-
proved method, by which he gathered much more
fruits, and reaped larger profits than the neighbours
about him, though their possessions were more
ample. His uncommon success excited their envy,
insomuch that they brought this accusation against
him — that by sorcery, charms, and witchcraft, he
had transported his neighbours' fruits, fertility,
and increase, to his own fields. For this, he was
ordered peremptorily, by Albinus, a Roman gene-
ral, skilled in agriculture, to answer the charge
before him. Cresinus, fearing the issue, resolved
upon his best defence : he brought his plough and
other rural implements, and displaying them openly,
he set there also his daughter, a lusty strong lass,
big of bone; then turning to the citizens, "My
masters," quoth he, "these are the sorceries,
charms, and all the enchantments that I use. I
might also allege my own travail and labour, my
early rising and late sitting up, and the painful
sweat that I daily endure ; but I am not able to
present these to your view, nor to bring them with
me into this assembly." This bold and open de-

xZ

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fence captivated the people ; it proved the coup de
main which turned a doubtful result to his entire
favour : he was pronounced not guilty, and those
present took note of his inventions. During their
early history their occupations were small. Cin-
cinnatus, who was summoned from the plough to
be dictator, had only four acres. But as the em-
pire extended and its wealth increased, rich indi-
viduals were allowed to purchase large estates, and
to cultivate them by means of bailiffs and tenants.
And we gather from these writers that their man-
agement must have been very respectable. They
knew well the value of manure, and set many of
us an example in storing it, using covered pits for
the purpose; they had a knowledge of draining,
similar to that practised now, using earthen pipes,
stones, and wood; they were very particular as to their
ploughing, having it done very straight, and with
regular furrows. They had a great variety of
ploughs, and, no doubt, these possessed a con-
siderable degree of excellence. According to Pliny,
they ploughed in their seed with a double-breasted
plough, which is alluded to by Virgil, in his
instructions for the manufacture of this im-
plement; I do not know whether my worthy
brothers will deem it worth their attention : —

"Formed for the crooked plough, by force sub-
dued.
Bend the tough elm, yet green amid the wood ;
Beyond eight feet in length the beam extend :
"With double back the pointed share defend;
Double the earth-boards that the glebe divide.
And cast the furrowed ridge on either side ;
But, light the polished yoke of linden bough,
And hght the beechen staff that turns the plough ;
These long suspend where smoke their strength

explores.
And seasons into use, and binds their pores."

Reaping machines were also used by them ; and
the worthy Scotch pastor, Patrick Bell, who in-
troduced one into Scotland in 1827, doubtless took
his idea from the description of the one used by
the Romans. They also let the land generally
upon lease — a sufficient proof that it was decently
managed. Such is a short outline of the agricul-
ture pursued by this mighty people ; and it is a
startling historical fact, that when this great coun-
try neglected it — although great were its conquests
— the seeds of its dissolution were sown, for it
rapidly declined. And from misrule, and other
causes, the agriculture of the south of Europe has
relapsed, and remains in what may be termed a bar-
barous state; for my brother, who visited the Aus-
trian dominions, on business, two years ago, informs
me that, in the southern part of Hungary, the only
preparation much of the land receives is effected
by bushes bound together to form a harrow, which
are tied to the tails of Hungarian ponies, and
driven rapidly over the land.

There seems every reason to beheve that Britain
owed its first lessons in agriculture, as an art, to the
Romans, and Agricola was the chief instrument. The
native Britons used but a small jjortion of the land
for raising corn or other cultivated vegetables, and
the rest of the country was left entirely open, afford-
ing a common pasturage for their cattle : the greatest

proportion of the country was occupied by heaths,
woods, and other unreclaimed wastes — the woods
supplying a great deal of food, as beech nuts and
acorns, for large numbers of swine. But during
the Roman sway, agriculture rapidly improved, so
much so that very considerable quantities of grain
were exported from this country. The Emperor
Julian at one time sent a fleet of 600 vessels to
convey away the corn he had exacted from the
natives ; and these vessels have been supposed
capable of exporting 120,000 quarters of corn —
convincing proof that a country that could bear
so large a drain on its produce must have made
some rapid strides in its cultivation. With this
great improvement in the countrj', it was succes-
sively subdued by the Saxons and the Danes; but,
as these came to improve their fortunes, and to
win the comforts of life, agriculture continued to
flourish. The division of landed property into
inlands and outlands originated with the Saxon
princes, who gave to their followers whatever
districts they pleased, as rewards for assistance
in the conquest, reserving to themselves certain
portions, and imposing certain burdens upon each
estate gi'anted. These proprietors let their farms,
and the rent was settled by law. For, according to
the laws of King Ina, the rent of a farm consist-
ing of ten hides, equal to about 1,200 acres, was
10 casks of honey, 300 loaves of bread, 12 casks
of strong ale, 30 casks of small ale, 2 oxen, 10
wethers, 10 geese, 20 hens, 10 cheeses, 1 cask of
butter, 5 salmon, 20lb. of forage, and 100 eels; a
very moderate rent we should consider in these
days, and one that would scarcely call for any
grumbling. " The introduction, however, of the
feudal system by the Norman conquest brought in
unsettled times, and the proud and ambitious ba-
rons, being more intent on distinction in a rude
and cruel warfare, regarded with contempt a pur-
suit which accorded so little with their tastes, and
which was rendered insecure by the internal feuds
to which their more ignoble exercises gave rise.
Hence, agriculture rapidly declined. A feudal
system has been rightly designated the encamp-
ment of a great army ; and though the possession
of the land was the remuneration which the soldier
received for his services, that possession was granted
during pleasure, and so long only as the vassal
could render sufficient mihtary aid. To afford
this service, he was subject to be called away from
the fields at the most important seasons, his supe-
rior being anxious only for military distinction, and
so far from patronizing, had no sympathy in the
degraded occupation of husbandry."* The enclo-
sure of land was carried out on a small scale on
the early Saxon estates ; but it was not until the
reign of Henry HI. that it received more atten-
tion ; and this was caused by the improvement in
the demand for the broad-cloths manufactured in
this country. The landed proprietors then saw
that it would be to their interest to enclose their
manorial wastes, in which to feed sheep them-
selves, or to let out as pasture farms. Some
writers, however, think that we are indebted to the

* Dudgeon's Agriculture of Scotland, Roy. Ag.
Jour., vol. I.

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299

Normans for introducing an improved system of
cultivation. Thousands of husbandmen, from the
fertile plains of Flanders and Normandy, came
and settled in this country, and introduced a
course of husbandry similar to that pursued in
their own country. The clergy, and especially the
monks, during these unsettled times, were, in con-
sequence of their sacred avocation, left undis-
turbed, and bestowed considerable attention to the
cultivation of the soil.

In the fourteenth century we find Edward III.
gradually abolishing slavery — yes, slavery; for, up
to this time, the peasantry of England were slaves,
bought and sold with an estate ; and it was not
until the Reformation that they entirely rose out
of their degraded position, and those emancipated
applied themselves to husbandry as well as trade
and manufactures. England at this time imported
corn; for, in consequence of the quality and quan-
tity of wool that was grown here, a large export-
ation was done in the article by many of the
bishops and abbots, who were allowed to engage in
mercantile pursuits; their trading vessels, in which
they sent their wool to foreign markets, bringing
in return large quantities of corn. During the
fifteenth century England was engaged in civil
wars between the houses of York and Lancaster,
and such multitudes of labourers fell in battle,
that there remained not sufficient to cultivate the
soil, so that a great deal returned to pasture. In
the reign of Henry VII., a law was passed by
which the large estates of the barons might be
subdivided and sold, so that rich commoners could
become landed proprietors ; and from this, origin-
ated that highly respected class — the country gen-
tlemen of England; and, from the accession of this
monarch to the throne, cultivation began to pour
upon the kingdom its numerous advantages —
the culture of hops was introduced, and the breed-
ing of horses encouraged. After the beginning of
the sixteenth century, pgriculture partook of the
general improvement consequent upon the inven-
tion of printing : the first book upon the subject
was written by one Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, a
Judge of the Common Pleas, in the reign of
Henry VIII., in which he describes the advantage
of quick-setting, hedging, and ditching : he also
lays down a line of conduct for a young gentleman
to thrive; and also points out the duties of a farm-
er's wife; and, if 1 may judge from the number
and character of these, she must have had no easy
time of it. In the reign of Edward VI., the great
demand for our woollen manufactures increased,
so that a great portion of the land that formerly
had been cultivated was now converted into pas-
ture, for they considered it more profitable to feed
sheep and cattle than to grow corn; hence num-
bers of labourers were thrown out of employment ;
rents were enormously raised, and the corn farm-
ers ruined : these men had their friends, who
raised their voices in their behalf; for we rearl of
Bishop Latimer preaching before the king and
pleading their cause: "Let them," referring to the
farmers, "have sufficient to maintain them and
find them in necessaries : a plough land must
have sheep to dress the ground for bearing corn ;
they must have swine for their food to make their

bacon of— their bacon is their venison, it is their
necessary food to feed on, which they must not
lack; they must have other cattle, as horses, to
draw their ploughs, and the carriage of things to
market, and kine for their milk and cheese, which
they must live upon and pay their rents." How-
ever this state of things did not last long; for as
the growth of wool increased in other countries,
the production of it in England diminished, and,
as corn was scarce and dear, its growth was ren-
dered more lucrative, and land gradually returned
into cultivation. The condition of the yeoman at
this time was of a very humble character; their
farms were small, for we find one of the most
respectable yeomen of his time did not occupy
more than 100 acres. Bishop Latimer, speaking
of his father, says, " My father was a yeoman, and
had no lands of his own ; he had only a farm of
three or four pounds, by the year, at the utmost;
and hereupon he tilled as much as kept half-a-
dozen men : he had a walk for a hundred sheep ;
and my mother milked thirty kine." This good
man must have been a successful manager, for
out of this little farm he kept his son at school
till he went to the university, and maintained him
there ; he married his daugiiters with five pounds,
or twenty nobles, each ; he kept hospitality with
his neighbours, and some alms he gave to the poor:
from this account it is quite certain Mr. Latimer
was no disgrace to his class. Agricultural writers
now became numerous. Tusser, called by some
the British Varro, flourished in the reign of
Elizabeth, and wrote his "Five Hundred Points of
Husbandry," in doggerel rhyme, in the year 1580, a
specimen of which I will give you. He divides the
gross produce of the land into ten purposes : —

" One part cast forth for rent due out of hand.
One other part for seed to sow thy land ;
Another part leave parson for his tithe.
Another part for harvest, sickle, and scythe ;
One part for plough-wright, cart-wright, knack-
er, and smith.
One part to uphold thy teams that draw there-
with ;
One part for servant and workman's wages lay.
One part likewise, for fill-belly, day by day ;
One part thy wife for needful things doth crave.
Thyself and child the last one part would have.

Who minds to quote, upon this note.

May easily find enow ;
What charge and pain to little gain

Doth follow toiling plough.

Yet farmer may thank God and say

For yearly such good hap ;
Well fare the plough that sends enow

To stop so many a gap."

Poor Tusser's notions of apportioning one-tenth
part of the produce for rent would not suit the
landlords of the present day. Sir Hugh Piatt
also wrote a work upon the " New and Admirable Art
of Setting Corn," published in 1601, by Peter Shorte^
dwelling at the sign of the " Starne " on Bread-
street Hill. He had a knowledge of the value of
artificial manures ; for he says, " Shavings of horn,
upon mine own experience, I must of necessity

300

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commcntl, by means whereof I obtained a more
flourishing garden at Bishop's Hall, in a most bar-
ren and unfruitful plot of ground which none of
ray predecessors could ever grace or beautify either
with knots or flowers. I have had good experience,
with singular good success, by strewing the waste
soap ashes upon a border of summer barley ; malt
dust may here also challenge his place, for four or
five quarters thereof are suflicient for an acre of
ground; and sal-ammoniac, being a volatile salt,
lirst incorporated and rotted in common earth, is
thought to be a rich mould to plant or set in.
Dogs and cats and other beasts, and generally all
carrion, buried under the roots of trees, in due
time will make them flourish and bring forth in
great abundance."

Up to this time wheaten flour was a comparative
luxury, being served only at the master's table ;
and we gather from Tusser that wheat was only
partially grown, for he writes —

" In Suffolk again, whereas wheat never grew,
Good husbandry used, good wheat land I knew."

And an old writer of this time, the Rev, W.
Harrison, adds that labourers and artisans were
driven to content themselves with horse corn,
beans, peas, oats, tares, and lentils; and the same
writer, describing the manners in Elizabeth's time,
states, "There were few chimneys even in capital
towns; the fire was laid to the wall, and the smoke
issued out of the roof, or door, or windov>'. The
houses were built of clay, and all the furniture and
utensils of wood. The people slept on straw pal-
lets, with a log of wood for their pillow : the
filthiness of their habitations and the slovenliness
of their persons abridged the duration of human
life."

The civil war against Charles I. jiroved another
disastrous period for agriculture. The farmers'
produce was cut before it was ripe : his sheep,
cattle, and corn, were stolen by the contending
forces ; and he, poor fellow, very often cruci-
fied between two sets of thieves. "With such a
state of things, no wonder that farming languished,
for men were not inclined, even if they had the
knowledge, to do much to enrich the soil.

The agricultural writer of this reign was one
Gabriel Plattes, who has the credit of introducing
the first drilling machine ; he, poor man, like
many more, had laboured for the benefit of others,
so that he became destitute of the necessaries of
life, and fell down in the streets of London, and
died of hunger.

Oliver Cromwell bestowed some little favour
upon agriculture, for he pensioned Hartlib, the
agricultural writer of that day; he was, however,
forgotten at the Restoration, and he, too, it is
believed, died in great poverty.

Towards the close of the seventeenth centurv
important improvements were introduced, particu-
larly the cultivation of clover and turnips ; these
had long been known, but not cultivated in the
field, and then only on a very limited scale. The
first notice we have of feeding off" turnii)s is in
16S4, when it was observed that sheep fattened
very well upon them. And that invaluable root,
the potato, which has afforded so much comfort,

and, in importance, comes next to bread to the
working man, although introduced by Sir ^Y alter
Raleigh in 1586, was not generally cultivated until
the close of this century.

" It was not, then, until the establishment of
complete order, some time subsequent to the Revo-
lution, that there appears to have been any mate-
rial improvement in the ordinary practice of hus-
bandry; though, no doubt, the extent of land
devoted to agriculture must, from the growing
amount of the exportation of corn during the early
part of the eighteenth century, have been con-
siderably increased, and, in consequence of the
comparative prevalence of domestic quiet, many
landholders turned their attention to a subject that
was so closely allied with their welfare." * And
agricultural societies were formed, and our Scot-
tish brethren led the van in this particular, for in
IT'23 one was formed, designated the " Society of
Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scot-
land." And about this time in England, noble-
men were found who took a lively interest in this
subject. Lord Townsend, on retiring from politi-
cal life, " and which," says a writer, "went on none
the worse without him," spent eight years of his
life in improvmg his estate : to him we owe the
introduction, on a large scale, of turnip husbandry;
for this, he met with great prejudice and ridicule,
and was called "Turnip Townsend." He sur-
mounted these, for he had sagacity to see that this
crop was the foundation for all future crops ; and,
from its introduction, land that was not worth
previously '2s. 6d. an acre, now readily lets for 30s.
This nobleman was ably supported in all his efforts
for the improvement of the land by Jethro TuU,
who flourished at this time, viz., in 1730, and who
conceived the idea of drilling crops in rows at
wide intervals, and also introduced horse-hoe
husbandry ; and it has been observed by his bio-
grapher that his system completelely revolution-
ized the whole practice of husbandry; and that
his name will ever descend to posterity as one of
the greatest luminaries, if not one of the greatest
benefactors that British agriculture has the pride
to acknowledge. This last improvement was pecu-
liar only to >;orfolk, no other part of the country
having to any extent adopted it. And about this
time that system was introduced which has so
eminently raised the farming of England — I allude
to the four-course, that is : 1st, turnips; 2nd, bar-
ley ; 3rd, clover ; 4th, wheat. The Norfolk culti-
vators were never tempted to take two corn crops
in succession ; they had learnt the importance of
alternating grain with other crops. They soon
found the advantage of barley following turnips;
the clover the barley; and wheat the clover These
changes were wrought from 1730 to 1760; "and
the next step," says Mr. Sidney, "was to break
down the barriers which separated the farmers of that
day, and which left them nearly as ignorant of
what was going on in every district besides their
own, as of what was passing in China or Japan.
The active agent in this good work was Arthur
Young, the son of a clergyman in Suffolk ; he ap-
pears to have been one of those who could write

* Dudgeon Roy. Ag. Soc= Jour, vol. i,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

801

and talk better than he could farm ; for early in life
he took an occupation of three hundred acres, but,
not being successful, he gave one hundred pounds
to be released from it, and on the same farm the
new tenant did exceedingly well. Having aban-
doned farming, he made those agricultural tours
for which his name will be handed down to pos-
terity as a most useful and sagacious man. In his
time the most advanced counties communicated
with the metropolis and each other by thorough-
fares which could hardly be traversed except by a
well-mounted horseman, or a broad-wheeled wag-
gon drawn by twelve horses; while, as not one
farmer in a thousand read anything at all, the
printing press could not supply the jilace of
personal inspection."

" Norfolk, with a subsoil which allowed the rain
to filter through, boasted her natural roads ; and
the mhabitants quoted with pride a saying of
Charles II., that the county ought to be cut up to
make highways for the rest of the kingdom. In
Essex, Yoimg also found the lanes so narrow that
not a mouse could pass a carriage ; ruts of an in-
credible depth, and chalk waggons stuck fast, till
a line of them were in the same predicament, and
it required twenty or thirty horses to be tacked to
each to draw them out one by one. In attempting
to traverse these lanes, he had frequently to alight
from his chaise and get the rustics to assist him in
hfting it over the hedge. "Such," writes Mr. Sidney,
*'' was the state of things when, in 17G7, Young
abandoned the farm on which he had experimented
too much to be successful, and, availing himself
of the frank hospitality which has in every age
been the characteristic of our farmers and country
gentlemen, made those celebrated tours which are
absolute photographs of agricultural England. In
his reports, he makes known the merits of Robert
Hakewell, of Dishle}'', to whom we owe the intro-
duction of the breed of sheep known as the Lei-
cester, and who realized extraordinary prices for
them — three sheep in one season having been let
for twelve hundred guineas; and describing the
way in which he lived, it is said the yeoman
farmers had not yet removed to a parlour, and
Bakewell sat in the huge chimney corner of a long
kitchen, hung round with the dried joints of his
finest oxen, preserved as specimens of proportion
— a tall, stout, broad-shouldered man, with brown
red complexion, clad in a brown loose coat, and
scarlet waistcoat, leather breeches and top boots.
There he entertained Russian princes, French and
German royal dukes, British peers and farmers,
and sight-seers of every degree. Whoever were
his guests, they were all obliged to conform to his
rules — breakfast at eight; dinner at one; supper
at nine ; bed at eleven ; and at half-past ten
o'clock, whoever would be there, he knocked out
his last pipe."

A new era now began to dawn upon agriculture;
it became a fashionable employment; for King
George III. was very devoted to the pursuit, and
did much to recommend it to others : he had a
practical knowledge of the science, and contri-
buted letters to Young's monthly periodical — TAe

S. Sidney, Quarterly Review,

Annals of Agriculture. And he was often fondly
spoken of as " Farmer George ; " and it is a source
of great gratification and pride for us, as Bedford-
shire men, to know that this country owes so
much to an ancestor of a noble family, standing at
the head of our county, for the exertions he made
in the cause of agriculture — I allude to Francis,
Duke of Bedford, whose example has had a
marked and permanent influence, not only upon the
farming of this country, but I may say of the
whole world, and who was for many years its emi-
nent leader. He established those sheep-shearings
that have given a world-wide fame to Woburn;
and it may be new to many of you, but at which
royal princes, dukes, and peers met and discussed
with farmers the mode in which sheep and cattle
could be most economically fed, and the best
means to be adopted to bring about an increased
production of our corn and root crops. This
nobleman, with some few others, established the
Smithfield Club for exhibiting fat stock at Christ-
mas. Perhaps there are many present who have
not witnessed this great sight ; if so, they would
do well to visit it, for then would they see the no-
blest animals and finest stock this country pro-
duces. This society has been of essential service,
by making known the best kinds of food by which
animals can be fed, and also imparting a know-
ledge to the farmer of the best form of animal.
The Duke of Bedford was aided in his great work
by Mr Coke of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leices-
ter, who came into possession of an estate in
West Norfolk, and described as consisting ])arlly
of swamp and partly blowing sand, with here and
there patches of cultivation, where little was heard
but the wild sea-birds' cries, or felt save the oft-
returning alternations of the ague, burning or
freezing its unfortunate victims. There was many
a broad acre in its primitive state of sheep-walk;
and, in describing some portions of his property,
Mr. Coke made the remark that he found two
rabbits quarrelling for one blade of grass. Such
was the condition of this estate when this great
man came into possession of it ; but a speedy re-
formation was effected. He spent above £400,000
in dwellings and oftices ; laid out large farms with
mansion-like houses, to induce men of capital and
intelligence to take them ; granted long leases, the
covenants of which were drawn by one of his ten-
ants—a proof they were liberal, and only restrained
them from taking two white straw crops. By
taking this course, Mr. Coke was well rewarded,
for it is supjjosed the tenantry have also laid out
another £400,000, and his rental was raised to more
thousands than it was hundreds a year. This
estate contains about 30,000 acres, and is now
computed to be worth £1,200,000; but when Mr.
Coke first inherited it, in 1776, its outside value
was £300,000. It was then in the occupation of
small farmers, who paid their rents very badly,
although these were very low, and ultimately a
great many of them abandoned them altogether,
because they could no longer gain a livelihood.
Mr. Coke decided upon farming a portion himself,
and had in hand 1800 acres, upon which he tried
experiments for the benefit of his tenantry. He
introduced a better description of sheep, and

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showed great judgment in the selection of his
flock. Young says, " I have seen him and the late
Duke of Bedford put on a shepherd's smock, work
all day, and not quit the business till darkness
forced them to dinner." Mr. Coke had sagacity
enough to know that by taking this course, the
labouring classes, the tradesmen, and the sur-
rounding population, would be better off when the
land was occupied by men of sufficient capital and
intelligence to take large farms, than under farm-
ers but a remove or two from their peasantry. It
is a great mistake with many labouring men, and
others who ought to know better, to suppose that
a county or a country is more prosperous, and will
support a larger population in small farms than in
large. I am acquainted with various parts of the
country, and I speak without fear of contradiction,
when 1 say that in those parts of the country where
a moderate number of large farms exist, the popu-
lation is invariably better off. I say a moderate
number of large farms, because I think it would
be a bad day for this country when all small farms
were abolished, inasmuch as they enable many a
worthy man to climb the hill of life, and settle his
family in a respectable position ; but with all small
farms the onward m.arch of agricultural improve-
ment would be arrested. Those persons who are
so anxious to see England parcelled out into small
farms — and I know theie are many who do, and
who would rather see a farmer wearing a smock
frock and riding to market in his dung cart ; they
are, however, no well-wishers to their country, and
whose frame of mind I do not envy them — I
should advise to read a Frenchman's * work upon
the Rural Economy of England. In this he will
find that France, with her small farms, and with
double the acreage, is equalled by the United King-
dom in her productions. England herself stands ont
much more prominently ; I will quote his words:
"The animal produce alone of an English farm is
equal to at least the total produce of a French
farm of equal area, all the vegetable ])roduction
being additional." Notwithstanding the improve-
ments that had taken place on particular estates,
the condition of English farming at the close of
the eighteenth century very much resembled that
of the Continent at the present day. Wheat in
many districts was rarely grown and rarely eaten
by the labouring classes. Rye, oats, and bar-
ley were the prevailing crops. Turnips were con-
fined to a few counties. The general system was
two white straw crops and a fallow : straw, wetted
by the rains of Heaven, was their only manure.
Their cattle were large, ill shaped, ungrateful ani-
mals, for they put on their bones very little flesh
for the enormous quantity of food they consumed.
" Fresh m.eat," says Mr. Sidney, "for six months
in the year was a luxury only enjoyed by the
wealthiest personages. Within the recollection of
many now living, first-class farmers in Hereford-
shire salted down an old cow in the autumn,
which, with flitches of fat bacon, supplied their
families with meat until the spring." Esquire
Bedel Gunning, in his Memorials of Cambridge,
relates that when Dr. Makepeace Thackeray settled

* Lavergne.

in Chester, about the beginning of the present
century, he presented one of his tenants with a
bull-calf of a superior breed; on his enquiring after
it in the following spring, the farmer gratefully
replied — " Sir, he was a noble animal, we killed him
at Christmas, and have lived upon him ever since."
Having alluded to the improvements that have
been made in Norfolk, it is but natural I should
refer to that county in which it is yours and my
pleasure to live. It is said by an eminent writer that
the agricultural amelioration of Bedfordshire has
been no less complete and rapidthanthat of Norfolk.
Less than a century ago three-fourths of the county
consisted of nothing but waste commons ; these
unproductive lands have been gradually divided,
enclosed, drained, and cultivated, and, owing to
the four-course system, now rank equal to the full
average of English lands. " As in Norfolk," this
writer continues, " we here also find an influential
and energetic promoter of the revolution — the
Duke of I5edford." And, on referring to my friend
Mr. Bennett's prize report of the farming of Bed-
fordshire, I find that in 1794 much of the arable
land was in an open-field state, and, whether it
was found in arable or pasture, it had been evi-
dently ridged up for a series of years, till the tops
of the ridges, for six or eight feet across, were the
only jirofitable parts of the soil ; and the land ad-
jacent formed so many pools, ditches, and reser-
voirs of water. The mischievous effects of this
wretched system of farming were not confined to
the growth of corn, but the destruction of sheep
and cattle depastured thereon was too frequently
produced, not merely by the rot of a single flock,
but occasionally of nearly the entire sheep of a
village and neighbourhood. And while upon this
subject, I will relate to you an anecdote bearing
upon this matter. The late celebrated Mr. Roscoe
some years ago undertook to bring into cultivation
Chat Moss, part of which the railroad from Man-
chester to Liverpool now passes over. After
about two years' occupation, Mr. Coke went with
Mr. Roscoe to see how he was cultivating and im-
proving the land. After a long morning's exercise,
Mr. Roscoe told his bailiff they wanted something
to eat, and asked him what he could give them.
The bailiff said there was a small leg of mutton
then roasting for his dinner, and it was quite ready
if they wished to have it ; soon it was on the table
and both partaking of it. After eating a little, Mr.
Coke said, " Friend Roscoe, I cannot compliment
you upon the quality of your mutton." Mr.
Roscoe asked the baihff what mutton it was.
" Some of the Southdown," he replied. " Some
of the Southdown!" said Mr. Roscoe; "I did not
mean to have any of them killed." " I know, sir,
yoa did not," said the bailiff; " but most of them
were so rotten that if I did not kill them they
would soon die." Down dropped the knives and
forks, and the lunch was made up of bread and
cheese. And here I would just make a remark to
you working men : it is not the lowest-priced
meat that is the cheapest; we as farmers know
what often goes into the market, and to use
an old and rather vulgar expression — it may be
cheap and nasty. My advice to you is to buy
meat of thie bebt quality, for half-a-pound of good

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303

meat goes further and is more nutritious than a
pound of inferior stuff.

With such pioneeBS as the Duke of Bedford
and Lord Leicester, agriculture rapidly advanced.
I find during the first twenty years of the present
century an increase in the cultivated land of this
country of upwards of three milUon acres. Turnips
were now regularly cultivated ; and in 1824, that
system was adopted which has been the means of
enriching England to a very large extent : I allude to
the method of fattening of sheep by slicing turnips
and feeding them with oilcake. This was sug-
gested by the very able steward of Lord Leicester,
Mr. Blakie, to Mr. John Hudson, now of Castle-
acre ; and such was his success that when Lord
Leicester asked to see the produce of one of his
sheep, he found they had been sent fat to market
some twelve months before the usual time. Sheep
had been generally kept till they were three or four
years old ; but with the new method of feeding,
combined with an improved breed having a greater
disposition to fatten, very few are now kept beyond
fourteen or fifteen months old; thus the amount
of mutton annually sent into our markets has
enormously increased; and, had it not been for the
improvements I have indicated, and with our
growing population, the price of your necks and
shoulders of mutton would have been double to
what it is at the present day. The Woburn and
Holkham sheep-shearings, introduced by those
illustrious worthies before named, were the means
of bringing into existence a whole number of
county agricultural societies; and first among the
number is that of our small county, which was
established in 1801. From these sprung that fa-
mous association — the Royal Agricultural Society
of England ; and from its introduction another
starting point may be dated ; and I shall now pro-
ceed to speak of the agriculture of the present day.
From small beginnings the Iloyal Agricultural
Society has grown to a gigantic size, and its influ-
ence upon the farming of the country has been of
the most startling character ; our stock of all
descriptions has become materially improved :
the manufacture of agricultural machinery has at-
tained an unheard-of growth, and has acquired a
character and excellence which fairly entitle it to
rank with the leading branches of our national
industry. The hands employed are numbered by
thousands if not tens of thousands; and the capital
which gives steady employment to these hands is
estimated by millions sterling. I think there can
be no more convincing proof than this of the spirit
of improvement which is now abroad amongst the
agriculturists of the present day. At the first
meeting at Oxford there were only twenty-two
entries of implements ; but, after the Cambridge
meeting in 1840, the importance of this branch of
the show was acknowledged, and the number has
increased each year until it reached its highest
point at Gloucester in 1853, when 2032 were ex-
hibited. The number of people who visit the
show yard is enormous; at Salisbury, in 185/,
where the population is only 10,000, the visitors
numbered 35,000; and at the Chester Meeting, in
July last, they very far exceeded that number.
Railways have doubtless been the means of further-

ing agricultural progress. Very significant were
the facts given at the Chelmsford meeting by the
chairman of the Eastern Counties Railway, when
he stated that in the preceding twelve months the
lines over which he presided had conveyed 23,500
tons of guano and other artificial manures; 721,000
qrs. of grain; 559,000 sacks of flour; 71,000
beasts; 380,000 sheep and other cattle; 13,750 tons
of meat and poultry ; 21,671 tons of vegetables; and
4,500,000 quarts of milk. Other improvements have
taken place since the introduction of the Royal
Agricultural Society. First among the number is
that of draining : of course it had been carried out
from the earliest times ; but not until this period
had it been reduced to scientific principles. In
1843, at the Derby Meeting, Mr. John Reed, a
gardener by trade, the inventor of the stomach
pump and the well-known subsoil plough, exhibited
the first pipe tile, for which he received a medal;
and so much was it thought of, that a prize was
offered the following year for a machine by which
they could be made; but this was not gained un-
til 1845. Draining now was rapidly forwarded.
Sir Robert Peel, who saw the advantage of it on
his own estate, passed an act in 1846, by which
four millions sterling were appropriated towards
assisting landowners with loans for draining their
land. This sum was, however, small compared to
that furnished from private sources for the carrying
out of this great improvement; and thus what the
sheep-folding turnip-husbandry had done for the
light lands of the country, draining did for the
strong tenacious clays ; and it has been supposed
that the number of miles of drains cut within the
last twenty years may be calculated by millions. The
Royal Agricultural Society too, by its Journal, had
an important share in the introduction of artificial
manures: guano was introduced in 1836, but it was
some years before its value was known ; and it was
not until 1840 that a whole host of manufac-
turers of manures sprung up ; and the trade that is
now done and the money expended are almost incre-
dible : some farmers are to be found who pay more
to the manure merchant than to their landlord.
Some of these manures have been of immense ad-
vantage upon our Hght turnip soils, particularly
those of the Norfolk plains, and upon the heaths
and wolds of Lincolnshire, wliere it has been said
they turned rabbit-warrens and fox-coverts into
fields of golden grain. Modern agriculture has de-
rived au incalculable advantage from the appliances
of machinery; and the improvement in this branch
of our industry commenced when a great deal of
the poor pastures were broken up and waste lands
were reclaimed, between the years 1816 and 1836.
It was during this period that the horse-power
thrashing machine was introduced, when labourers
thought their doom was sealed; and such consterna-
tion did it create among them, that bodies of men
went from village to viUage demolishing these im-
plements. The country was in a most excited state;
si)ecial constables were sworn in; and I have on
my farm a legacy left me by my predecessor — a
whole lot of staves, that were manufactured for the
use of these said constables in these troublous times.
But what a change has come over the views of
these worthy sous of toil ! The thrashing machine is

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looked ujjou l)y most of tbcm with a friendly eye ;
for ilicy would ratlier do anything now than swing
a Hail. This laborious work, that cost them formerly
so much of tlieir muscle and sinew, is now principally
performed by the mighty agency of steam :_ this
power applied to the operations of the farm is the
grand advancement of the present day, and is a boon
conferred upon the millions of this great country ;
for without its aid the corn could not be brought
into the market to supply your daily wants. Ma-
chinery raises the iutelligeucc of the farm labourers.
I cannot imagine anything more deadening to the
intellect than the constant thump, thump, of the
thi-asher. Let the same man have charge of one of
our ingenious steam-thrashing machines : how his
mind must become expanded, in spite of surround-
ing circumstances! And that working man is blind to
his own interest who sets his face against the intro-
duction of machinery ; for I can see therein most
plainly an agency for raising his social position.
The reaping machine is destined to become an indis-
pensable implement : we, as farmers, can no longer
depend upon those itinerant bands of reapers (for-
tunately for them and the country) that a few years
ago assisted us to cut down our golden crops ; nor
is it at all likely we shall ever sec again, or perhaps
for some years, such a redundancy of labour ; for,
with our vast Indian Empire to watch over, and
large standing armies being the order of the day on
the Continent, our villages will, I fear, be thinned
of their youths by the recruiting sergeant. The op-
position to this implement is not with the labourer,
but I am sorry to say with a widely-different class,
for some landlords have objected to its use, fearing
their shooting might be damaged — in my opinion a
mistaken notion, and a very short-sighted policy.
Are there no ardent sportsmen in the counties of
lincoln and Norfolk? Is not my Lord Leicester,
of whose estate I have said so much, as fond of his
gun as most noblemen ? And yet in these counties,
ar d on his Lordship's estate, the sickle is scarcely
known, the reaping machine and the scythe cutting
down all the wheat. But in this county, on more than
one large estate, it is a forbidden implement. With
some of these proprietors I am most surprised, for
they have for many years past wished the people to
believe them to be the champions of civil liberty ;
and yet their tenants are not to exercise their right
in cutting their corn in the manner that suits them
best. But I must inform these gentlemen that,
with open competition with all the world, with in-
creased rents, dear labour, and cheap produce, the
farmer must, if he is to carry on his business suc-
cessfully, avail himself of the best appliances for
getting in his crops ; but I have confidence in the
good sense of landlords generally that they will not,
when the matter is properly represented to them,
however it might interfere with some little personal
fj;ratification, oppose any improvement that is for
the welfare of the bread-consumers of this our
highly-favoured land. You will expectme to refer
to what is now making so much noise in the agri-
cultural world, and I will do so only for a few
moments — steam cultivation. Many of you work-
ing men, I doubt not, saw one of these inventions
in operation on my farm at Bedford some few weeks
since. Several minds have had their attentioa

turned to this subject, and an immense sum has
been spent, one farmer alone liaving already ex-
pended £5,000 in his efforts to bring' this to a suc-
cessful issue. Its sanguine promoters state that it
will revolutionize agriculture, and that it will re-
duce the number of our horses to one-half; and
some even go so far as to say that by its means they
hope to remove the curse. I cannot go quite so
far as these gentlemen; I have no doubt it will be of
immense advantage upon the cold heavy clay soils of
this country : it will be a powerful auxiliary in the
operations of the farm, and will bring about an im-
proved system of cultivation. There is every cre-
dit due to these enterprising men ; and the country
will owe them a deep debt of gratitude ; but, with
all the advantages it may bring, it will not enable
us to do with half our number of horses ; nor will
it, I fear, jireveut some of us from still growing our
twitch and our thistles.

I have thus given you, very imperfectly I fear,
an account of" the progress of agriculture in
this country. You will perhaps ask yourselves,
How has this been brought about? My answer
will be. Certainly not by any state patronage, for,
unlike our neighbours the Prench, we have no kindly
aid, no fostering care from government; we have no
minister, no board devoted to its interest ; but by
the skill, energy, and capital of the British farmer,
encouraged, as he has been in numerous instances,
by the liberality and co-operation of some of our large
landed proprietors. Unlike our manufacturers, who
when anything new strikes them secure it by patent,
the farmer, when he discovers any method by which
he can raise more corn, or by which he can produce
more meat, communicates it at the market table, or
through the press, for the benefit of the whole com-
munity. I know we have been indifferently thought
of ; we have had hard things said of us ; but I have
said, aud I say it again, that there is no class to
whom this country is more indebted, for we all
strive with a friendly rivalry to increase the quality
and quantity of our products, so that the people of
this country may be fed at the lowest remunerative
price. The agriculture of this countrv may well be
said to be the boast of the nation, and the admira-
tion of the worid. " We may,'' said an eloquent
foreigner, " rival you in arms, in sciences, in arts
and manufacture ; but your agriculture is unrivalled,
aud, with a people so enlightened and free, must re-
main so until the end of time." But still, with all
the improvement that has taken place, much more
remains to be accomplished. We have twelve aud
a-half million acres of improvable, yet uncultivated,
land; and much of that which is now under the
plough is very wretchedly managed, and will remain
so until some better security is given to the farmer
for investing his capital. A man under a shifty
landlord, and I am sorry to say there are many of
this description, does not consider it prudent to
spend large sums in improving an estate where he
has only a yearly tenure. Well would it be for this
country if all its land was in the hands of such
noblemen as 15edfordshire can boast of; then should
wc require but Httlc, if any, foreign supplies. _

The undue preservation of ground game is ano-
ther great barrier to good farming : on many estates
great mischief is done. This is not so much the

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305

case where landlords keep the shooting in their own
hands; but where the custom prevails of letting
the manor, Uie person who takes it of course feels
no interest in the tenant, having no rent to expect
of him. Such preservation spoils the temper, crip-
ples the energy, and destroys the produce of the
farmer, demoralizes in many"instances the labourer,
and increases the price of the working man's loaf :
but, in justice to the aristocracy, I am bound to
say there are many among them (and it would be
well if more followed the same course), where they
cannot conveniently let the shooting to their tenants,
who give them the privilege to course the hares.
Amongst the number is his Grace the Duke of
Bedford, who worthily follows in the track of his
noble ancestry, by doing all he can to promote the
best interests of British agriculture,

A few words before I close, upon a subject that is
now exciting so much attention— the welfare of the
agricultural labourer. It is from this, I fear, in
some instances, deeply-injured class, those brave
men are found who light our battles both by sea
and land, and by whose daily toil we receive the
comforts of life. Too much cannot be done for his
amelioration. Education is said by some to be the
remedy for all his ills ; but, much as I value it, that
alone will not do. I often wish I could see as much
zeal displayed for the welfare of the labourer, before
he commits crime, as we do, in many instances,
after he has fallen. We have our reformatories,
and our model prisons for his reception ; but where
are the_ well-ventilated comfortable cottages for
him to inhabit, in which he and his family might
take a pride, so that the attractions of the beer-
shop would no longer be a snare to him ? I admit
many landlords are alive to the importance of this ;
and wc have noble examples in our small county,
but they are exceptions. The cottages generally
throughout our land are a disgrace to it ; they pos-
sess but one or two bedrooms, consequently there is
an indiscriminate huddling together of the sexes.
What then can be expected of our rural population
but that their moraUty must be at a very low ebb ?
There are large numbers of families in this county
who are not half so comfortably housed as the pigs
and bullocks upon many farm homesteads it is my
pleasure to know. With such close, ill-ventilated,
miserable dwellings, the labourer too frequently,
amid his other privations, has to contend with sick-
ness and disease — fever generally being his visitor.
On many estates, too, there is not sufficient cottage
accommodation, and the poor man, if he marries,
and marry he will, and has a right to do at a suit-

able age, must go to the nearest town for a resi-
dence, and slave backwards and forwards a distance
of many miles to his daily toil. Then let those who
have influence be up and doing; let the country
gentlemen of England resist the entreaties of their
keepers to preserve large numbers of hares, for it
leads to poaching, and this has been the first step
in the downward course of many a labourer ; it is
very little use expressing sympathy for him on the
one hand, and on the other setting a bait to ensnare
him, and which I contend is the case when these
animals are allowed to run about in large numbers :
let them also prevent the increase of beer shops
upon their estates ; for I hesitate not to say, on ac-
count of their number, they are the curse of our
rural population. I make no allusion here to our
old respectable public houses ; for, holding the views
I do as to the necessity of beer to tlie working man,
there ought to be one of these in every village, for
the accommodation of the labourer and his family.
Let them also see that he is supplied with his allot-
ment garden, on which he may profitably spend his
spare hours : and, above all, let them inspect and
take the same interest in their cottages as they do
in the prisons and other public institutions of our
country, for which they deserve our best thanks.
If all these matters be attended to, they will have
fewer cases on which to adjudicate in their capacity
as county magistrates.

I have no wish to shift responsibility on to other
shoulders ; to us, as employers of upwards of
800,000 agricultural families, a very great one is
attached. Wc can do very much in raising the
social condition of the labourer by assisting the
clergymen of our parishes in their endeavours to
form village libraries, and evening schools in the
winter months for those of our boys who go to
work during the day. Let not our interest in the
labourer cease when we pay him at the week's end,
but induce him, both by precept and example, to
attend some place of worship on the Sunday. Let
us, as far as practicable, employ no boys on that
day, but see they regularly attend the Sunday
scl'.ool; and then all ])arties unitiug — landlord, cler-
gy, and tenant, and using their best exertions, I
am quite sure the condition of our labourers will
become very much improved, and in the words of
the song I will conclude —

" And here's to those whose labour planned
The all which life endears :
God bless the English peasantry.
And grant them ha])py years."

VARIETIES OF CATTLE FOOD.

If the Englishman of the present day is better fed
than his ancestors, or than the native of any other
country, the same improvement is also extended to his
domestic slock ; for the wisdom and economy of good
nutritious food for laying on fat and flesh are now tho-
roughly understood. Our cattle and horse kind are not
lefl, as in some countries, to collect a scanty provender

from rank grasses in steppes, savannahs, or prairies ;
to munch upon the sprouts or twigs of trees, or to luxu-
riate upon rank sea-weed or fish upon the sea-coast.
The best pastures of natural and artificial grasses are
prepared for their special behoof, hay is laid up for
their winter store, green crops and pulse are cultivated
to a large extent, and the choicest oleaginous food,

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

meals, and various delicacies to gladden their palates,
are imported to a large extent, while the best of shelter
is also provided for them. We boil and steam their
vegetables and roots, and treat them as kindly as our
own children. Chemistry is continually brought to bear
upon the analysis of the substances to be tried as cattle-
food, and those only selected for general adoption which
are found to be most nutritious and fattening ; while
various experimentalists strive, from time to time, to
make food- compounds for extensive use, which shall
combine fattening qualities with portability. As no
other country pays so much attention to the improve-
ment of breeding and fattening cattle for the market,
so no country has experimentalized more on the
nature and property of cattle-food. Every useful sub-
stance is pressed into requisition, from the chafFor straw
of the barn to the more expensive meals or prepared
food.

When we look at the numbers and value of our cattle
and sheep, the importance of making a due provision
for their sustenance becomes evident. It is for this
purpose chiefly that the large quantity of 17,000,000 to
20,000,000 tons of turnips and mangel-wurzel are an-
nually grown in the kingdom for feeding our cattle and
sheep in the winter. In Ireland 5,000,000 tons are
annually grown ; in Scotland 6,500,000 tons ; and in
England fully as much must be grown, although we
have no specific returns. When we consider that a
beast will eat a hundred-weight, and a sheep a quarter
of a hundred-weight per day, a due provision of this es-
culent root is certainly very necessary.

But a number of other miscellaneous substances are
pressed into service from cheapness, or as being readily
at hand. Brewer's grains and malt commings are readily
purchased by some, for feeding. Rye-meal, barley-
meal, sago-flour, Indian-corn-meal, rlce-meal, any-
thing which can be obtained cheaply and in quantity,
comes in useful for fattening calves, &c. Our American
brethren have been growing tomatoes to feed their
milch cows on ; but we should suppose the crop would
scarcely be a remunerative one, or indeed in any way so
beneficial as our ordinary kinds of food. The sorgho
stems would be far preferable, from their saccharine
and fattening properties.

But as an element in the meat-manufacture,
whether in the building up and development of the
young and growing animal, the maintaining of the
produce of the dairy -cow, or the final preparation of
the animal for the butcher, linseed is of the highest
importance to the agriculturist. Linseed-cakes have
been shown by experiment to be far superior to Indian-
corn, pulse, or any description of food, for tlie produc-
tion of fat. English oil-cakes are of course preferable,
from being fresher, and containing more oil; but the
consumption of foreign oil-cake, as we have shown on
former occasions, is largely extending, and bids fair
still further to inci-ease — our imports now are about
100,000 tons, nearly half coming from the United
States, and consisting chiefly of cotton seed cake.
Although all the cake imported is not applied to feed-

ing purposes, some of the rape- cake being used for
manure, still the bulk is for stock.

In Ohio and the other leading American States, a
large quantity of Indian-corn stalks are used for fodder,
and the cob is ground up for feeding ; while in the West
Indies the expressed stalk of the sugar-cane, and the
tops which have been cut off, are highly relished by
cattle.

An article of cattle-food that has come largely into use
of late years is the legume known as " locust" beans,
being the food of the carob tree {Ceratonia siliqua),
of which considerable quantities are now imported as
cattle-food. They are grown and consumed to a large
extent in Spain, Portugal, Crete, and the greater part
of Southern Europe. In Sicily the amount gathered
reaches 11,000 or 12,000 tons a year. They have long
been used as food for cattle in Spain, and other quarters,
and are even relished by the inhabitants, when frefh and
ripe, from the sweet pulp they contain. About 3,000
tons are grown in Portugal, and 2,000 tons are shipped
annually from Crete. The mean of three analyses gives
65 per cent, of sugar and gum, and about 25 per cent, of
nutritious vegetable matter. They are imported
largely at Taganrog, and there is no doubt that their
value as a feeding substance being appreciated, a very
greatly increased supply could be obtained from several
quarters in the Mediterranean.

How much of the science of farming and of all other
arts depends upon the saving of material ! upon imi-
tating that beautiful law which chemistry teaches us,
that in Nature nothing is lost ! This was well demon-
strated by Mr. Simmonds in his recent lecture on the
utilization of waste substances. We may add another
instance pertinent to th subject under notice. In
Edinburgh there is a distillery of great extent, where
economy of heat and material is especially carried
out. The "dreg," a waste product, was produced in
such quantities that all the cows in Edinburgh could
not consume it, and there remained an enormous sur-
plus which had to be discharged into the water of
Leith. This nuisance the modern Athenians protested
against as an outrage on their sweet-smelling city.
Something had to be done. Seedcake had been used
by farmers, and it occurred to the proprietors that the
" dreg," as well as oil refuse, might be pressed into a
cake. Machinery was accordingly fitted up, dreg-cake
was prepared, and now the proprietors realize ^£'60
a-week from the waste product, which, although so
much despised in Edinburgh, is now sent to the farmers
in all parts of Scotland, to be returned in the form of
fat cattle and butter and cheese.

A French veterinary surgeon, of the Imperial Guard'
has called the attention of the agricultural world to a
biscuit-fodder for cattle in times of scarcity occasioned
by drought. It is composed of the usual provender —
hay, grain, and pulse. To these may be added many
others — such as the refuse of the wine-press, the pulp
of various roots, the stalks of millet and maize, the
leaves of the vine, the beet-root, and of certain trees, and
the sweepings of the barn and hay-loft, which contain

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307

a vast quantity of nutritious matter in the flowers aud
seeds of hay, which are generally thrown away. All
these ingredients are bruised and chopped together ; a
mucilage of barley-flour is added, with a little salt ;

and the mixture is then left to itself for a few hours
until a slight fermentation has set in, when it is put
into square moulds, made into cakes, and left to dry in
a current of warm air.

THE SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR RIDING-HORSES.

There may be some who do not care to meet the
tenant farmer with a double-barrel in his hand ; but
there are few indeed who are not glad to see him with
a good horse under him. We believe, in fact, the
country gentleman would scarcely enjoy the best 6f all
fleld sports as he should do, without he had the farmers
to share it with him. This kind of sympathy, more-
over, is altogether reciprocal. At a hunt dinner there
is no toast given or responded to more heartily than
"The Farmers ;" while at an agricultural gathering we
all know how genuine are the cheers and tally-hoes that
welcome " Fox-hunting." Mr. Hudson, of Castle-acre,
well represented the body of which he is so distinguished
a member, when he said at East Dereham, only a
few week since, that "the class in whose name he spoke
were always with them (the members of the Norfolk
Hunt) in heart, if they were not on their horses. He
was only surprised there was a landlord in the county
opposed to foxes. Such a man was no friend to his
tenants. Two packs of hounds, he could show by
figures, were worth a hundred thousand a-year to the
country; and he was surprised that any ;orson, whether
owner or occupier, should be opposed to their being kept
up."

This is high authority, and the only question is
whether the farmers quite act up to their character.
No doubt the majority are with the hounds in
their hearts, if they be not there or thereabouts on
their horses. But to come straight to the point, have
they the horses to go with ? The world, or perhaps more
properly the sporting world, answers, as a rule, " de-
cidedly not." There has been a deal of discussion
going on, of late, both in print and private, on the difii-
culty of getting a reallygood weight-carrying horse; and
one of the commonest deductions drawn from this is,
that the farmers do not pay the attention they should
to breeding him. Tliey may be prodigal in their prices
for Shorthorn bulls, especially nice as to the purity of
their Down flock, and particular even as to their varie-
ties of Dorkings and Cochins. But, notwithstanding
that they generally have one or two coming on, they
are more than careless as to the material from which
to make good hacks and hunters. Almost any kind
of mare, crossed with anything that may be
handy, is generally considered amply sufficient j and
the consequence is, that a tenant with a clever young
one in his stable is something to talk of. We still em-
phasize Mr. Shaw and his two-year-old, and Mr.
Battams and the four-year-old.

We have often, ere now, dwelt upon this subject,
and we certainly should not continue to do so, were it
not for two well-established facts. Good horses —

hunters, hacks, and harness horses — are wanted more
than ever they were. Nothing sells so readily, either
for the home or foreign market. We naturally look,
in the first place, to the farmers for the supply. It
may, however, be argued that these are slow to enter
into such a hazardous pursuit as horse-breeding. But
our second great fact is, that, as a rule, tenants do
breed riding stock, but that they do not go about the
business as they should do. As Mr. Robert Smith
says, in the new number of the Journal, "there is a
want of system in our arrangement and management."
The natural result of such a course would be what he
goes on to maintain, that " the horse is not a popular
animal to breed." Under such circumstances it would
be extraordinary if he were. With more care and
"system" it is yet a very open question whether he
might not become both popular and profitable.
Another commentator, in the Sporting Magazine,
and dating from so classic a shire as Northampton,
thus amusingly describes how agriculturists, nine
times in ten, set about horse-breeding.

" There is many a large farmer and wealthy yeoman
in the midland districts of England, who, whilst he
studies with his whole attention, and all the assistance
of science, how to breed fat cattle or unwieldy pigs for
Smithfield market and that jubilee of obesity the Baker-
street show, neglects, as it would seem purposely, the
very elements of success when raising an animal, the
perfection of which would return him one hundred per
cent, upon the capital expended. The general course
adopted is as follows : John Bull has a good useful
mare (N.B. useful, as applied to the equine race, in-
variably signifies an animal you would not have at a
gift) ; which mare he and his have ridden to market,
driven in a tax- cart, put in the plough, and called upon
to render every service to which a quadruped can be put.
Nay, there is a tradition that young John once rode her
with the hounds, and that she jumped everything
that came in her way with him — gates, hedges,
stiles, and the famous Brimmersley Brook. But
this account is rendered somewhat apocryphal by
its having occurred when John was returning
from a coursing dinner at which much drink was
consumed, and the chase, according to his own version,
having taken place by moonlight. Well, the old mare,
when completely worn out, instead of being put quietly
into the grave, or suffered to repose upon her laurels,
is condemned to the cares of motherhood, and, for this
purpose, is submitted to any travelling stallion that
happens to be in the neighbourhood, totally irrespec-
tive of all combinations in make, shape, and quality.
Both may be weak iu the back, long in the legs, faulty

308

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

in the hocks, nay, touched in the wind, or otherwise
afflicted with organic disease. What matter? ' Th'
old mare was a rum'un in her time sure-ly !' and the
horse, though he never started, doubtless was once
entered for the Derby. So the produce, as may be ex-
pected, turns out a weak, weedy, and undersized foal-
bad on its leg, like its sire j coarse in its appearance,
like its dam ; without the speed of the former, or the
strength of the latter, but afflicted perhaps at the same
time with the worst qualities of both !"

The very palpable remedy here is a thorough con-
tradiction to the existing practice that anything is good
enough to breed from. The first and chief care must
be the selection of well bred, good shaped, and com-
paratively fresh mares. They are to be had, and few
farmers need be told how to know them. The author,
however, of the p;iper we have quoted from, and which
we give in full in another place, prefers a means which
sounds to us almost, if not altogether, impracticable
He would rather put thorough-bred mares to half-bred
horses than vice versa. Now, a good-looking, thorough-
bred, fresh mare, something fit to breed a hunter, will
always command a price that few farmers would care
to go to, whereas three-parts bred mares may be
bought in comparatively cheap. More than this, a
half-bred travelling stallion is generally a curse to his
district. We have seen very few we should like to use
on any terms. Bad heads, heavy shoulders, and
lumber passing for power, are their usual charac-
teristics ; and neighbours, deceived by the something
to look at, not having the thorough-bred, put half-
bred mares to them— and we all know what must come
of that. You cannot breed successfully from crosses,
more especially we should say on the sire's side ; and
whether it be a stallion, a bull, or a ram, we must go
direct to the pure breeds.

Nevei', certainly, was there such a pick or opportunity
of thorough-bred horses to cross with. We give with this
a list, prepared with great care, of somewhere about a
hundred and fifty such stallions, distributed through-
out the country, and there are doubtless many
more not so publicly advertised. But here again we
have to lament the want of system. Even if a man has
determined to ci oss with nothing but a thorough-bred
horse, ho as likely as not uses the first within call, be he
ever such a brute or a weed. Race-horses, it is well
known, will run in all shapes and forms, and thi'ee-
cornered powerless-looking animals will sometimes get
racehorses. But, on the contrary, all our famous hunter
sires have had the look of getting hunters, with size,
substance, bone, and action. There is scarcely an ex-
ception to this, and so the farmer must not rely merely
on pedigree and performance, but consult his own judg-
ment, and ask himself directly if this be the sort of
horse to breed hunters from. The premiums now
offered so generally by our agricultural societies will
gradually tend no doubt to the extended use of the
really serviceable stallions; while a writer in
Bell's Life in London has suggested another means,
which is well worth some consideration from those to

whom ii is addressed : —

" Let the master of hounds in every district and
county examine, or cause to be examined, by compe-
tent judges, including a ' vet,' the stallions which are to
go the rounds in the localities in which he hunts.
When he is satisfied that the horse is sound, strong, and
free from hereditary disease of any kind prejudicial to
stock, he should then give an accredited printed letter,
or ' ticket of leave,' to the owner of the horse. Give
this diploma to as many stallions as really deserve it, to
be used in any or every county, town, or hamlet in
Great Britain or elsewhere. Let noblemen, landed
proprietors, wealthy iarmers, and others interested in
promoting the good breed, encourage this diploma sys-
tem, not only as regards farm-horses, but stock of all
kinds. Carry out the intentions of agricultural so-
cieties not alone by going to annual meetings and
looking ;)t others' good works, but try and contribute
yourselves. What is the use of admiring only what
others do, when there is little expense incurred in as-
sisting in the right cause yourselves ? If this plan be
carried out, I have no doubt whatever that the number
of brood-mares and breeders of horses for the hunting-
field, the road, and for draught, will be greatly in-
creased. Tiie allurements of ribands, and flesh without
muscle, to the eye of the inexperienced, will fade before
the character of the stallion which has passed Ids
examination before tlie ' council,' however it may be
constituted."

There is no question at all that good horses are '
getting more and more in demand, both for our own
use and for exportation. It is, indeed, a common
matter of remark how systematically other nations
are buying up our best stock. The Paris corres-
pondent of the Times writes to say, "The pur-
chase of horses is going on, and we are told that not
only are the regular stables of Vincennes full of them,
but that temporary sheds which have been prepared
are equally crowded." Then, again, in Austria tho
horse would appear to be yet more prized; for, once
obtained, the Government issues an official prohi-
bition against his export ! And The Hull Packet
chronicles a cargo of " very valuable" riding and
carriage horses for Antwerp, and another similar
shipment for Hamburgh. If there be no question as to
the demand, the only one is whether it be worth the
farmer's time to give more attention to the supply ?
At any rate, it is a branch of his business that has
never yet been done anything like justice to, and that
appears to us really worthy of a fair trial. We know
that the dealer has so far had the credit of getting all
the profit out of it, and that gentlemen are said to ac-
tually prefer buying of him to going to their own
neighbours. Let our able friend from the Shires in a
bit of a caution tell us the reason why : —

" We must give our word of advice to the farmer.
Never have two prices. If you honestly believe your
horse is worth i,'2o0, let no consideration induce you
to sell him for £249 19s. 6d. Above all, avoid that
ridiculous and unworthy practice of selling for £.300
and giving £50 back. In horse-dealing, as in every
thing else, an honest, straightforward course, backed

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

309

by reflection and common sense, will invariably suc-
ceed in the long run. And the chief cause, which has
of late years prevented gentlemen from buying their
hunters from farmers in their own neighbourhood, has
been a practice, which has gradually crept in amongst
the latter, of asking the squire a higher sum than will

be accepted from the dealer j nay, in some cases, the
squire has actually bought the same horse from the
professional for less money than it would have cost
him in the first instance from his own neighbour and
fellow-sportsman,"

THE BREEDING OF HUNTERS.

BY THE AUTHOR OF " DIGEY GRAND," ETC.

"Nobilis hie, quocumque venit de graniine, cujus
Clara luga, ante alios, et primus in aequore puivis;
Sed venale pecus, Corythas, posteritas, et
Hicpini, 8i rarajugo Victoria sedit."— Juvenal.

No one can have huuted much in any of our popular coun-
tries without hearing cotnplaiats, which season by seaaou seem
to be repeated with greater emphasis, as to the increasing
scarcity of horses up to weight. " I can't find them to carry
me !" is the despairing exclamation of many and many a well-
grown sportsman, who, from easy circumstances, a happy lot,
and a sunshining disposition, backed by the efforts of a skilful
cook, finds himself perhaps a stone or two heavier than he used
to be ; and who does not choose, even for the sake of his
favourite amusement, to p'^'^ish himself down to the lean
Binewy proportions of a man in training. For the slim under-
graduate, or the dashing cornet, who loill be with them whether
the hounds run or no, there are weeds in plenty able to go the
pace and stay the distance ; nay, for the hard-working man
of business, or the toughened veteran, there is many a good
honest hunter to be bought at a moderate and satisfactory
price ; and so long as the enthusiastic sportsman finds himself
balanced, boots, breeches and all, by anything under thirteen
stone in the opposite scale, he need neither baulk his ardour
in the chase, nor his appetite at the dinner-table. It is when
the additional pounds, that run him up to thirteen and a-hatf,
fourteen, or even fifteen stone, require to be added, ere they
raise his swan-necked spurs from off the carpet, that he begins
to find out the true meaning of the phrase " hunting under
diflSculties."

Now, if we look at any field of gentlemen assembled in any
of our English countries, we shall be surprised to find how
numerous a portion of these equestrians are men who ride
nearer fifteen stone than anything else ; and although this may
sound at first an unusual weight, our surprise at the fact will
disappear, as it generally does, on a careful analysis of its
cause.

It is well known in the ring that a man's fighting weight is
commonly about a stoue below that of his usual every-day con-
dition, supposing him to be a hard-working mechanic, or
craftsman, m good health ; also that an eleven-stone man is
what is termed a middle-weight. We may therefore put twelve
atone aa the average weight, not of our whole population, but
of a strong healthy Englishman belonging to the working
classes. We must likewise consider that the aristocracy and
gentry are usually of even larger build than their humbler
countrymen ; also that those who indulge in the pastime of
fox-hunting are not the least vigorous and athletic of their
kind; and with good living, robust health, and plenty of sleep,
it is not too much to give them twelve stone seven pounds, as
a fair average weight. Few people are aware that the differ-
ence between a man stripped stark naked, and the same man
dressed and armed cap-a-pie for the chase, in leathers and top-

boots, with a warm waistcoat, and scarlet lined with flannel,
hat on head and whip in hand, is fourteen pounds ! The truth
of this statement is easily tested, as any one can try the expe-
riment ; and we therefore bring our sportsman to the steps of
his own hall-door at thirteen stone seven pounds. No hunting
saddle that has been iu use a season, with girths, stirrup-irons,
and breast-plate, can weigh much less than sixteen pounds ;
and two more, at least, in these days of nice handling and
terrific instruments, must be allowed for the bridle. If our
arithmetic be correct, we have added up a sum total of fourteen
stone eleven pounds ; and the balance of three pounds is all
we are entitled to receive out of the fifteen stone.

Now these are no stout unwieldy gentlemen, who trot out
to louk about them, get an appetite, and so trot quietly home
again, but strong skilful horsemen who must and loill be car-
ried wherever the hounds go ; who object, moreover, to falls
and scrambles and all such undignified exhibitions, except whero
fairly purchased and rendered unavoidable by the pace. Can
we wonder that they find somedlflSculty in procuring the class of
animal that can go on, field after field, over a deep and strongly-
enclosed country, galloping freely and jumping safely with so
considerable a burden on their backs ? Again, the difficulties
of hunting, as regards the 7(o?-«e, have been very much increased
within the last half-century. We do not here allude to his
condition. Doubtless good stable management is far more
common than it used to be ; though we cannot but think that
even in the days of the far-famed Billesdon Coplow run, im-
mortalized in the best hunting poem ever written, there must
have been grooms at Melton who knew a thing or two, and
that when

" Villiers, Cholmondoly, an i Forester made such sharp play
(Not forerettinor Germaine) never seen t.ll that day;
Had you judged of these four by the trim of their pace.
At Bibury you'd thought they'd been riding a race !"

they had racing condition under them, as well as the rough.
bred horses, with which to take such liberties ; nor when
" Villiers esteemed it a serious bore
That no longer could Shuttlecock fly as before,"

he had reason to be dissatisfied either with his groom or his
horse, or the pace at which he had rattled the flyer over the
severe dips and wide-stretching pastures which intervene
betwixt Tilton Wood and the Coplow.

No : condition is now generally understood ; and well it
ought to be, wheu we consider the difficulties which we expect
our horses to overcome. In the first place, the pace of hounds
is very couaiderably increased ; and this fact accounts suffi-
ciently for the lamentations, to which we are compelled to
listen, ai to the decrease of sport in modern times. " You
never hear now," says the querulous laudator temporis acti,
of fifteen miles from point to point ! Don't you ? Even this
position we think might be successfully assailed ; but that
you do not often hear of such long and extended runs is
very natural ; and, for the simplest of all reasons-the

310

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

same animal is now run down in two-thirds of the distance
and half the time. Foxes are continually rattled into and
turned up, in from twenty to thirty minutes ; each of which,
with a slower system of pursuit, would have afforded a run
of more than an hour. That the animal is as stout as his
ancestors we have no good reason to doubt. There were
gorse-coverts, and game-preserves, and poultry-yards, fifty
years ago. There are woodlands, and vixens, and travelling
dog-foxes, still. Rut that the pace at which he is compelled
to fly for his life is considerably quicker we think none will
be fouud to dispute. Again : formerly one man bunted
where a dozen do now; and with increasing numbers has
arisen a feeling of increasing ardour and emulation. Haif-
a-century ago, in a field of twenty or thirty horsemen at
most, there were some five or six who rode to hounds, and
the others were quite satisfied to follow these pioneers with-
out a thought of ambition, save how to get safely to the
end. Now, on the other hand, though out of a field of a
hundred there may be no more than five or six who can ride,
there are some five or six-and-twonty who trp ; aye ! and
try ver}- hard too, regardless of neck, horseflesh, friendship,
decency— alas ! that we should say it, of the very hounds
themselves ! People hunt for pleasure. It is all very well
for ourselves and other cautious sportsmen to prefer a well-
regulated journey over half a county, in which we canter
along at our ease, with plenty of time to spare, and destroy
our fox at length by ioring him to death with our protracted
attentions ; but young blood loves to be in a hurry, and
there must be something highly exhilarating in the rattling
two-and-twenty minutes that turns up a fox in the open,
just before the good horse begins to fail ; everything having
gone right, and the said good horse having carried his rider,
to the entire satisfaction of the latter, quite close to the
hounds from end to end !

But the crowd of emulative spirits, at starting, is pro-
ductive of much annoyance to the hunter. Instead of being
nursed and spared for the first ten minutes, till the vessels
are gradually filled, and the lungs gradually distended, he
must be bustled along unmercifully over the first two or
three fields, finding the largest and ugliest places in the
fences selected for him, because all the gaps are occupied :
he must be hurried over plough, ridge and furrow, all the
worst ground, nearly at top speed, and must not expect a
refreshing pull and timely canter along a headland, until
the crowd has been shaken off by the severity of such ex-
ertions ; then, indeed, he finds it all plain sailing, and, if
not " upset" by his previous eftbrts, he will probably get
safe to the end of the run. But under-bred horses will not
bear such liberties. It is only the thorough-bred, or very
nearly thorough-bred horse, that has sufficient speed and
stamina to recover the effects of thus being, so to speak,
knocked out of time in the first ten minutes ; and therefore
it is to thorough-bred, or nearly thorough-bred horses, that
the fifteen stone gentleman must look, if he would be well
and safely carried over a flying country.

Now comes the difficulty. Where is this class of animal
bred ? and how is he to be procured ? The refuse of New-
market is speedy, but not strong. The good useful farmer's-
looking nag, short on the leg, larj^e in the barrel, deep in
the ribs, but a little coarse about his mane and tail, is strong
enough to carry a castle, and can do any thin l; you ask him,
at Ms own pace, but that pace is unfortunately a trot !
Where is the combination to be met with? the upstanding
sixteen hands flyer, with his neat spare head, reminding
you of his aire, and the sunny slopes of Ascot, the day he
won the Cup— with his lengthy shoulders, flat sinewy legs ;

his deep brisket, and long clean flunk ; bis angular quarters,
and well let-down hocks, surmounted by the thin tail set on
high in his back, and given to whisk upon slight provoca-
tion. He may not be very easy to ride ; he may have some
peculiar whims as to the manner in which he is taken hold
of i and a decided objection to turning away from hounds.
But with a rider who is as fond of the sport as himself;
who is tender with his prejudices, and shares his enthu-
siasm ; who gets him away close to the hounds, and holds
him straight at his fences ! well— well, we are making our
own mouths water. There are moments in life that are
worth a great deal ! we seldom purchase them, however, at
much below their value.

Now these horses are bred, and are to be procured ; but
the demand of late years has far excfeded the supply ; and
such a hunter as wo have endeavoured to describe is cheap
at three hundred guineas. Let us inquire into the causes
of this scarcity of so remunerative an animal, in the greatest
horse-breeding country in the world.

The late war, it appears to us, had nothing on earth to do
with it. With the exception of a few officers' chargers, and,
in so small a force as ours, the exception is scarcely worth
mentioning, it was a different class of animal altogether that
was used up, in the Crimean campaign. The countries
adjoining the scene of strife were of course denuded of
everything in the shape of a quadruped — horse, mule, and
jackass ; but, except as an excuse for the dealers, we doubt
much whether the demands of the Service ever affected the
market of hunters here. No ; the class of animal we
require is rare, not because it has been destroyed, but
because it is not sufiicienlly liberally called into existence ;
and this, from no apathy or want of energy on the part of
our English breeders, but from a variety of causes, of which
ignorance and inattention to first principles are by no means
the least apparent.

There is many a large farmer and wealthy yeoman in the ^
midland districts of England, who, whilst he studies with
his whole attention, and all the assistance of science, how
to breed fat cattle or unwieldy pigs for Smithfield market
and that jubilee of obesity the Baker-street show, neglects,
as it would seem purposely, the very elements of success
when raising and rearing an animal, the perfection of which
would return him one hundred per cent, upon the capital
expended. The general course adopted is as follows : — John
Bull has a good useful mare (N.B. useful as applied to the
equine race, invariably signifies an animal you would not
have at a gift) ; which mare he and his have ridden to
market, driven in a tax-cart, put in the plough, and called
upon to render every service to which a quadruped can be
put. Nay, there is a tradition that young John once rode
her with the hounds, and that she jumped everything that
came in her way with him — gates, hedges, stiles, and the
famous Brimmersley Biook. But this account is rendered
somewhat apocryphal by its having occurred when John was
returning from a coursing dinner at which much drink was
consumed, and the chase, according to his own version, having
taken place by moonlight. Well, the old mare, when com-
pletely worn-out, instead of being put quietly into the grave,
or suffered to repose upon her laurels, is condemned to the
cares of mother-hood, and, for this purpose, is submitted to
any travelling stallion that happens to be in the neighbour-
hood, totally irrespective of all combinations in make, shape, :
or quality. Both may be weak in the back, long in the legs
faulty in the hocks, nay, touched in the wind, or otherwise
afflicted with organic disease. What matter? " Th'old mare
was a rum'uu in her time sure-ly !" and the horse, though L*|

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

nerer started, doubtless was once entered for the Derby, So
the produce, as may be expected, turns out a weak, weedy,
and undersized foal-bad on its leg, like its sire; coarse in its
appearance, like its dam ; without the speed of the former, or
the strength of the latter, but afflicted perhaps at the same
time with the worst qualities of both. Now of all mistakes
there is none so fatal as breeding from a worn-out marp. It
IS true that you will occasionally see a fine promising colt,
thrown by an old thorough-bred mare of nearly a score of
winters; but this is only the case in large establishments, where
the said mare has been doing nothing since she ran at four
years old, and has been renewing her constitution with rest
and care, till she is actually fresher and stronger at fifteen
than she was at five~a far different plight from that of the
worn-out slave who, having worked till she can work no longer,
13 only then thought fit to be entrusted with the reproduction
of her species.

It is now, we believe, an established physiological fact that
the horse inherits his make, shape, and outward appearance,
from his sire; his constitutional qualities, such as speed,
courage, and endurance, from his dam. The idea has been long
since exploded that what is termed a large roomy mare is
likely to produce a big powerful foal. On the contrary, some
of the finest horses we possess have been the produce of mere
ponies; but then these were ponies only in size ; and a mon-
strous animal, nearly twenty hands high, is now going the
rounds of every fair in England, whose mother, if we are to
believe the man who shows him, was little more than two-
thirds of his height. The mare, however, from which we pro-
pose to breed, should be a thoroughly-good one, and still re-
taining the whole freshness and vigour of her constitution
She should also be extremely well-bred ; for if her inner quali-
ties are more especially to descend to her offspring, it is indis-
pensable that she should possess those lasting properties of
wind and endurance, without which a horse is the most cum-
bersome possession on the face of the earth. We would much
prefer to put a thorough-bred mare to a half-bred horse, than
vice versa, though the latter is by far the commoner practice
and that amongst our intelligent and scientific farmers-men
who make but few mistakes in the breeding of any other de-
scription of stock. Ws believethere is yet much to be discovered
as to the influence of " blood" upon future generations. Several
curious experiments have been tried both with cattle, sheep
and pigs. Most breeders, we think, will bear us out in affirming
that, to use their own term as regards quality, the influence of
the female is paramount.

It appears to us that in order to breed an animal that shall
eventually become a hunter, that mare should be selected who
has proved herself both speedy, courageous, and enduring. In
the prime of life, and whilst all her functions are at their
utmost vigour, she should be put to a short-legged stallion,
with deep hind ribs, powerful quarters, and, above all, a good
back. If thorough bred so much the better. Nor should we
repudiate him because he had won, or run well-np, in a Derby •
although a two-mile scurry at three years old is no very rational
test of the merits of an animal which Nature seems to intend
shall not come to its prime till six, and which, for all useful
purposes, must be capable of carrying a much heavier weight
a much longer distauce than is required to win the Olympic
crown of modern ambition at Epaom. Such horses as old
Defence, Venison, Johnny, and a few others, strike us as the
models on which to form our ideas of a stallion ; and to such
horses we would look, regardless of trouble and expense, as the
sires of our future favourites.

There is no doubt th.at, under the present Turf system of
•• small profits and quick returns," involving a multiplicity of

311

two-year-old stakes, and a consequent forcing of foals and
yearlings, just as a hot-house gardener forces grapes and pine-
apples, the style of horse to which we allude is becoming
scarcer year by year ; and it is indeed almost a national ques-
tion whether something cannot be done to check the increasing
evil. Our mild and paternal Government (perhaps more mild
than paternal) systerafitically opposes all interference with
private enterprise. We cannot but think, however, that a
national stake of heavy amount, given yearly at Ascot for
animals in their real natural prime, would have a most benefi-
cial effect. Racing men will laugh at us when we say that we
should like to see a sweepstakes ivorth winning run off in Her
Majesty's presence-for six-year-olds and upwards, four miles,
and carrying from thirteen to fourteen stone I

If the money made it worth while, and indeed to do so it
would have to be counted out in thousands, what a show of
horses should we see, before even the present generation had
passed a^'ay ! We know now, unnatural as is the treatment to
which he is subjected, to what fine proportions the six-year-old
arrives, when his racing career is over, and he has been put to
the stud ; and we may easily imagine what a magnificent sight
would be afforded by a field of such animals, kept back and
prepared from their very foal-hood for this one great event !

To return, however, to the breeder. If, as is generally the
case, he is a farmer, he need not grudge considerable expense
in procuring the services of a first-rate stallion. The keep of
his young one, although, if calculated week by week, it would
run up to a considerable amount, is an outlay which he does
not feel; and, as soon as it is turned three years old, he can-
not do better than make it earn its provender by gentle and
easy work. " Shepherding," and such quiet jobs about a farm,
form the best possible education for a future hunter : they give
him fresh air and slow strengthening exercise; they accustom
him to variety of ground, and make him quiet and tractable at
gates and gaps, mounting and dismounting, &c. : also if his
master be a good horseman— and there are few of our English
farmers but are thoroughly at home in the saddle— they form
kis action, and bring his paces to perfection. We may here
observe that nothing improves a young horse so much as
trotting him across " ridge and furrow ;" it supples his neck ;
teaches him to use his shoulders ; makes him quick upon his'
legs; and beats all the circling and lunging in the world.
Now, although he must have plenty of good corn and old hay,'
in fact the more he can be brought to consume of each the'
better, we think any farmer will bear us out in affirming that
twenty-five pounds per annum is a very liberal allowance as
the sum by which he is cut of pocket from his young horse;
this inclu-les shoeing, farriery, &c. On this calculation, with
the ad iition of the twenty-five he may have cost before he was
born (and this affords him the noblest parentage going), he
would represent £150 on attaining the age of five years ; and
his master, if wise, would not dream of selling him before' that
period. Now the sort of horse that may thus be produced
with care and attention in breeding, as to size and quality,
with good keep, good riding, and good usage during youth,'
and hard condition when arriving at maturity, becomes, in all
probability, a first-class hunter well up to fourteen stone ; and
a first-class hunter, well up to fourteen stone, ia just as safe to
command £250 in the hunting fidd, as a guinea is to fetch
one-and-twenty shillings in a counting-house.

He may be sold for a good deal more ; and a nice light
mouth, with a temperate confident style of fencing— both of
which adventitious advantages may be given him by his breeder
and instructor— will run him up to an almost fabulous price ;
but £250 is the minimum, and £250 we expect such a horse
is safe to fetch.

812

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

There are of course casualties and chances in all trades ; else
why is man gifted by Providence with energy, forethought,
and decision? The animal may turnout good-for-nothing.
He «,ay also break his own neck, and his rider's too, m a
rabbit-hole! but such a catastrophe is, at least, improbable ;
and even should the venture never turn out good enough for a
hunter, a strapping high-bred horse, sound, and in good con-
dition, will always bring a remunerative price as a charger or
carriage-horse. ,

But we must give our word of advice to the farmer who
breeds and rides him. Never have two prices. If you honestly
believe your horse is worth £250, let no consideration induce
vou to sell him for £249 193. 6d. Above all, avoid that ridi-
culous and unworthy practice of selling for £300 and giving
£50 back. In horse-dealing, a, in everything else, an honest
straiKhtforward course, backed by reflection and common sense,
will invariably succeed in the long-run. And the chief cause,
which has of late years prevented gentlemen from buying their
hunters from farmers in their own neighbourhood, has been a
practice, which has gradually crept in amongst the latter of
asking the squire a higher sum than will be accepted from he
dealer ; nay, in some cases, the squire has actually bought the
same horse from the professional for less money than it would
have cost hi n in the first instance from his own neighbour and
fellow-sportsman. " Honesty is the best policy," q»otl» the
Scotchman, who, as he said to himself. " had tried both. And
although there may be nothing positively dishonest in thus
asking one man a higher price than another for the ssme
article it ia scarcely a very frank proceeding, and tends litole
to promote that confidence and good feeling which is the very
spirit of exchange and barter.

All of our farmers and yeomen, who come out bunting, must
have remarked how instantaneously a likely-looking horse is
" snapped up," particularly in the grass countries. A heavy
man might go out day after day with the Quorn or Pytchley
hounds, with his cheque-book in his pocket, and find, at the
end of a good many weeks, he had failed in supplying himself
with a stud of hunters. Horses he would be offered in plenty;
but of the real weight-carrying animal, that can go the pace
which he considers a fit mount in a burst from Shankton Holt
or the Coplow, he would see but few spec.mens for sale. They
are bought-up by the large dealers long before they are shown
in the hunting-field ; and most of the best horses m Leicester-

shire and Northamptonshire have found their way into those
counties from the north and west of England. This need not
be the case. If the farmer only knew his own interest, he has
the best of markets for his young horses at his own door. If
he would pay a little more attention to the first laws of nature
in breeding, take a little more pains with education and rear-
in- obtain the character of being a straightforward man, with
one price to all alike, he would find customers enough, and to
spare, every day he put on his boots and breeches to go out
with the hounds.

The demand, we repeat, is extraordinary : the supply, at the
present time, totally inadequate. Not only do men of all ages
and classes and professions come regularly out hunting, but
the fair sex are promising day by day to beat the less enter-
prizing half of the species clear out of the field. During the
last season or two we have seen ladies riding not only better
(whatever they do, they contrive to do well) but harder and
straUjhter than nineteuths of the men who are out, going, m
fact, ■' in the first flight." And this is no child's play, as we
all know, when hounds are running hard over the shires. For
ourselves, we confess we shudder to witness their performances.
Beautifully as they do it. it is a perilous exhibition. To a
man, a fall is simply a ludicrous mishap-to a woman, a dan-
gerous accident. A lady who goes out hunting should ride
the most perfect animal in the world-a fine goer ; a temperate
and active fencer; in short, a safe and perfect hunter; and
then-she should never ride him over anything that can pos-
sihly risk a fall. But to carry a fair equestrian with and not
after hounds, such an animal is required as we can scarcely
hope to find till the winged favourite of the Muses makes
his appearance once more on earth; and even he, if we are
to believe the poeta, good as he was, gave Bellerophon a

cropper j . . i •

In this commercial and enterprizing country, demand is
pretty sure to be succeeded by supply ; and we hope in a very
few years to see a far greater number of first-class horses in the
hunting-field than at present ; but we need not insist that this
state of things can only be arrived at by the attention of far-
mers and breeders being more exclusively directed to the first
principles of generation and reproduction, and their conviction
that the same causes, which tend to improve all inferior descrip-
tions of stock, ooerate ; with as direct and perceptible an effect
on that noblest of all animals-the horse.— Sporting Magazine.

THE TRADE IN GUANO.

Two important interests of the State— the agricultural
and the shipping— are in a distressed conditiou just
now; each of which might be greatly benefited by a
free trade in guano ; and we perceive a movement is on
foot in some of the commercial ports, having in view
the accomplishment of this desirable object. Among
other bodies, the Belfast Chamber of Commerce has
just memorialized the Secretary of State, praying that
free trade in guano may be established.

The cheaper and more extended supply of guano is
a matter of great moment. Tlie depreciation of all
agricultural produce, together with the high price of the
manure, considerably modified the consumption last
year, compared with former years, and increased that
of bones and of artificial and less-expensive fertilizers.
The reduction in price from £13 IDs. to j£"'12 per ton,
made by the agents of the Peruvian Government in the

autumn, had the efifect of lowering also, to some ex-
tent, the value of other descriptions. _

This reduction was probably the result of the official
letter of Lord Malmesbury, dated the 28th of July last,
to Senor de Rivero, the Peruvian Minister in this
country, urging that a reduction of price was greatly
desired, and that it would benefit Peru, by causing an
increased consumption; although the Parliamentary
paper recently published on the subject only contains
this letter and Senor de Rivero's reply that he would
call the attention of the Lima Government thereto, and
communicate to Lord JIalmesbury such answer a*
mi"ht be obtained. No official reply seems to have
been condescended by the Peruvian Government ; or U
so it does not appear in this correspondence.

Vhe guano trade has become of great and growing
importance to the agriculturists of Great Britain, and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

313

this valuable fertilizer has compensated them in some
degree for the loss of protection ; but the outlay on it
IS enormous. The overcropped lands of Great Britain,
the nee fields of Italy, the vine lands of Germany,
the sugar-cane fields of the West Indies and Mauri-
tius, the exhausted coffee plantations of Brazil, and the
and plains of Peru-all testify to its fertilizing pro-
perties.

Smce the first introduction of guano, about seven-
teen years ago, we have imported upwards of 2,.500,000
tons of all kinds at a cost of more than £30,000,000 ster-
ling ; and other countries are now drawing largely upon
the deposits. The exportation of guano began in 1841,
under contract with the house of Messrs. Quiros, Allier,
and Co. Up to the end of 1856 the shipments of
leruvian guano from the Chinchas had been nearly
2,000,000 tons. The net proceeds on this, after de-
iraying charges, was £7,850,927. The profit on the
sales of 1857 were £2,507,603. The total shipments
up to June, 1858, amounted to close upon 2,500,000
tons, besides a stock in the hands of the consignees of
4bC),000 tons. The losses at sea during the whole time
have only been about 50,000 tons. But the Government
complam of a great waste in the process of loading,
the estimate of loss being fully 16 per cent, of the whole
guano shipped, owing to the carelessness in loadino-
and the quantity shot overboard. To avoid this seriou"
loss, the Government has now erected a wharf, where
vessels of any tonnage can go alongside to load: and
by a railway t!ie guano is brought on board the ships
rom the deposits. Besides this, in order that the cap-
tarns of vessels should not go to sea with their cargoes of
guano in an unseaworthy state, all vessels, after re-
ceiving their cargoes, are sent to Callao, to undergo a
proper survey. Thus the sea risks are likely to be
greatly lessened.

The large yearly imports of guano called into exist-
ence a considerable portion of the large-sized ships.
in 18Db, however, this source of employment for the
shipowner failed, like many others. The year began
with freights at 60s.; a price unusually low, though
rendered necessary by the enormous stock then on
hand. Shipowners were found, however, to accept
that price in such numbers, that it became necessary
totally to suspend chartering. In the close of the year
business was, however, resumed, with freights as low
as 50s.

The stock of Peruvian guano in London and Liverpool
had accumulated so far beyond the current demand, that
it is understood the supply, for some time at least, will
be on a correspondingly reduced scale. At present rates,
then, an increased consumption may reasonably be
looked for this season ; and the farmers may probably
bo induced to use, along witli the Peruvian, those
qualities containing a large per-centage of phosphates.
The Kooria-Mooria deposit, about which there was
so much speculation, has proved a failure. Guano
arrived in limited quantities from those islands ; but
the quality, which varies very much, is considered in-
ferior to the expectations held out ; and from the un-
fortunate result of tho cargoes from that quarter which

arrived after the season was over, and which in many
cases were forced upon the market, and did not realize
one-half the stipulated freight, there is no great
temptation to the shipowners to embark in so hazardous
an enterprise. Several other cargoes from new deposits
on the west coast of America arrived in the United
Kingdom, and one in the Clyde. This guano in appear-
ance and analysis resembles Ichaboe ; but the deposit is
very limited. It fetches, however, £2 per ton more
than the African, and is about £l in price below the
Bolivian.

In the close of 1856, Messrs. Anthony Gibbs and Son
were requested by the Peruvian Government to take
charge also of the guano sales in Spain, hitherto con-
fided to Messrs. C. De Murrick and Co., and they have
a commission of 4^ per cent, on the sales— a voluntary
reduction of 1 per cent, on the former commission.
The change of agents in the United States has also
caused a considerable saving in the commission and
charges. A report from the inspectors sent from Peru
to Europe and the United States is to be laid before
the Congress.

However much we may appreciate the value of
guano as a fertilizer, and the importance of obtaining a
due supjily for our farmers, we should like to see more
freedom in the trade, and a greater degree of liberality
manifested by the Peruvian Government. When they
have already derived a net profit of nearly £11,000,000
upon this one article of export— an article attended
with neither risk nor outlay to themselves— they
might endeavour to facilitate its more extended use by
still further lowering the charges, and throwing open
the trade, instead of continuing it as a monopoly, with
the sales confined to one house.

The supply in the Chinchas is yet ample to meet all
the wants of agriculture for many years to come ; and
ere these deposits can be exhausted, others formed by
the myriads of sea-birds frequenting these regions will
be available. Every reduction in the price, every fa-
cility afibrded in extending the trade in this valuable
fertilizer, must necessarily benefit the Government
interested, equally with the consumer ; and it is but a
narrow-minded policy which screws up the price to
the utmost stretch at which it can be maintained.

Besides the Peruvian guano, our imports from other
sources do not amount to 15,000 or 20,000 tons a year
the Patagonian, Chilian, and African coming in in
very small quantities. As Lord Palmerston recently
observed, at the Ronisey Agricultural Society, " The
time is not very far distant when the foreign supply
will cease, and when domestic guano will be the source
to which the farmer must apply." Although the sup-
ply of Peruvian guano is not likely, we think, to cease
for some years to come, yet there can be no doubt that
the interests of agriculture demand a substitute; and
the discovery of such a manure now, when the priu.
ciples of chemistry have familiarized us with the con-
stituents, is not difficult : the only question is the ade-
quate manufacture, and a supply commensurate with
the wants of agriculture, at home and abroad, at a fair
and reasonable price.

T 2

8Xi

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IRELAND AND IRISH AGRICULTURE.

In the month of August, 1857, 1 had again the !
pleasure to visit the sister country, and last year
I attended the meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Improvement Society of Ireland. It was one of those
visits which to me is of the greatest interust, and gives
me the liveliest gratification. One never tires of en-
gagements which open out to us means of usefulness
in our own wav, and where a country's welfare is the
object and the permanent improvement of its agriculture
the aim and result. I say one never tires in these pur-
suits ; and they ought to be aided by the most vigilant
and persevering endeavours of every intelligent agricul-
turist. Nothing can withstand the world's competition,
in a country like ours, but the progressive improvement
of its agriculture. The superiority of our cattle,
sheep, horses, and other domestic animals, the extra
produce, weight, and quality of our grain and root crops
are alone a guarantee for the prosperity of our agri-
culture. To attain, uphold, and excel in these depart-
ments is worthy the best efforts of every practical far-
mer, and to promote these efforts, and to bring before
practical farmers every improvement which has been
effected either in the breeding or fattening of farm stock
the culture of the soil, the selections and stocks of
modern varieties of grain and seeds, of manures and
rotations of cropping, or again of the vast improveme s
in agricultural implements and machinery, is the main
object of agricultural societies ; and to a man ever
anxious to promote the best interests of his own depart-
ment of business, it is a source of great satisfaction
thus to be enabled to give his aid on such highly im-
portant occasions.

My object in giving" jottings from my note-book" taken

on my journey from Dublin to Londonderry, is to call
attention to many plain facts, many notices of customs,
many practices in business, with the view of showing
that errors in practice abound, and that with common
attention and care great improvements may be made
without turning everthing 'Hopsy turvey" or even in-
terfering with the present very unsatisfactory system of
occupation. I wish to show things as they are, and in
a subsequent paper or two to suggest how these small
farms, these inadequate occiipalions for a country's real
good, can be much benefited by an improved and in-
expensive mode of culture and cropping.

Dublin, August 12th, 1858.— Left by the 8-30 train
for Drogheda ; took a convenient seat in the coupe, in
order to view the country to the greatest advantage on
passing along. For some time we pass by the coatt
along through a flat country, with here and there a
pretty inlet or small bay : I am surprised to find the crops
so backward, the harvest in England being nearly com-
pleted ; they certainly are much exposed to cold and
stormy winds from the sea, and hence their present
green and backward state : potatoes also backward ;
land not good. Pass an old castle to the left; now pass-

ing through cuttings ; crops all in reality green, no ap-
pearance of ripening yet. Arrive at Skerries Station ;
soil stiff clay, badly farmed, the crops chiefly oats ,
pastures all sorts of weeds ; again come upon the ever-
lasting rag-wort, the pest of Irish grazing ; real IrisU
farms, farms apparently very small and sadly done :
keep along the coast ; holdings very small evidently.
Now at Balbriggan Station, famed for its pecuhar manu-
facture of fine woollen stockings, unbleached; pass
Maitello Towers along the coast; potato crops good ;
fine park to our left. Now at Gormanston Station : lands
very weedy, particularly the small grass pastures, full
of rag-wort ; hay stacked in small cobs, after the
French fashion, and tied around and fastened down with
hay-bands and stakes, a very prejudicial practice which
cannot be too strongly condemned: what would our
metropolitan hay dealers say to such a practice . Lay-
town Station : farming still indifferently carried out
but being all along by a cold and stormy sea coast it
permits some palliation ; see no sheep anywhere ; but
as for the grass lands, they appear to lay themselves
down to pastures without leave or licence of the occu-
piers, hrnce they are covered with almost every kind
of weed known to infest grass lands; with much
pleasure I notice some better farming to our left; pretty
view to the right ; see some short-horn cattle ; we pre-
sently arrive upon a good farm to the right having a
capital herd of shorthorns grazing upon it. Arrive at
Drogheda. Was greatly interested in viewing in
the distance the site of the battle-field of the
Boyne, the deciding engagement which established
protestanism in these realms by the defeat of James II.,
and the elevation to the throne of William III. Ihe
battle, though so very important in its results, was by-
no means a destructive one, the victors only losing 400
men, and the vanquished about 1,000; not like the
dreadful massacre of the inhabitants of Drogheda,
ordered by Cromwell, in 1649, which lasted five days.
Here is one of the most magnificent railway-bridges
known. We cross at a very high elevation on arches of
immense span, and have a fine view of a fine town, con-
taining near 20,000 inhabitants.

Tbe soil along our route appears similar in character
to that along the route described in my first paper to
Waterford, being clay mixed with pebble stones. The
clay is of a good depth, and capable of bearing fine crops
under good cultivation. Hay is all out yet ; much m
swathe ; none carted. The land now, as we pass along,
is in good staple, but badly managed ; the crops back-
ward, some quite green ; fields all small ; division ences
here of gorse, small banks are general. The holdings
must be all small ; we see no farm-buildings nor farm-
houses. We roll on and on, and still the same fields,
small crops, various and backward, but ew indeed to be
called good; neither fertility nor cleanliness cared lor.
What can be done to improve this state of things ? One

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

315

really feels to have the power to give some better notions
of managing land than is here practised. Stay a bit ;
here are some large fields of grass, better grazed and
managed ; but no, some boggy land to the right again
appears, not much under tillage ; country and farming
much better ; capital herds of cattle for Ireland. We
are now on a single line of raii, broad-gauge generally.
Much cattle grazed. Now again in a better district,
and very well farmed. Now meet with flax, the first T
have seen in culture on this line. Reach Dunleer. It
appears to be the precise time for haymaking, all being
in the very midst of the season : the potato crops look
unpromising ; soil good. How do they manage to get
their hay together without forks or rakes, or nearly so ?
By arms and hands. Fine country now; small hold-
ings; crops indifferent all the way from the past station,
and further.

We are now at Castlebeiliogham. We pass on. The
crops now give evidence of better farming ; all looks to
be better done. But we soon leave it, and complain again ;
no good oats ; work slovenly done ; stock black Irish
down here all along the route ; all poor, poor. On,
on ! not better. Now a nice park to our right, and an
old tower ; and, what is better, we find larger fields,
much better farmed and grazed where it is to be found,
and also larger farms, equally well done.

Now reach Dundalk. The country is undulating, and
of a very useful agricultural character. Notice a capital
union-house, and a singular-looking building on our
right appears to be an infirmary or charitable institu-
tion ; larger farms with gates off line, of singular radial
make, and regular appointments. Now pass a high hill
or mountain at some distance on our right ; the radial
gates all along ; sad villages, cottages they can scarcely
be called, not fit for humanity ; stone cropping out now ;
queer-looking stone walls, but not high ; poor land and
poorly ordered, boggy and wretched, still very poor ;
abrupt and rather steep rugged dales or uncouth ravines,
but not high.

Inniskeen : Now pass cabins— cabins, but such
cabins— narrow gullies, and watercourses, the borders
all under some kind of farm management, but rude in
the extreme; passing now along a very picturesque
stream ; no stock anywhere. We go on and on, and
find worse and worse. Now most desolate and dreary,
have not seen its counterpart in my travels for country
and dwellings ; reminds me of some parts of Westmore-
land, where the nooks and occasional flat plots on the
mountain sides receive a kind of culture. There is a
degree of reclamation of the soil attempted almost every-
where, as we observe on passing, but it is without judg-
ment, and the crops, such as they are, are in a most
foul and unsatisfactory state. Many spots, if drained
and cleaned, would yield a good return ; but the idea of
draining or road-making in this part of the country is
certainly yet in its infancy. Nasty, dirty, slovenly
homesteads. We still go on ; now water and bog, bog
and water ; hay very thin ; more weeds. Now we come
to somewhat better doings ; better and better. Reach
Castleblaney : better potatoes and fair flax crops ; again
all poor, and likely to be ; flax, potatoes ; no drainage ;

bogs deep ; pass a good place to the left amongst this
sheer desolation.

Ballybay : All bad, bad ; flax, flax ; ditto, ditto ; plot
after plot, and none good. Evidently all small holdings,
say from three to five acres each, apparently all on the
limestone rock. The land, when tired of cropping,
appears to rest itself; I see no signs of laying down
anywhere. Potatoes here, as elsewhere, are nearly all
cultivated upon the lazy-bed system, i. e., little stetches
set and covered by the soil from a trench dug along the
whole length, and scattered over the stetch : all looks
uncomfortable.

Monaghan-road Station: Pass numbers of miniature
lakes or meres ; plots of flax everywhere — bad, bad ;
more, and still more, but not one fair crop to be seen.
This must be very unprofitable cultivation. We soon
reach a better country, broad and open, forming a good
agricultural district under proper culture. But, these
four and five acre holdings, how are they to be farmed ?
It can only be in accordance with cottage husbandry,
upon its best principles ; and much may in this way be
efiected, with care, economy, and industry. I shall try
and help, if possible. Much good arises from discus-
sion and public remarks upon failures here, and bad ma-
nagement there. I will try and engage the press to lend
its all-powerful aid. But I forget that at this time,
Aug. 12, all are here fully engaged in mowing, hay-
making, and the like ; matters of business almost for-
gotten, for this season, in England. How is all this ?
Now in an improving district. Flax better. Nearly all
three to four acre holdings, each having a plot of flax
growing, or, rather, pulled from them. Country fair ;
but such little plots. Bad cabins — cottages ? No, no !
Now reach Newbliss Station. Still mowing grass and
making hay. How very backward ! All potatoes in
the district fair, but failing; badly managed. Pass
now some very pretty spots or residences in a good
country ; some beautiful scenery in dell and valley cha-
racter, but boggy. Pass a canal— some choice scenery.
Mowing, as usual. Arrive at Clones, a very pretty and
undulating district. For once, see some nice cottages —
gardens cultivated and fenced. The country for a con-
siderable distance appears to partake much of Leicester-
shire scenery and character of soil. All might be made
available for the best cultivation, and profitable; grain
upon seed-shift rotations. Pass a large bog — " Irish
bog"— the mound for scores of acres twenty feet thick.
Potatoes everywhere. Another bog, about ten feet
thick. Pass a well-stocked fruit-orchard, an unusual
thing along the route. The country now is more even,
but has nice undulations, and soil rather heavier. We
could easily imagine some beautiful farms might be
made in this country— but those interminable small
holdings ! Well, we doubt not but that these small
occupiers, when properly instructed as to their best in-
terests, will make much of them. We do not propose
to make large farms out of these holdings.

We are now at Newtown-Butler. What foul grass land,
and in such a country as we have passed ! What a shame !
Ragwort, scabious, thistles, and other wreds in great and
interesting variety. Passing on, we find the country

316

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE

•.V, . hiif the land is convertible, and migbt

it looks so neglected: no life or energy, -^^'f^l^'l^
pended in draining or other improvements, so far as
^m be seen in any district all along the Ime of our
uteV e^del alUooks so miserably dirty and uncom-
f ruble. The'partof the line of railway upon wh ^
^eare nowroUing along has not been long opened ad
is not, in fact, yet completed to EnmskiUen. It s car
r ed undoubtelly, through a rather .ild and unknown
It ict. On arriving at Lisnaskea Station coaches and
omnibuses await the train. The ride from Lisnaskea to
En:;skillen is nearly even or upon the flat ; and through
a country possessing much useful land, but, Uke al the
rest no enlightened views have as yet appeared . the
same backward cultivation; the --^f^-^^^d
o. rather unusually small; and cabins the most wretched
and miserable-no farm buildings, no hovels, no con

veniences. , , . , , „^„

Lough Erne: The country through which we have
passed lately might all drain there, I imagine ; what
a benefit, if once achieved! Cambndgeshue fen-
men would soon drain it. Fine and abruptly undula-
ting country behind, as far as the ^y^^^"" !'''\^X^
corn cut; no hay carted. As usual, it is put into cocks,
Jely raked or smoothed down, and left for a conve-
nient time, if it ever comes. Now pass «o"^«/°S;f
various distances. Crops all green yet. Nearly, as far
as I see, all oats and potatoes grown here ; some good
crops of turnips. Bad cabins ; all more or less conti-
guous to one bog or another, and all looks wretched nd
■ comfortless. The bogs are numerous near this point,
and vary from twenty to fifty feet in thickness.

We arrive at EnniskiUen. All is gaiety . flags flymg,
bells ringing, &c. ; understand it is the anniversary of the
relief of Londonderry, a day always observed in the North
of Ireland. Leave for Londonderry: country still ab
rupt ; cropping chiefly oats and potatoes, but better
xnanaged-mostly after the lazy-bed fashion. Lowthers-
Town road: All around is beautiful ; all good. Passed
delp valley; steep bills, not very high. Have plenty
of rain in this district. Pass bogs aSam--bogs on the
hills, bogs in the valleys. Still small holdmgs. Grass
lauds ever aboundmg with the Irish pest-ragwort, rag-
wort, ragwort ! Nothing but oat crops to be seen. No
wheats to be seen.

Frillick Station: Miserable villages; huts or cabins
awful; the people too are Protestants ; all miserable
to an En-lish eye and heart, poor miserable looking
cows: the rail here runs on very high ground;
bogs everywhere, the country by no means so good;
oats not good, wheat poor and backward. Dro-
xnore-road Station: The grass here as elsewhere
appears to have laid itself down to rest again, and all in
size like the little lazy-bed narrow stctches ; this is far
from profitable. The kind of pigs in Ireland are good
and are divided into two classes, white p.gs and black
pi.s , but here they are black and white admixtures, but
very serviceable animals ; several turnip crops near but
all bad ; glens here, glens there, all bad ; what complain-
ing ! I am disappointed ; must help them ; country

flatter, all bad and badly farmed; pass a good plot of
potatoes; all the same miserable nondescript kind o
cows ; land rather better, but badly done ; pass a plot
of Italian rye-grass. Fintona Junction : Everything
looks most miserable and forbidding ; poor, poor Ire-
land 1 the same; the same, but still worse cabins.
Arrive at Omagh Station, where, as the darkness was
coming on, I was necessitated to shut up my note-
book ; however, from what I could observe on passing,
and subsequently, I found the country and ^ts farming
between tSis place and Londonderry much in advance of
other parts of the route through which I have passed 5
the farms larger, and many in the hands of private
owners, who, adopting modern practices, b^'e tbe r
farms admirably managed: I went over some that would
do credit to Lincolnshire or Northamptonshire, or any
part of England. On the sea side of Londonderry and
along Lough Foyle there is a vast breadth of slob or flat
shore, much of which has been enclosed, and is called
slob-land. Draining and good cultivation would make
it very productive: it has great depth of soil, but is much
imbued with saline matter, which only draining and and
floods or rains could dissipate. The breadth of land
sown to oats in this district is great, but very few c^°P^
are heavy and productive; potatoes ^■^^''""i, ; ^^^[^ ''^
also more grazing cattle and sheep around, and the lands
are fairly though roughly grazed.

Mv return route was by Coleraine, Antrim, to Belfast.
The line to Coleraine runs chiefly along the coast and
under the higher country, frequently on the slob-land ;
all is better done, and gives an English farmer a more
favourable idea of Irish farming. From Coleraine the
line passes over a diver.i^ed and interesting country,
which I should like to follow in detail ; sufiice it how-
ever to say that with some exceptions the same small
holdings, the same miserable cabins appear everywhere,
although they are relieved by more substantial dwelhngs
and here and there a tolerable farmstead. The genera
character of its agriculture is also superior; flax is
better and more abundant; wheat is grown ; potatoes
are better; oats very general; and not much grass,
except as you approach Antrim, and then agam towa.d
he sea At one point near Ballymena is a nice dis rict
of grass-land, and at Antrim some very superior land
both arable and grass ; my notes along t^^- •- --^'^
form the foundation for another paper, bu I think suffi
cient has been said to show the general features of the
agri ulture and holdings of the North 0 Ireland and
I trust to draw from them one or two lessons of im-
provement which 1 with all deference would like to read
to my Irish brethren; I can assure them I have no
other aim than to add my little aid to the many power-
M means now in full work to achieve the renovation of
rshagr culture, and the improvement of the holdings
and general amelioration of the condition ot the Irish

peasantry. ,

It is. I am ready to confess, a great presumption for a
.lain practical farmer like myself to attempt to write
Cn Ireland and its agriculture, particularly upon such
aTort acquaintance with facts, as I have shown m my
pastlp Pe" to possess; but as I am not going to

enter upon the subject further than it bears upon the
mprovement of its labouring population, and the class
or small farmers immediately above them, I take upon
myself whatever blame or responsibility may attach to
my papers; my sole aim is to aid in my humble way the
many efforts now in progress to improve the social
condition, and permanently to benefit the entire class.

The Irish agrarian population has long been a thorn
m tne 5,^^ ^^ ^^^^^ Government which has held office
within my recollection. It is true the question relative
0 their amelioration used to be staved off from time to
time ; and the old remark, "it was no use legislating
ror Ireland/' was oft repeated ; but latterly much has
been done, a poor-law has been established, tithes have
been abolished, the sale of entailed and encumbered
estates has been promoted and permitted, emigration
bas been encouraged, and other legislative benefits have
been conferred. In appropriate connexion with these
measures many societies have been established for the
moral and religious advantage of these classes, more
particularly such as Irish Societies, Irish Evangelical
Societies, and hosts of others have been established.
Irish Scripture readers, and ministers of religion have
traversed the length and breadth of the land. The Bible
has been disseminated, knowledge has been spread by
the establishment of schools and lectures, &c &c •
synonymous with all this has been the establishment of
agricultural societies in many districts of the kingdom
and amongst these the Royal Agricultural Improvement
Society of Ireland stands most prominent, carrying its
usefulness at migratory periods all over the island
These and similar institutions, having for their object
the intellectual, the moral, social, and religious improve-
ment of the Irish population, cannot fail to have a
beneficial effect sooner or later ; and few things give me
greater pleasure than to add my feeble contribution to-
wards effecting an object fraught with such momentous
consequences, and certain to be attended with such
gratifying results.

Well, then, what are we first to attempt ? I say first,
try and elevate the minds, order of feeling, and habits
of the population. Very good, but how is it to be
done ? I will try to point out some ways of doing this
I have been told by highly respectable persons, that you
cannot improve the Irish labourer, he is a stereotyped
man; his habits are fixed and unchangeable; you can-
not elevate him ; he has no ideas or notions beyond his
present condition ; give him higher wages, he spends
the balance after providing for absolute necessaries in
whisky or personal gratification ; no additional comfort
is once to be thought of; no new frock or new shoes for
Bridget, or slop or jacket for Mike ; no, nor is the wife
one bit more cared for, except being permitted to join
in the whisky potations. Now this I cannot at all give
credit to ; exceptional cases, and many of them no doubt
there are, but I must conclude this to be a libel upon
the general population. What ! Cares not the Irish
mother for the comfortable if not smart appearance of
her daughter ? or the Irish father for the respectability
of his son ? Depend upon it both are proud of their
children, and would help them to advance in their con-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Slf

dition if they could. The great fact appears to me to
be this : They have as a whole been so long pressed
down with the most grievous poverty, that the attain-
ment of a much better position in life seems quite hope-
less, and they almost cease to aspire after it ; and
another reason is, that agricultural employment from the
very nature of things in the country is scarce, and
wages consequently are ground down to the very finest
point. The whole order of things must be changed.
The very foundation and structure of society must be
up-heaved, both body and mind must be unfettered, a
healthy and wholesome invigoration must be instilled
into the class ; they must be made to feel themselves
men, men having a stake, interest, and consideration in
the country and its soil, in their homes and their
hearths ; they must be made to feel that they live for a
higher and holier purpose than to grovel in the dust and
dirt of animal appetites and passions. I say then, he
must be elevated in the order of his mind and feeling.
Well, Mr. Farmer, what of this ? everybody would
feel disposed to say the same, but just tell us how it is
to be accomplished, how is this to be brought about ?
How will you up-heave the whole fabric of society '
How will you elevate the ideas and feelings of the lower
order of Irish? How will you give them a beneficial
interest m the soil ? How will you unfetter their minds
and make them feel themselves to be men living for
higher purposes than to promote their own interests or
selfish gratification, &c. &c. ? Stay, stay ; I am not one
wit wiser than my neighbours, nor do I pretend to higher
gifts ; plain questions are often with difficulty answered
I am not going to do all this, nor am I about to give'
you clear and definite answers, but I will try to solve
some of the many difficulties by which the subject is
surrounded and encumbered.

My first point, then, is to elevate the character and
feeling of the order of such peasantry I am to improve
Their position now is this : The labourers, for the most
I part, are extremely poor, without the means of ordi-
nary subsistence — living on the most homely and
I cheapest food; generally clothed in rags; living in
cabins or huts of the meanest kind, and crowded to
excess ; his family appear as miserable and wretched
us possible, even more so than himself; in fact, with-
out decent clothing for their bodies, to say nothing of
their heads, legs, and feet, which seemed uncared for
even the sympathies and kind offices rendered by the
wealthier here to the poor seems denied them there—
they are looked upon as a lower degraded race, and
generally the higher classes treat them as such. As to
labour, it is scarce enough, and, when to be had, is
paid for at the lowest possible rate : the men at ten-
pence or a shilling per day, the women at sixpence, the
lads and lasses almost ^t^-perhaps a shilling per week.
As for position in society, they have none-they are
mere drudges for others. My limits will not permit
me to say more. Now is this right ? Is this as it
ought to be ? Most certainly not : but we ask again—
How can you help it ? How can you alter, and put it
down? Why, in many ways. The first great move-
ment must be on the part of the higher orders, i

818

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mean the noblemen, gentlemen, clergymen, priests,
and others possessing property and influence. I say
the first movement must emanate from this class ; and
I am convinced of the correctness of the position I
take. I am convinced that, in a moral, social, and
pecuniary aspect, it would be one of the most beneficial
speculations ever entered upon by mortal man. Don't
tell me you cannot elevate the character and moral
feelings of these people. I don't believe it. There
never was a man, woman, or child who did not form a
higher estimate of themselves when dressed in their
Sunday clothing, or on appearing in their best— all feel
it. It is against the nature of things to be otherwise.
Depend upon it, these poor, distressed people can be
raised in the scale of social humanity. Then set about
it in good earnest. I know it cannot be done without
great effort, and some sacrifice ; but there are always
benevolent minds and working-men in every district —
you never depend upon namby-pamby donish people
for anything : no ; you have generally to push them
aside out of the way. No one knows the true value of
a working benevoL nt man in any district, either in
this country or elsewhere — they are " the salt of
the earth.'' Well, it is to these men I appeal. I
would not ask your covetous, selfish, purse-proud
men to assist ; nor your proud and grand gentleman —
'tis no use. The sovereign of the one, and the patron-
age of the other, is all you can expect— they have too
much to do for themselves. Nor would I depend upon
the clergyman or the priest: no; they seldom act in
unison— often in opposition : it is their way. The
' priest considers the other as a trespasser, and if he
cannot oust him from his place he may prevent his
usefulness in it. Now, I may be wrong; but it strikes
me forcibly that here is a root of great bitterness—
these two religious teachers being an hindrance to the
moral advancement of the people. You cannot separate
social and moral advancement from religion — it is a
part and parcel of it ; hence the jealousy between
Protestant and Catholic. You must devise a scheme
whereiH both may act in unison. Well, then, let it be
simply the social advancement of the people, and
we leave all the rest to follow. Now, one of my
panaceas is the establishment of labourers' friend
societies all over the kingdom of Ireland, to be
carried out irrespective of creeds, or the position
of the members or officers of the societies.

Now these labourers' friend societies embrace many
laudable and noble efforts, which from time to time
appear desirable to attempt. I now wish to speak from
my own experience, having had the niiinagement of such
a society for many years. I do most unhesitatingly
assert that the good effected is astonishing, chiefly in
this way ; emulation of the most praisewortliy character
is raised up and stimulated ; one successful candidate
urges another onward; there is a determination to excel
excited — it spreads, competitors and non-competitors
for our prizes alike exercise more care, more caution,
more labour, and better general management is the
result. The comfort of their families, the cleanliness
and healihy condition of their cottages, the orderly and

comfortable appearance of their children, the profitable
and ornamental culture of their gardens, the respect in
which they hold themselves, their constant attendance
upon divine worship, their absence from houses of in-
temperance, their anxiety to hear and acquire knowledge,
their punctuality and industry in time and daily labour, and
their general good conduct, is an abundant compensation
to a generous and benevolent mind. I might also add, that
as knowledge increases their foolish prejudices are up-
rooted, no opposition is made to the introduction of new
implements, new machinery, or new modes of cropping ;
indeed they are almost hailed as accessories to improve
their own conditio.!, which, in truth, they really are,
for it is an undoubted fact that in the immediate district
from which I write the introduction of improved imple-
ments and machinery has greatly increased the demand
for manual labour. You can't judiciously till your soil
too much, and improved tillage promotes additional
cropping, which, in its turn, absolutely demand more
manual labour. And this is all right : the farmer obtains
more and better crops, the labourer receives wages for
planting and harvesting them. Well, then, I advocate
the establishment of these societies throughout Ireland.
The selection of objects or subjects most desirable for
prizes must be left to the discretion and judgment of the
various societies in ev?ry district, and suited to the state
and condition of the locality ; always bearing in mind
the main object of these establishments— the elevation of
the labouring classes. For this purpose I would suggest
rewards or prizes for the cleanest and best-managed
cottage and garden, for the best assortment of roots, for
the best pig, the best poultry, or, again^ for bringing up
their families, or their children's proficiency in school
acquirements and punctuality in attendance — the boys
in knowledge, the girls in needlework, &c.; or, again, for
their own skill and dexterity in workmanship — plough-
ing, ditching, draining, hedging, stacking, and the like;
or, again, for mothers who have manifested the greatest
care in bringing up their children; or, again, to widows
who best support themselves, or servants for servitude ;
and in various other ways that from time to time appear
desirable. To these encouragements and inducements I
would add others, to working tradesmen and mechanics :
to the one for cheap and comfortable clothing, shoes,
&c. ; or to the other for cheapness and excellence in the
execution of every department of farm -work, for all the
requirements of the farm. Or, again, I would provide
district or village libraries for lending, or, if convenient,
for reading rooms ; or, again, courses of lectures on all
common subjects ; indeed, in short, I would have these
societies provide in every way they possibly can for the
progressive advancement and elevation of these classes.
As to funds, I am well aware such great aims and ends
cannot be achieved without great personal and pecuniary
sacrifice ; 1 would therefore suggest that in addition to
these local or district societies, one large and general
society for Ireland he got up, after the order of the
Itoyal Irish Agricultural Improvement Society, to com-
bine in its operations the whole of Ireland, who shall
out of their funds make grants in aid of poor societies,
or as they may see need ; and for this purpose I woul4

TriE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

further suggest a grant of funds from the Government
or from the parochial rates should be placed at the dis-
posal of this society for application for the above pur-
poses. The all-important thing I contend for in this
department of my subject is, the improvement and con-
sequent elevation in character and condition of the agri-
cultural labourer, the tradesman, and mechanic connected
with agriculture.

I desire to devote this part chiefly to that class of
occupiers immediately above the Irish labourer, i. e. the
cottage or small farmer. This class in Ireland is exceed-
ingly numerous, and their land for the most part is by
no means well farmed or judiciously cropped. I wish to
say a few words to them, and with the best intentions
for their benefit. The number of holdings in Ireland
was, in 1841, 685,309; but in 1851 they had decreased
to 628,222, and were as follows :— Holdings under one
acre 35,323 ; above one acre and not exceeding five,
91,618 ; above five acres and not exceeding fifteen acres,
203,331 ; above fifteen acres and not exceeding thirty
acres, 145,380; above thirty acres 152,567. So that the
total number of farms under thirty acres, out of 628,222
acres, is 330,272 acres, or considerably more than half.
These happily are slowly decreasing, for we find that in
1856 the holdings not exceeding five acres were 82,035,
as compared with 1850 of 91,618 ; not exceeding fifteen
acres, 179,931, as compared with 203,331 in 1850— a
certain indication of progressive improveoient ; but as I
have before said, I do not propose any consolidation of
these: I take thera as they are, a necessary evil, which
cannot be got rid of, and shall endeavour to point out
measures or courses of management, with a view to their
more profitable occupation. I am well aware that grave
difficulties stand in the way of great changes, from the
natute of the tenantry in many cases, the joint-tenantry
of numbers, and also from the serious inconvenience
of distance from the respective villages. My intention
is to shirk all these matters, and merely confine myself
to cottage or small farms generally.

The first thing then that I shall notice is the
condition of their dwelling-houses. I was told
that the usual mode of letting these farms was
this: The land only was let, and the tenant just
pleased himself about building a place for his resi-
dence ; hence the great number of wretched hovels or
cabins seen everywhere. It cannot be expected that
the tenant, had he the means, would build a costly house ;
but it is also quite as unlooked for that any man should
be content with such woful huts as a vast number of
them are, and generally built upon the waste spot of
the holding, frequently not consisting of more than one
low mud floor room, covered after the cheapest and most
slovenly fashion, with straw or stubble. And this, mind
you, serves for all purposes— for kitchen and parlour,
parents' and children's bed-room, and often has to ac-
commodate the pig besides, to say nothing of the grand-
father and grandmother of the family, who usually re-
side with their children. Talk of elevating the character
and feeling of these inhabitants! why, what can be ex-
pected from a people herding together in this heathenish
way ? They must of necessity be a low and degraded

319

people, living in such a low and dirty condition. All
those nice proprieties, those little modesties which the
pure and correct-minded love to instil in all connected
with them, and which forms the grace and charm of
every shade of good society, cannot be acted upon here.
There must be a coarseness, a low groveling vulgarism,
and indelicacy of soul and of feeling most inimical
to elevation of character. This vicious system at all
events should be swept away. The landlord should
provide a comfortable dwelling, and let it with his land.
This would secure a more suitable order of cottages and
dwellings at least, and on the somewhat larger holdings
abetter house and other farm conveniences ought to be
erected. I know in what cost this plan would involve
landowners. It would be very great; but there is no
help for it; a great sacrifice must be made, or the
wretched system will remain. Government has stepped
forward to facilitate the sale of lands, the draining of
lands, the peimanent improvement of lands on entailed
estates. Why not carry the aid to Irish landlords, to
enable them to build as above, to make suitable roads,
&c., and otherwise improve such estates ? I am a great
believer in inducements and encouragements of all kinds,
in order to make much progress. Now I would, through
agricultural societies (and I would have these aided by
Government, all over the country) offer prizes for
competition amongst this class of farmers ; and amongst
the foremost of them should be prizes for the neatest and
best-ordered homesteads and gardens. My next would
be for the best-managed farms, upon a graduated scale,
in accordance with the size of the little farm. I would
also offer prizes for the best corn crops, in best variety,
and rotation of cropping ; for the best cow and other
domestic animals ; for the best root crops, including
potatoes; the bsst poultry; the best butter, &c., &c.
I believe a laudable spirit of emulation to excel may thus
be excited ; and when once this spirit is infused, I know
it will make rapid progress. There is something so
pleasing and inspiring in being the winner, and going
along with it, the thing exhibited, and the energy and
thought and care bestoived to fit such for winning.
This can never again be lost by the fortunate exhibitor ;
he has learned the lesson, and the knowledge thus ob-
tained of tbe capabilities of his farm or his animals to
produce for him this success will, I say, be never lost
upon him ; and the profit he derives from the excel-
lence of either his crops or his animals will urge him
onward. He sees — he knows what can be done. There
can be no doubt whatever as to the great influence the
prize system has had in improving British agriculture.
Then, why not apply it in all its phases, according to
its adaptability, to the requirements of Irish agriculture ?
Nay, it has already done immense benefit to Irish ao-ri-
culture. T'rc only thing now required, is to bring the
system down to the order and holdings of the small
farmers and cottagers. This can be best worked out by
local societies in convenient suitable districts, which in
thfit country should not be large— say, then, union dis-
tricts. The chief promoters of the movement ought to be
the landlords, clergy, priests, and agent's. I think, as the
districts are small, sufficient sums in subscriptions could

520

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

not be obtiiiucd, I wouW, therefore, that Governrapnt
give permission to the boards of guardians in every
union to appropriate out of the parochial funds such
required sums as may be actually needed for this pur-
pose, which I would designate as The Cottagers' Im-
provement Fund. I know I write very dogmatically
upon this subject. I would not do so but for the fact tliat
in my own immediate district this spirit of emulation
has been generally excited or infused ; and the improve-
ments effected by the farmers in the production of every
crop has been astonishing. And, what is equally grati-
fying, the labouring population have been made par-
takers of the same benefits ; their garden-crops and
allotment-fields evidencing great advancement in cul-
ture and order of cropping, and their little beds and
borders abound with a great variety of beautiful flowers
and flowering shrubs. I can give no better proof
of the elevated order of their minds than this dis-
play of excellent taste and discrimination, and in
such pleasing variety, as adjuncts and ornaments of a
quiet and cleanly home.

Another most important mode of elevation of charac-
ter I again say, is by improving the minds of the
people. This is chiefly to be done by the course I
have already pointed out, i. e., the establishment of
district libraries ; to which, 1 would add, where
practicable amongst the population to which I more
particularly address myself, the establishment of far-
mers' clubs, or societies for the diffusion of agricultural
knowledge. These clubs, or societies, must constitute
the organs of communication ; and in whatever practi-
cal way they can, they must diffuse information, i. e.,
by lectures, by the sale or lending of agricultural

books, papers, periodicals, and agricultural newspapers ;
or, again, by annual or occasional meetings for the ex-
hibition of stock, roots, implements, &c. What a plea-
sant substitution for faction fights, maddening wakes,
and suchlike revelries !

Another excellent mode of elevation and improve-
ment would be the establishment of small model farms
in every district, open to the public on suitable and con-
venient occasions ; these model farms to be under the
superintendence of every local society, and to be man-
aged upon the best modern principles and practice of
agriculture, and with the utmost regard to economy and
simplicity. An expensive course of culture would
utterly defeat the object sought to be attained. There
must be nothing costly or speculative adopted, but plain
cultivation upon scientific principles, and the variety of
cropping and roots of the most approved kinds. The
stock and implements, too, must be of the best kind,
and their management shown. The fattening and
ordering of the farm-stock would be highly important,
as proving the amount of^ meat produced, or quality of
stock provided for, by the artificial grass crops or root
crops. The implements, too, must be of the simplest
kind, and in accordance with modern improvements,
but inexpensive, so that no prejudice may be excited by
their introduction. All the order of management must
be of the most bu^ness-like character, and adapted to
the soil and climate— to exhibit to the surrounding
occupiers what may be achieved by skill, industry, and
knowledge.

In my next I will attempt to show various courses of
cropping and modes of husbandry, &c,, &c.

NEW FOOD AND NEW DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The interminable discussions in the leading journals
on the question of economizing and improving our
dinner-festivities are at least likely to result in some
general benefit, by promoting inquiry as to new sources
of animal food ; and it has brought out Professor Owen
with his practical experience of the quality of eland
meat fitted for the table, on which he has just experi-
mented.

The popular topic of the day is, evidently, how we
can add novelties to our food-supplies. On the Con-
tinent they are experimentalizing on some of the ordi-
nary domestic animals not usually converted into food.
Mr. Simmonds, in his recent interesting>ork on "The
Curiosities of Animal Food," has suggested many
novelties which, being considered dainties and deli-
cacies in different countries, may be tested by those
■who think proper to try them.

The letter of Professor Owen on the quality of eland
meat opens up many suggestions for consideration not
only to those who have leisure and capital to carry out
experiments at home, but especially to our colonists in
the South and East.

In the work just mentioned above, the following
notice is taken of the eland of Africa : " The eland is

the largest of the antelope tribe. The bulls attain to
the height of nineteen hands at the shoulder, and fre-
quently exceed 1,000 lbs. in weight. It fattens readily
on the most meagre herbage of the desert, and to the
delicious, tender, juicy, and wholesome nature of its
flesh every hunter will bear witness who has regaled
himself on the steaks broiled in the homely style of
South African cookery, with none of the usual condi-
ments or spices to give them an unnatural relish. The
flesh has a peculiar sweetness, and is tender and fit for
use the moment the animal is killed. It is hunted
with avidity, on account of the delicacy of its flesh ;
but it is very rarely found within the limits of the Cape
Colony, having been driven beyond the Orange river
by the progress of civilization."

The opinion of Professor Owen and his brother-
naturalists, forming the "committee of taste," is
equally favourable, and was looked for with some in-
terest, as the subject of an eland having been fattened
and killed for the table by Viscount Hill was men-
tioned at the last meeting of the Zoological Society.
We will quote in extenso therefore, for the information
of our readers, the judgment formed upon this " new
and superior kind of animal food wh'ch has been added

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to the restricted choice from the mammalia class at
present available ia Europe"; adding thereto some
further details which it may be desirable to make
known respecting the animal.

The meat was of a bright colour and of a close, fine
texture, but without any fat mixed with the lean. A
good quantity of fat was accumulated round the kid-
neys and upon the inside of the ribs. After hanging
ten days, the joint was simply roasted, with a part of the
loin fat or suet, another part of this being made into a
suet pudding. The meat, when brought to table and
carved, presented the colour of pork. Committee
unanimous as to its texture— the finest, closest, most
tender and masticable of any meat. In taste, the first
impression was of its sweetness and goodness, without
any strongly marked speciality of flavour; it was
compared with veal and witli capon ; finally, the
suggestion that it was {mmiunalian) meat, with a
soup^on of pheasant flavour, was generally accepted.

Committee unanimous that a six-year-old eland
this was but a young male) would most probably yield
a meat equally fine in texture, with a more marked and
distmctive flavour; and that the extreme delicacy ol
flavour might be due to the immaturity of the present
animal. The portion of fat served with the joint dif-
fered from that of deer in not rapidly condensing into
tallow, but retaining, like the best beef fat, its clear,
meltmg character ; it was perfection as fat. Suet pud-
dmg extremely light and delicate.

Ten years ago, in an article in Simmond's Colonial
ilf«r/«2me on the domestication of some of the wild
ammals of Southern Africa, especial attention was
drawn to the eland, as promising beneficial results
This animal was formerly of not uncommon occurrence
in the Cape colony, as numerous local appellations
testify. It would be superfluous to enter into a de-
tailed description of the eland, which has now been so
successfully naturalized here.

Lord Derby was the first to secure and introduce it
into England, having despatched a party to the in-
tenor of South Africa, with special directions to attend
especially to the capture of the eland. This object
was efi-ected, and three or four young animals arrived
safely at Knowsley Park. Since their transfer to the
Zoological Society, and their difi-usion over several
noblemen's estates, they have thriven well, have be-
come as docile as any domestic cattle, and the cows
have annually produced and reared their calves.

The eland, having a very ponderous carcass, with
short stout legs, and evidently possessing great strength
It has been suggested might be made available for
draught in the colonies. It fattens readily on the most
meagre herbage of the desert, and can support drought
better than almost any creature except the camel ; ard
IS found in large herds roaming over the wide yielding
sands of the Kalagari desert, the South African Sa!
hara, where it subsists for many weeks without water
obtaining a sufficiency of liquid from the succulent
shrubs and wild waier-melons which abound in that
region.

There can hardly be a shadow of a doubt that, had

321

this subject been attended to in the youthful days of
the Cape colony, stout and portly droves of elands
might now be seen grazing over the diflferent farms, or
seeking the nightly kraal in company with sheep, oxen,
and horses, or even drawing the lumbering wain.

Prior to experience, what animal could seem less
fitted for a beast of burthen than the South American
lama? While the Australian colonists are turning
their attention to the wool-bearing animals, the alpaca.
Angora and Cashmere goats, &c., they certainly should
not neglect the food-yielding animals of the kindred
climate of southern Africa. Considering how limited
is the range and kind of animals native to Australia,
the importance of increasing the stock is evident, and
especially of those wild animals of the antelope tribe
which can find their own sustenance without care or
trouble.

While in former years our circumnavigating voy-
agers were zealous in introducing the useful domestic
animals of Europe, the hog, the sheep, the dog, &c., lo
the new countries they visited, in later years,' with the
greater advantages offered by commerce and commu-
nication, settlers themselves in distant colonies have
been far less attentive to this highly important subject.
There is, it is true, just now, some prominence being
given to the matter, which we trust will not be per-
mitted to subside without realizing some beneficial re-
sults. A liberal grant has just been made by the
Legislature of Victoria for the formation of a zoological
collection in that colony; and we presume attention
will be directed to the acquisition of useful animals, as
well as those merely exhibited for curiosity. We mav
point to the hartebeest, the ourabi, the rhubok, the
bushbok, and many other of the antelope tribe of
southern Africa— to some even of the goat tribe, espe-
cially the Malabar goat, the flesh of which is 'tender
and excellent, contrary to the general nature of the
goat, and is in consequence more sought after than any
game in Ceylon. These would be especially valuable,
and would thrive well in Australia, and in time increase
in the deserts and wild parts of that great island-
continent.

The two species of the quagga of Africa have been
broken to the saddle and harness : they are docile and
easily tamed. It is a stronger animal than the ass, of
more pleasing aspect, and equally hardy. The quagga,
though it might improve under domestication, would
probably never equal the horse in strength or speed,
but it would soon rival the mule, and in all likelihood
would propagate itself far more al^undantly than either
the horse or ass.

These are some of the animals which most readily
suggest themselves to the mind as capable of being do-
mesticated, and becoming highly serviceable to man.
But there are others, doubtless, which might be intro-
duced into some of our colonies, and would prove use-
ful, such as the fine Syrian races of asses, the yak, the
camel, the elephant, the joobul, a mule between the
yak and the hill breed of cattle in India, the large
humped bullocks of India, and others to which we may
hereafter advert.

3S2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CHEESE-ITS MANUFACTURE AND QUALITY.

Whether it be true or not, that " poor men eat
cheese for hunger, rich men for digestion," thiskind of
diet enters very largely into consumption in this king-
dom, and in numberless varieties. We have it from the
soft globular Dutch to the hard horny SuflEblkskim, need-
ing an axe to cut it, and which they say " pigs grunt at,
dogs bark at, but neither of them dare bite "—from
those famed Dorset cheeses which the rats left un-
touched on board ship, after eating some millstones by
mistake, to the rare cream cheese, the rich Cheshire
and Cheddar, and ripe Leicestershire Stilton. For nutri-
tious properties, cheese stands higher in the chemist's
estimation than even butchers' meat; and it is so
useful, because readily available for food, requiring no
subsequent preparation, and being easily kept. No
wonder, therefore, that the total consumption for the
United Kingdom should be reckoned at 120,000 tons
annually. Twenty thousand tons, worth about a
million sterling, are imported every year, principally
from Holland, largely from the Unite-) States, and in
less quantities from France, Sardinia, Tuscany, and
other parts of the Continent— the home production
being some 100,000 tons. Little cheese is made in
Ireland, but a small quantity in Scotland ; and the
chief English cheese counties are Cheshire, Gloucesfer,
Salop, Derby, and Leicester, in which more than three-
fourths of the whole quantity of British cheese is made
Cheshire itself produces 12,000 tons a-year.

Milk will spontaneously separate into cream, curd,
and whey. The art of cheese-making consists in
the complete extraction of the whey, and in the proper
compacting and caring of the curd, the richness of the
cheese depending upon the quality of the milk, or the
proportion of cream it may contain. The cheese of
Cheshire is professedly made from new, unskimmed
milk ; but too often a portion of the cream is taken to
be churned for butter, along with the small quantity of
cream yielded by the whey. The operations of " set-
ting" at the proper temperature, breaking the curd,
dra°ining off and squeezing out the whey, salting, press-
ing, and drying, are generally known. The improve-
ments introduced of late years in the machinery and
offices of the dairy are— first, the "curd-breaker,"
for cutting up the curd into small particles— super-
seding the old mode of three women kneeling around
the tub and breaking the mass with their fingers-
next, the " curd-mill," which breaks the curd after
the whey has been drained from it in the cheese-vat,
before iinally putting it under the press— instead of the
old tedious plan of again breaking it with the hands ;
and then the " lever-press," which is self-acting, and
allows of the pressure being regulated by a weight
sliding along the beam. This machine dispenses with
the custom of kneeling upon and pressing the cheese
with a board, or two or three people thrusting
it with their bands, or pressing it for a time

before placing it under the heavy stone press.
Now there is so much difficulty in effecting a
perfect separation of the whey from the ingredients
of the cheese, that improved forms of dairy utensils
have been from time to time contrived for the purpose ;
some, indeed, forming a complete cheese-making appa-
ratus in one vessel. And the value of these inventions
lies, still further, in the fact that the richer the milk
(and, consequently, the finer the cheese), the more
difficulty is there in preventing cream and curd from
being lost along with the whey. There is an increasing
relish and demand for new milk in preference to
skimmed-milk cheeses: Hence, to supply the best
qualities profitably, in face of the large foreign im-
portation, the home producer requires every mechanical
or other assistance that can render the coagulation of
the milk and the separation of the whey more effectual
and economical. The inventions recently brought
out do not introduce any new practice, so much as to
render the operations simpler and less open to waste by
slovenly and unskilful management. There is a saving
in labour ; while the result is less at the mercy of the
dairy-maid. The most novel and interesting of these
inventions is the cheese-making apparatus invented by
Mr. Keevil, of Strand Farm, at Lacock, mar Chippen-
ham. It consists of a large circular metal milk-tub,
with a wire-gauze strainer or filter at one side, having
a slide-plug to prevent or permit the whey jiassing
through ; and a bar across the top, acting as a bearing
for the frame of knives which rotate in the tub, and
also as a purchase for the screw press-plate when the
knives are removed, and this is placed upon the curd.
The process is as follows :— When the curd is "set"
sufficiently firm, the blades are made to turn gently
round, cutting the curd vertically and horizontally into
small squares ; the bar across the mouth of the tub is
then undone at each side, the spindle and frame of
knives removed, and the curd allowed to settle for some
twenty minutes. After it has fallen to the bottom, and
the pure whey risen to the top, the semicircular plug is
drawn up, a tap at the bottom of the filter is turned
and the whey allowed to drain through. When the
whey ceases to flow by its own gravitation, a cheese-
cloth is spread over the curd, and the pressing-plate
applied, the cloth being put down between the curd
and the sides of the tub, to prevent any of it rising over
the plate. This plate is perforated, and has a gutter
sunk across it ; and the pressure, applied by means of
a screw, is at first light, so as not to squeeze out any of
the cream and curd— the rule being to screw down the
plate no faster than the whey flows clear and limpid
over the pressing-plate. This part of the work will
very much depend upon the quality of the curd, and
therefore the dairy-man will have to be guided by ex-
perience in this as in the old process. The pressing-
plate may have to be removed, the curd cut back

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

around the tub, placed in the middle, and the plate
again applied until the whey is thoroughly removed,
when the dry curd is broken and vatted in the usual
manner. An increased weight and greater uniformity
of quality are obtained by this new method of per-
forming old processes. The tub or vessel is made either
of brass or tin, and of any size up that holding ninety
gallons. Messrs. Griffiths and Co., of Birmingham, are
the manufacturers.

Another cheese-making apparatus, invented and
manufactured by Edward Cockey and Sons, of Frome
Selwood, comprises excellent arrangements for effecting
the desired end. As exhibited at Chester by Messrs.
Reeves, of Bratton, Wilts, it consists of a heating-
boiler, inclosed in an iron case lined with fire-brick,
and a patent cheese-tub with hollow chamber beneath
the bottom for hot or cold water. This chamber is
formed of copper, and the sides of the tub are strong
tin plates. The boiler and cheese -tub are connected
by iron pipes, with cocks for regulating the tlow of hot

323

water, the pipes being so arranged as to provide means
for a circulation of hot water to the cheese-room. A
supply of cold water to the chamber beneath the tub is
obtained at pleasure, so that any requisite temperature
may be secured.

The cheese-making apparatus invented and manu-
factured by Mr. James Cornes, of Barbridge, Cheshire,
is very much simpler and cheaper than either of the
foregoing. The curd is lifted from the cheese-tub into
this apparatus ; the whey being filtered and run off
through a strainer and pipe without labour. The curd
can be cut and turned over without being lifted out,
which avoids all waste ; and the apparatus can be used
with or without pressure on the curd. The curd is dry
and fit for vatting in a short time, and will retain all
the fine qualities and flavour of the cheese, which is
so frequently injured by the old mode of heaping a
large quantity of curd in small baskets. The appa-
ratus is mounted on wheels, in order to be conveniently
moved to any part of a dairy.

THE AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS OF IRELAND.

While a hostility is still evinced t.) the col-
lection and publication of Agricultural Statistics for
England and Wales, we are unable to form any
decided estimate of the progress of agricultural opera-
tions. It is, therefore, refreshing to be able to turn
to ascertained data with respect to agricultural progress
in other parts of the kingdom.

We have before us now the agricultural statistics of
Ireland for the past year, which are as full and com-
plete as could be desired, and well serve for comparison
with former years. We have gone carefully through
these returns, with the view of enabling our readers to
perceive the remarkable contrast between the present
and the past state of Irish agriculture.

The entire number of holdings in Ireland now is
nearly 600,000, and from all of these returns have been
obtained. The number of enumerators in 1858 was
about 4,000: they were selected from the constabulary
and Irish metropolitan police, and, as on former occa-
sions, seem to have discharged their duties in a very
efficient manner. The Registrar-General expresses his
thanks to the landed proprietors, the tenant-farmers,
the clei'gy of all denominations, and to the public press,
for their continued and generous assistance in reference
to the collection of these important statistics, the suc-
cess of which is mainly due to the good fueling and
confidence that prevail on this subject. This is
creditable to all ranks and classes in Ireland, and cer-
tainly affords an example not undeserving of considera-
tion in England.

It is pleasing to find what an alteration is taking
place in the social condition of Ireland, from the ex-
tended growth of valuable crops and the large increase
of live stock, adding, as these do, to the material wealth
of the country. Emigration has indeed carried off
large numbers, the population Jiaving decreased two

millions since 1841, and more than half a million souls
having left Ireland within the last seven years. The
price of labour has, consequently, advanced; and, as
employment increases with an extending area under
tillage, the means and prospects of the working classes
of Ireland must be permanently improved. If those
who have left have also improved their condition, as
all reports would lead us to believe, the general result
must, on the whole, be favourable.

In ten years the number of paupers in the work-
houses and on the poor-books in Ireland has been re-
duced from 620,000 to about 62,000. The note cir-
culation of the Irish banks and stock of bullion has
doubled in the same period. Large tracts of land Iiave
also been broken up for the pasture by plough and
spade. The holdings have been reduced about 60,000
in the ten years, showing a larger class of farms.' In
that period the cattle have increased 1,000,000, sheep
2,000,000, and pigs 500,000 ; and the present value of
the live stock, proportionately to the ])opulation, is
nearly £G per head. The general total of land
under culture with crops in Ireland now is one
million acres less than it was in 1849; this is to be
accounted for by the decrease of population, and the
high ruling rate of wa^es; hence more attention is
paid to stock-raising— a fact also shown by the in-
crease of 400,000 acres in meadow and clover.

The land under wheat culture is also advanced again
to the former ratio when the population was so much
larger. There is one remark of the Registrar General,
which does not speak well, however, for Irish farming!
" As regards the condition of Irish agriculture" (he ob-
serves) " I beg to state that I continue to receive com-
munications from various quarters relative to the per-
nicious growth of weeds, which is unfortunately so
prevalent throughout the country, and an anxious de-

394

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sire is generally expressed for some legislative mea-
sure to protect the improving farmer, who cleans his
lanfl, from the injury done to his crops by the winged
seeds of noxious weeds, carried by the wind from the
field of some negligent neighbour. Such a protection
is afforded to the cultivator of the soil in some of her
Majesty's colonies, and in parts of Europe."

The total area of Ireland, including bog, waste, roads,
fences, &c., is 20,811,774 acres. Of this there was un-
der culture in 1858, 5,882,492 acres, apportioned as
follows: 551,386 under wheat, 1,976,929 in oats,
190,721 with bailey, 16,489 with here and rye, 12,876
under beans and peas, 1,160,056 in potatoes, 337,877
in turnips, 30,027 with mangold wurzel and beet-root,
33,107 with cabbage, 23,450 with carrots, parsnips,
and other green crops, 33,441 with vetches and rape,
91,555 with flax, and 1,424,578 in meadow and clover,
while 44,937 acres are under fallow or uncropped ara-
ble land. Let us now compare the progress made and
mark the changes of crops in seven years.
Abstract of Cereal Crops.

1852. 1858.

"Wheat 353,566 acres. .. 551,386 acres.

Oats..'.! 2,283,449 „ ..1,976,929 „

Barley, r J e, pulse, &c. 339,591 „ .. 220.086 „

Total 2,976,606 „ ..2,748,401 „

Abstract of Green Crops.

1852.

Potatoes 876,532 acres.

Turnips 356,790 „

Other green crops . . 121,565 „

1858.
1,160,056 acres.
337,877 „
120,025 „

1,617,958

Total 1,354,887 „

The total extent in statute acres under the cereal crops
and green crops in the middle of last year in Ireland
was therefore 4,306,359 acres, showing a slight decrease
of 34,806 acres as compared with 1852. It will be
seen by reference, that the culture of wheat is extend-
ing, while oats, barley, rye, beans, and peas are declin-
insr. Potatoes are resuming their former ascendancy,
while turnips, cabbage, and other green crops, on the
series of years, show comparatively little variation.

The declining culture of flax is worth especial
notice, in the face of the loud professions of profitable
returns spoken of in Ireland, and the outcry for flax
by the flax-spinners. The culture has made little pro-
gress out of the province of Ulster, and even there has
been retrograding. The following figures shew the

total number of acres under flax culture in Ireland in

each of the past seven years :

1852 137,008

1853 174,579

1854 151,403

1855 97.606

1856 106,311

1857 97,721

1858...., 91.555

The reason of this decline is, we are told, the unpro-
fitable nature of the crop, which does not prove so re-
munerative as other crops, and hence its abandonment
in many quarters.

The following abstract shows the quantity of live
stock in Ireland now, and seven years ago :

1852. 1858.

Horses 525,088 610,717

Cattle 3,095,067 S,6il,594

Sheep 2,613,943

Pigs 1,072,658

3,487,785
1,402,812

Total .... 7,306,756 9,162,908
These figures indicate an increase of 85,629 hoi'ses,
566,527 cattle, 873,842 sheep, and 330,154 pigs, or
an aggregate increase of 1,856,152 head of all kinds of
live stock. Examining the returns for last year, we
find that of the horses above two years old 431,420
were kept for agricultural purposes ; and of the cattle,
1,633,378 were milch cows.

The total value of live stock, calculated according to
the rates assumed by the Census Commissioners of
1841, viz., for horses £8 each, cattle ^6 10s., sheep
22s., and pigs 25s. each, was as follows :

1852. 1858.

Horses 4,200,704 4,885,736

Cattle 20,117,935 23,800,361

Sheep 2,875,337 3,836,563

Pigs 1,340,823 1,753,515

Total ...,28,534,799 34,276,175
The increase in value from 1852 to 1858 was there-
fore £5,741,370, a sum which represents the amount
by which the fai mers of Ireland as a body are richer
than they were seven years ago. The cattle and horses
arc estimated, however, at a very low figure. Look-
ing at the details and statistics generally, they are of
a very encouraging and hopeful character, and there
is every reason to believe that considerable and satis-
factory progress is making in Ireland both in farming
and cattle-breeding.

THE ENGLISH FARMER IN BELGIUM.

'Tis odd, but true, that though it requires more con-
sideration on the part of the inhabitant of an island to
overcome the fear of sea-sickness in leaving it, than in
moving from one part of a continent to another, no
nation are so fond of travelling as the English, and
none less so than the French. Brussels is only four
hours' journey from Lille, and yet how few
dwellers in the latter place have ever been there ! No
visiing your passport is required ; and for 78. 4d.,

second-class, you are in one of the nicest cities in the
world. There are 8,000 English here, attracted by its
charming situation on a high hill, its healthiness, clean-
liness, cheapness in living and education : liberty and

' order are to be found here too. The cheapest route is
via Dunkirk ; first-class boat, second-class rail ; alto-

j gether, from London-bridge to Brussels, is only 18s.

' 7d. I know not another trip so cheap and pleasant ;

' but a French passport must be taken in London.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

325

Should any of nay countrymen come without ladies, I
advise them by all means to stop at Hazebrouck, half-
way between Dunkirk and Lille, and, leaving their
luggage there, hire a vehicle to convey them about seven
miles to the Trappist monastery at Mont a Carr. There
are about fifty of these extraordinary men who never
speak except to say " memento mori," never leave the
interior of the walls, and never touch animal food. It
is on the summit of a very high hill, and from it you
may see over the whole of Belgium, so far as the eye
will allow— a perfect panorama, as it is the only moun-
tain in Flanders. Thirteen small bed-rooms, very clean,
are always ready for strangers, who are welcome, gratis,
to food and lodging— bread and butter, vegetables, and
excellent beer, which they brew themselves, but taste
not. Any small gratuity the visitor may choose to leave
is received, but never demanded. They farm their own
land ; all the labourers, smith, carpenter, &c., being
monks : these, and four others, including the superior,
are allowed to speak. I went, and stayed one night,
and dined with four or five other strangers ; was shown
over all the premises, and spoke to the superior. Had
I not, I should have left with a wrong impression, that
all were ignorant bigots whose fanaticism could never
be adopted by educated men; but to my surprise I
found him evidently a gentleman, a handsome man of
forty, with talent in every feature ; mild in manner, but
without the least appearance of a dejected, broken-
hearted man, expiating some sin by a life of penance.
It is an extraordinary sight to an Englishman, and well
worth going from England on purpose.

Belgium is more subdivided than France. The labour-
ers are many of them small farmers, or their sons; and
it is wonderful how they obtain a living on such patches
of land. Their cultivation and quality of land is about
the same as in Flanders— sugar and gin being their best

friends j but the latter is dt a ruinously low price 4d.

per pint retail.

They dig their potatoes, or rather pull them out with
a " dung-hook." Certainly it is quicker, and less
laborious, as the men do not stoop ; and I cannot see
it *' pricks" the roots more, or so much as our three-
tined forks. I am an old potato grower, but I never
saw them so raised in England.

All are careful at intervals (as soon as it is dry enough
to move) to collect the manure droppings on the grazed
land, and they remain in heaps till winter, then to be
carted in. It does not cost much, and must be good
economy, as, if allowed to remain, the grass is some
time growing through, and then not much relished by
the cattle ; and if it is spread, it soon is so acted on by
sun and wind that half its value must be lost. I read,
a fortnight ago, a letter, in The Field, from Grantley
Berkeley, in which he says : " The insects which breed
the wireworm deposit their larvae under these droppings. ' '
This is something ne w ; but, if correct, it is an additional
reason for their speedy removal.

The carts here are much longer and narrower than
ours— the unimproved of centuries ago ; but they have
two appendages worthy of remark— they have some-
times long boards supported by eight or ten chains from

the sides of the carts, and give somewhat the appearance
of immensely long barrels cut in two lengthways, and
one of these halves suspended under the vehicle : the
brick carts are always so ; indeed, it forms the body of
the cart, there being nothing on- the piece of timber
forming the side — 'tis handy to load, and light and cheap,
as no mortices weaken the sides, and no fronts, nor side-
boards, nor top-rails are required. Of course, it will
not do for any load requiring to be " shot" out behind.
The other matter is a substitute for a skid. The
screw they have here they cannot put on these " hanging
body" brick carts; they carry a long pole, which, on
arriving at a descent, they chain at one end to the back
end of the" side j" and bringing it under the nave
outside the tvheel they chain the other end very tightly
to the shaft, thus giving it a pressure on the nave and
also on the outside edges of the tire both on back and
fore-part of the wheel. It acts well, but I should think
unsafe from liability to break ; but the poles look as if
they had been in use some time. This on a pinch might
be a useful hint to our carters with a heavy load and 8
weak horse.

As I have read in your paper of Nov. 1st a letter
being the commencement of a series on " The Social
Condition of the Agricultural Labourer," perhaps you
will not think it out of place if I mention a thing or
two in connection with the labourer here, which we
have not, which we sadly want, and which form
here his greatest comforts — one is a cheap stove
It can be quickly moved and erected in any chimney*
and in a new house does not require the latter
as they frequently have a vent for the smoke by
attaching six-inch pipes to one another with mortar
and to the wall (outside the house) with iron hoops,
saving bricks and giving more space in the room— 'tis
quickly lit, and quarter-of-a-peck of coals (or wood
will do as well) cooks the dinner, and a hot meal is pro-
duced at a very trifling expense of time or money — the
two most valuable considerations to the labourer. To
give some idea how small, I have had a basin of soup
and bread at a large (but cheap) restorants for one
penny ! and how much less cost when home-made !
Vegetables they consume much more than us— mixing
many sorts in the soup, and very palatable they make
them. It must be wholesome, for more hearty working-
men I do not wish to see. The pot just fits in the cir-
cular opening, so that no heat is lost.

It is a fact, that many of the wives of our men were
before marriage cooks or housemaids in respectable
families, and yet their household management is no
better for their previous acquaintance with kitchen
economy ; partly it is not their fault. Firing is cheaper
in England than here; but 'tis a heavy item, because
we have not the means of making a Utile fire that will
boil a pot ; nor can the long time be spared which it
takes in England ; consequently, the most of their
meals are cold ones. Now, in our own class, who can
with pleasure, or pleasant looks, sit down to cold
mutton two days' running ! and what would be our
happy winter's evenings without the fire ! Then, can
we be surprised at the labourer's relish for the beer-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

326

shop ? and may not also his cold food assist, perhaps, in
stimulating his fondness for drink ? Depend on it,
the first move in endeavouring to make the farm-
labourer sober and domestic is to give him warmth : 'tis
next in importance to food.

Another simple thing is a goat. They are always
tethered or in a pig-sty— out of harm's way ; will eat
almost any green or vegetable food, including the apples
of potatoes, and give an astonishing lot of milk. I'm
told— but it seems incredible — as much as six quarts
per day of more nutritious milk than a cow's.

The third matter is more easily obtained still, and of
all parts of clothing 'tis the most important to the man.
His shoes— so dear— and here the sabots, wooden shoes
so cheap, from 4Jd. to 9d. a pair ! I thought I must
have made a mistake, and have just been to a shop to
inquire again ; and I weighed a pair of large ones :
they were only 1 lb. each shoe. If not broken they last

a long time ; in winter are warm, and always dry, and
in summer cool ; and, as to lightness, they are like a
cork. Many gentlemen even have I seen with a pair of
out-of-door slippers, just to pop on to look in the nag's
stable, see what the gardener is doing, &c. ; and little
children of seven years of age I've seen running at their
utmost speed over bad pavemi^nts in them. Are not
these better than the holes at the toes, too often seen at
home ? Why on earth they have never been used in
England as commonly as here I cannot see. Well, for
a few pence any philanthropic man may shoe his poor
neighbour ; for a few shillings enable him to have all his
meals hot instead of cold; and for another few set
him up with a cow, which will supply all his family
with milk, and yet requires not a yard of ground— as
all the food may be found in the ditches and the offal of
his garden.

Paste Restanie, Brussels.

DEATHS OF CATTLE FROM FEEDING ON IMPURE COTTON AND LINSEED-CAKE.

Sir,— In this neighbourhood, during the last three months,
there has been a great mortality amongst calves and sheep
from feeding them on impure cotton and linseed-cake. One
gentleman lost six out of forty fatting shearlings, and the
rest of the flock became so much affected, that he deemed
it prudent to dispose of them at a price much below their
value, rather than run the risk of further mortality. When
inspecting this flock in November last, I found the sheep,
generally, looking very unhealthy. Those in which the
disorder was most manifest congregated at the corners of
the fold with their heads down and backs arched, frequently
changing the position of their hind legs, and which in some
instances were drawn up towards the body — thus plainly
indicating abdominal pain ; their breathing was much
hurried ; any movement appeared to increase their
sufferings; they staggered in walking, and after going a
few yards fell down apparently exhausted ; the urine was
of a dark colour, approaching to black, and the fseces
covered with blood and mucous.

I examined the bodies of several of the dead sheep. The
stomach and intestines were intensely inflamed, and pre-
sented appearances which could only have been produced by
some highly-irritating agent. The same gentleman shortly
afterwards lost three calves which exhibited similar symp-
toms, and presented the like appearances after death. These
animals had been fed on cotton-cake.

Twenty-two calves belonging to other parties have died
apparently from similar causes, but these had been fed on
linseed-ijake. I procured portions of each description of
cake, and on examining them under a powerful microscope,
I found the cotton-cake contained a large per-centage of
fragments of cotton-husk and cotton wool, quite suffi-
cient to account for the deaths of the animals fed upon
it ; the linseed-cake also contained a quantity of impure
material, consisting partly of seeds, which I was unable to
identify, hut not sufficient in quantity to account for the
effects following the use of it, unless the impure matter was
of a poisonous character.

The very extensive use to which cotton and linseed-cakes
are applied as articles of food for cattle, seemed to me to

call for a more complete and scientific investigation than I
was myself able to make I therefore forwarded samples ot
all the cakes to Dr. Voelcker, the chemist of the Royal
Agricultural Society, who has, with his usual kindness, for-
warded me a very complete and able report of the result of
his investigations, which fully confirms my opinion that the
deaths of the cattle resulted from the use of them.

I subjoin a copy of the report and of the Professor's
analysis of the cotton-cake, and I trust you will consider
the matter of suflicient importance to insert this letter with
the report and analysis in your next publication.
1 am, Sir, yours very faithfully,

Isaac Seaman.

North Essex Velerinary Infirmary,
Priory House, Saffron Walden, Sussex.

(COPY OF DR. VOELCKER'S REPORT.)

" Sir,— I have the pleasure of enclosing a copy of a care-
ful and full analysis of cake No. 1 (cotton-cake), and beg to
inform you that I have also examined the two other cakes
which you sent me. As the quantitative determination of
the amount of oil and other constituents do not appear to
me likely to throw much light on the subject, I have con-
fined my attention to the detection of deleterious ingredients
in those two cakes, and may observe at once, that I have
not been able to detect in either of them any organic or
mineral poison, although I have carefully searched for most
irritating poisonous substances.

" However, both cakes nevertheless mi>y be prejudicial
when eaten in quantity by young stock, for the examination
to which I submitted them leads rae to the opinion that
both are very inferior, old, badly-kept oil-cakes. Both are
very hard-pressed, and appear to contain more husk than
good cakes ought to contain; moreover, the seed from which
the cakes are made was evidently impure, for, notwith-
standing the powdery state of both cakes, especially No. 3,
I can find in them a good many foreign seeds. The botanical
character of these weed-seeds I could not make out; all I
can say is, there is no mustard in appreciable quantity in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

either of the calces, but amongst the weed-seeds there may
be other pernicious seeds. We have no means to identify
most vegetable poisons. Be this as it may, I am inclined to
think that the physical condition of cake No. 2 and 3 is so
bad, that young animals that partake of them freely will be
the sufferers. Both are evidently foreign cakes. Will you
kmdly inform me under what name and at what price these
two cakes were sold ? You will perceive that I am of opinion
that the cakes No. 2 and 3 may have done the mischief at-
tributed to them ; but that in the absence of any positive
proof a reasonable doubt may be entertained whether or
not this was really the case. I can speak much more de-
cidedly respecting cake No. 1, for I have not the least doubt
but that the cake has been the cause of the death of the
sheep. A similar case has been brought under my notice
within the last fortnight. A cotton-cake, very similar to the
one you sent me, has led to the death of a bulbck. The
post-mortem examination plainly showed that the enormous
quantity of hard and irritating husks in this cake caused
an obstruction in the bowels, which brought on inflamma-
tion and led to the death of the animal. The case is reported
in the Gardeners' Chronicle of the 8th inst.

" In addition to the full analysis, which proves the in-
ferior character of your cotton-cake, I hava made an approxi-
mate mechanical analysis, which demonstrates, perhaps,
still more forcibly the cause of the death of the sheep.
Experience has shown that the hard husks of cotton-cake
are very indigestible, and accumulate in the stomach to hard
stone-like masses, which produce virulent inflammation:
cotton-wool, I think, is quite as bad if not worse than
cotton-husk. Now, in your cake there is no less than 67
per cent, of husk and 4 per cent, of cotton-wool, and only
29 per cent, of meal. So large a proportion of useless and
rather injurious material mixed with only 29 per cent, of

32}'

nutritious matter must be highly injurious for feeding
purposes.

" In the best shelled or decorticated cotton-cake, which
alone should be used for feeding purposes, and which is a
highly nutritious substance, there is no appreciable quantity
of cotton-wool, and only about 10 per cent, of husk. Cake
like No. 1 is totally unfit for feeding purposes; and I con-
gratulate myself upon having reported several specimens of
cotton-cake similar to the one you sent to me, as too trashy
to be given to an animal.

" Believe me, Sir, yours faithfully,

"(Signed) Augustus Voelcker.

"I. Seaman, Esq."

(COPY OF DR. VOELCKER'S ANALYSIS.)

Composition of Sample op Cotton-cake marked

No. 1, SENT BY Mr. Seaman, Saffron Walden.

No. 1. Chemical Analysis.
Moisture , 15 16

9iL ". 6^81

Albuminous compounds* 18.37

Gum, mucilage, &c ',\ 23 32

Pure cellulose 29. 93

Mineral matters ,....!! 6.41

100.00
* Containing nitrogen 2.94

No. 2. Mechanical Analysis.

Husk, with a little cotton-wool 66.99

Meal 28.98

Cotton-wool 4.03

"(Signed)
" Royal Agricultural College,
" Cirencester, January I3tk, 1859."

100.00
Augustus Voblcker,

WHY DO WE WASTE OUR STRAW, SO VALUABLE FOR FEEDING PURPOSES?
HOW MUCH SHOULD IT BE WORTH PER ACRE?

Sir, — This is a vital question for agriculture. For many
years I have been gradually more and more convinced that
straw has a considerable value for feeding purposes, for which
alone it should be used, in order to extract from it the largest
profit.

It is true that, when I have propounded this notion in
the presence of practical farmers, their shouts of laughter have
testified to their disbelief ; and I have smiled at their prejudice
and miscalculation, in conscious conviction that they would
gradually have to surrender at discretion.

The quantity of wheat-straw removed from an acre of well-
farmed clay, where the average is 5 qra. per acre, would be 2
tons per acre. Science has shown us that, ploughed in and
considered as manure, its worth is but Qs. 4d. per ton ; while,
used Aifood, it will, if properly prepared, realize a value of
40s. per ton. Now what farmer would knowingly throw
away £2 to £3 per acre, in so economic a business as farm-
ing? and yet, this is literally being done over millions of
acres.

If it be denied that straw has a greater value as food than
as manure, it would, by parity of reasoning, be desirable to
compare the manurial and feeding values of oilcake, barley,
beans, peas, hay, and roots.

Whilst my farming friends ridicule my dislike to ploughing

in straw, they would stand aghast at my proposing to them
to plough in their barley-meal, linseed-cake, or other feeding
material. But I can see no difference : the folly or error is in
each case equal, and the loss comparatively as great.

Whence does this singular disbelief arise ? Simply because
the straw, in an unprepared condition, is not in an available
condition as food.

I purpose to give a practical illustration of this question, by
a statement of my own proceedings ; but every one who would
i\uderstand the question in its most comprehensive view,
should study Mr. Horsfall's admirable papers on dairy ma-
nagement, in the Society's Journal. The whole feeding ques-
tion may be considered as greatly developed by those papers.

The question of converting both our straw and our roots
more advantageously than we now do, is a true breeches- pocket
question for the British farmer ; nor are the public less in-
terested in the more abundant supply of meat, which would
naturally follow the more economic use of our straw and
roots.

The general appearance of thriving animals is unmistake-
able. If, after feeding, they lie down contentedly, free from
restlessness, all goes on well. Such is the case with my 10
young shorthorn bullocks, of Irish breed, about 30 months
old, which were bought in at £9 each, in

338

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

They consume daily—

£ 8. d.

216 gallons cut wheat straw

6 do. raoe-cake 0 2 6

3 do. malt-combs 0 OH

5do.bran 0 0 5

Moistened by
20 gallons of hot water (bean straw requires twice
the quantity)

300 lbs. of mangel-wurzel 0 1 4

In round numbers, they coat at the rate of 3s. 6d. per week
independent of the wheat-straw. If I valued the wheat-straw
at 40s. per ton, it would add 2s. 6d. to their weekly cost. The
roots I value at 10s. per ton. The animals are in a fattening
and growing condition, and evidently are advancing remune-
ratively. This we can judge of by their appearance, as I have
not, like Mr. Horsfall, a weighing-machine for cattle. No-
thing tests the value or force of food so soon as milking cows.
I strictly adhere to Mr. Horsfall'a proportions of food for
mine ; and the result is an ample supply of milk, and an in.
crease in condition.

The food for each cow is as follows, daily : — 20 lbs. straw
chaff; 8 lbs. of hay; 5 lbs. rape-cake; 2 lbs. bean meal;
f lbs. bran ; | lbs, malt-combs ; 35 lbs. mangel or Swedes.
Cost (without straw), 7s. 7d. per week.

The whole question may be said to hinge upon the condi-
tion in which the food is administered. It must be moist any
warm ; and the animals must have proper warmth and shelter.
As a general rule, this is not the case throughout the king-
dom : hence much food is wasted or misapplied. Were I to
give my bullocks the same quantity of cut straw in a dry
state, they would not eat one-half of it ; and, besides, the
would be restless and dissatisfied. This I know from expe-
rience.

I will now describe my mode of preparation, and then cal-
culate the cost.

I do not use the ordinary close steaming apparatus, but a
number of cast-iron pans, or coppers, each capable of con-
taining 250 gallons. These are set in brick-work, with a 4-
inch space around them, each space connected with the adjoin-
ing one by a 6-inch earthen pipe.

Into these spaces, and around these coppers, circulates a
portion of the waste steam from the engine, after having
passed through the cylinder.

I should state that a close vessel of water, connected with
the supply tank, is kept in a nearly boiling state by the waste
steam before it passes around the coppers, and a vertical four-
inch pipe takes away the steam after it has passed around the
coppers ; so that so long as the steam engine is at work, the
steam flows around the coppers, after heating the close vessel
of water, and then passes into the atmosphere.

The coppers are all sunk into the earth, so as to stand level
with the floor. By this means, when an extra supply of food
is required, it may be piled up in a mound, and kept hot for
two or three days.

The straw chaff, cut fine and sifted, is thrown dry into the
copper, twenty-seven gallons at a time, and then the proportion
of malt combs, bran, and rapecake strewed over it ; then a pail
of hot water (drawn from the hot water vessel close at hand)
is thrown over it, and it is all incorporated by mixing with a
steel fork, and well trodden down ; then another twenty-seven
gallons of chaff, with the other materials and hot water;
another mixing and another treading down, until the copper is
full and solid ; and if extra quantities are required, it may be
continued in the same way above and around the coppers, but
it must be moist and solid (if too wet the animals will not eat
It). The larger the mass, the longer it remains hot.

Practically, we find we can in winter manage if our engine
only goes twice a week ; but as a general rule we work it for
grinding, irrigating, thrashing, &c., more often than that. The
mass of subterranean brick-work absorbs the heat from the
waste steam, and holds it for several days.

The heat so obtained coats you nothing, for it would be
wasted in the atmosphere.

I think the time will come when farmers will turn it to
several useful purposes.

Animals will eat rapecake abundantly when so mixed and
dissolved, but not when dry.

This is an admirable food for all sorts of farm animals, and
it should be administered, more or less, through the whole
year.

I should say that our roots are cut either by a Gardner or
Bentall, and mixed in the manger with the warm steamed
chaff. There will be no blowing, griping, or scouring with
food so prepared, and the animals eat it as hot as they can
bear it.

In my earlier career I reared first forty and then fifty calves,
and sold them as fat bullocks, so treated, never having been off
the boarded floors for two and a-half years, and never having
had straw under them.

The ten bullocks I am now feeding are on sparred floors.
The cost of cutting a ton of straw into chaff, one-fourth of
an inch long, may be taken at 3s. to 4s. The trials of chaff-
cutters, as reported by the judges in the Ropal Agricultural
Society''s Journal, show that 112 lbs. or more of hay could be
cut in three minutes by steam power. It would be well,
however, to double that time or cost, because we know on such
occasions that everything is in "competing order," which
could not be expected on a farm. Therefore, 2s. a ton for hay,
or 4s. per ton for straw, would be a liberal cutting-up allow-
ance by steam power.

If we are to consume all our bean, barley, wheat, and oat
straw, we must keep our animals on sparred floors, or on
burned clay, and we must invest more capital in animals, and
shall make much more meat per acre. If a ton of straw will
make 40 lbs, of meat, and if two tons of straw are grown per
acre on our cereal and pulse crops, it would be four score of
meat per acre over the whole of the cereals and pulse.

Oh ! but where is your manure to come from, if you eat your
straw ?

Why your animal, by this mode of feeding, consumes
560 lbs. of rapecake with every ton of straw. This is better
than littering the yards by cart loads in wet weather, to sop
up the water, and save some of the liquid manure which would
otherwise be washed away by rain from untroughed roofs.
But what feeding property is their straw ?
A good deal of hilarity was excited at our London Farmers'
Club the other day, by my stating that every 100 lbs. of wheat
straw, contained the equivalent of 15 lbs. of oil. Since then,
I find I have understated the case, and that really each 100 lbs.
of straw contains — see Morton's admirable Cyclopaedia, vol. ii,
page 1153 (Voelcker's analysis) — seventy-two per cent. I of
muscle fat and heat- producing substances, of which twenty-
seven per cent, are soluble in potash, and thirty-five per cent,
insoluble.

The soluble fattening substances are equal to IS^lbs. of oil
in each lO'Jlbs, of straw.

In conclusion, I would recommend every feeder of stock to
study Mr. Horsfall's papers in vol. xvii. page 260, and vol. xviii.
page 150 of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal. They
will enlighten his mind, dispel his prejudices, and increase his
profit.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

329

If by his system of feeding 14 lbs. per week of meat aud
3 lbs. of internal fat can be gained by each full-sized animal
(and I am sure this can be done as au average), I know of no
other system which will exceed it in result, or equal it in
economy.

The consumption of straw, in the way here suggested, would
produce a very great increase of meat, manure, and corn.

If supplies of this warm food were conveyed to sheep in our
fields in cold and miserable weather, many losses would be
avoided, and our turnips would make more mutton.

In order to provoke a discussion and examination of this
subject, I send this commuuication to several papers, and
shall probably enlarge upon it in some future papers.

Tiptree Hall, Kelvedon, Essex, J, J. Mechi.

Feb. 28, 1859.

By Mr. Horsfall's mode of feeding you may get the manure

without cost, and a handsome price for your straw and ropti.

The following /ac/s, deduced from Mr. Horsfall's paper, will

show that 1,000 lbs. of Swedish turnips, or 100 lbs. dry are

worth Is. 9f d. as manure, whilst s. d.

lOOlbs. of hay are woith 1 2i

100 lbs. of straw 0 5

100 lbs. of bean meal 2 6

100 lbs. of oilcake 3 1|

100 lbs. of Indian meal 1 l|

100 lbs. of locust beans 0 5

Here is an instructive and interesting comparison with a
vengeance ! A ton of Swedish turnips are worth, as manure,
4s. per ton, or nearly half the manurial value of a ton of straw
or locust beans.
Oilcake or rapecake are worth, as manure, £3 Ss. per ton.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, AND THE PRIZE SYSTEM.

It is the effect of agricultural prizes to draw immediate at-
tention to any new invention. If they were discontinued, how
could a new implement or a real improvement be so well
brought into notice ? A prize at the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety's meetings at once attracts the eyes of all England to the
new implement, and it certainly adds new honour to an old
and tried one. If it were not so, why do makers run to such
lengths to secure reward, and go to such cost in adver-
tising and placarding the prizes they profess to disdain, and
which some of them say " do them more harm than good" ?
It may be very natural that men who have arrived at the top
of the tree by means of the prize ladder should wish to see that
ladder removed. All honour to their skill and perseverance.
But other makers, little men, are treading on their heels, and
now and then surpass them. The prize system gives these
small makers a chance ; and if they can produce anything that
is really useful as well as novel, a little prize card from the
Royal Agricultural Society is the best and cheapest adver-
tisement they can possibly have.

Notwithstanding that some able men contend that imple-
ments are better tried on the farms of spirited agriculturists
than by any of these trials, we think there are few farmers who
have the money or the inclination to buy all the new and un-
tried implements as they come out. And, moreover, when
machines are so proved tohe good ones, it by no means follows
that they are the best in the kingdom, because there is no
chance of comparing their merits with others ; whereas, at the
competitive trials of the Royal Agricultural Society all the
well-known makers compete side by side, and there is every
chance for a fair comparison on equal grounds.

When certain stipulations and restrictions are pushed too
far, mistakes will follow. The Society's endeavour to reduce
the quantity of coals consumed by steam-engines had the ef-
fect of producing " racing engines," with a multiplicity of thin
tubes for more easily generating steam. There was a great cry
raised against the Carlisle award; and yet, under totally differ-
ent specifications, the same firm again bore away the first
prize at Chester,

It has been urged against the old system that many new
implements were invented long before prizes were offered for
them, and that some have been brought to their present per-
fection without competitive trials. All this is very likely : it
is by no means desirable to restrict the limits of inventive
genius, and it is extremely diflScult to direct it into beaten
paths; but still, all the newly-established implements have

certainly been encouraged and brought into notice by tbls
system of prizes. It is not the mechanics, so mnch as the
practical farmers, who are the inventors of the last few years ;
and the manufacturers of the old machines acknowledge with
pleasure that their chief improvements are based on the sug-
gestions of some plodding agriculturist. Chambers's water
drop drill. Chandler's liquid manure drill, Huckvale's turnip
thinner, Martin's revolving hoe, Phillip's root pulper, Cham-
bers's manure distributor, Nalder's screen, Phillips's poppy
extirpator, and a host of other implements, including the chain
harrow, were all invented by practical farmers. For most of
these prizes were offered by the Royal Agricultural Society
before the invention was made public. The want was felt by
the agricultural world ; intelligent farmers taxed their ingenuity
to supply the need, and the Society tested the merits of the
inventions, and published their success.

If our competitive trials were abolished, we believe that
those who thrive on puff and humbug would be great gainers.
Farmers have plenty of those to contend against now a-days,
but then they would be at a higher premium ; as the man who
could tell the best tale, make the grandest display, and attract
the most notice, would be the best salesman at agricultural
exhibitions. " The most attractive part of the show at Chelms-
ford," observes Mr. Howard, " was the machinery set in
motion by the manufacturers, for which no prizes were offered.''
The most attractive, no doubt ; but is that the end for which
such meetings were established ? The best-worded advertise-
ment, the greatest noise, the busiest scene, the largest placard,
the most elaborate self-praise, and the most energetic depreci-
ation of anothei's goods, cannot be better tests of au imple-
ment's efficiency than the present censured system of competi-
tive tria's.

Yet there are many points urged by the implement makers
and their Association of Agricultural Engineers with which we
heartily agree. Trials at county shows must be a farce ; local
societies have not and cannot afford the means for properly
testing machinery, and, if they offer implement prizes at all
they should be like those of the Norfolk Society, for the best
collection, not for individual implements. Such prizes may
contribute towards securing a good show, and cannot clash
with awards formed on much better data than such associa-
tions can command. The oiily societies which should pretend
to award special implement prizes are — The Royal, the Bath
and West of England, the Yorkshire, and, of course, the High-
land Society of Scotland, and the Royal Irish of the Emerald

z 2

330

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Isle. That most flouriahing and useful association, the Bath
and West of England, have recently made a serious alteration
in the usual programme. They have for years strongly upheld
the implement trials with all their old imperfections ; would
every year give almost a superfluity of prizes, and now have
decided on having no trials at all. Governments that will not
grant reasonable reforms have often to bow before a revolution,
and the Bath and West of England Society could no longer
hold its ground against the united phalanx of the great imple-
ment makers. This step will probably lower the influence of
tbia rising association, as far as the implements are concerned.

The memorialists to the Koyal Agricultural Society prayed
that the judges' report and observations might be published
with the prizes. This would do much good. The farmer-
judge is often a heavy writer, and would gladly be spared the
trouble of furnishing a long report in January of what took
place the previous July. A competent person might compile
thp judges' remarks, arrange a report, which, after being re-
vised by the officials, might be published in time for the meet-
ing. Such a report would explain the nature of the awardsi
and qualify some of the commendations, as well as direct atten-
tion to some good features in an imperfect implement. These
suggestions, and the one for having two permanent foremen in
the implement department at the shows to assist the judges,
seem to us particularly reasonable.

We think that we have now considered the chief defects
which are supposed to exist in the present implement prize
system. Very many of the objections urged against it in the
pamphlets of 1857 are objections no longer; the defects have
been remedied, and the obstructions removed. Much yet re-
mains to be done towards making the system perfect, and the
longer, the more severe, and the more varied the trials, the
more the public will appreciate them. But to abolish them
altogether would be assuming that implements are perfect;
and no greater evil can befal individuals, or a branch of indus-
try, than a belief that they cannot be better, and that further
improvement is impossible. — Oxford Journal,

[The following letter has been written on the above able
series of articles, of which this is the concluding one :]

THE BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND AGRICUL-
TURAL SOCIETY.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE OXFORD JOURNAL.

Sir, — My attention has been called by some of my col-
leagues in the Bath and West of England Society to your
article of the 5th, in which, speaking most kindly of the good
done by that Society, you refer to our abandonment of prizes
for implements in terms which seem to call for some explana-
tion.

It is true we no longer give prizes on the award of selected
judges, after trials conducted by those judges; but we have
made full provision for the trial of implements at work before
the public in the open field. We think that, the attention of
intelligent farmers having been awakened to mechanical ques-
tions, the amount of work done, coal and power consumed &c.
those farmers are now the best judges of the gross result as a
whole; and that their purchases and their experience will be a
safer guide to their less-instructed neighbours, and I may add,
I hope without offence, to some amateurs, than prizes awarded
under conditions more or less artificial, and therefore so far
deceptive.

It should also be stated, in justice to our Council, that
although they resisted the changes pressed upon them some
years ago, the recent change was the spontaneous act of the
Council on a review of the whole case, taking into account
the good done by the prize system in the infancy of agricul-
tural improvement, and the evils apparently inseparable from
racing trials when a single prize is to be awarded by a local
Society.

The expediency of retaining mechanical trials at the shows
of the Royal Agricultural Society is quite another question ;
although I think even then it is much to be regretted that a
system of classified awards, on the principle advocated by Mr.
Howard and Mr. Shuttleworth, has not been adopted; it
can hardly be maintained that the difference between the
ploughs and other implements of the first-class makers ia
so great that one ought to stand first, another second, and
another third ; or can so stand with the general consent
of all competent judges, and under all ordinary circum-
stances.

If the first prize is only awarded because in such a field,
with such a state of the atmosphere, and with such horses
and ploughman, and it must be said with such or such judges,
one maker beat another by half-a-neck, the judgment might
be reversed the next day — and, if so, what is it worth ? It
amounts to proving that the wiuner is a skilful mechanic, with
first-rate workmen; but it does not disprove the same con-
clusions as to his competitor.

We thought, however, that if we abolished the prizes it
would not be worth whi'.e for a local society to stop half-way
with the certificate system. We believe the public, aided by
the Royal Agricultural Society, will be, in our case at least,
the best judges.

Having adopted the principle of the Exhibition and Bazaar
in the Agricultural Department, we propose to extend it to
Arts and Manufactures, and anticipate a most interesting ex-
hibition of articles of all kinds, interesting to the farmer's wife
and family as well as to himself; and to the tradesman and to
the artist, no less than to the agriculturist.

If you are kind enough to notice the fact, perhaps the
North Devon meeting at Barnstaple, from the 30th of May to
the 3rd of June, may be graced by productions from Oxford.
Coventry and Birmingham have already promised beautiful
contributions.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant.

T. D. ACLAND, JuD.

Sprydoncote, Exeter.

MIXED FEED.— A bushel of carrots and a bushel of
oats are as good for a horse, at moderate work, as two
bushels of oats — not because the carrots contain as much
nutriment as the bushel of oats, for they do not; but they
aid the dic;estive organs in a more perfect appropriation of
the nutritive principles in both. When horses are continu-
•lUy fed on oats, much of the food passes undigested, and is
a dead loss, except to the manure heap. So with sheep and
cattle. Gi\ 0 them a few roots daily, and they will have a
better appetite, digest their food better, and eat greedily
coarse hay, that they would otherwise trample under foot. —
Ohio Farmer.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

331

THE FLOUR TRADE OF THE METROPOLIS,

The extent and inaportance of the corn trade of the
kingdom and of the metropolis are too well known to
our readers to require much special notice at our hands ;
but with the "daily bread" wants of a population, in
London and its suburbs, approximating upon three
millions, a glance at the London flour trade is not
without its interest. The Londoners, of all classes,
consume little, comparatively speaking, of any other
grain than the best wheaten bread. And taking the
ordinary accepted consumption of one quarter per
head per annum, we have a demand of about 24,000,000
quarters of wheat for the supply of the metropolis.

It is difficult to ascertain the precise quantities ar-
riving by land for sale in Mark-lane at different periods
But confining ourselves to wheat and flour, we have the
arrivals by sea for the year 1857 to refer to. The im-
ports in that year, coastwise and foreign, were 630,878
quarters of wheat, and 456,779 cwts, of flour, equal to
761,387 quarters of wheat. As compared with 1850,
this shows a considerable decrease iu the sea-borne im-
ports of flour and wheat for the metropolis, which in
that year consisted of 913,426 quarters of wheat,
and 803,585 sacks of flour. The difference be-
tween these imports and the computed aggregate
consumption must be of home growth brought up by
railway, &c., from the country. To supply the bread
of London there are, in the first instance, about 20
corn merchants, more than 500 corn dealers, 106
corn and flour factors, 20 granary keepers, 48
millers, and 2,600 bakers, to say nothing of various
workmen and traders more or less identified and in-
terested, such as corn chandlers, journeymen bakers,
*ack dealers, yeast merchants, &c.

Confining ourselves chiefly to the foreign flour, it is
worth while to mark the progress of the trade, and to
notice what proportion London takes of this. Liverpool
is the chief port of entry, from its extensive American
trade, the imports of flour there averaging 1,750,000
to 2,000,000 cwt. a year, while London only receives
about a fourth of the aggregate supplies of foreign flour.
Since the abrogation of the corn laws, this country
has become the great depot to which exporting nations
send their surplus. From the appended figures it will
be seen that the average annual imports of foreign flour
into the kingdom in the last seven years have been
3,541,000 cwt.

Imports of Flour and Meal into the
United Kingdom.

Cwts.

1844 987,775

1845 924,256

1846 3,363,810

1847 8,637,377

1848 1,731,974

1849 3,483,294

1850 3,855,(t58

1851 5,363,478

Cwts.

1852 3,921,635

1853 4,662,899

1854 3,678,299

1855 2,522,106

1856 3,970,100

1857 2,178,148

1858 3,856,137

The principal quarters of shipment in America are
Detroit, which sends ofi" about 700,000 barrels, Chicago
400,000 or 500,000 barrels, Oswego 300,000 barrel's,
Rochester 600,000 barrels, and New York a large
quantity.

The exports of flour from the United States have
varied considerably, according to the European har-
vests. In 1854 they were 4,000,000 barrels, while in
j 1855 they were only 1,200,000 barrels. Considerable
shipments of American flour are made to Brazil,
Australia, and other distant quarters.

In this country our tradesmen have perfect liberty
of action, and our bakers are not compelled, as in
France, by imperial decrees, to lay in, at command, a
three months' stock of wheat or flour j but can suit
their own convenience as to holding stock, and watch
the course of the markets. Were it not so, the con-
sumer would materially suffer, and the baking business
be even more precarious and unprofitable than it is at
present.

With respect to the general quality of flour met
with in the London market we think there is little to
complain of. Sour or damaged flour will not sell
here. Even the cheap price baker knows the impolicy
of mixing it up, for his customers are as shrewd in de-
tecting the quality of his bread as he is in making it.
Still, that there is an immense quantity of damaged
and inferior flour shipped from American ports to dif-
ferent foreign quarters cannot be denied. Especially
is this the case in Australia. A select committee
of the Legislative Council of New South Wales has
recently been taking evidence upon the state of the
articles of food sold in the city of Sydney, and the
colony generally, and the policy of an oflicial inspector
considered.

The inquiry appears to have been chiefly directed to
the bad quality and adulteration of flour j and the re-
velations on this head are perfectly astounding. Its
effect upon the public health are stated to be baneful
in the extreme, and the great infant mortality of the
city is chiefly ascribed to it. Some of the witnesses as-
serted that there were thousands of tons of damaged
flour in Sydney and other parts of the colony quite
unfit for human food, which was bought up by the
millers for mixing with sound flour. Here is the evi-
dence of one witness who had himself been in the trade :
Mr. Allin Hollinshed says: "There are occasions
when immense quantities of damaged flour are used up.
Two years ago, he was employed in looking for two
thousand barrels of damaged flour to send home as a
remittance, and found there was an immense quantity
in the market. On applying to the mills to know if they
had any refuse to sell cheap, they showed him several
thousand barrels; and on his asking what they could
do with it, when he was seeking to reduce the price on
account of its supposed worthlessness for baking pur-

^32

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

poses, he was told that it would all be used up in three
or four months, and he believes it was used for human
food. The usual plan is to put it through the stones,
and it comes out apparently quite fresh. In many
cases it is mixed with sound flour. Some of the Arae-
rican flour becomes acid, but that does not materially
deteriorate it: the colour is always good, although
there may be a few insects in it. But there is some j
which is musty and full of insects, from maggots an j
inch and a-half long downwards, and when that is put
through the stones, they are all ground up."

One of the great difficulties in the transport and
preservation of flour and meal, is their liability to fer-
ment and become sour after a short time. Many a
cargo has been rendered wholly worthless from this
cause. When large quantities of flour or meal are
packed together, as in flour barrels, the material heats
and fervents, beginning at the centre of the mass,
■where no air can gain access. This is now prevented
by using an open tube running lengthwise through the
centre of the barrel, which circulates air, and prevents
the meal or flour from heating. The flour acquires no
musty smell or taste, however long it may he kept.

There is continual discussion and controversy going
on in the American papers respecting the official in-
spection and branding of flour barrels. There are
"fine," "superfine," and "extra" brands or barrels
of flour J but what is the raeaniDg of these terms ? Do

they indicate the quality of the flour ? That is the in-
tention ; but we are assured they do not determine it,
and these marks are entirely disregarded by the dealers.
What is a proper standard of the quality of good sweet
flour ? Is fineness the test of quality, or colour, or
what ? Definite information on this point would be of
great use to the whole community, as there is an almost
total want of knowledge regarding the quality of flour
and the means of judging it by the inspector's mark.
The grades of flour and the signification of the terms
used'differ materially in New York, in New Orleans,
and in Montreal ; and it would be very desirable if the
same word described the same thing in every part of
America.

The brand, if used at all, should be a warranty ;
upon the faith of it the purchaser deals and pays his
price. It is assuredly important, and in fact necessary,
for men sending flour abroad, to send it with some
evidence of its having been officially inspected. The
miller must be assumed to be acquainted with the dif-
ferent qualities of the flour he manufactures, and, when
he brands a barrel of a certain quality, must be taken
to have exercised his judgment, and aimed at the con-
clusion that the barrel so branded deserves to be de-
scribed as branded. Upon the faitli of this brand the
purchaser deals and pays his price. If the brand is
untrue, the purchaser is deceived. This has been held
to be the law of the case in Canada.

THE OXFORD FARMERS' CLUB.
TESTIMONIAL TO MR. THOMSON, THE CHAIRMAN.

Notwithstanding the sound progress and increasing
influence of the central body, our Farmers' Clubs
generally have but an ephemeral existence. Many of
them open promisingly enough; and some, indeed,
with almost too much dash and spirit. They go on |
capitally for a year or two, have full meetings, inte-
resting discussions, and— "then are heard no more." i
The simple fact is, that without some master-mind 1
amongst them it is a matter of considerable difficulty I
for the same set of people to keep up the excitement ot
the thing. The subjects for consideration fail them ;
or, a man having descanted on his favourite topic^
cannot often be induced to touch on another with
which he may be less familiar. Again, the con-
tinual introduction of a little new blood is very requi-
site, while some occasional action in any business im-
mediately connected with the neighbourhood has been
kuown to do a deal of good. In a word, these local
Institutions require some very nice management. It
is easy enough to set them going, but the point is to
retain them as the useful and becoming organs of the
agriculture of their several districts.

Of course the secret of any such success is to be
found in the earnestness with which the farmers them-
selves enter upon the experiment. A Club that looks

chiefly to the five-pound notes of Lord Lieutenants
and County Members, with a hip-hip dinner once
a year, cannot be booked for a very long life. Nothing,
is so enervating to such societies as the too active pa-
tronage of great people. We would not for a moment
have the tenant bar out the countiy gentleman on
these occasions. Let him come by all means, if he so
wishes; but let the conduct of a Farmers' Club be in
the hands of farmers. Let these find their own officers,
and do their own work. They will take to it all the
better when they divide it amongst themselves ; and so
let there be no hunting up of Lords and Squires for
Chairmen and Presidents. One of the best signs of the
London Club is that it has always a plam practical
man in the place of honour ; and we do not quite
despair of the day when even the great show dinners
of county Agricultural Societies shall be presided over
by farmers, with county Members and county Magis-
trates right and left, if you please.

Wc have now for many years past had to no-
tice the proceedings of a local club that has
continued to live on with every credit to those
in whom its management has centred. The Oxford
Club is in reality what it professes to be— the repre-
sentative of the Oxfordshii-e farmers. Nearly all the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

333

best men of their class are identiBed with it, while its
prosperity is as thoroughly in their own hands. At
the recent dinner, Mr. Langston, a gentleman with
some taste for the pursuit, admitted he had never
been at one of the Club meetings ; and the chairman,
Mr. Morrcll, in proposing the health of the Duke of
Marlborough, confessed that he did not know till then
that his Grace was " the Patron" of the Farmers'
Club. This dinner in itself, in a word, told the whole
history of the rise and progress of the Society. It was
given in honour of one of the Club's staunchest friends
and supporters, and the chairman of its meetings for
some consecutive seasons. Need we add that this gentle-
man ranks no higher than those he presides over, or that
Mr. Thomson of Culham is himself a tenant-farmer ?

Terribly overdone as the testimonial system has been
of late, we canhonestly welcome such a demonstration as
this. It was in every way significant. The agricul-
turists of Oxfordshire who, on Wednesday, gave a
service of plate of more than two hundred pounds' value
to the Chairman of their Club* were honouring no old
friend or neighbour, with ties and associations, in
perhaps, every other parish. It speaks well for the
mutual subjection of our prejudices, when the midland
counties can pay such a compliment to a Scotchman.
To learn how he has deserved this of them, we cannot
do better than turn to the toast of the occasion, intro-
duced so happily and unaffectedly by Mr. Morrell :

" As a few facts relative to the history and career of
their friend Thomson might not be uninteresting, he
would cite some. He had ascertained that he was born
in 1800, at Broad Meadows, in Selkirkshire, and re-
ceived his education at Melrose, near Abbotsford, where
Sir Walter Scott, to whom Mrs. Thomson was related,
lived. The relatives of Mr. Thomson were intimately
acquainted with Sir WaUer, and the great writer took
considerable notice of him, and, having a high opinion
of bis capabilities, and anticipating great things from
him, urged upon his friends that they should keep him
strictly to school, and give him every advantage in the
way of education. In consequence of this he was
educated and intended for the Kirk ; but his natural
bent was for agricultural pursuits, which he liked best,
and in which they all knew he had so well succeeded.
Having made himself thoroughly and practically ac-
quainted with farming operations of all kinds, under
his father, he left home in 1825, and settled at Culham,
in this county, and for a period of sixteen years ma-
naged the farm occupied by the late Mr. Jonathan Peel.
On the death of that gentleman, in 1841, his family re-
linquished the farm, and Mr. Thomson took it for the
remainder of the lease. On its expiration he continued
it, and on the death of Sir George Pechell's agent (Mr.

* The plate bore this inscription : — " Presented to Wil-
liam Thomson, Esquire, of Culham, by upwards of 200 sub-
scribers in this and the adjoining counties, and elsewhere, to
testify their appreciation of his public services as President
of the Oxford Farmers' Club, and Chairman of the Oxford
Corn Exchange, and of his efforts to advance the general in-
terests of agriculture, as well as the deep-rooted respect for
him in his private capacity. March 9, 1859."

Salter), Sir George gave the best proof of the high esti-
mation in which he held Mr. Thomson by offering him
the management of his Oxfordshire estates, and he ful-
filled that duty to the great satisfaction of his employer
and the tenantry until the estates were disposed of in
I85G. It would thus be seen that Mr. Thomson had
spent thirty-three years in this county, and no man
could say a word against him, and he (the Chairman)
did not think a more honest, straightforward man ever
existed. In 1851, Mr. Thomson, who had been one
of the original promoters of the Oxford Farmers'
Club, succeeded to the high position of President
of that body, and had been re-elected every year. No
one had done more to uphold that club, for he had en-
listed nearly half its members, had been constant in his
attendance, and given to them and the county at large
the benefit of his great experience and sound practical
advice. For many years a most intolerable nuisance
existed on Carfax, where every week the farmers
assembled, and all the business of a corn market
was transacted, while they were exposed to all weathers,
and to the chance of being run over. In 1851, Mr.
Thomson was the first to make an effort to remedy this
state of things ; for a meeting, over which he presided,
was held at the Roebuck Hotel, when it was agreed to
memorialize the Market Commissioners to grant the
use of the new avenue where the Corn Exchange is now
held. Mr. Thomson was so anxious that the experiment
should be tried, that he very liberally and spiritedly
offered to pay down the first year's rent ; but that was
rendered unnecessary, because the superiority of the
situation over that of Carfax was so manifest that suflS-
cient funds were raised by subscription to establish the
Corn Exchange there. There was one more act of
Mr. Thomson's which he felt bound to mention,
although it might be known to some, and it was one
which hardly one man in ten thousand would have done.
Some few years ago Mr. Thomson became a shareholder
in a Joint Stock Bank at Abingdon, and, not being
satisfied with the state of its affairs, he obtained an
additional number of shares to become a director, and
to have a voice in its management ; he soon found that
it was a failing concern, and then went vigorously to
work, and succeeded in stopping it, and getting its
affairs wound up. The result was that there was a con-
siderable deficiency, and many who had deposited in
the bank the hard earnings of a long life would have
been reduced to beggary had not Mr. Thomson come to
the rescue. To his infinite credit, he declared that no
one who had deposited money in the bank on the face
or strength of his name should be a loser, and that his
last rick and his last shilling, if necessary, should go
to make up the deficiency. He rejoiced to say that
every depositor was paid in full ; but he grieved to
add, that Mr. Thomson lost above i?2,000 by the
transaction."

There is a good moral in this history, that tells
equally well for the Club and its Chairman. Let other
similar Societies learn from it how they also may
flourish. Let them bear in mind the men they have
to depend upon, and how the character of a President

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

will come to be reflected on an institution itself. But
the Oxford Club has from the first done wisely in this
way. It started under the auspices of Mr. Roberts, of
Waterperry, one of the most straightforward and
worthy specimens of the English yeoman we ever had
the good fortune to meet, and who has a fair share with
Mr. Thomson in the well-merited honours of this occa-
sion. The attendance here was quite in character. In
the hundred-and-fifty who sat down to dinner there
was a county magistrate, Mr. Morrell, in the chair, a
city member, Mr. Langston, by his side, one clergy-
man, the Mayor, with two or three of the citizens of
Oxford, and then the great body of agriculturists and
brother-farmers. This company alone would go to
show how genuine and hearty was the feeling with
which the proposition had been received.

We look upon the Oxford Club in many respects as
an example for others. Its discussion -subjects are
generally not only ably considered, but equally well
timed. It hag a really working. committee, backed by

a very efficient secretary, and it is so gaining a gra-
dually-increasing hold on the county. But with all
these advantages it has one very weak place. The Club
has actually no home. Its members are simply a body
of peripatetic philosophers wandering up and down the
streets of the city, and jostling the gownsmen for side
and place. The meetings are held here, there, and
everywhere"; and we were just in time to hear the
General Meeting declare it was best "to let well alone."
Surely the Society has now a status above this, and
even a room or two for the especial use of the members
should not be altogether beyond its ambition. There
are local Clubs, such, for instance, as the Newcastle,
which already have the accommodation ; while, to show
what others think of it, we were told by a Berkshire
man, as we travelled down, that " the worst of it was
the Club went about from one public-house to another."
In these days the cause of agriculture should rise
superior to the concomitant attractions of a pipe and a
glass.

THE INTRODUCTION OF STEAM-POWER INTO COMMON FARM ERACTICE.

The chief topic now under discussion amongst the
farming community is the modern introduction of steam
power into ordinary farm practice ; and the advocates of
the different systems of culture, or application of the
power, are alike equally sanguine as to the important
change and ultimate benefits. That this gigantic power
will be so modified, so simplified in its general charac-
ter, as to become applicable to the common routine
of modern farm practice, I do not entertain a doubt — it
is merely the work of time and engineering and me-
chanical skill.

I shall not attempt to compare the various systems
of cultivation, or even allude to them further than to
show what may be the probable alterations in the
management of those farms where this new system will
be introduced ; and the power of steam is adopted in
lieu of horse and manual power whenever it can be
found practically beneficial. My own impression is that
the order of culture will be so surprisingly improved,
that the enhanced produce it will achieve will be so
considerable, that the inducements continually opening
out before the steam-power farmer, of still greater re-
sults, will so satisfy him, that he will be readily dis-
posed to employ both more horse and more manual
labour, rather than displace either one or the other —
in fact he will be glad to retain every horse and
man he now employs, in addition to the power of
steam.

Take an arable farm of 350 acres, of medium quality
and fair depth of soil — a useful loamy soil ; begin your
steam cultivation immediately after harvest, or rather
during harvest, or so soon as the implement can be put
to work after the crop is reaped. The whole breadth of
the farm under corn cropping would be wonderfully
advantaged by being broken up and deeply cultivated
during the closing months of autumn. The power of

steam, in addition to the team labour, could alone
achieve this grand desideratum. Here, then, is profita-
ble employment for every horse and man, which I will call
occasion number one.

Then comes the wheat-seeding, and occasional
labour in various ways. The farmer requires, first,
seed-wheat; secondly, a customary lot for sale to
replenish his purse after an expensive harvest, and
to meet sundry payments : these must be provided for.
The teams are therefore engaged in the several pro-
cesses of business, while the steamer is thrashing the
wheat. The team labour will consist of the harrowings
and the scarifyings of the deeply broken- up soil effected
by the steam-plough and cultivator, the cartage of col-
lected weeds and rubbish, the manuring of the land in-
tended for wheat, the preparation of the seed-bed for
the wheat-sowing, and the subsequent completion of the
wheat seeding. At the same time also come in season
the taking up of the potato crop, the securing the man-
gold crop, and all other root crops not generally grown ;
besides many collateral and necessary jobs, such as the
marketing and the delivery of corn, the obtaining sup-
plies of manure, the carting of field stacks and stubble
to the fold-yards for winter fodder and lairage : these
and similar engagements employ much team labour.
This I shall call occasion number two.

If there is during the year to be a dormant
time, it will be during the severer part of the
winter months ; but it will be found that the new and
novel courses of culture incident to the adoption of
steam-power will provide much extra work for the
teams and labourers. For instance, all lands requiring
subsoil drainage must be so drained ; this of course
involves cartage to a considerable extent. Then all
lands having high-backed ridges will require levelling ;
all borders and ditch bauks, &c., will require carting

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

into the hollows and furrows; then all over-grown
hedge-rows and rootings will have to be carefully dug
close, to give room for the steam- ploughs, and prevent
harm and breakage. Then comes the cartage of
lime, chalk, and manures from fold-yard, where
required. I also anticipate a large increase of
cattle anJ sheep required for the consumption of the
root and straw crops : these will during the winter
months require a large amount of cartage : the roots
from the fields to the fold-yards, the manure from the
fold-yards to the fields. I also anticipate a large amount
of field labour will be done by steam-power during
the winter— such as trench, ploughing in fine weather,
subsoil ploughing, and the ordinary ploughing of such
lands as were unavoidably left over in the autumn, or
were required for some specific use. Then there are the
winter thrashings— the chaff-cuttings ; for I am san-
guine enough to think that most of our cattle fodder
will be ultimately cut into chaff. Then the cake-
breaking, turnip-cutting, pulpings of mangolds and
other roots-all these, I consider, will be greatly ex-
tended, owing to the enhanced produce of the farm by
d?ep steam culture ; so that from one source of employ-
ment or other, the teams will not have much idle time
during the winter.

But spring is coming in, and all attention must
therefore be given to get in the spring crops
well, and in good time. The steam-ploughs and
cultivators are again at work; and as there is no tread-
ing by horses in the culture, the land will work freely,
and is soon ready for seeding ; this is put in by the
horse teams with the greatest expedition ; so that the
spring crop has the whole spring to grow and luxuriate
in. This is very different from the old course, which
generally occupies the whole spring up to the month of
May before all is completed. Moreover, the land has
had the advantage of a thorough pulverization, which
as it disintegrates the ammoniacal salts, &c., in the soil
adds much to its fertility, and produces the more abun-
dant crops; and in a way which could not be accom-
plished by team labour. This is more particularly the
case with the autumn-worked soils : the more they are
cultivated in suitable weather, the more calculated are
they for producing the most abundant crops of
wheat. The spring seeding then I call occasion

335

number thr«e, when aU team labour finds full employ-
ment.

We now come to the fallowing and the putting in of
fallow crops. The ways are various ; but all concur in the
view that fallows cannot in reason be too highly worked.
I We have broken them up in the autumn at great depth ;'
I some we have laid up for the winter in trenches. These
j we respectively desire to cultivate at great depth, and
I very frequently, in suitable weather : for this purpose all
our power of steam and team power is required. The
steam power we would employ to cultivate deeply ; the
team power in the top scarifyings, harrowings, rollings,
and draggings, and subsequently in the manuring, ridg-
ing, and nicer work of seeding. In carrying on these
various operations simultaneously the whole strength of
the farm will be more than requisite, and it will be found
to yield a far more profitable return than the tardy slow
process now generally followed, to the manifest waste of
much manure, and much valuable time in its growth :
besides, if a fallow crop, i. e., mangolds, turnips, &c.,
is put in quickly and together, it will all grow up more
steadily and safely. The fly has no power over a large
field growing all at once ; but after the old fashion these
pests can find food at one side of the field which is first
sown and fresh come up, and so feed their way to the
other as it comes up, to their liking. The fallow-seed-
ing then I call occasion number four.

Well, now come hay and corn harvests, and the
clearing of the fold-yaids and preparations for these
harvests. The horse-hoeings of the fallow crops, and
the little necessary works and improvements generally
left for completion between seeding and harvest, occu-
py the teams. I need not say that the harvest occu-
pies all hands and all teams. This I shall call occasion
number five.

Now, I think I have fairly shown that the
adoption of steam-power will not necessarily dis-
place much other labour ; but if it is to be carried out in
its full efficiency, I believe the farmer may best look
upon it as a great and powerful auxiliary, and which he
ought not to be slow in adopting. It will, he may rest
assured, better execute his harvest work than it can be
done by horses, and will always make him in a great
measure independent of our fickle climate, so that he
will never lose his season if he only acts judiciously.

THE HARD TIMES-AND HOW TO MEET THEM.

There's no doubt about it. Expenses must be cut
down. Sixpence must be spent where a siiilling was
spent before. The pony chaise about to be ordered
must be dispensed with ; and that cheap pony, now grown
very dear, must be sold : he is eating his head off. The
luxuries must be lopped off. Dress, where it can be,
should be simplified. The relaxation of the chase, with
its attendant expenses, needs strict limitation. That
hunter, clad in fine wool, and standing at the door of his
lordly box to sun his nose in the beams of a January

noon, represents, beyond the cost of his own keep, a
neglect of business quite incompatible with the pressure
of hard times like these. The greyhound, that offers his
cold-nosed salute to your hand, implies the same fact ;
and that group, composed of a ruddy boy, setters, and gun
(a pretty picture in itself), awaiting the appearance of
the young master, presents to the calculating eye an
unwarrantable item in the year's expenses.

It is of no use saying that we cannot do without these
things ; we must. Men in trade toil on and on and on,

336

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and work the year through with scarcely any respite.
You may count up their holidays, and often times they
will not together amount to one week out of the fifty-
two. How seldom is it that they go forth to meet the
sun upon the grassy knoll ! What know they of the ever-
changeful sky ; of the ever-beautiful varic-ty of light and
shade ? They are not acquainted with the different flights
of birds, nor with the mysterious language of the wind ;
they are entirely ignorant of the thousand delights that
minister to the pleasure of the farmer. And this arises
from no disinclination to enjoy them ; no, nothing of
the kind ; but from a deep sense of duty, that keeps
them plodding on, in the race of competition, until they
secure the prize and the leisure to enjoy it.

Well, it should be the same with the farmer. It is
absurd for him to expect success, and yet to take one or
two or three days' holiday out of the week; quite ab-
surd. An exact and constant supervision needs the de-
votion of a man's whole energies. And who will con-
tend that a less amount of attention is sufficient? Many
a man who has failed in England has gone abroad, and
sent home wonderful accounts of a farm bought and
paid for and well stocked in an incredibly short space of
time. And those who read these reports generally fail
to extract from them the lesson they contain. The man
thrown upon his last resources puts forth as it were
almost the energy of despair upon the materials before
him ; and that indomitable perseverance which demands,
nay creates success, receives it. Had the same effort
been employed at home, the same result would have
followed, though perhaps, from certain accidental cir-
cumstances, in a limited degree. The same measures
that will succeed in Australia, depend upon it, will
succeed in England. And were we disposed to establish
our households upon the same dimensions as our emi-
grant brothers establish theirs in the backwoods of
America, or the bush of New Zealand, we should find a
more considerable balance on the right side than is now
frequently the case.

And while upon this subject, it may be well to say
that amongst us there does exist too great a disposition
to depute our authority as masters to the hands of farm-
ing bailiffs, and to enjoy the Itisure that results to us
from the practice. This course we have in many cases
observed to arise out of positive indolence, or disincli-
nation to attend to practical pursuits. Sometimes it is
downright cowardice that prompts the step. We had
rather that another hand exei ted the pressure on the
labourers than our own ; we lack the courage to exact
the tale of work, or to enforce the reduced wage.
But while the master thus saves himself, he is called
upon to pay a sufficiently heavy tax in another direction,
for those who have tried it do not give a very satisfac-
tory account of the deputy system. Where a man's bu-
siness is so extensive that he absolutely needs help, the
case is quite different. We all remember the fable of the

Stag in the Ox-stall— intended to convey the moral that
no eye is like the master's eye. Sir Charles Napier,
writing from Cephalonia, understood it well enough.
He said, " My predecessor thought, as half the world
always thinks, that a man in command has only to or-
der, and obedience will follow. Hence they are baffied,
not from want of talent, but from inactivity ; vainly
thinking that while they spare themselves, every one
under them will work like horses.''

There can be no question as to the necessity that
does exist, and will yet further exist, for retrenchment-
Live stock has already fallen from 20 to 30 per cent, in
value ; and the average price of wheat last year shows
a reduction on that of the year previous, of 12s. 6d. per
quarter. But while we acknowledge this necessity, it is
quite possible for us to take a course that will not be
fraught with desirable effect. We may, for instance,
follow the example ofpeople in high places, who, when re-
trenchment is demanded by the nation, make a vigorous
reduction in the artizans employed at the arsenals, fall
upon the laborious postmen, and lower the salaries of
inferior officials. My Lord High Treasurer still retains
his salary as Chief Snuffer to her Majesty, and no one
would think of disturbing the Most Noble Marquis in
the hereditary possession of the title and fees pertaining
(so the Chief Falconer to the Crown. And the farmer,
we fear, commences his retrenchment in like manner,
at the wrong end. Not until he has scrutinised the
labourers' list ; not until he has dismissed as many work-
men as he possibly can, and reduced those that remain
to the lowest pinch, docs he generally give a thought to
the curtailment of personal expenses, the abandonment
of costly field sports, and a more undeviating attention
to business.

We are not going to say that there is no reason in
reducing wages at certain times, or in dismissing work-
men at certain seasons ; but we do say, that when men
rush to this course as the first and only means of avert-
ing calamity, their selfish policy carries the seed within
it of a great retribution. Depend upon it, the letters
that are flowing into this country from fathers, brothers,
and friends, who are successfully carrying out their
plans in our thriving colonies, will not b? as seed falling
on intractable soil. The ill-paid and the unemployed
will not turn a deaf ear to the solicitations to " come,"
and an increased exodus may be expected, the effects
of which will not be fully realized until the grain is
shaking in the field.

While, therefore, we endeavour very properly to
meet the pressure of the times, let us not begin at the
wrong end. When we have lopped off our luxuries ;
when we have put into play all our energy, and dis-
covered all the secret resources within our land, it will
then be time to let the pressure of hard times be a little
more felt by the labourer.

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337

THE HORSES OF THE CAPE.

The Cape Colony, 33 Mr. W. Hawes told the public
at the Society of Arts, on Wednesday, March 9, in a
very excellent paper on " its products and resources,"
now exports other things besides wool and wine.

If it has taken the start even of the leading Austra-
lian pastoral colony in its clip of wool, it is also now
occupying a prominent position in the shipment of
horses for the Indian cavalry. Due attention is also
paid to improving the breed of cattle. The breeding of
horses and sheep has long received the greatest atten-
tion, and very shortly the live stock of the Cape Colony
will bear comparison, head for head, with that of any
colony or older country.

We called attention recently to what was doing in
Cape wools — in the improvement of the breeds, and
the character of both fleece and carcase ; and espe-
cially in allowing the wool to attain a full growth, in-
stead of shearing half-yearly. When we find that the
colony last year exported 18,000,000 pounds of wool,
that it possesses at the present time about 7,000,000
sheep, 500,000 head of cattle, 150,000 horses, and
1,500,000 goats, it certainly holds the most prominent
position in the quantity of its live stock of any of our
colonies .

But it is with its horse-kind that we propose to deal
in our present remarks, because an important and
growing trade has sprung up recently in the supply of
Cape horses for our troops in India. The Cape is
more favourably situated for the shipment of horses
across the Indian Ocean than Australia, and the losses
on shipboard from thence have been less. Moreover,
there is a greater number to select from ; and, but for
the heavy mortality a year or two ago from the horse-
sickness, the quantity of horses in the Cape Colony
would have been even larger than at present. Not
many years ago the Cape farmers had to import horses
and mules from South America : now they are able to
export horses to Calcutta. Certainly the Cape horse is
small, and would not satisfy the eye of an English se-
lecting officer ; but his endurance during the longest and
hottest day surpasses that of almost any other horse. A
considerable number of the best horses of one of our
cavalry regiments which were sent from India tothe Cri-
mea, and which arrived there in good condition, were
imported irom the Cape a few years before. It has
been well suggested that by crossing the native breeds
of the Cape with English thorough-bred stallions
the sort might be greatly improved. The colonists
may depend upon a constant demand from India
so long as they take care to maintain the cha-
racter of their horses ; but the transport to India is
too costly to warrant one unsound horse being shipped.
About 4,000 Cape horses were shipped last year, valued
at £133,000. This is a fresh field for agricultural skill
and capital which the prudent, persevering, and never-
receding industry of the Cape farmer will no doubt

enlarge and improve, as has been done in every other
department of his rural kingdom.

An Indian remount agency has now been perma-
nently established at the Cape, and at least 5,000 horses
a-year may readily be disposed of.

It is very desirable that the statistics and resources
of our colonies should be more generally known at
home, for very much ignorance still prevails, even in
official quarters. As an instance of this, we find re-
corded in our last Cape advices — At a dinner given at
Cape Town, to Col. Apperley, the selecting officer ap-
pointed by the Indian Government, his excellency Sir
George Grey stated that when first the intelligence of
the Sepoy mutiny reached the Cape, he felt satisfied in
his own mind that the demand for horses in India would
be immense, and that the whole eflSciency of our army
in that empire would depend on this want being
promptly supplied. And knowing, as he did, the vast
capabilities of the colony, he wrote to the Governoi'-
General, informing him that they could supply from
hence the Indian army with horses, and that he would
procure 500 at once and ship them. He further added,
that there really was no end to the number this colony
could supply. " When the Indian authorities received
that letter," continued Sir George Grey, " they were
altogether surprised, as they had no idea that the
Cape of Good Hope could supply anything like 500
horses. We then received almost immediately, or at
least shortly after, authority from England to procure
horses for India, and so we set to work. The order
that came out was to procure 1,000 horses for India ;
and in thus asking for 1,000 to be sent, they evidently
considered they were asking for what they had hardly
a right to expect, and that they were throwing on the
government here a task which it would be hardly able
to fulfil. Now, I may just advert to the computation
which I made of the number of horses which could
have been sent on to India. I believed that 3,000
horses could have been supplied instead of 1,000. I
was so satisfied of the capabilities of the colony that I
sent home this computation and asked for fuither in-
structions, as I believed that 3,000 horses could be
procured and shipped."

The result of this first effort is surprising, so far as
the colony is concerned. They have despatched up-
wards of 50 transports with troops, and more than
4,000 horses. The employment of so many
transports must have been of immense advantage
to the shipping interest, and consequently it must
have given an impetus to trade. The purchase of
so large a number of horses has also given
a stimulus to the breeders, and exercised a favourable
influence on the agricultural districts, which will be
abiding. Still further advantages will redound to the
horse-breeders of the colony if they rear a superior class
of animals for future shipment to India. The farmers

838

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were paid for them in ready money, vvhicli of course
gave a stimulus to agricultural and pastoral pursuits
throughout the whole colony ; and there was also paid
to the farmers ^38,000 for forage for the horses thus
supplied.

Another great fact worth notice is, that whilst from
Australia to India the casualties to horses on shipboard
have averaged not less than 40 per cent., and from
South America 60 per cent., the casualties on horses
sent from the Cape have not hitherto exceeded four per
cent.

There is one experience which the Cape farmers have
learnt by the terrible mortality from successive epi-
demics in horses, cattle, and recently in sheep ; that is,
that something more is required for permanent health
and strength than the rude cookery of nature. In the
Cape colony, for obvious reasons, most animals, in-
cluding horses, have been left to what they could
pick up of natural grasses in the field. These are very
abundant, and very nutritious for a large portion ot
the year ; but to build up a hardy and strong animal,
some care must be bestowed upon his food. It has
been well said, that "the value of a horse goes
down his throat :" that is, his bone and muscle, his
powers of endurance, spirit, and temper, represent the
quantity of his food, and the air he has bi'eathed, and
even the food of his mother while nursing him.

We have, on previous occasions, recommended the

introduction from time to time of new breeds and new
animals into our colonies ; we are therefore glad to see
the Cape farmers are thinking of exchanging benefits.
It is suggested that the next time a ship starts from
Table Bay freighted with horses, she should bring back
a cargo of Mysore draught oxen. It would not be a
bad thing to put a little more activity before the wag-
gon wheels. The bullock waggon is the chief mode of
conveyance for families moving, and merchandize, ac-
complishing 20 miles a day. It is in part a travelling
hotel, carrying beds, provisions, and cooking utensils,
rendering you quite independent of any accommodation
on the road. If by the introduction of a certain amount
of more sprightly bovine blood into their teams the
traveller and the " trekster" in Southern Africa could
manase a mile an hour more than they do now, it
would be a great blessing. The Mysore ox would very
likely suit the best for the Cape, inasmuch as its native
table-land is lifted up into a more proximate tempera-
ture than is the general level of India. It is not much
less in size than the general run of African oxen : it is
deep in the chest, roomy in barrel, fine in the legs,
straight- horned, and sleek of coat. The prevailing
colour here is a light cream colour. It is the carriage
ox — the Arab among bullocks, and will ti-avel six miles
an hour. An interchange of this kind may do good,
especially in a colony where oxen are the chief beasts
of draught.

INFLUENCE OF NITROGEN ON CROPS.

MILBORNE ST. ANDREW FARMERS' CLUB.

A meeting of this club was held at Milborne St.
Andrew on Wednesday evening, the 20th of Octo-
ber last, to discuss the subject of " The influence
of Nitrogen and its compounds on Vegetation,"
introduced by Mr. W. C. Spooner, the eminent
Agricultural Chemist, of Eling, near Southampton.
There was a goodly attendance of members.

Mr. W. C. Si'ooNER said: Mr. Chairman, and
gentlemen, the subject on which I have to address
you is, I believe, as your Chairman has said,
*' The influence of Nitrogen on Vegetation." Now,
it is very desirable, speaking of the subject of
manures, to have some little separation of topics ;
because the importance and influence of the phos-
phates, and a few others, are now felt to be so
great, that the moment you begin speaking of
manures, you are sure to talk about phosphates
and superphosphates; and the chances are, that
being considered still more important in a district
like this, the subject naturally branches off in that
direction, leaving little opportunity for di-cussiug
on that occasion the proper subject of the evening.

With regard to nitrogen, when I had the pleasure
of introducing the subject to you before, you will
no doubt recollect that I then showed you what
were the various gases that composed animal and
vegetable bodies, or, in other words, of which they
were built up ; it will, therefore, be unnecessary to
do so on the present occasion, from your being
aware of these components, and not having forgot-
ten the observations which were then made on the
subject. In short, I shall speak chiefly of nitro.
gen, and shall say but little of the three othcj.
organic bodies that enter into the structure of the
earth, and the animals and vegetation existing on
the earth. Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere t^
the extent of four-fifths of its entire bulk. It is a
body of but little activity, and serves principally
the purpose of diluting the oxygen of the air to
some considerable extent. You all know that
when a candle is burned under a close glass the
light soon goes out. Water ascends and con-
denses on a portion of the glass, as part of the
tonfined air is burned, and the remaining part

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339

consists almost entirely of the nitrogen which waS
in combination with the oxygen consumed. It
serves in the air, then, to dilute the oxygen, whose
powerful influence would otherwise burn up all
animal and vegetable bodies, and, in fact, cause
our planet to disappear from space after a brief
conflagration. Therefore it is that the nitrogen of
the atmosphere is of such immense importance.
Yet it is a singular fact, and, indeed, I know of
none which startled chemists so much when first
discovered, that this apparently innoxious, weak,
and harmless gas is the peculiar element compos-
ing animal bodies, flesh, and all bodies capable of
supporting and nourishing flesh. They were sur-
prised when it was discovered that nitrogen was
the gas pecuhar to flesh as distinguished from fat.
Gluten, as distinguished from starch, was that
part of the food which is capable of sustaining
flesh and building up fabrics distinct from that
which is merely deposited as fat, which serves the
purpose of keeping the body warm, or of acting
as fuel in the consumption by it of the oxygen of
the atmosphere in the lungs, and thereby support-
ing animal heat. The question is, "Nitrogen,
what is it?" "Ammonia, what is that?" We
are much more familiar with the word ammonia,
,by which we understand at once that pungent gas
which largely escapes from our dunghills. Its
strong pungent smell is chiefly due to the carbon-
ate of ammonia constantly escaping from it.
Ammonia is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen.
Hydrogen is the gas which forms water — nitrogen,
as already noticed, the gas which composes four-
fifths of the atmosphere. By weight, three parts
hydrogen and fourteen parts nitrogen form ammo-
nia. Thus, when an analysis is given, fourteen
parts of the constituent proportions of ammonia
consist of nitrogen : the other constituents matter
noti and it is the more correct when speaking of
that which relates to food or manure as nitrogen,
because, although the greater part of that which
escapes is in the form of ammonia, other parts
exist in it as a compound capable only of being
converted into ammonia. You are all familiar
with ammonia. Here is a little in a hquid form
{pouring it out); any gentleman who may heartily
sniff it {passing it round) will feel it to be strong,
( Laughter from the successive experimenters. )
Here also is some chloride of ammonia ; that is,
ammonia fixed by hydrochloric acid, commonly
called muriatic acid ; in passing it round, it will be
found to possess none of the smell of ammonia.
If, however, we mix a little lime with it {mixes)
we shall presently see that this renders free the

ammonia; and, in passing this round, you will
have an opportunity of testing the diflference be-
twixt ammonia in combination and apart. We
possess no evidence to show that nitrogen,
although the ultimate and important element so
essential in manures and in animal bodies, can
be directly assimilated by plants. Otherwise it
would soon perform a revolution in agriculture.
Peruvian guano would no longer possess a mono-
poly, and the price of ammoniacal manures would
cease to be what they are at present. They would
be no longer of value, because the atmosphere,
which contains no less than eighty per cent, of it
would give abundance of this valuable ingredient.
But it seems to be the design of Providence that
man should only earn his bread by the sweat of
his brow; and that only through the means of his
labour and intelligence shall the fruits of the earth
be raised. Providence, therefore, steps in and
forbids the use of this important element, existing
so largely in the atmosphere. It is necessary that
nitrogen, to be of use, should assume another form,
and we have no evidence to induce us to suppose
that the nitrogen of the atmosphere can be directly
assimilated by plants. You are aware that carbon
forms the great bulk of vegetable bodies, such as
the root crops ; it is derived principally from the
atmosphere, partly from the soils, and very little
from manure. It is principally obtained, I say,
from the atmosphere ; for although it exists only
in the atmosphere as carbonic acid to the extent of
one thousandth, it is yet sufficient to build up the
mighty forests that cover the face of the globe.
Plants, by a very simple plan, imbibe the carbonic
acid of the atmosphere, giving off the oxygen
again, and converting the carbon into their own
structures, which are not derived from nitrogen.
When nitrogen becomes the food of vegetable
bodies, it is more common for it to unite with hy-
drogen and take the form of ammonia. The efl^ect
of mixing two bodies without smell may then be
perceived. Reverting to the experiment previously
shown, you will perceive that the chemical eflfect
of the alkali (hme) is to unite with the hydro-
chloric acid, and the ammonia flies off. This
chloride of ammonia is more familiar to us as sal
ammoniac. We have seen that ammonia is one of
the forms in which nitrogen feeds plants; but there
is another form— that of nitric acid— not the
strongest acid we possess, but next to sulphuric
acid in that respect, and better known as aqua-
fortis. It is a powerful caustic, and yet composed
exactly of the same elements as atmospheric air-
nitrogen and oxygen. What is more extraordinary

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3dO

still, instead of the largest percentage of nitrogen,
it has the smallest, and the largest of oxygen ; but
the proportions in which they unite produce one of
the strongest acids in nature. I bring this before
you because it is almost the only other form in
which nitrogen becomes the food of plants. Ni-
trate of soda employed as a top dressing, is com-
posed of nitric acid and an alkali, the base being
soda; audits great effect on vegetation is due to
the nitric acid and not to the soda. The experi-
ment has been tried again and again, and if soda
were the element that yielded the benefit, we
should not give £20 a ton, more or less, for nitrate
of soda, whilst we could buy salt which contains
as much soda for as many shillings. Mr. Pusey
used nitric acid in a diluted form in one of his
experiments, and the same effects were produced
as if he had applied nitrate of soda. Ammonia
and nitric acid both exist in the air. With regard
to the nitric acid, a Frenchman greatly startled
chemists by the announcement of the fact of a
great amount of both ammonia and nitric acid
existing in the atmosphere. But this only served
to show that no single experiment ought to be
relied upon, but ought to be tried by other chem-
ists before being received as an established fact.
Boussingault and Professor Way both found that
they could obtain from rain-water nothing like the
same quantity as the French chemist had succeeded
in obtaining. The experiment of the one had been
performed in the city of Paris, that of the two
others with rain collected in the country ; and the
larger quantity of ammonia, which in cities arises
from smoke, from the large consumption of fuel,
from dunghills, and decaying bodies, than in the
country, might create, in the atmosphere in the
neighbourhood of to^vns, more than double the
quantity in that of the country. This fact, in
itself interesting, also accounts for the great
amount of vegetation that succeeds frequent thun-
der showers in some root crops— not that lightning
has any direct influence; but a thunder shower
generally descends suddenly, and after a drought
of some little extent, and consequently brings
down with it whatever ammonia and nitric acid
exist in the atmosphere. Way found that there
was in a year's fall of rain per acre :—

Nitric Acid. Ammonia Total Nitrogen.

(1855) (1855) (1856) (1855) (1856)

lbs. 2.98 to 2.80 7.11 9.53 6.63 8.731

There being from 44 to 46 lbs. of nitrogen in an
acre of wheat or barley, that quantity it will there-
fore be seen is considerably more than the rain
can bring down, and the French chemist had
possibly overrated the effect. It is thought by

some that dew and fog are richer in ammonia than
rain, but although they are somewhat richer, yet
upon careful experiments it has been found that
the quantity of dew per acre deposited in the
ground is not more than 10 tons, whereas, the
quantity of rain is 2,500 tons per acre. Professor
Way, in his excellent paper on soils, has noticed
that strong soils or clay have a great power of
fixing ammonia; so, if we dilute a strong solution
of ammonia and throw it over a quantity of soil,
very soon all smell of ammonia will disappear.
This seems to be a very wise provision of nature
that a substance which costs so much money, and
is of so much value, should not, like other alkalies,
become rapidly soluble and soon washed out, but r
should thus be retained in the soil for the uses of
vegetation. Not so nitric acid, although it also is
of so much value applied in a particular manner to
particular uses; it is soluble, and, unlike ammonia,
soon washes out of the soil ; so much so, that I
would impress this observation on your minds that
you may not be led to throw it away, or to find
what you had done rendered useless. You may
apply ammonia as sulphate of ammonia, carbonate
of ammonia, or ammonia in the form of guano,
and it will be fixed by the soil without being
washed away; but if you apply nitric acid in the ^
fall of the year or in the winter, you run great risk
of a considerable portion being washed out of the
soil again. Thus it is that different results
and effects occur. Some may say, " It agrees with
my land excellently and answers my purpose, and
I can produce six bushels more per acre when
nitrate of soda is applied." Others may say, "I
get nothing but straw— it has no good effect what-
ever." Now this greatly depends upon the mode
of application. Nitrate of soda should be used
only as a top dressing, and never applied to an
exhausted soil, nor unless there be vegetation then
and there to take up that which is so valuable, and
thus you run no risk of losing money in so valu-
able an ingredient. It will not do at all times to
estimate the value of manure by the quantity of
nitrogen ; for it was found by a late experiment of
Mr. Lawes, that a greater effect was produced by
nitrate of soda on barley, than by an equal quan-
tity of nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammo-
nia. I have myself seen, continually, similar
effects produced upon grass and wheat, more
particularly on strong land. This also shows
that nitrate of soda should be applied late m the
season, and never upon poor and exhausted soil,
because it would act as a stimulant, supplying one
particular element of vegetation only, and stimu-
lating plants to put out their roots and extract from

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the soil all the other portions of nutriment necess-

341

ary for their existence. When a manure produces
this effect, it is undoubtedly a stimulant, and we
should never apply nitrate of soda unless we are
sure there is something to respond to the demands
of the plant— that there is phosphate of lime and
other elements present there to satisfy it. It is
then the fact that nitrogen exists in various forms
in manures. But if we apply lime or strong
alkali, it is at once converted into the form of
ammonia, and readily escapes. Guano owes its
very powerful smell to the quantity of carbonate of
ammonia always escaping. Where lime exists in
land its ammonia will be developed. Now all land
fit for vegetation, in a greater or smaller degree,
possesses some lime— in this neighbourhood abun-
dance of chalk, probably more than is wished : in
others it is deficient, and it is necessary to add it
before vegetation can take place successfully.
Here is some of the ordinary manure for the wheat
crop {exhibits it), which, being used as an autum-
nal application, it is necessary should not be too
rapid in its action. As the manure passes round
it will be found to have little or no smell, and then
it will be shown to smell as soon as a little of the
alkali— possessing in itself no smell— is added.
{This was accordingly shown.) Now, it has been
pretty well proved, notwithstanding a vast amount
of argument to the contrary, that the essential
manure for the turnip crop is phosphate of lime,
and that the equally essential manure for grain
crops is ammonia, or nitrogen, in some form.
You are aware that a great and not very good
tempered controversy has arisen betwixt Baron
Liebig, and Mr, Lawes and Mr Gilbert, on this
subject. But it was previously known to the
agriculturists of this country that the proper ma-
nure for the wheat crop was ammonia, and that for
the turnip crop phosphate of lime. It is not a new
fact. We were well aware of it 10, 12, or 15
years ago, and this it would be easy to prove.
But Mr. Lawes has instituted some very laborious
experiments, which have set the matter still clearer;
for he has well shown that whilst he continued to
apply phosphate of lime to the root crops, he suc-
ceeded in raising a greater amount of roots year
after year ; whilst, on land which had no manure,
they dwindled, in four years, from 4 tons to 3 tons,
then 13 cwt., and nothing in the fourth. He found,
hkewise, that he by no means produced the same
effect by adding salts of ammonia to a considerable
extent. He applied to a crop of turnips, in con-
siderable doses, sulphate of ammonia, but, without
the phosphates, and had no crop. Professor
Voelcker, in the last part of the Society's Journal,

has given the results of experiments which set this
in a yet stronger light. If we adopt these experi-
ments as our guide, we should feel almost disposed
to say that nitrogen and ammonia are totally
useless to the root crops. But there is a drawback
to them which I shall mention. It is that in spite
of all his endeavours. Dr. Voelcker obtained only
a half crop at the best, viz., from 15 tons farmyard
manure, 7.16 tons; from nothing, 2\ tons, or
rather under 3 ; from 6 cwt. bone ash dissolved in
sulphuric acid, from 8 to 9 tons ; from sulphate of
ammonia nothing (but as applied there is no doubt
its pungency injured the seed), and not more when
sulphate of ammonia was added to bone ash than
when it was not. We must be cautious, however,
in building our superstructure on too narrow a
basis; we must repeat these experiments. The
following experiment, if I may venture to quote
myself, is one which I made and published in a
little paper ten years ago:— "I was anxious to
ascertain what the effect would be of applying to
the turnip crop an excess of ammonia. With this
view, in the autumn of 1848, I applied to a given
space of ground, being a wheat stubble, a liquid
preparation of ammonia : I was fearful, if I applied
it later, the strength of the application would
destroy vegetation ; indeed, it had this effect to a
considerable extent on the weeds in the stubble,
and also on the worms and other insects, which
were found dead on the surface of the land, show-
ing that a powerful alkali, such as ammonia, acts
as a poison on wireworms and other pests of
vegetation — a fact in itself important, and con-
solatory to those who cannot divest themselves of
the idea, when casting a few hundredweights of
Peruvian guano on the surface of the land, that,
while the cost of the application is certain, the
benefit to be derived is altogether doubtful and
hazardous. But to return to our more immediate
subject : the stubble thus treated was ploughed
and cleaned in the spring, in common with the
adjoining land, and, early in June, drilled with
Skirving's swede seed, the whole being manured
with superphosphate of lime— that is, both that
which received the ammoniacal application, and
that which did not. The seed vegetated well, and
it soon became a good plant throughout the field ;
but after a very few weeks, the land which had
received the ammoniacal application could be dis-
tinguished at some distance by the dark colour
and remarkable luxuriance of the greens. This
continued throughout the autumn, and, on examin-
ing them a week before Christmas, it was found
that the luxuriant greens had been the precursors
of huge and monstrous necks, twelve to eighteen

342

inches long, and several inches in circumference.
On cutting through these necks it was perceived
that they contained nutritious matter similar to the
bulb. It might be thought that these huge necks
were forced on at the expense of the bulbs, but
this was found not to be the case ; for, on testing
some average rods with the other parts of the field,
it was found that while the latter proved to
be at the rate of twenty-two tons per acre, the
ammoniacal bulbs yielded at the rate of twenty-
seven tons. In neither case did the individual
roots reach a great size, in consequence of
having been left too thick (no less than 160
to the rod), which arose from the circumstance
of the rows being drilled only 18 inches apart,
whilst the roots wfere hoed out as if the rows
had been two feet asunder. I have no doubt the
crop would have been greater if the number of
roots had been one-third less. I shall call atten-
tion to the fact that it was not till some weeks that
the ammonically-treated swedes were noticeable
from the others : all came up equally well, and
vegetated for some time with equal luxuriance,
showing that the peculiar manure for the young
plant is phosphate of lime in a soluble state. We
learn from the experiment we have narrated that
the peculiar effect of a large supply of ammonia to
the turnip crop is to force on a luxuriant growth
of greens and stems, but that this is not done at
the expense of the bulb, but rather as an addition
to it. At the same time, we might also draw the
inference that a moderate application of ammonia is
sufficient for the turnip crop." Professor Voelcker,
however, found that a large quantity of sulphate of
ammonia had no such effect on the greens ; it was
applied so late as June, broadcast, I presume, and
in close contact with the seed— the other being
applied in autumn, in a liquid form, to the soil. I
am not recommending my experiment for general
adoption, but you are familiar with the effect,
however, of 1 or 1^ cwt. Peruvian guano, the
effect of which on the autumn greens is to render
them more luxuriant. There is none at first — but
a visible effect afterwards, rendering them longer
in ripening, whereby the mildew is to a great
extent kept off, showing the importance of a mix-
ture of ammonia with the turnip manure ; and I
can't coincide with those gentlemen in opinion
who apply phosphate or soluble phosphate alone,
as ammonia, whether in the shape of bone dust,
half-inch bones, or Peruvian guano, is a decided
advantage. The drawback I have said in Dr.
Voelcker's case is, having obtained only a half
crop at the best. It may be answered that each
experiment fared alike. But it is important to ob-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

serve that the atmosphere can supply, by means of
rain and dew, a certain quantity of ammouia and
nitric acid; now the quantity imbibed by a good
root cro]i, such as turnips, is much more than that
taken up by a small crop. In 20 tons of bulbs
there is considerable nutriment and nitrogen.
This, if absent in the soil, must be largely supphed
from the atmosphere, from rain, and from the am-
monia floating over the largely developed leaves.
If sufficient with that in the soil to produce a good
crop, the atmosphere may be alone sufficient to
produce a half crop; and if we have here only a
half crop, it is not proved that it is unnecessary or
undesirable to apply ammonia to root crops. It is
a pity the learned doctor, on a small portion of
ground, did not water the crops ; if he had sup-
plied artificially what the rain failed to supply, he
might have obtained different results. But this
has been no fault of his ; he has repeated the ex-
periments for two years, and means to repeat them
again ; and as soon as he gets a good crop, say 20
tons per acre, we may begin to form a theory upon
his facts. I don't object to anything he has done
— no man experiments more carefully ; no man is
less likely to be led astray himself or to lead astray
others. [The lecturer then sat down to enable any
of the questions usual on such occasions to be put
to him.]

The Chairman, at the conclusion of Mr.
Spooner's lecture having announced his intention
of departing from the usual mode of calling upon
particular members to continue the discussion ex-
pressed, at the same time, a hope that any gentleman
having practical questions to ask would put them.

Mr. Crane, as well as the Chairman and Mr.
Dunham, then put a variety of questions, the objects
of which, for the sake of compression, we must leave
to be gathered from Mr. Spooner's replies, and

Mr. Summers spoke as follows: — Mr. Chairman
and Gentlemen, — I have a few observations to
make on an ammoniacal manure which I applied
to cereals and vetches two years ago. The follow-
ing is the analysis of the manure— this analysis I
received from Professor Way : —

Moisture , 7.91

Organic matter, &c 10.17

Sand,&c «... 1-68

Soluble phosphate 3.10

Insoluble phosphate 0.47

Sulphate of lime 5.82

Sulphate of soda 14.14

Common salt 33.83

Nitrate of soda 15.38

Sulphate of ammonia 7.30

Ammonia in organic matter Q-^Q

100,00

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

343

This manure was applied in March to a piece of
wheat which was sown after old lea, and which I
thought required some nitrogenous manure— the
minerals being more abundant than available ni-
trogen. It was sown over the whole field with the
exception of the two ridges which were left to see
the effect of the application. Where the manure
was spread, a much darker hue was soon per-
ceptible, and the wheat got the start of that on the
two ridges that were left unmanured. This dark
green gradually died away, and the wheat was
again the colour of that on the two unmanured
ridges, but the leaf was wider and the plant was

stronger. A few days before harvest it could be
distinctly seen that the unmanured portion was at
least three days later in ripening than that which
had been manured, and I believe that there was
quite one sack per acre more in the manured
portion than on the two ridges which were left
unmanured. I calculated that I got seven sacks
per acre on the two ridges, and eight sacks per
acre on that which was manured. The same
manure was applied to barley which followed a
crop of wheat— it was spread over a part of the
field where the chalk was turned up by the plough
through the little depth of soil. Here the effect
was very strikmg, the produce being, I believe,
doubled— both straw and grain. I also applied it
to spring vetches on a thin chalk soil. These
vetches were sown after wheat ; it was only sown
over a part of the field, so that, as in the other
instances, I had the opportunity of judging of the
effect. It caused no apparent differerce in the
growth of the vetches ; but, what was very sur-
prising, it gave great vigour to the charlock that
was growing with the vetches— the plants were
twice the height where this ammoniacal dressing
was laid on. I do not approve of top-dressing as
a rule, but where it was resorted to, and where it is
required, I would recommend the following as a
good mixture for cereals : —

Nitrate of soda 25 per cent.

Sulphate of ammonia 25 „

Common salt 30 „

Vitriolized guano 20 „

100
The nitric acid and ammonia in the nitrate of soda,
sulphate of ammonia, and vitriolized guano, are of
different solubility ; therefore, where this mixture
is apphed, the plants will be supplied with food
during their progressive stages of growth. In the
vitriolized guano, we have also soluble phosphate,
which is of especial value to the barley crop. The
salt I add, as a corrective of any tendency of the
other compounds to produce over luxuriance.

Mr. Spooner, in replying to the observations
which had been made, only wished they had been
more numerous, assured that if the members
would only draw a cheque upon their memory and
experience, and give the club the benefit of the
amount for which that cheque would be honoured,
they would all of them derive advantage. The
Chairman had commenced with the question why
the nitrogen of the atmosphere was not made
available by means of some chemicsl application ?
He could only tell him, that if he knew of such an
application and could put them up to it they would
be much obliged to him. Sulphuric acid, of which
he (Mr. Spooner) manufactured largely, had, for
one of its ingredients, the oxygen of the atmos-
phere ; and as they could not obtain that from the
atmosphere fast enough, they were obliged to have
recourse to the use of nitrate of soda; snd the
oxygen which gave to sulphuric acid its jningency
and potency was derived from the atmosphere by
the aid of nitrate of soda. Of course be meant to
say that it was converted from sulphuro is to sul-
phuric acid by these means; and to sulphuric acid
they (the farmers) were much indebted, for without
it, or some acid equally strong, there could be no
superphosphate of lime. Thus they could use up
the oxygen of the air. But what would they think
when he told them that whilst they did so, they
were obliged to allow the nitrogen to escape un
the chimney. If it only could be arrested, an
important point might be gained, but chemists had
united all their efforts to arrest it in vain. Some-
times, indeed, a shout had been raised like the false
" hark hollow ! " sometimes heard in fox-hunting ;
for the discovery after all had proved to be falla-
cious, and they were found to remain in possession
of precisely the same amount of knowledge on
the subject as before. The Chairman had next
observed that nitrate of soda, being a stimulant, it
was good for the outgoing tenant, but by no
means desirable for the incoming tenant to employ.
There was a certain amount of truth in this, but it
would not do to take it. Good farming ought to
be practised whether by the outgoing or by the
incoming tenant. If, indeed, a tenant were used
ill, then he had every inducement to make hay
whilst the sun shone; but he (Mr. Spooner) could
hardly recommend it. And at the same time it
was hardly desirable for the incoming tenant to
despise the use of that which he saw other parties
using year after year with advantage. It vv-ould
therefore be prudent to use a certain amount of
nitrate of soda and other salts. With regard to
the top-dressing which Mr. Summers had re-
commended, it had its advantage, and they

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Ui

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

brought up wheat and barley crops by its means.
A barley grower, whose produce was as good as
any in the market, used some every year with
profit. They must, in fact, resort to this or other
means where their land was required to furnish
liberal crops ; for if they only put on dung every
four years something else was required to realize
its advantages. If they improved their dung by
feeding with corn or cake, or supplied the de-
ficiency by means of artificial manures, what were
they doing in the one case and in the other? Just
supplying more nitrogen or more phosphate.
Double the nitrogen and the phosphates, and they
would double the value of their dung immediately.
One ton of dung so enriched in the yard would, in
fact, become more valuable than two tons; and
this was the reason why the agriculture of England
was now so superior that they could now produce
8 or 10 sacks per acre as easily as their grand-
fathers had produced 6 sacks— not that they
apphed more dung, but because it was of a better
quality, with more ammonia, more nitrogen, more
l)hosphate, and, consequently, capable of producing
better crops. The question had also been started
why lime sometimes weakened the soil, and why
lands that had been overlimed were never so good
ai^nm ? Why ? Lime was a powerful cause of the
riches of the sod being used up. Ammonia
applied to the land became fixed by the soil; but
by lime and by water it became again soluble.
Tiiis only showed that lime could not be dispensed
with in modern agriculture, since it was so very
aciive an agent in doing good and causing the
richesofthesoiltobefreelyusedup. Thusithadbeen
stated by one member of the club that his turnips,
which had clubbed in sandy soils, when chalked
grew properly. Now chalk was only lime rendered
less potent. Where lime did not exist club root
would prevail. This was owing to the field itself
and not to the turnips. But it had been stated
that swedes had been good in a field so chalked,
which could no longer grow good mangold. The
injury in this instance was mechanical. The
benefits of lime, however, were chemical. Lime
was wanted to reduce certain acids which produced
this disease called club-root; and if lime had been
added instead of chalk, or if considerably less
ciiHlk had been added, the remedy would have
ht-ld good without the evil. After some further
(ibservations on the advantages of the use of lime,
Mr. Spooner concluded by saying that the subject
was very copious, and it was impossible to do it
entire justice, but enough had been said to show
that nitrogen, in some form, was a manure pecu-
a rly required by the grain crops. The effects of

nitrogen were not mathematical ; it was necessary
to apply a considerably greater quantity of nitrogen
to the wheat crop, for instance, than to the bean ;
yet the analysis of the bean crop afforded twice as
much nitrogen as did the wheat crop. This was
a theory not dependent on the chemical com-
position of the manure, but on the physiology and
properties of plants. The wheat was a most
grateful plant; yet, as regarded ammonia, it would
appear to waste more than was applied. If they
were to apply 30lbs., for example, as an experiment,
expecting to get it back, they would be deceived,
as they would not get back half the nitrogen con-
tained in the manure. This showed the advantage
of rotations in which one shift bequeathed to
another a vast amount of nitrogen, the material of
future crops, and aided in deriving it from the soil
and the atmosphere by another direct application
of agents. There was no better system than a
wise and discreet rotation of crops ; apd, without
making extravagant experiments, they must farm
liberally if they would farm well and farm
successfully.

On the motion of the Chairman, which was
duly seconded, the club assented to the expression
of thanks to Mr. Spooner, to whom there could be
but one opinion of their being greatly indebted.
He had supplied them with that kind of infor-
mation which they most wanted as farmers. They
wanted to know what kind of manure to purchase,
and what kinds were wanted for particular soils.
For, as different soils required diflferent descriptions
of manure, it was only the chemist, who deeply
studied the matter, who was enabled to tell them
how to lay out their money to advantage. That
was not the first time that Mr. Spooner had
travelled from home by the mail train to contribute
to their information. His labours were of a prac-
tical nature, which they could all understand and
ppreciate. And they would all accord cordially I
., „,„^-«A\nrf Viim n vnt.p nf thanks. He (the

in awarding him a vote of thanks. He (the
chairman) could only say that, so far as he was
concerned personally, of such a practical nature
were Mr. Spooner's remarks, that he had
learnt more that evening concerning manures
and their application than he had ever learnt
before.

After a few words of acknowledgment from
Mr. Spooner, the meeting separated; Mr.l
Spooner just observing that the question had
arisen whether dung should be applied to the sur-
face and distributed, or ploughed in at once, or
matured in the dungheap beforehand. He believed,
himself, it was far better applied to the surface,
which would permit as little as possible to fly off,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

345

as the rain water thus washed in its soluble part,
and when the plough turned over the p^round, in-
stead of its being all four or five inches under, the

greater part of the ammonia would be acting at
only one or two inches deep from having been
previously washed in.

LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB.
EDUCATION AND DISCIPLINE OF THE YOUNG FARMER.

The Monthly Meeting of the Club took place on
Monday evening, March 7, at the Club-house, Black-
friars.

Mr. Trethewy, in the absence of Mr. John Thomas,
the President of the year, was called to the chair. There
was a large attendance of members, including Messrs.
R Baker, James Wood (Sussex), T. Owen, W. Fisher
Hobbs, (Rev.) C. T. James, J.A.Williams, J. Russell,
J. Nockolds, E. Little, J. S. King, C. J. Brickwell,
S. Skelton, J. Wood (Croydon), W. Walton, L. A.
Coussmaker, T. Lyall, J. H. Sawell, T. Congreve, W.
Mitchell, G. Dobito, G. P. Tuxford, E. B. Waite, W.
Heard, S. Sidney, R. Marsh, J. Hooker, G. S. Har-
rison, W. Eve, J. Odams, G, Wilsher, J. C. Nesbit, E,
Tattersall, T. Chandler, J. W. Smith, G. Fidler, H.
Shotter, D. Reid, W. Kemp, &c.

The subject for discussion — introduced by Mr. R.
Bond, of Kentwell, LongMelford, Suffolk— was, " The
education, discipline, and introduction of the young
farmer to life,"

The Chairman, in opening the proceedings,
said he felt bound to afford some explanation,
by way of apology, for appearing in that po-
sition. He did so in consequence of the unavoidable
absence of Mr. Thomas. It happened to be that gen-
tleman's rent-day. He was one of the largest tenants
on the estate of Lord St. John, as well as one of the
largest farmers in Bedfordshire ; and as his lordship
made a point of dining with his tenants on the rent-day,
Mr. Thomas thought it would not be becoming in him to
absent himself. He (Mr. Trethewy) trusted that, under
these circumstances, his own services would be ac-
cepted (Hear, hear).

Mr. Bond said : Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen,
we have this evening to consider and discuss an un-
usually important subject ; and it will be well for us to
bear in mind, that we have not simply to determine a
mere material question, embracing the cost of agricul-
tural production, or the increaseof our pecuniary gains ;
but we have this evening to dwell upon the culture of
mind, not matter — of man, not material. We have this
evening to dwell upon the cultivation of the cultivator
of the soil himself; and much may fall from our lips
which may tend not only to form a character and fix a
future ; but I admit it will be a matter of regret with
me if we do not succeed in propounding and moulding
the formation of a system which shall be calculated to
meet the mcreased educational requirements of the age
— a system which shall ultimately be instituted to exalt
the intellectual standard of the agricultural character,

and which shall be destined to increase the mental,
moral, and physical greatness of Old England. You
will plainly perceive, gentlemen, upon the question of
agricultural education, I am an advocate for action and
co-operation ; and I am extremely desirous to see the
Central London Farmers' Club occupying the proud
position of a pioneer, practically, in every agricultural
movement of desirable progress and undoubted use-
fulness; and I trust, in this instance, we shall this
evening not only consider wisely, and discuss fully and
freely, but that we shall resolve, prudently and firmly,
to carry out to a successful issue some desirable agricul-
tural educational movement. In this age of change,
progress, and improvement, no change has been more
marked and decided than the altered position of our
British agriculture within the past fifty years. Not
half a century since, and the agricultural art was com-
paratively pure empiricism ; it was practice without sci-
ence, practice without the light of reason ; and the
standard of agricultural intellectual attainment was
necessarily low and meagre. Agriculture, as a purely
imitative art, required no depth of knowledge even in
its best qualified professors. There was nothing in a
simple course of routine to tax the mental powers.
But within the present century how marked the change I
We have now the widest field and the most extended
scope for intellectual exertion ; we have now the whole
of Nature's laws opened up for our investigation and re-
search. There is scarce a science but bears directly or
indirectly upon the art by which we live ; and for a
rational fulfilment and a thorough comprehension of
agricultural practice, I know of no business or profes-
sion at the present day requiring a deeper knowledge or
a higher degree of intellectual attainment. Agriculture
is no longer a mere blind question of ploughing and
sowing ; but agriculturists now require to understand the
object, reason, and result of every mechanical operation.
They require to know why ploughing benefits the land j
why draining answers ; what the plant derives from the
soil, what from the air; why one manure as applied to
the soil answers, why another fails to answer ; how light
and heat affect the plant ; how they influence the crop ;
why the animal thrives well upon one kind of food and
not upon another— to say nothing of the structure of
the plant, the anatomy of the animal, the construction
of machinery, and many other subjects requiring the
greatest mental application to qualify any man to com-
prehend the intricacies of Nature's laws and the compli-
cations of Nature's operations, which it is the farmer's
greatest success to subscribe to, to foster, and promote.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE

With such a flood of light and of scientific knowledge as
the past fifty years have produced, has the agricultural
educational system or the educational standard of in-
struction kept pace? We have this evening to express
our opinion, and we have to pronounce our verdict
upon the fitness or unfitness of our present system of
education to the altered and elevated position of British
agriculture. It is necessary upon this subject we
should speak out ; and allow me to propound the ques-
tion— Are the youths and young men of the rising
generation so educated upon the best principles of in-
struction that they are thereby best fitted to cope with
their future position ? Are they so educated in the
knowledge essential to their calling, that they will prove
equal to the requirements of their business ? Are they
so educated, that they are thereby fitted in intellectual
attainments to the altered and scientific standards of
their profession ? Will they prove thorough men of
business, thorough in knowledge, thorough in judg-
ment, and successful in practice — really thinking men ?
Or will the result disclose the fact that there is rotten-
ness at the core of our existing system of education and
discipline ? I know, well, such questions as the fore-
going may be met with the conservative plea that we
have done well enough in the past. In such an opinion
I fully agree. Without much education the farmers of
England have cultured England to a degree of perfec-
tion unknown beyond her shores ; without severe edu-
cational training, we have succeeded in beating the world
in agricultural productions ; without a deep knowledge
of science, we have practically solved the most scientific
problems; and, till recently, science has rather followed
in our rear than advanced as our vanguard. But because
we have succeeded practically, and that most success-
fully, shall we reject a proffered aid ? Shall we reject
the helping hand of a helping handmaid ? Shall we,
■who have practically preceded science, close our minds
to the enlightening truths of science ? Shall we, who
deal in the culture of Nature's products, close our eyes
to the revelations and explanations of Nature's laws?
Shall we blind ly continue in empiricism, when reason waits
to reveal the rationale of every operation .' Can we af-
ford to reject such knowledge for the rising generation of
England? forthosewho will quickly occupy our positions,
who will have to uphold the honour of England's agricul-
ture in a world-wide race — against some odds — in a world-
wide competition ? Will they not need the stimulant
and assistance of every adventitious aid ? I am well
aware it may be said that the best-educated are not
always the best farmers or the best men of business.
This is perfectly true. I know of men whose school-
history is a farce, and their educational chance was at
best but a poor one. I know of such agriculturists ; yet
those very men are possessed of such sound common
sense, of such caution and prudence in the affairs of
life, of such clear observation and shrewd reflection, of
such prompt and defined judgment, that in any age
they must be noted as men of no common mould : but
let it be remembered, that facts and information are the
basis of their correct reasoning, of all correct reasoning,
of all soundness of judgment ; and a greater knowledge,

in their case, of Nature's truths, would but have made
them more powerful men in Nature's laws, and in the
practical operations of every-day agriculture. Such
men, with a storing of scientific facts, would but have
been more prominently the pioneers of progress ; and
though I condemn the nonsense that a man cannot farm
without a knowledge of the sciences, yet I broadly pro-
pound the fact that the truths of science, especially in
our own heads and hands, are admirably calculated to
introduce us to more paying processes, and to insure to
us increased pecuniary returns. I am not ignorant of
the marked improvement which has characterized the
agriculturist of the present age : I believe no sec-
tion of society has more advanced in intelligence,
knowledge, and position. Capitalists and capital
have reduced the small holdings, banished the old
feudal system of favouritism in business, and sup-
planted a degrading subserviency by an exalting respect.
Men are now rare who are agricultural bores or in-
veterate grumblers ; and though there is still the dispo-
sition in society to assume the fact that the agriculturist,
however unlimited his capital or his ability, has no
right to a position in society, or to the modern refine-
ments and amusements of life, yet England can boast
of sons of the soil, high in intelligence, exalted in
principle, and thorough in business — men of whom even
England may justly be proud; yet, notwithstanding
this vast social and intellectual improvement, when I
view the relative positions of the sciences bearing on
agriculture, and the scientific culture of the agriculturist,
I can plainly perceive a vast distance of space. Scien-
tific truth is far a-head. Individually I feel it.
Thanks to the revelations of our Liebig, Lawes, Gilbert,
Playfair, Way, Nesbit, Voelcker, Johnson, and others,
that science is not in advance of our practice; but
science is infinitely in advance of ourselves — she has
much to suggest to us, much to tell us, much of
which we cannot afford to be ignorant, and all of
which the rising generation ought to know, ought
to aspire to, must acquire ; that, as agriculturists, they
may base their reasoning on correct data, and improve
by their reflection and research the agricultural practice
of the kingdom. The British yeoman has been always
noted for that sound common sense, which, though no
science, is fairly worth the seven — a common-sense,
which could neither be won by a fallacy, nor be deluded
by a delusive theory. Profit has justly been his badge of
discipleship ; but it is necessary now to combine, in the
same person, common-sense with agricultural science ;
it is necessary that the future and rising generations of
farmers should possess the highest intellectual attain-
ments, and I believe it requires a severe discipline of
study to master the intricacies of scientific agriculture,
and a rare combination of powers correctly to carry out
the principles involved in the most successful practical
issue. I :i'lvocate a thorough proficiency in the sciences,
because I believe such knowledge is admirably calcu-
lated to increase the pleasure and profit of farming ; I
believe it is the precise knowledge necessary to pre-
vent mistaken outlays and wrong applications ; to insure
the placing of the right manure in the right place, the

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347

giving the right food to the right animal, and the doing
the right thing in the right way ; to lessen the cost of
production and to increase the annual returns ; to win
more fully the prize we all have in view, viz., money, or
money's worth — to secure by scientific culture a secu-
lar success. I will now enter upon the question of
education, and I purpose to consider the necessary
changes in the course of study to be pursued, and the
system of education necessary, in the agricultural schools
of England. What then is our object in education ? It
is to draw out the latent powers of youth ; to culture
for the future as well as for time; to discipline the
heart as well as to inform the intellect ; to make happy
men, respected men, men beloved by their fellow-men,
and to insure success in life. Let it be remembered
that education is not a mere matter of schoolmasters
and of school discipline ; parents cannot, in reality,
delegate their responsibilities. Rely upon it, education
commences at a much earlier stage than we commonly
recognise ; and from whom the child learns his mother-
tongue, from the same does he imbibe his principles.
We speak of breeding and blood, as if hereditary like-
ness arose from the simple fact of parentage; depend
upon it, the force of imitation, and the power of in-
fluence and example have more to do in the formation
of a character than the power of descent. We who are
accustomed to the maxims of breeding admit, as a fact,
that much size goes in at the mouth— that the quantity
and quality of the food govern the physical develop-
ment of the animal ; and, rely upon it, the mental incli-
nation and the dispositional development of the child
are governed more by those quick and early inlets to
the soul — the eye and the ear — by the influence of
those around them, than by any inert inborn principle.
We are daily becoming more alive to this fact in the
careful selection of servants, and in the choice of play-
mates and companions ; and I enter into this digression
to show that the boy may have received a wrong im-
pression long before reaching the hands of the school-
master, and the tutor has probably to deal with a spoilt
child, instead of a promising, well-cultured, well-
trained boy ; the twig has received a wrong twist, and
to rectify the past, to antidote past poison, to regain
wasted opportunities, and, at the last, to stand well in
the race with so unpromising a colt, is more than we have
a right to expect ; and I here express my conviction
that more than half the failures and sorrows of life are
traceable to the want of the proper fulfilment of pa-
rental discipline, extending from childhood to the age
of twenty-one years. I am a great advocate for the
culture of the heart as well as the culture of the head ;
no man is truly a man without it ; and it is especially
the duty of parents early to implant, to foster, and to
uphold sound Christian principle ; to culture in acts of
reverence, in feelings of love and affection, and in deeds
ot unselfish kindness ; to insist on obedience and truth-
fulness. And it has been my observation that without
this Christian security the most successful secular life
is at best but a mistake, and the most hopeful intel-
lectual attainments a comparative abortion. There
must be the ballast of sound principle, of right feeling,

and right doing, as well as the sail or the steam-power
of ability. Education cannot be purely secular to he
successful ; and though my observations on this point
may appear beyond the mark, yet I plainly assert that
no education is perfect, no prosperity sure, no happi-
ness complete, which is not based on Christian prin-
ciple. I have informed myself, by an extensive cor-
respondence, upon the course of agricultural study
generally pursued throughout the kingdom. In the
Colleges, such as Cirencester, Kensington, and Queen-
wood, the whole course of study is enlightened, suitable,
and satisfactory. In the local schools, generally, the
sciences are much neglected; in more than one-half
of the prospectuses received from such schools the
sciences are not even mentioned, and in many, where
alluded to, it is in a foot-note, to state — " taught if re-
quired." Now, it is not the fault of the schoolmaster
that this is the case : it is for us, as agriculturists, to
make up our minds, to have clear views upon this point,
and to express our wishes. It is for us to say whether
these things ought thus to be. I observe there is the same
dunning at Latin and Greek as when I was a school-
boy, and I dare say there is the same plausible reason
given for the continuance of the system, viz., discipline.
Now there is no one a greater advocate for mental
discipline than myself, but why the dead languages are
so infinitely superior in their influence I cannot for the
life of me conceive. To me it appears such studies may
make boys word-searching mental-memory machines ;
but what is there to excite the observation, to induce
inquiry, to lead to reflection and real thought ? Now,
where the dead languages so essentially fail, the sciences
so eminently succeed. The sciences dwell upon subjects
of real utility — subjects which meet us at every turn; and
such subjects of every-day life are ever suggesting con-
sideration and research. They constantly interest the
boy, and teach him to usa both his perceptive and re-
flective faculties. The boy sees a plant, and contem-
plates its construction ; he thinks over the process of
vegetation, the works of the roots and rootlets, the
ascension of the sap, the functions of the leaves, and
the whole busy process of accelerated nature most ac-
tively working to manufacture food for man. He sees
a steam-engine, and at once examines its manufacture ;
he understands its mechanism, and contemplates the
possibility of some mechanical improvement. All
nature and art, to a mind scientifically cultured,
are vast fields of interest, of observation, and thought.
Surely, then, gentlemen, for those destined for agri-
culture, a study of the sciences is the course to pur-
sue, to manufacture thinking boys and intelligent
thinking men. Give the boy an early bent to under-
stand the why-and-because of all around him ; you
thus place before him a deep mine of wealth, which it is
discipline indeed to comprehend, and a study through-
out life fully to acquire ; he never lacks a subject for
intelligent thought, and you culture the mind, by a
gradual process, to make constant efforts ; the know-
ledge and facts acquired, all bearing upon agriculture,
are literally power — power to apply in the manufacture
of meat, and the manufacture of corn ; and you culti-

348

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

vate, at the same time, that indispensable guide in all
the business transactions of life, viz., a thoroughly well-
balanced judgment." Now, gentlemen, what do the
dead languages effect ? They simply train to a word-
research, to the cultivation of the memory, and they
teach the derivation of words. Too often the dead
languages, indirectly, have even an injurious influence:
they erect a wrong standard in the minds of youth ;
boys view a high attainment in the classics as far tran
scending a common scientific knowledge of common
things ; they despise the useful ; and that acquisition of
the languages, which you intend as discipline and as a
means to an end, they cling to and believe to be the end
itself. When I turn to my own experience I can plainly
perceive that two years' study of the sciences have
proved of more benefit to me than many a year's grind-
ing at Latin : in my education every one pound's worth
of scieuce has yielded a larger return than each ten
pounds expended in the classics. In the sciences 1 was
interested, I could understand their usefulness, and,
upon leaving school, it afforded me pleasure to prose-
cute my studies, and each day in the agricultural world
I find something to observe and learn and turn to prac-
tical usefulness. Upon the scholastic studies generally,
I would observe, it is highly desirable every boy should
be able to read clearly and fluently, without hesitation
and stammering ; it is equally desirable he should be
taught to write a good, plain, legible hand, apart from
all curvilinear flourishes, rectangular excrescences, and
the complete ambiguity which characterises the writing
of the present day. Let each boy, too, be especially
well-grounded in arithmetic ; by some means implant a
taste for figures ; for the system of good and correct
accounts, in every matter of business, is one of the
grand secrets of success in life. Of course there
are grammar, spelling, and history to be learned ;
but I am convinced upon these subjects there is
much time wasted. I forget how many works on
grammatical rectitude I succeeded in wearing up. I
know several ; and that, too, in learning by rote rules
which I never knew how to apply, and in attempting to
rectify sentences which were designedly made wrong.
In spelling, the same : it was my duty to correct misspelt
words ; but I candidly believe it would have been infi-
nitely more to my advantage that I should never have
seen the grammatical and orthographical mistakes, as the
eye and the ear became habituated to and familiar with
error. I am convinced I not only wasted time, but
that I received a positive harm from the process.
Again, let a knowledge of sacred and profane history be
acquired ; but 1 must confess I could not, nor can I
even now, see the utility of learning by rote the dates of
the ascension and death of every monarch who has oc-
cupied the English throne. A knowledge of geography
is, of course, desirable; also a knowledge of mathematics.
I believe the plans of theme-writing and of close verbal
questioning, upon every study, are most desirable, as
ensuring a thorough grounding, which is the basis of
accuracy, self-reliance, and after self-development. To
me it appears, too, most desirable that the parent, if
competent, should regularly and carefully examine his

son, and thereby note his progress ; but for general,
everyday, local schools to be useful, we require reform.
We require a public board of agricultural examiners, who
shall duly examine each candidate, in the first instance,
at sixteen years of age, in all that constitutes a sound
agricultural education ; we should thereby introduce
competition and a standard of merit, and the most
meritorious, painstaking, competent master would have
the largest proportionate number of successful boys. I
advocate such reform, to lid us of incompetent masters —
to secure patronage to the deserving ; and the mere fact
of such an examination would excite a spirit of emula-
tion amongst the boys themselves; and often, in their
hours of wished-for idleness, would they remember they
must render an account some day ; and that the fruits of
indolence would be exposure and disgrace. Such a
public system of examination would ensure the general
adopiion of the most desirable course of study, and
force up schools to the necessary standard of proficiency.
At the same time, such a system would embrace agri-
cultural schools of every standing — the small as well as
the large — and have a general influence for good. In
ten years, so radical would be the change, that Dickens
— who, in " Nicholas Nickleby" justly caricatured the
old system of education — wouldsee an almost undreamed-
of reformation. Further : upon a youth leaving school,
the necessity is obvious for continued intellectual dis-
cipline ; and how requisite it is for a young man to have
continually some intellectual object of attainment before
him 1 I note the present system : a boy leaves school
at sixteen years of age ; he throws up his hat, and con-
cludes his education finished, when, in reality, it is but
just commencing. More than half the young men
destined for agriculture in England actually waste, and
worse than waste, the first four or five years of their
freedom from scholastic restraint. Theirs is a thorough
desultory life ; they throw up all intellectual culture,
and they have no intellectual standard of attainment to
which to strive to attain. They probably assist in the
farm- management ; but as they have no responsibility,
the farm occupies but little of their thoughts ; as they
feel but little interest, they observe but little ; and the
rat-hunt, the cricket-match, the run with ihe harriers
or fox-hounds, the quadrille-party, the shooting exploit,
with other amusements, combined with a profusion of
tobacco, are their real employments — their true business
of thought and occupation. How are the evenings
spent? Often in a desultory, do-nothing industry, or
in card-playing and smoking — in colouring a clay or an
idolized meerschaum— or, if in literature, in perusing
some trashy love- tale novel, in studying " Blaine's
Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports," or in reading the last
number of the " London Journal." I speak, gentlemen,
from facts, from my own observation ; and only in ridi-
cule, I fear, can it be said that such training will create
promising candidates for future agricultural honours !
This is not a desirable course of discipline : reared in a
desultory manner to sport and to spend, to study their
own pleasure and indulgence rather than their interest
and advantage, it will be no matter of wonder or surprise
if pleasure is their chief engrossment in after-life, and if

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3i9

business, at the commencement of their career of re-
sponsibility, finds them deficient in knowledge and
judgment. Such, gentlemen, is literally the case. I
have seen young men make grand mistakes upon their
first start in life, from absolute incompetency — especially
upon clay-farms ; and I agree with the observation of
an old friend of mine, that it would well answer the pur-
pose of many a young man, upon commencing business,
to pay an elder to superintend and direct him in his
management and supervision for the first two or three
years. I am in no way averse to a reasonable amount
of sport and amusement ; I have had my share, and
that a large one, of hunting, coursing, shooting, and the
like, and I believe, too, without detriment ; but let it
be the condition that whilst sport is sport in reality and
in earnest — whilst a young man rides across country
with courage and judgment, and sports as a sportsman —
that business and study are equally pursued with the
same spirit of indomitable energy and perseverance.
We hear a great deal too much, now-a-days, of the old
tale that " All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy."
The truth is, that more work and less play would make
Jack a bright boy, a business youth, and a thriving, suc-
cessful man. I am for pleasure in reason, but for busi-
ness in earnest ; and in every case I desire to put aside
the dreary, indolent, listless nonentity spirit which cha-
racterises young men, both in their intellectual improve-
ment and in their business attainment and attention. I
want to see young men fresh from school, not only
breathing, but really living — living for an object — living
for an end, and actually using the means to attain that
end. I want diligence, and not a passive indifference, to
govern their conduct. I want them to feel that time is
a talent not to be wasted and squandered, but a talent
to be used iind improved ; that they have much to do,
and but little time to do it in. I want to see minutes
more valued than hours now are. Life is a race, and,
all else equal, the best training will make the best man,
and secure the best place ; and I know well that the idle
brain is, most surely, the devil's best workshop. What,
then, is to be done ? Is it not desirable to adopt some
course ? Is it not necessary to act ? Is it not essential
to induce young men to cultivate habits of self-culture
and of self-development? It is most necessary — most
desirable ; and it is a positive duty, on our part, to act
to ensure it. What man was ever a man worth calling
a man without such self-culture ? Rely upon it, such is
the upward educational movement that we positively
cannot stand still. I even see it imperative upon us
that we combine to co-operate ; and as every agricultural
society in England looks to the Royal Agricultural
Society as its agricultural father, it is for us to take
steps to induce our parent to act for the better education
of her agricultural children. I believe farmers' clubs
generally, and every agricultural society throughout the
kingdom, would gladly combine to facilitate such a
movement ; and I know of no course so effectual as the
establishment of a public board of Agricultural Examiners.
I strongly recommend two examinations : one for junior
candidates not exceeding sixteen years of age (as before
alluded to), and one for senior candidates not exceeding

twenty-one years of age. I would certainly throw the
examinations open to all candidates, as the only obj-'ct
would be to excite competition ; and to grant an agri-
cultural diploma to those competitors having attained to
the necessary standard of intellectual acquirement. It
could be a matter of no moment whether the knowledge
of the senior candidates was attained by study in the
privacy of their own homes, or by attending a course of
agricultural lectures. It would be for the board of
examiners to recommend the best works extant upon the
various subjects and sciences for examination in the
senior class ; and it is highly necessary so to act as to
ensure general competition. The standard of merit may
not be set too high. Even the young man missing bis
mark and losing his diploma would in reality be a
gainer — and a very great gainer, notwithstanding — from
the habits of study and of mental discipline to which he
had cultured himself in his attempts to secure the distinc-
tion of the diploma. I am well aware that such a board
of examiners would have been of essential service to me ;
for though I continued to study chemistry, geology, and
some other sciences, after leaving school, without the
slightest incitation from those around me, yet I feel that
the fact of a public examination would have been a
sufficient inducement for me to have worked with re-
doubled diligence, preventing a foolish waste of time,
training me in habits of mental and physical industry,
and resulting in redoubled success. I do not think
the middle - class Oxford University examinations
meet our requirements ; the whole matter will be
far better in our own hands; the whole scheme
may be self-supporting. We must carefully avoid
the error into which the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland has fallen. That society re-
quired candidates to attend, for a period of two years,
classes in five or six of the different sciences prior to
examination. Such a requirement, of course, nullified
the general usefulness of the scheme. The mistake is
now rectified. In England or Scotland it must take a
time for the competition to be great, or for the attendance
to be large at the examinations, from the simple fsct
that the education of young men has been grossly
neglected, especially after leaving school; and it must
take a time to rear any number of young men, intelltc-
tually cultured and qualified to come forward for
examination, or to compete for the honours of
the certificate or diploma. With the existence of
such a board of examiners, how far more pow-
erfully could a parent stimulate his son to do
his utmost, and to how much better account could the
present system of agricultural pupilage be turned ! In
my own case, it would afi"ord me pleasure to use my
most strenuous exertions so to assist those gentlemen,
at any future time resident with me, in their studies and
preparation for examination, that they should pass with
credit and eclat. How far more gratifying too, to pa-
rents and friends, to see each hour both usefully and pro-
fitably employed, instead of having to contend with the
natural fireside habits of indolence, with habits of late
rising, with general frivolity, and a thorough indifference
to mental culture and business proficiency ! Seeing the

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vast improvement, the complete revolution, which the
Royal Agricultural .Society has effected in agricultural
mechanics, in agricultural machinery, in the breeding and
development of stock, and in agriculture generally, I
think I am not too sanguine in expecting the same im-
provement and the same beneficial result when that so-
ciety turns its powerful influence to the mental develop-
ment and the scientific culture of the agriculturist
himself. There is an ample and wide field for action ;
and it is my conviction that in carrying out the system
of agricultural educational examinations, lies hid in em-
bryo the Royal Agricultural Society's most successful
operations and her proudest triumphs. Having com-
pleted the educational portion of my subject, I will
now turn to consider the discipline, and afterwards
the introduction of the young man to life. I am
anxious at once to establish the masculine fact that
every man is the architect of his own fortune, and the
carver of his own future. There is no such thing as un-
deserved success or unmerited failure. A man will sink
or swim according to his ability in the battle or struggle
of life. Whilst one man succumbs to circumstance, and
becomes the creature of circumstance, another yokes
circumstance to his car, and triumphs over his position,
winning increased distinction from the magnitude of the
difficulties surmounted. I am extremely desirous to be
clear on this point. I want to put aside all the
maudlin enervating doctrines of chance and misfor-
tune. I want to establish a habit of real self-reliance.
I want young men to see that they had far better trust to
their own internal strength and competency, than t ) any
extraneous aid. How many a young man has been
ruined by his reliance on fortune ! How many a young
man has been spoiled and rendered unfit for success in
life by his expectancies ! Fortune at best is proclaimed
a fickle goddess ; and though bachelor uncles and
maiden aunts are all very well, they are certainly
crochety beings, difficult to please and easy to offend;
and I had rather rely, ten thousand times over, upon
the strength of my own right arm and upon my own in-
ternal power, than to trust to the whims, caprices, and
uncertainties of succeeding to dead men's shoes. Wind-
falls are always very acceptable, but they are broken
reeds to trust to. Self-reliance is the qualification for
success ; and I am convinced, if we are men of observa-
tion, of thought, of industry, of perseverance, of prin-
ciple and prudence, we must succeed in life, we must
triumph, we must conquer. It is a moral certainty.
No circumstance and no material power can prevent it.
What is failure but industry unapplied or misapplied ?
or the fruits of labour undervalued and unhusbanded ?
In any case, trace the cause of unsuccess. What is it
but a lack of the elements necessary for success ? what
but a lack of prudence, of principle, of energy, of in-
dustry, or ability? I do not deny the existence of
heavy overwhelming losses ; but even these are usually
traceable to the facts of hazardous speculations or im-
prudent outlays, and to the adoption of the man-or-the-
mouse principle of sink or swim. In the common
course of matters, I am tired to the heart at the sound
of misfortune : it is a lulling misnomer for human

neglect and human incapacity. Many a man may say,
" How could I avert my misfortune?" I reply such
misfortunes are usually traceable to habits of early neglect
in education or in training, and to the effect of neglected
opportunities. How is it the members of a large family
usually succeed in life far better than an only son ?
What is it but the effect of discipline, habit, and culture ?
The many are early taught to cut their own way, trained
in diligence, to habits of care, economy, and hardihood,
and reared upon the necessaries, and not upon the
luxuries and supernumeraries of life — trained to pro-
duce, and not to squander; to save, and not to spend;
whilst the only child learns the consuming to perfection,
but not the producing ; to spend, but not to spare or to
save. What is it but the one cultured to succeed, and
the other cultured to failure in life ? But what is this
enigma — success in life — of which we hear so much ?
What is it, but the power to produce exceeding the de-
sire to consume ? — what, but the balance after deducting
the actual consumption from the actual production ?
Unfortunately in our day so strong is the love of ap-
pearance, so great the appreciation of comfort, that men
forget the great secret of life is not so much in getting
as in retaining — not so much in producing as in not
spending. Unfortunately, spending is the order of the
day ; there is a false show abroad ; but all men of
sound sense will be content to walk if they cannot af-
ford to ride, and to walk before they attempt to
run. How many young men appear to suppose that
life is governed by " luck," and that success is a mere
toss-up matter of chance I Success is as much
governed by fixed laws as the solar system, with this
saving clause of exemption — that no rule is without an
exception. You see, gentlemen, I lay especial stress
upon habits, and specially upon the habits of self-
reliance. I look to education to teach a man to use
his brains, his eyes, and his ears, to show he has a head
upon his shoulders, and to prove he does not pass
through life half asleep ; but I look to habits and dis-
cipline to effect much also. We are a bundle of habits ;
and if any young man thinks he will succeed in the
daily life of agriculture by informing his mind alone, he
will find himself mistaken. For success there must be
habits of industry and not of sloth, of prudence and not
of prodigality. But to enter more minutely, most
strongly do I recommend every young man to adopt
the habit of early rising ; to carry out the habit of
thinking nothing of trouble in business ; to adopt active
habits, and an active and prompt execution of every
duty. Most thoroughly do I recommend the habit of
correct accounts, and of noting down passing business
events. I strongly urge that interest and advantage be
studied, and not inclination and pleasure — habits of
self-denial, and not habits of self-indulgence. Settle it
down as a fact that you can do anything if you try, and
cultivate the habit of perseverance. Men succeed by
sticking. Cultivate the habits of cheerfulness. Bears
with sore heads don't make friends. Cultivate the
habit of a frank, open-hearted, manly manner, com-
bined with politeness ; for conceited borishness and
pedantry don't assist to success. I strongly recommend

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351

young men also to the habit of manual labour, suflScient to
understand what labour really is, and to acquire a prac-
tical knowledge of the different operations of the farm.
1 think it well that young men should bear the yoke in
their youth, and I give it as my experience that such a
practical acquaintance with labour proves of infinite
service throughout life. It is a splendid thing to be
trained to labour, both mentally and bodily ; also to
spend with caution, and to act with care. Much more
could I say upon habit— upon the habit of thought, the
habit of observation, and the like — but I trust we shall
hear no more the common cry of " what can I do ?" or
" 1 have no chance." Every young man with health and
strength may succeed in life if he will ; but his success
must be the fruit of education, training, and discipline ;
and if he neglects these necessary means to an end, he
will probably go by the wall. I don't call being born
with a silver spoon in one's mouth success ; and I don't
call living on the leavings of a parent or a friend suc-
cess. But I call that success which is earned by in-
dustry, ability, tact, and perseverance ; and I had
rather have the chances of many a man without a six-
ppnce in the world, possessing these qualifications, than
I would the chances of another reared to nonentity and
in habits of extravagance, though possessing thousands
of pounds. Young men of England, look to it that
your education is right, your training right, your own
self-culture right ; and with such a commencement
success in the battle of life is more than half ensured or
secured. Above all, rely upon yourselves, cultivate the
quiet assurance you can overcome every obstacle, that
you are equal to every emergency ; but see that the
result equals your convictions, or conceit will prove
your shame instead of competency your praise. We
speak of patronage ; but who can patronize a fool ? We
speak of friends ; but who, in a business point of view,
can befriend the incompetent ? The world will look to
worth and ability ; and in every case it is upon men so
qualified the world bestows its premiums. Who has
a situation to offer, and does not look about him for
the best man ? Who has a farm to let, and does not
search for the best tenant ? The world, from self-
interested motives, will befriend the competent, while it
throws men of incapacity to the dogs. And who does
not know that there are more good situations iu life than
men qualified to fill them, and more good opportunities
than men qualified to embrace them ? I make the allu-
sion with extreme diffidence ; but in my own case, gen-
tlemen, I have known what it is to start in life without
two ten-pound notes in my pocket to keep each other
eompany. I have known what it is to fight my way in
the world ; and though I have had many a kind friend
to whom to be grateful, I have had a taste of the
disadvantages and the difficulties of life. They are ex-
cellent discipline ; and to show young men there is
something in self-reliance, I tell them plainly I would
start again to-morrow without a sixpence in my purse,
without a murmur and without regret. Further, to
show the power of self-reliance, I know young men who
were so reduced in circumstances by the depression
consequent upon the repeal of the corn-laws, that they

seriously conlemplated an assignment of their affairs
into their creditors' hands ; yet these very men, by dint
of courage, tact, and perseverance, though possessing at
that time scarce a pound they could call their own, yet
these very men have so pushed out hither and thither,
have so doubled their resources, and redoubled their
exertions, that they have now thousands of pounds in-
stead of a few pence, with which to bless themselves.
What others have done others may do ; but young men
must remember " life is earnest, life is real ;" and they
must learn to trust to their own strength, to labour, and
to wait. I have spoken upon the education of boys at
school, of the education of young men, and the disci-
pline of habit after leaving school, and I now come to
the last portion of my subject, viz., the introduction of
the young farmer to life — his commencement in business.
I am no advocate for young men sticking at home and
being tied to their mother's apron-strings; but, as soon
as qualified by stability of character and soundness of
judgment — and the sooner qualified the better— let them
commence business on their own account. By all means
have them do something in some way to advance their
own individual interests. If young men commence with
capital, let it be with a moderate amount, barely equal
to their actual requirements, for a superfluity of the
needful never teaches the real value of money — and to
teach the worth of the one pound sterling is highly es-
sential in the opening of life. A few judicious mone-
tary difficulties, in cutting one's way and in making ends
meet, will do a young man no harm ; difficulties are
excellent tutors of calculation and careful outlay;
whilst the necessity for industry compels to exertion,
and prevents many a foolish extravagance. If parents
are so situated that they cannot afford to give their sons
capital, it is doubly essential a father should early insist
upon a son turning out in the world, and working his
own way. If there is no capital in the purse, there
ought at least to be capital in the head, and young men
of character, even in this competitive age, may succeed
by trying. But young men must try : they cannot suc-
ceed by inaction. There is nothing like working one's
own resources, and having individual responsibility for
progress. In the matter of a farm there is a great deal
in a good start. If a young man wants a business so
much or wants a cage for a lady-bird so badly that he
is induced to pay a rental for a farm exceeding by 10 or
20 per cent, its annual value, he has no one to blame
but himself. If a young man lays out his money in
permanent improvements, upon bad security, or upon
no security at all, he has no one to blame but himself.
Rotten props will let down men as well as buildings. I
see great mistakes are made in attempting too large a
business upon inadequate means. Now, though it is all
very fine to be thought a great man in a small way, yet
it is most undesirable to half-stock and half-farm any
land. I do not object to a young man borrowing a
small proportion of his capital at a reasonable rate of
interest, but I know of no greater folly than attempting
to farm 500 acres of land with capital barely sufficient
for 300 acres. For profit and comfort there must be
sufficient capital. Of course, let every young man

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secure good laud, good buildings, and a good landlord,
with a principled agent, if he can ; but if he cannot, if
the supply is not equal to the demand, by all means let
him make the best of those persons and things with
whom and with which he has to deal. I recommend
every young man to take the judgment of an experienced
friend upon every point upon entering business, not only
in the hire of the farm, but also in the purchase of the
necessary stock and implements. I have seen many a
young man, without much judgment or discretion, much
imposed upon both at auctions and in private pur-
chases. In the management of the farm do everything
well and at the cheapest cost, and don't be afraid to
calculate the cost to produce a crop, or the cost to rear
or fatten an animal. I am sure we look at a farm too
much in the mass, instead of calculating the items,
whereby we unknowingly lose in one or more depart-
ments of our manufacture, for the want of investigation.
Scrutiny leads to judicious and profitable outlay. Cul-
tivate a thorough judgment of stock, for purchases 10
per cent, too dear and sales 10 per cent, too cheap are
serious mistakes, and tell heavily against success in life.
Young men must know by observation what constitutes
a day's work : horses are expensive machinery, and if
horses are kept well and worked 20 per cent, daily
below par, whereby 20 per cent, of horse muscle is ne-
cessarily kept beyond the actual requirements of the
farm, I say these again are serious losses. The manual
labour, too, of a farm is necessarily a heavy outlay, and
a master receiving 20 per cent, minus his due in labour
is in an unfavourable position. Young masters must
learn what constitutes a fair day's work for a fair day's
wages, and see, too, that they get it. Also, in task
work, a young man may be much imposed upon by
paying a heavy per-centage beyond the value of the
work performed. Both horses and men demand serious
attention and consideration, with good supervision and
direction. The work of the farm should always be for-
ward, that it may be performed at the prosier time and
season. Not to make hay when the sun shines is mis-
taken economy. A man always just behindhand is
not likely to overtake success. I most strongly re-
commend every young man annually to draw out a cor-
rect valuation of the live and dead stock, and of the
covenants of the farm. I do it each year at Oc tober, and
at the same time I draw out an actual balance-sheet of
the annual returns and expenditure ; and I urge upon
every young man the necessity of doing the same. The
more we are men of figures the more shall we be men
ot sound judgment, of deep research, and correct prac-
tice. Groping on in the dark has been the ruin of many
a man. It is investiication which prevents a continuance
in losses ; and it is always wise to know the worst, and
meet our difficulties, not by avoiding them, but by re-
search, by action, and us men. I feel it to be absolutely
essential for every young farmer to study the agricultu-
ral literature of the day. The Royal Agricultural So-
ciety's Journal must be carefully rend, also the
"Farmer's Magazine"; and it is highly important
weekly to peruse the Mark Lane Esiprcss or Belt's
Weekly Messenger, or some other good agricultural

paper, that young men may keep pace with the practi-
cal and intellectual progress of the age. Again, the
Royal Agricultural Society's shows, and the other im-
portant and local agricultural exhibitions, are excellent
opportunities for comparison, information, and improve-
ment. To see other than home systems of farming is
decidedly necessary to prevent local prejudices and
those narrow notions which grow up under the shade of
one's own barn doors. I might say much upon
the necessary amount of capital according to the cha-
racter of the farm ; also in recommending thorough
draining, deep cultivation, autamnal fallowing, good
stock, good manure, no false economy, and the like ;
but, in concluding my observations, I prefer to address
a few remarks to young men themselves upon their own
individual position and bearing. We cannot be blind to
the fact that some men, upon their first start in life,
make grand mistakes : they start with false views and
false aims, and attain to a false position. In these days
of ready credit, how many a man expends far beyond the
limit which his income prescribes or warrants, in per-
sonal comfort or external show, in handsome furniture
and house decoration, in first-class dog-carts, and other
extravagances ! Nor is this the worst : such a man
usually resolves to cut a shine, be a swell, drive fast
horses, attend balls, hunt, shoot, smoke and drink, give
dinner-parties, ape superiors, and usually comes to
grief. This is not a picture of plodding industry, and I
have drawn an extreme case of folly, to warn young men
without adequate means against such a life of tom-
foolery. Success is based upon labour ; and a slow,
unpretending, economical start in life is a safe start.
Let young men be content to earn their position and
their luxuries before they assume the one or indulge in
the other, or they will find to their cost that they end
their life as they should have commenced it — in labour
instead of competency, and that a life of youthful ex-
travagance leads to a necessitous old age. Youth is not ,
the time for self-indulgence and the jog-trot easy pace I
of indolence. Youth is the time for hard but substantial
fare, hard every-day lodging and hard work. I am
opposed in toto to the smoking, drinking, and pam-
pering habits of young men in the present age. T am
equally opposed to all the easy-chair habits and the
semi-inaction far too common. As a young man I can
knock on very well in life without much of the stimu-
lants— beer, wine, and spirits, and without the enervating
influence of tobacco and many other luxuries ; and, what
is more, I find myself better in health, better qualified
for business, and better in pocket, without them. I
am an advocate for moderation in everything ; and I
think it a strange thing indeed if a young man is not at
liberty to decline to injure his health or his constitution
because of the voice of public opinion. I especially
urge moderation, as I observe young men make fools of
themselves in their hours of excitement. I observe in
♦;he hour of excess deeds committed which entail an
afterpiece of sorrow and regret ; and how often the loss
of character, of business habits, and of fortune may be
traced to a wrong step here — to a departure from habits
of temperance ! I am no ascetic : I can be as happy as

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353

any man in spirit ; but I do not need either a narcotic
nor an opiate to lull or to cheer me, and I am not pre-
pared to fall down to that public opinion which makes
venial the seed-bed of vice. Intemperance is the source
of more than one-balf of England's sorrows ; and I
warn the rising generation to flee her enticing calls.
Safety here, and a young man of sense is proof against
the foolish spree, secure from a youth-time of folly, and
an old age of physical debility and mental repining.
Some young men appear to consider the fast life a life
of heroism, and a life wherein to glory. It leads to a
life-time of shame ; and how is society strewed with
the wrecks of youthful intemperance, vice, and folly !
No scriptural axiom is more true than the one em-
bodying the fact, "That the world will speak well of
thee so long as thou doest well unto thyself." I have
said much upon temperance as a preventive to folly ;
but the only true safeguard is true Christian principle.
Christianity is the fundamental basis of security ; and
shall I, who feel that I owe all that I have, all I am, and
all I ever shall be, to its influence— I say, shall I lack
the moral courage to assert its power ? Shall I pass it
by as a subject which has nothing to do with the busi-
ness of life ? shall I bow to the popular notion afloat
in the world, that it is only fit for Sundays, and for
elders when the fire of life has abated ? Shall I admit
that it has nothing to do with the discipline and the
success of life? I came to tell you my experience;
and, as a young man, I tell the young men of England
plainly, I have found Christian principle as a thousand-
horse power within a man, to cheer and to urge him
onward in the path of duty. I hate the hypocritical
cant and the Jesuitical humbug which abounds. There
always will be impostors in any age ; but I know of no
body of young men more imposed upon than those who
wilfully determine to have nothing to do with true
Christian principle upon any terms. True Christian
principle is the highway to success in life ; for while it
prevents indolence, sloth, and extravagance, a waste of
time and a waste of money, it excites to industry and
economy, to uprightness of character, and rectitude of
conduct. Are not those thus imbued — the men who
prove Havelocks in their sphere ? — men armed with
moderation, patience, and endurance — men possessing
promptitude and perseverance ? Are not those the men
who neither rack their bodies by excesses, or their
minds by fear and feverish anxiety ? Are not those the
men intellectually strong in tranquillity, and physically
strong from temperance? Are not those the men who
are kind-hearted, courteous, considerate, and unpre-
tending ? Are not those the men who can control their
tempers and their passions, and live above the jealousies,
animosities, and envies which mar the happiness and
peace of most men ? They are ; and, if such are the
fruits of true Christian principle, are not such qualities
and such fruits the essentials for success in life ? are
they not the essentials to secure a peaceful and a happy
home ? are they not the essentials to constitute a cheer-
ful and a happy manhood ? They are ; and to every
young man I recommend the bible as his chart, and,
when Christian precept has become his practice, may it

be his good fortune'to possess a sharer of Lis joys, to
possess a helpmeet, amiable in temper, and kind in dis-
position ; to possess a wife adorned with the ornament
of a meek and quiet spirit, adorned with the beauty of
love and the jewel of sense ; and thus may they be mu-
tually blessed, and prove blessings to all around them.
In conclusion, a good education, thorough training and
discipline, are the groundworks of success in life.
Agriculturally those groundworks have been, and are at
the present time, much neglected ; and, though parental
and social influence generally may do much to mould
the character of youth, yet it is only by national com-
bination and national exertion that the intellectual
development, the scientific culture, and the mental
disciplineof the agricultural youths of England can be
secured. And most strongly do I urge upon you, gentle-
men, upon parents generally, and upon the kingdom at
large, the necessity for action, the necessity for a well-
developed plan of agricultural educational examinations ;
and such public examinations, I am convinced, would
prevent the present waste of thousands of pounds an-
nually in indolent and wrongly-directed efforts of in-
struction, and at the same time put aside the present
incalculable loss of many of the most precious years of
a young man's existence, extending from the age of 16
to 21 years — a loss, too, which cannot be estimated even
by tens of thousands of pounds annually. And I
long to see England made more great, more glorious,
and more free by the improved intellectual culture and
the improved mental discipline of the rising and future
generations of Englishmen.

The Rev. C. T. James, having been repeatedly called
upon, said : His reason for responding was, that he
desired as a clergyman to express his hearty assent to
the Christian sentiments contained in Mr. Bond's in-
troduction. If he were asked what kind of education
were best, he should reply — that which taught a man to
think best ; and therefore he rejoiced that within a few
months a resolution had been passed in that room to the
effect that the advance of the arts and sciences in re-
lation to farming had rendered improved education
essential to the British farmer no less than to the British
labourer. If, indeed, the education of farmers were not
improved, what would soon be the position of the
country? Agriculture was the chief source of the
wealth and stability of the nation. They were essentially
a corn-consuming people ; and, although everyone must
bid God-speed to commerce, manufactures, and trade, it
was manifest that the community at large were mainly
dependent on the advancement and prosperity of agri-
culture. There were 189,820 farms in England, com-
prising 78,000,000 acres, the rental of which was
^£"127,000,000 per annum; and there were 800,000
families which were directly interested in agricultural
pursuits. It was, therefore, manifestly of the utmost
importance, in every point of view, that farmers should
be educated in the truest sense of the word. It must be
confessed, and he thought the clergymen were in some
degree to blame for the fact, that in past times the
education of farmers generally had been very inadequate
to the requirements of their position. The middle-class

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schools of education generally had been most unsatis-
factory and incomplete. (Hear, hear). Moreover,
farmers themselves were until recently comparatively
indifferent v^ith regard to the quality of the education
obtained by their children. That excellent man, Dean
Dawes, of Hereford, after remarking upon the jealousy
of farmers on that subject, said he felt confident that
the time was not far distant when the farmers of England
would appreciate any sound effort at education quite as
much as they then stood aloof from such efforts with
suspicion and distrust. He congratulated the country
that that happy period had now arrived. As regarded
middle- class schools, however, which were those to which
farmers must chiefly look for the education of their
sons, it was still very difficult to find what was needed,
owing to the incompetency of a large proportion of the
teachers. Of the eighteen millions of inhabitants of this
country, fifteen were dependent upon incomes under^'lOO
a-year ; and he thought that where there was no good
middle-class school at hand, and there was a good national
school under an efficient master, farmers would in many
cases do well to avail themselves of the latter. The
rudiments of a good education might, at all events, be
obtained at many schools of that description. He
trusted that in future the young farmers of England
would never think their education complete unless they
had learnt to mannge stock, how to ascertain whether a
farm was better adapted for breeding or for rearing stock,
and what were the true characteristics and dispositions
of different animals. He trusted that they would also
pay attention to the question of stall-feeding and to the
increased susceptibility to disease which it created ; and
that the result of their improved education would soon
be that the farmers of England would soon assume that
position in the social scale which they ought to assume,
and would rank among the votaries of science.

Mr. R. Baker (VVrittle) said it must be apparent to
everyone that the old adage that " education made the
man" was as applicable to agriculture as to any other
pursuit. The great defect was, that young men who
were destined for agriculture, after leaving school did
not devote a sufficient portion of the intermediate time,
before they engaged in business on their own account, to
their own improvement ; and the result was that, in-
stead of acquiring industrious habits in the avocations
of the farm, they neglected agriculturo, and became unfit
for the performance of their duties. It was essential to
the farmer that he should be able to tell not only how
much work ought to be done by a labourer in a day, but
whether or not work was done in a proper manner ;
and, if necessary, he should be able to take the tool
in hand himself, and show how the operation ought
to be performed. Moreover, he thought no young
man sliould suffer a day to pass over without making some
record of the occurrences of the day, including the state
of the weather, and any other similar subject of obser-
vation which might occur to him (Hear, hear).
Having been accustomed himself in early life to re-
duce his thoughts to writing, he had been struck on
referring to them to see how far his views many years
back differed from his present views ; and he believed

that if farmers in general noted down what occurred to
them, they would find the past obliterated as it were, or
greatly modified, by the knowledge gained subsequently.
The acquisition of knowledge must depend very much
on the position and mental organizatiun of the person
who wished to acquire it. All men were not endowed
with the s:»mc faculties, and had not the same opportu-
nities of gaining knowledge; but it was men wiio
pondered over what came under their observation who
usually succeeded best in their avocations. Tusser, who
wrote the " Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,"
when scarcely any agricultural work was in vogue, said
a great many things which were as true in the present
day as they were when he lived ; but it was said of him
that he was like a whetstone to a scythe, and that while
he taught other men to cut, he himself remained blunt.
He did not succeed as a farmer; and it was remarkable
that the men who succeeded best as authors did not
succeed as farmers, farming being an occupation which
required the closest practical attention and more time
than was compatible with such employment as reading
and writing. (Hear, hear). Arthur Young was a very
good writer ; but he was considered one of the worst
farmers of his day, and the reason was obvious, namely,
that no man could be riding over the country observing
the farming of others without neglecting his own . ( Hear,
hear.) H a man wished to flourish in any business, he
should stick to it ; if a man was determined to succeed
as a farmer, he must be constantly at his post. He would
recommend the young farmer to keep a common-place
book, and to put in it headings on different subjects
connected with farming, including the seeding and culti-
vation of the land, the management of stock, and the
various modes of feeding stock. To these should be
added a heading for meteorological observations. (Hear,
hear). He had himself kept an annual register of the
state of the weather from an early period of his life ;
and when men told him that never before was there such
a season as this, he could point them to the winter of
1822-23, when there were only two frosts and no snow,
and which was succeeded by one of the most abundant
harvests ever known. It was, he conceived, by such
means as he had mentioned, that success was most likely
to be attained, and he believed that in farming, as in
any other occupation in life, tliere was no difficulty that
might not be overcome if it were met in a proper
manner. (Cheers).

Mr. W. Walton (Alton), said, that Mr. Bond had
80 ably brought forward the subject for discussion, there
was but little left for him to say upon it ; however, with
respect to agricultural education, the motto of the
Royal Agricultural Society up to the grand show held
at Southampton was, " Science with practice ;" then the
late noble Lord Althorp, knowing that practice was
the leading feature of agriculture, changed the toast to
" Practice with science." The managers of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England no doubt thought they
did well when they gave the renting farmers an oppor-
tuuily of educating their sons at a cheap rate in the
College at Cirencester. At first the terras were £30
a-year, after a few years the expense became £60, and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

subsequently it was raised to £90 or £100 per annum.
The result of which was, to exclude the vast majority of
tenant-farmers' sons from the benefit of the institution ;
he took it that it was now meant solely for the educa-
tion of the sons of landholders and their stewards.
The Rev. Mr. James said, on education, there were
excellent village schools where farmers' sons could get a
good and cheap education. Mr. Walton warned his
brother tenant-farmers on no account to allow their
children to be educated at a village charity school. He
had no pride about him ; still he did not see why the
sons of farmers should be put in such a position
that his shepherd and labourer might be able to say that
their sons had been brought up with, and were as well
educated as the farmer's sons. He was as desirous as
any man of seeing the sons of renting-farmers better
educated. Mr. Bond had proved to them the necessity
of better education and discipline for young farmers,
and partly shown them the way to accomjilish it; but
instead of educating them at a village charity school,
he (Mr. Walton) would show them the way to give
their sons the very best education at a small cost. The
farming community of England was supposed to em-
ploy capital to the amount of six hundred millions.
With such a capital are farmers' sons to be educated and
classed with labourers' sons? It is calculated that the
rent of meadow and cultivated land is about 35,000,000 ;
1 per cent, per annum would be ifSSOjOOO— a fair
capital to begin with ; in twenty years at common in-
terest, seven millions. If they were united and would sup-
port the fund that he recommended, they could not only
clothe and educate the orphans of farmers, but every
one of their children could have the very best education
at the least possible cost.

Mr. J. C. Nesbit (Kennington) was of opinion that
there was a distinct line of education which ought to be
recommended for agriculturists. He was not then re-
ferring merely to pecuniary cost, because as education
advanced, the class of persons competent to give the
sort of instruction that the farmer most wanted would
increase, and thus the expense would be diminished. As
regarded the education of young men who were destined
for agricultural pursuits, it must be clear to all present
that it should commence with the laying of the founda-
tion, consisting of those moral principles which ought
to govern men in their every-day life (Hear, hear).
Without these as a basis, he believed that any super-
structure of mere intellectual knowledge that might be
raised would be most insecure (Hear, hear). Religious
instruction, therefore, should constitute the foundation of
every system of education. This should be succeeded by
the gradual culture of the mind, and habits of observa-
tion and reflection. Observation came first in order.
A child, whether intended for agricultural or for other
pursuits, ought to have his powers of observation first
brought into action by placing various objects before
him, and letting him exercise his natural faculties in
marking their quantities and sorts. To understand the
difference, for example, between a pebble that was round
and one that was square was no doubt in itself a small
and insignificant thing ; but it was such minutia as that

3S5

which lay at the very root of sound education (Hear»
hear). As that went on, the child intended to be
educated for agricultural pursuits should be instructed
in the nature of the various objects by which he was
surrounded on the farm. He ought to be taught some-
thing about the direction of the strata and the nature of
the soils which he might meet with : something of their
chemical properties, and those of the water that fell from
the heavens ; of the air he breathed ; of the effect of
keeping the ground untilled and of tilling it, and expos-
ing it to the action of the air ; something of the nature
of plants, not only those which he would have to cul-
tivate, but also those which he would have to root up
and extirpate ; in short, something of the natural pro-
perties of everything with which he would have to do
when he became a farmer. It did not follow that
he need be a perfect geologist, chemist, botanist, and
philosopher; but he should possess sufficient know-
ledge to enable him to understand the works of those
who entered more deeply into philosophical inquiries
than the farmer could be expected to do, and thus to
appropriate to his own use the information supplied by
other people. With this education there must, without
doubt, be combined a good knowledge of arithmetic,
and an acquaintance with mathematics to the extent
of mensuration and surveying, so far as means would
allow. All this might be furnished at schools ; though
it was not done generally, at present, simply because
there were not a sufficient number of men so educated
as to be capable of disseminating such knowledge. The
time would, he believed, speedily arrive when, with the
means that were being adopted for the purpose, a suffi-
cient body of teachers would be provided, and then the
objection on the score of expense, to which Mr. Walton
had referred, would be removed, and the education for
which farmers were now paying £^100 a-year would be
got for £25. With regard to the subsequent education,
he thought it must be perfectly clear to every gentleman
at all acquainted with practical agriculture, that an at-
tempt to teach practical farming in an educational es-
tablishment would be just as absurd as an attempt to
teach civil engineering at Oxford (Hear, hear). They
must educate the boy, so as first to give him his general
knowledge, and then the special instruction necessary
for the business which he had to follow ; and it is always
desirable to send him to a practical man to learn
the business itself. Our forefathers were well ac-
quainted with this kind of necessity, when they used
to apprentice their sons for seven years, not merely that
they might acquire a knowledge of their business, but
that they might get disciplined in it. No man could
take up an art, and practise it successfully, without first
going through the whole of it, so that afterwards wiien
he came to act on his own responsibility he would be
able to say, " I know how to do this, and I know how
to do that, for I have seen it done before, and have done
it myself." The education of the boy in the art of
agriculture ought to be separated from the scientific
portion of his education. First, there sliould be a good
general education ; then there should be founded upon
that as much acquaintance as possible with those sciences

356

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

that every man ought to be versed in who was engaged
ia agriculture ; for, of all employments in this world, a
man requires in this the largest amount of business-
knowledge and application. Afterwards should come the
education in practice under a practical farmer, to form
the superstructure. Without this no man, scarcely,
could ever become a good practical farmer. These remarks
were the result of long and close observation on his
part. When he first turned his attention to agricultural
subjects, he found it necessary to leave his laboratory
behind him, go into the country, and study under a
farmer's as an agricultural pupil.

Mr. S. Sidney (Kensington) said he had now had the
pleasure of listening to three papers by Mr. Bond, the
two first of which were certainly among the most useful
as well as able and eloquent essays that he had ever
listened to in that room. He was sorry, however, that
he could not express himself quite as favourably of the
last, which, althnugh it was equally well written, was
wanting in those practical suggestions which distin-
guished its predecessors. In the first place, in severely
criticising, not without justice, the ordinary course of
education open to the young farmer, Mr. Bond had
fallen into the mistake of condemning the system when
the chief blame lay with the educators. The great mis-
fortune of the farmers was that there had not been open
to them a useful class of schools, and that they were in
reality furnished only with chance teachers. With
regard to classical learning, he did not know anything
that would facilitate a knowledge of the exact sciences
more than the acquirement of Greek and Latin ; but
the farmers had paid for classical learning, and their
sons had learnt neither that nor anything else.
(Laughter). What farmers wanted was that education
should be brought home to their own door ; and he be-
lieved that if they took advantage of the education which
certificated schoolmasters were now getting, and formed
themselves into associations for the support of schools
conducted by such men in their own neighbourhood,
they would be able to command an education that was
at once good and cheap. He also thought that the
farmers who had sons to bring up should lay in a store
of books to which the young men might always have
free access. As to the system of competitive examina-
tions, if they employed that gauge to practical employ-
ments, the results would be deceptive. The schoolmaster
would naturally be encouraged to take pains with boys
who were clever, whilst he neglected those who were
not ; and the result would be, that they would get a
small number of boys who had distinguished themselves,
and a large mass who had been left behind in despair.
The great object of education should be to educate the
whole class, and that could not be done by means of
honorary rewards, which had been well designated by
the Bishop of London as that sort of certificate which a
man carried about in his pocket, and which nobody
wanted to see. One of the great arts of a farmer should
be the power of observing, and the ability to record the
results of his observation. There was nothing like keep-
ing a journal ; it was one of the most admirable methods
of self-education, and cultivated the mind to a degree

of which they could hardly form an idea. (Hear,
hear).

Mr. Davison (Croydon Farmers' Club) said that
for the intelligence which they possessed, farmers
were chiefly indebted to the schoolmasters who had
been cried down on that occasion. He took that
opportunity of standing up in vindication of the
schoolmasters of Great Britain. He had associated
with them extensively, and he knew that they were
anxious, as a class, so to educate the children entrusted
to their care that they should become good practical
men. In the Utopian principles which had been
propounded that evening by Mr. Bond he certainly could
not concur, as he thought they were incompatible with
making a youth a good farmer. For his own part, he
regarded the father as the principal teacher of the boy,
if farming was to be his business ; and he thought it
miffht be safely left to themselves, without the interven-
tion of colleges, to bring up their sons in a manner
worthy of the race of English yeomen. The rising ge-
neration of farmers he considered a fine example to the
world at large. He could readily make allowances for
their love of field-sports. They had little society in
their own neighbourhoods ; and such amusements sup-
plied them with necessary and healthful recreation and
relaxation from toil (Hear, hear). When at home, they
studied history and science ; and his whole experience
taught him that they were a highly scientific class of
young men.

Mr. NocKOLDS (Stansted, Essex) concurred in the
opinion that the power of observing and recording facts
and phenomena connected with agricultural pursuits was
a most valuable portion of a farmer's education. He
remembered that, when he quitted school, and wa?
placed out to learn his business, his master would, as
opportunities occurred, point out particular trees, ex-
plaining their distinctive characteristics, and the pur-
poses to which the timber might be applied, and make
other observations relative to familiar objects, which he
could not fail to treasure up in his mind ; and he be-
lieved that he had acquired more information by these
practical means than he could have done by any amount
of mere theoretical teaching. He had two sisters, who
were both older than himself, and who exercised a sort
of double Queen Victoria power over him. They were
very clever, and were well versed in chronology from
the days of Adam down to the present time. In short,
they knew everything (laughter). On one occasion, th^"
conversation happening to turn on Henry the Eighth'
wives, he had forgotten what was their number, an(
could only recollect that he was brute enough to cut ol
the heads of one or twb of them. " Don't you knoW
how many wives he had ?" was the question. " No, 1
don't," he replied ; "but do you see that little bird ?'
"Yes." "Do you know what it is?" The younj
ladies confessed they did not. " That," he rejoined ii
triumph— " that is a hen-chaffinch; and I think, vo]
dears, you had better make the acquaintance of the
common things by which you are surrounded, than
trouble yourselves about Henry the Eighth and his
wives" (Hear, hear, and laughter).

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr. W, Fisher Hobbs (Boxted Lodge, Essex),
thought that upon the whole Mr. Bond's paper did him
very great credit, and was calculated to promote the
cause of education amongst the agricultural classes ( Hear,
hear). There were certainly one or two points which he
should like to have seen treated more amply. There
was also one upon which he could not altogether agree
with Mr. Bond : he alluded to a knowledge of the
dead languages. He (Mr. Hobbs) had always been
of opinion that " knowledge was power," and he
believed that a man could not have that knowledge
of the sciences which was necessary at the present day
in connection with agriculture, unless he had some
acquaintance with those languages which taught him to
understand the derivation of the words generally made
use of. He considered it necessary, in the present
day, that young men should be educated in one or more
of the dead languages ; most certainly was this the case
as regarded Latin. Not less valuable, however, would
be a knowledge of modern languages, especially of
French, if not of German. If English agriculturists
wished to meet in the first classes of society, a know-
ledge of French, as well as of Latin, was absolutely
essential. The more education a farmer could give his
Bon between the age of 6 and 16, the better. There was
a time, however, when with scholastic training the farmer
mustcombineattainmentsin various agricultural sciences,
which, in his judgment, were better acquired at a college
like Cirencester than anywhere else. After leaving such
an establishment as that, and proceeding to learn prac-
tical agriculture, the youth should begin by putting his
hand to the plough (Hear, hear). When he (Mr.
Hobbs) left school, he was taught to go through every
department of practical farming (Hear, hear). His com-
plaint in afcer life to his father was, that he had not
made him a better ploughman. He certainly could plough
a furrow or a stetch in a superior way ; but to the pre-
sent day he could not, if a man were not ploughing in
the best manner, jump off his horse and show him how
to do it (Hear, hear). There were various other
branches of practical farming that he had been taught,
and was fond of; and among these was the treatment
of diseases in horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs (Hear,
hear). He held that a young man was not degraded by
being able to bleed a horse, shear and slaughter a sheep, or
administer medicine to his stock (Hear, hear). Indeed
all such practical knowledge was, in his opinion, necessary
in the case of a farmer occupying a first-class position in
the present day, and with application and reading he
would of course be all the better. With regard to
his friend Mr. James's remarks, he thought they had
not been taken exactly in the way in which they were
intended to be understood (Hear, hear). What he un-
derstood Mr. James to say was, that if in the rural dis-
tricts there were not middle-class schools at a conve-
nient distance for the sons of practical farmers, they had
better be educated in the national schools, the same
as in Scotland, where the sons of the farmer and the
trader were educated together; for education they would
have, and, if they could not acquire it in their own
ntighbourhood in any other way, they went to a national

357

day-school. Education was now an absolute necessity, and
there was no pursuit in life that more demanded it than
practical farming (Hear, hear). Moreover, the farmers
enjoyed beyond all other men the great advantage of
being ever in the presence of the glorious works of
Nature ; and education would afford them the means of
looking " through Nature up to Nature's God."
(cheers).

The Rev. Mr. James explained what he had intended
with regard to the schools to be selected for farmers'
sons. It was calculated, he said, that out of the eighteen
millions of population in this country, no less than
fifteen millions were in the receipt of incomes of less
than £100 per annum. There was great difficulty in
finding good teachers in middle-class schools, and he
thought that where a person's income was under £100
per annum, and there was no good middle-class school
in the neighbourhood, that person should set aside all
feelings of false pride, and avail himself of the good
national schools which were now to be found in every
district, conducted by practical certificated masters, and
thus consult the welfare of his children rather than his
own dignity (cheers).

Mr. Bond then replied. He said gentlemen were
mistaken in supposing that he undervalued the classics ;
but he did not see how farmers' sons were to learn all
the classics as well as all the sciences which bore parti-
cularly upon agriculture (Hear, hear). He had no
hesitation in saying that he believed the sciences were
the more useful, and that one pound of science was
worth ten pounds of classics (Hear, hear). His chief
object in recommending the examination of boys at six-
teen was, that it might be a means of ensuring a better
class of schoolmasters. He had stated that the fault did
not rest with the schoolmasters, but with the farmers
themselves, who had not openly pronounced in favour of
a better education for their sons. He hoped the discus-
sion of that night would be a seed-bed for the future.
He was not irrevocably wedded to his own plan — all he
said to them was, " Do something: don't remain in a
state of inaction on this important subject. Any step
which you take with prudence and judgment can scarcely
fail to be in the right direction" (Hear, hear).

On the motion of Mr. Baker, seconded by Mr. Sidney
a vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Bond for his paper;
and with a similar acknowledgment to Mr. Trethewy
for presiding, the proceedings terminated.

WHOLE BARLEY AND SALT PROVED
VERY HEALTHY AND FATTENING
WHEN GIVEN TO SHEEP UPON
COMMON WHITE TURNIPS.

Sir,— We are living ia the great age of discovery, not
only in artificial manures, food for cattle and sheep,
implements in husbandry, but in every branch of agricul-
ture. If memory serves me rightly, about the year 1852
Mr. William Daiaty, of Euston Heath, near Stamford,
waj giving his sheep at turnips whole barley heavily
mixed with salt, the said shearling sheep having been bought

S58

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

in a lean state about Michaelmas, and had got fat upon barley,
salt, and turnips by the beginning of March, when 1 saw
them greedily eat the barley and salt. The sheep were much
healthier with the salt than without it. Mr. Dainty said that
he had tried oilcake and turnips, and beans and turnips, and
it was his opinion that the sheep gained the most weight upon
barley and salt. Mr. Dainty at that time considered that the
barley being of a biuding nature was more suitable with the
white turnips. Here we are at a loss to know the cause, for
the want of knowing agricultural chemistry. We may know
that sheep thrive better on one kind of food than another, but

we know not the cause. We can weigh the sheep alive, and
the food as they consume it, and the food which produces the
most in meat and wool at the least expense per pound is the
best and cheapest food to feed with. Is it not advisable, when
wheat is the cheapest, to mix the barley with wheat, still using
the salt for health? Mr. Dainty has proved that the more
mutton he sends to London, the more corn per acre he can
sell in Stamford market. I need not add that Mr. Dainty is
a farmer of the first class.

Samuel Arn.sby.
Mill Field, Peterhoro\ March lOlh.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

Weekly Council, Feb. 23.— Present, Sir Edward
Kerrison, Bart., M.P,, in the Chair; Mr. Barrow,
M.P., Mr. Simpson, Mr. Burch Western, and Mr.
Sutton Western, M.P. Mr. Noah West addressed a
letter to the Council for improvements stated to have
been made by him in the Reaping Machine, and re-
questing the Society to aid him in carrying them into
operation. Mr. Kitto transmitted a sample of white
Wheat brought by him from California, which was
referred, with his letter on the same subject, to the
Monthly Council, March 2.

Adjourned to March 2.

A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday, the
2nd of March ; present His Grace the Duke of Marl-
borough, in the Chair ; Lord Leigh ; the Honourable
Colonel Hood ; the Honourable W. G. Cavendish,
M.P. ; Sir Charles Morgan, Bart., M.P. ; Sir J. "V. B.
Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; Sir Edward C. Kerrison,
Bart.; Mr. Acland ; Mr. Amos; Mr. Raymond Bar-
ker; Mr. Barnett; Mr. Hodgson Barrow, M.P. ; Mr.
Barthropp ; Mr. Caldwell ; Colonel Challoner ; Mr.
Exall ; Mr. Brandreth Gibbs ; Mr. Hamond ; Mr.
Fisher Hobbs ; Mr. Hoskyns ; Mr. Hudson, of Castle-
acre ; Mr. Kinder ; Mr. Lawes ; Mr. Milward ; Mr.
Pain ; Mr. Pope ; Professor Simonds ; Mr. Torr ; Mr.
Turner, of Barton ; Professor Voelcker ; Mr. Jonas
Webb ; Mr. Burch Western ; and Mr. Marshland
Wilson.

The following new members were elected :
Baxendale, Richard Birley, Whetstone, Herts.
Caless, William, Bodicote House, Banbury.
Charlton, St. John, Beaumaris.
Crawley, John Leatham, Hutton, Shiffnall.
Hay, G. W., Sudbury, Derbyshire.
Margetson, James, Manor Farm, Sheldon, Alton.
Meyer, Herman, Little Laver Hall, Ongar.
Peel, George, Brookfield, Cheadle.
Oakley, Richard, Lawrence End, Herts.
Rome, Thomas, Groundslow, Stone, Staffs.
Ross, James, Hinwick House Farm, Wellingborough.
Smith, Martin Tucker, M.P., 14, Upper Belgrave- street.
Soulby, H., Malton.

Tomtiiison, John Edward, Whitback, Ludlow.
Wanl, Robert, Sodstone Hill, Narbeth, Pembroke.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented the monthly report on
the accounts, from which it appeared that the current
cash-balauce in the hands of the bankers was £2,571.

Governors' Privileges. — On the motion of Mr.
Raymond Barker, seconded by Mr. Milward, it was
referred to the Finance Committee to consider, and
report upon at the next Monthly Council, the most
suitable means by which Governors of the Society may
in future have the privilege, on a certain payment, of
continued ingress and egress into and out of the Show-
yaia At- the Country Meeting.

Veterinary Inspection. — On the motion of Mr.
Pain, seconded by Mr. Torr, Professor Spooner, Prin-
cipal of the Royal Veterinary ColIeLre, was unanimously
requested to accept the appointment of Joint Veteri-
nary Inspector, with Professor Simonds, at the annual
country meetings of the Society.

Warwick Meeting. — Lord Leigh, Vice-Chairman
of the General Warwick Comrnittee, reported the
recommendation of the Committee, that the Council
should accept the offer of the Local Committee at
Warwick to defray the expenses connected with the
exhibition of cheese. His lordship also reported that the
ground for the site for the show-yard had been drained
and levelled at the expense of the authorities at Warwick,
and was now in a suitable state for the operations of
the Society's contractor. The Local Committee ad-
dressed a letter to the Council, containing a resolution,
" not to have a dinner at the Warwick Meeting." Mr.
Fisher Ilobbs intimated that he should have a proposal
to submit to the Council at the next Monthly Meeting,
in reference to new arrangements by which he con-
sidered that a dinner might advantageously be given.
Additional Prizes for Short-horned, Hereford, and
Devon catde were included by the Council in the Live
Stock Prize Sheet for the Warwick Meeting, which was
then considered to be finally settled, and its publication
ordered to be made in the usual manner.

Country Meetings.' — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chair-
man of the Country Meetings' Queries Committee, laid
on the table a proof of the amended and more commo-
dious form in which the schedule of queries should in
future be arranged. He also suggested seven of the
principal towns in the district for 1860, comprising the
counties of Kent and Surrey, with the authorities of
which the Secretary should enter into communication
in reference to the place of the country meeting of next
year.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

359

JMember of Council. — On the motion of Mr,
Hudson, of Castleacre, seconded by Mr. Wren Hoskyns,
Lord Leigh was unanimously elected one of the
Members of the Council, in the place of Sir A. K.
Macdonald, Bart.

Californi AN Wheat. — Sir Edward Kerrison, Bart.,
M.P., offered to undertake the trial of the white Cali-
fornian Wheat placed at the disposal of the Council by
Mr. Kitto, who stated that he had himself grown of that
Wheat " a hundred bushels to the acre."

The Council then adjourned (for a fortnight) to
Wednesday, March 16.

Weekly Council, March 16. — Present : The Hon.
W. G. Cavendish, M.P., in the chair; Mr. Alcock,
M.P., Mr. Camps, Mr. Devas, Rev. L. Vernon Har-
court, Mr. Majendie, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson (of
Stowlangtoft), and Mr. Maitland Wilson. Com.
munications were read from Mr. Thomas Crisp, Baron
Nathusius, and the Count de Gourcy, on the advantages
of cultivating the Lupines, especially the yellow-
flowered variety, on the blowing sands respectively
of Suffolk, Prussia, and the North of France, as food
for sheep.

The Council referred these communications to the
consideration of the Journal Committee.

Adjourned to March 23.

Weekly Council, March 23. — Present, Colonel
Challoner, Trustee, in the Chair ; the Hon. W. G.
Cavendish, M.P., Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Hodgson
Barrow, M. P., Mr. Berners, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, the
Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt, and Mr. Majendie. Com-
munications were read: — 1. From Mr. Rutherford, de-
tailing his experiments in the cultivation of Potatoes by
spreading sea sand over them on light and heavy land,
with and without manure. 2. From Mr. Paston, giving
the result of his trials in growing Barley on light soil
with a sandy gravelly subsoil, ploughed at 6 and sub-
soiled to 13 inches deep in each respective case, the yield
in straw and grain being greater in the land not sub-
soiled. 3. From Mr. Birnie, suggestions for the collec-
tion of results in turnip cultivation and its failures.
4. From Mr. Charles Chapman, of Folkestone, details
connected with Bray's Traction Engine.

Adjourned to March 30.

FOOD FOR FATTENING CATTLE AND
SHEEP.

Sir, — We are now living over the middle of the nineteenth
century, and in the wonderful country for agriculture, nay,
and in the gigantic age of discovery, and yet we know not the
proportionate strength of wheat, barley, beans, peas, oats,
tares, &c., in the feeding of cattle and aheep, &c. Not know-
ing the power of each, we know not which is the cheapest to
feed with. If asked, Is a pound of barley per day for a sheep
equal in strength to a pound of wheat ? or. What is the dif-
ference? Is a pound of beans equal to a pound of the best
oilcake ? In what proportion is a pound of tares to a pound
of peas or oats ? &c.

lu my opinion a great deal is yet to he one by mixing

corn, etc, Eli -h as mixing wheat with barley. Of course mix
ihat nhichu opening with that which ia binding, and the food
which is too hot mix with that which is colder; and that
which is too strong mix with that which is weaker. But do
not mix good food strong enough with that which ia
weak and worthless, merely mixed to sell and not to fatten.
Get such adulterated food analysed. Common sense dictates
to the British farmer far and wide, and boldly says feed your
cattle, sheep, and swine with the corn you grow upon your
farm. You grow the strongest of food to feed with, but you
know not how to mix or apply it. By using what you grow
you save the carriage of bought food and the carriage of your
own corn out. The more of your home-grown corn you con-
vert into meat the more corn per acre you will grow, and the
less artificial manure you will require. The best artificial
manures have done wonders, whilst some of them have proved
wottljless. It ia wisdom to have all proved by chemistry.
The oU adage says, " There are none so bliud as those who
will not ste." There ia the Mark Lane Express and the Far-
iner's Magazine to enlighten them, and to guard them against
adulterations and impositions in agriculture. But it is as it
was and always will be.

He who is above being taught or told.

There are no hopes in bim whether young or old.

Samuel Arnsby.
MiUfield, PeterborouyJi, March 23, 1859.

GREAT CATTLE SALE AT BLENCOW.

Ou Tuesday, March 8, the sale of the entire herd of short-
horned cattle belonging to John Ewan Troutbeck, Esq., took
place at Blencow, about seven milea from Penrith. The
weather was fine, though cold ; the attendance very large ; we
heard the numbers present estimated at from fifteen hundred
to two thousand, and among them buyers from all parts of the
kiugdom, and some from a greater distance still. Mr. S:raflford
officiated as auctioneer. The scene of action was a field im-
mediately adjoining Mr. Troutheck's house. The catalogue
enumerated 35 lots of cows and heifers, and 7 bulla. Prefixed
was a notice that Mr. Troutbeck laid the foundation of his
herd forty years ago by the purchase of the Strawberry tribe
from Mr. Curwen, of Workington Hall, by whom the sort
was obtained from General Simpson's herd, which were directly
descended from that of Mr. Colhng of Ketton. Nell Gwynne,
first on the list, was bought of Mr. Wood, of Kimblesworth,
in 1820, and came from the dam of his far-'amed bull St.
Albans (1412), which cow he purchased at Sir H. V. Tempest's
sale at Wynyard in 1813 ; she was from his famous Princess,
bred by Mr. R. Colling, of Barmpton. They have since been
regular breeders, and highly fortunate, excellent milkers,
and not forced for the present sale. The whole were bred on
one farm, except the Duke of Cambridge (12747), to which
hull the cows and heifers are principally in calf. There were
in all 14 of the Strawberry and 27 of the Gwynne tribes.
The cattle were brought to tlie auctioneer in splendid condi-
tion, and did as much credit to Mr. Troutbeck as the ample col-
lation laid out in a barn fitted up for the occasion did to the
lady of the mansion and her subordinates. The competition
was brisk, and the sale rapid, realising a sum total, it will be
seen, of considerably better than two thousand guineas; and
the following were some of the best prices fetched :

Sukey Gwynne, red, calved in 1849 ; got by St. Thomas
(10777), dam Sal Gwynne, by Prime Minister (2456).— 74
guineas.

Polly Gwynne, red roan, calved in 1850 ; got by Sir Harry

B B

360

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

(10819), dam Pricky Gwynne by St. Thomas.— 91 guineas.
(Mr. Ttiompson.)

Frances Gwynne, white, calved in 1854 ; got by Capt. Har-
dine;e, dam Fanny Gwynne by St. Thomas. — 85 guineRS. (Mr.
BobinsoD.)

Flora Gwynne, roan, calved in 1855 ) got by Young Bene-
dict, dam Fanny Gwynne by St. Thomas. — 80 guineas. (Mr.
Howard, Bedfordshire.)

Sophy Gwjnne, roan, calved in 1855 ; got by Young Bene-
dict, dara Sophia Gwynne by St. Thomas. — 81 guineas.

Phoebe Gwynne, red roan, calved in 1856 ; got by Young
Benedict, dam Pricky Gwynne by St. Thomas. — 70 guineas.

Prim Gwynne, light roan, calved in 1856 ; got by Young
Benedict, dam Polly Gwynne by Sir Harry. — 150 guineas.
(Mr. Douglas, Athelstaaeford, East Lothian.)

Silver Gwynne, white, calved in 1856 ; got by Young Bene-
dict, dam Sukey Gwynne by St. Thomas. — 75 j^uineas.

Priecilla Gwynne, roan, calved March 12, 1858 ; got by
Duke of Cambridge, dam Polly Gwynne by Sir Harry. — 12o
guineas. (Mr. Thompson.)

Miss Maggy Gwynne, roan, calved March 28, 1858 ; got by
Duke of Cambridge, dam Patty Gwynne by Young Benedict.
— 110 guineas.

Rex, roan bull, calved March 10,1858; got by Duke of
Cambridge (12747), dam Sukey Gwynne by St. Thomas
(10777).— 66 guineas.

Omega, rich roan bull, calved Feb. 7, 1859 ; got by Duke of
Cambridge, dam Polly Gwynne by Sir Harry. — 37 guineas.

Realized— For cows and heifers, 1,883 guineas; for bulls,
290 guineas. Total, for the cattle, 2,173 guineas.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MARCH.

Throughout the month the weather in all parts of the United
Kingdom has been remarkably fine for the time of year, conse-
quently vegetation generally has made steady progress, and
the wheat crop has become seasonably forward. Not that any
complaints have come to hand to the eflfect that the plants
have grown too rapidly, or that they have assumed an unhealthy
appearance ; on the contrary, they aie described, with scarcely
an exception, as giving earnest of an early and abundant har-
vest. Notwithstanding the splendid prospect of the growing
crop in this country, aud the heavy stocks left over from last
year, both here and in France, there has been rather more firm-
ness in the demand for wheat in the whole of our leading mar-
kets, and fine samples have advanced fully Is. per quarter.
This advance has, no doubt, resulted from the unusually small
shipments of food now making from the United States, and
the comparatively high value of both wheat and flour at the
various shipping pnrts. There has, however, been no dispo-
sition shown by our millers to increase their stocks, and the
speculative operations have been of a trivial character. What-
ever raa V be said of the effects likely to be produced by a great
alling-off in the exports from American ports, we must not
forget that our farmers still hold large quantities of wheat, and
hat the supplies of produce in France is in e.rcess of many for-
mer seasons. These two most important features in the trade
have naturally induced great caution amongst our millers in
urchasitig beyond immediate wants. But here we may observe
that, for some time past, complaints have been pretty general
of a falliog-off in the sale for bread, even in the best localities.
This decline in the consumption may, in some measure, be
attributed to the large supplies of potatoes which continue on
offer in excellent condition, and the low quotations at which
they are selling. Again, rice is still competing with wheat,
with a very large stock on hand both in London and at the
outports. Whilst this state of things lasts, and whilst we are
threatened with heavy shipments of both wheat and flour from
the near continental ports, especially from France, we can
scarcely anticipate active markets for wheat, even though
moderate quantities may, from time to time, be shipped from
Liverpool to New York. The supplies forwarded during the
month just concluded are about 5,000 quarters, which, at pre-
sent rates, will yield a small profit, after deducting charges and
the expenses of freight.

The value of flour in our markets is now on a par with last
year, the beat town-made being quoted at 408. per 280 lbs. ;
whilst the best French may be purchased at about 7a. under
that quotation, The cheapness of money, the increase in our

export trade, and the comparative firmness on the part of some of
the holders of good wheat in the north of Europe, have failed to
give any impetus to the transactions in flour. Fine barley,
however, has continued scarce, and very firm ; but grinding
aui distillery sorts have ruled heavy, and prices have had a
drooping tendency. In the value of other produce very little
change has taken place, and the demand has been far from
active.

The wool trade — owing chiefly to the uncertain stite 6f
politics on the continent — has been much less active ; never-
theless, the quotations have been fairly supported. One cause
of the inactivity in the biddings at the last public sales of
colonial wool, held in London, is the effort now making in
France and Holland to compete with us for direct importations
from Australia. Auctions of wool from our colonies have been
held both at Amsterdam and Rouen during the progress of
those in the Metropolis, and the consequence has been, that
very few foreign buyers have made their appearance; so that
the bulk of the wool — certainly nine-tenths of the supply
offered — have been taken by our own manufacturers. How far
this opposition will succeed is uncertain; but we much doubt
whether even Government premiums on full cargoes of colonial
wool will render it profitable for foreign houses to compete
with us for wool in the great producing markets of the world ,
such as Australia and the Cape.

The supplies of winter food have turned out better in quality,
and larger in quantity than had at one time been anticipated.
Hay continues plentiful, at from £2 153. to £4 128.; clover at
£4 to £5 83. ; and straw at £1 5s. to £1 9s. per load. These
remarks and prices, however, refer more particularly to the
Metropolis and its neighbourhood, because in some of the Mid-
land counties a positive scarcity exists, and prices rule compara-
tively high. On the continent, likewisevery little hay is on hand,
and the consequence is, that live stock in the North of Europe
has considerably decreased during the winter months ; hence, it
is most probable, that our importations of cattle from Jutland,
between this and the end of September, will be on a very mode-
rate, perhaps a limited scale. The high prices of both beasts
aud sheep, and the prospect of very little decline in them — the
result, possibly, of increased prosperity amongst the great con-
suming classes — together with an assumed shortness of supply
in the large grazing districts, as well as in Scotland — will, no
doubt, induce the foreign breeders and feeders to ship to theit
utmost, even though the currencies abroad are higher than for
many years past.

The sowing of Lent corn is now progressing rapidly. In
most quarters the land is in first-rate order, consequently the
seed is being sown under most favourable auspices,

THK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

361

Most of tbc Scotch markets have been tolerably well, but
not to s4y heavily, supplied with wheat. For toost kinds the
demaad has laled somewhat firmer, and prices have had an
upward tendency. Fine barley, oats, beans, and peas have
changed hands, at fully previous currencies. The yield of pro-
duce, last year, especially wheat, in Scotland, was, we believe,
a large one^ and the return of other graia was apparently in
excess of 1857, Judging from the extent of the shipments made
from time to time to the south. For the most part the barley
and oats have arrived in first-rate condition, and, consequently,
have coramaaded the highest prices paid at Mark Lane. This
excess in the supplies, and the large extent of the potato crop,
have, of course, had considerable influence in the trade through-
out England, as well as throughout the United Kingdom, and
it has, in a great measure, tended to counteract the influence
which the high prices in the United States would have had
upon our quotations.

Compared with several previous months, the grain trade in
Ireland has exhibited more firmaesi. la prices, however, no
quotable improvement can be noticed. The exports have beeu
on a limited scale, not only to London, but likewise to Liver-
pool; but the imports from the westward have continued
seasonably large.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING
THE PAST MONTH.

In a comparative sense, the supplies of beasts on sale in the
Metropolitan market, since we last wrote, have been on a very
moderate scale, and in but middling condition. During the
first three weeks of the month, the demand for all breeds was
active, at enhanced quotations ; but during the last week,
owing to large arrivals of meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall,
both from Scotland and various parts of England, the trade
became much leas active, and prices had a drooping tendency.
The arrivals of sheep may be considered tolerably good, but
by no means extensive; and the mutton trade has been de-
cidedly active, at high currencies, some of the beat old Downs
in the wool having realized 63. per 8 lbs. On the 28th of the
month, however, the quotations gave way 2d. to 4d. per 8 Ibs.^
and the demand was decidedly heavy. The transactions in
lambs have been only to a moderate extent, and prices have
ranged from 53. 8d. to 7s. per 8 lbs. Calves and pigs have
met an improved request.

Complaints have reached us from various quarters in refer-
ence to the scarcity of both beasts and sheep, even in the best
localities. We believe, however, that the deficiency in the
supplies has been somewhat overstated, although we may safely
conclude that we shall not see meat much cheaper than it now
is for a considerable period. The question which at no remote
day will occupy the attention of most parties will be. What,
in reality, has produced the so-much-complaiued-of scarcity ?
in other word?, is it tlie result of extensive and injudicious
crossing — the wholesale slaughtering of young animals — or
the immense consumption ? The destruction of young stock
we believe to be the principal causa of the comparative
scarcity, because, as yet, we see no reason to suppose other-
wise than that crossing has produced an increased quantity of
meat ; and we may further observe — looking to the actual
supplies disposed of — that consumption does not appear to be
on so large a scale as is somewhat generally supposed. Of
one thing we may rest assured, viz., that very high prices will
check the demand for butcher's meat, and that all who are
now bnyiug store animals kt those quotations have the pros-

pect of a loss before them. True, we cannoi expect to receivo
large supplies Of cither beasts or sheep from the Continent,
and. as regards the latter from Germany, via Hambro', their
weight is too small :o give any effect to the trade.

The Norfolk beasts received into London have not equalled
some former seasons, either as regards number or quality ; in-
deed, this year much disappointment has been expressed by
the buyers in this respect. No doubt the long drought during
the summer last year materially interfered with the fattening
prope?tie3 of each kind of stock. Those from Scotland, how-
ever, have come to baud iu first-rate condition ; and amongst
the supplies we have noticed some excellent crosses from
Morayshire, into which part of the country the shorthorns
have been largely introduced. The health of the stock has
continued good, and very few losses have been sustained by
disease. We may observe, however, that about 200 beasts
received from Holland have been seized by the Customs
anthorities, and condemned as unfit for human eonsumption.

The importations into London during the month have been
as follows : —

Beasts
Sheep ,
Calves

Total 10,548

Same time in 1858 .

1857 ,

1856 ,

„ 1855

1854 ,

1,304 head

8,860

384

»»

10,548

t»

1,511

w

5,419

1,842

«

2,103

8,409

)»

„ 1853 10,884

1852 6,747 „

The total supplies exhibited in the Metropolitafl Market
have been —

Beasts 16,810 head.

Cows 612 „

Sheep and lambs 94,775 „

Calves 695 „

Pigs 2,890 „

COMPAEISON OF SUPPLIES.

March. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs.

1858 17,8-21 476 74,410 704 1,915

1857 17,345 490 74,880 1,118 2,230

1856 22,623 470 100,700 797 2,140

1855 18,644 380 88,790 835 2,765

1854...... 20,588 532 93,060 1,091 2,780

The arrivals of beasts from Norfolk, Sufi"oIk, Essex, and
Cambridgeshire have amounted to 10,460 Scots, shorthorns,
and crosses; from other parts of England, 3,200 of various
breeds ; from Scotland, 1,824 Scots and crosses ; and from
Ireland, 300 oxen, &c.
The general range in prices has been as under —
8. d. s. d.

Beef from 3 6 to 6 2

Mutton 4 0 — 6 0

Lamb 5 8 — 7 0

Veal 3 10 — 5 8

Pork 3 4 — 4 4

Comparison of Prices.

Mar., 1856. Mar., 1857. Mar., 1853.

s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d.

Beef . . from 2 10 to 4 10 .. 3 4 to 5 0 .. 2 10 to 4 6

Mutton .. 3 2 — 5 2. .4 2—6 0..3 0 — 5 2

Veal 4 10 — 6 0..4 4 — 5 8. .4 0 — 5 2

Pork 3 4 — 4 8. .3 6 — 5 2. ,3 0 — 4 4

The aggregate supplies of meat exhibited in Newgate and
Leadenhall have been only moderate ; and the trade generally
may be considered steady, at prices slightly in advance of tho
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367

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE.

The sowing of all grain crops is now to be quickly
finished— as oats, barley, lucerne, and flax. Sow
grass-seeds on wheat and barley tilths, with light
harrows, and a heavy roll. Sow vetclies for a second
succeeding crop. Top-dress young grains and grasses;
and shut-up grass and hay grounds .

Plant potatoes in drills thirty inches apart, on
lands well wrought, dunged, and limed. Sow mangel-
wurzel, on lands similarly prepared, in the end of
the month. Steep the seeds in suds or leys for
forty-eight hours, and dry with quick-Hme, Use
half-rotten farmyard dung, and apply it very liberally.
The two crops now mentioned require a very ample
allowance. Begin the burning of pared lauds,
which should be pared during winter, or must be
done quickly now : lay the turfs in heaps, and burn
moderately, in order to avoid calcination.

Horse and liand-hoe all drilled crops— as wheat,
barley, beans, peas, lucerne, and carrots, if ready.
Burn, for manure, peats and all refuse substances
into ashes, to be applied by the drop-drill.

Fold the sheep ewes, and lambs, on early vetches,
winter barley, rye, and watered meadows; or cut
the food, and give it to the animals in racks. Con-
fine them over night in a fold, and allow two square

yards of space to each animal, and two nights in one
place. Cutting the food may be the most econo-
mical method of feeding.

The long days will now require more food for all
animals on a farm. Feed cows with steamed food,
roots, and chaff ; bullocks, with swedes and beet ;
and young stock, with a certain quantity of the
same. Give the oldest calves some of the earliest
green food, to teach them to live without milk : use
also bruised cake, bruised linseed, and bean and bar-
ley meals.

Lambing will be finished this mouth. Put the
oldest on clovers as they get strong. Cut turnips
and beet into slices, and give them in troughs, mixed
with oats and bruised oilcake. Spare no trouble or
expense with young animals.

Fat and aged cattle must now be all sold from the
winter stalls. Bacon hogs must be cleaned off ; and
the young farrows must go on for summer stores
and for early fattening next winter. The earliest
lambs will now be for sale as fat.

Begin to plough turnip fallows aud clay lauds for
wheat, at convenient times. Carry to the heaps in
the fields all dung remaining about the homestead,
and litter the yards afresh.

CALENDAR OF GARDENING,

Asparagus will now be rising, and must be cut
so as to avoid injuring the crowns either by too
close an incision, or by uselessly wounding the ad-
joining shoots. As the plants rise, they are thinned
to stand three, and then six, inches apart, aud even
one foot, which will produce a very strong and dura-
ble plant, high in colour, full in fiavour, aud tender
iu its whole length.

Sow seakale on beds of well-prepared ground—
three seeds, in a small circle of six inches diameter;
the circles two feet apart ; the ro^vs may be single,
at four feet distances ; or, if double, two feet asun-
der, to form a bed. Sow lettuce, radish, corn, and
small salading, twice or thrice. Sow peas— the
Prussian aud Scimitar— beans, any most approved
sorts, twice; borecole, Scotch kale, and Brussels
sprouts ; broccoli for winter and spring. Sow, early
and late iu the month, cabbages aud savoys, to sup-
ply successions; spiuach, repeatedly; silver onions,
very thickly, for drawing young; onions for bulbing,
and leek, if not already sown; carrots, parsnips, and
red-beet— all in the first days of the month.

Sow white aud hardy red celery in warm leaf
beds ; nasturtiums and aromatic herbs.

Sow kidney beans on dry beds after the middle of
the month.

Plant potatoes in showery weather on prepared
beds.

Transplant lettuces, cabbages, cauliflowers, and
seakale: place celery plants, to become stocky, upon
beds of very rich soil, chiefly of reduced manure.

Dress all the beds with hoe and rake ; earth-up
and stick peas ; and attend to neat order.

Strawberry beds, or rows newly i)lanted, must be
liberally watered in dry '^yeather.

Flowers in seedlings from the pots are thinned
out : plant herbaceous varieties. Dutch-hoe and
neatly rake the quarters. Sweep and roll walks iu
showery weather. Plant or renew box-edgings.

Guano in fine powder, one ounce to a gallon cf
soft water, is a most useful stimulant to succulent
plants of mauy kinds.

368

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The opening of the past month was very unlike
March, and it was only for about one week that
the rough drying winds prevailed, which, however,
were very serviceable both to the tillage of the land
and condition of the wheat thrashed, while several
heavy falls of rain have been experienced, sufficient
to encourage the hope of more, as the wells gener-
ally are low, and the ponds and reservoirs in many
places insufficiently supplied. The sowing of Lent
corn has proceeded most favourably, and where
this was performed early, the young crops have
come up very even, and look thi'iving. The early-
autumn wheat, where the planting was thick, looks
rather too luxuriant for a heavy crop of corn, and
would be better if kept back in !this uncertain
climate ; but, so far as appearances go, everything
is full of promise, and fully a fortnight early ; but
the hay crop cannot be heavy without a good fall
of rain. The breadth of wheat this yeai', by nu-
merous reports, appears considerably diminished,
the low prices so long ruling directing the attention
of growers to an extended cultivation of malting
barley and other spring corn. But it is worthy of
note that, after an unusual importation, the stocks
of foreign corn are not heavy, and that our prin-
cipal de[)endence must now be on what remains in
Enghsh farmers' hands as a security against any
mishap. The favourable turn of prices which we
anticipated with the opening of the new year has
only in part been realized, which we think has
been a good deal owing to the damp state in which
the mild and humid winter reduced the samples ;
but, as the condition is now improved and stocks
are getting into firmer hands, there seems no like-
lihood of a return to the lowest rate of Christmas,
though the average now is only 40s. Id. per qr.
Very little change of value has ensued in the course
of the month, the decline at the opening being
about recovered at the close, the course of the
averages only showing a difference of 4d. per qr.
downwards. The stormy aspect of politics now
seems blowing over, and markets must be left both
here and abroad to find their level peaceably.
There are, however, very few or none to meet the
current rates obtaining here, and America, which
not long ago was thought to have accumulated
stores which eventually must find vent in the
British market, has kept steadily rising, and some
quantity of wheat in Liverpool and flour in London
has been shipped to New York and other trans-
atlantic ports. France also, which has been a con-
stant source of apprehension, has lately shown an
upward tendency in prices— the great emporium,
Marseilles, complaining of light arrivals and used-
up stocks; while Spain, Portugal, and Algeria con-
tinue to be importing countries at higher rates than
realized here. The Council of State at Paris con-
tinue occupied with the question of the corn-laws
with a view to their revision, and there now seems
no chance of a return to the biiding-scale, which is

likely to be succeeded by a small fixed duty both
on imports and exports. The long absence of a
speculative spirit in this country has brought about
the same state of things in Northern Europe,
where the great stores were wont to be gathered ;
but these are now wanting, and should any disaster
occur in those countries to the growing crops, the
whole course of trade would be changed, and
England, as far as her ability permitted, become an
exporting country.

The following were the quotations in foreign
ports on the most recent advices : The price of
fine wheat in Paris was about 38s. 6d. per qr. At
Nantes the best 62 lbs. per bushel red wheat was
worth 38s. free on board: 60 lbs. white, 4ls. 6d.
The value at Bordeaux was 40s. per qr. The
quotation for red Louvain wheat at Antwerp was
4'2s. per qr., 64 lbs. per bushel. At Amsterdam
fine Polish wheat was still worth about 55s. per qr.;
red at Rotterdam 46s. ; first quality at Konigsberg
and Berlin 48s. to 49s.; fine high-mixed at Danzig
51s. per qr., and scarce red wheat at Petersburg
41s. At Odessa fine quality about 38s. ; at Galatz
33s. 9d, per qr. The quotation at Algiers was 46s.
6d. At New York red Southern brought 50s.
per 480 lbs., fine white Michigan 50s. 4d. per
480 lbs., and the best descriptions of flour were
selling at equal to 48s. 7d. per sack, or 8s. 7d. per
sack above the top quotations of town-made in
London.

The first Monday of the month in London
opened on a moderate supply of English and small
arrival of foreign wheat. The samples on show
from Kent and Essex were not numerous, the con-
dition being but little improved. The better pros-
pect of ])eas, and the prevalence of mild and fine
summer-like weather for several days, made an
unusually dull market. Some few fine lots were
placed at only a little under the previous currency,
but generally the quotations were reduced Is.
to 2s. per qr., and very little progress made.
Kentish factors, being anxious to clear, would have
accepted 2s. per qr. less, but could not find buyers.
In foreign, literally nothing was doing. The coun-
try reports did not respond fully to these dull
advices, Boston and Hull being quite as dear;
many, though without activity in sales, did not
lower ])rices, and the reduction at most was Is. per
qr., as at Leeds, Louth, Spalding, Stockton-on-
Tees, Gloucester, and some other places. The
Liverpool decline on Tuesday was id. per cental,
without any subsequent change.

The second Monday had a fair supply of foreign
wheat ; the English arrival being much about the
average. Kent sent up a fair supply of samples ;
Essex but very few. The reduction of the pre-
vious week was then confirmed, but without any
improvement in the state of business, sales con-
tinuing very slow in English qualities, and the
foreign trade entirely retail at unaltered prices.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

S69

The country reports were again less dull than those
of London ; several places, as Newcastle, Newark,
Hull, Wolverhampton, Lynn, Gainsborough, and
Manchester, noting a fair trade at previous rates.
Liverpool was unaltered on Tuesday, the last mar-
ket experiencing a good demand for red oaty
American wheat for Ireland, at full prices ; the
week closing in London with a somewhat improved
tone.

The third Monday had scarcely an average sup-
ply of millers' wheat, either of home growth or
from abroad. The near counties rather fell oiF in
the show of samples ; and had it not been for the
more confirmed pacific reports, in all probability
there would have been a decided rise on the mar-
ket. As it was, even with fine rains and growing
weather, there was a better tone about the trade,
fine white samples and choice heavy red bringing
Is. per qr. over the rates of that day se'nnight.
In foreign also there was rather more doing, buyers
paying full prices for quantities in retail. The coun-
try reports, following these advices, were generally
improved, though the supplies were more liberal —
an average of Is. per qr. advance being established;
Boston, Louth, and Gainsborough making the in-
crease Is. to 28. per qr.; but Birmingham, Man-
chester, and Wolverhampton found the sales made
with diflficulty; and Liverpool and a few other
places were only firm.

The fourth Monday had about the usual supplies
of foreign and English wheat. The near counties
sent up a fair quantity of samples, especially Essex,
the bulk being in improved condition. Trade
opened with some tone, but as the morning ad-
vanced there was less enquiry. Parcels of Kentish
brought the previous rates ; but at the close of the
market very little was sold; and had it been forced,
less money must have been taken. The middling
sorts of foreign were easier to buy.

The four weeks' supplies in London have been
22,786 qrs. EngMsh, 27,125 qrs. foreign, against
18,886 qrs. English,. 17,790 qrs. foreign, in March
1858.

The quantity exported has been small, viz., 344
qrs. wheat, 555 cwts. flour.

The imports for February into the United King-
dom were 226,239 qrs. wheat, 246,965 cwts. flour,
against 263,552 qrs. wheat, 309,172 cwts. flour, in
February 1858.

The last four weeks' imports into the principal
ports of Great Britain, in wheat and flour, have
been equal to 186,200 qrs. wheat.

The flour trade, with reduced arrivals, has ge-
nerally been dull, town prices not having varied
through the month, millers, notwithstanding the
gradual decline in English, not being able to keep
up their quality, from the damp state of the home-
grown samples, without a large admixture of fine
high-priced foreign. Norfolks have undergone
but slight fluctuation, commencing on the first
Monday with a small decline, which was recovered
on the third Monday. The first quality French
samples have been scarce; but the secondary sorts,
notwithstanding some advance in France, have
been difficult to quit, fair sorts being a difficult
sale at 31s. to 32s. per sack; while the best
sorts of American are entirely out of the market,

being worth considerably more at New York than
in London. The barrels that arrive are inferior,
and difficult to quit at any price, having much un-
sound wheat in their composition; but sound
country flour has actually been shipped for New
York. The imports into London for the four
weeks were 60,532 sacks of country sorts, 2,993
barrels and 5,284 sacks foreign, against 76,098
sacks Enghsh, 26,704 barrels and 7,876 sacks
foreign, in March 1858.

The barley trade has very little changed in the
course of the month. The weather having become
warmer, the demand for malting sorts has very
much reduced, while the sharp competition between
EnjrUsh and Scotch distillers having resulted in
favour of the latter, has made distilling sorts diffi-
cult to place, or the small proportion of these in the
foreign arrivals would have made a brisk trade for
such. Low qualities from the Black Sea and Da-
nube have been plentiful, and such as were sweet
have gone off steadily at much the same rates ; but
those out of order were obhged to be sold cheaper,
or sent to granary, as there are very many sta,le
oats in store, about equally cheap. The rates in
each successive market have so little varied, that it
is unnecessary to particularize ; but the last mar-
ket was generally about Is. per qr. cheaper. The
quantities imported into London for the four weeks
were 8,953 qrs. English and 40,471 qrs. foreign,
against 12,577 qrs. English and 27,575 qrs. foerign,
in March 1858. The months import's from abroad
into the United Kingdom for all February were
136,727 qrs., against 99,578 qrs. in Feb. 1858.

The supplies of oats throughout the month have
been extremely limited ; but their relative dearness
as compared with other grain, and the quantity
still remaining in store, as the consequence of the
gluts last autumn, have kept the markets dull, with
rather a downward tendency for all but sweet ship
corn. We cannot, however, help thinking, that as
the season advances, the deficiency of the crop will
be felt, and should the least appearance of drought
be reported, the purchases in Russia for spring
delivery here cannot fail of paying the importers, aa
good corn in quantityj must be had, and Ireland
and the near continental ports promise to send but
little. Prices through the month have been re-
markably even, closing pretty much the same as
they commenced. The imports into London for
the four weeks were 3,533 qrs. English, 9,953
qrs. Scotch, 10,875 qrs. from Ireland, and 34,267
qrs. from abroad, against 4,701 qrs. Enghsh, 4,756
qrs. Scotch, 21,830 qrs. Irish, and 24,750 qrs.
foreign, in March 1858. The total foreign imports
into the kingdom for February were 41,360 qrs,,
against 29,690 qrs. in February last year.

Beans have also come to hand sparingly ; but the
Enghsh crop, with the help of old stores, has held
out much better than expected ; still, with the sea-
son advancing, there has been a diminished con-
sumption, and the low prices of maize and barley
have kept prices down. The almost failure of the
crop in Egypt, under ordinary circumstances,
would nave made them dear; but with France at
hand, ready to supply us on advancing markets,
there does not seem much chance ofany great rise;
though Btocjcs must eventually be worked up very

370

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

close, and the retail trade at the season's end may
pay holders. Without quoting any positive decline
for the month, the tendency has been rather down.
The imports into London for the four weeks have
been 2,869 qrs. English and 2,978 qrs. foreign,
against 3,769 qrs. English and 2,125 qrs. foreign
in March 1858.

Boiling peas may almost be said to have been
without a market for the whole season, its unusual
mildness, as well as the low prices of rice and pota-
toes, having made the consumption almost unprece-
dentedly small, and the rates have continued under
those for hog feed in consequence. Even these latter,
since the decline of the seed demand, have been
cheaper to sell, especially maples, which were out
of proportion dear. Boilers not being a heavy
stock, will, no doubt, now be worked off for horse
food, while the high prices of tares for pigeons'
may partly attract attention to their use. The im-
ports into London for the four weeks were 869
qrs. English and 654 qrs. foreign, against 1,539
qrs. EngUsh and 100 qrs. foreign in March, 1858.

Linseed, with moderate imports and a free ex-
port trade, has well maintained its value without
any quotable fluctuation ; but its dearness has cer-
tainly lessened its use, and the last market was
easier ; but cakes, after somewhat giving way, have
found a better sale, the high price of meal encou-
raging free purchases, and the stocks being very
small. Prices of Linseed do not appear likely to
reduce much, before large crops in Europe and the
East Indies occur in the same season, as the use
both here and abroad is so much more extended
than formerly.

A very large amount of business of a consump-
tive character has obtained in Cloverseed of both
kinds. The reports from France of a deficient crop
turned out true ; our own also was insufficient, and
the quantities expected from America have been
much below the mark. The .stocks, therefore, at
the end of the present session must be very smali,
and quite insufficient forspeculativepurposes. Prices
through the month have kept up remarkably well,
and holders having almost cleared themselves of new
seed will not be likely to force off what remains on
hand, with some consumptive trade still in pros-
pect. The high price of white will, however, make
it undesirable to hold over. Trefoil has been steady
throughout ; and tares have brought full prices :
though now it is getting late, lots are to be had on
rather easier terms. Canaryseed has somewhat
recovered from its depression, and does not seem
likely again to recede to the low rates at which it
has been selling. Mustardseed only sells occa-
sionally to needy buyers. Rapeseed has been firm.
Hempseed, carraway, and coriander have scarcely
changed in value.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

PoR THE LAST Six

Weeks :
Peb. 12,1859 ....
Feb. 19, 18.S9 ....
Feb. 26, IS.-iD ....
March 5, 1859 ....
March 12, 1859 ....
March 19, 1859 ....
Aggregate average
Same time last year

Wheat.

Barley.

s. d.

s. d.

40 U

3t ti

40 10

31 0

40 rt

3.3 11

40 5

.S4 0

40 3

:H 4

40 1

34 4

40 6

34 0

45 3

36 4

Oats. ' Rye. Beans Peas.
s. d. s. d. I s. d. s. d,
22 4 31 2 41 2 41

23 1 32 11

'.^2 8 31 0

•i.i 0 33 U

'2i 3 3M1

.'3 9 30 4

23 0 32 0

23 0 32 10

42 10 4i 3

42 2 11 7

42 2 iO 6

41 8ll0 8

41 3140 4

41 11 111 2

38 3i40 11

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Tbefoil, new I9». to 22ri.

Taees, Winter, new, per busliel _s. to — s.

Mustardseed, perbuah., new Tig. to ITs, brown lOs. to 128.

CoBiAMDEB, per cwt 14s. to 16s.

Camakt, per qr..« 708. to 74s.

Linseed, per qr., sowing — s.to 648, .crushing 54s. to &8s.

Linseed Cakes, per ton .£9 10s. to £10 10s.

Rapeseed, per qr.l 68s. to 728.

Rape Cake, per ton £li lOs.tojt'eOs.

HOP MARKET.

BOROUGH, Monday, March 28.— Our market during
the past week has exhibited increased activity, and for the
period of the }'ear a large amount of business has been done.
The prevailing scarcity of fine samples of Weald of Kents and
Sussex has led to a further advance of from 3s. to Ss. per
cwt., and the entire absence of choice East and Middle Kenta
and Farnhams renders their quotation only nominal.

Mid and East Kents .... 843. to 100s. choice 1478.

Weald of Keuts 64s. 72s. „ SOs.

Sussex 60s. 68s. „ 723.

POTATO MARKETS.

SOUTH WARK WATERSIDE, Monday, March 28 .
Since our last report, the arrivals both coastwise and from
foreign ports have been more abundant ; but owing to the
mildness of the weather, and the great supply of vegetables, it
has caused the trade to remain inactive. The following are
this day's quotations-
York Regents per ton 70s. to lOSs.

Flukes 958, to 1058,

Lincolnshire Regents 509. to 90s.

Dunbar do 703. to 903.

Ditto Reds 60s. to 703.

Perth, Forfar, & FifeahireRegents 40s. to SSs.

Ditto Reds 358. to 45s.

Ditto Rocks 40s. to 453.

Foreii^a Whites 408. to 608,

PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &(,

CHEESE, percwt.: ». s.

Cheshire 60 bO

Cheddar 60 S'i

JubleGlouo 66 70

HOTTER, percwt.

PriesUaa I20tol:j0

Kiel 126 136

Dorset, new 120 128

Carlow S8 106

\V«ter(ord 98 106

Cork, ; 100 112

LimercV 100 108

Sliffo VS 104

Fresh, per ■loien..l2B. Od. tnl6».0d.

HAMS:

York 78 86

Westmoreland 78 86

Irish '. 70 80

BACON: Wiltshire, dried 56 fiO

Irish, sreen 48 58

WOOL MARKETS,

Per pack of 2401b8.
Fleeces — Southdown Hogs £18

Do. Half bred Hogs 17

Do. Ktnt 16

Do. Southdown Ewesand Wethers 16

Do. Leicester do 16

Sorts— Clothing, picklock 18

Do. Prime and picklock 17

Do. Choice 16

Do. Super 14

Do. Combing — W^ether matching . .. 19

Do. Picklock 16

Do. Common 14

Do. Hog matching 22

Do. Picklock matching 17

Do. Super do 14

MANURES.

PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO, &c.

PERUVIAN (J U A NO,(perton,for 3Ctons) £12

Do. Do (Tinder 30 tons).... 13

KOORIA ItOORIA GUANO, (.66 per cent. Phus

phale and I percent. Ammonia)

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, &c.
nitrate Snd« ^ ^,, ,, „^„ ,„,„„ Sulph. of Copper-) ^ s. d. * s. d.

otojeis 10

to

18 10

0

17 10

10

17 10

10

17 10

10

19 0

10

18 0

0

17 0

0

1.5 0

10

■20 0

10

17 10

0

1.5 0

10

'23 10

0

18 0

10

15 10

,&c.

0 Oto.£ 0 0

6 0

0 0

5 0

5 16

'ton^)"^.*}'^'* 15 0to£17 10 0

re^}

(perl
NitratePot

or Saltpetre
Sulpht. Ammonia 14 IQ 0
Muriate ditto... S3 OO
Superphospht. "J

of Lime.... {
Soda Ash, or i g

Alkali S " " "

Oypsum I 10 0

Coprolite 2 10 0

100

30 0 0

l.'i 0 0

26 0 0

6 0 0

12 0 0

pper-) J
heatr''

or Ro

triol, for Wheat

steep., let qual.J
Ditto, 2nd quality 24 0 0

Salt 10 0

Bones, Du8t,perqr.l 1 0

Do.J-inch 0 19 0

Oil Vitriol,)
concentrated, > 0 0 1

per lb J

Do. Brown « » »'

0 0 to 39

38 0 0
15 0
I 2 0
1 00

0 0 0

0 0 0

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

APRIL 1859.

CONTENTS.

Plate I. — CLARET: a Hereford Bull, the Property of Mr. Richard Hill, of Golding

Hall, Shrewsbury.

Plate n. — COTHERSTONE : a Thorough-bred Stallion, the Property of the Right

Honourable Earl Spencer.

page
Description of the First Plate ...... 279

Description of the Second Plate ...... 280

The Herds of Great Britain ....... 281

The Composition of Liquid Manure. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esa., F.R.S. . 286

Steam Cultivation : Trial at Teddesley Park, Staffordshire . . . 289

The Statistics of Agricultural Progress ..... 291

The Corn Laws of France ....... 292

The Want of System in the Education of the Farmer .... 293

Progress and Importance of Agriculture: a Lecture delivered at the Bedford

Working Men's Institute by Mr. Charles Howard, op Biddenham . . 295

Varieties of Cattle Food ....... 305

The Supply and Demand for Riding-Horses ..... 307

Breeding of Hunters. By the Author of "Digby Grand," etc. . . .309

The Trade in Guano ........ 312

Ireland and Irish Agriculture ...... 314

New Food and New Domestic Animals .;.... 320

Cheese — its Manufacture and Quality ..... 322

Agricultural Statistics of Ireland ...... 323

The English Farmer in Belgium ...... 324

Deaths of Cattle from Feeding on Impure Cotton and Linseed-Cake . . 326

Why do we waste our Straw, so valuable for Feeding Purposes? How much

should it be worth per Acre ? . . . . . . 327

Agricultural Implements, and the Prize System .... 329

The Flour Trade of the Metropolis ...:.. 331
Oxford Farmers' Club : Testimonial to Mr. Thomson, the Chairman . . 332

Introduction of Steam-Power into Common Farm Practice . . . 334

The Hard Times — AND How to meet them ..... 335

The Horses of the Cape ....... 337

Influence of Nitrogen on Crops. — Milbourne St. Andrew Farmers' Club . 338

London, or Central Farmers' Club : Education and Discipline of the Young

Farmer ......... 345

Whole Barley and Salt proved very Healthy and Fattening when given to

Sheep upon Common White Turnips ..... 357

Royal Agricultural Society of England ..... 358

Food for Fattening Cattle and Sheep ...... 359

Great Cattle Sale at Blencorn ...... 359

Agricultural Reports ....... 360

Review of the Cattle Trade during the past Month .... 361

Stallions for the Season of 1859 ...... 362

Calendar of Agriculture ....... 367

Calendar of Gardening . . . . . . " . 367

Review of the Corn Trade during the past Month .... 368

Corn Averages and Market Currencies ..... 370

tjje Jfiitigkni,

CUFF^S FARMER^S FRIEND.

One dose of this invaluable medicine will cure the SCOUR or LOOSENESS in Lambs, Calves, Sheep, Colts,
Heifers, Steers, and all Cattle, without leaving costiveness ; and given occasionally to Beasts whilst fattening
will promote a healthy and thriving condition. It v^ill also perfectly cure the FRET, COLIC or GRIPES in
Horses. Price Is. 8(1. or 3s. per Bottle.

CUFF^S FOOT-ROT POTVDER

Is a cheap and effectual remedy for the FOOT-ROT or HALT, a single Packet of which will cure One Hundred
Sheep, and larue Flocks may be soon freed from the Disease by its use. It has been extensively used and
highly approved of for nearly thirty years by large Sheep Breeders throughout the Kingdom. P:iee Is.
per Packet.

CUFF^S FEY, SCAB & MANGE OIL

Will very quickly destroy MAGGOTS in Sheep, and LICE or VERMIN in all animals. It will also cure the
MANGE, and SKIiV DISEASES in Horses or Cattle, and effectually cleanse a Flock of Sheep from the
SCAB or SHAB. Price Is. 8d. and 3s. per Bottle.

SHERWOOD'S ORIGINAL DRIFFIELD OILS

Are strono-iy and ooiifideiitlv recommended for preventing GANGRENE or MORTIFICATlOiV after Lambing
or Calving, and for Healing" CUTS, STABS, WOUNDS, BRUISES, STRAINS, SWELLINGS, &c., &c.. As
these Oils arc in constant use by some of the most celebrated Breeders in the world, and have maintained a re-
putation about fifty years, it would be superfluous to enlarge upon their value and importance. Pints, 2s. 6d.,
Quarts, 5s. -Prepared by J. H. Cuff, No. 10, Smithfield Market, London, and sold by Druggists and Medi-
cine Vendors. None is Genuine unless signed by J. H. CUFF in writing.

~~~~~ ESTABLISHED 1812. ~"

HAND T. PROCTORS' TURNIP MANURE.— Messrs. H. and T. P. draw
I particular attention (otitis valuable Manure, which contains all the elements necessary for the full development of the
Turnip Crop, so combined, that, from then- chemical knowledge and long experience, they feel satisfied is most advantageous to the
consumer. It has been very extensively used by most of the eminent Agriculturists of the day, and has attained a high reputation
throughout En-jland, Scotland, and Wales, and, they venture to say, is unrivalled for the weight and quality of the Bulbs which it
produces. The application of this Manure to the Turnips will be found to benefit considerably the after crops of Barley, Clover,
and Wheat.

POTATO, GRASS, BARLEY, CLOVER, and WHEAT MANURES.

ALSO,

BONE DUST, PERUVIAN GUANO, AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME,

Warranted op the Best Quality.

Apply to 11. and T. PROCTOR, WEST OF ENGLAND DEPOT FOR ARTIFICIAL MANURES, CATHAY, BRISTOL; or

PROCTOR and RYLAND. BIRMINGHAM and SALTNRY, n«ar CHESTER.

SEED OF FLEMISH CROPS. — Recom-
mended to British farmers by " The English Farmer in
Belgium."

Silesian Beet For Sugar and Distillation.

French Tobacco Sort most esteemed.

Italian Red Rape ....■)
Oeillette, or Oil Poppy > For Oil.

Cammeline 3

Spergule For Fodder or ploughing-in.

„ ,, . . ( For Corn or ploughing- in It thus

Yellow Lupin I „Q^^g wonders on poor land .

Green-necked Carrot... For Cattle.

Chicory For Coflee.

Another sort For Forage.

Winter Peas Harvested very early.

1 Productive, and stands some years.
Hybrid Red Clover. . . . ^ This is particularly recommended for
I, trial.

Cow Cabbage, two sorts.

Packet of any sort sent on receipt of twelve postage stamps.

PAMPHLET on "FLEMISH CROPS," twelve postage
stamps.

Or the Pamphlet and all the sorts of Seeds, on receipt of 10s.

Address, Wra. Hartley, Messrs. Birdseyeand Co., 12, St. Benets-
court, Gracechurch-strcet, London.

(^ OLD MINE OF THE BRITISH FARMER;

\_X a Pamphlet on the Cultivation and Application in Eng-
land of the Silesian Beet-root lor Sugar and Spirit; showing its
great advantages in both profits and cattle food, and the best
manner of introducing it.

W.Hartley has devoted himself to obtain this information for
his brother-farmers, and if they neglect inquiring into its truth,
they will refuse a valuable otTer. Every landlord and tenant
ought to read it.

Sent post-paid on receipt of 24 postage stamps, addrested to
W. H., Messrs. Birdseye and Co,, No. 13, St, Benet'p-court,
Gracechurch -street, London,

PAMPHLET ON SORGHO, or FRENCH
SUGAR GRASS, By an " English Farmer in France."
Sent, with some trial seed, on receipt of 24 postage staiBps, ad-
dressed to Mr. W. Hartley, Messi-8. Biidseye and Co., 13, St.
Benet's-coiirt, Gracechurch-street, London.

Also, the same in quantities, guaranteed to be the one sort
only which is useful, at -28. 8d. per lb. It is the most productive
and fattening green fodder yet found. It is sown in April, and
is cut, when a yard high, three times a-year. Some grew last
summer, near London, 8J feet high, though not sown till June.

THOMAS HUNT AND BROTHERS
WOULD call

V V the particular
attention of Farmers
and Seedsmen to their
HAND DRILLS,
which will deposit
Mangold, Turnip, &
other sm.Hll seeds on
either ri-lge or flat in
a most perfect man-
ner.

Address — Atlas

WoKKS, Earl's Colne,

Essex.

A 1-row Brush Drill £1 12

A l-ri)W Cup Drill 2 10

A 2 row Cup ditto .. 3 10 0

A 1-row Cup ditto for Manure 5 13 6

A 7-row Pony Drill ..... 10 10 0

Economic Cliaft' Cutter 2 12 6

Hand Pulper 1 12 6

Prize Dressing Machines, from.. 6 10 0

Prize Horse-Gears, from 10 10 0

Early orders are respectfully Bolicited. Illustrate! Cataloguen
sent free on application to the Atlas Works, Earl's Colne.

PHILLIP'S AND COMPANY, TEA-MERCHANTS, 8, King William Street,
City, London, E.G., invariably sell the BEST aud CHEAPEST TEAS and COFFEES in England,
Goodstron<r useful Congou Tea,2^. 4d., 2s.6.].,'2s. 8d., 2^. 10d.,a!ul 8s.; Kich Souchong Tea, 3s. 8d., 3s. lOd.,
and 48. A Price- Current free. Sugars at market prices.

PHILLIPS & CO., send all goods Catriage Free, by their own Vans, within 8 miles of No. 8, King William
Street, City, E.C., and send Teas, Coffees, and Spices Carriage Free to any Railway Station or Market Town in
England, if to the value of 40Si or upwards.

THE ROYAL FARMERS'

ACJ-MIClTIiTUMAIi A HT » C O M M EMCI A IL

XNSURiLNCX; COSMEFiiNV.

3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON (W.C.)

RATES.

HAIS..— WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, aad other ordinary Crops, without limitation! „,
as to quantity grown. |6d. per Acre.

It should be borne in mind that no care whatever can prevent damage by Hail, that there is no means of
protection other than that now offered, and that the ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE OFFICE was the
first which introduced this additional means of protecting the interest of the Farmers into this country.

BOWUS. — A division of profits every five years, the last one (1856) was upwards of GO per cent.
to insurers of the l^our previoUJii yeai'S, and in proportion to Insurers for a 'ess period.

FIKE.— FIRE INSURANCES of every description at moderate rates.

FARMING STOCK without average, 5s. per cent.

LOSSES paid immediately after the amounts have been ascertained.

IJIFE. — Life Insurances on moderate terms by Policies payable to the Registered Holders.

BONUS. — The next division of profits, four-fifths of which will be allotted to Policies of the participating
class, will be on the five years endin? on on the 31st of December of the year 1863. The amount for the Five
Years ending on the 31st of December, 1858, will be made known to the Policy Holders immediately after the
Annual General Meeting in May next.

ASSIGNMENTS. — The Policies are payable to the Registered Holdeis, whereby much expense and incon-
venience is prevented.

Further particulars may be had at the Chief Office, or of the Agents.

JOHN REDDISH, Secretary and Actuary.
Agents wanted in those districts in which the Office is not represented.

VINEGAK. — PATRONIZED BY HER MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT.

c o :^D y s

FATXSNT FURi: CONCENTRATED IMEAZ.T VZNEG-AR.

FAMILIES, by using this delicious Vinegar, insure purity, and effect a saving of 50 per
Cent. See Report of Dr. Letheby, Cily Officer of Health, Dr. Hassell, of the * Lancet' Commission,
and others. Sold by the Trade, in Bottles, labelled and capsuled. Wholesale

63, KING WILLIAM STREET, LONDON BRIDGE, E.C.
Six Quart Sample sent free to any Railway for 3s. 6d.

KEATING'S "

POULTRY, DOGS, and PLANTS are eflfectually freed from Fleas and all other Vermin
with which they are infested by the above Powder, which is quite harmless to Animal Life. The
Farmer, the Gardener, or the Sportsman will therefore find it invaluable.

In Packets post-free fnr 14, or treble size for 36 postage stamps, by Thos. Keating, Chemist, 79, St.
Paul's Churchyard, London, E.C.

See "The Field," Oct. 2nd and 9th, pp. 263, 283, & 294.

NEW WORK ON STRICTURE.
Just published, 8vo, in cloth, price 5s., by post-free, 53. 6d.,

THE TREATMENT of STRICTURES of the URETHRA. With the Reasons why
they so often appear incurable.
By F. B. COURTENAY, M.R.C.S.E ,
And formerly Surgeon to the Metropolitan Infirmary for the Cure of Strictures of the Urethra.
" This work is t!ie production of a surgeon whose special attention has been dire'^ted, through a long pro-
fessional life, to the treatment of strictures of the urethra. The cases which Mr. Courtenay has given supply
ample evidence of his great discriminative power in tlie diagnosis of the various kinds of stricture, and of the
scientific principles upon which their management is founded, demonstrating his success and explaining the
cause of it. By his systematic management and immense mitigation of pain to t!ie unhappy sufferers is
attained, and future mischief prevented. The work we can most unreservedly and confidently recommend as
a valuable contribution, both to the general and professional reader, and ought to be found in the private study
of all who are subject to stricture,"— Medical Circular, Dec. 1st, 1858.

London : H, Eailliere, 219, Regent-street.

" ""'""' IPSWICH.

THE FO I. liOliV !]!¥€} IMl^IiEMEiWTS OlSTAl'WED THE

FIRST P RIZE

AT THE CHESTER MEETING OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

ENGLAND, JULY, 1858.

Root-Cutter for Power Hand-power ChafF-Cutter Bruisiner-Mill.

Price £5 5s. to £7 7s. Price £5 5s. Price £10.

Illitsitratecl Catsftlog-ues, in KiisSislB, Frencls, and C^es'naaai t^ent free

on application.

London Agent: SHEPPARD JIANSOME, 31, ESSEX STREET, STRAND

HAYWOOD'S

IMPROVED PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES

WITH VERTICAL CYLINDERS,

AND

IMPROVED PORTABLE COMBINED
THRASHING MACHINES,

FROM TWO TO FOUR HORSE POWER,
CONSTRUCTED to Thrash, Winnow,

\J and Bag the Corn in one operation, are now in
extensive use, and are giving the liighost satisfaction.

FIXED ENGINES, OF ALL SIZES,

From Two-hokse Power upwards,

IMPROVED CIRCULAR-SAW BENCHES,
PORTABLE GRINDING MILLS,

AND

LIQUID MANURE PUMPS.

Illustrated Catalogues, with Prioes and Testimonials,
sent free on application to

JAS. HAYWOOD, Jun.,

PHCENIX FOUNDRY AND ENGINEERING WORKS,
DERBY.
London Agent — Mr. B. SAMUELS ON, 76, Cannon Street West.

DEVON AND CORNWALL MANURE WORKS, AND PATENT STEAM BONE MILLS,
CATTE DOWN, PLYMOUTH.

CHARLES NORRINGTON & CO.'S celebrated SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME stands
unrivalled in the ftlanure Market for all BootCrops. During the pa-^t season upwards of Forty Tons of Mangold Wurtzel,
Swedes, and Common Turnips per Acre have been grown with this Superphosphate, without other Manure.

C. N. & Co. bind themselves to the valuation of the various ini;redicnts as given by Professor Way, in the Journal of the
Hoyal Agricultural Society, vol. xvi., pp. 5S2— 42.

Price £1 JOs. per Ton, in Hags, delivered to any Port in the United Kinedora.

IMPORTANT TO FLOCEMASTERS.

THOMAS BIGG,

AGRICULTURAL AND VETERINARY CHEMIST,
BY APPOINTMENT, TO H. R. H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, K. G.

LEICESTER HOUSE, GREAT DOVER-STREET, BOROUGH, LONDON,

&c.

Begs to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable
SHEEP-and LAMB DIPPING COMPOSITION, which requires
no Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for
effectually destroying the Tick Lice, and all other insects
injurious to the Flocls, preventing the alarming attacks of
Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby
greatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and
highly contributing to the general health of the animal.

Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manufac-
tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity
may be had, if required :—

4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar Included

Qlb.

80

8 1b.

40

10 1b,

50

201b.

100

30 1b.

150

40 1b.

200

601b.

250

60 1b.

300

80 1b.

400

100 lb.

500

(cask and measure
included)

,£0

, 0

, 0

0

2
3
4
5
0 10

0 15

1 0
1 3
1 7

1 17

2 6

0

Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling the Composition, it will
be equally effective.

He would also especially call attention to his SPECIFIC, or
LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, which will be found a certain
remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in
Sheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all
seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes
in lamb. Price Ss. per gallon — sufficient on an average for
thirty Sheej (according to the virulence of the disease); also in
wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each.

IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.

"Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855.
'Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would
have been replied to before this had 1 been at home, I have
much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in-

valuable ' Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 Sheep
were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of the ^Non-
Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the
Lincoln Show, and by their own di-esser, the best attention
being paid to the flock by my shepherd after dressing according
to instructions left ; but notwithstanding the Scab continues
getting worse. In December I informed the ' Agent for the
above Specific,' that the flock was not cured, and that it requires
their immediate attention. The Agent informed me they should
be at once seen to, but did not do so until^tie weeks afterwards,
and in the mean time the Scab spread over the whole flock, that
I never saw such a disgraceful sight in my life ; and when the
Dresser was sent over to inspect the Flock, he decided on not
dressing them again, as one- third of the Sheep had lost half
their wool. I tlien agreed with an experienced dresser in Norfolk
to dress the flock, and when he saw the sheep he declined doing
them, as they were so very bad, and the time of lambing so
near. Being determined to have the Scab cured if possible, I
wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the
following day ; and although the weather was most severe in
February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an in-
valuable remedy, for in tliree weeks the Sheep were quite cured;
and I am happy to say the young lambs are doing remarkably
well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and
best remedy now in use.

" I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant,

" For JOHN TINGEY, Esq.,

" To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNY.

In addition to the foregoing, he has very materially improved,
as well as considerably reduced the price of his Dipping Ap-
paratus ; and he would venture to suggest that no Flockmasters
ought now to be without one. Price in London,

New and Improved Dipping Apparatus, on Wheels ^14 0 0
Ditto ditto with Iron-bar Drainer 5 0 0

Ditto ditto 4 0 0

Ditto, plain, with Wooden Drainer 3 0 0

N.B. — Catalogues, containing List of Patrons, Testimonials,
&c., to be had of all agents, or sent Jirect per post free.

CURTIS ON MANHOOD.— SHILLING EDITION.

A MEDICAL ESSAY ON NERVOUS AND GENERATIVE DISEASES.
Just Published, the New Edition, 120th Thousand, with numerous Plates, in a sealed envelope, ptice Is., or

sent, post-paid, by the Author, for 14 stamps.

MANHOOD : the CAUSE and CURE of PREMATURE DECLINE, with plain
directions for perfect restoration to health and vigour ; being a Medical Review of the various forms
and modern treatment of Nervous Debility, Impoteney, Loss of Mental and Physical Capacity, whether re-
sulting from youthful abuse, the follies of maturity, the effects of climate, or infection; with Observations on
a new and successful mode of detecting Spermatorrhoea, and other Urethral Discharges, by Microscopic
Examination ; to which are added, curious and interesting cases, withthe Author's recipe of a Preventive Lotion.
By J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle-street, Piccadilly, London, whose practice, extending over a period of
20 years, affords a complete guarantee to patients that the utmost skill and experience will be made available
in the treatment of their cases.

At home for consultation daily, from 10 till 3, and 6 till 8. Sundays from 10 till 1.

REVIEWS OF THE WORK.

" Curtis on Manhood. — This is a truly valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old."
Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1856.

" Curtis on Manhood. — The author has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which
is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently premature old
age."— Daily Telegraph, March 27. 1856.

" Curtis on Manhood.— The book under review is one calculated to warn and instruct the erring with-
out imparting one idea that can vitiate the mind not already tutored by the vices of which it treats." — Naval
and Military Gazette, Feb. 1, 1851.

•' We feel no hesitation in saying, that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be found
useful — whether such person hold the relation of a parent, preceptor, or a clergyman." — Sun, Evening Paper.

Published by the Author : sold also in sealed envelopes by Gilbert, 49, Paternoster-row ; Hannay, 63,
Oxford-street J Mann, 39, Cornhill, London; "Herald" Office, Taunton; Lockyer, Lincoln; Heywood,
Oldham-street, Manchester; Howell, 6, Church-street, Liverpool ; Ashley, Post-office, Newbury ; Ferris and
Score, Union-street, Bristol ; Pierson, Shrewsbury ; Jull, Braintree ; Thew, Lynn ; Peat, Chichester ; Lur-
cock, Maidstone ; Cook, Ipswich; Huscroft, Bury St. Edmunds; Dove, Swindon ; Jearey, Bridewell Alley,
Norwich; Smith, Rose Crescent, Cambridge; Slatter, Oxford ; and by all Booksellers and Chemists in the
United Kingdom.

FOR THE HAIR, THE SKIN, AND THE TEETH,

are universally held in high estimation ; and the fact of the distinguished Patronage they enjoy, their general use in all countries,
and the numerous testimonials constantly received of their efficacy, sufficiently prove the value of their " MBlCASSAB.
OXJi," " XAIiYSOR," and •' ODOSTTO."

THE FIRST PRODUCTION IN THE WORLD

For the GROWTH and IMPROVEMENT of the HUMAN HAIR, is

mmn umm on

proved beyond question by its successful results for MORE than HALF A CENTURY past, and when other specifics have
failed.

It prevents Hair from falling off or turning grey, strengthens weak HAIR, cleanses it from Scurf and Dandriff, and
makes it BEAUTIFULLY SOFT, PLIABLE, and GLOSSY. In the growth of

TUG :bsar]>, ^rmSKEKS, abjo iiu^tachio^

it Is unfailing in its stimulative operation. For CHILDREN it is especially recommended as forming the basis of A BEAU-
TIFUL HEAD OF HAIR.

Its invaluable properties have obtained the Patronage of Royaitt, the Nobility, and the Aeistoceact throughout Europe ;
while its introduction into the Nursery of Royalty, and the high esteem iji which it is universally held, with numerous
Testimonials constantly received of its efficacy, afford the best and surest proofs of its merits.— Price 3s. 6d, and 7s. ; Family
Bottles (equal to four small), 10s. 6d. ; and double that size, 21s.

CAtrTlOW.— On the Wrapper of each Bottle are the words, " ROWLANDS' MACASSAR OIL," &c., in white
letters, and their Signature, " A. ROWLAND & SONS," in Red Ink.

A BEAUTIFUL COMPLEXION,

AND SOFT ANB FAIR HANBS AND AR2VIS,

Are realized by the use of

OWIAN

lIDOi

This Royally-patronized and imiversally esteemed Specific exerts the most soothing cooling, and purifying action on the
Skin eradicates Freckles, Tan, Pimples, Simts, Discoloration and other Cutaneous Visitations, and renders

THi: SKIHr €I.EA», FAIK, A1VI> S1.00MI1V0^.

CATJTIOIO".— The words " ROWLANDS' KALYDOR,"&c.,are on the Wrapper, and their Signature, " A. ROWLAND
and SONS," in Red Ink, at foot. — Px-ice 4s. Gd. and 8s. 6d. per bottle. "^

IVHITE AND SOUND TEETH

Are indispensable to PERSONAL ATTRACTION, and to health and longevity by the proper mastication of food.

iOS' ODOiiTO,

©Kg [p>i^(^L ©lo^TQFi^aeig

Compounded of ORIENTAL INGREDIENTS, is of inestimable value in

IMPROVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE TEETH,
STRENGTKENINa TSE GUMS,

And in rendering

the: bkeatm sipteet ai¥I> puke.

It eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of incipient decay, and polishes and preserves the enamel, to which
it imparts a

As the most efficient and fragrant aromatic purifier of the Breath, Teeth, and Gums ever knovm, ROWLANDS' ODONTO
has, for a long series of years, occupied a distinguished place at the Toilets of the Sovereigns and the Nobility throughout
Europe ; while the general demand for it at once announces the favour in which it is universally held.— Price 2s. 9d. per box.

CAtJTlON.— The words "ROWLANDS' ODONTO" are on the Label, and "A.. ROWLAND & SONS, 20, Hatton
Garden," engraved on the Government Stamp affixed on each box.

Sold by the Proprietors and by Chemists and Perfumers.

*.*

BEWARE OF SPURIOUS IMITATIONS !

No. 5, Vol. XV.l MAY, 1859. [Third Series.

pL', 5- >b^'

THE

FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

!

AND

MONTHLY JOURNAL

THE AORICULTUEAL INTEEEST.

i ■

IBetruatelr

1

TO THE

1

FAllMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

1

LONDON :

1

PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND.

1

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS.

1
i

EOQEESOH AND TCXPORD,] [PEINTEBS, 246, STEAND,

DR. HASSALL

ON

THORIiEY'S FOOD POR CATTLE.

FROM THE "MARK LANE EXPRESS," 10th JAN., 1859.

. 7^» W1MP01.E Street, Cavendish Square, 2lst December, 1858.

Having, on more than one occasion, been requested to make an analysis of Thorley's Well-known
Food for Cattle, and to express my opinion respecting it, I placed myself a short time since in communica-
tion with Mr. Thorley, desiring to be furnished with certain particulars relating to his Food. Mr Thorley
who was previously a stranger to me, at once conducted me over his Manufactory, showed me all the inoredi -
ents employed, and also the process of manufacture of the article. °

I took away with me samples of the food as well as of every ingredient entering into its composition. I have
since carefully examined and tested these, and I have also compared the samples procured at the Manufactory
with others obtained by myself from other sources.

I am, therefore, now in a position to express an authoritative opinion respecting the composition and
properties of Thorley's Food for Cattle. I would remark of it-
First. That the ingredients used are all of excellent quality, and are purchased without regard to expense.

Second. That the receipt or formula, according to which the Food is prepared, is an admirable one, no
ing-redient being selected .m account of its cheapness, but those only being chosen which are best adapted to
fulhl the objects intended. '

Having regard, thus, to the composition of Thorley's Food for Cattle, 1 find that it possesses the
following properties in an eminent degree— it is highly nutritious and fattening— it is a tonic and gentle
stimulant, aiding, when mixed with other descriptions of food, materially the digestive powers of an animal— a
point of great consequence, since it is an undoubted fact that much of the nourishment contained in the ordi-
nary food given to cattle is lost in consequence of the impaired or defective action of the digestive oro-ans

Comparing Thorley's Food for Cattle with other Cattle Foods, with the composittonof which I am ac-
quainted, I unhesitatingly assert that it is infinitely superior to any others, at present known to me In all those
ot the composition of which I have a knowledge, I have found ingredients to be present which have been added
solely on account of their cheapness, that is for the purpose of adulteration, and to the exclusion of other more
valuable, but more expensive, articles. In some of the Foods I have detected ingredients which are positively
hurtful. ■ r J

Comparing, also, the samples taken by me from the Manufactory with others procured from different
sources, I found a perfect accordance in the composition of both series of samples.

Before bringing this Report to a conclusion, I would notice an objection sometimes urged against the use of
Cattle Foods generally, namely, that the price at which they are sold exceeds considerably that of the materials
from which they are prepared ; this can be readily shown to be a very unreasonable objection. Thorley's
Food for Cattle is a compounded and manufactured article, upon the composition and preparation of which
much care, labour, and expense have been and are bestowed. Moreover, the refuse materials resultino- from the
cleansing, gi'inding, &c., and which are an entire loss, amount to twenty per cent. To estimate, therefore the
value of such an article merely at the cost of the raw materials is both absurd and unjust. '

Neither must the value of this, or any other Cattle Food, be determined by the exact amount of nourishment
contained in them; although in the case of Thorley's Food this is very considerable, but the indirect effects
resulting from its employment must be tiken into consideration ; that is, the effects of the article in improving
the appetite, digestive powers, and general vigour of the Cattle fed upon it. By the improved condition of the
digestive organs animals may be fed upon coarser and cheaper articles of food, and from which, without the aid
of Thorley's Food, they would be unable to extract all the nourishment which such articles actually contain
I consider, then, that the use of Thorley's Food is attended, not with an additional, but with a considerable
saving of expense.

I am glad, therefore, to be enabled to recommend— which I do strongly and conscientiously— Thorley's
Food for Cattle as a highly important and valuable compound for the feeding of all descriptions of Cattle
Signed, ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.U.,

Analyst of the Lancet Sanitary Commission; Author of the Reports of that Commission;
of " Food and its Adulteration ; " " Adulterations Butectcd; " ^-c, §-c.

From Alfred Brown, Esq., Wandsworth, Surrey, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons,
England; Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company, London; Fellow of the Medical
Society of London; late Demonstrator of Anatomy at the St. George's School of Medicine.

Wandsworth, Furroy, Dec. 11, 1858.

Sir,— I shall feel obliged by your sending me another cask of Thorley's Cattle Food. I have been making
experiments with it upon one of my milch cows, and think it only fair that I should let you know the results'.
My cow, before I used the Food, was fed upon hay, wortzel, and water ad libitum, and upon this diet she
yielded one gallon of milk per day, making two pounds of butter per week. She was five months gone with
her second calf; when she had the Food 1 discontinued giving her the wortzel, and gave her a measure-full
(about half-a-pint) of the Food with a peck of damp chaff night and morning ; besides, she had as much good
hay as she would eat. Upon this diet, in less than a week she doubled the quantity of milk and butter; and in
order that I might be sure that this excellent result depended upon the Thorley's Food, I discontinued it, and
returned to her former diet, and she speedily went back to the gallon of milk per day. After waiting about a
fortnight, I again leturned to the Thorley's Food, and in a fiew days she increased to two gallons of milk per
day. This experiment I repeated several times, and with the same results. I have tried the Food upon other
animals— horses, sheep, &c.— and with the most satisfactory results. I have also analysed the Food, and find
tnat It contains nothing that would in any way injure the system or constitution of cattle. You are at liberty
to make any use you please of this communication, and I am, Sir, yours, &c.,

To Mr. J. Thorley. ALFRED BROWN.

THE ROYAL FARMERS*

AC^KICITXiVURAl^ A IV 1$ COMMfKCIAl.

INSURANCE COMFANir.

3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON (VV.C.)
RATES.

H AIl^. — WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, and other ordinary Crops, without limitation "1 « , .

as to quantity grown. J ^^- P®"^ ^'^^^'

It should be borne in mind that no care whatever can prevent damage by Hail, that there is no means of
protection other than that now offered, and that the ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE OFFICE was the
first which introduced this additional means of protecting the interest of the Farmers into this country.

Boarus. — a division of profits every five years, the last one (1856) was upwards of ©O per ceilt*
to insurers of the Foill* pi'evioilS yeiArs, and in proportion to Insurers for a less period.

ri RE.— FIRE INSURANCES of every description at moderate rates.

FARMING STOCK without average, 5s. per cent.

LOSSES paid immediately after the amounts have been ascertained.

JLIFE. — Life Insurances on moderate terms by Policies payable to the Registered Holders.

BONUS. — The next division of profits, four-fifths of which will be allotted to Policies of the participating
class, will be on the five years ending on on the 31st of December of the year 1863. The amount for the Five
Years ending on the 31st of December, 1858, will be made known to the Policy Holders immediately after the
Annual General Meeting in May next.

ASSIGNMENTS. — The Policies are payable to the Registered Holdeis, whereby much expense and incon-
venience is prevented.

Further particulars may be had at the Chief Office, or of the Agents.

JOHN REDDISH, Secretary and Actuary.
Agents wanted in those districts in which the Office is not represented.

ESTABLISHED 1812.

HAND T. PROCTORS' TURNIP MANURE.— Messrs. H. and T. P. draw
f particular attention to this valuable Manure, whicli contains all the elements necessary for the full development of the
Turnip Crop, so combined, that, from their chemical knowledge and long experience, they feel satisfied is most advantageous to the
consumer. It has been very extensively used by most of the eminent Agriculturists of the day, and has attained a high reputation
throughout England, Scotland, and Walts, and, they venture to say, is unrivalled for ihe weight and quality of (he Bulbs which it
produces. The application of this Manure to the Turnips will be found to benefit considerably the after crops of Barley, Clover,
and Wheat.

POTATO, GRASS, BARLEY, CLOVER, and WHEAT MANURES.

ALSO,

BONE DUST, PERUVIAN GUANO, AND SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME,

Warranted of the Best Quality.

Apply to H. and T. PROCTOR, WEST OF ENGLAND DEPOT FOR ARTIFICIAL MANURES, CATHAY, BRISTOL; or

PROCTOR and RYLAND, BIRMINGHAM and SALTNEY, near CHESTER.

Etife (0ra)ter0 in

tljt Eitighnm.

CUFF^S FARMER^S FRIEND.

One dose of this invaluable medicine will cure the SCOUR or LOOSENESS in Lambs, Calves, Sheep, Colts,
Heifers, Steers, and all Cattle, without leaving costiveness ; and given occasionally to Beasts whilst fattening
will promote a healthy and thriving condition. It will also perfectly cure the FRET, COLIC or GRIPES in
Horses. Price Is. Sd. or 3s. per Bottle.

CUFF^S FOOT-ROT POWDER

Is a cheap and effectual remedy for the FOOT- ROT or HALT, a single Packet of which will cure One Hundred
Sheep, and large Flocks may be soon freed from the Disease by its use. It has been extensively used and
highly approved of for nearly thirty years by large Sheep Breeders throughout the Kingdom. P:ice Is.
per Packet.

CUFF^S FLY, SCAB & MANGE OIL

Will very quickly destroy MAGGOTS in Sheep, and LICE or VERMIN in all animals. It will also cure the
MANGE, and SKIN DISEASES in Horses or Cattle, and effectually cleanse a Flock of Sheep from the
SCAB or SHAB. Price Is. 8d. and 3s. per Bottle.

SHERWOOD'S ORIGINAL DRIFFIELD OILS

Are strongly and confidently recommended for preventing GANGRENE or MORTIFICATION after Lambing
or Calving, and for Healing CUTS, STABS, WOUNDS, BRUISES, STRAINS, SWELLINGS, &c., &c.. As
these Oils are in constant use by some of the most celebrated Breeders in the world, and have maintained a re-
putation about fifty years, it would be superfluous to enlarge upon their value and importance. Pints, 2s. 6d.,
Quarts, 53. Prepared by J. H. Cuff, No. 10, Smithfield Market, London, and sold by Drnggists and Medi-
cine Vendors. Nonets Genuine unless signed hy J. H. CUFF in writing.

IPSWICH,

THE I'OSLft.O^VIWO IMPIiEHEWTS OMTAIl*EI> TflJi

AT THE CHESTER MEETING OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

ENGLAND, JULY, 1858.

Root-Cutter for Power Hand-power Chaif-Cutter

Bruisinff-Mill.

Price £5 5s. to £7 7s. Price £5 5s. Price £10.

mii«^ti*sttecl Ciitstlog'ucs, iiB l^^iagltsli, S'veiBcli, i^sati CrCE'SBaan sent tree

on ai>i»licsft^ioii.

London Agent : SHEPPARD RANSOME, 31, ESSEX STllEET, STRAND.

HAYWOOD'S

IMPROVED PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES

WITH VERTICAL CYLINDERS,

AND

IMPROVED PORTABLE COMBINED
THRASHING MACHINES,

FROM TWO TO FOUR HORSE POWER^
CONSTRUCTED to Thrash, Winnow,

\J and Bag the Corn ia one operation, are now in
extensive use, and are giving tlie higiiest satisfaction.

FIXED ENGINES, OF ALL SIZES,

Prom Two-uobsb Power upwards,

IMPROVED CIRCULAR-SAW BENCHES,
PORTABLE GRINDING MILLS,

AND

LIQUID MANURE PUMPS.

Illustrated Catalogues, witli Prices and TestimoniQlB,
sent free on application to

JAS. HAYWOOD, Jun.,

PHCENIX FOUNDRY AND ENGINEERING WORKS,
DERBY.

London Agent — Mr. B. SAMUELS ON, 76, Cannon Street West,

PHILLIP'S AND COMPANY, TEA-MERCHANTS, 8, Kino William Street.
City, London, E.G., invariably sell the BEST and CHEAPEST TEAS and COFFEES in England,
Good strong useful Congou Tea, 23. 4d., 2s. 6d., 2s. 8d., 2s. lOd., and 3s. ; Rich Souchong Tea, 3s. 8d., 3s. lOd.,
and 48. A Price- Current free. Sugars at market prices.

PHILLIPS & CO., send all goods Carriage Free, by their own Vans, within 8 miles of No. 8, King William
Street, City, E.C., and send Teas, Coffees, and Spices Carriage Free to any Railway Station or Market Town in
England, if to the value of 40s. or upwards.

Just Published, price One Shilling,

q^HE HISTORY AND PROPERTIES of the DIFFERENT VARIETIES op

J- NATURAL GUANOS. By J. C. Nesbit, F.O.S., F.C.S., &c., Principal of the Chemical and Agri-
cultural College, Kennington, London; Corresponding Member of the Imperial and Central Agricultural
Society of France, &c., &c.

London : Rogerson and Tuxford, " Mark Lane Express" Office, 246, Strand.

THOMAS HUNT AND

WOULD call
tlio particular
attention of Fanners
and Seedsmen to tlieir
HAND DRILLS,
which will deposit
Mai:gold, Tcirnip, &
other smill seeds on
either riige or flat in
a most perfect ni in-
ner.

Address — Atlas
Works, Earl's Colne,
Essex.

BROTHERS

A I-row Brush Drill £i 12 6

A 1-row Cup Drill 2 10 0

A 2 row Cup ditto , 3 10 C

A 1-row Cup ditto for Manure .... 5 1-3 6

A 7-row Pony Drill ,„ 10 10 0

Economic Chaff Cutter 2 12 6

Hand Puljier i ]2 6

Prize Dressing Machines, from 6 10 0

Prize Horse-Gears, from 10 10 0

Early orders are respectfully solicited. Illustrate I Catalogues
sent free on application to the Atlas Works, Earl's Colne.

VINEGAR. — PArnONIZED BY HER MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT.

C O K"D IT'S
PATIENT FUR:^ COnCi:NTB.il.T£:D IM[aZ.T VINEO-AK.

FAMILIES, by using this delicious Vinegar, insure purity, and effect a saving of 50 per
Cent. See Report of Dr. Letheby, Cily Officer of Health, Dr. Hassell, of the ' Lancet' Commission,
and others. Sold by the Trade, in Bottles, labelled and capsuled. Wholesale

63, KING WILLIAM STREET, LONDON BRIDGE, E.G.
Six Quart Sample sent free to any Railway for 3s. 6d.

KEATING'S

POULTRY, DOGS, and PLANTS are effectually freed from Fleas and all other Vermin
with which they are infested by the above Powder, which is quite harmless to Animal Life. The
Farmer, the Gardener, or the Sportsman will therefore find it invaluable.

lu Packets post-free for 14, or treble size for 36 postage stamps, by Thos. Keating, Chemist, 79, St.
Paul's Churchyard, London, E.G.

See " The Field," Oct. 2nd and 9th, pp. 263, 283, & 294.

The Fourth Edition, just published, 8vo, in cloth, pries 5s., by post free, 5s. 6d.,

ON TRUE and FALSE SPERMATORRHCEA ; with the View to the Correction
of wide-spread Errors in relation to the Ti-eatment and Cure of Sufferers from Debility of the Generative
system, or Sexual Hvpochrondriasis.

Translated from the German of Dr. PICKFORD.
" Dr. Pickford is known to English readers by his frequent practical contributions to German medical
literature. This is the first time, he informs us, that he has addressed himself to the non-medical reader.
We trust that this may not bo the last, if he shall detect any other equally flagiart evil which it may be in his
power to correct." — London .Medical Gazette.

" The editor has conferred a great boon on the sufferers from this distressing malady by translating this
little book, and by laying bare the scandalous practices of unqualified adventurers, who profess to cure a dis-
ease of which they know nothing, with no other object than to fill their own purse.^. The difference between
true Spermatorrhoea and the various forms of disease which resemble it are accurately described, and thus a
safe guide is offered for the treatment of the malady." — Medical Circular.

" We have delayed so long upon the contents of the preliminary chapter, that we have scarcely left ourselves
space lor any notice of the tubject specially treated of by Dr. Pickford ; but the moderate price at which (he
' brochure' is sold, places it within the reach of every one interested in the matter." — Dublin Medical Press.

London: — H.Bailliere, 219, Regent-street.

THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.

MAY, 1859.

CONTENTS.

Plate I.— CAPTAIN SPENCER, and SUNBEAM.

Plate II.— FIFTH DUKE OF OXFORD : a Shorthorn Bull, the Property op the Right

Honourable Lord Feversham.

PAGE

Description of the First Plate ...... 371

Description of the Second Plate ...... 371

The Herds of Great Britain :

Captain Gunter's Herd ....... 372

The Towneley Herd ....... 376

Temperature. By Cuthbert W. JoHnson, Esa., F.R.S. .... 379

Spring Resorts of Prudent Farmers ...... 382

The Steam-plough on the Flemish Farm of the Prince Consort . . . 383

The Implement Judges at Chester, and their Award on the Portable Thrashing

Machines ......... 384

"The Beechen Tree" ........ 386

The Progress of Agriculture and the Country Members . . . 387

London, or Central Farmers' Club : The Progress of Agriculture . . 388

The Condition of the Agricultural Labourer ..... 400

The Progress of our Woollen Manufactures ..... 401

The Pupil System ........ 403

The Morality of Trade ....... 404

The Breed and Shape of a Cart-horse ...... 406

The Principles that should guide the Farmer in Breeding Stock, with more

especial reference to Horses ...... 407

Kingscote Agricultural Association : Cultivation of Mangel-wurzel . . 413

Proposed Premiums for Irish-bred Stock : The Irish Shorthorn . . . 416

National and Commercial Features of the North American Continent . . 419

The English Farmer in Belgium .:,... 427

The Cobham Sale of Shorthorns ...... 430

Cause OF Death from "Old Age" ..... .433

The Cattle of England and France ...... 434

Royal Agricultural Society of England ..... 436

Useful Suggestions upon the Growth of Seeds ..... 437

The Advance of Agriculture in Ireland ..... 438

The Royal Dublin Society: Spring Show ..... 440

Review ......... 444

Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour Imports in 1858 ..... 450

Sale of Mr. Wetherell's Herd. ...... 451

Calendar of Agriculture ....... 454

Calendar of Gardening ....... 454

Agricultural Reports ....... 455

Review of the Cattle Trade during the past Month .... 456

Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c, ..... 457

Review of the Corn Trade during the past Month . . . . 459

Corn Averages and Market Currencies ..... 461

^

1

^

^,^-

^

^

1l

'-^

'IllffI

lllllll

^2^4^:^^^f/6^^^^€:'^

■'c^'.

a/T^iaC^-A^oa

"^cZ^^^^i^y^t^

'cr/erscn & Tzi^zfijrd. 246,

^'^H

U

I,

MAY, 1859.

PLATE I.

CAPTAIN SPENCER, AND SUNBEAM.

ENCnAVED BY T. B. HUNT, FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY BANNISTER, OF CARLISLE.

Although Captain Spencer is hetter known to
the world by the triumphs of Sunbeam and Seagull
at Biggar and elsewhere, he is gradually establish-
ing a claim to rank among the best owners of
English Shorthorns. At present his herd only
numbers about fourteen, but four or five of them
are plums which would hold their own anywhere.
One of the earliest large purchases we remember
his making, was at Mr. Grenfell's sale in 1857,
when he gave 150 gs. for Lizzy a four-year-old
cow, by Fourth Duke of York (10167), dam Louisa
by Cramer (G907); and 60 gs. for her red calf,
Sappho, by Prince Duke (13507), who was only
twenty-three hours old at the time. At the Cob-
ham sale again, he went in for her other daughter
the elegant Leila, by Count Glos'ter (1 2650), and

the mysterious telegraph between him and Mr.
Strafford ended by his being declared the purchaser
for 170 gs. At Mr. Wetherell's sale, April 19,
he appeared as the successful candidate for
the beautiful heifer calf Bloom, by Lord Mayor
(14828), out of Lucy at 105 gs. ; and as Leila has
come home with a bull calf by Marmaduke, and is
going to Mr. Bolden's Third Grand Duke, there
is no fear for the future of the Distington Herd.
John Lvine, his greyhound trainer, and in short
his factotum, looks after them, and we hope in
due time to see his honest face beaming at the sight
of the prize ribbons in a Royal Show Yard, as it
has done so often already when the last Biggar
Cup tyes are ended.

PLATE II.
FIFTH DUKE OF OXFORD; A Shorthorn Bull,

THE PROPERTY OF THE RIGHT HON. LORD FEVERSHAM.

Fifth Duke of Oxford, bred by the late Earl
Ducie, and calved March 6th, 1853, is by Duke of
Glo'ster (11382), dam Oxford the Eleventh, by the
Fourth Duke of York (10167), out of Oxford the
Sixth, by Second Duke of Northumberland (3046)
—Oxford the Second, by Short Tail(262l)— Match-
em Cow, by Matchem (2281), &c.

Duke of Glo'ster, also bred by Lord Ducie, was
calved September 14th, 1850, and got by Grand
Duke (10284), dam Duchess 59th, by Second Duke
of Oxford (9046). At the memorable Tortworth
sale, on the decease of Lord Ducie in the autumn
of 1853, Duke of Glo'ster was sold to Colonel

OLD SERIES]

Morris and Mr. Becar, to go to America, for six
hundred and fifty guineas.

Oxford the Eleventh, bred by Mr. Bates, was
calved August 25th, 1849, and sold to Lord Ducie
at the Kirkleavington sale, in May, 1850, for a
hundred and twenty-five guineas. On his Lord-
ship's decease she was bought by Mr. Tanqueray
for two hundred and fifty guineas ; and again at
the Hendon sale, in the spring of 1855, was trans-
ferred to Mr. Gunter for five hundred guineas —
thus, curiously enough, doubling her price every
time she was put iip. Oxford the Eleventh
died at Wetherby during last summer.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Nothing struck U5 more at Tortworth than the
extraordinary prices given for the very young stock,
bulls, and cow calves of a few weeks old. We have
even now a vivid recollection of the prolonged
O — h's ! of admiration, and yet more genuine
astonishment, to which the hammer occasionally
fell. Lord Feversham in this keen contest secured
only three lots, but these included " Gloucester,"
the Paris prize bull of 1855, for which his Lord-
ship gave a hundred and twenty guineas, and
" Fifth Duke of Oxford," booked to him at three
hundred. They were both calves of a few months
old at the time. A portrait of the former appeared
in the Magazine in June, 1856, and we now pro-
ceed with the claims of that of his companion.

In 1855, Fifth Duke of Oxford took the first
prize of £5, at the Cleveland Show, as the best
two-year-old bull.

In 1856, at the Paris Universal Exhibition, he
was awarded a bronze medal, which reads equal to
a very high commendation. The over-feeding pro-
hibition, however, was enforced on this occasion,
and LordFeversham's stock, amongst that of some
other exhibitors, excluded from competition.

In the same year, at the Rotherham Meeting of
the Yorkshire Society, Fifth Duke of Oxford took
the second prize of £lO for bulls of any age, Mr.
Ambler's famous Grand Turk being preferred to
him.

In 1858, at the Chester Meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society, he took the first prize of £30
as the best Shorthorn bull, beating amongst others
Mr. Barrowby's Marc Anthony, Mr. Wetherell's
Statesman, Mr. Fawkes's Sir Edmund Lyons, and
Sir Charles Tempest's Napoleon.

In the August following, at the Northallerton
Meeting of the Yorkshire Society, he took the first
prize of £'25, again beating Statesman, Marc An-
thony, and Napoleon.

\Ye wrote thus of the Duke at the Chester Meet-
ing : "The best bull was undoubtedly the best
bred one in his class, coming direct from the Bates'
bloodj as preserved by Lord Ducie. But he was
yet quite a contradiction to look at. Of immense
size certainly, but very coarse in appearance, with
a plain head, a drooping horn, and big joints, the
Duke of Oxford owes his success almost entii'ely
to his quality. This was pronounced to be wonder-
fully fine. Seldom was there a beast that handled
so well, and this of itself proves his high descent.
He is not, however, an animal to please the eye;
while his dam, we believe, had the same ugly
straight horn and mean head." Mr. Robert
Smith in his Journal report says, " the immense
substance of this bull, together with his fine touch,
must have gone far to estabhsh him in so high a
position." Perhaps Mr. Davis has a little flattered
him.

THE HERD^S OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Chapter V.
CAPTAIN GUNTER'S HERD.

A very painful chord was struck at the Yorkshire
Agricultural Meeting of '49, when hundreds of
friends who expected to grasp him once more by the
hand, and to enjoy the half-sportive, half-sarcastic
lecture, on each prize beast, of " the old man eloquent"
of Kirkleavington, learnt for the first time, that he had
gone to his rest, and that their Shorthorn festival was
on his funeral day. His heart was with horn and
hoof to the last, and there was no " cruel Phyllis" to
cross him in that love. Those who have strolled with
him in his pastures, can recall how the cows and even
the young heifers would lick his hand, and seem to
listen to every gentle word and comment, as if they
penetrated its import ; and even when the last struggle
was nigh, and he could wander amongst them no more,
he reclined on some straw in the cow-house, that his eye
might not lack its solace.

Now, that perhaps less prejudiced but not more clear-
cutting brains are left to work their way up that channel
of science, wbich he buoyed out, each year confirms the
belief that he was not so very far wrong, when in speak-
ing of one ff his best Duchessps, be sairl to Lord Althorp,

" The destiny of Shorthorns depends on this calf; this
slender thread of a calf."

Still, although he had got as far as (63) he had made
but little figure with the Duchesses, when he moved
from the Tyneside to Kirkleavington, whither Red Rose
who had been bought from Jlr. Hustler, accompanied
him. She was three removes from Favourite on one
side and two on the other, and from the union of her
and the Earl (646) came second Hubback (1423). His
idolatry for this bull did his herd no small harm ; and
it was only when he found that he had lost 28 calves in
one year, solely through lack of constitution, that he be-
gan to cast about, and in vain applied to Mr. Whitaker
for his famous Frederick. That gentleman took Second
Hubback for a time, purely to oblige his friend ; but as
if to show the perverse whims of fortune, the stock of no
other bull made such prices at his sale. Perhaps on no
occasion was Mr. Bates so offended with any one as he
was with poor old Coates, when in 1828, he met him
with Mr. Whitaker and Colonel Powell of Pensylvannia,
in the yard at Greenholme. His aim was to get him, as a
great authority, to go and lay his hand, in the presence
of that pioneer of our Shorthorns in America, solemnly
on the bull, and speaking from t'ie hoary depths of ex-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

373

perience, to proclaim him quite equal to the First Hub-
back ; but the author of the " Herd Book" was not a
man to speak against his convictions, and not one step
would he stir.

In the following year, Mr. Bates saw the merits of
the Princess or St. Albans tribe (who had recovered the
quality which Jupiter lost), so keenly at Mason's sale,
that he determined, if possible, to get his new cross
from it. At that time St. Albans, who went direct to
Favourite and Hubback, missing the dreaded Punch, was
about fifteen years old, and he had been let for three
years into Northumberland. Mason had got him in a
sly way at first for £20, through a butcher, whom he
sent as his agent ; and when Mr. Wood was at Chilton
three years after, and only caught a glimpse of his head,
he exclaimed " Why there's my old Prince ; he
was bought to kill;" and sure enough it was Prince, but
cannonized in life as '' St. Albans !"

How to bring about his long-cherished combination
of the Princess of Barmpton, and the Duchess of
Ketton blood, was now the problem which puzzled the
lord of Kirkleavington, and which Belvedere so happily
solved. Oddly enough, this bull had been living only
ten miles off him, and for two long years his friend
Mr. Atkinson Greenwell had urged him to go and look
at him. One day he did condescend to drive over, and
strange as the coincidence may seem, the moment he in
his turn only glanced at his head through a square hole,
he knew that it was the blood he was seeking ; and he
said to himself, " Thou art mine if money 'II buy
thee." And buy him he did, then and there, for £50,
which he drew in notes from his pocket, and permission to
" send cows to the bull while he lives." The man
demurred when the money was paid, and said rather
sorrowfully to a friend afterwards, " I might as xoell
have had a hundred from Tommy Bates; he tvas so
very keen of him."

The Waterloo and Wild Eyes were fresh additions
about the era of Belvedere, from whose cross with
Red Rose 9th came Cambridge Rose 1st ; and so well
did it nick, that Belvedere was put on her in turn. At
the sale, however, this tribe was reduced to Cambridge
Rose 5th, and her two calves by Third Duke of York.
The 6th is still to remain as a memento at Cobham,
where she has so well kept up the line in female tail ;
while the 7th just took the opposite line in Mr.
Bolden's herd. The great triumph of Belvedere was
still to come from another cross with his own daughter,
Duchess (34), who beat Necklace at York. She had
broken her fore-leg, and Mr. Bates was within an ace of
selling her to the Americans, but luckily Mr. Whitaker
got him off it ; and she lived to produce the Duke of
Northumberland, a few months after. With the ex-
ception of this mighty roan, she never bred any but
red and whites, and Mr. Bates was determined to try
the effect of a third Belvedere cross with his prize
yearling at Oxford, who was own sister to the Duke of
Northumberland, if she had not been prematurely choked
with a turnip. To the eye of a well-known authority on
these matters, " Duke" looked a very delicate calf at five
months ; but his owner, strong in the faith of the double

Favourite cross in Comet, which he had here striven to
emulate, drew himself proudly up, and said, ^* Well !
Sir, I have the greatest hopes of him." After all his
honours, he came to no very glorious end, as he had
been kept low for the purpose of being put on Cleve-
land Lad's stock, and he died fairly maw-bound from
the effects of some mouldy hay ; leaving the 2nd Duke
of Oxford as the inheritor of his honours.

The Oxford tribe sprung from a cow by Matchem,
supposed by St. Albans, whom Mr. Bates accidentally
bought after Mason's sale. He did not admire his
choice, and when she had bred a calf to Duke of Cleve-
land, who ripened into the Oxford premium cow, she
was packed off to Darlington. Mr. Bates's lucky star
was in the ascendant that market day, as no one would
bid within £"'2 of the jgll, which he had set on her,
and she afterwards calved Cleveland Lad, Cleveland 2nd
(the sire of Grand Duke), and Oxford 2nd, all to Short-
tail by Belvedere. Her Oxford premium cow was
deficient in girth and gaudy behind, and in fact her
owner was so ashamed of her in that point, that
when she was beaten by Bracelet at Berwick, he hung
not "a calf-skin" but a horse rug " on those recreant
limbs," and vowed he would show her no more. Failure
as she might be, there was no mistake as to the cross
between the Duke of Northumberland and her half-
sister Oxford 2nd, resulting as it did in that fine bull,
2nd Duke of Oxford, who was put on the Duchess tribe,
and got five out of the eight plums on the Kirkleavington
day.

Mr. Bates had two very favourite maxims — one that
he " could find forty men fit to be a Premier, for one fit
to judge Shorthorns;" and the other that there was
" no place for Shorthorns, like the Valley of the
Wharfe." The late Mr. Whitaker, and Mr. Fawkes, of
Farnley, have proved this to the full ; but it was left to
Captain Gunter to found a second Kirkleavington on
its banks, and to vow that eternal allegiance to the
Duchesses and the Oxfords which their great founder had
done. His Wetherby Grange estate is well adapted
for its new colony, which moved there in the August of
1857, from Earl's Court near Kensington. It consists
of 600 acres on both sides of the river, 400 of which
are kept in grass. The house once belonged to " Kit
Wilson," the owner of Comus and the father of the
Turf, and some of his horses were trained in the Park.
Woods, sacred, in the terms of the time-honoured toast,
to " The Bramham Moor and 25 couple," flank it on
one side, and overhang the river as it steals along to-
wards Thorp Arch ; and the Captain was just returning
in his pink, from " the run of the season," as we en-
tered the foldyard with his steward, Mr. Knowles.

It was at Tortworth that the latter confirmed the
rich experience he had gained under Mr. Thomas Mason
at Broughton, and it was thence thathegathered the germs
of that herd which he has so ably helped to found for his
new master. Tortworth, on August 24th 1853, was a veri-
table Bunker's Hill removed. England was pitted against
America once more — the guineas of the old country
against the "almighty dollars" of the new. Messrs.
Morris and Becar bid by their agent ; but Mr, Thome

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

did his own business, in a cool Quaker-like-style, with
which it was almost hopeless to cope. His first English
purchase for Thorndale was a 14-guinea bull-calf at
Captain Pelhain's sale, which he afterwards sold for
upwards of 300 gs. to the West of America. It is cal-
culated that he laid out at least fifteen thousand in five
years on Shorthorns ; and he bought up fifty-two lots
when the Morris and Becar confederacy was dissolved by
the latter's untimely death, at prices which had hitherto
only been read of by his countrymen, in the English
prints.

Previous to the Tortworth sale, Captain Gunter had
only a few Alderneys and ordinary Shorthorns, and he
had not made up his mind as to whether he should buy
on that day ; but the bitter complaints of some Glouces-
tershire farmers, who shared his waggon, as to the
American's getting Duchess (59) fired him into action
at last. He accordingly bid 200 guineas for the twen-
tieth lot, Duchess (64), but it was hardly taken, and
his 400 gs. was soon left in the rear by the Transatlantic
rivals. He did not touch the 700-guinea Duchess (66),
but Duchess (67), the fifteen months heifer by Usurer
out of Duchess (59) (the highest priced female at the
Kirkleavington sale), fell to his nod for 350 guineas, and
then Duchess (70) by Duke of Glos'ter (11,382), cut
of Duchess (66), followed suit for 310 gs. She was
only a trifle over six weeks, and the Americans had no
idea of leaving hc-r ; but as one of them said afterwards,
it was " the way in which that other bidder said ' and
ten guineas,' almost before my bidding was out of my
mouth," that made him falter and give in. It was with
these two, and Duchess (69) by 4th Duke of York, whom
he afterwards bought privately at nine months for 500 gs.,
from Mr. Tanqucray, that Captain Gunter commenced
his herd. Dachess (67) was sent at a 25-guinea fee to
4th Duke of Oxford, and Duchess (69) to Mr. Tanqxe-
ray's Dake of Cambridge, who was afterwards so famed
at Fawsley, and Duchess (72) and Archduke were the
respective results. His next purchase was the 6th
Duke of Oxford, at Hendon, for 200 gs ; and his dam
Oxford llth for 500 gs. more, when she was just four
years old. He had originally intended to have bought
the Duke of Cambridge, but Mr. Strafford's sand ran
out, in favour of the Fawsley baronet, who, strange to
say, had his eye rather on the 6th Duke of Oxford. Lord
Feversham had shown his opinion of 5th Duke of
Oxford by giving 300 gs. for him as a five month's calf
at Tortworth, and the judges twice over last year, at
Chester and Northallerton, confirmed his Lordship's
dashing decision, in Banco.

The farm-buildings at Wetherby arc on the right-
hand side on the top of the hill, as you cross the bridge
in the direction of Bramham Moor. In Mr. Wilson's
time, they were used as a kennel ; but their primitive
character is fast disappearing, under the hand of the
stone-mason. At present twelve female Duchesses,
three Duchess bulls, and two Oxford bulls are housed
there, but two of the latter were let. It is in fact en-
tirely a herd for letting, and not for selling. Captain
Gunter candidly says that a thousand guineas would not
tempt him to sell one of his cows at all in England, or

abroad without a guarantee ; and as the tribe are re-
markably prolific, we may expect to see the numbers
stretch away into an almost inBnitesimal series. Itcan-
not be said of us that we

"Lisped in numbers, and the numbers came,"
and having been plunged into utter despair at first, there
was no hope for it but to commence with Duchess (67),
and to ask to have her and her progeny out by her side.
And out they came accordingly, into the field where the
Wetherby Show is held, preceded by the old cow, whose
head and waxy horn at once told her descent. Her
oldest daughter Duchess (72), is a roan, and the first
calf Captain Gunter ever bred ; and her bull-calf Arch-
duke 2nd, by 6th Duke of Oxford, is let to Mr.
Langston, M.P. The white Duchess (75), by the same
bull, out of Duchess (67), was third in the array, and
the handsomest of the three. In her general style, her
beautiful breast, and rich coat, she reminds us not a little
of Stanley Rose. Then her sisters the twins (78) and
(79) came struggling out with the herd boys. The roan
had an especially fine coat, and a very fawn-like head; but,
perhaps, in all its points, the white was the neater of
the two. The old cow has made good use of her time,
as, in addition to this quartet, she has lost a bull-calf
and is in-calf again. And so having traced the pro-
gress of the first Tortworth bid, we went gaily on to the
second, and Duchess (70) marched out to bear her
witness. She retains all the original colour of the
Duchesses (for there never was a white one before Duch-
ess (50), and has the same beautiful expressive head, and
nice hair, but her hind- quarters are not quite in keeping
with her fine shoulders.

The doctrine of chances was never so strangely ex-
emplified [as in her grandam Duchess (55), who was
bought by Earl Ducie, when six years old, as a doubtful
breeder at the Kirkleavington sale. Mr. Bates had been
wont to crab her dam, because she was by Norfolk, for
whom Mr. Fawkes had given the then great sum of 1 20 gs.
at Mr. Whitaker's sale. His inconsistency was all the
more striking, as he had himself purchased Norfolk's
dam Nonpareil for 103 gs. there, and when he
came out such a crack bull, with one of his usual im-
pulses, he sent off" Duchess (33) and five others to him
forthwith. The Messrs. Booth and Torr had a strong
notion of going as high as 300 gs. jointly for Duchess
(55) ; but the prospect of her breeding seemed so very
problematical, that they let her pass them at 105 gs.,
almost without a regret. In the following year, she
lost her bull-calf to Usurer, as she fell ill of the local
epidemic from which she had escaped scathless her first
year, and which caused his lordship to lose no less than
sixty calves. They were slunk away in a painless
manner, as if under the effect of r.n irritant poison, and
a less lion-hearted man than the Earl would have thrown
up the cards in despair. Before his lordship bought
this cow, she had bred Mr. Bolden's first thousand-
guinea Grand Duke^ and Duchess (64), who was re-
sold at Tortworth for 600 gs.,then in-calf of 2ud Grand
Duke, who also brought Mr. Bolden a thousand. This
double dam and grandam wreath seemed enough for
one cow ; but she proved at thp Kirkleavington sale to

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375

be five months gone in calf with Duchess (G6), who also
crossed the Atlantic with 700 gs, on her head — a sum
never before attained for a female. Duchess (6G) re-
mained at Hendon for a considerable time, and calved
a heifer to the Duke of Glo'ster, for whom Captain
Gunter offered 500 gs. in vain ; and she had not only
twin heifers to the same bull next year in America,
whither he departed at her side, but has bred regularly
ever since.

But we must hark back. Duchess (70) was accom-
panied by her two calves — the red and white (73), and
the roan (77). Both are by 6lh Duke of Oxford, and
the elder one, which wore the first prize ribbons at
Wetherby, last autumn, had the more substance, and
the younger the more elegance of the twain. On the
whole we preferred the latter, and it needed only a sight
of her to prove that there was no degeneration in the
Duchesses, and that there could be no mistake between
mellowness and looseness.

And then we got among the Duchess (G9) tribe, and
as the old cow had calved her fourth that morning,
we waited, in due course, on her; and her Duchess
(76), a thirteen-months heifer, came out first to do the
family honours. She is wonderfully good over the
loins, and looks a milker even now. Her dam is very
great in this respect, and they had to milk her for some
time before she calved. She was lying down after the
labour of the day, and hence, though we could not fully
judge of her fine length, there was enough to catch the
eye in the gentle grandeur of that head, which was
specially modelled for Mr. Brandreth Gibbs's testimo-
nial. In quality she was quite equal to the rest of her
tribe, but on a larger scale altogether.

We asked in vain for Oxford lltb, but she was struck
with lightning in the park last July, and died soon after
of apoplexy. She had bred six bulls, one of them Lord
Feversham's Royal prize winner, and she was in calf to
her son (6th Duke of Oxford) when she died. Of her three
bull calves in Captain Gunter's hands, only one. Grand
Duke of Oxford, by 2nd Grand Duke, has come to ma-
turity : and it was with him that Prince Albert dipped
into the Bates blood in 1857, and Colonel Kingscote in
1858. One of her two by Duke of Cambridge was born
dead ; and the other, Duke of Oxford, met with a most
singular end at Earl's Court. A rat had got into his
trough, and frightened him so that he ran out of the
shed, and in trying to jump the rail into his paddock he
fell on his head, and fairly splintered his horn into his
brain. This bull-breeding propensity does not run in
her son 6th Duke of Oxford's veins, as hitherto ninety
per cent, at least of his get have been heifers. We had
scarcely emerged from the presence of Duchess (69),
when he appeared, and it was not difficult to guess from
whence all that richness of hair had come to the stock.
He was a perfect Esau at his birth , and in this respect
he is perhaps superior to his brother, but, unlike him,
he has never been shown. The first three of his stock
were born in Canada West, and one of them won the
first prize at Toronto.

And now having got rid of the night-mare numbers,
which might well make us one of those

" Who dreads to speak of 98,
Who trembles at the name — "

we got once more among the heifers ; and Fair Maid of
Wetherby, by The Buck, out of Mr. Combe's Flirt, by
Puritan, and Moss Rose, were the fresh introductions.
The former of these two was commended at Northaller-
ton, and the latter was second in the same class to
Windsor's splendid daughter. Queen of the Isles, who
beat Nectarine Blossom, Great Mogul, Fifth Duke of
Oxford, Royal Butterfly, Queen of Trumps, Rose of
Athelstane, Maid of Athelstane, and, in short, every
winning animal in the yard, for the special £2(i
prize. Such a defeat is far better worth recording than
scores of lesser victories. Many have differed as to the
merits of Captain Gunter's two ; but we decidedly go
for the roan Moss Rose, who is the thicker^ though
perhaps not so level, as her companion. Her
shoulders and head are perfection, and she has a proud
style of showing herself, which is some points in her
favour ; and we have seldom seen a greater coquette in
this way. Her style and quality all comes from Sixth
Duke of Oxford, as her dam Red Rose is a very
mean-looking cow, but a wonderful milker. The
Duchess of Oxford, a thick square beast, by Fourth
Duke of Oxford, and purchased at Mr. Sainsbury's
sale, followed her ; and there were some historical recol-
lections connected with her Badminton brother. He
not only won the .£100 gold medfil at Paris, for the
best animal of English breed, beating Mr. Stratton's
white Smithfield gold medallist of '56 ; but he was so
toothsome in death, that the French committee awarded
the roast beef, and, we believe, the soup prize to his
remains ; whilst a Highlander, also from Badminton, was
victorious in the boiled beef post, mortem. We only
saw one of the Grand Duke of Oxford's get,'and that
was a pretty-looking bull-calf. Earl of Oxford, with all
the hereditary Duchess marks, and then we were sum-
moned to a levee of eight calves in the barn. Red
Blossom, sister to Moss Rose, soon caught the eye ; but
although she is a better toucher than her sister, she has
not the same substance and grandeur. There were
also our old friends the twins, and Mr. Knowles soon
composed a tableaux of these two venerable aunts with
their neat dark roan niece, Duchess (80), between them.
Then there was Modesty, and Ada, a daughter of Acorn,
by Handel, a fine but leggy cow, who was drawn up
on parade at the barn-door as we came out. Her dam,
Apple, was sold for the Emperor of the French's dairy,
and gained, it was said, the honour of having her milk
reserved for the heir to the throne. With her this herd
of full fifty head came to a close, and we did not care to
adjourn through the pouring rain to the pigs for an
afterpiece. Hence we contented ourselves with hearing
that in 1853 those styes of Ducie and Wiley blood
made £400 in prices and prizes in one year, and that
there were eleven medals among, them ; and on the
morrow we went our way once more, in search of fresh
herds and pastures new.

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Chapter VI.

THE TOWNELEY HERD.

A weary wait of two hours, oa a wet clay, at Todmor-
den station, with nothing but the chimneys of a dull
little manufacturing town to gaze at, is not a cheery re-
miniscence in any man's life ; and never was railway-
whistle so welcome as that which told us that we were
once more on our way towards Towneley. The route lies
among wild guUeys and hills, clothed to their summits
with fir and heather ; but a valley at last opened to the
right, and till the countless chimneys of Burnley (which
have no notion of consuming their own smoke, and play
Old Harry with fleeces in consequence) began to rear
themselves in the murky distance, we were under the de-
lusion that for the remainder of the day, at the least, we
had exchanged mules and spinning-jennies for sheep
and shorthorns.

The Towneley domains, which have a private station
of their own, extend right down to the town, and share
with it in the discomforts of one of the wettest and
rawest climates in the whole of Great Britain. Pendle
Hill, whose fame has long been preserved in the not very
smooth-running couplet —

" Pendle Hill, Penaykant, and Little Ingleborough,
Are the largest of the hills, if you search England thorough."

rises guardian-like over the town; and a long avenue
from the front-door of the hall points right away, past
the gamekeeper's cottage, to another range of grouse-
hills on the north. The Colonel's home-farm consists
of five hundred acres, chiefly grass. It is about one of
the last " bowers" in which a veritable butterfly would
think of being born. The land is on a cold blue clay
subsoil„and the Government draining has done but little
for it. Harvests do not" laugh and sing" there, as corn
cannot be got to ripen on it, one year in six ; mangel
wurzels will have nothing to do with it ; and hence
nearly all the root-food and straw have to be purchased
from Ormskirk. The herd has had a fearful battle
to fight, in order to compete with the rich grazing
counties, and but for the undaunted energy and science
of the bailiff, Mr. Joseph Culshaw, backed up by
the most liberal and spirited of masters, it could never
have stood its ground, and brought so many great rivals
low in their turn.

Mr. Culshaw was bred and born at Broughton,
and used to run about and help his stepfather, who
was herdsman at Mr., now Sir Charles, Tempest's,
before he could even milk or fasten up a cow.
His peeps at the difi'erent herds on the banks
of the Wharfe had gradually inoculated him
with a burning taste for the thing. He was never
weary of telling Bob Gill, the farmer, that they
ought to have something beyond mere dairy cows at
Broughton Hall ; and when Sir Charles bought Verbena
and her daughter Vestris, and he was sent with the latter
to the best bull Mr. Whitaker had at Greenholme, his
future destiny was clear. No ambassador to a Peace
Congress had a higher sense of his responsibility than
" little Joe" that day. The cow lay down about twenty
times in the last three miles, and the season was off her

when she did get there ; but those toils and woes were
forgotten when Mr. Whitaker, admiring the lad's enthu-
siasm, showed him all over his herd. He returned home
repeating " April Daisy," " White/ace," " Pretty,
face," ^^ Nonpareil,'" s.nd. so on to himself, to beguile
the road, and at last ventured to speak up to Sir Charles,
who promised that he would go over and see them, and
take him again. The visit never came ofl' ; and the ap-
pointed day dawned bitterly on the lad, when after
lying awake all night, he received a message to the effect
that Sir Charles and his party had changed their minds.
However, Bell by Bertram was purchased on the
Broughton account, at Mr. Whitaker's sale ;
and it was under Mr. Thomas Mason, who soon
afterwards came as agent, that the future
Towneley herdsman gleaned his chief experience.
Twenty-four years of his life were thus spent ; then fol-
lowed a yearand a-half with Mr. Ambler ; and in 1849 he
came to Towneley, and, working on the good material
Messrs. Eastwood and Straff'ord had previously col-
lected for him, he soon found himself at the head of a
herd which was destined to play no second part in the
annals of Shorthorns.

The germs of it were some ten or twelve cows and
bulls, which Mr. Eastwood handed over to Colonel
Towneley. Among them were Ruby, the last he bred ;
Gem, a great local winner, by Harlsonia ; Bessy, the
dam of Frederick, who had four calves within one year of
coming to Towneley, and then twins again ; and also
Gipsy, and Buttercup. The latter had bred Horatio by
Hamlet the year before, and she then calved Butterfly,
who played second to Ruby's first, twice over, at Exeter
and Windsor. Colonel Towneley won with Ruby, as
well as Duke of Lancaster (both of them by Lax's Duke),
in his first year, at the Yorkshire Society ; and it was at
a meeting of the same society that her calf Ruby IV.
gave Booth's Queen of the May (who is, we are assured,
not " slightly down in one hip") the first of the only two
defeats she ever sustained. This celebrated cow also bred
Richard Cceur de Lion (whom we were requested to
abbreviate into plain " Dick"). They also had another
cow named Ruby, who was purchased at Lord Craven's,
and won the Smithfield Gold Medal. She was a rich
red roan, very like Booth's Hope, and her daughter,
Jenny Lind, is now in Mr. Grundy's hands. In ad-
dition to the above, came Cressida, for 110 gs., at
Mr. Parkinson's sale, where Lord Ducie went as high
as 105 gs. for her ; and then the small but select herd
which Mr. Strafford purchased from Mr. Bannerman,
who had them from the late Mr. John Booth, of Killerby.
Among the latter were Alice, Beauty, and Mantle, in
calf of Beauty's own brother Valiant. A hundred
guineas were also well laid out at Kirkleavington on
Duchess (54), and she proved in calf of The Duchess
of Athol, who went with her half brother, 2nd Duke of
Athol, to America, for 500 guineas, and from this sale
early in '53, the revival of Shorthorn prices undoubtedly
dates.

Our first introduction, on i caching Towneley, was
to Vestris TIT., who won the head prize in the
cow class at the Paris Universal Show, when she was

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

377

only two years and three months old , and had calved but
two months before. Mr: Douglas's Rose of Summer was
her principal opponent, and in the same year she was
second to Victoria at Salisbury, with Moss Rose and
Nectarine Blossom in her wake. She has had three
living calves, and was just within twelve days of calving
to Baron Hopewell. There is very rich quality of flesh
and hair in her, and she has plenty of bosom and sub-
stance to fill the eye, but perhaps her hips arc a little
too prominent, and she might have been longer in the
quarters. Pride, who stood near her, was very close on
calving to Frederick. She was purchased at the sale of
Mr. Grenfell's herd, and came there from her breeder
Lord Ducie. These two stood at the lodge, and a drive of
about half mile up the avenue brought us to some farm
buildings on the left, which are termed Jacob's Barn,
not from any Scriptural connection, but from a farmer
of that name who rented it. Foremost among the ten
who were housed there was the patriarchess of the herd,
Butterfly, by Booth's Jeweller out of Buttercup. She
was the first to show, and, with the exception of a free
martin, she was the first female Col. Towneley ever bred.
She still retains her fine gay appearance, but the calf-
bed has protruded so much, that she has been obliged
to lie low, with her head on a boarded frame, in order to
keep it in its place. Her fore-quarters are beautiful,
and the rump, which has got somewhat swelled and dis-
figured by perpetually rubbing against the wall in her
new position, serves as a foil for them. The renowned
Master Butterfly is the second of her five calves, and
Royal Butterfly the last ; and at present she is in calf to
Butterfly's Nephew. Her public career has been, as the
theatres have it, one blaze of triumph. Among her
thirty prizes, she won all the female ones at the Royal
Society, and confirmed the yearling heifer one at Thirsk ;
and she had the honour of beating Booth's Windsor and
Bridesmaid for the Irish Agricultural Challenge Cup the
time she finally won it at Armagh. It must be, however?
stated, in justice to this pair, that when they went to
Blackburne, and won the Towneley Challenge Cups, they
had beaten the Colonel's herd (which were not in the Cup
competition) for the Society's medals. She was also among
the four at Sheffield, which won Mr. Bright's the silver-
smiths' prize for the best lot at the Yorkshire Society,
and the time-piece in the dining-room at the hall is the
record of that triumph. Two of her Irish cups form an
important feature in the Towneley plate chest, to which,
among others. Roan Duchess 2nd has contributed a
Dublin Challenge Cup of i.'120 value, and Beauty's
Butterfly that Durham Cup, which was given by Lord
Adolphus Vane last autumn.

Three heifer calves, to wit, Vestris 5 th, the white
Precious Stone, and Butterfly's Decorum, all by Master
Butterfly 4th, who was sold about a year since to the
Emperor of the French, were turned out next, and a
very nice trio they made. Precious Stone had a beauti-
ful long top, and is as level as a die along it 3 Vestris
5th was very neat and good ; and Butterfly's Decorum
is the thickest of the lot, with a wonderful chest, great
in the fore flank and remarkably smart in the head. A
red bull-calf, Precursor, by the same bull out ^of one of

Lord Ducie's Duke of Glo'ster cows, shows well for the
cross, but still we should have liked a little more length
in tht3 quarters. The bull-boxes then discharged their
tenants in succession, to wit, the gay Master Proud-
fellow. Butterfly's Nephew, a young bull with wonder-
ful width of breast and back, and Master Butterfly 5th,
the youngest bull-calf Master Butterfly has left in
England. The latter is a very stylish red, with a rare
forehand, and well represents his sire. He is out of
Cameo, a half-sister to Butterfly, and 400 gs. was
refused for him when a yearling. He took the first
prize at the Wharfdale Agricultural Society ; but as he
lost eleven months in age, he has not been shown as a
yearling. Royal Butterfly, own brother to Master
Butterfly, holds his court in the central barn, from which
he marched out, every inch a kiag. He is very like
his renowned brother, but rather thicker in flesh and
richer in his roan. We have seldom seen the favourite
cylinder simile so completely typified, and a plumb line
rests level on every part of him. He comes to Cul-
shaw's call like a lamb, and his head is seen in perfec-
tion as he lifts it, and bestows upon him the most affec-
tionate of salutes. His dam had held this barn as the
post of honour till about a month before, when the frame
became absolutely necessary. Royal Butterfly was shown
at Chester, but was so unwell with purging as to be
obliged to leave the yard. Another fortnight, however,
saw him take the head prize at Northallerton, and he is
now in rude health, and ready to meet all comers at
Warwick .

We should like to have brought back Master Butterfly
to the barn from which he marched forth in successive
years to Lincoln, Carlisle, and Chelmsford, to vanquish
John O'Groat, Grand Turk, and Fifth Duke of Oxford ;
but the wish was vain, and we could only dwell in me-
mory on that symmetrical form, which knew little or no
change, when it was shipped at the East India Docks,
from what it was, when he was seen taking his breakfast
of rich new milk as a winning calf at Lincoln.

He knew no check to his victories either ia England,
Ireland, or Paris ; and such was his luck, that when
disease came among the cattle in the French show-yard,
he missed it entirely. Mr. Straft'ord negotiated his
purchase for Mr. Bostock in the Chelmsford Show Yard,
and he was taken off to the shippers at once. He went to
Mr. Ware, of Geelong, in Australia, and was exhibited
soon after his arrival at half-a-crown a-head for the
benefit of its Agricultural Society. Nothing could be
more docile during his long voyage out, and while the
passengers fed him with biscuits, it was quite a diversion
among the sailors to see him answer to his name like
a dog, and take so very kindly to chewing tobacco.
Unhappily, the man who went out in charge of him died,
and he has shown some little temper since. The papers
very early made him play in the farce of " Twice
Killed," and when he rancorously persisted in living,
they plunged him into " a very delicate stace of
health." His former guardian was hard of belief,
but really as report followed report, he might
have almost been tempted to exclaim to him in an
agony across the Pacific, " Och hone! tohy did you

37S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

die?" All we know is, that he saw the happy New
Year in, and that on the last day of January he was
rather low in condition, but in full vigour and spirits;
and that oat of the eighty-five cows which were put to
hitn in his second season, seventy-nine had already
calved. His owner bought several with the B. brand,
which, from the immense care Mr. John Boldcn — who
took over Mussulman, and other choice specimens of the
Bates, Booth, Cradock, and Lax blood — bestowed on
breeding, has long been synonymous with excellence in
the New World. On a muster, two years since, of these
B.'s and their progeny, they numbered about nine hun-
dred. All the females, with the exception of one hun-
dred and sixty, were spayed ; and these were again
reduced by culling one hundred, to the five dozen which
Mr. Ware reserved for a cross with his Master But-
terfly. The rest of the aforesaid eighty-five were
made up by ten from Mr. Ware's brother, and fifteen
from Ferry Creek station.

With such Australian gossip we beguiled our walk past
the front of the Hall, which lies in a hollow under Saga
Bank, to the head- quarters of the herd — about a good
bowshot beyond. A Chester prize sow by " Old Joe" wa^
one of the first objects that caught our eye there ; and if
she or any of her present progeny ever appear at Baker-
street, with their bill of fare over their heads, we shall
enter a protest with the stewards if coals is not one of
the items ; for more inveterate crunchers of that mineral
we can never hope to meet. This yard itself has gra-
dually risen from being an old timber one into its pre-
sent dignity. Twelve new loose boxes have been built,
and others are contemplated, so as to completely en-
circle it. They are all as comfortable as thought and
money can make them. The troughs are let into the
wall ; the corners are all levelled, and while the ventila-
tion is managed through the door and from above, the
draught all comes from below. We began with Butterfly
v., out of Butterfly III., who bas every appearance of
sustaining the family charter, and then Roan Duchess II.
marched forth. She gets a strong touch of the Duchess
horn, is still as even as a heifer, and displays to perfec-
tion that wonderful back which tells of her descent from
Kirkleavington. All the Royal and Yorkshire prizes
fell to her in succession ; and such are her milking
qualities, that she gave sixteen quarts after her first
calving. So far she has had three calves, and she is in
calf again to Royal Butterfly. Her dam, Roaa
Duchess, out of Red Duchess by Cleveland Lad, was
bred by Mr. Wetherell, and was bought at his sale by
Mr. Eastwood, in 1850. She was afterwards sold to
Kentucky, in calf to Urederick; and the produce, a bull-
calf, is named Towneley, and wears a silver ring in
his nose as a token of his high lineage.

From her we passed on to Rose of Towneley, by the
Squire (a half-brother to Frederick) out of Roseleaf,
who goes back to the Barmpton Rose tribe, and was
sold to the French Government. They had only one
more by him, which found a purchaser in Mr. Thorne, of
New York, for 400 guineas— so that Frederick does not
seem to have monopolized all the family virtue. Rose
of Towneley herself is so level and straight behind, that

she forms a complete parallelogram, thick and compact
as needs be, and with rare length from the huggins ; but
perhaps her handling might be better. Beauty's But-
terfly (the Smithfield candidate) stood third, and never
did heifer lay it on more level everywhere. She began
once as if for calving ; but it was a false alarm. There
is no superfluity of bosom ; but it was delightful to get
her foreshortened, and catch the fine sweep of
the crops and that half-acre of back. Anon wc
came to the Chester ten, through whom Booth's
Queen of the Isles swept so proudly; and out
they came in pairs ; beginning with the very gay Fre-
derica's Rosa, an.l the very thick Venillia's Butterfly,
the last of the pledges that Master Butterfly left to
his birthplace. Alice Butterfly and Young Barmpton
Rose, by " Dick," made a second couplet ; and, like the
two former, each of them has had a calf. " Dick" was
doubly represented, in the next box, by Emma and
Pearl ; both thick-fleshed and near the ground, and each
the dam of a bull-calf. Emma has been put to Royal
Butterfly, and she took our fancy more than any up to
that point; or even Evadne by Frederick, andViolaute
by Valiant, out of Roan Duchess, However, we veered
round from " Dick" to Frederick, when we caught a
sight of his two daughters. Diadem and Fidelity. The
latter is very good ; but still we always expect to see
Diadem keep her pride of place. This beautiful straw-
berry roan has not that wondrous wealth which enchains
the eye in Queen of the Isles ; but she wears the exact
Towneley type of fine, well-sustained length and substance,
with that undeniable back which came in with Frede-
rick. Then we looked at the rather small, but neat Brace-
let, a three-year-old heifer by him, out of Pearly, sister to
Ringlet (who was bought by Mr. Douglas for 500 guineas
at two years old) ; and near her stood one of the produce
of these ten young mothers, to wit, Rose of Lancaster,
out of Young Barmpton Rose, and a grand-daughter
of Rosemary, who won the first prize at Paris for
yearling heifers. The former is the best of the two,
and looks like a " Follow-me" sort of lady when show-
days come round.

The young bull calf Bowbearer was still being nursed
by his dam Frederick's Victoria, who was not three-and-
twenty months when he was calved, and the little fellow
speaks for himself as to the milking properties of the
Frederick blood. He is by Baron Hopewell (by Hope-
well out of Baroness, by Baron Warlaby), whom Col.
Towneley has bought, gs a new cross for the heifers
by Master Butterfly out of Frederick's cows. So far
they have used him sparingly ; but Bowbearer, who has a
great deal of the Hopewell about him in the sweet coun-
tenance, and slightly upright horns, as well as two other
bull calves, out of the Barmpton Rose tribe, furnish
every encouragement to proceed.

Anon we adjourned to the Frederick side of the
house, and found Field Mate, by him out of Vestris
III., full of quality and hair, but rather low in condition.
Before her son, Gold Medal by Jasper (half brother to
Butterfly), came on to parade, we asked after Victoria,
the queen of the dozen wreaths for flesh and figure, and
found that she had been slaughtered in November. She

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

379

had bone foul in one foot, and displacement of the calf-
bed to boot, and Col. Towneley accordingly issued his
warrant, and gave her away to his labourers. She had
been very much reduced since the Birmingham and
Baker-street trips, wilh a view to her calving, which
took place on May 23 ; but still her fat alone sold for
£0. Her first calf was by Frederick; and her second,
Gold Medal, has been sold for a long sum to Mr.
Atkinson, of Bywell, in Northumberland, who has
bought several other specimens of the herd.

We at last reached Frederick, who was the first bull
that Col. Towneley ever bred, and like Jasper he was a
twin, but neither of the twin sisters bred. Through his
progenitors, Duke and Bessy, he unites Mr. Lax's and
the Barmptoa Rose blood, and by putting him on But-
terfly they got a second cross of the latter. Nearly
all the principal winners in the herd, Master Butterfly,
Roan Duchess II., Blanche VI., Ringlet, Fredericall ,
&c., are by him, and he can thus boast of more prizes,
even in these fierce days of competition, than any bull
on record. He was never shown himself, but was used
by the Colonel's tenants for three years, and they soon
began to sea that he had left them something better than
their neighbours. Cows never come to any of the bulls,
but the Colonel has given no less than twenty-three bull
calves for the use of his tenants ; and a cow by Gay-
lad, with only one cross in her, bore striking testi-
mony, as she strolled about the yard, to the value of such
a loan. All applications to hire him or to send cows to
him by different parties have been refused, although
some of them have been tempting enough. He generally
gets them strawberry roan, like himself, and nearly
equal in sex ; and all the heifers, with two exceptions,
have sustained that milking property for which his own
dam Bessy was so remarkable. He is now ten years
old, and as straight as a. line in spite of it. His quarters

are long and neat ; but we did not admire his head so
much as some do, and thought the outline of it rather
too straight, though the ejc gives it a very blood-like
character.

At present the herd consists of about fifty head, and
from twenty-five to thirty calves are bred every year
to repair the gaps, which are left by extensive sales.
Such is its prolific character, since Mr. Culshaw dis-
covered the philosopher's stone, which enables him to
combine fat and fertility, that in one season, when
Master Butterfly departed for Mr. Strafford's £1,260
cheque, and the same gentleman also gave 1,000 guineas
for three heifers — Butterfly II., Miss Buttercup, and
Pearlettc— on behalf of Mr. Thorne— no less than £6,200
worth was sold, and the herd knew no reducliou in
numbers with the new year.

In 1858 the Emperor of the French was a customer
for two cows, a bull, and a bull calf; and this year they
have sold four bulls, and let two. Col. Towneley has
exhibited ten years at the " Royal," and got his
maiden prize at Norwich, as second to Mr. B. Wilson
in the yearling heifer class. Since then his seconds and
H. C.'s have been legion, and his first Royal prizes
have amounted to sixteen, the largest number ever won
by one herd in the same time ; and that in the teeth of
training competition very different to what it was in the
quiet old days. Every heifer or cow prize has been
claimed, save when Vestris calved a dead calf a month
before its time, and thus forfeited her second prize.
Cycles of barrenness (we only speak in a prize-winning
sense) generally follow those of profusion, and last year
his luck came to a check ; but if Gladiolus be any
omen, we shall not have to wait long before we see him
" come again" on what has proved such a Field of
the Cloth of Gold, and be foremost among the best
once more.

TEMPERATURE.

BY CUTHBERT ^Y. JOHNSON, ESQ., E.R.S.

A few April nights, with a temperature below
the freezing j)oint of water, naturally enough re-
minds the gardener and the agriculturist of its re-
sults on their crops.* The gardener is, perhaps,
most affected by its influence, and is therefore
more wont to ponder over the injury it inflicts.
His domain is tenanted by too many natives of
warmer climates than our own, to render him secure
from the effects of considerable and rapid transi-
tions in the temperature of the atmosphere. The
agriculturist, however, is very materially interest-
ed in such transitions : they largely influence.

* The thermometer, which stood at 22 dcgs. early
in the mornin;;- of April 1, was not lower than .53°
on the night of the 6th ; it descended to 28° on
that of the l6th; was not lower than 45° on the
23rd, but was at 26^ on that of the 22nd.

not only the condition of his hve slock, but the
prosperity of his crops. Let us see how this kind
of knowledge has gradually promoted the profitable
growth of one of our great spring crops : the residt
may prom.pt us to farther and equally beneficial
inquiries. Barley was formerly supposed to be in-
capable of bearing the low temperature of our
winter : it was, in the olden time, invariably a
spring-sown crop. Tusser, writing nearly three
centuries since, advised his brother-farmers of
1553 "to sow barley in March, April, and May ;
the* later in sand, and the sooner in clay." His
reasons, however, for the advice would hardly be
satisfactory to a skilful modern farmer. He adds :

" Who soweth his barley too soon, or in rain.
Of oats and of thistles shall have to complain."

A century after Tusser's time, John Worlidge,

380

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

in 1669, advised the farmers of his day {Sj/sfem of
Agriculture), that " Some sow barley in March
some in April, others not until May." There are,
in fact, many agriculturists now alive, who will re-
member that, in their boyhood, no one thought of
sowingbarley until March or April. This dread of ex-
posing barley to a low temperature was a natural
conclusion of our forefathers. They well knew it was
the native of a warmer climate than ours. It was
cultivated, they learnt from the best authority, in
Palestine, so early as the year 1491 a.c. {Exodus ix.
31). They were aware that the Romans imported it
from the shores of Africa and Spain. Barley will not,
however, succeed in other than temperate climates.
It will grow indeed under the equator, but only at
such elevations above the level of the sea as com-
pensate for the effects of latitude : even at 3,000 or
4,000 feet it is there not worth cultivating. Hum-
boldt noted that on the great Himalayan cliain it
succeeds as high as 14,707 feet, and another variety,
called Ooa, even much higher ; and in the Thi-
betian Highlands, wheat succeeds extremely well
up to 12,022 feet. The fear of exposing barley to
a low temperature has, however, long since ceased.
We are all aware that in some districts it has be-
come almost as much a winter crop as wheat, and
that the quality of seed produced from early-sown
barley is very superior. The Northern farmers, too,
have found that the barley grown in the South of
England is the best for seed ; that so far from the
crop it produces being more injured by the cold of
our more northern spring nights, it in fact ripens
earlier than if the barley ripened in the North is
employed for seed.

Owing to barley being capable of maturing its
seeds in ninety days, it can be grown as far North
as 70 degs. ; for, in Lapland, during their short
summers the average temperature is greater than
during the same periods in portions of Scotland.
It will not generally lipen in a lower mean tem-
perature than 56 degs. In our island the height
above the sea at which it may be successfully cul-
tivated extends from about 1,000 feet in the South
to 800 feet in the Eastern side of Scotland, and to
600 feet on its Western, but not much above the
level of the sea in the North. The creeping as it
were of the barley fields up the sides of our hills
has been steady, but gradual ; it is now indeed
successfully cultivated in portions of our island at
elevations which our forefathers would have deemed
impossible.

It is evident indeed that our barley crops ar6 not
an exception to the general rule that plants are
benefited by being exposed to a lower temperature
during the night than that of the day ; nay, that such
a variation is almost essential to their prosperity.
The remark is not confined to our native produc-

tions. The tea plant of China is exposed to, and
is at least uninjured by, very severe frosts. The
vines of the wine-producing countries bear a similar
low temperature with advantage. The most
flourishing vineyards of some districts of France
are those with a northern aspect. The same re-
mai'k very commonly applies to our own woods.

There is, then, little doubt but that a periodical
lowering of the temperature, by causing 7-est to the
plant, promotes its vigour ; just as exposure to
considerable and long- continued heat by over-
exciting, finally deadens the energies and reduces
the vigour both of plants and animals.

It is difficult for the farmer to prove these things
by any easily-accomplished experiments. Here
the gardener possesses a considerable advantage :
his trials can be readily made under cover, secure
from the many disturbing occurrences of the field.
Some very useful experiments in this way have re-
cently been recorded by Dr. Lindley {Gardener^ s
Chronicle, 1859, p. 312) : they were made in the
Chiswick Garden of the Horticultural Society.
Certain jilants were placed for several weeks in a
stove with a high night-temperature, supposed to
average 69 degs. Their rate of growth both by
day and night was carefully recorded. The results
were as follows, the lengths attained by the plants
being given in inches :

By Night. By Day.

Fig 9-60 9-92

Willow 19-08 21-55

Passionflower.. 36*20 35-85

Vine 34-15 34-45

99-03 101-77

So that in high temperature they grew as fast by
night as in the day But when these and other
plants were grown in the open air exposed to our
low night-temperature, the results obtained were
very different. This is clearly enough shown in
the following table of their growth :

By Night. By Day.

Fig 1-63 6-80

Willow 3-77 9'94

Hop . 42-02 100-53

Vine 2-34 4-20

Scarlet runner.. 23-11 9772

Jerusalem arti-
choke .... S-23 22-25

Gourd 21-23 48-05

102-33 289*49

This experiment was repeated with similar results.
Thus we see, as Dr. Lindley adds, that plants ex-
posed to natural circumstances only made one inch
of growth by night, while they made three by day ;
but that, on the contrary, under bad artificial treat-
ment they gi-ew equally day and night. If, indeed,
we consider a little what the natural habits of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

381

plants really are, we find that, like animal, they
must have their constant jjeriods of repose. Win-
ter to them is an annual night, as to ourselves is
a period of daily rest. We cannot with impunity
break in upon these natural habits. When we
attempt it, we see vines yielding watery wood and
colourless fruit; cucumbers emaciated and barren.
*' We have shown," remarks a practical gardener,
Mr. W. P. Ayres, in his work on the cucumber,
"that the cucumber will sustain no injury at a
temperature of 55 degs. during the night, and we
are certain the plants will be more vigorous and
continue longer in a bearing state in a low than if
a high night-temperature was maintained."

Similar observations to these were long since
made by T. A. Knight, the celebrated President of
the Horticultural Society. These indeed were the
kind of researches in which Knight showed him-
self so much in advance of the commonly enter-
tained notions of his day.

He told the fellows of the Florticultural
Society, when addressing them " on the ill effects
of excessive heat in forcing-houses during the
night," — " Being fully sensible of the comforts of a
warm bed on a cold night, and of fresh air on a
hot day, the gardener generally treats his plants as
he would wish to be treated himself : and conse-
quently, though the aggregate temperature of his
house be nearly what it ought to be, its temperature
during the night, relatively to that of the day, is
always too high. The consequences of this excess
of heat during the night are, I have reason to be-
lieve, in all cases highly injurious to the fruit trees
of temperate climates, and not at all beneficial to
those of tropical climates, for the temperature of
these is, in many instances, low during the night.
In Jamaica, and other mountainous islands of the
West Indies, the air upon the mountains becomes,
soon after sunset, chilled and condensed, and, in
consequence of its superior gravity, descends, and
displaces the warm air of the valleys. Yet the sugar-
canes are so far from being injured by this sudden
decrease of temperature, that the sugars of Jamaica
take a higher price in the market than those of the
less elevated islands, of which the temperature
of the day and night is subject to much less varia-
tion."

The effect of temperature on vegetation has also
engaged the attention of several continental philo-
sophers. Humboldt has many interesting notices
of this kind dispersed through his valuable works.
De Candolle had watched the influence of tempera-
ture in promoting or retarding the growth of indi-
genous plants. He had traced their presence from
the sea-shore to considerable elevations, from high
to lower mean temperatures. He too, in common
with the English farmers, was well aware of the

effect of elevation in compensating for latitude in
the growth of vegetables. He remarked that when
plants, not suited by their nature to support an ex-
cess of either heat or cold, are found to grow in dif-
ferent latitudes, it is always at such heights as that
the effect of elevation compensates that of the
latitude. The Saxifraga greenlandica he found
growing on the summit of the Pyrenees, at an ele-
vation of from 2,500 to 3,278 yards above the sea.
The Spanish chestnut, which only grows on the low
lands of the north, flourishes on the hills of the
south of France, and at still greater elevations on
the Appennines and on Mount Etna.

Cultivated plants are under a like influence as to
elevation. They car. only be successfully grown
at such heights as correspond in temperature to
that of the district to which they belong. As a
general rule, it may be, perhaps, considered that a
degree of latitude affects the mean temperature
nearly in the same proportion as 180 or 200 yards
in the elevation. This rule is, however, modified
by various local circumstances. De Candolle
tested, by this rule, the growth of some of the cul-
tivated crops of the French farmers. He found
that the highest spot at which maize (or Indian
corn) is grown in France, is at the village Lescan,
in the department of the Pyrenees, at an elevation
of about 1,000 yards above the sea. Now, if we
take our departure from that point, which is the
forty-third degree of latitude, and proceed five de-
grees upon the same meridian line, we come to the
neighbourhood of Mans, and to the south of the
departments of lUe and Vilaine, which are precisely
the northernmost points where maize is used for a
crop.

The vines of Vela are perhaps the highest vine-
yards in France ; the elevation of the town of Pay
is computed at 632 yards, and the vineyards that
belong to it go up to about 800. Now, if setting
out from that point, which is a little beyond forty-
five degrees of latitude, you take four degrees to
the north upon the same meridian, you come to be-
tween Rheims and Epernay ; that is to say, very
close upon the northernmost limit at which the
vine forms a branch of husbandry. With regard
to the olive tree, the local peculiarities of the coun-
tries where it grows are such as to make investiga-
tions of this kind very intricate: it is generally
cultivated in parts protected on the north by some
vast range of mountains, where the mean tempera-
ture is consequently higher than it would other-
wise be. When it is not sheltered by any range of
mountains, the northernmost point in Europe at
which we find the olive is Ancona, in 43c 37' of
latitude. In respect to the other points of view, its
positions have been measured in several parts of
Roussillon, Languedoc, Provence, and Italy; and

382

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

these have been always nearly at an elevation of
400 yards al)ove the level of the sea; which ou^ht
to indicate that the olive might grow two
degrees more to the north of Ancona. Now, if
we take two degrees towards the north from that
point on the same meridian, we come to about
Lake de Harde and the neighbourhood of Corao,
which are just the northernmost points at which
the olive is cultivated. The fig-tree, which goes
farther to the north than the olive, and not so far
as the vine, preserves a corresponding gradation in
regard to the elevations at which it will grow ; but
we can hardly determine any precise limit for a
tree over which aspect has more power than the
degree of positive heat. The same may be ob-
served in regard to the walnut-tree, which reaches
a little higher, both in latitude and elevation above
the sea, than the vine.

We can hardly avoid, then, the conclusion that
there is something consideral)le yet to be accom-
plished, with regard to the examination of the
effects of temperature upon our field crops. The
power of plants to withstand wide ranges of tem-
perature is certainly more considerable than we

are apt to believe ; and this power, there is reason
to conclude, may be materially aided bv artificial
means. T'or instance, the Brassica tribe, in common
with other plants, growing on salted ground, be-
come frozen much less readily than on the adjoin-
ing soil to which salt has not been applied ; and it
has been remarked in Scotland that salt has the
effect of hastening the ripening of wheat. It was
in his essay on the Climate of the British Isles in
its effect on cultivation, that Mr. B. Simpson had
occasion to remark (Jowr. Royal A(j. Soc, vol. ii.
p. 652), that where it is necessary to grow wheat
toward the limit of its growth, either in elevation
or latitude, salt should always be used as part of the
manure. " This," he adds, " my father has proved,
during a long course of years, to cause it to ripen
on an average fully a week before wheat, in the
manure for which salt had formed no part." These
facts are surely worthy of a more extended exami-
nation ; and other cheap saline dressings might,
perhaps, either with or without the admixture of
common salt, have still more value in aiding our
crops to withstand the eflfects of our ever-varying
temperature.

SPRING RESORTS OF PRUDENT FARMERS.

It is at this precise season of the year that considerable
anxiety and no little real difficulty arises as to the dis-
positiou of the winter stock, till " Doctor Green" is
ready to take charge of them. The turnips for the most
part are done ; the mangolds are wasting a pace, and as
everything is now supplied with them, they cannot last
very long ; besides, some must be kept for the large
stock of pigs now abounding on every farm : these must be
moved from the land ; it must be cleared. The barley
and oats, &c., must be sown, aad the earlier these are
got in tlie better ; so that every prudent farmer is watch-
ful to have a good resort of some kind at this period, so
that his sheep stock s-hall not suffer any privation or in-
convenience, but be kept on ever thriving and prosper-
ing.

What, then, are his chief resorts ? The farmer on the
customary rotations, known as the four or five course
shift, will have his grass seeds laid in, or reserved for
this emergency. These, with a moderate portion of
linseed-cake, will suffice for three or four weeks, and if
eked out by an occasional supply of swedes or mangolds
thrown upon them, they will not only last the longer,
but the transition to the stock from one kind of food to
the other — from turnips to grass — will not be sensibly
felt. This, generally speaking, is the great resort for
this order of husbandry, and makes such farms nearly
equal in pleasant occupation and ready efficiency to
farms having a large breadth of natural grass pasturage.
On these latter farms these grass pastures are usually
laid in for the like purposes, and with the like beneficial

results. Wc know of no better or more profitable
appropriation of cither grass seeds or grass land than
this, at this season ; in fact, it is the best possible course
for the flock itself, which is thereby led on almost im-
perceptibly into the green pastures and the nutritive
summer food without noticeable effect. Who amongst
us has not had to deplore occasionally, when all our
prudent contrivances and well-meant reserves have been
totally frustrated by untoward seasons — I say who
amongst us has not had to deplore the loss of sheep
stock from causes over which we could exercise but little
or no control ? Perhaps we have been compelled to
stint them in their allowance of very indifferent food ;
the consequence, a falling off in condition and impaired
health. Anon, a flush of grass or flourishing grass-seeds
succeeds ; the animals are weak, scouring supervenes,
and much loss too often is the result. To prevent this,
a free supply of linseed-cake and corn, with such attractive
dry food as they could be induced to feed upon, should be
given ; and, after all, should this prove ineffectual, it is
to no purpose to persist : some change must be sought
for, however difficult of attainment. The weakest might
be selected and placed on dry food for a day or two, or
sent to weed the bean crop or the fallow lauds — any
course rather than continue them on over-luxuriant
pasturage.

But there are various minor resorts which prudent
farmers provide for the particular time. A plot of rye
will be found on one farm, a few acres of winter tares
will be found on another, a plot of lucerne ou another,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

383

or a plot of sainfoin or of chicory ; nay, on many farms
in some districts we find large breadths of rye, or of tares,
or of sainfoin respectively, which occupy the precise
relative position of the grass and grass-seeds as above.
These are truly prudential provisions : no farmer ought to
rest content without adopting some one or more of them.
The rje is of quick and early growth, ready to take the
first fall of lambs, and provide good milk for the ewe
flock ; it is also very productive, and will depasture
a large amount of stock, upon which they will
thrive well ; and as it is generally sown on land
intended for a fallow, it can be eaten ofi" in full time
for readily adopting that course, and generally good
crops of common turnips are produced after this system.
Winter tares " are common cours3 of husbandry" in
many clay districts, and also occupy a similar position
as a reserve for early spring food, and with great and
good effect ; and the feeding is continued during the
greater part of the summer, or till the land is required
for the purpose of breaking up for the late summer and
autumn fallow for wheat. These crops carry abundant
flocks of sheep, which do well upon them, and prepare
it admirably for the future wheat crop. The lucerne
and chicory crops are of more confined application ;
neither will admit of depasturage, but must be mov/n
and carried to the stock. In this way they will sustain
a very large amount of stock of all kinds ; and both are
early-growing plants, and well worth culture for early
spring food. For horses they constitute a very desirable
early and lasting food, as they may be mown repeatedly
during the summer and autumn ; and one good charac-
teristic is that, when a plant is once obtained, its renewal
need not occur in less than from five to seven years.
Sainfoin is of similar character — an abiding plant of
great value in light lands of chalk and gravelly charac-
ter, but not of much value in clay and sandy districts.
In the former districts it takes the place of the seed crops
generally, and with equal benefit ; carrying a large
amount of sheep stock, and more so when profusely ma-
nured by the spreading of straw and the consumption of
turnips upon it, which is often the practice. Trefoils,
white clovers, and Italian ryegrass are also much ap-
proved for these reserves, on suitable soils — the former
for light chalks, gravels, and sandy soils ; the latter for

all soils of a loamy character — and yields abundantly.
It is a matter of necessary acquisition in every farmer s
business to have some such reserve, or otherwise he is
compelled to take the market, and generally at a great
sacrifice. It is seldom that the grazier is prepared to lay
in his summer stock before the grass is sufficiently for-
ward to take it ; and then he will buy very cautiously,
and at a cheap rate, if at all. Dealers and specula-
tors frequently buy up spring keeping to take this very
advantage ; it enables them to hold a large quantity of
stock, to be put into the market at the most desirable
part of the season. Farmers and breeders should not
be driven to these shifts. Their business should be to
estimate closely the number of stock of each kind they .
can conveniently winter without resort to the preserves
reserved for an inclement winter or untoward spring.

1 have particularly pointed out reserves of grass seeds,
&c. ; but, after all, the farmer's chief dependence must
be upon his winter-food, and some of that he must re-
tain for these times. Corn, cake, hay, and straw, are all
good helps ; but it is to the root crop that he must look
for his chief dependence. That invaluable root, the
mangel-wurzel, is just adapted for this purpose, and
when properly harvested it will keep better than any
other root ; and unlike most others, it improves in value
up to the month of May. It will grow also upon any
well-cultivated soil, and with artificial aid (and nothing
better than superphospiiate) produce good crops. This
root is my chief resort ; in fact, I should not now know
how to do without it. It constitutes the mainstay of my
farai stock for many weeks in the spring- ; and I keep a
good reserve for pigs, &c., up to Midsumvner. Its great
constituent, water, is now its great preservative ;
whereas carrots, turnips, &c., having less water in their
composition, soon heat and rot, or become tainted
food. My practice is to eke out my pasturage of all
kinds by leading daily a portion of "mangolds" into
each field, and throw them down for the stock to con-
sume as they please. All kinds of stock will eat them,
even if grass abounds ; and they will improve faster with
a supply than without, which proves their nutritive
value at this season. I trust more will be grown this
year than heretofore, large as the breadth is.

THE STEAM-PLOUGH ON THE FLEMISH FARM OF THE

PRINCE CONSORT.

Having beCn invited by Mr. Fowler to be present at
the working of his steam-plough on the Flemish farm of
His Royal Highness Prince Albert at Windsor, we went
thither on the 20th of last month. Upon arrival, we found
the plough working under a disadvantage, the land
bcin^ a stiff clay, very rough, lying on the slope of a
rising ground, and having previously been stirred with
the grubber, so that altogether it was impossible to
make clean and sightly work. The land was also being
manui'ed with farm-yard dung before the plough, which
was thereby greatly impeded by the lumps choking the

shares, rendering frequent stoppages necessary to clear
it away. In other respects, the machine worked with
great ease and regularity, finishing off the " skeiotings'^"
in a workmanlike manner. This, we conceive, is the
most difficult part of the work for a steam-plough ; but
we saw several such corners that were finished as well
as could have been done by the common plough. The

* This is a provincial (Norfolk) term derived fiom tlie word
skew, oblique, arid iudicates thoae angular or irregular por-
tions of a field remainiog after the square has been ploughed,

384

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rest of the field, which was more level, had been already
ploughed to the depth of from six to eight inches, and
exhibited a very clean and regular furrow slice. A small
portion of it had been subaoiled, with Cotgreave's
plough, to the depth of twelve inches ; but the steward,
Mr. Bremner, did not consider it desirable to bring so
much of the cold subsoil to the surface so late in the
spring, the land being intended for mangel wurzel or
swedes — we could not learn which. There were three
ploughs attached to the machine, and Mr. Greig, the
superintendent in the absence of Mr. Fowler, estimated
the quantity of land turned over by them per day of ten
hours, at eight acres, which, on such a soil, may be con-
sidered equal to the work of ten pairs of horses and the
common ploughs. The cost is 8s. per acre.

The grubber was at work at the same time, and per-
formed its part exceedingly well. It had five tines, and
went to the depth of twelve inches, bringing to the
surface the couch grass and other weeds. This operation,
we think, ought to have been performed long enough
(instead of immediately) before the ploughing, to allow
of these being collected and burned, instead of being
turned in again by the plough. A part of the field was
left unfinished, we presume to be so cleaned before
being finally ploughed.

We went over two other fields that had recently been
ploughed by the same machine, each of which exhibited
a clean and regular furrow slice ; nor did we perceive
in them any breaks, or unturned portions of the land.
The whole ploughing is necessarily " on the flat,"
without any intervening furrows ; and whether it can be
considered that these ventilators of the corn field are
compensated for by the land saved, remains to be seen.

The recent alterations made by the patentee in the
apparatus have greatly facilitated the working. The
direct application of the power to the ploughs, by which

the length of the working rope, and consequently the
danger of breakage, are so much reduced, is a manifest
improvement upon the original plan, in which the rope
embraced the whole area of the field, or that portion of
it taken at one working.

With regard to the economic part of the question of
steam-ploughing as at present practised, we consider
the direct saving of expense, as between it and the com-
mon plough, unimportant ; and were there no other
source of profit, we should say that it would not be suffi-
ciently great to render it desirable to substitute it for
horse-power, or to disturb for it the present arrange-
ments of the farm. The great advantage is to be found
in the economy of time, and the rapidity with which
the work can be performed ; and still more in the in-
creased production consequent on deep culture and
timely sowing, both of which may be secured by it. The
system, however, is yet in its infancy, and does but
just demonstrate the practicability of applying the
power of steam to the cultivation of the soil. We look
for a much greater development of it, thus applied, ap-
proaching nearer to that it has attained in other great
departments of industry ; and its economic properties
must be more fully worked out before the general body
of agriculturists will be induced to adopt so important
a change in their mode of conducting their business.
Steam must reign alone, if at all, and cannot, with ad-
vantage, be associated with animal or manual power,
except as subordinate agents, of which, when it has
attained its maturity of growth, it will require only ho-
moeopathic doses. Our machinists will do well to con-
sider this, and to direct their attention to an extended
application of steam-power to all the operations of hus-
bandry, which alone can render it a truly economic
agent, and to which we assuredly believe it is destined
ultimately to attain.

THE IMPLEMENT JUDGES AT CHESTER, AND THEIR AWARD
ON THE PORTABLE THRASHING MACHINES.

Sir, — On account of many remarks made, I venture
to trouble you with the following, as I wish to be set
right with the public, having acted for some years as a
judge for the Royal Agricultural Society, and hoping
that what I have done has been for the mutual benefit
of all classes belonging to it. I cannot, tben, allow bad
motives to be imputed to me, without speaking.

" CLASS IX. — For the best Portable Combined
Thrashing Machine, that will best pre-
pare the Corn for Market."

On carefully examining the Judges' Report of the
Chester trials of the above-named machines, I cannot
understand the decisions arrived at. I fear I am very
stupid ; but I will take the judges' figures on the points
nf perfection, and the headings used for some time by

previous judges, and which fully report on the points
most worthy of consideration.

Old Style, as under.

T3

«, a

s

h =■

i

C «

a B

!b 2 c

3 c

S J»

2 '~ g

c-^

b^

n

o b

O.S

o St)

.J

Ud

"S

U'^

M-"

H

100

70

70

50

50

20

Clayton & Co.—

Whoat

90

63

49

45

45

20

Karlpy

80

50

f6
105

40

45

170

119

85

90

20

589

Hornsbj' —

Wlie.it

90

C3

63

.'-O

45

CO

Rarley

90

C3

63

40

40

180

126

126

90

85

to

6i7

It is thus shown that, on these points, Hornsby is a
clear winner by 38 points ; while in the Judges' Report,
with their new and additional points, they put Clayton

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

385

& Co.'s machine 19 points only over Hornsby. And
how are those points gained ? Why, by making Clay-
Ion & Co.'s clean dressing 21 points over Hornsby ;
while at the same time, in the dressing of wheat and
barley, Clayton & Co. are 11 points below the standard
of excellence, proving that their machine was not per-
fect— only better than Hornsby's.

And how, may I ask, were those points gained (viz.,
for clean dressing) ? Why, because Messrs. Clayton
did not thrash so clean as Hornsby by 10 points ; his
shaking was not so good by 7 points ; and with cavings
free from corn, Hornsby was 21 points ahead. Hornsby
was 5 points the better on chaff free from corn. In the
injury of corn, on wheat, they are equal ; on barley,
Hornsby loses 5 points : but, remember, he thrashed it
cleaner than Clayton by 10 points ; consequently, there
was more chance of breakage. But for the finish : 100
stands for excellency of workmanship, which is given to
Hornsby, while Messrs. Clayton are 18 below that
standard.

Hornsby clearly loses on account of power required ;
and why was it required ? Because he thrashed cleaner
by 10 points; and those 10 points were on the barley
trial : but both were under the number denoting excel-
lence. Hornsby's shaking was cleaner by 7 points, and
those points were the cleaner shaking of the barley ; his
CAVINGS were cleaner by twenty-one points ; and
his chaff by five points : on which account, his riddles
had more work to do, and the whole machine had to
carry the weight of nearly all the corn put into [it into
the sacks, which Messrs. Clayton did not do ; and thus,
the cleaner dressing of Messrs. Clayton's machine,
but, remember, not fit for market, but better than
Hornsby's — evidently proving that all the corn had to
be again dressed for market. And then Hornsby wins,
as his cavings and chaff were cleaner by twenty-six
points, and would require less riddling, one parcel of
chaff being free from corn.

But I now go further, and say the judges could not
lawfully give Hornsby the prize. The power he re-
quired exceeded 8 horse power. But on this rule they
do not act, but sum up all their points in page 336 of
the Journal, and say :

" Consequently, we awarded the prize of 15 sovereigns to
Messrs. Clayton & Co."

As they totally overlooked the rule for the prize, I
say they gave a wrong decision on their points, if
points — and, mind, improved points — are to be the true
standards of excellence ; and by their own figures they
.show that the extra power which destroys Hornsby on
their points, was caused by the superiority of the work
done. The horse-power for barley is not given, but on
the wheat is, for Clayton & Co. .5.34, and for Hornsby
8.38.

After all these figures and summing-up in page 333
of the Journal, we read, at the end of the table of Class
IX., the following remarks on Messrs, Clayton's ma-
chine :

"Everything worked ia harmony — worked reiiiarkahly
steady. Slides slipped, causing the riddles to choke. ^ In
burley-dressing the riddle altered too fast for the hopper."'

Who has ever read such remarks? " Everything ia
harmony!" I suppose, harmonious concord of three-
parts of the machine going wrong-
All machines that have previously choked have been
turned aside.

As one judge is annoyed by remarks made on one
bad point in a machine, I have written the above to
show that I was right in my opinion on that point — an
opinion given after the machines had returned to their
stands for at least an hour, and after the trials of four
selected machines for second trials (which trials are not
given account of, and in which Messrs. Clayton's ma-
chine did not choke) ; and when I was quite at liberty
to say, on being asked privately, " What do you think of
this work ?" (meaning the cavings, and which I had seen
before), I answered, " I should not like to give a prize
for such one part of work ; but, not knowing all the
other points, I cannot, of course, say which is the best
machine." But it was on that point that Hornsby won
by 21.

I write with no rancour. I only wish to put mysel
right, after unfair and uncalled-for remarks, publicly
expressed ; and it has gone forth that I (steward-elect
of the Society last year, and now a steward), with Mr.
Hornsby, interrupted the judges. And how ? Merely
because, in private conversation, I made a remark,
which Mr. Hornsby repeated to a judge ; and, as I
have said before, after the trials had been concluded for
at least an hour, the machines gone to their stands, and
710 judges near us.

Having been a judge myself, and, I hope, not a use-
less one, and having had many remarks made to me by
disappointed exhibitors, still, I believe, not one of those
exhibitors would refuse again having their implements
tested by me. If the judge had spoken to the stewards
at once, all could have been set right, and ill feelings
have been done away. If Mr. Shackell had named to
me what had passed (for I sat next him at the dinner,
and he knows what I did there for him), all ill feelings
(if he had them then, which I doubt) would have been
allayed. And I am sure we parted as friends, and as
men mutually endeavouring to promote the interests of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England.

To conclude, I am a friend to all parties who are
endeavouring to bring forward good implements. I
have tampered with no one, and am sorry that an ill
feeling has arisen, and that a judge should come for-
ward and make such remarks as Mr. Shackell has
thought proper to do. It is the first ill feeling brought
forward during the Society's duration of 20 years ; and
it passes my comprehension.

I will now sum up as follows, and say — If Mr.
Shackell was interrupted, why did he not appeal to the
stewards ? and why delay his complaints until March
last past? I will say no more, but that " Practice with
science" is a good motto — understood in words, but not
carried out by all.

I am, Sir, yours truly,

H. B. Caldwell,

LacUam. House, Chippenham, Wills,
April \%th.

380

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

"THE BEECHEN TREE."

Sir, — There are few things of more importance to
Jiorticulhire and agriculture than hedges and fences;
besides their services as dividing property, they act as
a shelter to all crops which tliey enclose. In short, we
must all have fences of some kind or other, for the
vineyard mentioned in holy writ, that was to have
" the hedge thereof broken down," gives unquestion-
ably the idea of utter ruin to that very desirable piece
of property.

Common sense, in these days of " express speed,"
and intelligence transmitted at the rate that the light-
ning travels, is of very little avail ; and in our haste to
cultivate the unemployed moor and unprofitable waste,
we shall certainly have to hedge in, in hot haste, as a
preliminary to all further improvement.

The quickset hedge of honest hawthorn has long held
sway in this department, and has every chance of being
a troublesome tenant to get rid of; and it will be no
easy task to get up a case against such a i)lant, seeing
it has donB such service to the trade.

The size of an unpruned thorn tree, full grown, may
bo taken at one-tenth of the size of the beech tree,
where the latter finds a favourable soil. The thorn is
decidedly a slow-growing plant, becoming eventually a
stunted-looking small tree, coming into leaf early, and
remaining in full foliage till late in the autumn ; these
are its chief characteristics. But its sti-ength lies in its
prickles; and were it not for this armour, it would
doubtless have passed info the same disrepute in agri-
culture that its confrere the thistle has done.

Deciduous trees like the thorn are always objection-
able as hedge plants, since their sheltering properties
are always least just at the time when their services are
most needed ; and if we could get holly trees to grow
quickly, they would set the matter quite at rest as to
what plants we should make our hedges of.

The yew, were it not poisonous to cattle, would be
an equally great boon to the farmer as a hedge plant;
but with all its beauty it is but of slow growth, and for
100 years or more is but a small tree. The thorn, the
holly, and the yew are all costly if planted when they
are over three feet in height; consequently they are
planted very young; and two rows of posts and rails,
chartered for the occasion, have to take charge of their
childhood, and a good supply of manure to their roots
adds no small item of expense to their culture. It is
far otherwise with the " beechen tree." It can be
planted full-size at once for a hedge ; for you can pur-
chase at most nurseries beech plants five or six feet
high, and that at a very moderate price considering the
importance of the plant when got of the jn-oper hedge
siz?. I have seen a tall beech hedge planted in two
rows, one line sloping to the east at an angle of 45 de-
grees, and the other to the west, and both tictl here and
there to keep tbeni close. This hedge wax fnli grown

the day it was'planted ; and twenty years afterwards,
when I saw it last, it was a fine beech hedge, forming
a beautiful object, a substantial fence, and an excellent
shelter both in summer and winter ; for (he old adage
is, that the beech is the wisest tree, for keeping its old
coat till it sees how the new one suits it. In this respect
it is quite an exception to deciduous trees, which, when
in good health, drop their leaves one and all when ripe,
and the footstalk shows a clean scar, as if the separa-
tion of this organ from the tree had little to do with
winter's cold, but obeyed a law that gave it leave to go
in peace when it had perfected its labours.

The beech tree, therefore, recommends itself to us on
the score of economy as well as on that of speed ; for it
is cheap in the first instance, and requires no paling to
make it a fence ; thereby lessening the outlay, and
acting immediately as a hedge, it allows cultivation to
proceed under its protection. But the great advantage
of beech hedges is that they can give shelter to any de-
sirable height, and still can be kept at the height of a
man if preferred. Their yellowish -brown colour in
winter is decidedly pleasing ; and I have seen some
beautiful shapes clipped in single plants, standing above
the hedge, as starers, globes, pyramids, and the like.
And where becth hedges are used as shelter to a nice
farmhouse, or villa residence, a little taste on the part
of the owner or occupier in this way is certainly praise-
worthy : where a thing is useful and essentially neces-
sary it may with good reason be respected, and even
made ornamental.

Mr. Rivers, of Sawbridgeworth, had a beech hedge
as a back to one of his orchard-houses ; and in this way
he imitated the climate of the south of France, and
produced the fruits of such a climate successfully with-
out fire heat, simply by a glass roof and boarded ends
and front. To invalids such a house would be a very
great luxury.

To horticulture and agriculture high hedges, with
proportionate enclosures of land, so as to secure shelter
without the overshadowing which unpruned trees al-
ways give, would warm the climate by many degrees •
and thus give early crops, and half-house the live stock
in foul or cold weather.

I would gladly have given the prices at which I have
been purchasing beech plants ; but this is not an adver-
tisement, and I have no interest whatever in selling any
man's goods; but it is really very provoking to see people
planting, at great cost, a string of tiny thorn plants,
and waiting patiently for years till they grow into a
hedge-row, when they might have a full-grown, strong
beechen hedge at once, for the same money as the
plants, pales, and manure represent.

Ar,EX. FoTiSTxn.
l."^, Islingf.on-srjnare, Salford,
Manchestor, Feb, 19, 1859.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

387

THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE AND THE COUNTRY MEMBERS.

The chairman of the Central Club must have felt
himself in rather a difficult position when the members
met to consider " The Progress of Agriculture" — cer-
tainly as open-handed a thesis as the wildest of talkers
could have wished to address himself to. As a natural
consequence of such liberty of action, every man rode
his own favourite hobby, and the progress of agriculture
came, in turn, to depend upon thrashing corn by the
flail— the application of towia-sewage— the selling by
weight instead of measure — the diseases of the turnip
crop — and the pedigrees of English gentlemen. In
fact, the magnitude of the question was generally too
much for the meeting, and the discussion we fear will
read as one of the least edifying the society has yet
commanded.

Fortunately, the introducer of the subject came
better prepared. Mr. Robert Smith's opening paper is
indeed remarkably comprehensive, touching as it does
on almost everything that has at any time tended to
the development of the art. He is content not merely
with a retrospective view of how agriculture has fared
in our own country, but brings Cato, Varro, and
Virgil alongside of Bake well, Ellman, and Francis
Duke of Bedford, as the best of all good com-
pany. As a review of what has been gra-
dually accomplished, Mr. Smith has supplied the
Club with a very interesting address. We are our-
selves, however, inclined to regard the present progress
of agriculture as a question rather of prospective than
of retrospective consideration. We look, indeed, on
the general advancement of the art as of comparatively
very recent date. Such men as those referred to in
Mr. Smith's paper, especially those living towards
the close of the last or the commencement of the
present century, no doubt did much towards putting
English agriculture on an improved footing. They
supplied us, as it were, with the fundamental prin-
ciples of the pursuit; but it was not until long after
that these came to be commonly taken up. The
establishment of the Royal Agricultural Society was de-
termined on at a very happy time ; and from this we
may fairly date the real progression of the business. The
one great secret of this has been the increased facilities
of communication and transit — in a word the use of
steam. Without railway accommodation, the English
Society, like the Board of Agriculture, might have
fallen through. It undoubtedly could never have
made such meetings it has now year after year con-
tinued to climax. The very Farmers' Club, but for
this powerful ally, would have had no monthly re-
unions. The farmers would have heai-d the news and
kept to the ways of their own parish ; while a few
wealthy amateurs might have still amused themselves
with experiments, that few others would understand,
and fewer still attempt.

In thoroughly conning over tl>e lesson tlins hrouglit

by post and parcel home to his door, it was perhaps as
well to leave the man a little to himself, and see what
he could make of it. Now there is no possible question
but that during the twenty years' cycle in which we
have been achieving such decisive progress, agriculture
and agriculturists have been left very much to them-
selves. It has become rather a pride and boast to say
the Legislature, or the Government, does nothing for
us. In fact, no man enjoys so thorough a sinecure as
the honourable gentleman who represents the agricul-
tural interest. There is really nothing now for him to
do. We accept the price of wheat at whatever it may
happen to be, and go on refining our shorthorns and
amending our steam-ploughs without any necessity for
formal protection or encouragement. Notwithstanding
this, we are inclined to think that the further progress
of farming may be greatly facilitated by a little more
attention in high places. Let us take Mr. Smith's own
catalogue of public questions, that call for considera-
tion and adjustment :— The weights and measures by
which agricultural produce is sold ; the establishment
of a better system of taking the corn averages ; a re-
consideration of the malt tax ; agricultural statistics ;
the adjustment of the game laws, so as to substitute
" winged game " for the four-footed trespassers ; a
better understanding of the law of customs and
covenants, as regards the quitting of a farm ; an
extension of the Government draining loan ; and lastly,
the preparation of a new and complete Ordnance
map, upon a large and comprehensive scale, under
the direction of the Government.

Now what is likely to come of all or any of these at
the rate which we have lately been going? Does the
honourable member for the agricultural interest take a
really active part in forwarding any of them ? The
merchants, and especially the farmers, have for the last
year or two been declaring more emphatically than
ever that they require some uniformity of system for
the sale of corn. The honourable member for the
agricultural interest does not trouble himself in the
least about such a matter. Most probably he will take
care not to be present when such a question comes on.
Or, the corn averages should really be more carefully
taken. The honourable member's friends, the farmers,
have been telling him so almost ever since he has been
in the House. But he keeps their secret wonderfully
well, and never mentions a word of it to any one else.
He has even struck the malt-tax paragraph out of his
address ; and as to the game laws, farm covenants,
or Ordnance maps, he must be a very sanguine rural
elector indeed, who expects his representative ever to
say anything about such things as these. As a rule, in
fact, it is all the other way. It is rather low to talk
too much about your own business, and the county
member never talks about it at all. Mr. Caird may
Iiavo somethirg to impress about the price of gnano ;

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388

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr. M'Cann, if he likes, may take up the Weights and
Measures' movement ; and Mr. Bright may declaim
against the injustice of the Game Laws. The honourable
member for the agricultural interest is perfectly indif-
ferent to what they may say. What is the price of
manures, the sale of corn, or the damage done by rab-
bits and hares to him or his constituents ?

It would certainly seem to be little or nothing. But
is this quite fair ? What can be the use of farmers con-
tinually meeting and considering points they desire to
have adjusted, if no attention is paid to them by those
whose first duty it is to see their supporters righted?
The progress of agriculture will come in many ways to
something like a dead lock, until the agriculturists
themselves are a little more demonstratively repre-
sented. The Royal Agricultural Society may do its
work, and the Central Farmers' Club its share of it ;
but to do any good the work must not stop here. There
are many matters more than rij^e for a settlement.
The most energetic even gradually tire of considering
them ; and it is simply a point now as to who should
go on with them. We say unhesitatingly that the mem-
bers for rural districts should evince far more readiness
to do so than they latterly have done. Only let a

townsman have a grievance, and mark how anxious
Ms honourable friend is to help him out of it. Un-
fortunately we do not meet with so many volunteers.

Would it be impertinent or out of place to put a few
such home questions as those we have referred to at
this election? Depend upon it, the farmers have
worked and will work comparatively in vain, unless they
can bring their efforts a little more to a focus. Do not let
them be too delicate or indifferent as to impressing the
wants of their own order j ust where and when they may
do so with some effect. The interests of landlord and
tenant are in the main identical; and there is not a
subject we have here touched on but either of them
may go fairly into. A farmer of long experience and
much authority, as well as being the agent of a county
member, assures us these matters must be looked to
and amended, or we shall have no proper agricultural
progress. What Mr. Smith said at the club, those who
hear or read him aright may say at the hustings.
If the farmers do not care to go into Parliament, at
least let them find somebody who will say a word now
and then for them. There are three or four important
points that have now only to be pushed in the House-
Let our care be to push only a good man up to the door.

LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB.
THE PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE.

The usual Monthly Meeting of the Members took
place on Monday evening, April 4, at the Club-house,
Blackfriars.

Mr. Thomas, of Bletsoe, was in the chair, supported
by Messrs. W. Bennett, C. T. James, H. Trethewy,
Robert Smith, S. Skelton, James Thomas, G. Wilsher,
J. B. Spearing, T. E. Pawlett, J. Tyler, E. Little, James
Wood, J. G. King, J, Howard, B. P. Shearer, F.
Dyball, C. J. Brickwell, L. A. Coussmaker, J. Cressing-
ham, J. Wood (Croydon), M. Reynolds, Norman Taylor,
W. Cheffins, H, Shotter, E. B. Acton, J. Parkinson,
W. Eve, G. Whistler, D. Christie, R. Palgrave, G.
Russell, P. F. Pell, E. B. Waite, E. Tattersall, S.
Sidney, J. M. Lansdell, &c., &c.

The subject for discussion — "The Progress of Agri-
culture," was introduced by Mr. R. Smith, of Emmett's
Grange, South Molton, Devon.

After a few introductory remarks from the Chairman,

Mr. Smith said : Gentlemen,— When we speak of
" the progress of agriculture," I feel that every link in
the chain of agricultural events forms a theme in itself,
alike expressive of the progress which the "art," the
"manufacture," andthe "commerce" of agriculture have
made during many past centuries, and down to the pre-
sent time. Indeed, the subject grows upon me, when I
reflect that our island was once a " common waste," and
that the industry of man has redeemed it from century to
century as population increased. Thus agriculture has
been fostered from the earliest dates, and we live in a
century in which the art has made a degree of progress
hitherto unprecedented. Within the Jast few years, this

subject has been treated by the late Philip Pusey, to
whom English agriculture stands much indebted, in
a paper in which he reviewed a period of eight years
preceding the year 1850. Mr. Wren Hoskyns has
given us a most valuable " Retrospect of English Agri-
culture during the fifteen years preceding 1856," be-
fore the Society of Arts. In April, 1858, a third
paper appeared, written by a member of this Club,
of which paper I will only say that it is fully
worthy of its author. Such records having preceded
the introduction of this evening's discussion, I find
it no easy task to bring before you a subject which
shall be clothed in novelties or embrace new matter.
But 1 have one advantage on my side, namely, the full
benefit of your fortified minds to aid me in discussion,
and thus simplify my mission to that of introducing the
subject to your notice. With a view to varying my
subject, and marking the interesting progress that has
been made from time to time, I will take as a starting
point a brief glance at our early history. — The progress
of British agriculture has long been a leading subject in
the history of our island, and has been dilated upon alike
by the historian, the politician, and the poet. It is com-
mon ground for every citizen ; it is a nation's question,
involving the supply of food for an increasing popula-
tion upon a given space of land — an island. Indeed,
the first want of man is food, and his natural resource
for it must be the ground. Hence the tillers of the soil
share no small responsibility in the general weal of our
national progress. Agriculture is the parent of manu-
factures and commerce ; hence it is not only the most

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

389

useful of arts, but that which requires the greatest num-
ber of operators. The early invention of tillage would
be coeval with the discovery of the uses of the cereal
grasses, and may thus be considered as the grand step
in the invention of ancient husbandry, and the most im-
portant as leading to the establishment of property in
territorial surface. The early practice of agriculture
was confined to men of humble station, who pursued it
as a matter of business for daily livelihood. In the last
century the occupation became more extended, and it
has been engaged in by men of rank and capital, to-
gether with some other amateur practitioners, as
a matter of taste and recreation. — It is both
curious and interesting to refer to some early
writers upon agricultural affairs, who, be it re-
membered, lived in the days of seclusion ; but
nevertheless they had their wits about them. In the
time of the Romans, we find Cato recommending a farm
and situation " where there are plenty of artificers and
good water ; which has a fortified town in its neighbour-
hood ; is near to the sea, or a navigable river, or where
the roads are easy and good." To these requisites Varro
adds — "a proper market for buying and selling ; se-
curity from thieves and robbers ; and boundaries planted
with useful hedgerow-trees." The arable land preferred
by Columella is the "fat and free, as producing the
greatest crops and requiring the least culture." Again :
the occupation preferred by Cato is that of "pasture,
meadow, and watered grass-land, as yielding produce at
least expense." When speaking of plantations and
buildings, Cato recommends men " to plant in their
youth, but not to build till somewhat advanced in
years." Another author says — " Take care in the
making of your buildings that they are equal to the
farm, and the farm equal to the buildings." On the ar-
rival of the Anglo-Saxons, this island, according to
Fieury's history, abounded in numerous flocks and
herds, which these conquerors seized and pastured for
their own use. The rent of land in those times was
established by law, and not by the owners of the land !
Very little is known of the implements or operators of
husbandry during that period. — In the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries agriculture rallied to a considerable
extent, and was carried on with vigour. Sir John For-
tescue, in a work in praise of the English laws, mentions
the progress that had been made in the enclosure of lands,
the planting of hedges and hedgerow-trees, before the
end of the fourteenth century. During the greater part of
the fifteenth century England was engaged in civil wars,
and agriculture as well as other arts declined. Soon
after the beginning of the sixteenth century agriculture
partook of the general improvement which followed the
art of printing, the revival of literature, and the more
settled authority of Government. The first English
treatise on husbandry now appeared, being written by
Sir A. Fitzherbert; audit contains directions for drain-
ing, clearing, and enclosing a farm. Landlords are
therein advised to grant leases to farmers who will sur-
round their farms by hedges and improve the lands.
We have then a short information " for a yonge gentyl-
man that intends to thryve ;" and a prologue for the

wives' occupation. Among other things, the wife is to
" make her husband and herself some clothes ;" and she
may have the " lockes of the shepe, either to make
blanketts and coverlettes, or both. Further, it is re-
corded that " it is the wives' occupation to wynowe all
manner of cornes, to make malt, to go or ride to market,
to sell all manner of cornes," and faithfully to bring
back the money to her " lord and master." The seven-
teenth century is distinguished by some important im-
provements in agriculture, among which are the intro-
duction of clovers and turnips in England. That the
agriculture and general prosperity of this country have
been greatly benefited by the Revolution of 1688 is an
undisputed fact. But the general progress oC agricul-
ture in Britain from the Revolution to the eighteenth
century was by no means so considerable as from the
great exportation of corn we should be led to imagine.
The gradual advance in the price of land-produce soon
after the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of popu-
lation, and of wealth derived from manu^'actures and
commerce, gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry,
augmented agricultural capital in a greater degree, and
called forth a more skilful and enterprising race of culti-
vators.— A brief glance at a few of the early practices, be-
fore the eighteenth century, may be interesting, and pos-
sibly useful, as showing that, even in early times, many
good principles were laid down by the husbandman of old.
The modern rush for "things new" certainly creates a
lively interest, and leads men on to enterprises that their
forefathers thought not of; but have we not unfrequently
estimated too lightly ancient practices, and especially
those that relate to provincial warninss ? Amongst the
earliest subjects that claimed attention may be men-
tioned those of draining, irrigation, the effect of climate,
the trying of experiments, and so on. With regard to
draining, I find, on referring to some old authors, that
in the time of the Romans, Cato gives directions for
draining wet-bottomed sands: "To make drains four
feet deep ; to lay them with stones ; and if these cannot
be got, to lay them with" willow rods." Columella
directs " that the drains be deep, and narrow at the
bottom." Pliny says that "flint or stones may be used
to form the water-way, filling the excavation to within
eighteen inches of the top." Of irrigation, Cato says,
" as much as in your power, make water-meadows."
Of climate, an early author writes : " Whoever would
be perfect in this science, must be well acquainted with
soils and plants ; and must not be ignorant of the
various climates, that so he may know what is agreeable,
and what is repugnant, to each." Varro writes : " The
ancient husbandmen, by making experiments, have estab-
lished many maxims; their posterity, for the most
part, imitate them." This saying is referred to by
Pliny, who says that " there were sent to Augustus, by
his factor, nearly 400 stalks, all from one grain ; and
to Nero 340 stalks." He says : " I have seen the soil
of this field, which when dry the stoutest oxen cannot
plough; after rain, I have seen it opened up by
a share, drawn by a wretched ass on the one side
and an old woman on the other." — Among the
leading features of practical agriculture during the

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

eighteenth century, we may enumerate the gradual
introduction of a better system of cropping,
since the publication of " TuU's Husbandry," and
other useful works from 1700 to 1750 ; the improve-
ment of live-stock, by Bakewell and others, about
1760; the drill-system of growing turnips; the use of
lime and marl in agriculture ; the tapping of springs ;
the revival of the art of irrigation, by Boswell ; and the
publication of the Bath Agricultural Society's papers, in
1780. The introduction of the Swedish turnip, about
1790; andof spring wheat, about 1795; and the reports
of the Board of Agriculture about this time, also con-
tribute to increase the products of agriculture — as the
enclosing of common fields, lands, and wastes, and the
improvement of mosses and marshes contributed to the
produce and salubrity of the general surface of the
country. The progress of the taste for agriculture
about this time is shown by the great number of agri-
cultural societies that were formed; one or more as a
beginning in almost every county. Amongst these the
Bath and West of England Society, established in 1777,
holds the first rank. We are indebted to this society
for the " Bath Papers," of which sixteen volumes were
printed ; they were the first agricultural periodicals of
England, and were the precursors of the " Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society." The establishment of
the Board of Agriculture, in 1793, was looked forward
to with considerable interest, and ought to have com-
menced a new era in the history of the agriculture and
rural economy of England at that date ; but the country
was evidently not prepared for so bold and compre-
hensive an undertaking, and it consequently effected
little beyond the publication of the " County Surveys ;"
still it may be said to have raised the " art of agricul-
ture" amongst the higher classes. — This brief, and yet I
fear too lengthened, sketch of the early ages, brings us
down to the 19th century. The more modern improve-
ments date from this period ; still it had been the early
province of such men as Jethro TuU, Arthur Young,
Marshall, Sir John Sinclair, Lord Somerville, the late
Duke of Bedford, Mr. Coke, Sir Humphrey Davy,
Bakewell, Loudon, Cully, Cline, Collins, Biakie, Park-
inson, and others, to enlighten the path of agriculture
before the nineteenth century. These and other good
men, true patrons of the art, laid down principles
which have rarely been excelled by the modern im-
prover. A field of enterprise was now opened up, and
"men of many grades" became interested in the more
popular occupation of cultivating and enclosing the
broad acres of our island, which had so long required
this stimulus. The late Lord Leicester and the late
Duke of Bedford did much towards making agriculture
a popular pursuit. This was accomplished by their
festive gatherinss at the Holkham and Woburn meetings.
These animated and descriptive gatherings went far to
enlighten the many visitors who assembled from distant
counties. These, on returning home, propounded the
advances that had been made, which ultimately resulted
in the establishment of local societies for the exhibition
of native produce, and the discussion of their future
prospects. Then followed the suggestion that a National

Society should be formed, for the collection and display
of the English breeds of live-stock in a prepared state
for the shambles of the metropolitan purveyors. The
resources of our English breeds of fat stock had not
hitherto been developed ; and it was suggested that such
a gathering of business-men and breeders at a national
exhibition in London must be productive of good, and
gradually lead to the diffusion of improved ideas amongst
the general body cf breeders and agriculturists. Then
followed the establishment of the Smithfield Club, in
1798 — about sixty years ago. To show the early popu-
larity of this new society, I may mention that in 1800,
his Majesty George III. was an exhibitor. In 1806
the Duke of York gained a prize, and of late years the
Prince Consort has obtained many prizes with Devon
cattle. Experiments in the qualities of vegetable food
were instituted, and an exhibition of rude implements
now formed an adjunct to the Club's display of fat
animals. To this successful institution, English agricul-
ture has been mainly indebted. It promoted the gather-
ing of influential men, breeders of live-stock and others,
who were eminent for their literary attainments ; the
one finding practical matter, and the other diffusing it
to an advancing class of men ; for the sons of agriculture
had made a start. It is to this institution that we
stand indebted for the parentage of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society. The enrolment of this Society was first
mooted at the Smithfield Club Dinner, on the 11th of
December, 1837. In this the late President of
the Club (Earl Spencer), the late Henry Handley,
the late William -Shaw (Editor of the Mark Lane
Express), and the present President, His Grace the
Duke of Richmond, took the most prominent part.
This society has now held its twentieth anniversary for the
exhibition of our English breeds of live stock, has col-
lected and tested thousands of implements, has published
about forty journals of English agriculture ; and not
only has it collected information, but it has been the
source from which practical and scientific knowledge
has been disseminated by every channel, through the
length and breadth of the English counties. From the
formation of this justly national society, English agri-
culture derives its modern type. Before this period of
our history, who ever heard of a steam thrashing-
machine, a reaping machine, or a steam plough ?
How many parts of England had never seen specimens
of our established herds and flocks ? What breeders
anticipated a foreign trade for their produce ? Who had
manured his lands with portable manures from a guano
bag, the produce of foreign birds ? Who had thought
of reducing a hard, bony substance to a soluble food
for the immediate use of the root crops ? or, lastly, who
had anticipated the publication of such an agricultural
work as the Journal of this society ? These are results, of
which we as Englishmen have a right to be proud. But
in the field of our progress we have had another hand-
maid at work for us — I mean the press and agricultural
literature of the present day. Such men as the late
Philip Pusey, Wm. Shaw, Loudon, Sir John Sebright,
Bayldon, Youatt, Young, Marshall did good service in
this department. Amongst the other names familiar to

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391

our ear are those of Professor Liebisr, Way, Nesbit,
Voelcker, Lawes, Gilbert, Thos. Dyke Acland, Thomp-
son, Johnson, Morton, &c. In former ages but few
books were written upon agricultural subjects. The first
" Farmers' Journal" was published in 1808. This old
and methodical paper, assisted by occasional agricultural
pamphlets, formed the agricultural press and literature
of the age. Such was the drug in the reading market,
the distaste for new inroads, and the aversion to tlieo-
rists, that this one journal had but a limited circulation.
Moreover, owing to the state of the roads in those days,
and the lack of post-office facilities, it is doubtful if the
farmer always obtained the journal when he expected it.
I will not enumerate the periodicals and newspapers
which are now circulated amongst the agricultural com-
munity, except by way of illustration. I would ask
who in this room would now relinquish his paper ? Who,
indeed, could keep pace with the progress of agricul-
ture without the " Mark-lane Express," " Bell's
Weekly Messenger," and other journals now directly
devoted to the cause of agriculture ? What member
would now yield to the suppression of this club's
monthly reports ? On the contrary, are they not trea-
sured up as records of passing events ? These are
gratifying results ; but how have they been brought
about ? True it is that the Smithfield Club and the
Royal Agricultural Society have been mainly instru-
mental in the development of the art of agriculture ;
but what could practically have been done without the
aid of steam and railways ? Steam and railways have con-
veyed our specimens of live stock and implements, our
exhibitors, and also the inquiring public, to the national
gatherings : they have conveyed our corn to market,
and brought back portable manures : they have de-
posited our supplies of fat cattle and sheep at the best
markets, free from loss of weight, and have brought in
return ready cash within a few hours. This is a mighty
change from the old and dreary time, when animals
walked slowly to market, wasting the food of the con-
sumer and the profit of the grazier. These new aids
shorten the space of time required for certain opera-
tions, produce certainty of transit, and thus not only
increase the food of the people, but materially aid in
equalizing supplies and prices. In fact, if far removed
from railways, we may be said to be deprived of the
chief facility for our onward course ; for they are daily
spreading the intercourse between mind and mind, and
are creating new markets and new demands for know-
ledge. With a view to illustration, if indeed it be
wanting, I may mention the occasion of this evening's
gathering. I have myself travelled 230 miles by railway
to be present at this meeting. How many miles have
the members of the club collectively travelled within a
few hours ? Even the thought of the old "coaching
days" makes one shiver. — It may be interesting to mark
the important progress in agricultural mechanics as
another branch of industry, called forth by, and minis-
tering to progress in agriculture. In the time of the
Romans, Pliny tells us, " the corn being spread over
the area of a threshing floor (a circular space of from
forty to fifty feet in diameter) in the open air, a foot or

two thick, it was threshed or beaten out by the hoofs of
cattle or horses driven round it, or by dragging a ma-
chine over it." Again, we are told by the same au-
thority, "corn was cleansed or winnowed by throwing
it from one part of the floor to the other." This ancient
picture presents a marked contrast to our present
practices of thrashing, dressing, and sacking corn at one
operation, and leaving it in a fit state for market. In-
deed, it is to steam power that we are so much indebted
for the magical progress that has been made ; and it is
to steam power that we have yet to look for a much fur-
ther development of the art of agriculture. Mr. Mechi
has happily chosen this subject for a paper to be read
at our nest meeting, and I will not anticipate his re-
marks, which will no doubt be very interesting. — In
the early part of the present century, English agricul-
ture had warm and justly-eminent patrons, and none
more eminent or patriotic than the cultivators of our
established breeds of live stock. It is to such men as
the late Earl Spencer, Lord Ducie, Bakewell, Quartly,
Stubbins, Bennett, Buckley, Burgess, Ellman, Chap-
man, Price, Booth, Whittaker, and others, that we are
indebted for the production of our best breeds of live
stock. With a view to show how great is our debt of
gratitude to these men, I may observe that our beau-
tiful breeds of cattle, sheep, and horses have alike been
cultivated from indigenous animals. If we examine the
history of the sheep, we shall find that he has ever been
an inhabitant of every clime, from Iceland to the re-
gions of the torrid zone. Our English breeds were
chiefly of a horned class; for instance, the Dorset, Ex-
moor, Norfolk, Yorkshire, Wiltshire, Shropshire,
Welsh, Scotch white face, and Scotch black face, all had
horns. Several of these breeds, which inhabit the yet
uncultivated wastes, still remain, and are designated
" horned sheep." I have said that Britain in the ear-
liest periods of her history resembled all other countries
under similar circumstances. There was nothing but
bleak hills, undrained plains, and wild commons ; but in
the course of time, desolation gave way to husbandry,
and with it came a corresponding improvement in our
breeds of live stock. Thus it is that the old and un-
profitable animals have given way or been transformed
into the established breeds of the present day.
We have had as an element those beautiful principles,
which are laid down by Nature's laws, of the animal and
vegetable kingdom to instruct us. These embrace a
standard which man cannot alter; neither can he under-
stand the object, without great scientific research and
practical observation of the varied elements which com-
pose the whole. It devolves, therefore, upon the hus-
bandman to watch the laws of nature, and to found his
plans upon Nature's dictates. The principles of these
laws, worked out by proper rules, govern and direct the
successful practice of the art of agriculture. I may best
illustrate these remarks by mentioning a few of the princi-
ples recognized in our practice. First, there is the maxim
that it is to the principle of steam that we must look
for deep cultivation. Warmth is one of Nature's laws :
hence "the principle of warmth" is good : "warmth
is an equivalent to food." Animals consume or burn

3dd

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

away carbon in their lungs, and waste heat. Vegetables
store up the means of warmth. But every vegetable
requires its own particular mineral food ; and if this be
deficient, the plant sickens. Vegetables also need fresh
air: they imbibe food by their leaves. Each vegetable has
its own "heat mark," below which it stands still. The
drier the soil in winter, the warmer. A rough surface
causes heat to radiate, and therefore keeps down tem-
perature; therefore moisture is retained in summer by
roughening the surface of the land. And in mechanics
there are certain laws as to the balance of action and
reaction ; as the relation between power used and space
travelled over and time consumed, the connection be-
tween speed and resistance or friction; from which laws
there is no escape. We may sum up thus : Our Crea-
tor has given us nature to subdue. In the struggle
with nature we learn our strength and our weakness.
We find our strength increased by every effort ; but the
further we advance the more certainly do we know that
there is something which cannot be done. In a word :
the first condition for mastering nature in detail is to
understand her general laws, and to submit to them.
These laws then become living principles of science, and
bear fruit in consistent practice. Formerly the handi-
craft of the husbandman was looked upon as the stan-
dard of success, without which he could not be classed
as a " practical man." If he ventured to read or to
act upon new designs, he was at once branded with the
stigma of a doomed man. This state of things reminds
me of an anecdote. A certain farmer, in the good old
days, decided upon giving up his farm to the elder son.
To effect this it was thought best to ?ee " The Lord" in
person. Accordingly " father and son" set out for the
" Hall." Then came the familiar story—

"The soil I now hold, on your honour's estate.
Is the same that m}' grandfathers tilled."

This over, it was found a good opportunity for review-
ing the farm. The dialogue ran thus: "You see, my
Lord, we have all ploughed the ' Barn Close' for years,
until 'tis tired out, worn out, and grassed o'er. We have
been thinking, my Lord, that as we have all mowed
the ' top Woodfield' for years and years, and it grows
nothing but weeds, your Lordship would let this ere
boy of mine change the system a bit, so as to let the
' Barn Close' lay down, now it has grassed o'er, and
plough up the ' top Woodfield' that won't grow grass."
His Lordship, not quite seeing the drift of the argu-
ment, summoned his agent from " Chambers" to the
country, who proceeded to view the fields ; subsequently
agreeing that as the fields represented the story told, and
the good old man could have no interest in placing his
son in a false position, the change should be allowed.
The ride was prolonged and all went well until the
London agent dived into matters " purely agricultural,"
by remonstrating with the son as to his not taking " two
white crops" in succession, saying this he could not
allow. The old boy at once came to the rescue, and
quaintly replied, " Quite right, your honour, quite
right; there's nothing like a change. It has always
been our custom to sow wheat, and then black oats be-
tween it and the barley ; and I wish the boy to do the

same." Whereupon the agent apologized, and agreed
that the black oat crop between was an excellent thought,
and evidently constituted what he had heard so much
aboutjviz,, "the alternate husbandry!" (laughter). Such
was the state of things when the " handicraft" of the
husbandman was looked upon as the only standard of
success. Happilyfortheincreasing population of the pre-
sent day, this handicraft state of things is passing away,
and we have in exchange not only the modern practices
of the art, but the free discussion of all subjects which
relate to the "progress of agriculture." More espe-
cially is this the case at the Central Farmers' Club. In
reviewing this auxiliary I feel bound to give praise where
praise is due. The happy formation of this Club on the
28th June, 1843, at once announced a new era in the
annals of our agriculture, inasmuch as our very excellent
and intelligent friend, Mr. Baker, of Writtle, was invited
at the outset to introduce the subject of " Artificial
Manures," for the free discussion of the members.
Since that period this interesting topic has been dis-
cussed ten diflferent times, and there have been up to
this date no less than one hundred and ten subjects dis-
cussed by the members, each of them relating to agri-
culture. The question of "Tenant Right" has been
before the members ten times. The agricultural labourer
and his education seven times ; and draining and root
crops five times each. The important subjects of geo-
logy, diseases of cattle, agricultural statistics, agricul-
tural machinery, waste lands, food of cattle, farm
leases, sewage manures, the breaking-up of grass land,
carts and waggons, deep cultivation, the influence
of science, the rotation of crops, weights and measures,
allotment system, and the education of the farmer's son,
have also shared the attention of the Club. This is a
result which may be written upon the broad pages of
our history, in the book of agricultural progress. Well
may it be asked, "What should we now do without
this Club ?" What would the five hundred members
think if their Bridge-street sessions were terminated,
and the Club disbanded? Let us rejoice that "union
is strength ;" let each contribute to the cause by in-
troducing new members — only one — and our strength
will be increased twofold. I have noticed that this Club
has now discussed some hundred and ten subjects re-
lating to English agriculture, none of which have con-
vinced me so much of our growing position as the one
recently introduced by Mr. Bond, upon education. That
gentleman has well reminded us of the necessity of
keeping pace with the times ; and that it is to man's
mental powers that we have to look for the future ad-
vancement of agriculture. The sons of agriculture
must have an improved education, an education that
will now grapple with advancing science. Formerly
the mere routine practices of the year were sufficient
to make a farmer's son a "practical man," and the
country schoolmaster was an ample teacher for the age.
But now, thanks to advanced education and scientific
men, we live in an age of progress, and have yet a new
era before us. And if this be a truism, then I may
ask, who shall hold his own without steadily embracing
the improved facilities for education that are daily being

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39S

opened up ? The great point to be kept in view in the
farmer's education is not to cram knowledge into the
boy's head, but how to give him a good strong head ;
and I must add also, how to keep his heart warm. It is
true that a great deal of scientific knowledge is required
for a perfect theory of agriculture. But is it necessary
for perfect practice ? Is scientific training in early
years the best means of preparing the man for the exer-
cise of sound judgment ? A perfect mastery of our own
noble language is essential to express our own ideas
clearly, and to understand those of others. It is gene-
rally understood that the best way to acquire a know-
ledge of our mother-tongue is to learn another language,
ancient or modern. The great principles of mathema-
tical knowledge lie at the root of all sound mechanics,
and prepare the mind for accurate calculation, for win-
nowing out the real point at issue, and blowing away the
chaff. 1 have it on the authority of a schoolmaster,
whose success in recent examinations is well known, that
such an education as I have referred to is appreciated by
no class more decidedly than by the leading yeomanry.
I may also call the attention of this Club to the fact that
one of the first steps towards the improvement of the
general education of England was taken at the council of
an agricultural society, and is recorded in the fifth vol.,
page 431, of the Bath and West of England Society's
Journal, to this effect : At a meeting of the Council,
held at Taunton on the 28th of March, 1857, it was re-
solved unanimously, " That the Council fully assent to
the opinion that skill in business generally is best ac-
quired by practice, and that the best preparation for
practical life is a good general education ; that the co-
operation of some independent examiners, with a local
committee, appears well calculated to secure confidence
in the results of the examinations." On these two reso-
lutions were founded the measures for university local ex-
aminations now adopted in all parts of England. The
spirit of commerce or gain urged men to an examination
of substances which by their application will enable the
farmer to raise larger crops, and continue their culture,
without exhausting the soil to the prejudice of succeeding
ones. This search for extraneous matters seems to have
been pursued as an art, for science at the time had not
extended her researches in this direction ; though as
early as about 1600 many substances now used as manure
were mentioned as enriching the ground, to wit, the
dung of oxen, sheep, or pigeon ; sea-kelp, sea-tangle,
and other sea-weeds, for arable and pasture land ; and
the dregs of beer and ale, brine of the strength of 1 of
salt to 18 or 20 of water, the soot of chimneys, and the
refuse from the refining of petre. Shavings of horn are
mentioned as making productive a most unfruitful plot
of ground; as also waste soap-ashes, malt-dust, and
oat-husks. We may remark that Virgil even says he
has seen husbandmen wet their seed with nitre and the
lees of oil, that the grain might be larger. Gypsum was
used as manure in 1770, and crushed bones in 1775.
Now, in the foregoing we recognize many of our ma-
nuring principles ; but these were not generally known
and used, or, when used, they were only applied as
Bpecific substances without any but fanciful ideas re-

specting their mode of fertilizing, and their use was
therefore empirical. It was reserved for the science
of chemistry to point out the connection between these
fertilizers and their produce, to discern the presence in
the two of certain elements which were the true cause of
their manuring qualities, and thence to teach us that
wherever the same principles could be found we might
rely upon a similarly happy result from their employ-
ment. In 1790 a professorship of agriculture was
founded at Edinburgh, the Highland Society having
been instituted in 1784. The Board of Agriculture was
established in 1794. The Royal Agricultural Society
was instituted in 1838. A professorship of agriculture
was founded at Oxford in 1840. In 1840 the College
of Chemistry and Agriculture was founded at Kennington
by Messrs. Nesbit. In the laboratories of this establish-
ment these sciences, with geology and botany, have been
illustrated, and their application has been set forth by
Mr.'Nesbit's lectures and publications. In 1842 a col-
lege was founded at Cirencester, which received a charter
under the name of the Royal Agricultural College, to
which Professor Way, and afterwards Professor Voelcker,
were attached ; and there also the application of the
sciences to agriculture has been taught. To Sir Humphrey
Davy agricultural chemistry is much indebted, from
whose time till that of Ijiebig no chemist applied himself
to the application of chemical principles to the growth
of vegetables and to organic processes. Liebig gave the
greatest scientific stimulus to agriculture by suggesting
the use of vitriol or other acids to render the phosphates
soluble, and therefore more quickly available for the
nourishment of the plant, which result was immediately
acknowledged from its first trials in 1840 and 1841;
the effect of this solubility being to bring the turnip
quickly past the fly. About 1840 guano was first in-
troduced into England. It has, undoubtedly, been a
great boon to agriculturists ; for, besides a large amount
of nitrogen (the active principle of horn, soot, and other
ammoniacal manures), it contains phosphate of lime, a
manuring principle of bones, some being in a soluble
state, and having therefore the properties of dissolved
phosphates. Coprolites were discovered to be manure
about the same time (that is, about 1840) ; and, though
their phosphate of lime is in a condition unadapted for
solution by natural causes, by reducing them to a fine
powder and treatment with acid it is dissolved. Thus
we have opened up to us an amount of mineral manure
of vast extent, the discovery of which has, happily, been
simultaneous with that of a process necessary for its
proper utilization. It is to deeper cultivation and the
improvement of our waste lands that we have now to
look for the extension of our acreage produce. The
earliest records of substantial enclosures date from the
earliest period of the reign of George the Third, in
1760. The passing of more than three thousand bills of
enclosure in a reign of sixty years is a proof how rapidly
the cultivation of new land proceeded in that period ;
and, while the rent-roll of proprietors has been doubled,
tripled, and quadrupled by this cause, the condition of
the tenantry and of the labouring classes has been ame-
liorated in a proportionate degree, England exported

394

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

corn up to the end of the eighteenth century ; but this
period was about the turning-point — a sort of pivot-
period, when exports and imports nearly balanced each
other. The enclosure of land now begins to mark the
consumption of a gradually-increasing population and
trade. A committee of the House of Commons, which
sat in 1797, computed the total quantity of land enclosed
during that century at about four millions of acres.
We have in " Spackman's Analysis of the Occupations
of the People" a complete record of the progress of in-
closure from the commencement of the present century to
the year 1840, viz. —

From 1800 to 1810 1,657,980 acres

From 1810 to 1820 1,410,930 „

Total 3,068,910 ,,

Thus, during the first twenty years, the inclosures
amounted to upwards of three millions of acres. But,
while these twenty years present to our view the pheno •
menon of immense inclosure, it must be stated that this
took place under the stimulant of the highest range of
prices for food ever known, except in cases of famine.
At the close of the war in 1815, the average price of
wheat had been during the preceding fifteen years 84s.
9d. per quarter, and during the succeeding five years it
was 78s. 4d. From 1820 the whole scene changed, and
the most trying period commenced, the causes of which
are now apparent. Three million acres of moderate land
had been taken in hand, and a metallic currency was re-
sorted to. The inclosure from the year 1820 to 1830
only reached 340,380 acres, thus gradually bringing
round the natural remedy for the over doses of inclosure
which the war had prescribed. From 1830 to 1840 only
236,070 acres were inclosed, showing that supply and
demand had not yet righted themselves. Thus during
the forty years we have an addition of three and a-half
millions of acres to the cultivated lands, against an in-
crease of upwards of 8,000,000 in the population.
By the census of 1801 the population of Great Britain
was shown to be 10,472,048 ; in the year 1841 it had in-
creased to 18,664,761. Spackman then tells us that in
the year 1800 we had under cultivation 42,000,000 of
acres, which produced food for ten and a-half millions of
people. The General Inclosure Act was passed in 1835.
The fourteenth report, which has just been presented to
parliament, gives the following figures —

Applications for inclosures since the passing of

the act 809

Exchanges 1,697

Partitions, &c 161

Total

2,667

Of this number 316 have taken place in the last year.
Acreage of inclosures confirmed .... 281,949
Ditto ditto in progress 208,687

Total 490,636

Or in round numbers half a million of acres. These re-
turns embrace a period of five years, which were included
in the last decennial period from 1830 to 1840, but I
have no power of separating them. It is estimated that

there are still 15,000,000 acres of waste lands capable of
improvement, 6,000,000 of which would make arable
land, and the remainder improved pasture ; but as the
high prices from 1800 to 1820 caused the inclosure of
land to an extent never equalled, so in the proportion to
the decline in prices, inclosure has also declined. Still,
applications for assistance to drain and improve waste
land continue to be made ; and the English yeoman will,
as he ever has done, adopt whatever improvements can
be suggested by experience, as rent-paying practices.
A national report of the waste lands of England and their
capabilities would be an interesting and valuable docu-
ment at this stage of our progress. Be it remembered
that our population is increasing beyond a thousand per
day, while the acreage of our island remains the same ;
and that there is a certain limit to the high farming of
richly-cultivated lands. — Amongst the many and varied
practices that have aided the progress of agriculture may
be mentioned the practical results of chemistry and arti-
ficial manures. These have enabled the farmer to quad-
ruple his green crops, to place the right manure in the
right place, and to economize the cost of production.
The art of draining is another marked improvement of
the age, which dates its further development from the
" Government loans" for this purpose, which loans were
the result of early private practice, acting on public
opinion. The improvement in draining-tools and in
draining-tiles has contributed to the success that has
been attained, and is rapidly progressing ; for without
this auxiliary, upon certain soils cultivation is simply
useless. The growing knowledge of atmospheric in-
fluences has had its share in the work, and gone far to
arouse the dormant intellect upon points relating to
geographical position, the geography of plants, the in-
fluence of light and heat, seasons, winds, &c. The en-
closing and improvement of waste land has also formed
a prominent feature ; and the improvement of local and
farm roads is a link in the chain of progress. The atten-
tion which has been directed to the education of the
labouring classes, the improvement of their cottages, and
the allotment system has not been without efi'ect, each of
these being an evident requirement for the improved class of
men who are daily being called into requestto perform the
altered cultivation upon the farm. In effect the occu-
pation of the man who thrashed the barn-floor for the
natural term of the winter months, is gone. His son suc-
ceeds him as an engineer, or the director of asteam-engine !
The improvement in farm buildings is another requisite
for the times, and has been liberally carried out for en-
terprising tenants. The " rotation of crops" has of
necessity received much attention, alike in the field, in
the laboratory, and in the discussions of this club. The
practical issue is this : the four-course shift was invented
and adopted for the purpose of improving the land ;
this has been done to a heavy amount, and it now re-
quires correction, by the introduction of another corn
crop, extending the four to a five-field course. The
Scotch system is that of the six-field course — roots,
white straw crop, seeds, white crop, beans, and white
crop. The extension of root and other green crops
since the introduction of artificial manures has con-

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395

tributed to the increase and excellence of our live stock, in
a truly marvellous degree — a profitable result. Agri-
cultural statistics have been the subject of many at-
tempts ; but although we have had many interesting state-
ments with regard to agricultural produce, the move-
ment has not been received very graciously. Time
alone can show how far an altered taste may lead to
different results in future years. — Irrigation is a practice
which, although chiefly confined to the western counties,
has deserved well of the farmer. It has done its part
in the production of green food in early spring, and
abundance of hay at shear time, at a nominal outlay.
This practice is well worthy the attention of proprietors
and tenants of hilly districts, " where the plough can-
not penetrate," but " the rippling stream can flow."
At the request of Mr. T. Dyke Acland, a paper " On
Water Meadows as suitable for Wales and other moun-
tain districts" was prepared by Mr. T. Barker, of Pusey
(agent on the Pusey Estates), for the last Journal of
the Bath and West of England Society. I mention
this because the paper is not only well worthy the
attention of all "hill farmers," but is about to be
reprinted for general use, especially for the prin-
cipality of Wales and the Westmoreland Lake districts.
The grass lands of England have also received some
attention of late, but by no means in an even ratio with
the favoured arable lands. There is indeed, a nice point
of distinction to be drawn on this head. Can we im-
prove moderate grass land by top-dressing to a profit ?
or arc they such as would pay best for cultivation ?
Local circumstances can alone decide, climate being
the ruling power. As regards the tenure of land, the
question of an equitable arrangement for ensuring good
cultivation versus loss of time and capital, when tenants
are changing farms, has been freely and fully discussed
of late, and discussion is happily resulting in a better
understanding of the necessity for such an arrangement.
Progress will effect umch in this way ; and although we
may be met in the outset by opposition and by surprise
that there should be such a term as "tenant right,"
equity and improved culture will ultimately become
the universal practice. In fact, the principle is being
acted upon in present lettings, to a considerable extent.
The subject of " agricultural customs and covenants"
has been fully before the council of the Bath and
West of England Society, and the result will shortly ap-
pear in the Society's forthcoming Journal. Deep cul-
ture by the aid of steam-power is yet in its infancy ;
but, as a consequence of progressive art, it will ulti-
mately do much for agriculture, by deepening the tillage
earth of countless acres which cannotbe profitably moved
by any other power. This leads me to the remark that
there is yet wanting a better comparative knowledge of
the several powers engaged in agriculture, such as steam,
horse, water, and manual power. On the subject of
" horse power," we have an excellent report in the last
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, by Mr,
Morton. It should bo well read, and weighed against
the present papers that are being daily written upon
steam-power, lest our zeal for "things new" should
carry us out of our depth — or we might say below our

depth. As regards manual labour, we are daily seeing
it surplanted by mechanical aid. From my present
acquaintance with water power in a hilly country, I can
strongly recommend it to all who have the power of
water within reach of the farmstead. The enormous
additional weight of green food that has been produced
of late has rendered practicable the maintenance of larger
herds of cattle, increased flocks of sheep, &;c., and thus
supplied an additional weight of animal food for the
growing wants of the people, and the increasingyore?$r?j
trade in English animals ; while the fact that the price
of meat keeps up, while corn has fallen, has happily
falsified some doleful forebodings. The practical value
of these increased products is best illustrated by a quo-
tation from Mr. Middleton's work. He observes,
" that every acre would support its xawa, onvegetaMe
food ;" but, says he, " only let him change his diet to
one meal per day of animal food, and he will require
the produce of four acres." In connection with root
crops may be mentioned the intrinsic value of mangold-
wurtzel. It is being cultivated to an enormous extent,
and has happily come to the rescue of many a farm
where the Swedish turnip has become less hardy than in
former years, or, more properly speaking, less inclined
to flourish on the same soil, once in four years, under
the four-course system of husbandry. Autumnal cul-
ture has stood the test of experience, and remains as a
valuable saving in the cost of clean farming ; but as
respects light lands, the practice is yet a doubtful one.
This class of remarks might be carried on for an hour :
there are indeed so many plans for every branch of our
art, that I had better conclude by referring members to the
pages of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, and
those of the Bath and West of England Society's Journal,
as records of all that is good and worth recording.
The extension of commerce and manufactures has
proved a valuable adjunct to the increase and consump-
tion of agricultural produce. More raw materials, as
flax, wool, &c , are required, manures from foreign
lands are exchanged for goods, and we must not omit
the precious metal, and its abundance to this country,
whereby all things agriculturnl have shared in the
golden harvest so unexpectedly supplied. The ulti-
mate results of the gold discoveries it would be
unsafe to predict; suffice it to say that the effects
of the increase of gold require the serious fore-
thought of the statesman. Amongst the fa-
cilities that have recently been afforded to agriculture,
we may mention the Government Drainage Act, the
the Inclosure Act, the New Poor Law Act, and the
Tithe Commutation Act. The advantages afforded by
the Fire Insurance offices, the Drainage, Building, Hail,
and Cattle Insurance offices, have each in their way
helped along the well-being of those that are promi-
nently interested in them. — Thus far, I have given a
glowing account of the " progress of agriculture" from
the early ages to the present time. But what shall I
say of our disappointment and misfortunes? We have,
in truth, had our vicissitudes and losses by the diseases
of our live stock, wet harvests, failure in our root crops,
and low prices for our cereal produce, while the cost of

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manual labour has (from various causes) increased.
Again, it must be mentioned that the English farmer
has to depend upon his own exertions, and cannot look
to Government grants or Government assistance. He
has no statistics or history of his art ; he has no ad-
justment of his weights or measures, no board of agri-
culture, no minister or representative in the State. But
yet he has held liis ground, and contiaues to feed the
people. The future of our agriculture is full of interest.
There are subjects before us well worthy of considera-
tion. Amongst them is a growing desire to treat agri-
cultural pursuits upon " commercial principles." From
this cause the occupation will become commercial, small
farms will have to succumb to large ones, talent and
capital will reap their reward ; education will progress,
the tenure of land and security for unexhausted im-
provements will become matters of fact, as commercial
transactions. The project of steam-power has been
boldly launched, and the ingenuity of man is now
at work to adapt it for general employment ; but this
is yet a venture, and has an eminence to surmount that
will require the talent of an age. The Royal and West
of England Agricultural Societies have each offered a
liberal prize for an Essay " on Steam Cultivation,"
These prizes may bring out an amount of talent that
may aid the movement; but the " plant" as yet pro-
duced is far too costly for general adoption. There is
yet considerable room for perfecting our breeds of live
stock, that they may become more generally developed
in " every district, and the right animals be cultivated
in the right place." The economical consumption of
their food, early maturity, and a better knowledge of
their diseases, are alike essential to our future good.
The extension of draining is another very important
element ; and it would be well if the Government grants
were extended upon a liberal basis. The waste lauds of
England are again waiting for improvement, and offer
an inviting field for enterprise in juxtaposition to that
of emigration to " a land we know not of." Artificial
manures are yet in their infancy ; it being no uncom-
mon thing to realize and consume a crop of roots be-
fore they are paid for, thus commercially-improving the
farm by manures and sheep to the full benefit of every
one, at little cost to the farmer. The improvement of
grass-land is indeed a national subject, and must fol-
low the advances of the arable lands. A series of ex-
periments upon grass-lands, conducted under the ma-
nagement of an agricultural society, would elicit much
practical information as to the results of different ma-
nures, the soil and situation being well considered.
Amongst other public questions, there yet remains for
consideration an adjustment of the " weights and mea-
sures" by which agricultural produce is sold ; the es-
tablishment of a better system of taking the corn avera-
ges; a reconsideration of the malt tax, agricultural
statistics, the adjustment of the game laws, so as to
substitute " winged game" for the four-footed tres-
passers; abetter understanding of the law of "cus-
toms and covenants," as regards the quitting of a farm ;
an extention of the Government draining loan ; and
l.^="y,t'!^ preparation of anew and complete " Ord-

nance map," upon a large and comprehensive scale,
under the direction of the Government (cheers.)

Mr. E. B. Acton (the Temple) was not surprised to
find so large an audience ; and was greatly indebted to
Mr. Smith for bringing on the question of agricultural
progress, as he has fairly exhausted every topic. He
(Mr. Acton) was old enough to remember the time when
in the western counties scarcely a neighbour looked over
his neighbour's hedge, and the sheep were so bad from
starvation on the hills, that, instead of fulfilling the old
nursery rhyme of " bringing their tails behind them,"
they were in fear of losing them altogether, from being
bred in-and-in, instead of being renewed by the good
services of Messrs. Jonas Webb, Ellman, and Bennett's
high-bred stock ; but during the last twenty years a
wonderful change had come over the scene, owing to
the happy union of practice with science. So long as
the corn laws existed the question of agricultural im-
provements were not much mooted, and for this rea-
son— the then existing fluctuating duty operated as a
premium on the growth of corn in this country, to
the exclusion of foreign produce, and farmers went on
doing very well in their usual jog-trot way. But the
gradual advance in the price of land derived from manu-
factures and commerce gave a powerful impetus to
rural pursuits ; gentlemen turned farmers with the hope
of making money, augmenting agricultural capital, and
calling forth a more enterprising race of cultivators,
and an economy of labour by means of machinery, which
laid the foundation of that success which had placed us
in the proud position we now occupied in the eyes of
foreign nations. They had also now a tenant-right, giv-
ing the tenant a compensation for unexhausted improve-
ments before the conclusion of the tenancy, over and
above those of common husbandry covenants ; as also
remedies for enforcing the taking or payment of farm
fixtures, either by Ihe landlord or the money-tenant,
subsequently embodied in the Landlord and Tenant's
Act of the 14 & 15 Vict. c. 25 ; so much so, that tenant-
right agreemc";ts were fast susperseding the old obsolete
ridiculous set of covenants which incumbered old farm
leases, and which seemed as if they were framed in the
days of the patriarchs of old.

Mr. W. Bennett (Cambridge) said that the lecture
to which they had listened from Mr. Smith was, in
his judgment, calculated to be of great service to the
country. It enabled them to look back all the way they
had travelled for 40 or 50 years, to note what they might
have done well and usefully, what they had done ill, and
in what they might mend matters for the future. Mr.
Smith had mentioned the fact of the introduction of the
Swedish turnip about 60 years, and he (Mr. Bennett)
recollected that when he was a boy everybody was turn-
ing his attention to its culture. It was lamentable to
think, however, that the swede had lost much of its
merits in many parts of the kingdom. In his neigh-
bourhood, for instance, it had been so extensive a failure
during the last few years, that they had begun to ques-
tion much whether or not agriculture was to be pro-
moted by the continuance of its growth. The matter
was one of vast moment, inasmuch as everybody knew

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307

that a large portion of human food had been produced
by using Swede turnips in stall feeding and the feeding
of sheep. It had now become a grave question amongst
many intelligent farmers whether they must not abandon
the swede, and substitute for it the mangold or kohl rabi ;
and a next-door neighbour of his had been spirited
enough to expend £25 in purchasing a single cwt. of kohl
rabi this year, so satisfied was he, after five or six sue
cessive years' failure, that swedes were not to be grown
profitably on his farm. He had determined, therefore,
upon substituting kohl rabi or mangold wurtzel almost
exclusively. There was no doubt that farmers must look
to their fallow crop largely to produce meat and to pay
their rents. Every one who knew anything of farming
must know that if they did not make the stock pay the
rent of the farm they would do badly ; and that if they
did not manage on the four- course system of husbandry
to make the fallow crop produce something considerable,
they would not be able to look their landlords pleasantly
in the face. So far as his own experience went of the
value of kohl rabi, he had found it a very excellent sub-
stitute for the swede turnip, more especially after a green
crop. He had not only grown a portion of his fallow
crop with kohl rabi instead of swedes, but, wherever
tares, Italian grass, or other green crop had been grown
to be taken off green, he had found that to transplant
kohl rabi in July had produced an excellent crop —
in fact, the most valuable upon the farm, and most
useful for sheep, especially in the spring of the year.
His ewes and lambs had been living upon it for six
weeks past, and that with the very best results. Among
other improvements, then, which he thought they
would have to adopt was this — of substituting other
crops for swede turnips. On some soils the failure of
swedes was very extensive ; they " rotted at the core,"
and when they might naturally be expected to go on and
produce a good crop, they drooped and died, however
high the cultivation. There was one point in reference
to which he could not quite agree with Mr. Smith. His
friend was a little too much disposed to put down what had
been termed " thrashing with two sticks," and he (Mr.
Bennett) must take the liberty of questioning the pru-
dence of his friends when they seemed inclined to go too
fast, although he might be considered one of the " old
school" for so doing. He did not mind a reproach of
that sort, however, provided he could only come at the
truth. (Hear, hear.) Now he did not mean to say
that the thrashing machine was not a valuable imple-
ment of husbandry, or that the steam-engine was not an
important substitute for horses ; but he had yet to learn
that, invariably and at all times, either was superior
to thrashing with " two sticks." He had this year
thrashed barley both with the machine and with
hand labour. In one of his own men, indeed, he pos-
sessed a better machine than he had ever yet seen con-
structed of iron. That man had earned his 15s. a-week
regularly throughout the whole winter ; sometimes
as much as 17s. 6d. in thrashing barley ; and he did the
work infinitely better than the best thrashing machine.
He believed that the thrashing of barley by hand was
cheaper and better than the thrashing of it by steam ;

and the superiority of the former practice was especially
observable in the winter months, when labour was
plentiful. He had himself invariably got the work per-
formed in that way for 2s. a quarter. In such matters
it became them while they "prove all things,'' to " hold
fast that which was good." (Hear, hear.) Let them not
repudiate all the ideas of their grandfathers, as if they
were a set of fools. (Laughter.) No such thing; many
of them were as intelligent as any of themselves. (Hear,
hear.) It was often assumed that under-draining was
never thought of until recently. But was that the fact ?
Why his own father obtained a prize for under- draining
forty-five years ago. They must not put down every-
thing that was good to the account of the present genera-
tion; there were men who knew something about
agriculture before we came into existence ; and as re-
garded the thrashing of oats and barley he certainly con-
sidered that it was done more cheaply and satisfactorily
by manual labour than by steam, more especially in the
winter. (Hear, hear.) With respect to root crops, it was
of the highest moment that they should endeavour to find
either some substitute for swedes or some mode of stopping
their decay. (Hear, hear.) In his opinion, it would be
worthy of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
to try and discover why a root which once answered so
well in this country was no longer to be depended upon.
He had observed that the failure was less on a soil with
a chalk bottom than anywhere else. For example : In
the neighbourhood of Luton, where there was a chalky
subsoil, the failure was not so great as where the soil had
a gravelly foundation. Speaking generally, he agreed
with Mr. Smith that there was no country in the world
where agriculturists had made such progress as was seen
in England, both with regard to stock and with regard
to the cultivation of the soil. It was very common for
persons who lived in large towns to speak of English
farmers as if they had done nothing in the way of im-
provement ; but no one would say that, who duly consi-
dered what a large and increasing population they had
succeeded in feeding. (Hear, hear).

Mr. Spearing (Moulsford, Wallingford) wished to
corroborate what had fallen from Mr. Bennett with re-
gard to the thrashing of barley. He had two steam en-
gines, which he did not let out, and he found it more
profitable to thrash by hand than to employ those en-
gines for such a purpose.

Mr. H. Trethewy (Silsoe) thought the discussion
ought not to be narrowed to a consideration of the com-
parative merits of thrashing by steam and thrashing by
hand. (Hear, hear.) The subject was, in fact, a most
comprehensive one ; and Mr. Smith must have felt that,
when he proceeded to prepare his introduction. He would
not follow that gentleman by tracing the progress of
agriculture from the earliest period, but would offer one
or two remarks bearing on its recent development. He
thought they owed a great deal to legal enactments, and
more particularly to the Tithe Commutation Act. Those
who knew what farming was before that Act was passed
must be aware that before that time it was impossible to
improve land. However good the intentions might be,
however strong might be the desire to improve the cul-

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tivation of the soil, improvement could not be effected,
because the larger the crop grown the more the farmer
had to pay. If land which produced only ten bushels
an acre were made to produce forty, he had to pay a
tenth of the increase — no power could prevent it ; and
hence the passing of the Tithe Commutation Act re-
moved one of the greatest obstructions that ever stood
in the way of the progress of agriculture. (Hear, hear).
As regarded the poor-law, it was unnecessary for him
to remind them of the disadvantages which pressed upon
agriculture under the old state of things, and of the
benefits which resulted from the alteration that took
place a few years ago. The sciences also had come to
their aid, and in particular they had derived great as-
sistance from chemistry, geology, and botany. In short,
they were now enjoying advantages which were not
dreamt of fifty years ago. What the next fifty years
would produce it was impossible to say, but there was
reason to hope that they would be marked by progressive
improvement.

The Rev. T. C. James said the history of agricul-
ture was in some degree the history of the world ; the
three first men in the world being a gardener, a plough-
man, and a grazier. " Progress" being now the
farmer's- watchword, " Onwards ! " his motto, the cul-
tivation of ihe mind and the acquisition of knowledge
were manifestly as essential to farmers as to any other
class of society (Hear, hear). This was the more evi-
dent from the artificial state in which agriculture now
was. It was artificial because of the extended use of
complicated machinery and of scientific appliances in the
operations of the farm ; because of the race which was
going on between manual industry and mechanical in-
ventions; because of the wondrous power of steam — a
power so astonishing that it was estimated to have added
to the power at man's disposal for ordinary purposes a
force equal to that of ten millions of labourers. The
practical deduction from all this was, he said, that the
farmers of England should endeavour to advance them-
selves in intellectual attainments, and to cultivate, at
their various homesteads and in their various parishes,
skilled men for skilled labour — quick, active, and intel-
ligent men, adapted to modern requirements; or else
the present race of farmers must yield to others who
would pursue a course which was adapted to the
energy, enterprise, and intelligence of the age (cheers).

Mr. Sidney said, when addressing, as he was in the
habit of doing, the non-agricultural public, he spoke to
them of what farmers had done, and explained that they
were not so far behind as a few years ago it was the
universal custom to represent them to be ; but when he
met farmers themselves, he felt bound to take a different
line, and, speaking historically if not practically, to
deal in something else than compliments (laughter).
Farmers were, like other human beings, too apt to in-
dulge in self-laudation, especially at agricultural meet-
ings ; and in that he had no wish to encourage them.
There could be no doubt, indeed, that at the present
time English farmers stood at the head of the agricul-
tural world. But, though they had attained a position,
practically and scientifically, which had never been

attained before, they had not done so in the manner
that they sometimes supposed : they had not attained it
solely as farmers, or by handing down from father to
son traditions as to farming pursuits, unconnected with
the intervention of men of any other calling. Any one
who listened to the speeches of many agriculturists,
might suppose that they were a class apart — that they
had aoLuiug to Jo with townsmen or with any other
class of society. According, however, to his view of the
history of agriculture, almost every change which had
produced a decided improvement in agriculture was an
importation either from a townsman or from a foreigner
(laughter). Unlike the state of things in France, there
had in this country been a constant flux and reflux, a
constant flow of sharpened intelligence, between the
towns and the rural districts. There was a continual
migration going on from town to country. If they
examined the history of any man who was now eminent
as a country squire, they were almost sure to find that
his grandfather was a townsman (laughter). The grand-
father of Sir Tatton Sykes was a merchant at Hull ; the
father of Mr. Farquharson was a gunpowder-merchant.
The things which had done most to promote the recent
development of agriculture were improved implements,
artificial food, and foreign manure. One of the most
important of modern implements was the drill ; and il
was a parson — the Rev. John Rook — who invented it.
In like manner, it was a Scotch minister who invented
the reaping machine ; and there were a great variety of
other implements which certainly did not owe their
origin to farmers. The most important root in modern
agriculture was perhaps the turnip ; and that was of
foreign derivation. So also were the carrot, Dutch
clover, and Italian ryegrass. Oilcake and guano were
in the same category. The very strength of agriculture,
therefore, lay in its communication with the towns and
with foreign countries : without such an interchange, it
would have been absolutely impossible for it to attain
the development which it now exhibited ; and, while this
tended to foster a good feeling between the inhabitants
of the towns and those of the rural districts, it was the
best and only means of securing the continued progress
of agriculture.

Mr. Whistler (Overton, Hants) said, the progress
of agriculture seemed to date from the commencement of
he four-course system. That system had its origin in
the introduction of the turnip, not on account of the in-
trinsic value of the turnip, but because of the change of
plants which it allowed. Hethought the presentunhealthi-
ness of the turnip was owing to its too frequent use, and
to the noa-use of kindred plants, such as clover, peas,
beans, parsnips, and rape. IMangold, which had been
used lately with great success, belonged to the vetch
tribe, including tares, sainfoin, mustard, and carrots.
The production of each of these was injurious to that of
the others, and he thought that afforded one explanation
of the failure of clover after peas, beans, and rape.
Wheat, barley, oats, and rye-grass were a perfect change,
and seemed to be the best producers of the turnip and
likewise of the other tribes which he had mentioned.
He did not see how they could entirely dispense with

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399

the swede, but he thought it would be a great advantage
to alternate it with mangold-wurzel. There was a
chemistry in plants which required great attention ; in
robbing the soil, as it were, of their own tribe, they pre-
pared it for an opposite tribe.

Mr. Skelton (Sutton Bridge) thought the subject of
the progress of agriculture required some reference to the
question of establishing a uniformity of weights and mea-
sures. Since he entered that room there had been placed
in his hands a copy of a bill relating to that subject, which
had been recently introduced into the House of Com-
mons by Mr. John Locke, Mr. Adams, and Mr. Hunt,
and which he thought was well worthy of the attention
of agriculturists. Indeed so great was the irregularity
which prevailed, so striking the want of a uniform
system, that farmers would show themselves behind the
age if they did not do something towards securing an
alteration. There was another bill before Parliament,
besides that which he had mentioned, it having been in-
troduced by Mr. M'Cann, an Irish member, connected
with the Liverpool trade, the object being to establish
the buying and selling of corn by the lOOlbs. Con-
sidering that the tith3 rent-charge, corn rents, and im-
port duties were calculated from returns based on the
imperial quarter, he thought that on the whole the best
uniform system would be a system of measure. As re-
garded the disputes and difficulties connected with the
niceties of measuring, he might remark that in Norfolk
and South Lincolnshire, the great point being to get at
the natural value, it was customary to ascertain how
much a bushel weighed, and, whatever the weight might
be, the merchant and the farmer were guided by it.
He was not prejudiced in favour of measure, though he
considered it best on the whole ; but some uniform
system must be adopted. He believed the two bills to
which he had referred were to come on for consideration
about the 13th of April.

Mr. E. Tattersall (Hyde Park Corner) said, as
they were met to discuss the progress of agriculture, it
had occurred to him that it depended in a great degree
on their being able to obtain a sufficient quantity of
the best artificial manure ; and as an inhabitant of a
town, he was reminded how little had been done,
thus far, to secure that object (Hear, hear). While
chemists had said so much on that subject, they
seemed to have forgotten that there was at their own
doors a mass of refuse which might be converted into a
source of untold wealth. It was for farmers to urge
that subject on the attention of chemists ; and in his
opinion it would be a stigma and disgrace to them if they
did not reduce the refuse of London to a suitable form
for increasing the crops of their country (Hear, hear).
At present it was only a nuisance to society, whereas it
might be made an immense advantage, and he trusted
the day was not far distant when London alone would
supply guano enough for a great part of the lands of
England (Hear, hear). As regarded the general ques-
tion, he was one of those who thought that agricultu-
rists were quite on a level with other classes in the race
of improvement. He would be a rash man who said
that agriculture had reached perfection ; but looking at

the increase of crops, and the general progress of agri-
culture, he maintained that farmers were quite equal in
energy and advancement to any other class of society.
As to the deterioration of the turnip, he doubted
whether it was not in some degree owing to the constant
repetition of a peculiar kind of manure.

The Chairman, in summing up, adverted to the re-
marks of Mr. Skelton, observing that that gentleman
appeared to be in favour of both measure and weight —
a combination which he could not at all underf.tand.

Mr. Skelton said he did not advocate legislation on
the basis of measure and weight, but on that of measure
alone.

Mr. Smith, being here called on, said ; In rising,
sir, to reply to the several addresses that have been
delivered this evening, I must first express my regret
that the discussion has not taken a bolder and more
comprehensive turn upon this national subject — a
subject that embraces the employment of millions of
our fellow-men, as also millions of English capital.
I could have wished, on the one hand, that our friend
Mr. Acton's zeal had been abated for a time, until
some one of our country friends had addressed the
meeting, a good start being one of the great essentials
to a good end. Mr. Bennett has well called your atten-
tion to the failure of the turnip crop, and suggested as
a substitute the " kohl-rabi" plant. Lest parties might
be led away to make an extfusive change for this plaat,
I beg to remind them that this root was tried by my
father in Lincolnshire, some thirty years ago, and to the
extent in one instance of a ten-acre field, but it was not
continued in after-years. This plant, like the cabbage,
has its merit in that of being transplanted from the
seed-bed to the cultivated soil, after vetches, rye, &c.
Still, such a process is an expensive one, and unless the
land be rich in nature, the bulbs, from their peculiar
formation, will not swell to a great size. When well-
grown by early planting, &c., they are found to be a
useful portable crop. Mr. Bennett has misconstrued
my allusion to the thrashing of corn by manual labour
versus steam. I gave it as an illustration of the change
of circumstances, showing that the sons of toil must
have a better education for the advance and advancing
practi;esof the farm. Tlie remarks of Mr. Whistler
are worthy of our best consideration, and let us, before
we run counter with our friend the Swedish turnip, well
consider if we have not committed the error of planting
him too frequently in the same field. We talk familiarly
about the land being " clover sick :" is there not such a
thing as land being " Swedish turnip sick.'" I speak
from great experience when I tell you that upon the
new soils of my neighbourhood, we know of no disease
in our root crops ; they are vigorous in the extreme. I
agree with Mr. Whistler, that there are families of
plants, and that they best succeed each other at long
intervals. I am not aware that I need reply to any
other remarks that have been made upon the subject of
my paper. But, sir, I should be wanting in courtesy
to the cause of agriculture if I did not reply to Mr.
Sidney's attack upon its progress. Indeed, Mr. Sidney
seems to be in a dilemma, inasmuch as be has two pur-

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poses to serve, viz. : to extol agriculture aad its patrons
before a " town's population," and to ridicule it before
the members of this and other agricultural societies.
Mr. Sidney told us that he had only just entered the
room ; yet the time had arrived when he must make his
speech. 1 regret this, and the more so, as his re-
marks did not in any way apply to the discussion. In-
deed he has told us that we are dependent upon every-
body, and that nobody is dependent upon us. I would
for the moment inform him, that our island was once a
common waste, and that now the foreigners (of whom

he has said so much) are our best and constant cus-
tomers. With regard to our being indebted to a clergy-
man for the invention of the reaping-machine, I can
only say that the reaping-machine was even used in the
time of the Romans ; certainly, if we judge from the
drawing, it formed but a rude implement, yet sufficient
for the day (cheers).

Thanks were then voted to Mr. Smith and the Chair-
man respectively, and with these acknowledgments the
proceedings terminated.

THE CONDITION OF THE AGRICULTURAL LABOURER.

The progressive improvement by which the course of
agriculture has been marked dui-ing the last fifty years
is beginning to be a stale subject; not because those
interested in it are flagging in their efforts or zeal, or
that the accumulating mass of useful innovations already
introduced has exhausted the ingenuity of those with
whom they have originated ; but because, on the con-
trary, the modern system of husbandry, like that of
every other branch of national industry, has become a
much more serious and absorbing business than for-
merly ; so that the farmer has now so much to do that
he has less time to talk about it. Competition in any
branch of business is a wonderful stimulant, and brings
into exercise a mental energy and power in many an
Individual, who is as much astonished as his neighbours
at the unexpected development.

Perhaps in no department of farming operations has
improvement been more palpable or more sedulously
carried out than in the care and attention bestowed
upon the different races of animals, for which lofty and
well-ventilated comfortable apartments are built, abun-
dance of rich food provided, cleanliness and health
sedulously promoted, and every means resorted to, to
attain the great object of the farmer's solicitude — a
speedy preparation of the animals for the butcher, and
thus an early realization of the profits of the transaction.

But whilst such incredible pains are taken to provide
for the well-being and comfort of the superior animals,
the quadrupeds of the farm — whilst the cattle, the
sheep, and even the pigs, are thus anxiously cared for
and plentifully fed, how is it with the biped race ?— if
we may be allowed for once, by way of illustration, to
use so mean and low a term in speaking of the agricul-
tural labourers of England. In more respectful lan-
guage, if the irrational animals are thus become the
objects of the farmers' attention, surely the welfare of
those beings on whose efforts they depend for their
prosperity, and who possess powers and faculties infi-
nitely superior to those of the fortunate brutes to whose
welfare they are employed to cater, is entitled to the
first consideration. In point of ability to provide for
their own comfort and welfare the two classes — the
rational and the irrational — stand upon equal terms;
for assuredly the low wages of the agricultural labourer
render it impossible for him to do more than provide
food and raiment for himself and those dependent upon

him, and scantily enough of these. For education,
house accommodation, and sanitary arrangements, he
must depend on his employer, the farmer, or on the
landlord. His moral and intellectual advancement,
which are closely connected with those objects, it is
utterly out of his power to provide for, or even to
occupy his mind upon, so helpless and impotent does
his normal condition of poverty render him.

We have frequently referred to this subject in our
columns, and have again and again urged upon the
farmers the consideration that it is not only their duty
but their interest to attend thereto, and to provide such
accommodation for their labourers as shall enable them
to bring up their families in decency and respectability.
In proportion as this object is pursued, and the moral
and physical welfare of the labourer promoted, are tho
incentives to vico and crime diminished, and the self-
respect of the labourer instilled into his mind. These
results will assuredly be accompanied with a diminution
of crime and pauperism, especially illegitimacy, now so
prevalent amongst that class, the inevitable result of
that mingling of the sexes of a family in the inadequate
dwellings they are compelled to inhabit. This is abun-
dantly proved in a pamphlet recently put into our
hands,* and which has led iis again to take up the
subject. The author shows, beyond a doubt, that it is
" the sbujle bedchamber in the tioo-roomed cottage"
that is working this destruction of the moi-al sense of
the agricultural classes, leading to illicit intercourse of
the most painful and shameful kind, in which the tics
of blood are too frequently disregarded.

Quoting from a letter in the Farmer's Magazine for
October, 1850, the writer shows that it is chiefly tho
prejudices of the farmers that stand in the way of any
improvement in the condition of their labourers; and
that whilst seeking to raise their own children into the
classes above them by education, they resolve to keep
down the moral and intellectual character of their
labourers, lest they too should aspire to a like elevation.
"There are others," says the writer, " who give thoir
own children the benefit of the best education they can

* Au Address upon the Condition of the Agricultural
Labourer. By Henry Tucker. Delivered at the Annual Din-
ner of the Farringdou Agricultural Library, on the 25th of
November, 1858. E. M. Atkins, Esq., in the chair. London :
Longman and Co. Farringdou : T. Knapp,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

401

afford, but who deny the same boon to the child of the
labourer. It is but a few days since I met one of this
class. He did not like the present order of things at
all. ' There was too great a tendency in society now-
a-days to upheave that which was below to the top.
Labourers were anxious to become masters, and so on.
To educate the labourer was only to enhance the evil.
The child should succeed his father at the toil.' His
own son was then at the University, and was studying
for the Church,"

The fearful extent to which this disregard of the
moral and physical welfare of the farm-labourers is
carried, is forcibly shown by the writer o€ the letter,
and well commented upon by the author of the address.
An awful case of one parish in Berkshire is too graphic
and striking to be omitted by us. " Perhaps the most
striking instance of the demoralization of a whole com-
munity from overcrowding and other unpropitious cir-
cumstances, is that furnished by Sutton Courtney in
Berkshire. When England was first divided into
unions, that of Abingdon was about the first to be
marked off. The people of Abingdon were willing that
the commissioners should draw any line they please,
provided they only excluded Sutton Courtney from the
union. Its character was then so bad, that the people
of the neighbouring parishes recoiled from the idea of
being comprehended within the same division with it.
The commissioners having acquainted themselves with
the grounds on which the request was made, complied
with it, and Sutton Courtney was erected into a union
of itself; on the understanding, however, that when-
ever it amended its character, it should merge into the
Abingdon union. It is now part and parcel of that
union ; from which it is to be inferred that its charac-
ter is somewhat improved. It was therefore in its
amended state that I found it. Judging from its pre-
sent condition, it must formerly have been inconceiv-
ably bad ; or the people of Abingdon have been satis-
fied with very slight tokens of amendment — the place
is, to this day, a focus of intemperance and debauchery
of every kind."

Reference is made by Mr. Tucker to the admirable
and praiseworthy proceedings of the " County of Kent
Labourers' Friend Society, for improving the dwellings
of the Labouring Classes," in which all ranks of per-
sons, from the peer to the farmer, have united their
efforts, having come to the conclusion that one of the
first steps in the work of moral improvement is the
providing of dwellings for the labourers, in which the
sexes of the children can be lodged in separate rooms.
Carrying out the principle involved in this conclusion,
they have built cottages with three separate sleeping
rooms, at the small cost of jglTO the pair—that is, two
cottages with three bed-rooms and one sitting-room
each, for that sum. Models of these buildings, includ-
ing plan, elevation, and interior fittings, in lithographic
drawings, are now to be had for 5s. each, on applica-
tion to Mr. C. J. Cooke, 2, Middle-row, Maidstone ;
Mr. Martin, 18, Adam-street, Adelphi ; or Mr. Debea-
liam, 80, Cheapside.

We have copied these addresses for the benefit of
those of our readers who may wish to adopt a plan of
the kind, but do not know how to set about it in the
most economic manner. We also hope that by giving
this additional publicity to the admirable Kentish in-
stitution, we may stimulate other districts to follow the
example, or at any rate lead them to make inquiry into
the working oi the system, which we are sure will
prove satisfactory.

The time is come when the subject of the moral, in-
tellectual, and physical condition of the rural popula-
tion will force itself upon the people of England. That
class is half a century behind the corresponding
classes of operatives in our cities and towns, in all these
respects, and must be elevated sooner or later. The
spirit of the age demands it, and the changes now in
progress in the mode of cultivating the soil will render
the education of the labourer a matter of necessity, and
the physical improvement of their condition one of
prudence. We offer these hints to our agricultural
readers in the hope that they will take the subject into
their serious consideration, and act accordingly.

THE PROGRESS OF OUR WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES.

Early last year we called attention to the increased
production of wool, home and foreign, and examined
in detail some of the generally received estimates of
the annual produce of British wool. The subject is of
itself so important, and the difSculties in arriving with
any precision at the full particulars are so great, that
we are always glad to find the subject occupying the
attention of men capable of arriving at a sound judg-
ment. The last number of the " Quarterly Journal of
the Statistical Society" contains a very important paper
" On the Woollen Manufacture of England," as read
to the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, last year at Leeds. Mr, Baines is so
competent an authority, from the facilities of inves-
tigation ho possesses in Leeds, the ancient seat of this
great branch of manufacturing industry, that we are

induced to examine closely his details, and to furnish
an abstract of the very important statistics and deduc-
tions he arrives at. Largely as the cotton manufacture
has increased, the woollen manufacture approximates
more closely to it in aggregate value than is generally
supposed. The processes through which wool has to
pass are greatly more numerous than those required by
any other textile manufacture : and they are performed
by a much greater variety of machines and of work-
people.

Another fact which retards the advance of the woollen
as compared with other textile manufactures, is the
higher price of the raw material. The average value
of the sheep's wool imported in the three years ending
with 1856 was Is. 4d. per lb., and the average price of
English wool in the same years was about Is. 3d. per lb. j

402

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

but during those three years the average price of cotton
wool imported was only 5:|d. per lb., and that of flax
only 5d. per lb. So that wool is about three times the
market price of the two vegetable substances which
form the raw materials of the cotton and linen manu-
factures. Nor can sheep's wool be augmented in quan-
tity so rapidly as raw materials which merely require
the cultivation of the soil. The fleece, at least in this
country, forms only a small proportion of the value of
the sheep on which it grows, and the sheep farmer is
more dependent on the demand for his mutton than
on the demand for his wool. Now the consumption of
animal food only increases, as a general rule, with the
increase of population; and hence there is a natural re-
striction on the supply of sheep's wool, owing to which
restriction the price is kept high.

The largest supply of the raw material is from the
United Kingdom ; but nearly half the domestic wool
is consumed in the worsted manufacture, and the other
half is used for the lower kinds of woollen goods.
Within living memory, Yorkshire cloth was made ex-
clusively of English wool, though Spanish wool has
been used for more than two centuries for the finer
cloths of the West of England.

The cloth of the present day is immensely superior,
both in fabric and in finish, to the cloth of half a cen-
tury back. Working men now wear finer cloth than
gentlemen wore then. In the last half of the eighteenth
century, the import of foreign wool fluctuated from a
little under to a little over two million pounds weight
a year ; but last year the quantity of foreign and colo-
nial wool imported was 124,528,000 lbs., of which
about 98,000,000 lbs. was retained for home consump-
tion. The changes which have taken place in the
sources of supply during the century are remarkable.
While in 18Q0 to 1810 we received 6,000,000 lbs. an-
nually from Spain, now we do not get half a million
pounds a year from thence. Of German wool, we
scarcely receiived any in the beginning of the century :
twenty-five years ago we received the largest pro-
portion of our foreign supplies from thence, about
26,000,0001bs. ; but now India and our colonies con-
tribute the great bulk of our foreign supplies.

Though a large part of the raw material is grown at
home, we have absolutely no reliable statistics of the
amount of this famous product of the British Isles.
The judgment of those even engaged in the trade varies
very widely. The late Mr. John Luccock — a wool mer-
chant of Leeds, and a careful inquirer — in a work pub-
lished by him in 1800, " On the Nature and Properties
of Wool," estimated the number of sheep in England
and Wales at 20,147,763, and the quantity of wool pro-
duced annually at 94,376,640 lbs. weight. The late
Mr. James Hubbard revised this estimate in 1828 for
a committee of the House of Lords, with the aid of Sir
George Goodman, both of those gentlemen being wool
merchants in Leeds, and they raised the quantity of
wool to 111,160,560 lbs. Professor Low, in his able
work " On the Domesticated Animals of the British
Islands," published in 1845, estimates the number of
sheep in the British Islands at 35,000,000, and the

produce of wool at 157,500,0001bs. Mr. T. Southey,
wool-broker, in a little work published in 1850, judg-
ing from the information he received from wool mer-
chants in Leeds, Bradford, and other places, raised the
estimate to 228,950,000 lbs. ; and then, by an unreli-
able mode of calculating, even carricil it to the enor-
mous figure of 275,000,000 lbs. weight.

The balance of authority, Mr. Baines states, disposes
him to conclude that the annual produce of domestic
wool must be between 1.50,000,000 and 200,000 ,0001bs.
We believe, from our own investigations, it comes fully
up to the latter figure. If we take, however, the me-
dium, viz., 175,000,000Ibs., at Is. 3d. per lb., which
is about the average price of the last thirty years, the
value of this great raw material produced at home will
be £10,937,500. The exports of English wool, both
in the raw state and in the first stage of consumption,
namely yarn, are great, and rapidly increasing. In
1857 the exports were 15,000,0001bs. of raw wool, and
24,654,0001bs. of yarn ; and the total value of the
woollen and worsted exports in that year was
£13,045,000.

According to the estimates of Mr. Baines, which are
by no means overrated, it would appear that the fol-
lowing is about the annual value of the woollen manu-
facture of the kingdom, separate from the worsted
manufacture : The raw material used consists of
7G,000,0001bs. of foreign and colonial wool, valued at
£4,717,492; 80,000,0001bs. of British wool, at Is. 3d.
per lb., £5,000,000 ; 30,000,0001bs. of shoddy or soft
materials, such as stockings, flannels, &c., torn up to
be re-worked, at 2id. per lb., and 15,000,0001bs. of
mungo, the shreds and I'ags of woollen cloth, at 4fd.
per lb. — together £609,370 ; cotton and other warps
used in the union and mixed cloths, £206,537 ; dye-
stufis, oil, and soap, £1,500,000; wages— 150,000
workpeople, at 12s. Od. per week, £4,875,000 ; rent,
wear and tear of machinery, repairs, coal, interest on
capital, and profit 20 per cent, on above, £3,381,680 ;
which gives a total of £20,290,079 for the woollen
manufacture.

The worsted manufacture consumes 80,000,0001bs.
of British wool, and 15,000,0001bs. of foreign and
colonial wool, and employs 125,000 hands,making in all
275,000 operatives engaged on wool. The total num-
ber of persons directly dependent upon these trades
may be set down at 837,500 (including the workmen),
there being a larger number of dependent workers in
auxiliary trades than in connection with any other
manufacture.

These details will serve in some degree to point out
the real magnitude and value of the woollen manufac-
tures, which have hitherto been most imperfectly
known. They have hitherto either been most ridicu-
lously exaggerated or wofully underrated. Let no one
hereafter despise wool in a pastoral country like Great
Britain, and whose colonies now produce immense
supplies ; which supplies are advancing in a most re-
markable and satisfactory rate. We know the amount
of manufactured goods exported, but we have no guide
to the amount consumed by our own large and flourish-
ing population in these islands. This some of our
most experienced merchants, however, estimate to be
three-fourths -of the whole mannfaeture.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

403

THE PUPIL SYSTEM.

Well done, Mr. Bond ! The first paper read before
the Farmers' Club was a good production ; the second
furnished the results of an extended and accurate obser-
vation in a most convincing way ; while the third, if it
does want a little more definitiveness in its suggestions,
surpasses the rest in boldly, honestly, and affectionately
dealing with a very delicate subject. From its com-
mencement to its close we read it with one unfeigned
feeling of admiration — admiration, not, as we said be-
fore, so much for the completeness of its suggestions
with regard to the character of agricultural education,
as for its spirited advice towards the formation of better
habits than characterize the majority of those now learn-
ing or commencing the business of farming.

Whatever may have been thought of Mr. Bond's
paper by those members of the Club who happened to
hear it — and, judging from the discussion which followed,
the feeling excited did not seem to be very strong in its
favour — we are certain that its value will be felt through-
out the country, and its results will become apparent in
many a social circle. It is hard to say where such seed,
dropped in due season, will not take root. The course
of a life has not unfrequently been turned from indif-
ference to earnestness by a mere word, a casual remark ;
and viewed only as the utterance of a strong heart in
solitude to many another heart, the value of Mr. Bond's
effort to arouse young farmers, actual and expectant, to
a true sense of their duty, cannot be over-estimated.

Conscience, it is true, is a guide to man : it is a posi-
tive indicator to the great truths of God's moral uni-
verse ; but beyond this, one man's conscience appears to
be no guide for another — there seems to be, in fact, no
possibility of a universal creed. While, however, this
is the case, there are not many standards of right ; for
there can only be one standard of right, and the differ-
ences in opinion with regard to it will depend upon the
different media through which we view it, be they dark,
hazy, or clear. When a man ceases to think, becomes
inactive, and is alive alone to his own enjoyment, he falls
away into bad habits less from inclination than from the
want of inclination. Content with securing their own
comfort, our young men have allowed the Spirit of In-
difference to place his seal upon their noblest faculties ;
and during this fatal slumber they are in danger, like
Samson in the lap of Delilah, of being shorn of their
strength. The clarion voice of warning has gone forth,
and we doubt not its effect will be felt far and near.

So far as we know of the young men of the present
day, the description given by Mr. Bond, and which we
subjoin, is most faithful : " More than half the young
men destined for agriculture in England actually waste,
and worse than waste, the first four or five years of their
freedom from scholastic restraint. Theirs is a thorough
desultory life ; they throw up all intellectual culture,
and they have no intellectual standard of attainment at
which to aim. They probably assist in the farm manage-

ment ; but, as they have no responsibility, the farm oc-
cupies but little of their thoughts. As they feel but
little interest, they observe but little ; and the rat-hunt,
the cricket-match, a run with the hounds, the quadrille
party, the shooting exploit, with other amusements, com-
bined with a profusion of tobacco, are their real employ
ments — their true business of thought and occupation.
How are the evenings spent ? Often in a desultory do-
nothing industry ; or in card-playing and smoking — in
colouring a clay or an idolized meerschaum ; or, if in
literature, in perusing some trashy love-tale, in studying
Blaine's Encijclopcedia of Rural Sports, or in reading
the last number of the London Journal."

Is this the sort of discipline likely to produce good
men of business ? If it is true — and we sincerely think
it to be so — that farming requires, in those who pursue
it for a livelihood, acquirements perhaps more varied
and deep than those which are required by members of
either of the three learned professions, surely this train-
ing must be strangely at fault. So far as our own ex-
perience of pupil life is concerned, and so far as our own
observations of pupil life in many different places goes,
we are of opinion that it is a great farce, and that the
,£100 or £200 lodged annually with farmers for the
education of young men to the farming business might
as well be invested in any of the hundred-and-one bubble
schemes which annually burst upon the shores of com-
merce. We do not say that this need be the case ; but,
speaking generally, it is the 'case. There is such an
absolute want of system in the training of young men
upon a farm, that a mortifying result may be safely pre-
dicted. A young man must bs very self-reliant — he
must have fixed plans, he must be determinately bent
upon success, if he is to receive any good where there is
no discipline — where there is no inducement to study,
and perhaps but little inducement to attend to business
either.

Now it is scarcely to be expected that a boy should
leave school with such a strong sense of duty as shall
carry him unswervingly through these temptations to
indolence upon the right hand and the left. We gene-
rally conclude upon what will be, by what has been :
certain causes are known to produce certain effects ; and
we ask our readers, therefore, whether they think an
escape from discipliue, and an introduction to a life of
physical and mental indolence, is likely in the youth of
sixteen to nourish and develope the germs of a vigorous
manhood ?

But the fault does not lie with the pupils — it lies with
those who receive pupils. Generally speaking they
recognize very little the responsibility which attaches to
their position — they only see so much added to their
yearly income. In nine cases out of ten they are in no
way competent to fulfil the duties they undertake, and
care very little in what way the youths under their care
employ their time. To be perpetually questioned as to

R K

404

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the why and wherefore is " a bore" — science is " bosh"
— and reading is " book farming." Even those who
would not discourage attention to science, &c., do not
possess, usually, that intimacy with it to enable them to
direct their studies, and thus assume a very superior
position to their pupils. Of course we speak generally ;
for there are to our own knowledge gentlemen who per-
form the duty they undertake with scrupulous care and

great efficiency, and whose praises are upon the lips of
all who have been so fortunate as to have received in-
struction from them. But it is the knowledge of these
few model teachers which causes us so much dissatisfac-
tion with the many, the very many inferior ones.

Mr. Bond has done signal service in opening up this
subject, and we hope it may not be dropped until some
good remedial measures are struck out.

THE MORALITY OF TRADE.

There is nothing, it is said, of which we eat or drink,
that does not undergo some species of adulteration,
whereby a wholesome and nutritious article is often
made more or less poisonous : every thing that the
hand of fraud can touch is tampered with. Without
admitting these assertions to their full extent, it can-
not be denied that gross frauds are continually com-
mitted, both here and elsewhere, on thepublic,and that
the morality of trade is at a very low ebb. The object
of Mr. Scholefield's Bill on the Adulteration of Food
and Drinks, is to put an end to many of these frauds,
and to afford d security for the health and pocket of
the public. The Law Courts are continually occupied
with cases of palpable frauds : witness the case of the
surreptitious use of one man's casks and repute, to
further the sale of a totally diffferent compound.

Professor Levi, of King's College, who is well
known for his labours in the department of Com-
mercial Law, recently in a paper at the Society of Arts,
upon the fraudulent use of trade-marks, gave some
glaring instances of the unscrupulousness of home and
foreign pirates, who avail themselves of every means of
filching the character, reputation, and symbols of
others, to further their own interested and unprincipled
views. The paper, however, dealt chiefly with articles
of manufacture capable of bearing a trade-mark; and it
was recommended that there should be a public re-
gister of trade-marks, where manufacturers should be
able to enter their stamps, marks, or labels, and the
imitation or illegal use of which should be felony. Sir
Richard Bethell, who presided, also threw out some
very valuable and practical suggestions.

Without going into the consideration of the fraud-
ulent imitation of our manufactures, so extensively
carried on by unscrupulous foreigners, or entering upon
the question here of pirated trade-marks and the foist-
ing of much inferior trash upon the public under de-
ceptive cloaks, a few words upon the frequent adul-
teration of articles in which our readers are more im-
mediately interested may not be out of place. We have
never read, "What to Eat, Di-ink, and Avoid;" but
if the author is a man of sense, judging by the preju-
diced outcry against all articles, we should think he has
excluded every thing but potatoes and distilled water.
Some of our readers may remember when Mr. Accum
published a work, which he chose to call " Death in
the Pot." Everybody was dreadfully alarmed, and
felt disposed to leave off eating if possible. A death's-

head and cross-bones shadowed themselves forth on
every platter and in every tureen. Frying-pan, grid-
iron, oven proper and Dutch-oven were regarded as
the lurking-places of death, as well as "the pot."
Since then we have had medical inquiries, ana-
lytical commissions. Parliamentary committees, and
microscopic examinations and works by the dozen, ex-
posing frauds and falsifications. And much good all
these have certainly done by putting customers on tlnir
guard, and warning purveyors and dealers that their
proceedings were suspected and investigated.

We have little to complain of, in the ingredients of
our dally bread in London, especially if we patronize a
" full-price" baker. In the country, however, wo
fear there is much adulteration carried on — some
harmless, as the admixture of rice flour and Indian
corn meal; others positively injurious. Bean meal is
largely used as an ingredient. We have ourselves
bought a very fine quality which is commonly vended
at Birmingham. Mr. Postgate, a scientific chemist
in that town, states that bean meal is regularly mixed
with wheat flour in the proportion of one sack of the
former to fifteen of the latter. Bean meal may be de-
tected by the smell, on pouring boiling water on the
flour. But flour is also adulterated with chalk, gyp-
sum, and China clay. All these may be detected by
burning a small quantity of the flour entirely away,
when the mineral substance will remain unconsumed.
A miller and flour-dealer at Rotherham was convicted,
a few years ago, of adulterating flour with gypsum in
the proportion of 4 per cent. At Lincoln, a dealer
was convicted on two charges of having a quantity of
sulphate of lime upon his premises, and of having
mixed it with flour intended for human food. Two
millers were also recently convicted at Leeds, in the
penalty of £20, for having adulterated flour in their
possession, which on analysis was found to contain oil
of vitriol and oxide of iron. Chalk may be easily de-
tected by mixing a teaspoonful of flour in half a wine-
glass of cold water, and adding twenty or more drops
of muriatic acid, when the chalk will betray itself by
effervescence. Potatoes are also used in bread, chiefly
to improve the texture. If much is put in, the tasto
betrays it ; but a little good mashed potato rather im.
proves the bread than otherwise.

There are numerous dealers in flour and mill ofl'al
in the Canadian towns— Quebec, Montreal, Kingston,
Coburg, Toronto, and Hamilton, whose business it is

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

405

to buy up the empty barrels of such millers as are con-
sidered the manufacturers of the best qualities of flour.
Into these barrels, with the original mill brand upon
them, is packed flour of the most inferior quality
they can purchase ; and it is quite probable that these
same disreputable dealers, when the price of flour is
high, are tempted to adulterate it. In many of the
barrels at least half a bushel of gypsum has been found,
The wharfingers of the port of Toronto could testify to
the truth of this statement, for lai'ge quantities of what
is known as inferior farmers' flour is bought up and
packed in storehouses, and no doubt elsewhere through-
out the city. Whether this is all locally consumed
in the province, or some portion exported, it is per-
haps difficult to ascertain.

Half the starches vended under the names of Ber-
muda and St. Vincent arrowroots, German sago. Sec,
are nothing but potato flour. And so with the manna-
kroup, semolina, and other fancy-named food pro-
ducts : these ai'e simply ground wheat. There is no
absolute harm inflicted in these, except the imposi-
tion. But some of the condiments sold are positively
hurtful. There are, however, conventional adultera-
tions carried on, to please the eye and the taste of the
customer. Thus mustard is never to be found genuine.
What is sold in the shops is white mustard, and not
brown, as it should be, and this is mixed with a quan-
tity of flour. Turmeric is added to bring up the colour^
and pungency is given by the addition of a little pepper
or ginger. Brown mustard flour after being mixed
twenty-four hours turns black ; and people do not like
it. Pure mustard flour if tested with a single drop of
fcpirits of ammonia retains its colour unchanged,
whereas that adulterated turns red.

Provisions derived from the animal kingdom are not
very easily adulterated, but still they are tampered
with to some extent.

A correspondent of The Times, not long ago, gave
the following account of how provisions for the Navy
are manufactured : — " Passing through a district
of Ireland, my attention was directed to a par-
ticular occupation carried on, which, upon nearer
inspection, proved to be the following highly
amusing and instructive one. A number of per-
sons were sewing pieces of meat together, and, when
united, they formed a square mass of the weight
of about 41bs. It appears that the contract by Govern-
ment is to supply the Navy with pieces of this size, and
to meet the demand the trade resort to this ingenious
mode of answering to the tender. Sailors are well ac-
quainted with the fact, for during mess you may fre-
quently see them spinning a yarn. Of course, bad
meat gets stitched up with the good, necks are shaped
into back loins, and every portion of the carcase finds
itself elegantly converted into a four-pound piece.
Sailors can do without the thread, but the Admiralty
can't without the stitching ; for everything connected
with the Board wants mending — except the meat, and
this would be just as well without the above process of
repair."

Lard is even adulterated before shipment, in America.

Indian corn-meal was formerly used for the purpose ;
but that discoloured the lard, and flour was found to
be preferable, as it assimilates so closely to the genuine
article as not to bo detected by inspection. A test was
recently applied to a lot sold by a Boston dealer, and
the lard was subjected to the fire, when, lo, the owner
had not only a pan of lard, but also a good-sized pan-
cake nearly fried in the boiling fat !

Only conceive a genuine from the country where
wooden nutmegs ai'e natives of the soil, and
wooden shoe-pegs are whittled into oats, taking
home with him such a mixture ! A Yankee
is, however, never at a loss ; and we have no
doubt that a descendant of the man who m&de such
a speculation by shipping warming-pans to the West
Indies, and turning them lo good account as sugar-
ladles, will invent a new system of selling doughnuts,
all ready to be fried upon the application of a lucifer-
match, out of this doubtful investment.

It is stated that frauds of a character similar to those
recently detected in the wine business in the docks have
transpired in the hop trade. They have consisted in
refilling of empty packages stamped with the names of
well-known planters, whose growths are of choice cha-
racter, with inferior, and indeed almost worthless hops,
chiefly the lowest description of American.

The husks of rice and the refuse of rice-mills, under
the name of shude, is largely sold to oil-crushers to
mix with linseed-cake, to the extent of 30 per cent, and
upwards; and, as it is perfectly tasteless, and yields no
nourishment, it is of course a palpable fraud on the
purchaser, who pays a high price for what he deems
genuine oilcake for fattening his stock.

Agricultural improvement is also much retarded by
the adulteration of inert substances with fertilisers.
Artificial manures are now employed to an enormous
extent, and it is but right that the purchaser should
get his money's worth in the receipt of an article
which is what it professes to be. So systematically
are many of the artificial manures adulterated, that
many farmers hesitate to use them, and form un-
favourable opinions as to their efficacy from the gross
adulteration practised. Many of the guanos sold as
Peruvian at j£"'12 per ton have been found, on analysis,
not to be worth £2 or £3. Earth adds to the weight
of guano, which ought not to weigh more than 70 or
721b8. the bushel. Watei', again, is frequently unscru-
pulously added. Guano ought not to lose more than
10 to 16 per cent, by drying.

Gypsum is often added to guano and to ground
bones, and common salt to nitre, sulphate of ammonia,
&c. But there is no end to the catalogue of sophisti-
cations and adulterations practised, whether they come
under the class of conventional, to suit the public taste
and demand, or fraudulent, to put more money into
the dealers' pockets. Steps should be taken to check
practices rendering it almost impossible for the honest
trader or dealer to compete fairly in business, and
inimical to the health and interests of all classes of the
community.

The folly of the ago appears to be an anxiety to

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purchase everything at a cheap rate, forgetting that in
nine cases out of ten what is cheap must be bad. The
inevitable result of this cheapening, bargain-seeking
spirit is fraud and imposture. The evil produces its
own infallible retribution. We should be wrong, there-

fore, if we relied upon legislation alone for a remedy
which must originate with ourselves. Resolve to buy
the best of everything, and to pay a fair price for it.
Fraud will then soon be driven from the field, and
honesty and fair trading will deservedly triumph.

THE BREED AND SHAPE OF A CART-HORSE.

" Agricultural societies are to be blamed very much
for the little attention they pay to horses as compared
with other stock, especially poultry. They ought to
give liberal prizes to the best brood mares and stallions
of all breeds, and pay as much attention to them— they
deserve more— as to cattle. The best stallion should
have to travel within the district of the society during
next season, and not to receive the prize until the end
of that time. I must add that our great landlords
generally overlook the interest of their tenants, and
consequently their own also, in not keeping good
thoroughbred stallions, of different breeds, for the
use of their tenants at a nominal charge. Farmers
themselves also overlook their own interest too often by
being ' penny wise and pound foolish,' in looking more
at the fee of the horse, when they engage him, than at
his shape." At the risk of being considered, perhaps, a
little too "horsey" in our tone, we have continued to im-
press this now for many years past. It was too palpably
a weak place to be passed over, and we commenced our
strictures accordingly on those representative bodies
which only appeared to the more neglect the evil as
the greater it grew. It is not so very long since that
the Royal Agricultural Society quite despaired of ever
getting together a good show of horses, and so reduced
its premiums proportionately! This section of the
meeting has, however, gradually improved, by the
adoption of an exactly contrdry course. The prizes
in the different classes of horses have been considerably
extended, and as a consequence the entry is coming to
bo a highly creditable one. It is, indeed, by this, one
of the chief attractions of the occasion.

We have very recently dwelt on the demand for good
riding stock, and the more than indifference with
which the farmers have prepared to meet it. There may
be some showing for this. Many steady-going people
have a positive dread of galloping horses, while the out-
lay they think would be hardly warranted by the hazard
and uncertainty of the business. A man, then, might
be a little careless as to how he bred his one hackney-
colt or so. But the most extraordinary thing is that,
as a rule, he scarcely takes any more trouble with his
cart-horses. The observations we have quoted at the
opening of this article are taken from a paper recently
read to the members of the Much Wenlock Farmers'
Club, on the principles which should guide the farmer
in breeding stock. We give this in full in another
place. Mr. Griffith Evans, its author, adverts more
particularly to the breeding of horses, and especially
to thoRC intended for agricultural purposes. He
includes in his " blame," certainly, the little atten-

tion that is given either by our societies, landlords,
or tenants to horses of all kinds; but the emphasis
of this complaint rests on the culpable carelessness
with which the farmer treats the breeding of farm-
horses. Mr. Evans stands by no means alone here.
Many gentlemen have said this before now,
and some almost in the same words. Mr. Bar-
thropp, for instance, so deservedly famous for his Suf-
folks, expressed his regret at the Central Club a few
years since, that "farmers did not pay more attention in
selecting horses for their mares, instead, as is too often
the case, pursuing that penny-wise-pound-foolish sys-
tem of putting all their mares to one horse, perhaps
an inferior animal, merely for the sake of saving trouble
and a little expense. They did not take into considera-
tion the relative form of the mare and the horse, or
judge whether they suited each other — a want of sys-
tem almost certain to result in disappointment." It is
noticeable that in condemning this ill-considered eco-
nomy Mr. Evans and Mr. Barthropp both make use of
the same phrase, and characterise it, justly enough, as
" penny wise and pound foolish."

Although we already hear of agi'iculturists who, thanks
to Mr. Smith or Mr. Fowler, have reduced their teams
to at least one-half their previous strength, a clever
cart colt will always command his price in the market.
Railways have not even yet put machiners and hunters
quite out of date, and the draught-horse will ever have
his uses. Notwithstanding, moreover, the too common
neglect he has experienced, we have wonderfully im-
proved in our estimate of what a cart-horse should be.
By this we may be considered to have altogether out-
lived our veneration for the old orthodox Blackbird
sort, with his hairy heels, his sour head, his upright
shoulder, and sluggish pace. We combine strength
with activity ; and whether it be the Lincoln, the
Suffolk, or the Clydesdale, we must have something
that can not merely pull, but step. And here we are
rather inclined to join issue with Mr. Evans. It ap-
pears that so far back as the year 1836, a writer in
" that excellent journal" the Farmer's Magazine, ad-
vocated the same oblique shoulder for the draught as for
the hackney horse. This Mr. Evans terms " a most igno-
rantly absurd and grossly fallacious doctrine." And he
goes on to say " the proper shape of the draught horse,
in contradistinction to the saddle horse, should be a low
and thick forehand and withers. The shoulder should be
comparatively upright, and consequently the line
drawn vertically from the point of the shoulder will
fall consideiably in front of the toe. Tlie draught
horse should, as the saying is, 'stand over his legs,'

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

407

and you now see that what is an excellent point in one
horse is the woi'st that can be for another." It is
true this opinion, in contradiction to the ignoi'ance
and absurdity of the Farmer's Magazine, is carefully
qualified by the phi-ase " comparatively j" but we
should be really loath to pass it on any terms. About
the best pace to judge of a horse by, for almost any
purpose, is to "give him his head, and let him walk."
To either race -horse, hack, or hunter, it is a point of
immense importance ; while to the cart-horse it is
everything. Can any animal, we would ask, with an up-
right shoulder really walk ? Has he any proper liberty
of action to enable him to do so ? How could the old
Blackbirds walk, comparatively, with our Clydesdales
and Suffolks? And have the latter upright shoulders ?
Such a formation would be utterly incompatible with
the fine action of the Clydes, while the first prize cart
stallion at the national show at Chester had a shoulder
lying almost as well back as that of a race-horse. This
upright shoulder and standing over might possibly tell
a little at starting,* but we certainlyshare the doubts
of the chairman at Wenlock as to the power of endur-
ance in a hoi'se so formed, and whether he would not in
all probability topple over on his knees long before he
arrived at his journey's end. The orator said, the
great secret of his art was " Action, action, action ;"
and we say the same of the horse. What can be the
use of a brute, let him be ever so big or heavy, that can
hardly put one foot before another, and certainly not
put it out ?

Let us not, however, be content with either our own
authority or that of Mr. Evans. One of the very best
judges of a cart-horse we have, and with his ability
backed by immense experience, is 'Sjr. Spooner, of
Eling, near Southampton, Here is his reading of the
same points : — " The fore-arm should be strong and
muscular, and should not stand too much under the

body ; for although this is not of ^the same importance
as with other horses, yet it is extremely desirable. So
likewise with regard to the shoulders, they should be
tolerably oblique; for when the shoulders are good, the
horse is likely to be a good walker." Putting Mr.
Spooner's "tolerably" against Mr. Evans's " compa-
ratively," we have one declaring for an oblique
shoulder and the other for an upright one. So much
does Mr. Spooner attach to the action of the cart-horse,
that he has, ere now, recommended it to the Council
of the Royal Agricultural Society as one of the testing
points the Judges should decide. He would have a
certain distance measured out, and then see which did
it in the best time and best style. The upright shoulders
would not tell much here. The only authority, indeed,
wo have come across of late, who might agree with Mr.
Evans, is a poet in a recent number of one of the metro-
politan magazines, who, in describing the qualities of
his fiery steed, proudly declares " he could do anything
but walk ;" and a nice brute he must have been

There is much able matter in this paper, and we
call attention to it the more strongly as it touches on a
subject still thought too little of. Fortunately the
means of a remedy are far more accessible than they
were a few years since. The increased attention given
to this department of their duties by our agricultural
associations has tended to the better appreciation of a
better sort of a horse; and the Suffolk, the Shire, and
the Clydesdale are all deservedly rising in repute. But
we must repeat, that one of the first of the merits of
these is their fine action. A horse now, for any purpose,
must be a good mover ; and if, as Mr. Evans main-
tains, we must keep to a thorough-bred kind of cart-
horse, we do not recommend an upright shoulder as
one of his points. " Comparatively," our leaning
would be all the other way.

THE PRINCIPLES THAT SHOULD GUIDE THE FARMER IN BREEDING STOCK,
WITH MORE ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO HORSES.

A quarterly meeting of the members of the Wenlock
Farmers' Club was recently held, at the Raven Hotel, Much
Wenlock, to hear Mr. Griffith Evans, M.R.C.V.S., &c.,
of Bridgnorth, deliver a lecture upon " The principles
that should guide the farmers in breeding stock, with more
especial reference to horses." There was a tolerably
numerous attendance, considering that the assizes were being
held that day in Shrewsbury.

* The author of the article in this Magazine disputes
any such advantage even for a dead pull : — " If we notice
a draught horse exerting himself at a dead pull, we shall
find that he will sometimes Hft his fore-feet entirely from
the ground, and that, too, when he is evidently applying the
utmost of his force to the collar. In such case, it is clear, the
upright shoulder could add nothing to the horizontal pressure,
or the application of the animal's strength in drawing. When
the shoulder of the draught horse is straight or upright, in
the act of drawing, the pressure against the collar is spread
over a more extensive surface, and consequently rendered less
effective than when, by the obliquity of the same part, it is
more concentrated, and therefore more directly applied to the

In the absence of the President, M. G. Benson, Esq., the
Rev. H. R. Smythles was called to the chair. There were
present : S. Meire, Esq. ; J. Meire,Esq. ; H. Smith, Esq. ;
B. B. Fowler, Esq. ; W. P. Brookes, Esq.; Mr. C. Wadlow;
Mr. J. Wadlow; Mr. Ainsworth; T. Colley, Esq.; R.
CoUey, Esq. ; Mr. Lewis ; Mr. Morton ; W. Thursfield,
Esq. ; Mr. R. Davis ; Mr. E. Davies, &c.

The Chairman, in opening the business of the meeting,

purpose. Let us have a broad full bosom or breast in the cart
horse, with a corresponding development of the lower part of
the shoulder ; but, in the name of all that is reasonable, let
the latter present that obliquity indispensable to safety in the
saddle, and equally desirable for the collar. Nothing can be
more dangerous than to put an upright-shouldered horse in the
shafts of a cart, since he must be liable to fall at every step;
even without the slightest weight on his back, such a horse is
a very unsafe goer, because his formation prevents him from
liftiug his fore-feet suflSciently high ; but when the effect of
external weight or pressure is added to that of the malforma*
tiou of the shoulder, the danger ia doubly increased."

408

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

said : I regret there is not a larger attendance, which is,
no doubt, owing to the assizes being opened at Shrewsbury
this day, which deprives us of our president and several in-
fluential members. We are met here, as the circular has
informed you, to hear a lecture from Mr. Evans on the
principles that should guide the farmer in breeding stock,
having more especial reference to horses, a most important
subject you will admit ; and I have no doubt, from the ex-
perience we have had of Mr. Evans's lecturing powers, that
the subject will receive at his hands the elucidation which
its importance deserves. I therefore beg to introduce Mr.
Evans to your notice.

The lecturer began by contrasting the present Shropshire-
down sheep with their ancestors thirty years ago, and he
showed how that the great improvement had been made by
breeding upon some scientific principles. Yet he was per-
suaded that many follow the new system who are not
acquainted with the principles. They do it because it is
the fashion, and answers the purpose better — not knowing
the why and the wherefore it should answer better. He
should therefore draw their attention to Nature's laws of
breeding. The same law is applicable to all animals, only,
of course, requiring certain modifications which their good
sense might easily direct. It is a lamentable fact that
horse-breeding is very much neglected throughoiat the
country, especially hunters and carriage horses; nor has the
draught horse had the attention he deserves. He (Mr.
Evans) should, therefore, more especially point out how to
apply the peinciples of breeding to horses than to other
animals. Mr. Robert Smith, in his excellent " Report on
the Exhibition of Live Stock at Chester," published in the
last volume of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, says
that " The breeding of the horse is a national subject, but
as yet has not been treated as such. There is a want of
system in our arrangement and management." He quite
agreed with Mr. Smith. Our fairs are overstocked with
horses, but so shapeless that it is difficult to say for what
purpose most of them are adapted. He thought he might
safely say that the average value of four-fifths of our
four-year-old horses, of all sorts that we see in the
fairs, is hardly £20 to £25, and it is difficult to sell
many of them at any price. Now, taking into consideration
their cost of breeding and rearing, with all risks and so on,
no wonder, then, breeders say they do not pay. The
average value of the remaining one-fifth it is difficult to
say ; but they sell readily for from £40 up to almost any
amount you can reasonably conceive. Now, I ask those
breeders who complain, why do they breed horses at all ?
" Oh," they say, " to consume the grass properly we must
have cattle, sheep, and horses too — they all differ in their
bite so." Very well, then, if you breed horses of some sort,
why won't you breed good ones ? Does an ill-shaped horse
consume less food than a good one ? Is it cheaper to breed
poor than good horses.' My motto is this always: " If it
is worth my while to do a thing at all, it is worth my while
to do it as well as I possibly can ;" and I have no hesitation
at all in saying that it would pay you as well as anything to
breed real good horses. Some of you may perhaps say, as
I have heard others say, that in breeding cattle and sheep
you are seldom disappointed ; the progeny is always what
you expected ; while in breeding horses you have no idea
what the colour or shape of the colt will be until you see it,
it is quite a lottery. It may be this : it may be that.
You hope the best, and the worst will not disappoint you ;
for you do not believe in horse-flesh. Thank you, my dear
friend, that is a candid confession at any rate, which goes

so far as to prove that you have never practised horse-breed-
ing upon right principles. Before I came here I lived in Lin-
colnshire. There, good horses are comparatively plentiful ;
much better than those bred in Shropshire, taking all toge-
ther. You excel in sheep ; I wish you to excel in horses too
I wish to see dealers flocking from all parts of the world to
Shropshire for horses. I wish to see the tide turned from
Lincoln and Horncastle fairs to Shrewsbury and Bridgnorth ;
or, at any rate, to see the trade as strong here as there. It is
not impossible; the country is naturally well adapted for
breeding purposes ; you only want the system. Don't despair,
a patient perseverance will overcome all difficulties. Let us all
then, this evening, enter into the subject in good earnest, de-
termined to sift the matter thoroughly, and to profit by the
investigation. He went on to notice that the first great law
of nature in breeding is, that like should produce like ; if it
was not for this law, which is constant and without exception,
a mare might produce a calf, a sow produce a dog, a bitch pro-
duce a lamb, &c. ; but it must be accompanied in our mind
with another law, the law of variation. The child is not
always like its parent in every respect, and sometimes not like
its species, as when a lamb has two heads or six legs, &c., as
we often find. Then we call it a monster. This diversity
forms the problem of hereditary influence, and it is for the
causes of, and reasons for, the variation that the breeder must
enquire, and make himself acquainted with, so that he may, as
far as possible, modify them. One of the causes of variation
is what is called " breeding back." It is often a source of
disappointment to the breeder that when he puts a well-formed
female and a well-formed male, he gets an ill- formed colt or
calf, and of quite a different colour to what he expected. If
you enquire into the pedigree of the parents you wiU find the
child answering in every respect to the description of an an-
cestor. This is the law of atavism. It is this that makes
many say that horse-breeding is a lottery. However, if you
breed properly you have little to fear. Pure and thorough-
bred animals comparatively seldom breed) back, or, however,
disappoint their owners in doing so. By thorough-bred is
meant those whose ancestors were for a long time of the same
shape, and adapted for the same purpose as themselves. The
more the animals have been crossed the more subject are they
to breed back, and more the difference of shape in crossing
the more likely is breeding back to prove a disappointment.
A case was related to illustrate this law. How is it to be ex-
plained? The "Westminster Review" very properly says,
" It is to be explained on the supposition that the qualities
were transmitted from the grandfather to the father (the other
sex may convey it equally well), in whom they remain latent
or were marked by the presence of some antagonistic on con-
trolling influence, and thence transmitted to the son, in whom
the antagonistic influence being withdrawn they manifest them-
selves. Mr. Singer, let us say, has a remakable aptitude for
music, but the influence of Mrs. Singer is such that the
children, inheriting her imperfect ear, manifest no musical
talent whatever. These children, however, have inherited the
disposition of their father in spite of its non-manifestation ;
and if, when they transmit what in them is latent, the influ-
ence of their wives is favourable, the grandchildren may turn
out musically gifted. In the same way consumption or in-
sanity and other hereditary diseases seem to lie dormant for a
generation or more, and in the next flashes out with the same
fury as of old." This should make you very careful in breed-
ing stock, and to ascertain that not only the sire and dam are
free from spavin, curbs, &c., but that their ancestors were not
subject to any hereditary afi'ection, add not only that they were
free from hereditary evils, but that they possess the same good

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

409

qualities, and are adapted for the same purpose as themselves.
Several very beautiful, instructive, au J interesting illustrations
were produced to prove that diseases arising from accident, as
well as constitutional idiosyncracy, curious tricks, acquired
habits, vicious and peevish tempers, as well as good tempers,
&c., were hereditary, or transmissible from parent to offspring.
Now comes the vexed question, " Which has the predominat-
ing influence on the progeny, the male or the female parent ?
If both parents join to form the child, does one parent give
one group of organs and the other parent another group;
or do both give all ?" This subject is so very interesting, and
it is so important, that the breeder should come to some
definite conclusion upon it, that he felt justified in occupying
a considerable part of their time in its inveatigatioc. Several
great men were mentioned who maintain that the male
parent furnishes the external configuration, or, in other
words, the locomotive organs ; while the female parent gives
the internal or vital organs, each absolutely independent of
the other. Other equally celebrated observers declare that
it is quite the reverse, the female preponderates always in
the locomotive organs, and the male in the vital organs.
Others again, equally as eminent, assert that both theories
are wrong ; that the male always gives external configura-
tion or locomotive organs, and the female the internal or
vital organs, but do not mean it to be inferred that either
parent gives either set of organs uninfluenced by the other
parent, but merely that the leading characteristics and
qualities of both sets of qualities are due to the male on the
one side and to the female on the other, the opposite parent
modifying them only. He (Mr. Evans) believed they were
all wrong— that the truth lies between them. He related
many very beautiful and interesting facts in support of each
theory, which seemed conclusive in themselves ; but he
maintained it was not fair to look at one set of facts alone,
and shut our eyes to others. It was by an impartial survey
of them all that we get the truth. There was an able article
upon this subject in the Westminster Review, with which he
fully agreed, which says " That both parents are always re-
presented in the offspring ; and although the male influence
is sometimes seen to predominate in one direction, and the
female influence iu another, yet this direction is by no
means constant, is often reversed, and admits of no absolute
reduction to a known formulo. We cannot say absolutely,
the male give such organs ; we cannot even say the male
always predominates in such or such a direction. Both
give all organs. Sometimes one predominates, sometimes
the other. In one family we see children resembling the
father, children resembling the mother, and children resem-
bling both." He (Mr. Evans) knew many breeders who
had suffered great disappointments and losses by practising
upon the theory that the female does not give the external
configuration, nor has any part in the locomotive organs.
One of the greatest curses in horse breeding is that there
are but few good brood mares kept. He had no hesitation
in saying that, as a general rule, and the only safe one to go
by, the female has as much influence on the configuration of
the progeny as the male has. The successful breeder never
uses a middling female to breed from, trusting to the excel-
lency of the male to make amends. If he has not a good
female he will not attempt to breed. Seeing, then, that
there is a diversity, that sometimes the influence of the male
parent predominates, and sometimes the females, in each
system of organs, let us inquire into the causes. Several
illustrations were brought forward to prove that it depended
upon potency of race, upon .the vigour, health, and age of
the parents at the time of copulation. The most potept or

vigorous parent will have the greatest influence upon the
offspring. The lecturer said, I shall now pass on to notice
more particularly the practical application of these laws.
It is a common but silly question, " Which breed of
animals is the best for the farmer ?" Some advocate short-
horns, others advocate the long-horns, others the medium-
horns, and others will have no horns at all. A particular
kind is sometimes advocated under all circumstances to the
exclusion of all others. Such persons remind me of those
disputants about the true colour of the chamelion ; all are
right, and all are wrong, depending upon the point from
which the object is examined. That breed of animals is
the most profitable which is better adapted to that parti-
cular locality. One class do better on upland, others on
lowland ; some do better grassing, others do better housed.
It also depends upon the demand of the neighbouring markets.
In some parts cheese-making pays best ; in other parts milk ;
in other parts meat, &c. In some district j it pays better to
breed draught horses, in others hackneys and hunters, in
others racehorses, iu others ponies, &c. What I wish to
impress deeply upon your mind is this : Every breed has its
own peculiar conformation, and that conformation you will
find, upon close investigation, to be pecuharly well adapted
for a particular purpose ; and when you adopt and cultivate a
certain breed, you must always keep that purpose and that
conformation steadily in view. If you lose the conformation,
you will soon lose the purpose. For instance, we may divide
cattle into two primary classes : 1, For fattening and arriving
at early maturity ; 2, For dairy purposes. For illustration,
take two cows, one from each class, and you will find their
shape or conformation diametrically opposed. Go to any herd
you please, and you will find that just in proportion as the
animals represent the shape of class 1 so are they disposed to
fatten ; and in the proportion they represent class 2 are they
fit for dairy purposes. These classes may again each be divided
into different divisions : A is better adapted for high land ;
B is better adapted to low land ; C is better adapted for cut-
door living ; D is better adapted for living in-doors, and so
on. Each division has its own distinct peculiarity of external
conformation. That enables us to say at once which will do
here, and which will do there. It is all-important that the
breeder should be thoroughly acquainted with these " points,"
or proper shape of his stock ; but I should depart from my
subject if I discussed them this evening. However, I know
many farmers who think that there is only one proper shape
for the horse — draught horses, hackneys, hunters, racers, all
should be the same outline. They take the hunter as a
standard of comparison, and the only proper difference they
allow between him and others is not in the shape, but in the
weight and bulk of bone and muscle within the same height
and length. The race-horse should be more slender and finer,
and the cart-horse stouter and more hairy. As I know that
such a notion exists, you will permit me to say a few words
to show its absurdity. It is surprising how few farmers know
the proper points of a horse ; and many of the " knowing
ones," in fact, know less than nothing. In that excellent
joiuraal, the Farmer''s Magazine, for October, 1836, there is an
article upon the cart-horse, advocating the same oblique
shoulder for the draught and for the hackney-horse, which is
certainly a most ignorantly absurd and grossly fallacious doc-
trine. We may also divide horses into two primary classes :
to carry weights on the back, and go fast ; and to draw weights
after them. It is evident that they are destined for very
different purposes, and must set to work in a very different
manner. The first-class has to carry the rider safe at a fast
rate. For this purpose the fore-legs ought to reach over much

410

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grouud wheu in motiou, aud the saddle should be so set that
it will not interfere with the motioQ of the shoulders ; and the
weight should be so carried that it will not balance over the
fore-legs, and make him tumble forward. The chief points to
attain this are, that the withers and forehand should be high
and thin. The shoulders should have much obliquity from
the top to the point, and a line drawn vertically from this
point should drop at the toe when the animal stands in his
natural position. The eecond-class has to pull heavy weights
at a slow rate, therefore, its shape should be quite the con-
trary to the first-class. The animal should be able to throw
its whole weight into the collar, aud to overbalance its centre
of gravity, so that it has to step forward to avoid coming
down. Wheu the hackney or aaddle-borse is in the collar he
cannot pull a weight beyond the power of its hind-quarters.
The shape of its fore-quarters rather prevents than help him
to pull ; while the draught-horse, by the peculiar shape of his
fore-parts, is able to throw his whole weight into the collar to
assist the muscles of the hinder-parts. It is common with
waggoners, when a horse is not able to pull or start a load, to
jump on his neck or withers, aud by the weight overbalancing
him, the load starts easily. The proper shape of the draught-
horse, in coatradistiaction to the saddle-horse, then, should be a
low and thick fore-hand aad withers. The shoulder should be
comparatively upright, and consequently the line drawn verti-
cally from the point of the shoulder will fall considerably in
front of the toe. The draught-horse should, as the saying is,
" etand over his legs," and you now see that what is an excel-
lent point in one horse is the worst that can be for another.
Class 1 may be divided into — A, the race-horse for galloping ;

B, hunters, for galloping across country, and jumping, &c. ;

C, hackneys, for trotting and cantering on the road. Class 2
may also be divided into — A, the town dray-horse; B, the
farm draught-horae (both pull heavy weights and go compara-
tively slow ;) C, the carriage-horse (he goes on the road, pulls
heavy weight, and must go fast, therefore in many respects
his shape should approach the saddle-horse). I have already
said that I should be out of place in dwelling upon the proper
shape of animals — it would form a subject for an interesting
lecture of itself. I now merely draw yonr attention to the
fact that there is a peculiar shape adapted to perform any par-
ticular work, aud it is essential that the young man should
make himself thoroughly acquainted with those before he csn
expect to be a successful breeder. Starting then upon the
great law of nature, that like produces like, and being prepared
to guard against variations by breeding from animals of the
same sort, &c., breeding good stock becomes a simple matter
of course. First ascertain what animals your land is beat
adapted for. Secondly, what have the readiest sale in j our
markets. Thirdly, having decided upon the purpose of your
animal, study the best shape and conformation calculated to
attain your object in a most perfect manner ; if you wish to
breed fat stock, study the shape most disposed to lay on fa
with the least food, and to arrive at early maturity ; if you wish
to breed milk cows, study the proper shapes for them ; if you
breed horses, study the proper shapes to perform their various
duties. Fourthly, don't breed from au animal, whether male or
female, whose shape ii not well-adapted to perform the
work it is intended for : let them be of the most perfect
sliape you can get of their kind. Fifthly, being acquainted
with the law of attaviim, or breeding back, you will not be
satisfied unless their ancestors were also of the ?ame sort,
and equally good ; in fact, thorough-bred, and free from
hereditary evils. Remember that I do not confine the term
thorongh-bred to the race horse. It may he squally m ell ap-
plied to the cart-horse, or huntr r, or pony, or cur;age-horse,

&c. It means those whose pedigree for a considerable time
back were of the same class, aud adapted for the same purpose
as themselves. Unless you commence to establish a new
breed, you should never breed from a half-bred animal. Let
them all be castrated, and treat all such mares and geldings.
There is too much risk connected with it ; it is based upon a
wrong principle; you should carry the right principle out
thoroughly. Why should you breed from a half-bred mare
more than from a half-bred cow ? I know many excellent
horses bred from half-bred marei, but there are many more
failures. Some of you may say that you have no pure or tho-
rough breeds, except racers ; therefore, you ask how can you
avoid crossing. Well, " It is never too late to mend." Sup-
pose Messrs. Bakewell, Adney, Smith, and other eminent
breeders, had listened to such au excuse? We never should
have had the improved Leicester sheep, nor the improved
Shropshire down. Though you may not have good distinct
breeds of coach-horses, hackneys, &c., now, you may soon
have by following the directions I lay down. Unless breeders
will reform, that useful animal the hackney will soon become
extinct. The present system of breeding hunters aud coach-
horses is a bad one ; because by putting a race-horse to a
half-bred mare you may get a good hunter, and you often fail ;
you may get a hack, you may get a useless one. By putting
a hunting-horse to a Cleveland mare, you may get a carriage-
horse, or you may often get a good for nothing. You have no
law to depend upon. By breeding exclusively from animals of
the same shape, and, therefore, adapted for the same purpose'
with careful attention to pedigree, you may easily establish a
breed for any purpose whatever. At first, when originating
the breed of hunters and carriage-horses, of course we cannot
avoid using crosses or half-bred animals, and such was the
origin of the race-horse. They will soon bear the name
thorough ; and when, in after generations, a progeny will show
the original cross, by breeding back, it must not on any ac-
count be used for breeding purposes. I should recommend
you to breed from your own stock exclusively, only as long aa
you cannot find a better male tban your own, and your stock
improves. I do not object to a cautious admixture of blood,
but you must not cross the breed. I do not object crossing
two families, but those families must be of the same breed.
That word " breed" is very comprehensive, and has many dif-
ferent meanings. By those of the same breed I wish it to be
understood those of the same shape and adapted for the same
work, with good pedigree. Tbey may or may not be related.
For example, you must not breed between a thorough-bred
draught-horae and a thorough-bred hunter or racer. You
would get a good-for-nothing mongrel, too weak for draught,
too ugly for harness, and not the shape for saddle; yet our
fairs are overstocked with such animals, which prove that the
present system of breeding is a wrong one. I can countenance
no crossing of the breeds. Keep them distinct. Have
thorough-bred draught-horses, thorough-bred hackneys, tho-
rough bred hunters, as well as thorciugh-bred racers. Each
has its own peculiar shape, suitable for its particular purpose.
Why should they be mixed ? As to the qualities of the brood
mare, there are some peculiarities essential for all breeds.
She must he what is called roomy, allowing sufficient space to
carry a foal, aud for its passage into the world. For this pur-
pose the carcase should be long, and the back ribs deep, the
pelvis or hips thould be wide and deep. The forehand is usually
lovs-er in the mare than in horses of the same kind. This, aa
Stonehenge observes, "gives the whole framework of the trunk
a larger proportion than is alw.'xys desirable in the race-horse,
which may easily be overtopped ; aud here many good runners
have failed as brood mare?, whilst a good number of bad run-

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411

ners have beeu dams of good race-horses. Beyond this roomy
frame necessary as the eggshell of the foal, the mare only re-
quires such a shape and make as is well adapted for the pecu-
liar purpose she is intended for. It is better to breed from
animals of a medium size of their Hnd, whether male or fe-
male, not too big, nor too small." To ensure the mare being
stinted she should be perfectly healthy, and living as much as
possible in a state of nature; not overfed with corn, but rather
have cooling diet, unless she is poor. Fattened animals often
prove barren. The best time for covering is when the heat
commences. If coavenient it is often recommended to do so
a second time when tie heat passes off. " Like the brood
mare," says Stonehenge, " the stallion requires several
essentials, commencing also, like her, 1st with his blood ;
2ndly, his individual shape ; 3rdly, his health ; 4thly, his
temper. But there is this difficulty in selecting the stallion,
that he must not only be suitable, but he must also be adapted
to the particular mare which he is to serve. Thus it will be
manifest that the task is more difficult than the fixing upon
a brood mare, because (leaving out of consideration all other
points but blood) in the one case a mare only has to be chosen,
which is of good hlooJ, for her particular work; while in the
other there must be t>'e same attention paid to this particular,
and also to the stallion's suitability to the mare, cr to " hit"
with her blooJ. The rock upon which mosj men split is a
bigoted favouritism for some particuhr horse ; thus one puts
all his mares to liirkenhead, another to Hunting Horn, al-
though they may every one be of different blood and form.
Now this cannot possibly be right, if there is any principle
whatever in breeding ; and however good a horse may be, he
cannot be suited to all mares. Some say that any sound
thorough-bred horse will do for a thorough-bred mare of the
same kind, and that all is a lottery ; but I hope you now per-
ceive that there is some science required to enable the breeder
to draw many prizes. That the system generally followed of
late is a bad one, I am satisfied, and with the usual and con-
stant crossing and recrossing it is almost a lottery ; but upon
proper principles and careful management, there would be
fewer blanks than at present. We cannot expect to find a
perfect mare nor a perfect horse ; there is some " if this," or
" but that" in them all. The breeder, however, must be par-
ticularly careful that both should not be faulty in the same
place — that both should not have the same objection — and
whereon one is deficient the other must be unusually de-
veloped. In thus matching his mares the judgment of the
breeder is proved, that they may " hil" we'd. The same rule
of course applies to all animals. Mr. Bell well ohservea, that
" the importance of the influence of the sire in breeding
horses is in no point more clearly proved than by the fact
that the progeuy of the most celebrated racehorses have gene-
rally sustained the reputation of their sires. Thus the de-
scendants of Eclipse cumbered no less than 364 winners, and
those of Matchero, Highflyer, and other celebrated horses have
partaken of the same inherited excellence. Sultan, tlie pro-
perty of the Duke of Beaufort, which covered at £30 a mare
after he was 20 years old. Snap of the House, Geueral, and
Admiral of Ludlow, and not forgetting Sit Sampson, were
celebrated stallions in this country 20 and 30 years ago ; and
though they are long since dead, yet they now live, and are
well known in their descendants. It is a remarkable fact
that the first male put to a female, especially if he be potent,
influences more or less the progeny of that female by subse-
quent males. A striking case of this kind was first published
in the Philosophic Jil Transactions. A splendid mare, seven-
eighths Arab, had a mule by a quagga, in the year 1816, the
mule bearing the unmistakable marks and stripes of the

quagga. lu the years 1817, 1818, and 1823, this mare again
foaled, and although she had not seen the quagga since 1816
her three foals were all maiked with the curious quagga
marks. Nor is this by any means an isolated case. Meckel
observed similar results in the crossing of a wild boar with a
domestic sow. Mr. Orton verified this fact iu the case of
dogs, and poultry. Mr. Merrick, in the Veterinarian, records
the experience of his groom, who has had the management of
stallions for 14 years, " that he has frequently noticed that
well-bred mares, which had been difficult to stint with
thorough-bred horses, have bred to an inferior, and subse-
quently to a thorough-bred stallion ; but her stock by the
latter has frequently showed traces of inferior blood, not to have
been expected from the breed of either the sire or dam. You
will, therefore, bear in mind that it is especially important
that the first male given to a female should be well bred. I
know that there is a foolish notion with some people about
dogs, that the first litter is not likely to be good, therefore
they allow the bitch for the first time to go about with any
and every dog, little thinkiog the bad effect such treatment
has upon future litters. In explanation of this phenomenon
that eminent physiologist. Professor Carpenter, in his cele-
brated work upon " Human Physiology," writes : " Some of
these cases appear referable to the strong mental impressions
left by the first male parent upon the female ; but there are
others which seem to reader it more likely that the blood of
the female has imbibed from that of the foetus, through the
placental circulation, some of the attributes which the Utter
has derived from its male paren! ; and that the female may
communicate these, with those proper to herself, to the subse-
quent offspring of a different male parentage." The
same author also writes: "There see.Tis good reason
to believe that the attributes of the germ are in
great degree dependent not merely upon the habitual
condition of the parents, which have furnished its original
component?, but even upon the condition in which those
parents may be at the time of sexual congress. Of this we
have a remarkable proof in the phenomenon well known to
breeders of horses, that a strong mental impression, made
upon the female by a particular male, will give the offspring a
resemblance to him, even though she had no sexual intercourse
with him. In conclusion, allow me to say that agricultural
societies are to be blamed very much for the little attention
they pay to horses as compared with other stock, especially
poultry. They ought to give liberal prizes to the best brood
mares and stallions of all breeds, and pay as much attention
to them — they deserve more— as to cattle, &c. The best
stallion should have to travel within the district of the society
during next season, and not to receive the prize until the end
of that time. I must add that our great landlords generally
overlook the interest of their tenants, and conscqueutly their
own also, in not keeping good thorough-bied stallions, of
different breeds, for the use of their tenants at a nominal
charge. Farmers themselves also overlook their own interest
too often by being " penny wise and pound foolish," in looking
more at the fee of the horse, when they engage him, than at
his shape.

The Chairman said : I beg to congratulate Mr Evans on
his very able lecture, and I am sure, gentlemen, you will agree
with me that our best thanks are due to Mr. Evans for the
pains and trouble he must have taken to produce such an in-
teresting and instructive lecture. I sympathize with Mr.
Evius ia his feelings of regret at the low ebb iu which the
breed of horses now stand in Shropshire. Before coming to
reside in this county I had beard much of the celebrity of
Shropshire for their breeds of animals ; and I fondly hoped

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that horses were within thia category ; more particularly that
I am old enough to remember in boyish days the high
eucomiums that were passed on Shropshire hunters, as they
rattled over the plains of Leicestershire. I therefore antici-
pated much pleasure in viewing this most noble of animals, in
all its perfection, by my residence amongst you ; but, alas ! a
short time tended to dispel the visions of my dream, for I soon
found that a good Shropshire horse was now the exception, not
the rule. This, gentlemen, is much to be regreted. You
stand deservedly high in your breed of Herefords, and you
have a world-wide fame in your breed of sheep. Why not,
gentlemen, add to this a distinct breed of horses ? I am sure,
with the same determination and perseverance that has enabled
you to raise up your celebrated Shropshire downs, from
amidst the chaos that heretofore surrounded you, would
enable you to raise a distinct and an equally famed breed of
horses. I came from a residence in Lincolnshire and Suffolk.
I there found a breed of horses second to none, and as true to
their character as any of the celebrated breeds of cattle or
sheep — " Go and do likewise." I have to apologize for having
made these lengthened remarks in the presence of so many
practical men, but I could not refram from a desire to urge
upon you the necessity of improving your breed of horses.
Before I resume my seat I must beg to differ with the lecturer
as to the formation of the draught horse — that his shoulders
should be vertical and overhang the feet. It is true this for-
mation may assist the horse to start its load, but I doubt very
much the power of endurance in a horse so formed, and the
probability is that before he arrived at his journey's end he
would topple over on his knees, and you would have to leave
him on the road-side (Hear).

Mr. Evans reminded the Chairman that he had only said
that the cart horse should have a shoulder comparatively up-
right; not so oblique as the hackney. He hated the sight, or
even the thought of such an upright shoulder as the chairman
had described (Hear, hear).

The Chairman : To some extent this may be true, but it
is better to err on the other side. I shall now be happy to
hear the opinions of any other gentleman.

Mr. John Meire : I quite reciprocate the sentiments of
onr chairman in his eulogium on the interesting and instructive
lecture we have just heard, a paper which evinces on the part
of Mr. Evans great research and industry, and a little steady
perseverance will bring him out a first-class lecturer. I admit,
and with others deeply regret, the great falling off in the
breeding of horses in Shropshire— but there are causes for it.
During the Peninsular and Continental wars, the profits of
farming in England assumed a high position, and landlords
with increasing rents were not averse to see their tenants enjoy
the sports of the field on the back ef a good hunter, nor were
parents averse to spare their sons occasionally from the toils of
the farm, to brace up their system by joining in the noble pastime
of fox-hunting, and those parents who had sufficient foresight
endeavoured to breed such a class of horses, that whilst it
enabled them to indulge their sons, at the same time created
the necessity for the enlargement of their own pockets. My
father was one (and there were many others) who was alive to
this, and his first care was to secure good brood mares. This
being done, common care in the selections of his stallions
enabled bim to raise up a class of hunters second to none,
and that, too, with a sharp eye to profit and loss. The pro-
duce of one mare alone sold for £1,000, and this was not an
isolated case, as many other farmers were equally successful.
But on the termination of the war a great reverse in farming
took place ; agriculture produce of all dticrlptions fell to a
fearful ebb. This made continual applications for a reduction

in rents uecessar}', and these applications seemed inconsistent
with the retaining of hunting horses ; indeed, there were
landlords short-sighted enough to assert that farmers had no
business with hunting horses. The consequence was a com-
plete clearing-out of these valuable animals, and nothing was
retained on the farm, except some ill- shaped mares that could
not be turned into money, and from these ill-assorted dams
the future breed of horses in Shropshire was to be sustained.
The result has been what every sensible man anticipated — a
complete blotting-out of Shropshire from the map of England
as a horse-breeding county. But I think I see the dawn of
better days. I now occasionally see some young farmers of
the right sort show themselves in the field, and as this in-
creases so will be the desire to improve the breed of horses.
But I would strongly urge upon my brother-farmers the neces-
sity of great care in the selection of brood mares, and never
think of breeding from ill-formed parents. Kemember, " like
begets like." It is true, perhaps, that some of our best
racers have been bred from small mares ; but to breed hunters
and carriage horses select roomy, weight-carrying mares. With
this precaution, 1 do not despair of yet seeing Shropshire be-
come as celebrated for its horses as it is now for its sheep
(Cheers.)

Mr. H. Smith : I sincerely congratulate and thank Mr.
Evans for the very valuable paper he has just read to us. I
know little of horses, as I never got astride of one ; but I can
truly sympathise with Mr. Evans La his regret on the breed of
our hunters, for the hounds frequently pass over my farm, and
although my hedges are very low the hunters make horrid
large gaps. (Laughter.) I have had some little experience
with sheep, and in my opinion both male and female have con-
siderable influence on their progeny ; and I am of opinion that
if we are to maintain our superiority in sheep we must slick
to the Shropshire breed. Any admixture with another blood
will be sure to deteriorate the flock.

The Chairman : Have you such a distinct breed that you
can go on without having recourse to the South(^iown ?

Mr. Saml. Meire : There is not a doubt of it. If I could
ensure my life for 100 years, I could keep my flock up to its
standard wi.'hout going to any other flock for aid. It is very
easy to do it when you know how. There is no doubt but
that the Shropshire sheep is a cross-bred sheep, and what breed
is not? I should like to ask those who boast of the purity of
the Southdown as if that was the sheep that came out of the
ark.

Mr. J. Meire : It is not attempted to be denied that the
Shropshire is a crosg-bred sheep. The original breed were
horned sheep, and the first attempt at improvement was to
get rid of those incumbrances ; and there is little doubt but
that this was effected by a cross from the Southdowu. These
sheep no doubt are well adapted for the downs, where they
have to travel far and work hard for their living ; but for
our encloaurea we wanted something more docile, consequently
recourse was had to the Leicester— at least, that I know was
my father's proceeding, dipping into each blood as the flock
needed it. But when my friend to the left began to assume
the helm of affairs, he asked himself this question — What is
the object of this crossing and recrossing ? Why, it is to
produce a superior sheep to either of the existiug breeds. I
will not do it. I will produce sheep having the size and apti-
tude to fatten of the Leicester with the flesh of the South-
down. I will have his wool equal to the Leicester in length
of staple, but not inferior to the Southdown in fineness of
texture; and, gentlemen, he has done it. (Cheers.)

Mr, Evan Davies expressed his regret for having fixed

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413

the day of meeting on the assize day, causing the absence of
80 many members ; but was highly gratified with the very
able lecture, and with the very interesting discussion which
it had called forth, and remarked that the opinion of the
speakers fully corroborated the assertion of Mr. Evans that

a distinct breed of our domestic animals may be raised and
maintained.

A vote of thanks was then passed to Mr. Evaus and the
Chairman, to which these gentlemen responded, when the
meeting was terminated.

KINGSCOTE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION.

CULTIVATION OP MANGEL WURZEL.

Mr. Burnett said : Gentlemen, the first subject on the
circular for this evening's discussion, is " The cultivation of
mangel wurzel, and its use." It being one of great importance,
I feel sorry some one more able than myself did not undertake
to bring it before the meeting ; however, I will at once tell the
little I know, and hope every one present will do the same.
On all good loams and clay soils mangel is, or will soon be
the staple root crop ; and on our light brashy, in this neigh-
bourhood, we find it yield a much larger amount of highly
nutritious food, than any other root yet introduced, and also a
more certain crop than either swedes or turnips, for some
years past. There are a great many varieties now cultivated ;
but those mostly grown in this neighbourhood are the red and
yellow globes, which are most suitable for our light soils,
their root not going so deep in search of food as the long
varieties ; they also keep better, owing to their not being so
much broken in storing. I prefer the yellow, as I have always
grown the heaviest crop of them, when grown side by side of
red ; they may not be so good in quality, or may be of a different
flavour, having observed the sheep choose to eat the red first,
when they were handed out to them. The long varieties
require deep cultivation; but the globes will grow where any
of our other roots will. I have often seen the largest mangel
on the head land, and other portions of the field where it has
been trodden hard. The general practice is to sow mangel on
land that has produced a straw crop the preceding year. II
there is couch in the land, or if over-run with black grass or
other weeds, no time should be lost, after the straw crop is off,
in having it skimmed over ; having used several implements to
perform this operation, such as Bentall's scarifier. Dean's
Savory's, and others. I find the common plough, with a
broadshare, to be the most efficient implement ; it not only
cuts off the weeds more regularly, but they ate left in a better
position for the drags to separate them from the soil : the
couch should then be picked off, and burnt in large heaps, if
weather permit ; but should wet weather prevent the burning,
my practice has been, after the weeds have lain on the
surface about two months, to have them ploughed five or six
inches deep or more, if not prevented by rocks. The land is
left in this state till March, then cultivated ; afterwards
apply a pair of heavy drags, then harrow once or twice
in a place, as may be needful, to separate the little live couch
from the soil that may remain, which is then picked off, and
the land is ready for ridging, which is done twenty-seven
inches apart. About fourteen load of farm-yard dung is then
put in the furrows, and three hundredweight of guano, or
equal value of Proctor's mangel manure, sown broadcast ; the
manure is then covered by a common plough, going once in a
place in the middle of the ridge, a roll following after, to
compress the soil and to get a fine seed-bed, and also tends to
keep the laud in a moist state. The best time to sow is the
third week in April ; if deferred till May, the seed ought to be
soaked in water twenty-four hours before sowing. The method
I ad.jpt, lU dcpoailiug the seed, is one of rather old origin ; but

I have always found it do well, at very little extra expence.
A man walks along the furrow, with a stick about four feet
long, tapering towards the point; makes the holes about
fourteen inches apart ; giving the stick a twist, which prevents
the mould from filling up the holes ; a woman follows,
depositing the seed at the rate of 5 lbs. per acre ; another
woman follows with a small rake or hoe, and covers the seed ;
the ridges are again rolled. The singling out I prefer having
done by pulling them out with the hand ; I have had it done
by boys and girla at an expense of Ss. per acre, and have found
it answer better than when done by the hoe, especially in dry
weather. In about a fortnight after the top of the ridge is
gone over with the hand-hoe, a second and sometimes a third
hoeing is requireJ. I commence horae-hoeing between the
rows before or after singling ; in most seasons I horse-hoe
four times. We now come to the storing of the roots. I
used to have the tops twisted off, but now I have them cut,
finding it less expensive, and the mangel keep equally as well.
Last year I let eleven acres to four men to get up and cut the
tops off, which they did in four and a-half days ; three women
and a man filled them in two carta in the same time; we store
them in houses or pits to keep them from frost, which is all
the care mangel requires, unless a very large quantity is put
together, then ventilation is necessary. Under this system of
cultivation I have had good success ; however, last year having
a field of light soil to put to mangel, and anxious to economise
labour, I tried a different method, which I am pleased to say
proved equal to my expectations ; this field was eleven acres,
and as I tried three systems of cultivation, I will call them
number 1, 2, 3.~No. 1 was manured (on the stubble) with
twelve loads of rotten dung, and raftered in at the same time :
No. 2 was manured with eighteen loads of green or long dung,
and ploughed in : No. 3 was ploughed at the same time, and
the same quantity of long dung put in a heap, and applied in
the spring (put in ridges as before described). The rafters of
No. 1 was turned over in February, before commencing
ridging ; in April I had the whole field cultivated across the
rafters and the ploughing, then harrowed, and after applying a
dressing of artificial manure at a cost of 328. per acre, it was
ridged twenty-seven inches apart, the seed deposited, and
other operations performed as in former seasons. To my
surprise the mangels came up stronger, and looked better on
No. 3 ; the first three months after that time, I could perceive
no difference of either lots, and when taken up I found by
weighing twenty perch of No. 2 and 3, there was five hundred-
weight per acre more on No. 2, than on 3. I did not weigh
No. 1, but was satisfied there was no perceivable difference ;
the artificial used was Proctor's mangel manure and Peruvian
guano, one acre manured with guano at the same money-
value as the mixture of Proctor's guano, on which there
was the same quantity of load. Although they did not look so
well as the others for some time, yet at the time of storing
they appeared in a more growing state ; this may be accounted
for, owing to the very dry weather in the first part of the

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seasou. Tart of the field had a dressing of salt, four huudred-
weight per acre ; I could see no difference of the crop on that
portion of the field j and although I doubt not but salt may
be applied with success on some soils, yet I believe it had
better be used as sauce or medicine, than as a manure, under
the system of cultivation and manuring. I have stated I have
grown from twenty-eight tons to thirty-eight per acre. I am
well aware that much larger crops can be grown, with a greater
amount of outlay for manures ; but whether it is advisable to
do so, I am not prepared to give an opinion. I know of fifty-
five tons per acre having been grown last year on a heavy
clay soil, at an expense of £7 63. per acre for manure. Much
more might be said on the cultivation ; but as the object of
our meeting is for discussion by the several members, I will
pass on to that very important part of our subject, the use of
mangel. It is used for different purposes ; but I will confine
myself to its use aa food for animals : all animals are greatly
fond of it. The time was when it was only considered useful a
few weeks in spring ; now differently, it can be and is used all
the year. Beginning with the tops in November, we find the
dairy cows increase in milk when they have them hauled out
on the pasture, which at that season is getting short; they are
a month's food for the pigs in the yards ; the ewes do well
when folding over the land, and pick np what is left — so all is
finished up with little waste. When mangel is given to cattle
in the autumn, great care is required not to give too liberal at
first, especially to young and weak animals, as the mangels are
at that time of a very laxative quality. The new mode of
pulping and mixing with chaff is one which every farmer ought
to adopt ; by it he can regulate the system of his animals, and
they will do better on one-third less roots than when given
them alone. I believe all roots ought to be pulped and mixed
with chaff if the cattle are meant to continue a part of the
straw; but mangels should never be given uulesa mixed
with chaff (or meal, if to calves or fatting cattle). For in-
stance, if store cattle are fed on one-third the quantity of
mangel they would eat, they will eat but little straw, and be
very uneasy, always looking after every one that passes, and
appear as if they had not seen food for a long time ; when the
mangel and straw cut into chaff are mixed together, they will
eat both, do well, and live content. Horses also do well on
maogel as a substitute for bran : besides the virtue they derive
from the mangel, when mixed with their chaff it makes it
moist and sweetens the taste, which induces them to eat more
than they otherwise would. I need hardly say that pigs do
well on mangel, for most here know that porkers will scon
became bacon on it. What other root is of equal service to
the farmer in the months of April and May to give his ewes
and lambs ? They add to the condition of the ewe, increase
the quantity and enrich the quality of the milk for the lambs.
On no other food did I ever see ewes and lambs do so well (at
the same expense) as when on 'grass with a liberal quantity
of mangels given them. As regards its fattening properties in
feeding cattle I have had buf little experience ; therefore I will
give the experiment of the late Earl Spencer, in the Royal
Agricultural Society's Journal. He says, " I believe that
mangel contains more saccharine matter than Swedish turnips
and consequently to be the more nourishing root of the two.
I determined to try practically whether an ox fed upon mangel
increased in weight more than one fed upon swedes, in propor-
tion to the quantity consumed." On the '24th of December he
put No. 1 on swedes, and No. 2 on mangolds, both animals
the same weight; on the 23rd of January No. 1 had consumed
l,6241bs. of Sivedes, and measured 4 ft. 10 in. in length by
6 ft. 7 in., making him to weigh 7031bs., and to have increased
m weight 351b8., or at the rate of 48ilb3. for every ton of

swedes consumed. No. 2 had consumed l,S481bs. of mangel,
and measured 4 ft. 10 in. by 6 ft. 8 in. girth, making him weigh
7211bs., and to have increased in weight SSlbs., or at the rate
of 65jlbs. for every ton of mangold consumed. This differ-
ence, however, might have arisen from No. 2 having a greater
propensity to feed than No. 1 ; I therefore now put No. 1 to
mangel, and No. 2 to swedes. On the 20th of February No. 1
had consumed l,8841b3. of mangel, and weighing according to
measurement 7341bs., having increased in weight this month
311bs., or at a rate of SGjlbs. for every ton of mangel con-
sumed. No. 2 had consumed l,8801bs. of swedes, and ac-
cording to measurement weighed 7341b3., increase ISlbs., or at
a rate of ISJlbs. for every ton of swedes consumed. I then
put both to mangels, and on the 19th of March they had each
consumed l,7921bs. of mangel. No. 1 increased 501bs., and
No. 2 311bs. It would appear the propensity to feed of No. 1
was greater than No. 2, in the proportion of 50 to 31 ; but,
notwithstanding this, in the first mouth, when No. 1 was on
swedes, and No. 2 on mangel, No. 2 beat No. 1 65J to 48^.
I sold No. 1 to a butcher in the county for £24 Ss., and No. 2
in Sraithfield for £24. It will be for practical men to decide
upon the value of this trial. What appears to me to be the
most conclusive part of it is that No. 2, who had during the
first month when he was feeding upon mangel increased in
girth three inches, in the next, when on swedes, no increase
at all ; and when in the three months he was again feeding on
mangel, he again began to increase in girth, because it is well
known that if an animal is changed from more to less nutri-
tious food the probable consequence will be that his growth
will be stopped. The result appeared to me so decisive, that
I have not tried the experiment with the same accuracy since ;
but I did try, the following year, feeding a cow alternately on
swedes and mangel, and though I have not by me the details
of the trial, I remember that the result confirmed the experi-
ment of the previous year. Dr. Voelcker, in his pamphlet on
the Chemistry of Food, says, " Practical experience, if I am
not mistakeu, has shown that the different roots follow each
other, as regards their nutritive value, namely — Ist, potatoes ;
2nd, parsnips ; 3rd, carrots ; 4th, mangels; 5tb, swedes; 6th,
swedes." After giving the analyses, which will be found in
the same work, he says, " Mangels contain on an average aa
much water and dry matters as carrots, and on the whole are
almost as nutritious as carrots, if they are given to fatting
stock, after a few months' keeping. When newly taken out of
the ground mangel contains a peculiar acrid substance, which
has a tendency to scour animals who feed upon the fresh roots:
although it has not been shown whether or not this acrid prin-
ciple disappears on storing away mangels for some months, it
is a well-known fact that after a few months' keeping they
have not this tendency to scour, and are much more nutri-
tious than in a fresh state. The superior fatting value of
stored mangels when compared with the fresh root may be due
to the absence of this acrid principle in old roots ; but doubt-
less it must be attributed also to the larger amount of sugar
which stored mangels contain." I might go on quoting from
different writers ; but having given you my opinion as re-
quested, I trust what I have said will induce some present to
take up the subject, and give a detail of their more lengthened
experience for the benefit of us all.

Mr. Harrison had listened with particular interest to
the remarks that had fallen from Mr. Burnett, as he be-
lieved him to be a very successful grower of mangel wurzel.
He thought the kind or description of soil must in some
measure regulate the cultivation ; but that on all soils
autumn tillage was necessary, so that the planting might be
proceeded with at the proper time in the spring. Yard

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415

manure, in its fresh state, he was of opinion might be ad-
vantageously applied to heavy land, and ploughed-in in the
autumn (that is if the land is clean), as it would greatly
assist its pulverization. In addition to yard manure he had
used superphosphate at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre., leaving
a portion without any. Where applied the plants grew
faster for a time ; but when taken up, there was no percep-
tible difference. Mangel he thought to be a very important
root, and was grown to a greater extent each succeeding
year. lie thought, with Mr. Burnett, the best mode of
using was to pulp or mince them, and mix with chaff.

Mr. Thomas was not surprised at Mr. Plarrison's not
perceiving any difference in his mangel when he applied
the superjihosphate ; his vale land being of itself so rich
would be good manure for the poor soils of the hills. He
differed with Mr. Burnett in his mode of planting, as he be-
lieved drilling the seed was better than dibbling ; the plants
coming up more regular were more easily singled with the
hoe. When dibbled the roots of the plants so entwine
around each other that it was difficult to separate them with
the hoe ; and it was not every one that could obtain children
to single them by the hand. He usually planted on the
ridge, drilling with one of Garrett's drills, taking three rows
at a time, 23 inches apart. He gave a liberal dressing of
yard manure, with a little guano applied at the time of
planting. Mangel with the same treatment gave a greater
weight per acre than either common turnips or swedes, and
their keeping pi'operties being so good made them a valuable
root; and they were verj^ serviceable for ewes aud lambs in
the spring of the year. He had also given them through
the mouth of April to fatting sheep, which did very well on
them.

Mr. D. HoLBORow observed that Mr. Thomas's testi-
mony as to feeding sheep with mangold differed from an
experiment he had seen stated in Dr. Voelcker's pamphlet
" On the Chemistry of Food." It was one tried by that
gentleman at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
and it went to show that as food for sheep it was worth-
less, as after four months' keep with a fixed and limited
quantity of hay and as much sliced mangolds as they would
eat, he found they had not increased a single pound.
Perhaps some one else present had used them for feeding
sheep, and would be kind enough to state the results of his
experience.

Mr. G. RoBisON said he had used mangel with hay and
a small quantity of corn for fattening sheep, for some years.
Last year he fed forty on pulped mangel and hay-chaff, and
he never had sheep do better at the same expense. He
must remark, however, that he did not commence using
them till the month of March. He also thought them a
good food for ewes and lambs, as they created a supply
of milk. He agreed with what bad been said on manu-
ring heavy land with farm-yard manure in the autumn ;
but on thin, light soils he should prefer applying it in the
spring.

Mr. E. Drew agreed with Mr. Harrison, that Mr. Bur-
nett's remarks were of great interest. His own mode was
to clean the land as soon after harvest as possible, then
plough as deep as the soil will admit, cross plough early
in spring, harrowing and rolling sufficient to get a fine
tilth, which he thought a great requisite for mangel. He
planted on the ridge with the drill, generally using arti-
ficial manure exclusively ; viz,, 4 cwt. Proctor's mangel
manure, and 1 cwL 'gu.mo, two-thirds of which he applied

(after drawing the boults) with the hand, covering with the
plough, drilling the remainder mixed with ashes; frequently
horse and hand hoe, beginning as soon as the plants and
weather will allow. He thought mangel required room ;
27 inches was quite near enough for the rows, singling out
to 14 or 15 inches. The year before last the wireworms so
thinned the plant on about an acre in one corner of a 10-
acre piece, that I thought it would be a total failure. I
however let them remain, and on taking them up there
was almost as great a weight as the average of the field : •
many of the roots were 28lbs. each, and few of them less
than 201bs. There was not a root on 1| square yards,
whilst the remainder of the field averaged over three to
the square yard. In the same field I tried a little experi-
ment with different kinds of artificial manures ; viz.,
Proctor's mangel manure, do. and guano, do. and bones,
guano, bones, bones and guano, all at an expense of 64s. an
acre. The weight of roots, exclusive of tops, and number,
per acre, are as follows : —

Weight. No. of

Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. Roots.

Proctor's mangel manure 33 17 0 7 .. 14,976

Ditto and guano 33 16 1 23 .. 15,084

Guano 33 13 1 4 .. 15.197

Proctor's, and bones 33 12 2 17 .. 15,311

Guano and ditto 33 10 0 15 .. 15,617

Bones 33 6 3 11 .. 16,008

This experiment appears to be in favour of Proctor's manure
as it gives the greatest weight, and bones the least. The
difference in respective lots is so trifling, only lOcwt. 241bs.
between the highest and the lowest, that I think if we take
into consideration that bones and guano are more lasting in
their effects, the opposite conclusion must be arrived at.
Mr. Burnett stated an instance of a friend of his having
grown 55 tons per acre at a cost of £7 6s. an acre, and
rather intimated a doubt whether it was wise to expend so
large a sum for their production. Now, it is well known
you may apply almost any quantity of manure for mangel
without risk of injuring the root. It is not the expense per
acre that is to be looked at, but the cost per ton of pro-
ducing the crop ; and I believe, on calculation, Mr. Burnett's
35 tons will be found to coat much the same per ton as his
friend's 55.

Col. Nigel Kingscote said he was not to tell the gen-
tlemen present what width to plant their mangel ; but what
he had heard from Mr. Drew confirmed his opinion, the
greater the distance (in reason) the more heavy the crop.
When shooting in Leicestershire this season, he saw the
largest mangel he had ever seen, in a field where the plant
had partly failed. He did not know the weight per acre,
but was convinced it was more than on other fields where
there was a much larger number of roots.

Mr. Burnett was of the same opinion as Mr. Drew,
that mangel can be forced to a great extent with manure
without injury to the roots, and also that the crop of 35
tons cost as much per acre (for manure) as the 55 ; but the
value of the land of the former is 30s., and the latter 50s.
per acre ; the soil was also more adapted for the growth of
mangel.

The subject was warmly discussed, in which all the
members present took a part.

A resolution was passed, which approved of autumn cul-
tivation and using mangold pulped mixed with chaff.

The proceedings of the evening were closed with a vote of
thanks to Mr. Burnett.

416

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PROPOSED PREMIUMS FOR IRISH. BRED STOCK.
THE IRISH SHORT-HORN.

To Captain Croker, Ballynauard.

Dear Sir, — In thereport of thelast Monthly CouncilMeeting
of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society, my attention
was drawn to your bringing before the Council a letter of Mr.
Campion's, containing two of the most important topics to all
interested in the breeding of short-horns in Ireland that can
well be discussed.

Now being well aware of your desire to forward the breed-
ing of improved stock in the country, and that your only wish
is, fairly to have every subject connected with it viewed in all
its bearings; and having had lately some little experience of
the weight of your influence, backed out by the perseverance
and energy that always accompany it ; I shall make it my only
apology for troubling you with the following remarks, on the
subject of Mr. Campion's letter.

Few indeed but will admit, that special prizes, for Irish-bred
stock, would add an additional stimulant to the competition at
our shows, and thus be productive of some good ; and as having
had something to do with the breeding and exhibiting of stock,
I can assure you, nothing would be more encouraging to the
young beginner, or more soothing to the over-agitated frame
and irritable nervous system of an old warrior on the eve of a
fresh contest, than the knowledge of the fact, that in one sec-
tion of prizes, at least, he would have a friendly shield inter-
posed between him and the overwhelming weight of some of
our great dons ; aud thus not have to run the risk of appearing
before the public shorn of all laurels. But, though this view
of the subject may appear very well, take care we do not buy
our felicity at too dear a price. How would it appear, going
before the world, in the prize sheet of the Royal Society, that
the Irish-bred short-horns are not able to compete with the
English and Scotch ? And how would it tell on, and bear out
the fact, that has lately been gaining ground, and getting cir.
culated even to the far western states of the new world, that
better and cheaper short-horns are to be had in Ireland
than in any part of the world ? And which now has the
effect of regularly bridging round the buyers for Australia
every autumn, to pick up all the young bulla they can.
And would it not even do much to rebuff the fact, that
such men as Colonel Towneley, Mr. Stratton, and others,
are now glad to come to Ireland to look for their bulls ?
And would it not tend to keep us still longer out of
the foreign trade in short-horns ? — which, after all, has been
the great stimulant to breeding in England — or, in a word,
would it not cast a slur on our breeding ? My idea has always
been, that anything that tends to draw the least distinction
between our stock and the English will tell to our disadvan-
tage ; how much more injurious would it then be for us, thus
to set up and publish our inferiority. I may here also say,
this wish to avoid all distinction between the English, Scotch,
aud Irish stock, is the cause of my great objections to a sepa-
rate registry of Irish short-horns.

But, after all, this is not the mean point of the question ;
the question to consider is — do we in reality require protec-
tion ? To which I decidedly answer, no ; if we are only put
on a fair footing with the English exhibitions, and protected
against those animals that belong to the " little trade," as Mr.
Campion calls it •, or, at least, let them be made to fulfil fairly

the conditions of the Society, and then trade or no trade ani-
mals will make but little matter. But as this will at once
bring us into the much-vexed question of over-feeding and its
results, which affects English as well as Irish breeders, let us
first see how, at our own shows, we are not on even terms (so
far, at least, as has been shown up, before the public is con-
cerned) with our English and Scotch friends.

What I complain of is, that not only do the English and
Scotch breeders get every facility (and very justly) of entering,
having stock brought free, &c., but they are also always afforded
an opportunity of first testing the merits of their animals at
home, at the great all-England show ; and not only are our
entries fixed for closing the day after the all-England show,
but our secretary is sent over specially to invite the one or two
champions of (I may say) the world, to let us, as it were, see
how much in the back ground we are, and to knock the conceit
and spirit out of all our young hands ; but if this was the only
effect of this system it would be of little matter, as, in my
mind, a sound thrashing does one good, as it fixes firmly in
the eye a higher standard of the perfection to which we must
work our stock before we can hope for success. It has, how-
ever, other and far more serious effects, and tends virtually to
benumb the whole short-horn trade at home ; as this constant
bringing before the eyes of our agriculturists nothing but the
single top animal of all England, exalts their ideas of all Eng-
lish-bred stock, and, consequently, when they have eighty or
one-hundred pounds to give for a bull, off they go to England ;
and I could now name more than one instance where parties
have paid dear for their trip, by giving their money for a very
second or even third-rate auimal; the idea of his being English
bred being snfl^icient for them.

That English-bred short-horns, taken as a whole, possess no
such superiority is evident to any real judge who had an op-
portunity of seeing the stock exhibited at the last spring show
of our Dublin Society, and then paying a visit to Chester, and
inspecting the short-horn classes there. And what though
Mr. Douglas did walk off with the Dublin Society's cup
with his heifers (he won also with his heifers at Chester)>
and though he also won with his yearling bull (the first
time it was ever won by an English or Scotch exhibition,
though they have often tried), none of the Irish breeders
envied him; for he in his turn (quite as often as he has won)
has on former occasions lent his aid to grace their triumphs.
And if we looked to the two-year-old bull class, we would
see some of the Yorkshiremea themselves added to the
laurels of the Irish winners ; or could any one doubt, but that
the prize bulls at Chester, which by their age would have come
into this class, would have shared the same fate if they were
there ; and if we only look over the prize lists of the Royal
Dublin Society for a few years back, we will find many names
recording the superiority of the Irish stock, and among others*
the no-less-celebrated ones than " Grand Turk," and " Lady
Mary." That it requires as severe a test as the all-England
show to make sure of winning in Ireland, the history of the
Society itself proves, for at the last meeting, held at Cork, the
late Mr. Harvey Combe sent over his bull, which was second-
prize two-year-old bull for the year at the All-England show.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

417

and which with some others only served to add lustre to the
triumph of one of our southern breeders, Mr. William Coppin-
ger. That our friends on the other side of the channel have
profited by such lessons is evident, as when our eatries closed
before the All-England show, our catalogues contained plenty
of names of parties who never had a beast at any of the shows,
the winners in England only coming. If you wish then to give
our breeders a fair field, you must move not alone your entries,
but also your show, before the All-England one ; and I can see
no objection to so doing. It may be said, we would have no
English exhibitors at our shows, and that we could not do
without them ; but the Dublin Society's catalogue will prove
the fallacy of this argument ; as we have always three or four
English or Scotch exhibitors there, and consequently more
than ever attend the shows of the Royal Agricultural Improve-
ment Society ; and it would not only bring us into a more
convenient time of the year, but would turn the tables, and
give us an opportunity of testing ourselves at home, and thus
tend, when we had any thing worth while, to embolden us to
repay some of the many visits we owe across the channel.
Now you must not think I consider even with these changes
that a great part of our prizes would not go to England and
Scotland. Such an expectation would be unreasonable, when
we know that there are at least seven times the number of
short-horns bred in the sister kingdom (I mean show-going
ones) that there are here ; and, when we add to this, that they
have some two or three men of such long-standing and known
perseverance that we cannot count one fit to match them ; and
when we also know that two of our best men (and two is a
mighty loss in such a struggle) never or rarely exhibit, except
yearlings at the Royal Dublin Society's shows, it would be
unreasonable to expect we could have it all our own way ; but
what I maintain it would do is, that through the eagerness of
the English breeders to reap laurels among us, it would always
supply us with a fair sample (not a picked one, as at present)
of the English show-going short-horns, and afford us a full
opportunity of occasionally beating them, and always give the
world a fair standard to judge from of the relative merits of
the stock of each country, and afford our young breeders a
good chance of gathering laurels (and one thus won in open
competition would be worth a dozen sullied by the shades of a
protection clause), without being subject to the certainty of
the overwhelming pressure of the presence of the champions of
the All- England meeting, who derive such an additional lustre
from coming thus before our judges arrayed in all their late
triumphs, that to over them with equally good animals would
be impossible.

With regard to the system carried out with some of our
show stock, the only thing I see fairly to find fault with is, that
some men, with large and valuable herds, deeply interested in
keeping up an old and well-established reputation, or in en-
deavouring to start a new one, find it their interest to put up,
we will say, a pair of two year olds and a pair of three year
old heifers (I leave out yearlings as they cannot be injured, and
cows that have once gone through the ordeal as two and three
year olds will seldom break down, under judicious management)
and face them forward regardless of all consequences. That
the injurious results of this system have been deeply felt, is
evident, from all that has been said and done to check the over-
feeding of show stock ; and that anything that has as yet been
done to bring it to a stop, has proved quite ineffectual, is just
as certain. It is not to be wondered at that the jury and dis-
qualifying system would not answer ; as, after all, the best and
only true test, of the real superiority of a short-horn, is the
amount of flesh it can carry, and still naturally and regularly
produce its produce; it is not, then, sttange that all the

mighty efforts made to put down the over-feeding system have
dwindled into a mere inquiry as to from what time the heifer
is in calf, and a regulation that the prize shall be withheld until
such calf he produced ; and in the case of cows and heifer in
milk, a simple inquiry as to the date of the production of the
last live calf. Now, the fault of this check lies in the fact,
that the parties thus exhibiting first, secure all they require in
the blash and notoriety they gain at the show. For what
check on such men, as in the very animals they thus force
forward, first risk hundreds, can possibly be the after with-
holding of a paltry five pound prize, which nobody hears of
and none care about. In the case of three year old heifers the
thing takes another turn and one easier of cure, for though
they all fulfil the stipulations of the society, as far as being
able to give a date on which a live calf was produced ; still (do
not start, captain), scarce a fifth-part of them in reality fulfil
the stipulations of the society, inasmuch as scarce any of
them produce their live calves in such a state as it is possible
to rear them. If the loss stopped here, it would not press even
so hard on beginners and parties with but a few animals, as it
in reality does ; as one might well run the risk of sacrificing
a calf for the honour of winning an All-England first prize ;
but, unfortunately, it does not stop here, for when a three year
old heifer goes wrong in this way, from over-feeding, up to the
last moment, she is very apt to go wrong altogether. It may,
however, be thought the deep losses in such cases would be
their own cure — and so they are in all ordinary cases ; but,
when we have men with large herds, and larger fortunes at
their back; and when we have one whose reputation for
Superior stock brings them in, for the use of the bulls of the
herd alone, no less than £5,000 a year, we need not be
surprised that the feverish excitement got up about the great
superiority of such stock must be maintained at any cost ;
though, in some cases, the expense is even a Bride's Maid, and
in others nothing less than the total ruin of that handsomest
short-horn that ever decked an English herd— The Queen
of the May.

Now that such au over feeding, or as I may call it, such
expenditure for show-yard honours, tells heavily on all begin-
ners, and in fact, on all who have not large herds and vast pro-
perty, to enable them to make such sacrifice, no one can for a
moment doubt ; and I can assure you I have before now felt,
and am likely to again feel, the great pressure of such a state
of things ; and to prove that stock exhibited under such cir-
cumstances are not on even terms of competition, and that
those that are, force feed to such a degree, that it is not pos-
sible to rear their live calves, have always the best of it. I
shall give you but three instances out of the many that have
come under my personal knowledge, and in so doing shall con-
fine ray remarks to cases of my own with Mr. Campion, so as to
avoid as much as possible the unpleasant task of meddling
with others. The first I shall mention is, perhaps, the
strongest case on record, as it is the only one I ever heard of,
where the judges recommend it to the notice of the council.
It was in 1856, at the show of the Royal Dublin Society,
where I exhibited our heifer Florence (dam of Foundation, and
her he°calf of the year), against Mr. Campion's well-known
Jenny. The case was so marked, (the one animal in all the bloom
and vigour of full breeding condition, the other looking anything
but a breeder), that the judges at once turned to Dr. Colins,
who was steward on that occasion, and said, "This case, we
think, deserves to be brought under the notice of the council ;
here we have a very first-class pair of heifers, one with all the
unmistakable evidence about her of a breeder, the other, to
say the least, a doubtful-looking case, and consequently having
a much better furnished carcase of flesh," Dr, Colins only

418

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shakes his head, quietly turns over his notes, and tells them
both heifers are entered as having produced live calves, and so
the matter ends ; and I was obliged to put up with a second
place ; though I believe I am correct, when I state that Mr.
Campion never succeeded in rearing but one calf from Jenny,
and this was the bull calf she produced the year after ; and
when we compare this with the fact that Florence has, I be-
lieve by this, produced her fourth calf (all of which lived), and
for the very calf of the year referred to (Foundation), that along
with forty or fifty pounds in prizes and medals, and a year's
service, (from which I am happy to say I have fruits that wil
be apt to trouble some of our friends to get over), I am now
able to jingle the Marquis of Waterford's two hundred guineas
io my pocket ; it is not goiug too far to say that Mr. Cam-
pion's triumph was dearly bought, and such as I could not
afford to indulge in. Another case of mine was at Carlow,
in 1855, when with Queen of Beauty, I came in contact with
Mr. Campion's Ladylike (the only Irish bred cow of her day
that Queen of Beauty has not at one time or other conquered,
for Ladylike is Irish-bred, though having taken up her abode
for a while at Athelstaueford) ; and where I had again to
bow to Mr. Campion's superior condition, owing, perhaps, in
some respect to his cow not having produced a calf that year,
though she was, I believe, in calf at the time. I may, how-
ever, be told I am not up to the management of these stock,
or have not the right sorts, so I will now give you a case,
where, undoubtedly, the best manager of stock in Briton had
to bow in consequence of having let off a little of the bloom
of his condition, to produce a calf. The case I allude to is
that of Mr. Cultshaw's (manager of the Towneley herd till
then never beaten), where she had to put up with a commen-
dation, as there (in consequence of that absurd rule of dating
ages from the first of July), which has amongst other ill conse-
quences that of jumbling heifers that have had, and those that
have not had produce, in one class, and which rule the Society
may also thank for the inferior turn out it always has of Bull
calves, and which contrasts so forcibly, and so much to our
credit with the class (of about the same age at the time of
exhibition) of fine vigorous spring-dropped animals, alsvays
to be seen at our Dublin Society shows; and our great supe-
riority in which class, over anything exhibited in England at
the same age, can be attributed only to the baneful effects of
thus putting so great au inducement, for the sake of gaining
age, to have calves dropped in, undoubtedly, the worst season
of the year, the ill effect of which it is well known an animal
can scarce overcome for the first year — as the class thus
spreads into two ycare, and she being calved in 1855, Mr-
Cultshaw prudently deemed it too long to let her run with-
out having produce, so tried the experiment of making her
have her calf, and still be a match for those in the full bloom
of condition coming on theirs. That even she was beaten un-
der such circumstances is not much to be wondered at ; but I
am much mistaken if she will not again redeem all her lost
laurels the first time they again meet, under fairer circum-
stances.

Though I have run this letter to au over-extended length
already, still I cannot close it without a few remarks on the
production of calves which are not perhaps generally known
There are but few people who do not know that nine months
is the time a cow should carry her calf; but it is not equally
well understood, I believe, that if the calf is not carried at
least four or five days over this time (the general average being
from eight to fifteen days over, according to the sex of the calf,
the season of the year, and the constitution of the cow) that it
will be almost impossible to rear the calf; and if the early
calving is produced by over-feeding, the risk is doubled. It is

also perhaps less understood that little or no change takes
place in the outward appearance of the calf from the time it is
carried six months until about three weeks previous to the
nine months being up, except that it gets a coat of hair (some-
thing like a mouse), grows a very little larger, and gets life ;
and that it is in the last week and the few extra days that it
comes to its full hair, full sex, and receives its necessary life,
strength, and vigour. And thus it is when a beast is forced
on to the very last, and when coming on her calf, that she gets
unwieldy, helpless, and completely unnerved ; and into such a
state, that if her produce came to its full size she could never
produce it. Then it is that old Dame Nature steps in, and
saves the animal by bringing forward the ca'f a few days
sooner than it otherwise would, and before it comes to its full
size, and is consequently much easier produced; and, true to
her calling, generally sets a seal at the same time on all future
production of produce, so that it may not again interfere with
the predominant characteristic of the animal — its fat-producing
property. Thus it is that nearly all the three-year-olds that
now astonish the world are virtually no breeders, though
doubtless we have had some cases to the contrary, and among
which may be mentioned Colonel Towneley's roan Duchess
the 2nd, and Mr. Douglas's Rose of Summer ; but though
these did, I believe, produce calves that were reared, I would
like to know if the latter gentleman was equally successful
with the live produce of his heifer. Rose of Athelstane, which
entitled her to win our cup at Waterford. Now my idea is^
if our show managers wish to give us protection against those
men who can afford to go to such extremes, and, in fact, whose
interest it is to do so at all risks, and at the same time to level
a deadly blow against all over-feeding — let them at once pass
a rule that all three-year-olds must have produced their calves
previous to the date of show, and that such calves must be
then actually alive. The two-year-old case is more difficult to
deal with. My idea would be, where the cases were at all
doubtful, to withhold all prizes, and put a large placard upon
the class, to the effect that the prizes were withheld until it
could be seen which of the animals produced their calves in
the most satisfactory state ; and that if all did so safely, that
the prizes should be awarded to so-and-so. This would check
the public ardour, bring them to look fairly at the cases as
they stood, and it would also act as a wholesome check on the
over-feeding of the heifers coming on their calving, and punish
severely any who persevered in pushing things too far, by
making public their loss and failure. That such a course
would save, to be a good and useful brood cow, many a fine
heifer that will now founder on her first calf, I have not the
slightest doubt ; and that something requires to be done is
evident from the rapid spread of the evil, which has even now
made its appearance here at home among ourselves, in the case
of The Maid of Kilbogget, who lost in this manner her first
produce the other day. Iremaiu, yours respectfully,

Luke Christy.
Fort Union, Adare, Co. Limerick, March ITth, 1859.

MIXED FEED.— A bushel of carrots and a bushel of
oats are as good for a horse, at moderate work, as two
bushels of oats — not because the carrots contain as niiich
nutriment as the bushel of oats, for they do not ; but they
aid the digestive organs in a more perfect appropriation of
the nutritive principles in both. When horses are continu-
ally fed on oats, much of the food passes undigested, and is
a dead loss, except to the manure heap. So with sheep and
cattle. Give them a few roots daily, and they will have a
better appetite, digest tlieir food better, and eat greedily
coarse hay, that they would otherwise trample imder foot.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

419

NATURAL AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES OF THE NORTH
AMERICAN CONTINENT.

No. I.

To enable us to form a proper estimate of the present and
further growth of the produce trade of North America, we
must understand what the natural and commercial features of
that great continent really are. Unless we do so, we are
as likely to think of these too lightly or too extravagantly as
to hit the mark ; and a dry array of figures is not enough.

Considering that the New World is but a portion of the
Old, separated by a wide and stormy ocean, and new iu the
sense only that it was unknown till lately, it is unreasonable
to suppose that other laws of nature than those with which
we are familiar have existence there, and that the physical
conformation of the country differs from that which we wit-
ness here in England every day. Yet such unreasonableness
is not the exception, but the rule. The great mass have as
vague notions of America as if that country were located in
the moon, and believe in endless feet of richest black surface
toil, endless cropping without labour or manure, and end-
less felicity in the Canadian bush, or upon the western
prairie.

Some there are, however, who look upon America with a
jaundiced eye, and are incredulous of the great industrial
and social progress that has already, and is still taking
place. Such are not aware that the United States, at no re-
mote period, bid fair to feed the world ; that to-day, at a
thousand miles back from the Atlantic sea-board, the looms of
Lyons and Spitalfields and India are more freely patronized
than anywhere in Europe by equal numbers ; and that those
are not wanting with gifts and attainments of the highest
order. It is a fact that the North West contains the gay,
and rich, and virtuous, as well as the vicious and depraved ;
and that here and there its school-houses, its business places
and its streets are not surpassed by the best in Europe.

To America we owe the perfection of the telegraph, the
reaping-machine, and innumerable mechanical contrivances of
the most useful kind ; and in the coarser-manufactured cot-
tons the Massachusetts manufacturer competes successfully
wherever these are used.

It is nothing that America has enormous inland seas, rivers
navigable for several thousand miles, boundless forests and
prairies, cloudless skies, the extremes of heat and cold, and the
greatest cataract. These are the accidents of the country
only, and with them removed or modified, there would be
little in fertility or otherwise to distinguish America from
other lands. In America, as here and elsewhere, iu the sweat
of his brow man tills the ground, and in exact proportion as
he sows in spring so he reaps at harvest.

In fact, the real counterpart of all we meet in North
America (with the exception of what is accidental and extra-
ordinary), is to be found in England. Penetrate into an
English forest, and iu its oppressive solitude all that is want-
ing to make it redolent of Canada and grizzly bears, is an
occasional decayed and fallen tree, or successive pools of weed-
grown water, flanked by prickly brushwood through which one
can scarcely penetrate. To be sure, the majestic pine is absent ;
but the backwoodsman often chops a life-time among oak, and
hemlock, and beech, and maple.

ISeotlftiiil abonurla in the scenery of Vermont «iul New

Hampshire, and can match the classic grandeur of the Hud-
son river, the thousand islands, and the lakes ; and Wales and
Windermere are quite as wild and pleasing as the Alleghany
chain and the Juniata. The Western prairie may be seen on
Plaistow Marsh ; and the bush and prairie clap-board
dwelling among the cabbage gardens outside'of modern Babel.

In fine, the great point of difference is that of size ; Eng-
land with its intelligence and power being an ocean speck only,
and America a world. And when that only substantial point
of difference is known among the trading and emigrating Eng-
lish mass, some real progress will have been made in the way
of understanding things as they really are in the United
States and Canada, and incalculable disappointment and misery
spared in future.

One of the distinguishing features of North America, is
the existence of wooded and unwooded lands, the former
usually termed bush, the latter prairie. The wooded portion
of the country may be said to embrace the whole territory
east of the Misissippi, including the whole of Canada ; and the
unwooded portion the whole territory west of the Misissippi.
That division, strictly speaking, is not correct, as bush and
prairie exist on both sides of that line, but practically it is,
and particularly in connexion with the present inquiry, which
is limited to the consideration of staple products, the yield
either of bush or prairie'lands.

Woodland, it is scarcely necessary to remark, requires a
large expenditure of labour or capital before it is fitted for
the growth of crops or even for the feed of cattle. First of
all, the trees have to be chopped at a convenient height
for the swinging of the axe, and afterwards the re-
maining trunk, together with the roots, has to be dug
out or pulled before there is an approximation to a
civilized grain-bearing field. If these obstructions are
suffered to remain, the process of cultivation is neces-
sarily of the most imperfect kind ; and, whether removed
or not, the great work of rough clearing, in anticipation of
all strictly agricultural labour, retards extended operations.
The farmer, unless rich— and that he seldom is, in a wooded
country— cannot bring in more clearing, in a single year,
than his own brawny arm can chop during winter ; and if
he pulls out stumps as he goes along, he will really make
the slowest kind of progress. Individual instances could be
adduced in which, after five or six years' assiduous labour^
not exceeding 30 acres have been roughly cleared; and
outside of that clearing there is but indifferent summer, and
no winter-feed for cattle. Under such circumstances, the
high prices of one year have little influence on the produc-
tion of another ; and expectations from the bush, in the
matter of supply, must be moderate both for the pre-
sent and the future. Taking Canada as representative of
bush-farming, the trade and navigation returns of that pro-
vince, for three years, prove such to be the case, the ' grain-
surplus of 1857 beirg much less than that of either of the
two previous years.

Total Wheat Exports from Canada to all Parts.
Wheat. Bushels.

1855 3,193,700

185() 4,997,600

1857 , 2,762,400

F F

430

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The appearance of a bush-farm, and the condition of the
farmer and his dependants, do not need repetition here.
Everything is the opposite of everything in England. The
farm, it may be, is an uneven roadside opening in a dense
forest, round which zigzag fencing has been raised, to keep
cows and hogs from an attack upon the crop ; and the crop
is visible between a few solitary blazed and girdled trees,
and a thousand stumps. The farm-house and steading, it
may be, is one rude erection, affording shelter to the house-
hold and the stock, and not unfrequently storage also to the
products of the soil. In perhaps the majority of cases,
these buildings are inferior in style and comfort to the
worst specimens of peasant-huts, in the worst parts of Ire-
land, during the potato-famirfe ; and the inmates, as a
whole, are socially worse than Southern negroes or the serfs
of Russia. The farmer does not, as in England, keep his
dog-cart and attend meetings of the hounds, but drives an
ill-fed pair of oxen, and too frequently, in anticipation even,
dissipates all he has in some neighbouring rot-gut whiskey-
grocery. The story of the heart-broken misery of the
families of such would appal the callous, and go far to give
contentment at home to many with the honest, humble
English garret-fare of bread and v/ater.

Unwooded cr prairie land presents a more hopeful pro-
spect, inasmuch as equal labour and equal capital yield
twice or thrice the product that woodland does. The
miserable drudgery of chopping out a farm from dense
heavy-timbered forest land, and being cursed with dead
trees and stumps for ten j'ears at least, is not suffered on
the prairie. What is needed there is a few fence-posts
and boards ; and these are to be had at all times on easy
terms :- and, with a fence erected, the work of farming may
be commenced as easily as on English park or fallow.
The surface of the country is a dead level, without bush or
tree, and the soil sometimes without a pebble. Nothing
more is necessary than to break the grass with a surface-
plough, scatter in the seed, and apply M'Cormick's reaper
at the harvest. Then the prairie-grass outside the fence is
available for cattle-feeding ; and a single mounted herd can
keep a thousand head together. Nor is that all. Prairie-
grass can be cut in any quantity for hay, which, together
with a little oats or Indian corn, subsists Btock, at a trifling
cost, throughout the winter.

While, therefore, the bush-farmer is engaged chopping
wood, or growing green crop for the consumption of his
stock in winter, the prairie-farmer is devoting his time aud
help and capital to the production of wheat and corn, leaving
his stock to feed at large on national or state domain, and
fencing in new land at leisure. Need it be said that, while
the one is too often sunk to the most degraded state of
serfdom, and eats the bread of sorrow, the other is amassing
wealth, or speculating in lands or banks, and surrounded
vrith every comfort, and happy ? When crops are short in
Europe, the one cannot turn his land to use, and derive the
benefit ; while the other, at a moment's notice, can hire or
buy, on time, all the land he pleases, and, with little
trouble, sow out twice or thrice the usual breadth, and reap
twice or thrice the usual crop at harvest.

This statement is fully borne out by the recent census of
the state of Iowa, and by the recent estimated increase in
the state of Illinois :

Production of Wheat, Corn, and Oats in Iowa, and
. Ratio of Incrkase during Six Years.

1850. 1856. Ratio of Increase.

Bushels. Bushels. Per Cent.

Wheat .. 1,530,581 5,469,516 357

Corn.... 8,650,799 31,163,362 361

Oats.... 1,524,345 6,127,329 401

11,711,725 42,760,207 365

Production of Wheat, Corn, and Oats in Illinois
IN 1850, and estimated Production in 1857, with
Ratio of Increase during Seven Years.

1850. 1857. Ratio of Increase,

Bushels. Bushels. Per Cent.

Wheat .. 9,414,575 35,000,000 373

Corn.,.. 57,646,984 190,000,000 329

Oats,.,. 10,465,904 60,000,000 573

77,527,463 285,000,000

367

Such is prairie-farming; and its great development is
attested further by the rapid growth of Chicago trade. A
few years ago, Chicago was a mere trading post, exporting
a few thousand bushels of wheat and corn to the lower
lakes; but now, it is the greatest primary grain market in
the world. Should its trade not be diverted into the Mis-
sissippi river, not many years will elapse before the annual
exports reach fifty million bushels — a quantity little short
of the whole floating grain trade of Europe some few years
ago.

With the Chicago grain trade, Canadian capitalists and
merchants have been for years identified ; and so far last year
was the acknowledged superiority of prairie farming over
bush farming carried by the leading men of Canada, that
farming was said to be ruinous to the province. Whether
such is the case or no, would be out of place in this connexion
to inquire ; but obviously, iu a season of low prices, grain pro-
duction would be maintained upon the prairies when it would
be abandoned elsewhere.

There is, besides, other testimony to the disadvantage of
Canada, in respect to farming, than that of individual public
men — as Isaac Buchauaa — and to the superiority of the
prairies ; and that is furnished by the action of Canadian rail-
roads. Whatever the first intention of these railroads their
present purpose is the diversion of western or prairie trade ;
and, to gain that, they are almost ready to make any sacrifice.
Their western terminus is not the limits of British territory
at Lake St. Clair, but is established at Chicago, beyond the
State of Michigan and the lake of that name. The Victoria
bridge at Montreal and the Liverpool and Quebec line of
ocean steamers have regard to the present and future trade of
Canada as iacidental only, and seek, on the one hand, to
share with New York the western carrying trade, and British
freight and emigration on the other. In the sequel it will be
seen whether these ends are ever likely to be attained.

Another characteristic of the North American continent is
its thinly settled state. Whether the traveller makes his start,
into the interior, from New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Balti-
more, New Orleans, or Montreal, he is alike struck with the
little progress yet made iu the way of settlement and the little
land yet brought under cultivation. Here and there well
known cities are reached, and left behind ; but there are hours
of travel during which the marks of civilization are few
and far between. Especially is this the case in the newer dis-
tricts, and one sometimes begins to question the utility of rail-
roads at so great a distance from the seaboard. This train of
thought is by-and-by disturbed by visible approaches to
another great business centre, and the conclusion is irresistible,
that but for railroads so vast a country could scarcely be kept
together. Still it seems strange, so far, that railroads have
done so little to cluster population near them, and in-
quiry of course is made. A flood of light is thus let in upon the
subject, and the secret of the impoverished state of the North
American railroad interest made manifest. The railroads are
ostensibly projected to open up the country to immigrants and
others, and to move merchandize and produce in a cheap, expe-
ditious way, to and from the seaboard ; but, in reality, the
object of the railroads is to fill the pockets of a few unscrupu-
lous and reckless speculators. These are interested in the sale
of lands ; and the openiog of a railroad through, or even con-
tiguous to their claims, attracts crowds of bargain-hunters
from every district, and sales are readily effected at prices all
but fabulous. The buyers hold on to their purchases, and puff
up the railroads and the di8trict,until, in turn, they get others
victimized, and so on. The whole district thus falls speedily
into the hands of plunderers, and immigrants with small
means have to move onward where railroads and speculators
are unknown. Thus a few acres are only bought and sold, and
the adjoining lands are not settled : thus the railroad does not
pay, and bond and mortgage holders lose their money.

Instances are adduced in which enormous grants of land
have been made by Government ; land enough, in fact, to pay
the railroads, if only a low price were realized; and yet these
railroads become bankrupt also. " What," you ask, " is the
reason ?" and you are told that the mark has been missed by
waste and humbug. The lands were not put upon the market
in moderate quantities, and sold for the ready money they
would bring ; but were held at extreme prices ; costly adver-
tising was gone into ; a numerous surveying-staff organized ;
and, in the end, the land-sale receipts fell short of the land-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ml

sales' expenaea which were iucurred. la fact, therefore, so far
as the stoek-holders are concernecl, no advantage is derived,
but a positive loss follows from the much spokeu-of, much
thought-of, grants of land, and John Bull and others get
taken in when they least expect it.

Considering the influeuce already exercised in Europe by
the North American produce trade, before even a beginning
may be said to have been made in the reclamation of American
soil, considerable displacement of European industry in that
business, or at least a lower range of prices, may be looked
for, so soon as western population becomes more dense, or
almost so soon as the present super-abuudant and distressed
population of the larger cities have taken to country life. This
latter agency has been in active operation during the by-gone
year, and there is little prospect of relaxation for two or three
years to come. Thousands who picked up a precarious living
in cities in various ways, when trade was good, have had to
choose lately between hiring out to farmers or to starve ; and
should next harvest (1859) prove propitious, the extra breadth
to be put under crop will yield a corresponding increased
result, and largely augment the supply of food. The
other a;jeiicy — that of immigration, into the country — is how-
ever, for the moment, less active than it has been for several
years; but, with the improvement of trade in the English
manufacturing districts, there is no doubting that the trans-
atlantic exodus will recover its accustomed force. There are
high hopes expressed besides, particularly in Canadian circles,
that the Saskatchewan is about to have its prairies peopled,
and to raise unheard-of quantities of wheat and corn ; but we
shall see hereafter that these expectations are premature.
People will not be found ia any numbers to leave behind them
the plains of Illinois and Iowa, and bear a useless transporta-
tion charge on everything they want and grow, no matter that
the new territory is on British soil. But the aid of that new
and fertile region is not needed to give importance to the fu-
ture greatness of the North American produce trade. That is
established on the surest basis, and if the past is a fair criterion
ot the future, the present annual yield will be fully doubled
before European population has made further perceptible in-
crease.

The next natural feature of importance is the climate. The
Caoadian wiiiter sets ia early, and ia most severe. Early in
November snow begins to fall, and with the exception of a
brief partial thaw in January the snow remains npon the
ground until the early part of April, if not till May. During
the whole of that period there is little wind and little drifting,
and fall crops are therefore well protected from the frost.
Taking thus into accouut the early winter and late spriug iu
Canada, that province may be expected to continue to produce
winter wheat more extensively than other cereals, and to make
comparatively little progress in the cultivation of Indian corn
or oats or barley.

The prairie winter, on the other hand, is not so early nor of
80 long continuance, and there being no sheltering hills nor
forests, the cold arctic blasts of winter sweep across the
country, leaving its surface now aud then exposed to the keen-
est frost. As a consequence, fall crops can only be trusted
after open winters ; and when the weather has been severe,
the judicious farmer either sows out his fields again, or sows
out those portions where the sprouts have been killed. Thus,
whatever the increase from the prairie district, spring crops in
all time must form the staple product, and fall crops be in
precarious and limited supply.

These observations are abundantly borne out by Board of
Trade reports, and by the relative prices paid for wheat grown
in different districts. These prices may be best gathered from
the annual list published by the " New York Journal of Com-
merce," a trustworthy commercial medium.

Prices of Prairie Wheat in New York.

1856. 1S57. 1858.

dol. cuts. dol. cuts. dol. cuts.

Western 1 90 1 58 1 10

Prices of Woodland Wheat in New York.
1856. 1857. 1858.

dols. cnts. dol. cnts. dol. cuts.

Canadian 2 12i 1 75 1 20

Michigan 2 12| 1 75 1 20

Ohio 2 121 1 75 1 15

Southern 2 16 1 75 1 25

The proportion which winter wheat bears to spring wheat at
Chicago, the great western grain market, may be best gathered
from the official weekly statement of the grain in store in that
city. Three weeks at random are as conclusive and far more
intelligible than as many hundreds.

Grain in store at Chicago.

Spring Wheat. Winter Wheat,
bushels. bushels.

1857 .. June 6 .. 168,000 29,000

1857 .. Oct. 17 .. 367,000 32,000

1858 ., Jan. 9 .. 428,000 7,000

The relatively high price of Southern wheat, just quoted, i*
is scarcely necessary to say, is to be attributed tothebett'r
climate, although in some cases the better farming and better
cleansing process of the South make the only difference. The
winter climate of the wheat-growiug districts of the Southern
states is not inferior to the best in Europe; and the spriug
and summer have a vegetative force and dryness not probably
to be fouud elsewhere. The Southern farmer, unlike his North
or North-western neighbour, is litde troubled by the seasons,
but commits his seed at leisure to the ground, and at leisure
reaps at harvest. Not so the Canadian or the Northern or
the prairie farmer. An early frost in autumn may kill or spoil
his crop of Indian corn, or bring autumn sowing prematurely
to a close ; and a wet spring too often leaves insufficient time
to dress and sow with proper care. But, these difficulties not-
withstanding, it ia easy to pick up the choicest small lots of
winter wheat in almost any section of the lakes, aud especii.'ily
in the river counties of Illinois. Indeed, if a report published
by the Illinois Central Railroad Company were to be believed,
there is no wheat grown in Illinois weighing less than 62 lbs.
a bushel ; but that report is made with the view of inducing
immigrants to settle upon railroad lands, and of course is not
of much account. The fact rathtr is, that while there is no
better wheat than some grown in Illinois and the West gene-
rally, there is at the same time some, or rather, a great deal
grown in that district which the trade in Liverpool aud Mark-
lane know as chicken feed or oaty red. Chicago standard
wheat at the present time weighs eOlbs. per imperial bushel ;
but what is known as rejected weighs 401bs. per imperial
bushel only : quite a large deduction from the radroad state-
ment so long foisted on the public. It is right, however, to
remark that Western wheat is badly cleansed, and could easily
be made to weigh more than it does ; but for some time to
come no better cleansing system is likely to be introduced.

Besides the dangers, incident to seed-time and harvest, in
the colder latitudes of North America, there is only through-
out the year six months of open water to the ocean. During
the other six mouths the canals are frozen, and the lakes and
rivers wear the same snowy winter aspect as the land.
Practically, business makes a pause from the middle of
November until the first of May ; and no matter how ur-
gently required, the whole surplus cereal crop is kept from
going forward to consuming points. This is not generally
known to he the case ; and theimportanceof the circumstance,
to the British public, will be spoken of hereafter. People have
been led to understand that Western and Canadian lailrcada
were available for grain transportation to Atlantic ports ; but
such is not the fact, and it is a ques'Jon whether, under the
most economical working system, they can ever be so em-
ployed. In the first place, by common consent, the value of
grain, at the place of growth, is in the main governed by the
cost of transportation by the cheapest means to consuming
points ; aud obviously the cheapest means of transportation ia
by water. If water communication is interrupted during the
winter months, the interruption is a matter of time only, and
time is as susceptible ot being valued for one period as another.
If then, daring winter, other means of transportation than
that of water were sought to be employed, the extra trans-
portation would consist only in the interest of the locked up
capital thereby saved, and nothing more; as obviously it would
be cheaper, otherwise, to hold back grain until the opening of
the water channels of communication in the spring. Now,
that addition to the usual charge by water would yield no
adequate return to vested capital in railroads, and these there-
fore cannot be employed.

In the second place, grain, as compared with other produce,
is ordinarily of little intrinsic value, and excessive transportation
charges in special cases could exercise uo influence on general
values. If Mark-Lane is supplied with wheat from Leith, by

F F 2

422

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

water, at 408. per imperial quarter ; sixty or seventy shilliuga
per quarter could not be afforded for the same wheat if
forwarded to London by special train ; while Lothian cattle
might he sent indifferently from Leith by rail or steamboat, as
taking steamboat risk and time into account, and, above all, the
intrinsic value of the cattle, the railroad transportation would
probably be the cheaper way of sending these to market.

Thus, while cattle, beef, pork, tallow, lard, and hides, and
innumerable other things, are carried eastward by the railroads,
through snowy forests and over snowy plains, the staff of life
is let alone. Now and again, there is a bare margin for job
lots of flour from Chicago to New York, or Boston, or
Montreal ; but scarcely a sack of wheat or corn is ever carried,
during winter, from the region of the lakes to the Atlantic
seaboard.

Further light will, perhaps, be thrown upon this important
question by a few figures. The distance between Chicago and
New York, by railroad, we shall say, is one thousand miles,
and by lake and Erie canal, fifteen hundred miles. During the
past summer, wheat was carried, by lake and canal, from
Chicago to New York, at fifteen cents, or seven pence half-
penny per sixty pounds, and flour at fifty cents, or two shillings
per barrel. By railroad the regular tariff would have been—
wheat fifty cents, or two shillings per bushel of sixty pounds,
and flour one dollar and fifty-five cents, or six shillings and
five-pence halfpenny per barrel.

Or, again: Chicago is one thousand miles distant from New
York by railroad, and fifteen hundred miles by water. The
cost per ton per mile, by railroad, would be three farthings,
and the cost by water one-sixth of a penny only. The cost
of a ton of wheat, flour, or any other thing, by the two
different ways, would have been as follows :

By Railroad.

By Water.

From Chicago to New York. From Chicago to New York,
1.000 miles at Jd. £3 23. 6d. 1,500 miles at ^d., £1 Os. lOd.

The disadvantage of western railroads, in the matter of
transportmg gram to the seaboard, is therefore patent, and
there is little hope of their ever being so employed.

Before leaving this branch of the subject, it is proper to
remark that a pamphlet appeared in Buffalo last summer
directmg the attention of American railroad companies to the
advantage and economy that would result from a railroad clear-
mg house on the English model; and the writer, Mr. Dartnell
went the length of saying, that with a clearing house, American
railroads could compete successfuliyly with water carriage After
what has just been stated, the effort at competition must, iu the
nature of things, be a hopeless one ; and is Mr. Dartnell
not aware that there are insuperable state difficulties, in the
way of securing compulsory united action among American
railroads? In Canada even, everything is so inextricably
interwoven with politics, or political parties, that it is i.ot
obhgatory on one railroad to connect and transport the
passengers and baggage or the freight of any other ; and it
IS questionable whether such a proposition would be entertained
by the provincial Legislature.

The fact then that Western and Canadian railroads can do
r .u ^^.^r""^"'.^' ^^^ development of the agricultural resources
of the West, further than transport immigrants and baggaee
the question naturally arises. What is to be done ? The enlarge-
ment of the Erie, the WeUand, and the St. Lawrence canals •
the construction of the Caughnawagna to connect the waters of
the St. Lawrence with the Hudson river ; the opening of the
Uttawa into Lake Huron, and the connection of Lake Ontario
with the Georgian Bay ;-the3e, all of these together, can do
nothing, when perfected, towards the movement of a siuE-Ie bajr
of wheat to the Atlantic seaboard, after the 15th November
when insurances expire upon the lakes. The Victoria bridge at
Montreal, that other leviathan of British folly, is to be more
powerless even than the frozen lakes and rivers; and at some

w ?• «n'T'''^''u^?"'P^ '"'*' ^^^ ^'""^ «^ ''""ger, while the
West is filled with plenty, must we wait contentedly for bread

r»u i ?J'* "'''"' *''*'"'' "^ ^"'"«'^ ^" l^^n warmed and
melted in the summer sun.

whTif /f •* "^^'"'''^ ^'^^""'^ °^ ^^^ ^"'^^ American continent,
Which It 18 necessary to name in this connection, is the great

WtTlhc'sTw"^ ^^'"" the Gulf of the St. Lawrfnce

in the Rockv Molr-^" ^''i'\''. »''"'•.'=*« "^ t''° Mi88our
m we Rocky Mountains, «»d diverginif wutbward into

one great trunk stream: mingling the waters of the St.
Lawrence and the Mississippi, in the Gulf of Mexico.

ihe hue of this watercourse is easily traced upon the
map beginning either with the Gulf of the St. Lawrence or
the Oult ot Mexico. Starting from the latter, and following
the course of the Mississippi some thirteen hundred miles,
we reach the broad outline of a navigable river, winding
round the extreme southern point of the State of Illinois,
and forming the line of separation between Kentucky and
that State. Leaving the Missisippi, and following the
course of that river— the Ohio— we find it skirting Indiana
and Ohio, and separating these States from Kentucky and
Virginia, and ultimately, by canals, forming connections
with Lake Erie. The principal rivers discharging into the
Ohio are the Cumberland and the Tennessee, both of which
open up Kentucky to the river trade, and the Wabash,
which IS navigable for nearly four hundred miles along the
boundary line of Illinois and Indiana. Mr. Ellet, in his re-
port to Congress, says, that by the outlay of a few million
dollars in the improvement of the channels of the Missis-
sippi and Ohio rivers, large ocean ships could find their way
to Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania, a river distance, inland, of
over two thousand miles. As it is, the whole country
beyond Pittsburgh to Lake Erie, and the country watered
by the Wabash, and the other rivers of the Ohio, are alike
tributary to New Orleans, and numerous well appointed
fleets ot steam-boats bear testimony to the existence of an
enormous trade.

Returning to the Mississippi, we reach the confluence of
the Missouri, some two hundred miles higher up than
Cairo. The Missouri, at that point, forms by far the
most lengthened and important arm of the Mississippi,
and that circumstance has led travellers to express regret
that Missouri has not been the name ol the great trunk
river. That, however, is a small matter, but points to the
magnitude of the almost unknown region, watered by the
Missouri and its numerous tributaries. It has been said
that the Missouri forms a junction with the Mississippi,
after three thousand miles meandering from its sources
in the Rocky Mountains, and opens to all but uninterrupted
navigation two thousand five hundred miles of fertile coun-
ty. The principal tributaries are the White Earth, the
Yellow Stone, the Platte, the Kansas, and the Osage ; and
in congressional reports, the whole area drained by the Mis-
souri, back from the junction with the Mississippi, is said to
be in the neighbourhood of six hundred thousand square miles.
The Mississippi, above the confluence of the Missouri, is
said, on the same authority, to drain 184,500 square miles ;
and 13 fed by the Illinois, the Des Moiues, the St. Croix, and
innumerable other navigable riverf , which rise in Iowa, Wis-
consiu, and Minnesota. Short portagea, it is scarcely neces-
sary to say, connect the Upper Mississippi with the Red River
of the north, Lake Winnepeg, and the Saskatchewan— water-
courses which perhaps drain a greater and not lees fertile area
than the united areas of the Missouri and Upper Mississippi.
Thus the most fertile portion of the North American Con-
tinent—the north, west, and south— is traversed by innume-
rable great rivers, all of which, ultimately at least, will unite
their waters in the channel of the Mississippi ; and when that
channel has attracted the capital and ingenious resource of the
United States, the largest ships afloat, not excepting the Great
Eastern, may safely steam two thousand miles, or more, inland
from the Gulf of Mexico.*

* I.— Extreme Depths of the Mississippi in the

High Water of 1850.
Points of ohservation — Yeet

Cape Girardeau, about 1^ mile above 66 5

Above mouth of the Ohio River, about t»o miles. . 775
At M'Master's plantation, about 11 miles below

New Orleans 1000

Sauve's plantation, above the crevasse 1350

Under the Bluffs, Grand Gulf [ 200 0

II.— Section op the Mississippi between Banks.

IN THE High Water of 1850.
Points of ohservation — Feet.

Below mouth of the Ohio River, about 1 mile . . 235-333

Below Memphis, half a mile ,, 143 212

Average Section from the mouth of the Ohio to

New Orleans (thirty different observations) . , 200000
•^hUeCs Copgremoncl Report,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

423

Following down the line of the Upper Mississippi upon the
map, at a abort distance higher up than Alton and St. Louis,
the Illinois River forms a junction with the Mississippi. Fol-
lowing the course of that river to La Salle, the line becomes
fainter, and extends to Chicago, at the head of Lake Michigan.
That faiutness is meant to mark the Illinois and Michigan!
Canal, which connects the Illinois River with Lake Michgan —
the waters of the St. Lawrence with the waters of the Mis-
sissippi.

At Chicago we reach the present head of the navigation of
the eastern section of the great North American watercourse :
and subsequent remarks have special reference to this perhaps
arbitrary division of the country, which it will be desirable to
keep in view.

Passing along Lake Michigan we reach Sault St. Marie, and
enter Lake Superior. Glancing westward from the head of
Lake Superior, a bend of the Mississippi is in close proximity,
and distant only forty miles. Water communication formed
across that neck of land, the question then is, whether the
trade of Lake Superior will pass towards the Gulf of Mexico
or towards the St. Lawrence ? and, water communication formed
between the Mississippi and the Red River, will the trade of
the new British settlement seek the one seaboard route or the
other ? This is not the place to answer ; and it is enough to
point out the new connections that will probably at some
future day be formed.

Leaving Sault St. Marie, and keeping close to the Mani-
touliu shore, and the British side, we enter the Georgian Bay.
To the north of the Georgian Bay the French River leads to
Lake Nipissing ; Lake Nipissing to the Ottawa River, and the
Ottawa River to the vicinity of Montreal, by a saving in dis-
tance of several hundred miles. It is proposed to adapt that
channel to the lake shipping trade, with the view of shortening
the distance to the seaboard, and carrying produce past the
Erie Canal and New York. Somewhat lower down the
Georgian Bay, the Severn River is observed connecting with
Lake Simcoe, and it is proposed to form a canal from that lake
to Lake Ontario, either by way of Toronto or Peterborough.
A canal across that neck of land would cut off the circuit by
Lake Erie and the Welland Canal, and still give produce the
choice of markets at Buffalo, Oswego, or Montreal.

Passing from the Georgian Bay we enter Lake Huron, the
river and Lake St. Clair, and Lake Erie. At the western ex-
tremity of Lake Erie we find the Ohio Canal, leading to the
Mississippi, and offering thereby the choice of markets south,
at New Orleans. Towards the eastern extremity of Lake Erie
we find Buffalo, the western end of the well-known Erie Canal,
which opens to western produce a cheap through means of
transportation to New York. To the left of Buffalo a neck of
land is observable between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and
through that neck the Welland Canal extends. The great
object of that canal was to divert Western trade, past Buffalo
towards the lower British port of Montreal. Down Lake On-
tario, and towards the middle of the Southern shore, we reach
Oswego, an American port, to which there is a branch of the
Erie Canal. Passing from Lake Ontario we enter the St.
Lawrence River proper, pass the confluence of the Ottawa,
and come to the city of Montreal. Before reaching Montreal
we pass the village of Caughnawagna, from which a canal has
been projected to Lake Champlain — a little eastward — and
Albany ; or rather to the Hudson river. The object of that
canal is the diversion of Western produce from Chicago and
other ports, through the British canals, rather than through
those of the United States ; but the project is not likely to
be speedily entertained. At Montreal — of course we do not
sea it on the map — the Victoria Bridge crosses the St. Law-
rence river, and presents one more competing channel for the
transportation of passengers, merchandise, and produce, east
and west. Lower down the St. Lawrence we pass Quebec ;
and finally approach the gulf and the Atlantic ocean.

The distances from one point to another of the Eastern and
Southern sections of the watercourse may be briefly summed,
viz., thus :

Eastern Section.

1. From Chicago to New York, by way of the Lakes to
Buffalo, the Erie Canal, and the Hudson River, 1,418 miles.

2. From Chicago to New York, by way of the Lakes and
Welland Canal to Oswego, and thence by the Erie Canal and
tha Hudson River, 1,410 miles.

S. From Chicago to New York, by way of the Lakes, the

Welland Canal, the St. Lawrence, the Caughnawagna, and
Champlain canals, and Hudson River, 1,632 miles.

4. From Chicago to Montreal, by the lakes and canals,
1,278 miles. — Mc. Alpine's Report.

Southern Section.

1. From Cairo to New Orleans, by river, 1,040 miles.

2. From St. Louis to New Orleans, by river, 1,212 miles.

3. From Chicago to St. Louis, by Illinois and Michigan
Canal and Illinois River, 326 miles.

4. From Chicago to St. Louis, by railroad, 283 miles.

5. From Chicago to New Orleans, by Illinois and Michigan
Canal and Illinois and Mississippi rivers, 1,538 miles.

6. From Chicago to New Orleans, by railroad to St. Louis,
and from St. Louis to Mississippi river, 1,495 miles. — Colton's
distances.

Having thus gone through what has been termed the natural
characteristics of the North American continent, it remains to
turn to the characteristics of the business system.

To that end it will scarcely be considered necessary to go so
far back as the formation of the Federal Government; but as
the state of the union at the present day is very much anala-
gous to what it then was — in fact, to what it was in colonial
times — the clearest, and at the same time the most fundamental
illustration would otherwise be lost. In colonial times a com-
munity was formed ; that community received additions to its
numbers, both from natural increase and from immigration ;
and in turn that community formed the nucleus of others.
That is to say, people left the first-formed towns and hamlets,
and settled on the verge, if not altogether outside the limits,
of civilization among the Indians ; and what one day was out-
side the limits of civilization was inside on another. Civili-
zation at the earliest period of colonial history was an ad-
ancing line, driving back barbarism, and such it is just now ;
and since the earlier movements it has made great progress.

On this theory, much more than is involved in the
business system of the North American continent could be
accounted for. People, or rather the superabundant population,
of the older states and provinces, moved simultaneously from
every section upon a given point or district. Each person
was strange to the other; no restraint was known nor
recognized, but the loose provisions of the loosest law ; and
all were bent on making money. San Francisco, New
Orleans, Chicago, and other cities that might be named, are
examples of what obtains to a greater or less extent through-
out the whole country. There is little confidence between
man and man, and what would be regarded in England as odd, if
not irregular and absurd, in the way of business, is necessarily
resorted to, both in the British provinces and the United
States. For example : A stranger from the country goes to
New York to buy goods. He goes into a dry goods or
grocery, or other store, and says he comes from such and such
a place. Perhaps that place is Chicago, and perhaps the
parties called on — as many New Yorkers have done of late —
have made up their minds to sell nothing west of Buffalo ;
and of course, no trade takes place. Supposing, however,
that the parties called on have no such rule ; then the stranger
is asked about his means, extent of business, and so on ; and
his statement is written down in a book for that special
purpose, and signed by him. His order is then taken : but,
before being filled, Douglas' agency or McKillop's is visited
by the merchant. He tells the story of his customer, and
finds whether there is aught against his name in the place he
comes from. If the register is clean, the goods are sent
away ; but if misrepresentation has been made, the transaction
drops, and the country customer may be passed over to
a magistrate. Should misrepresentation be discovered after
the goods have been sent away, and payment not be forth-
coming at the promised time, criminal process may then issue,
on the written statement under which the goods were sold.
This practice is not altogether peculiar to the country trade,
but obtains also in the local trade of the large business cities ;
and to such method has business been reduced in New York,
that bill brokers have been able to publish public annual
volumes, with lists of city merchants' names, giving the extent
to which each may be safely trusted, and the market discount
at which each name is taken on bills of exchange.

Such a style of business looks well on paper, and while it
may be the best that could be practised in a new country, the
system bears no comparison, in point of safety, to the open

424

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

self-relying English practice. No matter how full the register
of Douglas or McKillop, no matter what their means of
information — business conducted by virtue of their record, or
their judgment, is like service performed by a substitute ;
and proverbially if things are wanted to be done well they
must not be left to be done by others. The English merchant,
or his representative, trusts nobody ; but sees the business of
his customer, makes inquides, and forma opinions for himself:
and, if dow and then he is taken in, the circumstance leads to
circumspection in the future ; and little noise transpires. The
American business mechanism, although unsuited to the
domestic English trade, cannot be too freely used in
transactions with parties at the other side ; as any house in
bad repute, or unknown to the agencies, should, as a matter of
business-principle, be let alone.

The peculiar unknown elements of the North American
commercial class secure footing for great numbers of mere
adventurers. The run of these cannot possibly be kept by
the shrewdest agency ; and crowds of men, of whom nothing
can be learned, infest, and often rule, the stock and corn
exchange, and other marts of trade. These men of no
reputation— and no doubt, in the majority of cases, of no
means— lose nothing by unfortunate reckless trading ; but have
the certamty of making money, if thev start the market, and
sell out to those who must foot the bill. Strange to say the
law sustains, or rather does not extinguish, such a system, and
such a f lass. Not to meet engagements when these mature
13 certainly no crime in the United States, and too often is
lightly thought of in the American dependencies of the
British crown ; and even when circumstances or convenience
oblige a man to burst, he has no bankrupt law to face.
Assignment directly to a friend, or indirectly to a wife, stops
all process ; and by-and-by defaulters make another start,
among old friends, if they can do better by movinsr
elsewhere.

The banking class, perhaps, more than any other, is made
up of such nondescripts; and in the West particularly, so well
IS the art of money making understood, that people usually
look out every season for banking houses suspending tem-
porarily when the fall business is fairly over. To constitute an
American banker, nothing more is needed than showy pre-
mises, a few clerks, and some small notes and change in the
window. Instances have been brought to light where young
banking houses have had the window funds on loan, with the
understanding that the lender should share all business profits.
Not necessarily being an issuer of notes, an American banker
may confine his business to deposits, discounting bills, and
negotiating real estate, and the foola not being all dead yet, a
safe lucrative business is set agoing.

To issue notes some State forms have usuftlly to be observed,
and if It 13 obligatory that the notes should be secured by
State bonds, or otherwise the possession of these bonds becomes
the first care of intending plunderers, and occasionally the
means employed for that end excel every other form of
knavery. Usually, or rather invariably, the promoters of a
new bank are interested in some others, some thousand miles
away, and the notes of these, which stand at par in the
note reporters', are employed to buy the stocks. The bank
then opens ; scatters its issues as far away as possible, and
deposits soon supply sufficient capital to refund advances and
furnish funds to make the speculation pay.

In the west particularly it is a well acknowledged fact that
legitimate trade has no assistance and almost no convenience
—unless the privilege of depositing money is considered such
—the great mission of the banking system being to promote
improvements and give value to real estate. Occasions in-
numerable could be adduced wherein the arm of productive
laoour has stayed its functions ; wherein general business has
been paralyzed, and hungry thousands turned upon the streets
because legitimate banking business would not be done That
and other evils of the system have been noticed in the last
and previous messages of the President of the United States;
and until Congress can so far infringe the sovereignty of the
individual States as to provide general banking and bankrupt
laws, American trade and banking swindlers will remain un-
punished.

*\,\°^^ ^^^^^, ''apitat'ons it is scarcely necessary to relieve
lenS"*^.''*''" **! ^'^ ^°''' ^"d other eastern States, as
generally inferior m cha acter and business system to the best

in Europe. But these form a mere fraction of the whole, and
their very virtues are a standing condemnation of the other's sin.
Canada must also be exempted from the more strictly
western censure, as there " shiuplaster" notes are at least
unknown. There also banking capital is in the main em-
ployed in strictly business ways, although there is much to
reform in the distribution of banking favours. A man of
business, to get on in Canada, is too much under the necessity
of being a bank proprietor, if not director, or the friend of
either; and so long as that state of things continues, little
comparative progress can be made in the development and
building up of provincial trade.

PRODUCTIONS AND PECULIARITIES OF
THE NORTH AMERICAN WATERCOURSES.
In the previous communication the great watercourse of the
North American continent was divided into two sections — the
first embracing the Mississippi river and its tributaries ; the
second embracing the lakes and the St. Lawrence river : St.
Louis the centre point and shipping port of the one ; and
Chicago the centre point and shipping port of the other. It
is now proposed to enumerate the productions of both sections,
and to speak of some of the peculiarities of the trade in the
different articles.

Beginning with New Orleans, the first consideration is the
imports and exports of that city, and these are furnished by
the New Orleans Price Current, under the auspices of the
Board of Trade.

Statement of the principal grain receipts at New Orleans, from
the interior, for the years ending 1st September: —

Wheat. Flour. Corn.

Barrels and sacks. Barrels. Sacks.

1858 401,000 1,538,000 1,289 000

1857 775,000 1,290,000 1,437,000

1856. ....... 869,000 1,120,000 1,990,000

Statement of the principal grain exports from New Orleans,
September 1, 1857, to July 1, 1858—

Flour. Corn.

Barrels. Sacks.

New York 127,600 73,400

Boston 230,200 26,400

Philadelphia — 3 500

Other United States ports. . 164,500 209^500

Great Britain. 264,000 398,800

France and continent .... 94,400 —

Cuba 3,200 90,800

Other foreign ports 118,500 30,400

1,002,400 832,800

The supplies of New Orleans are chiefly furnished by St.
Louis and Cincinnati. Cairo and Alton of southern Illinois,
and Louisville of Kentucky, are however large contributories.
But New Orleans does not receive the whole Ohio river and
upper Mississippi river shipments : a considerable portion goes
from Memphis by railway to Charleston and Savannah. The
total southern grain movement from St. Louis and Cincinnati
and the other ports of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers may be
summed up thus for 1857 —

Exported from Flour. Wheat. Corn.

Barrels. Bushels. Bushels.

St. Louis 845,600.. 1,331,400.. 859,200

Cincinnati 416,700.. 394,900.. 162,900

Otherports 631,100.. 863,100.. 511,000

Total movement aouth 1,893,400 2.589,400 1.533,100

New York and Montreal form the Atlantic outlets of the
eastern section of the watercourse ; and no account being ac-
cessible of the railway traffic from Buffalo and other points,
the tidewater receipts at Albany represent the eastern move-
ment towards New York ; and the movement towards Montreal
is borne on the returns of the trade and navigation of the pro-
vince.

Statement of tidewater receipts at Albany, from the opening
to the closing of the canal :—
Flour. Wheat. Corn.

Barrels. Bushels. Bushels.

1857.... 835,500 5,763,400 5.515.900

1856.... L130,500 11,776,300 9,587,700

1855 ... , 1,290,100 5,426,200 9,343,700

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

425

Rye. Barley, Oats.

Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

1857.... 169,400 1,727,200 2,966,300

1856.... 1,285,500 2,082,800 6,060,800

1855.... 632,300 1,674,400 4,537,000

Statement of receipts at Montreal, from the lake and river dia-

tricte, by canal and river and Grand Trunk Railroad : —
Flour. Wheat. Corn.

Barrels. Bushels. Bushels.

1857.... 637.000 1,708,900 383,100

1856.... 712,000 1,546,300 637,900

The supplies at tidewater and at Montreal are chiefly fur-
nished by Chicago and Mi'waukie, and the other ports of
Lake Michigan ; the quantity supplied by Detroit and Canada
West being comparatively trifling. The whole surplus of the
eastern section does not, however, find its way to these two
points, but the numerous railroads from Lake Erie and Lake
Ontario share to some extent in the distribution on the At-
lantic seaboard. The total eastern grain movement from
Chicago and other ports may be summed up thus —

1857. Other

Flour. Wheat. Corn. Grain.

Received at Barrels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.
Western terminus,

Baltimore and

OhioRaUroad..426,801.. — .. — .. 256,183
Western terminus,

Pensylvanian

Central 351,011.. — .. — .. 206,793

Dunkirk 354,072.. 93,443.. 114,052.. —

Buffalo 925,411.. 8,383,815.. 5,720,413.. 1,321,406

Su8pen8ionBridgel80,194.. 148,138,. — .. —

Oswego 101,363.. 5,353,026.. 2,003,992.. 370,249

Ogdensburg.... 361,578.. 598,523.. 517.076.. 14,740
Cape Vmcent,... 60.472.. 477,375.. 40,537,, 49,408
Montreal 637,052.. 1,708,965.. 383,162.. 38,165

Total eastwards 3,397,954 16,763,285 8,779,832 2,256,944
The aggregate Western grain movement, east and south, so
far as it can be ascertained, amounts therefore to some sixty
million bushels.

1857. Other

Flour. Wheat. Corn. Grain.

Barrels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels.

Eastward. . . . 3,397,954, . 16,763,285, . 8,779,832. . 2,256,944

Southward.. .1,893,400.. 2,589,400.. 1,533,100.. —

Total move-
ment .... 5,291,354 19,352,685 10,512,932 2,256,944
If, in connexion with these general statements of the move-
ment of produce east and south, we take the special cases of
the trade of St. Louis and Chicago, it will be easy to arrive at
something like a comprehensive idea of the character of western
trade, and to estimate, with something like exactness, the par-
ticular transit course which ultimately that trade must take.

St. Louis, as has been already stated, is situated on the Mis-
sissippi river, about midway between the confluence of the
Ohio and the confluence of the Missouri. The junction of the
last-named river is only a short distance higher up, and St.
Louis forms therefore the natural connecting link between the
country watered by the Missouri and its tributaries, and New
York and New Orleans. The merchant at Council Blufl^s does
not generally buy dry goods, or groceries, or hardware on
the eastern or southern seaboard, but almost invariably at
St. Louis ; and the Missouri river merchant, or agriculturist,
seldom thinks of sending grain or produce elsewhere. For
many years to come this will continue to be the case, as St.
Louis, unlike other growing western cities, has not wasted an
undue proportion of its income in speculative, unproductive,
purchases of land, but has given to business its first and
greatest care.

In 1855 and 1856 (no later account published) the grain re-
ceipts at St. Louis from the Missouri river were as follows : —
1855. 1856.

Flour barrels 6,120 4,745

Wheat sacks 129,920 232,731

„ barrels 498 822

Corn sacks 14,487 7,574

Oats „ 1,409 5,331

A short distance higher up the Mississippi than the con-

fluence of the Missouri, the Ulinoiu river opens up to the St.
Louis trade perhaps the most fertile aud best cultivated portion
of Illinois; and between the Illinois-river towns and St.
Louis there are numerous well-appointed steamers for the con-
veyance of freight and passengers. The steam-boat distance
from St. Louis to the head of the Illinois river is two hundred
and twenty-six miles, and the canal distance from the head of
the Illinois river to Chicago is one hundred miles ; and St.
Louis has therefore the control of rather more than two-thirds
of the navigation between the Mississippi and the head of the
Lake Michigan, at Chicago. Due consideration has not hi-
therto been given to this advantage which St. Louis has in the
diversion of Illinois produce from its Chicago rival. St. Louis
is situated to drain the produce of two-thirds of the interior
of Illinois, not by canal boat drawn by horses, but by river
steamers ; and Chicago is situated to drain only one hundred
miles of the same district, and that by horse canal, which every
now and then gives way, and temporarily puts a stop to busi-
ness operations. In 1855 and 1856 (no later account pub-
lished) the grain receipts at St. Louis, from the Illinois river,
were as follows : — 1855. 1856.

Flour barrels 51,188 45,755

Wheat sacks 698,336 594,434

„ barrels 13,152 2,044

Corn sacks 956,351 216,376

Oats „ 389,705 152,623

Beyond the confluence of the Illinois river the Mississippi
stretches north to the neighbourhood of the Red River and
Lake Superior, and receives the waters of numerous tributaries.
Produce grown on the borders of the Upper Mississippi, above
the confluence of the Illinois, cannot in the nature of things
be moved cheaper than upon the river in the direction of St,
Louis, and St, Louis stands thus in precisely the same relation
to the Upper Mississippi as it does to the Illinois river and
the Missouri. Should the Mississippi become connected with
the Red River and the Saskatchewan, still the most available
and cheapest route for the British settlers to move produce to
the seaboard would be by the Mississippi river to St. Louis ;
and should the Mississippi become connected with Lake Su-
perior no distributing influence would be introduced, as mere
distance would be outweighed by considerations of another
kind, which will be adverted to hereafter. In 1855 and 1856
(no later account published) the grain receipts at St. Louis
from the Upper Mississippi were as follows : —

1855. 1856.

Flour barrels 273,378 227,361

Wheat sacks 878,997 863,336

„ barrels 1,956 436

Corn sacks 336,727 245,328

Oats „ 557,932 ...... 298,879

Besides being most favourably situated for receiving sup-
plies of produce by the Missouri, from the interior of Illinois,
by the Illinois river, and from the Upper Mississippi by the
river of that name, St. Louis is also as favourably situated,
with respect to railroads, as any other western city. The St,
Louis, Alton, and Chicago Railroad is laid down in the vicinity
of the lUincis river, from Chicago to St, Louis ; the Terre
Haute and Alton Railroad, from the Wabash, across the State
of Illinois, to the same point ; and the Ohio and Mississippi
Railroad, in the same direction, from the same river, but lower
down. These railroads intersect the Illinois Central, both the
branch and trunk lines, and connect with all the railroads of
Illinois, and thereby give to St. Louis the control of the pro-
duce of Illinois, On the other hand , the Pacific and the North
Missouri Railroads give promise, at no remote period, to bring
forward large supplies of produce from the interior of Missouri
and the contiguous States, These contiguous States are yet
in infancy, scarcely producing beyond their own wants ; and a
few years must intervene before their yield attracts much
notice. The following were the grain receipts at St. Louis
from these different railroads for the year ending Decem-
ber, 1857 :—
Railroad receipts of Flour at St. Louis, 1857.

Barrels.

By Chicago and Alton Railroad 9,900

„ Terre Haute and Alton do 38,700

„ Ohio and Mississippi do 21,600

„ Pacific do 5,800

„ North Pacific do 4,700

80,700

Sacks.

2,500

32,700

17,800

53,000

426

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Railroad receipts op Wheat at St. Louis, 1857.

Sacks (2 bushels).

By Chicago and Alton Railroad 62,000

„ Terre Haute and Alton do 32 JOO

„ Ohio and Mississippi do 4l[600

» Pacific do 28!oOO

„ North Pacific do 27,400

191,700
railroad receipts op Corn at St. Louis, 1857.
„ „, . , Sacks (2 bushels).

By Chicago and Alton Railroad 30,300

„ Terre Haute and Alton do. .... .. 12,200

„ Ohio and Mississippi do 6,500

„ Pacific do l'bOO

„ North Pacific do 4 200

Tu . ■ . 55,000

The aggregate grain receipts at St. Louis, in 1857, were the
lollowing :—

Flour barrels 458,981

» sacks 46,523

Wheat „ 1,421,990

" barrels 1,791

" bushels 34,200

Corn gacks 1,143,414

" barrels 198,958

Oats sacks 563,530

" bushels 90,827

Tae aggregate grain shipments from St. Louis to New Or-
leans, m 1856, no later account published, were the follow-
ing :—

-|]'oii* barrels 845,600

Ty heat sacks 1,331.400

^°"i „ 859,200

rfl 7n^ u*^- f""'' "^''y manufacture of flour, in 1856, was
678,495 barrels. '

Chicago as has been already stated, stands at the
head of the navigation of Lake Michigan, and con-
nects with the Illinois nver and the Mississipp by the Illi-
nois and Michigan Canal. Unlike St. Louis, the Illinois
and Michigan canal is the onlv water tributary of the Chi-
cago produce trade Not one great river flows into Lake
Michigan, and each and all of its important towns and cities
owe their present and prospective greatness to the railroads
Be ore the railroad era, the shores of Lake Michigan were
little ^aslted and thinly settled ; and since then people have
flocked to them in crowds, and built villages, towns, and
cities, the public and private edifices and streets of some of
which are not surpassed in Europe. With the destruction
ot the railroad interest, or with its produce-carrying diverted
into other channels, existing industries would receive a fatal
blow, and the people be obliged to move elsewhere, or to
make their living in a difl^erent way. Railroads first gave
marketable value to the unlimited supply of western lands •

n^trntrr^f'"^/^.^^',*;^"^?"' ^""^ "°^« efficient mean;
of transit, land and its collateral offshoots must necessarily
decline in value. ^oa.n^

These are not unadvised remarks. Traverse the Illinois
and A\isconsin shore of Lake Michigan, or, what is more
go_ inland some distance from the shore; and it is quite sur-
ciiltlvffS^' S' f^^-'"'^'- f nd the plough, and the fenced and
cultivated field are so seldom met with. Everywhere throuah-
out the district there is abundant evidence that land is held
for higher purposes than cultivation. Outside of every little
knot of country-houses new streets are graded, and survey-
ors rods and poles scattered round ; and in the vicinity of
the larger towns immense tracks remain uncultivated, in the

SSr'rh-'"''"'^^ '' ^^''\ '^'y ^^''i be required to
build upon. Chicago, for example, which some day or other
may turn out to have a much less population than is gene-
thit.'l PPf^r"^'.^'' '''f'y ^'™^'^ ^^''^ °"' «" somethinllfke
esteeme'd th."t ri '"'^'' ""^ "'^r^^' ^'' contiguouslands
Cincbnati -ind 'S f ^° ^^supplied with vegetables from
v^incinnatidnd St. Louis. Vegetables can be raised not
rl'.-r T'^' ^"* '^ the highest perfection with n heChi-
Sh ^ '""'\?,*^°"^'^'^'^ the limits also; but hitherto
profit tothe'mark^'^ ""' '^ ^'^^ a price to yield suf^c e t

In short, until the railroad period, the eastern section of
the State of Illinois was in bad repute, and immigrants
preferred settling on lands contiguous to the Mississippi or
the Illinois; and in those days people settled down to
work, and to turn the prairie to some account. These agri-
cultural beginnings grew apace, and to the unwearied in-
f l^r,? °{ the early river settlers the grain-producing name
ot Illinois 18 wholly owing. The other sections of the
State only now begin to attract attention, and to be made
available by local railroad transit ; and while making rapid
'"^Sricultural progress, the earlier settled districts receive
additions to their working hands, and break up prairie in an
undiminished greater ratio.

Of the twelve most thickly settled counties i.f Illinois,
the W estern and Eastern sections have the following popu-

Western. Intermediate. Eastern.

Peoria 1,031* Winnebago.... 830 Cook.. 2,396

Adams.... 937 — Kane.. 1,049

Madison ..918 _ McHenry 878

St. Clair ..916 — _

Rock Island 862 — _

Knox 843 _ _

lo Davis . . 822

Morgan ..830 _ _

* Inhabitants to the square mile— State Census, 1855.

These western counties are of the early character just
spoken of; five of them skirting the Mississipi, and three—
Peoria, Knox, and Morgan— contiguous to the Illinois. The
eastern counties embrace Chicago and the town and village
populations that clusterround that city. These latter are more
mechanical or speculative in their avocations than the others ;
and although M'Henry is the greatest wheat-producing
county in the state, the agricultural class are but a fraction
of the whole. In the western counties it is otherwise. There
the people are not crowded up in large communities, but
are scattered, and agriculture is the occupation of the
mass.

The following is the wheat and corn production of these
twelve counties— Census, 1850:

. Wheat. Corn.

VVestem Counties. bush. bush

^eoria ]85,000 1,013,000

<Vaams 502,000 2,092,000

Madison gg^oOO 1,153,000

|t-9^air . 224,000 1,102,000

Rock Island 83,000 21 5,000

J^»ox 210,000 1,570,000

ij i^avis 207,000 220,000

Morgan gi^oOO 2,693,000

Intermediate County.

Winnebago 316,000 281,000

Eastern Counties.

^J^°^ 2.38,000 429,000

^/'J! 316,000 337,000

McHenry 562,000 301,000

These are important considerations, and what applies to
Illinois applies to Wisconsin also.

^ The great producing districts are thus contiguous to the
Mississippi ; and to move produce to Lak.^ Michigan, is to
divert It from an available and open watercourse, and to incur
expensive rai road transit. And further, those sections of
Illinois and Wisconsin opened up by railroads are as conti-
guous to the Mississippi as to the lakes. Which course,
ttieu, will VV estern produce take in future '

The Grand Trunk Railroad Company, and the advocates
the Erie Canal and St. Lawrence routes, have evidently
not thought deeply on this subject, but have concluded that,
as Western trade has taken the Chicago and Milwaukie
channels, it will there remain. Such will likely be the case
until Americans themselves, if not the capitalists of Europe,
are informed of theanomalous state of things that now obtains,
and then it is more than likely that the route offering the
clieapest and most convenient means of transit will be chosen,
i hat tfie Mississipi is the cheapest and the shortest route
13 manifest from the fact that the growing districts are upon
Its banks, that railroad transit is not required, and that St
Louis is nearer to New Orleans than Chicago is to New

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

427

York. Above all, when the lakes and canals are closed for
the winter months, the Missisissippi still continues open •,
and that Western produce, for whose transit the Grand
Trunk Railroad, and Canada, and New York have spent
so much, may take to itself wings, and flee away. Let
another period of scarcity occur in Europe, and Americans
and Europeans will appear in Illinois ; and while the lakes,
and the St. Lawrence, and the Erie canal are ice-bound, the
railroads of Illinois, and Wisconsin, and Missouri, will be
used to drain that produce (upon which the hopes of Canada
and New York depend) to the shipping ports of Cairo and
St. Louis ; and not only will scarcity in Europe be provided
for six months sooner than would have been the case before,
but the general supply of food will be more fully equalized
among the consuming masses of America and Europe.

But, returning to the question, it may be asked why trade
has taken the Chicago route, instead of that by the Missis-
sippi, when the latter is the best ? Happily that question
can be answered. St. Louis hitherto has maintained a high
standard for every kind of cereal product, and Chicago has
practically had no standard of any kind. As a consequence,
Chicago has been a ready market for every kind of produce,
good or bad, while St. Louis has restricted its receipts to
special kinds. That is the secret of the course of trade being
in the one direction, in place of being in the other. Western
farmers and country merchants were, to a large extent, de-
barred from St. Louis, even though adjacent to it ; aad in send-
ing stuff to Chicago, they could not help themselves. Here is
a plain illustration of the case, and of the point involved.
The produce of the Scotch herring fisheries does not find its way
to London, as Londoners prefer herrings cured in a different
way, if not different herrings altogether; and although Scotch
fishing stations are nearer to London than to the German or
the Russian ports, still the herrings find their way to the
latter. Surely, from such a circumstance, it could never be
inferred that Stettin or Riga is nearer Peterhead than London
is, or that the Scotch herring trade could not, under any cir-
cumstances, be diverted into Bilhngsgate. Just so with
Western trade. The existence of the Mississippi route has
been uniformly ignored ; and if ever spoken of, the most dis-
paraging terms of imsuitableness aad inferiority have been
used ; and no man has yet been bold enough to call in ques-
tion the universally received opinion that no change whatever
is to be apprehended in the course of Western trade. Chicago
is universally regarded as the entrepot of the great North-
west, and people are only busied helping forward the most
stupendous schemes of shortening distance between Chicago
and the Atlantic seaboard.

But strange to say, that policy to which Chicago owes the

growth of its produce trade is being departed from. For the
past year or more, repeated efforts have been made to establish
grades of wheat, and corn, and flour ; but every effort hitherto
has failed. No sooner was it determined that wheat and corn
of a particular quality should form "standard," than dis-
satisfaction was expressed, and modification of some kind or
other speedily introduced. The last change provides for the
measured bushel being weighed, and standard wheat is classed
at sixty pounds per imperial bushel; and whether this last de-
termination of the Board of Trade is likely to be observed
for any length of time, it is needless in this connection to
inquire ; but the tendency to an adoption of the exclusive
system is very manifest.

The Chicago people are not satisfied to be the mere medium
of communication for so many million bushels of grain per
annum, but are to insist hereafter that each kind of grain be
equal to a given weight ; and the object of that rule, be it ob-
served, is not to measure values more closely than before (as
no such rule obtains in Buffalo, Oswego, or New Yoik, where
Chicago grain is sent), but to oblige farmers to bring better
stuff to market. Here, in England, it has always been believed
that the farmer was more interested than other people in the
quality of his own crop ; but it would seem to be otherwise in
Illinois. There, the farmer appears to be standing in his own
light — perhaps growing spring wheat when he should be grow-
ing winter, or growing light wheat when he should be growing
heavy, aud, besides giving a bad name to Chicago grain, he
does not seem to make the profit from his occupation that he
should do. These mistakes the action of the Chicago Board
of Trade designs to remedy; overlooking, however, the im-
portant fact that the previous similar action of the St. Louis
Board of Trade was the main condition of the development of
Chicago trade at all. St. Louis did in effect what Chicago now
attempts to do, and instead of no more inferior Western wheat
and corn being produced, and no more inferior wheat being
manufactured into flour, the settler on the banks of the
Mississippi continued to break up and crop prairie in snch
way as his circumstances would afford, and the miller never
turned grist from his mill-door. The result was, that the pro-
duce rejected by St. Louis found another market — at Chicago
— and instead of all the best lots going to the one market, and
the inferior lots to the other, the bad and good in general
went together : and while produce receipts at New Orleans
have been stationary for the past ten years, the enormous pro-
duce trade of Chicago has been built up in that short time.
Like effects follow like causes ; and when Chicago practically
rejects the lower grades of produce, some other market will
open to them, and that market will draw largely also of the
' better kinds of ^rain.

THE ENGLISH FARMER IN BELGIUM.

Sir, — If you will allow me, I will, in as few letters
as I can, give such an account of the system of farming
pursued in the best parts of Belgium — viz., the
Flanders and adjacent districts — that anyone of your
readers, who chooses to devote one small field, for a
couple of seasons, to a trial of Flemish crops, may be
able to do so without much trouble or expense. No new
implements are required ; nor is there any operation to
be performed, which cannot be equally well done by our
own labourers.

King George the Third instituted the Flemish farm at
Windsor ; but whether it was originally cultivated
according to that husbandry, I know not ; nor, if it was
so farmed, at what time that culture was abandoned.
It would be interesting to obtain this information.

During the last ten year?, many improvements and
new crops have been introduced into Flanders. Never
was a more opportune time for their trial on English
soils than the present, with a view to prove which of
them may be advantageously and permanently placed
in our rotations.

Wheat is now below the cost of growing it ; and

turnips are diseased from, perhaps, their too frequent
repetition in the usual course on light land. Would it
not, therefore, be a benefit to the farmer, if some new
varieties of crops, fresh to the soil, and more profitable
to the grower, could be brought into our cultivation ?
and with the superior prosperity of the foreign farmer
constantly before our eyes, surely it must be advisable,
in this inquiring age, that my brother-farmers should
inquire into the cause of it, and endeavour to reap the
same advantages which they do.

That tbey are in an infinitely better condition, as
regards returns for their industry, than ourselves, is
indisputable. The question is, Why } They pay higher
rents, according to ttie quality of the land, than we do,
their labour is lower, but we have the advantage ia
machinery. The answer to the question is. They grow
more valuable crops than we do, which we could, and
do not grow ; and they also apply these crops to
manufactures in a way we are not allowed by law, but
which we ought to be. We want an extension of free
trade as far as the limits of equity and justice.

I wonder no gentleman has ever made trial of the

•428

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Flemish crops on his home farm. It would be a very
cheap piece of patriotism, interesting and instructive to
himself and neighbours, because, as I said above, there
can be no question on their crops being more profitable
than ours ; but whether they are as adaptable to our
soils and climate as / believe them to be, is a matter to
be proved, and well worthy the very small trouble and
expense of trial.

I have so arranged that for a few pence anyone can
have a dozen sorts of seeds, and my pamphlet on
Flemish crops.

A little field divided into four step lands, and each
land sown with a separate Flemish crop, would show
the whole at a glance. A piece of sandy loam, where
turnips had been eaten off, would do well ; twenty-four
months would be sufficient to prove the winter as well
as spring crops, and their admirable system of double
croppings ; but to carry out the latter, a deep as well as
tender soil is required. To make this essay on la?id of
a heavy or gravelly soil would not be a fair trial, nor on
land poor or weedy — as in Flanders all is in the highest
condition as regards manure, and as clean as possible.
At the end of two seasons the field of trial could return
to its usual crop in the rotation.

Their corn crops are the same as ours : the novelties
to our soils would be the oil plants, the forage plants,
the double croppings, and some plants which cannot be
classed, but stand alone, such as tobacco on the best
lands, yellow lupin in the very worst, sorgho, hybrid
clover, and lastly, though the most important, the
Silesian beet-root, which I call a gold mine for the
British farmer, as it has been, and is now, to the cul-
tivators both great and small, over nearly the whole con-
tinent.

I have devoted my time for the last twelve months to
inquiries into the truth of the facts asserted of this crop
and the manufacture of it into sugar and spirits. I
will for a short time longer continue my exertions ; but
after that, if my brother-farmers will not look into these
truths, to discover if they cannot enjoy these advan-
tages, I must abandon my pursuit after their in-
terests.

It does annoy me to see the smile in the faces of our
foreign friends when they express their surprise to me,
that we do not grow this crop, nor manufacture home-
made sugar, nor spirit from roots, nor grow tobacco,
nor many other of their valuable crops !

Three-fourths of all the sugar consumed by the 36
millions of the population of France, is made from
home-grown beet-roots. The residue returned to the
farm is nearly equal per acre to an acre of Swedish tur-
nips as fattening food for cattle and sheep ; and besides
this food, every acre produces to the farmer more net
profit than the gross return of an acre of good wheat in
England !

When distilled into spirit more residue is produced
than when made into sugar. There are various pro-
cesses by which are obtained diiferent proportions of
residue, but I will take the average. A ton of roots
returns half a ton of sheep or cattle food, but this half
ton is equal in nutriment to the ton of raw roots. In
fact, cattle cannot be fed on the raw roots till after
Christmas, when some of the watery particles are eva-
porated. As the spring advances, the roots are of less
value for sugar or spirit ; and we know, as spring advances
our English mangold wurzel is of more value as cattle
food. Thus, the English farmer can understand how
that juice which is so valuable to the manufacturer is
worse than useless for cattle.

The heavy land of England by means of this crop
would be on a par with turnip soils in the production of
■ aeat, and perhaps superior.

I cannot say which soil would produce the most sugar,

but no doubt the heavy land would give the largest crop
of beet. The roots must not be larger than 4i pounds
in weight. To effect this the distances between the rows
must be regulated by the quality of the soil. All cal-
culations are made on the supposition that the crop is
20 tons per acre; but I cannot help thinking that even
with the above restriction as to weight for root we could
far exceed this 20 tons.

All that part of the beet root growing above ground
is very inferior in saccharine to that below the surface.
The sort of seed has much to do with the value of the
root and the success of the manufacture. Five per cent,
of sugar is an average, but I know a man who last
year had six and a-half, entirely owing to his superior
seed.

This is quite an agricultural question. The profit
would be so much greater in England to the farmer than
the manufacturer, that the farmers must combine to in-
troduce it themselves. Even abroad, a distillery is fre-
quently started by the farmers and proprietors to obtain
a near market for their roots, as it obvious they will not
pay for distant land-carriage.

I know one distillery which works fifty tons of beet
per twenty-four hours, from the end of September to
the beginning of March, i. e., 126 working days ; if
twenty tons per acre are grown as the usual crop, this
distillery requires the produce of 317 acres of beet root,
which, if sown once in four years, would require four
farms of 300 acres each to provide them.

This shows the great extent to which it might be car-
ried in England. The net profit by the sale of these
roots to each of thesf- four farms would be ^675 ! and
each would, besides , have sufficient residue paid for and on
his farm to keep 160 fattening bullocks for four months;
of course they having also some cake or corn.

Now, am I one of those sanguine men whose ducks
are swans? I say I am not, but I only want an inquiry
into these facts. These figures will, if cut in half, show
the best thing for agriculture I ever knew.

It would take too much space in this letter to say
more about this " gold mine," but in my pamphlet I
have fully entered into the particulars of its cultivation,
application, and best mode of introduction. All I
write I can substantiate, and I think sufficient evidence
has been produced to induce my brother-farmers to
thitik upon and inquire into it. This is all I want
of them.

There is a strange misconception and prejudice
against the growth of oil seeds in England. It is
thought they are injurious to the land ; on the contrary,
they certainly draw less from the soil than white-strawed
corn crops, they are a less time in the land, and obtain
very much nutriment from the atmosphere : this par-
ticularly applies to rape seed, which consists principally
of carbon and hydrogen. All those seeds which produce
cake are even beneficial crops to the soil, if the cake is
eaten by sheep in the same quantity of land as grow the
seed which made it. The straw is useful as litter. They
are a change to the ground, and are all fallow crops ; in
fact, it is in consequence of so many of the Flemish
crops being planted at wide intervals that their land is
so clean.

The sorgho had an unluckily dry season last year for
its introduction, and was most of it sown too late ; it
should be put in the ground now. A friend of mine,
last year, had some twenty miles from London, sown in
June 82 feet high in November. It is making great
progress in France, in proof whereof the seed has amaz-
ingly risen in price.

The yellow lupin should be sown now in the poorest
sands, to plough in .

Supposing the " small field" was divided into 14 or
15 compartments, I would thus crop them ; and taking

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

429

them consecutively, I will state how I would proceed
ia the cultivation of them.

No. 1. The Silesian Beet for Sugar or Distillation. —
It should be drilled before the last day in April, at least
Slbs. to the acre, at 18 inches apart, and hoed out in
the row to 16; but as the object is to obtain as much
weight per acre as possible, and yet have no roots
heavier than 4^lbs., it should be experimentally tried at
12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 inches distance from row to row.
It seems extraordinary, but it is the fact, that those roots
which weigh more than as above contain no more sugar
than the smaller root ; and also the largest proportion
of saccharine is found in that part of the root which
grows into the ground.

There are two sorts advised to be grown — the Silesian
green- necked, and also the red-necked. Both should
be sown, and from them the most down-growing roots
selected for seed, which should be grown in England
with great care and attention to these small but im-
portant matters.

They may be grown on all soils, which should be
well cleaned, pulverized, manured, and subsoil ploughed.
The latter is important for all descending roots.

As soon as large enough, single out, and thenceforth
keep them well hoed.

In September they are ready for lifting. The neck
must be cut off with the top, and the root well cleaned ;
they ate then clamped, leaving the whole ridge of the
clamp open till all evaporation has passed away.

I cannot find anyone abroad who has grown more
than 20 tons per acre ; but I cannot help thinking we
might exceed that without too much enlarging our roots,
because at 18 inches by 16 we should have 21,900
roots per acre, which at 31bs. each would give us about
25 tons ; but in all my views and calculations in this
matter I have always considered 20 tons as the average
crop of beet to be grown in England.

Were distilleries or sugaries established in England,
as I hope they will be, these 20 tons would be worth
15s. per ton; the residue from them would be on an
average 10 tons, which would be bought by the grower
at 10s. per ton, and brought back to his farm. Thus,
allowing Is. per ton for cartage from one to two miles,
the farmer would be in this position — he would have ^9
per acre in his pocket, and 10 tons of cattle food, that
would be equal for feeding purposes to 20 tons of the
raw root.

The only extra expense in growing this compared
with swedes, would be, that the seed costs more, and
the roots require better cleaning ; against that, I will
set the advantage of having the roots well cut and ma-
cerated and at home in the farm-yard.

They are frequently transplanted after an early crop
of rape, &c. ; they might if required be grown after
tares or a first cut of a thin plant of clover, which is
unadvisable to leave for a second crop ; of course such
a crop of beet would only be half the weight of the
other.

This crop is what I call a gold mine for the British
farmers.

They can easily try it ; and after having grown them,
have the roots analyzed, and thus prove the quantity of
saccharine that may be produced from them in England.
But they must be submitted to this as soon as taken
up, as after Christmas the sugar in them gradually and
weekly decreases, till in April they are no longer use-
ful, except as food for cattle. Thus my brother-farmer
will understand how the half of their weight lefc at the
factory is no loss to him, and how the half in residue
returned to the farm is equal to the whole raw root.
The common wurtzel increases in its value in England
as cattle food after Christmas, exactly in the same ratio
as it decreases in value for sugar or spirit, consequently

here is a demonstration that what is sold for manufactur-
ing is valueless to cattle. This is an important subject
for reflection, because it seems a paradox that the ex-
traction of saccharine should improve the feeding
properties of a root ; but 'tis a fact. Last week I saw
some sheep feeding on it in sheds, at the farm of Mr.
Weeks, of Bolney, in Sussex, and he declared they went
on better, and were fatted in a shorter time than he
ever had any ou swedes.

Abroad I cannot find any one give either sheep or
bullocks more than half the weight oi raw turnips we
allow them per day.

However, I have done all I can to put this fairly be-
fore my brother-farmers; they do not respond to it ,
and I can only say I am sorry I have lost my time for
them ; but I have the pleasant reflection I have done
my best.

No. 2. The Winter Peas are sown directly after har-
vest ; but to produce seed they might be now sown, and
a little thinner than we do ours. It would be a great
advantage if we could find a pea we might harvest a
fortnight earlier than any we now have. It remains to
be proved if this would enable us to do so. They should
be sown at once.

No. 2),~The Hybrid Red Clover. — This is a distinct
variety, growing as much weight as the old red.

It bears a flower, white inside and red out, exactly as
if a white flower had been dipped in a red colouring,
and so stained the tips of it. It is well worth sowing in
clover-sick land, or on land being laid down to grass,
as it lasts in the ground some years.

No. 4. The Green-necked Carrot should be sown
immediately ; 4 lbs. to the acre, in clean and deep land ;
the more sandy the better ; the land should be well sub-
soiled, and if well done, 16 tons an acre may be grown.
Comparing their value for horse food, with oats or hay,
keeping in view their relative nutritive qualities, they
would amount to a large sum per acre. They are not
considered generally in this way ; but it is a fair one,
and every farmer who has land that will produce a
tolerable crop even, should grow sufficient for the use
of his horses. There are two other sorts worthy
of trial by the side of the green-necked— the Vosges
carrot and the Breteuil carrot : it is one of their advan-
tages that they do not mind a dry summer.

Of all root crops perhaps, they are those which can
be grown with the least manure. Deep tillage, tender
soil, and permeable subsoil are of more consequence to
them.

They should be hoed out to 16 or 18 inches distance,
according to the quality of the land.

No. 5. Rape. — There are two sorts, besides the
Italian ren rape. The autumn sort is the best cropper
and the most commonly grown. I will here only speak
of the spring rape or, or colza as it is always called
abroad. It should be sown now, and hoed out as soon
as it is ready, to a foot each way. In Belgium it is not
sown till May, but their springs are later than ours, and
as our autumns are not always so fine as theirs, in all
our trials of their crops we should get in the seeds as
early as we can, after we think we are safe from frosts.
It requires to be kept clean. It is not a crop which I
think would be preferred here to the winter rape (which
I will speak of by-and-bye), but in an experimental
field of Flemish crops it should not be excluded. This
spring colza is cut when the pods turn yellow, but it
does not come oflf in time to obtain turnips afterwards,
which is always the case with the winter rape. We
might expect the produce to be about 3 quarters per
acre, which is now worth 70s. per qr. The chaff is
useful to mix with the beetroot-distillery residue. It
is thus used abroad, and the haulm is good for litter.

430

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

It is not considered to be at all an exhausting crop to
the land.

The Royal Agricultural Society have received a
paper on the yellow lupin : in my next I will give an
abbreviated account of it. I am much astonished it has
not been grown on the poorest soils of Norfolk and

Surrey, as in no way is the same amount of manure to
be put into the land at such trifling expense.
Yours truly,

W. Hartley.
Paste Bestante,
Brussels, March 23, 1859.

THE COBHAM SALE OF SHORT-HORNS.

Another great sale was added on the 23rd of March to
the record of Shorthorn herds ; and its £%Q 12s. average
places it well up with every modern sale except Tortworth
and Bushey. To this fifty-two cows and heifers con-
tributed £-80 4s., and eleven bulls £82 13s. ; and add-
ing about £82 for pigs, the grand total was
£5,161 19s. Keen judges had laid the average at £80.
They argued, and with justice, that Marmaduke and his
seventeen heifer-calves would counterbalance any loss
there might be on the two-year-old heifers, and the bulls,
two of which have sunk sadly into the back-ground since
Marmaduke came. As it turned out, this bull made
the sale ; and there is no doubt that twenty-four of the
cows and heifers would not have fetched the prices they
did, unless they had been served by him. We know
not what the average might have risen to, if Mr. Combe
had carried out his idea of buying the Kirklevington herd
in 1850, jointly with Earl Ducie ; but it seldom falls to
the lot of one man to make a miss of that kind, and
then run into luck as he did by determining not to leave
Marmaduke at the Bushey sale.

His herd history only dates back to 1845, when he
bought Fanatic, and two or three other good things, at
Castle Howard, At the Kirklevington sale, which pro-
duced 4,500 gs., he merely purchased Cambridge Rose,
for 70 gs., but laid out another 20 gs. on her by sending
her to be served by Belleville at Mr. Mason Hopper's,
a few miles off, before she came south, and The Beau
was the result. He then bought Puritan, a somewhat
leggy calf, from Lord Ducie ; but he did not do much
for the herd. Among those who were gradually
enrolled as its matrons, were Fairface, of the Maunby
tribe, from Mr. Hutton, of Sober Hill, near Warlaby;
Gazelle, who was purchased as a calf from Mr. Par-
kinson's sale for 100 guineas, when Minerva, the gran-
dam of Marmaduke, was sold for 40 guineas ; Darling-
ton 8th, who came from Mr. Sainsbury's at 155 guineas;
and Sea Nymph, from Captain Shaw's, of Brantingham
Thorpe.

The Downside farm buildings are of a substantial but
unpretending kind, and look like a bevy of large old barns
and sheds. The cow-house, with its neatly-plaited
straw edging, its large lanterns swinging from the roof,
and its handy calf-hoses is quite a specimen of the cosy
style ; while the long cart-stables, with the forge at one
end, used to remind us, on a winter's evening, as the
sparks flew up at the stroke of a red -capped Mulciber, of
one of those warmly-tinted interiors in which the Dutch
painters so revel. Over the park, farm, and everything
there is a peculiarly pleasant English glow. The turn of
the road towards the bridge — hard by the church-
yard, where the old man now rests — is a beautiful rustic
bit; and "Combe, Delafield, and Co." rises to the
mind with the porter at the lodge, who, true to his cha-
racter, wears a snow-white apron. The two brood
mares, whose scions have so often carried the " purple
and white cap" at Ascot and Newmarket, roam about
the park, relieved at last from all breeding toils ; while
Will Ford, the ancient huntsman of the Furrier bitches,
looks after his brother-pensioner, The Nob, to whose
Glaucus blood Mr. Combe so affectionately clung.

Every labourer has a feeling word for their late master.
Sixty of them bore him by turns to that massive urn-
shaped tomb ; and not only they, but every other man
in his employ, received a small legacy.

The day was fine and still, but rather cold ; and on
the whole, such a sight at a sale was never yet beheld in
the south. The fame of Marmaduke and his calves had
spread far and wide ; and on Monday most of the great
shorthorn breeders or their agents arrived in London,
and not a few, including the Duke of Montrose,
Viscount Strathallan, and Col. Pennant, slipped down
on the quiet on Tuesday, and the Lord of Burleigh
the week before. The road from the Esher sta-
tion was all alive soon after nine ; and when the
clock had completed another round, the cabman who
drove us back confessed that he and his white steed were
just completing their fifth journey that day. A dead
cow on its road to the Surrey Union kennels was not
an encouraging omen for purchasers, as they sped along
the six miles in the morning ; but luncheon helped to
dissipate all nervousness on that head. And well it
might ; for a better, both in point of quality and quan-
tity, we have never seen at a sale. Two tables were laid
in the largest half of the barn, so as to take in 240 at
once ; but the purveyor, Mr. Williams, the Mayor of
Kingston, had not looked at the thing from a City Al-
derman point of view ; and when the guests once flocked
into the feast, the truth of Albert Smith's remark became
apparent, that two Smithfield Show visitors at his En-
tertainment always take up the place of three ordinary
onea. At all events, only forty could sit on each
side ; and the first batch sat so long, heedless of the
thrusting masses, who were urging their stomach
claims on the policeman outside, that Mr. Strafford
rose, and, after impressing upon them the axiom of
" Live and let live," invited them, by his example, to
retire.

As the hour of sale drew near, the crowd swelled con-
siderably, and it was set by many at quite fifteen
hundred. We have seldom seen so serried a ring ; and
the bevy of red Surrey waggons did yeoman service both
for sight-seers and purchasers. No kings out of busi-
ness attended from Claremont ; and Lord Feversham
alone represented the House of Peers. Among the
breeders and agriculturists, we observed Messrs. Drake,
Colvin, R. Booth, Bolden, Wetherell, Jonas Webb, Torr,
Hobbs, Sanday, Spencer, Hales, Howard, J. Robinson,
Bowly, &c. ; while H. R. H. Prince Albert, the Duke
of Devonshire, the Marquis of Exeter, Lord Dacre, Col.
Pennant, Col. Towneley, and Mr. Marjoribanks were
represented by their agents, Messrs. Tait, Drewry,
Biggs, Thurnall, Doig, Culshaw, and Tallant. Mr.
Strafford mounted his waggon a little before two
o'clock. He remarked, in the course of his open-
ing, on the fact that Surrey had no indigenous
breed of horse, sheep, cow, pony, or pig, and, in fact,
nothing but the Dorking hen ; and that, therefore, such
an assembly was no small tribute to the celebrity of the
shorthorn. In allusion to the progress of this herd,
after only a fourteen years' trial, he called on a gentleman
— whose name we did not catch, but who seems to have

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

431

inflicted his pity on Mr. Harvey Combe, when Fanatic
and his friends arrived, in the shape of a prophecy, that
he " would find them sweal aioay like a candle"
— to come forvyard and recant.

And so he passed on to the first lot — Fairy — and the
sale opened with a 20-guinea bid. She fell, for 27 gs.,
to a gentleman with the ominous name of " Butcher ;"
but all forebodings after so bad a beginning were dis-
pelled the moment the ten-year-old Cambridge Rose
6th — that rich relic of Kirklevington — stepped airily
into the ring. Her forehand is very gay and beautiful,
but rather too light, and her shoulders are a little up-
right ; but still she is a very beautiful type of her race.
Six of her produce were in the sale that day, and of
these The Belle, The Beauty, and Moss Rose made
530 gs. Fifty was the first bid, and then Mr. Bolden
came boldly out with " a hundred " from the back of the
waggon. Twenty was the next bid, and they went on
sharply till 160, when the competition was left to Mr.
Downes, who bid for Mr. Hales, a gentleman from
North Frith, near Tonbridge, and Mr. Fisher, of Aus-
tralian celebrity ; but when the glass ran out at 200 gs.,
it was announced that she was destined to leave the Old
World for the New. Delight — a barren cow, and
bought at Lord Ducie's sale — did not excite much at-
tention. Lord Zetland has one or two good things out
of her, but the luck of Mr. Manning, who founded a
herd from his Magnum Bonum cow, which was thought
hopeless, was cited in vain ; and as the bidder of 34 gs.
wouldn't declare himself, she was left to Mr. Leeney for
33 gs. Fairlight went cheap, as we thought, at 52 gs. ;
and Rival (a daughter of Mr. Torr's old Rennet, of
Booth's Anna tribe), who was the 150 guinea plum at Mr.
Marjoribanks's second sale, but now rather a speculative
lot, fell to Mr. Sanday for 30 gs.; while Graceful (a
daughter of Gazelle), who was bought for 100 gs., and
won in Yorkshire, followed at 90 gs. The fact of her
never having had a calf, although she is now nearly seven
years old, brought The Belle nearly down to butcher's
price; and even her splendid calf, Samphire, could not
force Seaweed beyond 50 gs.

Darlington 5th, a grand- daughter of Grand Duke, of
one-thousand-guinea fame, and own sister to a heifer
who was sold for 300 gs. to Mr. Thorne, of America,
followed at 71 gs., and then came one of the most in-
teresting contests of the day. It was, indeed, the very
beauty of bidding to see Mr. Downes and Mr. Jonas
Webb oppose each other for this heifer. There was a
sort of calm "do or die " about the great Southdown
king as he rose in his waggon, catalogue in hand,
directly facing Mr. Strafford, and fired oft' his biddings
as regularly as a minute gun. The speculators quite
caught the enthusiasm, though they felt assured that the
day was Babraham's from the first. Mr. Doig did not
let Darlington 8th pass him, and 90 came in three
places ; but there was but a trifling competition for the
deceptive Lady Bates, and Mr. Straff'ord in vain re-
minded his audience that her sire, Duke of Glo'ster,
was bought by the Americans, at Tortworth, for 650 gs.
A fifty bid from Lord Feversham sent Saucebox to Dun-
combe Park, and Mr. Leeney gave up his forty-one-
guinea bid for Blossom to Mr. Kimber.

It now became the turn of Captain Spencer, who was
seated on the edge of the waggon close at Mr. Strafford's
right, to open his fire for the splendid Leila, who next
showed in the ring. He carried off both her dam Lizzy
and her calf at Mr. Grenfell's sale (the latter, only 23
hours old, for 60 gs.), and hence it was not expected
that, alter such a mark of preference, he would leave
Leila under her old 200-guinea price. We never saw
him bid, but it seems that he and Mr. Strafford had some
secret telegraph, and when (he last sand ran for 170 g3.,
h? was declared the purohafier. Dustie, a stylish gay white

heifer, by The Buck, who was bought by Mr. Bostock
for nearly 185 gs., to accompany Master Butterfly to
the antipodes, became the Duke of Devonshire's for
200 gs., and we believe that his Grace has some more
of the Gwynne tribe in his herd at Holker Hall. Sea
Nymph 2nd's bad colour was against her, although it
was pretty certain that Marmaduke would change it in
the calf, and Gaiety, a nice compact little cow, went to
Ireland at 150 gs. The Hon. Mr. Duncombe gave
53 gs. for Dirce, a very nice cow of a bad colour ; and
then Mr. Bowly, the author of the Royal Society's
Prize Essay on the Management of Cattle, got Flora,
after some very steady bidding, for a hundred. Alma, a
heifer with a nice head and good hair, but also of a bad
colour, fetched eighty. Her dam Annie bred Argus, who
went to America for 150 gs.; and that keen judge of Short-
horns, Mr. Douglas, two years since tried to buy her in
vain. Samphire made a good beginning for the Marma-
duke calves, and when a Holderness man saw her, he
might well say that " our part of the country doesn't
cuta very bad figure to-day." Mr.Wetherell had a general
commission from Sir Anthony de Rothschild to select
him something good, and as his choice fell here, his
1 20-guinea nod was the last. Leila's calf Looey
rather disappointed our expectations ; and she looked as
if the others had rather been master of her of late. From
the hips she is not very massive, but her middle and head
were remarkably nice. Mr. Tallant and Mr. Downes
had a slight contest for her, but 105 gs. took her to
Bushey. Foiled in this, Mr. Downes gave 110 gs. for
the next lot. Blush, out of Beauty, and a beautiful spe-
cimen of the science of putting a bull of the Duchess and
Princess tribe on Bates. There is no truth in form if
she does not breed a rare bull for him some day. The
racing owner of Polestar then carried off Filbert for
48 gs., and when the neat Ayah had gone for the same
as Blush, Moss Rose came out and made the scene of the
day. She is the youngest daughter of Cambridge Rose,
and as she was calved July 2nd, she is just eligible in the
heifer-calf class at Warwick. A hundred was the first bid,
and Mr. Bolden said 120, but that was now capped with
150, and 200 in three places. Then came 210 in two,
and when the glass stood at 250, Mr. Tallant was the
master of the situation. There, however, his commission
was exhausted, and Mr. Downes's 260 gs. carried the
day, and proved that Kent was in earnest, in spite of the
candle prophet. Still Bushey did not go away single-
handed, as Diadem, a month-old calf, gave them another
dip into their ancient Marmaduke for 40 gs.

By request, this celebrated bull was shifted from his
place in the catalogue, and brought out first ; but strange
to say, the bidding for him was not very dashing. He is
barely three weeks beyond four years old, and looked livel)
enough, as he chafed at his pole : but still no one seemed
to care very greatly for having him ; and the biddings,
which began at a hundred, were carried on quietly
between Mr. Fisher and Mr. Doig up to 350 ys., where
Australia declined to go on. Mr. Strafford might well
say that Wales "had not bought, but begged him."
The Briar, a very smart-headed bull, went at 100 gs. to
Burleigh, and we conclude it would only be out of
courtesy that the lord of the manor did not smear the
shoulder of Marmaduke with his paint brush, and exact
a still heavier compromise for his heriot claim. Nothing
among the bulls had the grand forehand of The Beau,
but he was coarse in many other of his points. Mainstay,
who was lame in one knee, was quite the best of the
Marmaduke bull-calves, which descended to Splendid,
six days old ; but he has not shone as yet in bull-getting,
either as regards quality or quantity, and ^''30 9s. was
their average ; whereas the seventeen heifer-calves made
.£77 88. The latter were also under disadvantages, as
they had lost their coats even faster than the se?>aon of

432

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the year warranted, and did not present that wonderful
richness of hair which was so observable a month since.
As soon as Marmaduke and The Briar were sold, the
majority of the spectators left to catch the special up-
train, which was placed at their disposal at Esher ; and
the pigs had only a limited but a very spirited audience,
who did all homage to the white blood of Master Joe,
Tricksey, and The Rose, and thus a day which set the
seal on short-horn breeding in Surrey came to a brilliant
close.

The general arrangements and state of the stock did
he highest credit to Mr. Kirbell, the bailiff; and the
oUowing were the prices realized : —

COWS AND HEIFERS.

THE FIGUKES REFER TO " COATES'S HERD BOOK."

Lot 1. — Fairy, roan, calved November 25, 1848 ; got by
Fanatic (8054). dam (Fair Face) by Mauuby (7223).— Pur-
chased by Mr. Butcher for 27 guineas.

2. — 'Cambridge Rose 6Tn, roan, calved Dec. 11, 1848;
got bv Third Duke of York (10166), dam (Cambridge Rose
5th) by 2nd Cleveland Lad (3408), g. d. (Cdmbridge Rose 2nd)
by Belvedere (1706), gr. g. d. (Cambridge Premium Rose) by
Belvedere (1706).— 200 gs., Mr. Fiaher.

3. — Delight, white, calved March 21, 1849; got by Duke
of Cornwall (5947), dam (Destiny) by Prince Ernest (4818).—
33 g3., Mr. Leney.

4. — Fairlight, red and white, calved Sept. 12, 1850; got
by Liberal (10418), dam Fair Face.— 52 gs., Mr. Allen.

5. — Rival, roan, calved May 6, 1851 ; got by Puritan
(9523), dam (Rennet) by Fanatic (8504).— 30 gs„ Mr.Sanday,

6. — Graceful, red and white, calved Oct. 1, 1851; got by
Loyalist (10479), dam (Gazelle) by Noble (4578).— 90 gs.
Mr. C. Howard.

7. — Sylph, roan, calved April 6, 1852 ; got by Lottery
(10472), dam (Sea Nymph) by Splendid (5298).— 57 ga.,
Mr. Gosling.

8. — The Belle, roan, calved May 24, 1852 ; got by
Loyalist (10479), dam (Cambridge Rose 6th) by 3rd Duke of
York (10166).— 46 gs., Mr. E. Hales.

9. — Seaweed, roan, calved January 4, 1853 ; got by Lot-
tery (10472), dam (Sea Nymph) by Splendid (5298).— 50 gs.,
Mr. Christy.

10. — Darlington 5th, roan, calved Feb. 25, 1853; got
by Fourth Duke of Oxford (11387), dam (Darlington 2nd) by
Percy (9472). — 71 gs., Mr. Simpson.

11. — Devvdrop, roan, calved March 20, 1853 ; got by Day-
light (11339), dam (Diana) by Alfred (6732).— 55 gs., Mr.
Gosling.

12. — The Beauty, roan, calved Juue 6, lfc53 ; got by
Puritan (9523), dam (Cambridge Rose 6th) by 3rd Duke of
York (10166).— 160 gs., Mr. Jonas Webb.

13. — Darlington 8th, roan, calved April 3, 1854 ; got
by Fourth Duke of Oxford (11387), dam (Darhngton 3rd) by
Sir Hugh (12082).— 120 gs., Hon. Col. Pennant, M.P.

14. — Frolic, roan, calved June 4, 1854; got by Puritan
(9523), dam (Fairy) by Fanatic (8054).— 105 gs., Mr. Leney.

15.— Fancy, white, calved June 20, 1854; got by The
Beau (12182), dam (Fanny) by Lottery (10472).— 43 gs., Mr.
Game.

16. — Lady Bates, roan, calved August 6, 1854 ; got by
Duke of Glo'ster (11382), dam (Lady Blanche) by 4th Duke
of York (10167).— 73 gs., Mr. Surtees.

17. — Favourite, rich roan, calved Sept. 16, 1854 ; got by
The Beau (12182), dam (Fondling) by Planet (10616).— 90
gs., Mr. Kimber.

18. — Saucebox, white, calved March 25, 1855; got by
The Beau (12182), dam (Seraphiue) by Lottery (10472).—
50 gs.. Lord Feversham.

19.— Rarity, white, calved Jan. 28, 1855 ; got by The
Beau (12182), dam (Rival) by Puritan (9523).— 57 gs., Mr.
Clarke.

20. — Countess 5th, red and white, calved June 16, 1855 ;
got by Fourth Duke of Oxford (11387), dam (Countess 3rd)
by Percy (9472).— 40 gs., Mr. B. B. Colvin.

21.— Blossom, red and white, calved August 23, 1855 ;
got by First Fruits (12881), dam (Beauty) by Lottery (10472).
—41 gg., Mr. Kimber.

83,— Leila, red and white, calved Jan. 22, 1856 ; got by

Couut Glo'ster (12650), dam (Lizzy) by 4th Duke of York
(10167), g. d. (Louisa) by Cramer (6907), gr. g. d. (Lady
Bird) by Cato (6836).— 170 gs., Capt. Spencer.

23. — Asia, red, calved April 5, 1856 ; got by 2ud Grand
Duke (12961), dam (Apricot) by Fusileer (11499).— 55 gs.,
Lord Dacre.

24.— Gillyflower, red and white, calved April 22, 1856;
got by The Beau (12182), dam (Graceful) by Loyalist (10479).
—46 gs., Mr. Ellis.

25. — DuSTiB, white, calved May 10, 1856 ; got by The
Buck (13836), dam (Daisy) by Lottery (10472), g. d. (Delight),
by Duke of Cornwall (5947), gr. g. d. (Destiny) by Prince
Ernest (4818).— 200 gs., Duke of Devonshire.

26. — Sea Nymph 2nd red and white, calved June 13,
1856 ; got by The Beau (12182), dam (Sylph) by Lottery
(10472).— 48 gs., Mr. H. Hewer.

27. — Gaiety, red and white, calved July 19, 1856; got by
The Beau (12182), dam (Gazelle) by Noble (4578).— 150 gs.,
Mr. J. Richardson.

28. — DiRCE, red roan, calved December 3, 1856; got by
The Buck (13836), dam (Dewdrop) by Daylight (11339).—
53 gs., Hon. Col. Duncorabe, M.P.

29. — Flora, red and white, calved October 6, 1856 ; got
by The Beau (12182), dam (Fair Light) by Liberal (10418).—
100 gs., Mr. Bowly.

30.— Alma, red and white, calved March 6, 1857 ; got by
The Beau (12182), dam (Annie) by Broughtou Hero (6811).
—80 gs., Mr. King.

31.— Barbara, roan, calved March 21, 1857; got by The
Buck (13836), dam (Lady Bates) by Duke of Glo'ster (11382).
— 100 gs., Mr. Macintosh.

32.— Not offered.

33. — Sbraphine 2nd, white, calved Mav 2, 1857 ; got by
Fancy Boy (12859), dam (Saucebox) by The Beau (12182).—
70 gs., Mr. Noakes.

34.— Folly, white, calved May 26, 1857 ; got by Fancy
Boy (12859), ilam (Fancy) by The Beau (12182).— 60 gs,,
Mr. Clarke.

35, — Dairy, roan, calved Dec. 19, 1857 ; got by Fancy
Boy (12859), dam (Dewdrop) by Daylight (11339).— 50 gs..
Lord Feversham,

36. — Fennel, roan, calved February 11, 1858; got by
The Beau (12182), dam (Fair Light) by Liberal (10418).— 47
gs., Mr. Hardwick.

37. — Saucy, roan, calved March 19, 1858 ; got by Marma-
duke (14897), dam (Saucebox) by The Beau (12182).— 70 gs.,
Marquis of Exeter.

38. — Samphire, roan, calved March 10, 1858 ; got by
Marmaduke (14897), dam (Seaweed) by Lottery (10472).— 120
gs.. Sir Anthony de Rothschild, Bart.

39. — Looey, roan, calved May 1, 1858 ; got by Marmaduke
(14897), dam (Leila) by Count Glo'ster (12650).— 105 gs.,
Mr. S. Marjoribanks.

40. — Blush, red roan, calved May 29, 1858 ; got by Mar-
maduke (14897), dam (The Beauty) by Puritau (9523).— 110
gs., Mr. Hales.

41. — Gracious, red and white, calved May 3, 1858; got
by Marmaduke (14897), dam (Graceful) by Loyalist (10479).
—80 gs , Hon. Col. Pennant, M.P.

42. — Filbert, red and white, calved June 12, 1858 ; got
by Marmaduke (14897), dam (Favourite) by The Beau (18182).
— 48 gs., Mr. Suewiug.

43. — Ayah, roan, calved June 29, 1858 ; got by Marma-
duke (14987), dam (Asia) by 2nd Grand Duke (12961).— 110
gs., Mr. Crawley.

41. — Moss Rose, roan, calved July 2, 1858 ; got by Mar-
maduke (14897), dam (Cambridge Rose Cth) by 3rd Duke of
York (10166).— 260 gs., Mr. Hales.

45. — Duchess, rich roan, calved July 21, 1853; got by
Marmaduke (14897), dam (Darlington 8th) by 4th Duke of
Oxford (11387).— 82 gs.. Marquis of Exeter.

46. — Frailty, red and white, calved September 6, 1858;
got by Marmaduke (14897), dam (Fuchsia) by The Beau
(12182).— 37 gs., Mr. Hardwick.

47.— Rosa, white, calved September 22, 1858 ; got by Mar-
maduke (14897), dam (ReaUty) by The Beau (12182).— 36
gs., Mr. Wells.

48.— Sea Nymph 3rd, red and while, calved October 19,
1858, got by Marmaduke (14897), dam (Sea Nymph 2nd)
by The Beau (12182).— 36 gs,, Mr. Morris.

49,— Fairmaid, white, calved October 25, 1853 ; got by

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

433

Marmaduke (14897), dam (Festive) by The Buck (13836).—
38 gs., Marquis of Exeter.

50.— Diana, roan, calved January 3, 1859; got by Mar-
maduke (14897), dam (Dewdrop) by Daylight (11339).— 30 ga..
Mr. Morrie.

51, — Dido, white, calved January 3, 1859 ; got by Marma-
duke (14897), dam (Dewdrop) by Dayliglit (11339).— 20 g3.,
Lord Suffield.

52.— Not offered.

53. — Spicey, roan, calved March 6, 1859 ; got by Marma-
duke, dam Saucebox.— 31 gs., Mr. Simpson.

54. — Diadem, roan, calved Feb. 26, 1359 ; got by Marma-
duke, dam Darlington 5th.— 40 ga., Mr. S. Marjoribanks.

BULLS.

Lot l^a-THE Beau (12182), roan, calved May 5, 1851 ;
got by Belleville (6778), dam (Cambridge Kose 6tb) by 3rd
Duke of York (10166).— 75 gs., Mr. Walesby.

2.— Fancy Boy (12859), roan, calved September 1, 1854 ;
got by The Beau (12182), dam (Fairlight) by Liberal (10418).
— 44 ga., Mr. Calesa.

3. — Marmaduke (14897), roan, calved March 7, 1855 ;
got by Duke of Glo'9ter( 11382), dam (Minerva 2nd) by St.
Martin (8525).— 350 gs., Hon. Col. Pennant, M.P,

4.— The Briar (15376), roan, calved June 7, 1856 j got
by Puritan (9523), dam (Cambridge Rose 6th) by 3rd Duke of
York (10166).— 100 gs., Marquis of Exeter.

5. — Rambler, roan, calved May 14, 1857 ; got by Fancy
Boy (12859), dam (Rarity) by The Beau (12182).— 60 ga.,
Mr. Sleath.

6. — Fop, roan, calved October 14, 1857; got by Argus
(14102), dam (Fuchsia) by The Beau (12182).— 48 gs., Mr.
Lowndes.

7. Falstaef, rich roan, calved January 5, 1858 ; got by
The Beau (12182), dam (Fairy) by Fanatic (8054).— 66 gs.,
Mr. Harbidge.

8. — Mainstay, roan, calved March 17, 1858 ; got by Mar-
maduke (14897), dam (Frolic) by Puritan (9523).— 33 gs.,
Mr. Macintosh.

9. — Beppo, red roan, calved November 6, 1858 ; got by
Marmaduke (14897), dam (Blossom) by First Fruits (12881).
—33 gs., Mr. Ellis.

10.— Not offered.

11.— Fancy Man, roan, calved Feb. 12, 1859; got by
Fancy Boy (12859), dam (Lady Bates) by Duke of Glo'ster
(11382).— 36gs., Mr. Lambe.

12. — Splendid, red and white, calved March 17, 1859;
got by Marmaduke, dam Sylph.— 21 gs., Mr. Carrington.

CAUSE OF DEATH FROM "OLD AGE."

Until it has been proved to the contrary, the mass of
mankind consider it impossible to alter existing circum-
stances ; yet had this idea of impossibility been allowed to
retain undisturbed possession of the public mind, no ad-
vances could have taken place in the comforts, or addition
to the conveniences of life.

But the advance of science is irresistible, and can neither
be prevented by the clamours of the superstitious, nor by
the dicta of those whose interests are identified with the
stultification of its growth to the small capacity of their
own minds.

We already separate the refuse and incombustible ashes
from coals ; and shall we not also separate the excess of
earthy matter — the elements of death — from our food, and
retain for our use the life-sustaining principles .'^ It by no
means follows that because elements are generally, or even
always, naturally combined, that they are inseparable, or
that we must take the bad with the good.

Apart from accidents, temporary illness, &c., which do
not belong to this subject, one cause, and one cause only,
gives rise to the chief difference between old and young per-
sons ; that is, the undue accumulation of earthy matter in
every portion of the body ; and this is not, as frequently
supposed, a morbid action commencing only in advanced
life, but it begins with the earliest period of existence, and
continues uninterruptedly through every succeeding stage ;
though it is only when the limbs begin to grow stiff, the
flesh to shrink, the pulse to become feeble, and the eyes dim,
that " old age" is said to be approaching. The decrepitude
is not however produced by the lapse of years, but by the
deposit of earthy matter which takes place (exactly as ashes
accumulate in a fire-gr.ate, or lime in a kettle, &c.,); and
this not alone in the bones, but after they become " set," in
every portion of the whole system : thus obstructing the
larger, and completely blocking up the smaller passages
which ought to convey nutriment to every part of the body,
and eventually rendering parts rigid, which it is essential
for the continuance of life should retain their elasticity.

The excess of lime is derived from the food and drink
taken into the body ; for it is certain that no element can

be produced by the body. As we renew the body by food,
we, in fact, rebuild ourselves ; and the materials we use,
generally contain too great a quantity of lime. That the
body has not the power to throw out the excess beyond its
absolute requirements is only too evident, from its gradual
accumulation eventually destroying life.

In a newspaper column it would be out of place to
enter into a detailed statement of the proportion of lime in
various foods, though it may be stated that as a rule grain
contains more lime than any other food in extensive use. And
here it is desirable to point out a serious error which, from
the publicity it has attained, and being promulgated by an
authority to whom we are on many accounts much indebted,
is the more likely to cause serious injury. Notwithstanding
that grain foods contain so large a proportion of lime, Liebig
states that, " It may be regarded as a physiological truth,
established by experiment, that corn-flour is not a perfectly
alimentary substance ; administered alone it does not suf-
fice for sustaining life. From all that we know, this in-
sufficiency is owing to the want of lime — so necessary for
the formation of the osseous system ;" and proceeds to state
the benefit which would arise from the use of lime-water in
making bread ! What proof is there of a deficiency of lime
in bread to sustain the osseous system ? On the contrary
we see millions of beings bearing, almost without excep-
tion, gradually increasing evidence of the excess of lime ;
and if lime be deficient in the grain foods, which contain a
greater proportion than any other food in general and exten-
sive use, where, in the name of common sense, does the
excess of lime in the body come from ?

As it is not probable that persons will be induced to
avoid ordinary articles of food, it is satisfactory to know
that a discovery has been made by which the excess of lime
can be rendered soluble by mild chemical preparations,
which may be taken along with the ordinary food, and
which have been proved by extensive experience to be also
highly beneficial to animal economy ; and the excess of
lime being in this soluble state removed from the system,
the person or animal becomes again elastic, and the passages
being free, nutriment is again conveyed by the fluids to

iU

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

every portion of the body; thus restoring its original '
plumpness and activity.

Argument, however, seldom convinces, and is not the
purpose of this communication; therefore, in order to prove
the truth of the above, I make the following offer, subject
to the annexed conditions (which are intended to prevent
my being expected to practise upon some worthless animal
in the hands of mercenary parties) ; but which I should be
willing to modify to any extent not likely to interfere with
the decisive character of the proof : —

In order to demonstrate the practicability of removing
both the cause of what is frequently termed " old age," and
its effects, I hereby engage to supply to any one gentleman,
free of all c/iar^ie, and subject only to the following condi-
tions, a preparation which shall completely restore to vigor-
ous and active condition any superannuated horse, and that
this restoration shall not be a mere temporary stimulus, but
actually render the horse again serviceable.

1. That the horse be not less than twenty-five years of

age, and have been the winner of a cup at any of the first
class races in England, or if a hunter or carriage-horse,
have at some period of his career changed hands for not
less than 200 guineas.

2. That it be certified that at the present time the horse
is free from acute disease, dislocations, or other affections,
save and except only the ossification, or stiffness of " old
age," and its consequent disability to work ; the certificate
to be accompanied by a general statement of the present
capabilities of the horse.

3. That the owner undertakes to cause the preparation to
be regularly given to the horse as directed (in food), during
the whole course of the experiment.

4. That the horse (beiug already superannuated) shall re-
main, during the treatment, free from labour, and be fed
upon suitable ordinary food.

5. That at the termination of the treatment, the owner
of the horse furnish me with another certificate, and report
of the then state and capabilities of the horse.

G. H. Bolton, (Agricultural Chemist.)
Warringion, lith March, 1859.

THE CATTLE OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE.

[translated prom THK FRENCH OF THE " JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE."]

To M. le Baron de Clazeau de Cleraut.

Monsieur, — In the Journal of Practical Agriculture of
the 20th November last, page 408, I read a lelter signed by
you, entitled " On the Ovine and Porcine Breeds at the
Regional Meeting of the Niort." This letter replies to the
complainta of M. le Marquis de Dampierre. If I take the
liberty of interfering in a debate raised between two men so
respectable, from their spirit, their tone of progress, and de-
votion to agriculture, it is certainly not for the purpose of
taking part or cause of one or the other. My only object is
to point out some errors you have committed, inadvertently
without doubt, and which in my humble judgment may create
a prejudice to be regretted in the progress of agriculture of
our common country. The coudition of French agriculture is
too critical to allow those devoted to it to stand neuter, and
refrain from defending it against even its friends, I therefore,
hope Sir, that you will not see in this letter a personal attack
upon yourself, whom I have not the honour of knowing, but
only a conscientious protest against some hazarded assertions,
and the conclusions you draw from them, in order to support
your arguments in an article so much the more dangerous
that it is written with great refinement of style and spirit.

You say, " But ought not the jury to take iuto considera-
tion the different conditions of agriculture and breeding in
the two countries ? Does it not know at what an expense of
infinite care, solicitude, and of rich and abundant food, Eng-
land produces those races, the importation of which they re-
commend to us ?" &c , &c. Then comes a bucolic description
of fine aud luxuriant pastures, in which the happy flocks of
sheep strut softly about,or extend themselves upon the verdant
turf, and see, without disturbance, abundance everywhere
around them, &c., &c. Then again comes a description of
those troughs filled with cut hay and straw, cooked by steam,
and interlarded with lindseed cake reduced to powder,
which await them at the fold when they return thither at
night, &c., &c.

I know not, sir, whether you have visited Engljind 8» r

simple tourist, or as an agriculturist. All I can say is, that
your description is too poetical. The attention given to the
sheep in England, is far from deserving your exaggerated
praises. During twenty years that I have travelled over Eng-
land, in every respect as an agriculturist, in no part have I
seen the meadows as you say, withdrawn from the scythe. In
the counties where the breeding of sheep is most general, there
are few or no meadows ; and I can assure you, that with the
exception of Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, and some
of the central districts of England, where agricultural industry
consists only in the fatting of cattle on pasturage, as in the
valley of Auge in Normandy, the sheep feed only on artificial
grasses, and are penned on the open earth. Besides, the South-
downs and Hampshire-downs live commonly in the most
frugal manner upon the downs of the counties of which they
are the natives ; and certainly those sandy downs are
far from presenting that aspect of rich meadows of which you
speak. Again, I would thank you to tell me, where in Eng-
land you have seen the sheep go for the night to feed out of
troughs filled with provender ? It is a spectacle I have never
yet witnessed. At all events you ought not to cast blame
upon the English for taking good care of their animals, since
you recommend it yourself ; nor must you suppose that the
English farmers mal<e the rearing of them a costly luxury
from which they derive no profit. But I see what you are
aiming at. You do not wish the French agriculturists to im-
port those magnificent breeds, " Because," say you, " the
habits of French agriculture are bad ; there are only moors
there in the place of the English meadows," &c. But, Sir,
before applying themselves to the culture of roots and artificial
grasses, the English began by improving their breeds of ani-
mals. An agricultural progress, in order to be founded on
logical and solid bases, should begin by the improvement of
breeds ; that being the multiplication aud increase of the power
of making dang. How would you wish our farmers to aban-
don their fallowo and produce roott? For that, munnie isi

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435

wanted; and tliey have none. Then, what would they do
with their roots lud artificial grasses when they have hardly
any cattle ? and the few they do posaess, and which are only
sufficient for their labour, are so backward, and so difficult to
fatten, that if it were not for the labour to which they are ap-
plied, and the poor and gratuitous pasture where they allow
them to wander, they would become a source of ruin to the
owners. You know, undoubtedly, that on an equal extent the
English rear, feed, and bring to maturity, three generations of
animals to our one. la number this is twice as many as with us.
There is. therefore, a produce of meat, wool, fat, and dung, six-
fold of ours ; and to nourish this multitude of animals they
have been compelled to cease to stubble the laud. Wheat
occupies only a fifth part of the cultivated land, and the quan-
tity and quality of it are increased in so remarkable a manner,
that this year (1858) the little England, properly so called,
that 13 to say including Wales and Scotland, has produced
something like forty -two millions of hectolitres of wheat. This
gives an average of nearly 50 hectolitres per hectare.* Cer-
tainly in presence of such results, it appears to me to be quite
allowable for those who are convinced tliat this immense agri-
ciiltural wealth is the direct and natural effect of the improve-
ment of the breeds of animals, to promote with all their influ-
ence the adoption of the same means, in order to raite up with
us the same elements of prosperity.

Certainly it is excellent advice to give to our cultivators,
that of feeding their animals better; but you must first furnish
them with the means of following it. With their indigenous
races those means cannot exist. These races suffice for the
labour with some, and for milk with others ; but beyond these
two conditions they are too burlhensome either as dung pro-
ducers or as beasts for the slaughterhouse. The proof of it is
in the necessity for what M. Jamet calls the specialization of
the races. In one place they raise them for labour, in another
for milk, in a third fatten them. The English farmer
has no need for this expedient, created by the poverty of our
agriculture and the defects of our breeds. lie unites in his
operations all the conditions that we are obliged to disperse
over our province?, and thus to concentrate all the advantages
which with us are divideJ.

With you, sir, I pass to the porcine race. What you
say of the breed known in France under the name of the
New Leicester (I have never known why), appears to me
contrary to the experience of all the breeders. Allow me to
ask you, amongst what breeders, at the sliops of what
butchers, at the table of what Amphitryons you have seen
that "the flesh of the New Leicesters was overloaded witli
flabby and tasteless fat," &c., &c. ? Who, then, has told
you that in England the New Leicesters are considered as
yielding more fat than meat ; and that the English agri-
culturists, those skilful innovators and calculators, reject
them, and 'prefer, for the production of meat, other and
more rustic races ? I maintain that among all the breeds
it is the small white breed, knonn in France under the
name of the New Leicester, that is the most esteemed in
England ; it is the one that realizes the highest price in
the market, even when there are only Englishmen for pur-
chasers. It is that which carries oil' the prizes as a race for
the butchery at Smithfield, and for breeding at the cattle

* ThoiG must be some error licre. The hectoliire contains
23 bushels, and a fraction over; the hectare, 2a. In. 35 p. If
we reckon it in round numbers at 2| a. the result will stand
thus :— Hectolilros .50 multiplied by 2J equal 148 J bushels, which
divided by '.'J are equivalent 10 59^ bu liels per aero. This is nearly
double the average usually allowed for the wheat crop in England.
— Thahslatou.

shows. It is that which is seen in numbers infinitely
greater at Newgate and Leadenhall markets. As to the
reproach of producing more fat than meat, it is not very-
serious; for, after all, the fat does not come from the
animal, but from the food given to it. For myself, who
breed New Leicesters, and both sell them to the butchers
and use them upon my table, I formally oppose my asser-
tion, supported by a long experience as a breeder and agri-
culturist, to yours. I do not know a race of pigs producing
more meat of the best quality from a given quantity of
food, and consequently yielding so much profit to the
breeders and the consumers.

You say that our indigei.ous porcine breeds are much
superior to those of England, and a e so much prized
by the English, that M. Mosselman has established a line
of steam-boats, under his command, expressly to export for
the English markets considerable quantities of French pigs,
whose firm and excellent meat was particularly esteemed
by the butchers. "They die well," say the butchers ; and
they add, " all the foreign cattle do the same." M. Mossel-
man, of wliotn 1 have the honour to be the friend, and
whose export trade with England I am well acquainted
with, has never established a line of steam-boats in order to
take pigs to England. He is not the commander of a ship.
He owns one small boat called the Argyle, which makes
voj'ages between Carcntan and Southampton, laden with
butter, eggs, fruit, and occasionally a few fat cattle for the
Southampton market, when the fiuctuations of price admit
of it. It is possible that he may sometimes have attempted
the exportation of pigs, which were sold in England, for
all kinds of butchers' meat are welcome on the English
market ; but certainly the speculation has not succeeded,
for it has not been continued. But what shall we think of
that other assertion, that .all foreign cattle are in favour on
the English markets ? Wo have only to throw our eyes
over the averages of the markets, and we shall see what
enormous difl'erence exists b;twecn the price of foreign
cattle and those of the country. W^ill yo:i think, after that,
sir, that your conclusions, and those of the commission over
which you preside, are in agreement with those of the Eng-
lish cultivators, and that you have ranged yourselves under
the banner of their good sense and experience?

Not even the Durhams can escape your kicks. You say,
" Ask the Scotch if they are disposed to sacrifice to the Dur-
ham crosses this admirable little breed cf black bullocks,
whose fine and savoury meat obtains in Smithfield market
20 centimes per kilogramme more than the finest Durham
beef." lu the first place, there is no country in the world iu
which tiie Durham breed is more appreciated than in Scotland.
The Scotch cross their native breeds with Durham bulls, in
order to give to the product more precocity and greater aptitude
for grazing. As to the higher price that the " Scots" realize
upon the markets, that difference is caused only by the smaller
quantity of waste they contain. The Durham oxen are killed
young, and that is what makes the profit of the producer ; but
it is not that of the butcher, who finds a less advantage from
it than from animals more aged, and, consequently, yielding
more tallow. Bring to market a Durham ox of five or six
jears old, well fatted, and you will see if he will not realize a
price quite as high as the best Scotch bullocks. I will add,
lastly, that the greatest difference that can be pointed out be-
tween the price of the Durham and the Scotch oxen is two
peace (or 20 cents ) per atone of Slbs. This ditference is only
one-fourth of that which you describe.

I shall not pu-h this discussion further, and therefore con-

G Q

436

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

elude by sayiug, that the agriculture of our country will never
fiud an element of riches or pro3perity in the quality of the
meat of ita breedj of animala by concluding that that quality
is superior to that of tbe English breeds, and remind you that
it is the contrary that I maintain, but rather in the quantity.
The mass of consumers have not delicacy of palate enough to
distinguish an imperceptible shade in the taste of meat. The
population who consumes, as well as the farmer who produces,
require a great quantity of meat, in order, not only to supply
the demand of cur markets, but still reore, to furnish to cur
neighbours the deficiency in their production. That is the
question ; to place it upon shades of tsste or flavour, which
are appreciable only with gourmands, is a mockery. The agri-
culturists, setting aside all prejudice of race and natioiialityi
ought to apply themselves to the breeding of animals that
bring the most profit; although even MM. the gourmands
who hold to flavour without being willing to pay an extra price
for it, may make wry faces and cry "shame" upon the English.

F. R. DE LA TreUONNAIS.

P.S. Allow me to transcribe here the following passage, taken
from the last publication of one of our most eminent econo-
mists. In a book entitled "Agriculture and Population,''' M.

Laonce de Lavergne says, in speaking of cattle, p. 203, "Agri-
culture has three great products— meat, cereals, and wool.
Of these three commodities, meat is the most important, if not
in itself, at least by the influence that its production exercises
over the others. Not only dees it constitute one of the most
precious aliments for man — one of those which combine in the
smallest volume the most of nutritive matter, and which repair
the most the forces without fatiguing the organs ; not only it
implies the labour, the milk, and the wool, which possess, not
less than itself, of beneficial value ; but without it, no dung, and
consequently but few cereals. All the agricultural edifice rests
upon the cattle ; there is no greater interest for peoples. We
may say without exaggeration that the richest and most power-
ful are those who have the most of them. This production
has made great progress in France, having doubled in fifty
years, and quadrupled in a century. Is that enough ? Bcyoud
a doubt, no ; for, in the present state of agricultural know-
ledge, we might still make it four times more. England has
done so ; and I therefore understand that they attach an im-
portance of the first order to that species of product. All that
interferes with the propagation of cattle is a j}iiblic misfortune ;
all that promotes it is a blessing, &e."

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

Weekly Council, March 30. — Present : Colonel
Cualloner, Trustee, in the Chair, Sir E. C. Kerrison,
Bart., M.P., the Rev. L. Vernon Uarcourt, and Mr. T.
Lyon Thurlow.

Mangel Wurzel. — Mr. Edward Farmer called the
attention of the Council to the importance of storing
Mangel Wurzel, and to a fact which had occurred within
his own experience, which led him to believe that the
root in question " might be kept good for food in the
winter, twelve months after having been stored from the
ground."

Polish Agriculture. — The Agricultural Society
of the Kingdom of Poland having decided to hold an
annual agricultural meeting, at which a leading feature
should be the trial of implements, applied to the Coun-
cil for a statement of the principles on which the trials
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England had been
carried on. The Council ordered copies of the several
reports on the trial of implements at the Society's coun-
try meetings, along with Prize Sheets for the current
year, and a statement of the prospective arrangement
for the trials during the ensuing four years, with an
explanatory letter from the Secretary, to be forwarded
to the Agricultural Society of Poland.

Adjourned to April 6.

Monthly Council, April 6. — ■ Present : His
Grace the Duke of Marlborough, President, in the
chair; Earl Powis, Lord Feversham, Lord Leigh,
Lord Berners, Sir Charles Morgan, Bart., Sir J. V. B.
Johnstone, Bart., M.P., the Hon. W. G. Cavendish,
M.P., Colonel the lion. A. N. Hood, Mr. Alcock]
M.P., Mr. Amos, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Barnett,'
Mr. Barthropp, Mr. Bramstone, M.P., Jlr. Blount, Mr!
Caldwell, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Ex.ill, Mr. Foley,"

M.P., Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Ilamond, Mr.
Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Hudson (of Castleacre), Mr. Law-
rence, Mr. Milward, Professor Simonds, Mr. Slaney,
M.P., Mr. R. Smith, Mr. Ranks Stanhopp, M.P., Mr.
Thompson, Professor Voelcker, Mr. Jonas Webb, and
Mr. Wilson (of Stowlangtoft).

The following were elected members ;
Bruce, John, Tiddington, Stratford-on-Avon
Burnet, Uavid, Ashley, Stockbridge, Hants
Cazalet, Rev. W. W., 6, Grosvenor-Strcet
Elliston, B., Croydon, Arrington, Cambridge
Graves, Septimus Perry, Stoney Thorpe, Southam
Green, William, Takely, Little Cauficld, Chelmsford
Halford, Thomas, Newboldon-Stour, Stratford-on-Avon,
Iloelay, Thomas, The Fosse, Leamington
Isherwood, Arthur, Marple Hall, Stockport
Langdon, William, Ashford House, Barnstaple
Long, Alexander Weariog, Mint Cottage, Keudal
Margetts, John, High-Street, Warwick
Morgan, Godfrey Clarke, M.P., Euperra Castle, CardilT
Noakes, John Tompsett, Brockley House, Lewisham
Neville, the Hon. Chas. Coruwallis, Heydon House, Royaton
Nightingale, Vaughan, Bujway, Ludlow
Ptrkins, John S., Leek Wootten, Warwick
Salt, Thomas, Weeping Cross, Stafford
Sanderson, Hastings, 5, Brinswood East, Leamington
Surtees, Henry Edward, Dane End, Ware
Wilson, William, Berkhamstead
Wright, William, Sigglesthornc, Hull,

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, laid before the Council the Monthly
Report on the accounts of the Society, from which it
appeared that the current cash-balance in the hands of
the bankers was £2,206.

Journal. — Mr. Thompson, Chairman of the Journal
Committee, made the following report :

1. The Committee recommend that the spare copies of the

Implement report should be sold at Ss. 6d. each.

2. That the paper on Potatoes by Dr. Lang, ordered to be

reprinted, should be reduced so as to be published at
a very cheap rate for the use of cottagers,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

437

3. The reauU of the rc-pfiat of the article on Horse-shoeing
is 83 follows ; £ s. d.

Printed 5,000 copies (cost) .,. . 3710 0
Sold 3,300 „ .... 43 16 10

Onhaud 1,700 „ Profit 6 C 10

Warwick. — Lord Berners, Chairman of the General
Warwick Committee, reported to the Council the satis-
factory progress made in the preparations for the
Society's ensuing country meeting, to be held at
Warwick ia the week commencing Monday the 11th of
July.

Dinner. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs brought forward the
motion of which he had given notice at the last monthly
meeting, to rescind the resolution of the 5th of May last
year, in reference to the conditions under which a
dinner should take place in future at the country meet-
ings of the Society, in order that he might be enabled to
submit to the Council a plan by which the dinner, in
his opinion, might be arranged without the interference
of former difficulties. A very full discussion then en-
sued on this subject, in which the whole bearings of the
question, founded on past experience, were reviewed ;
and Mr. Fisher Hobbs having replied to tlie various
points of objection to his motion, the Council divided,
when it was found that the Council by a large majority
adhered to their resolution of last year, on which the
local committee at Warwick had already recommended
that there should be no dinner at the Warwick Meeting,
and which stands as follows s
« That in future, if any dinner be held at the country

meetings under the patronage of the Society, the entire
management shall be vested in the local committee :
but the Council shall have the option and power of
leserfinw and taking such a number of tickets as it
shall think fit; and this Society shall nominate the
chairman, and supply the list of toasts, but shall have
no other liability connected with it."

Country Meeting of 1860. -— Memorials were
received from Canterbury, Crojdon, Guildford, and
Reigate on the subject of the country meeting to be
held next year in a district comprising Kent and Surrey.
An Inspection Committee was appointed, consisting of
Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, the Hon.
W. G. Cavendish, M.P., Mr. Fisher Hobbs, and Mr.
Milward, with a request that they would visit the pro-
posed sites, and report on their suitableness or other-
wise for the purposes of the Society, by the next
Monthly Council. M. de TrehonuBis presented a
copy of his new serial work published in France, on the
results and progress of agricultural improvement in
England.

The Council adjourned to the 13th of April.

Weekly Council : Wednesday, April 13. — Mr.
Raymond Barker, Vice-President, in the chair.

The names of nine candidates for election were read.
Also a communication from Miss Banister on the
Festuca fluitans, of the present state of growth of which
she transmitted a specimen.

The Council then adjourned over Passion and Easter
week to the Monthly Council on the 4th May,

USEFUL SUGGESTIONS UPON THE GROWTH OF SEEDS.

Nothing affords me greater pleasure than to be the
means of usefulness to my brother-farmers. I hold it
to be my peculiar province to keep a watchful eye upon
passing events connected with the pursuits and business
of practical agriculture. My attention has been more
particularly drawn, during the past week, to a very in-
teresting trial which took place at Lincoln during the
late assize, i. c, Henley v. Woodcock. Henley sues
Woodcock for the damages which were sustained by
some thirty or forty farmers in having purchased of him
what they alleged to be defective mangold wurzel-seed
the growth and stock of the said Woodcock, of whom he
purchased it under warranty as sound and good seed.
These farmers (of which some 34 were brought forward)
complained that owing to this bad seed they had very
indifferent crops, and in some instances nearly a failure ;
that they claimed compensation of Henley, who, to save
himself, makes the like claim upon Woodcock, who re-
fuses the claim, hence the action at law. The case came
before Lord Campbell and an intelligent jury of prac-
tical men, who after a patient investigation, occupying
the whole day, gave a verdict for the defendant.

Now, it .ippears that the seed did possess germinating
powers, but in a weakly state, owing most probably to
some difficulty in getting it properly harvested, or some
irregularity in the ripening, or to taking harm in the

stock, or the thousand- and-one occurrences which often
prevent a successful ingathering of the crop and its
safe preservation. I know not who was to blame in
this matter : seedsmen generally prove their seeds before
sending them out ; but they have a simple, ready, and
almost certain way of doing it, and they attend to this
germinating process so carefully, that a far greater pro-
portion of tender seeds would grow under their manage-
ment, than in a common field, under the best culture
and finest mould ; hence they will warrant their seeds,
and will prove their growth too. How then is a farmer
to obtain redress or compensation for a lost crop owing
to the circumstance of sowing a defective seed — defective
perhaps from various causes, as named above, but which
he cannot generally detect from casual examination of the
seed in the sample ? The general inquiry in making a
purchase is with the view to ascertain the precise stock,
and if it is good growing seed ; being satisfied on this
point, and very often from actual observation of sample
stocks in process of germination, he takes his seed and
sows it ; some dry hot sunny days succeed, the soil
possibly a little chequery, when if the seed be weak or
partially defective from over-heating or otherwise, he is
almost certain to lose his crop ; but if he tries their ger-
minating powers in a carefully-prepared way, he will
find a fair average number grow. It is thus that he is

ft e 2

438

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

prevented from making a clear and satisfactory claim
upon his seedsman, and which the jury at Lincoln have
fully confirmed.

The suggestions I Jesire to give are very simple. The
first is, that every farmer should be prudent enough to
purchase his seed early, and prove them before sowing.
Second, that he should thoroughly prepare his
soil, and then wait a reasonable time, if necessary, for a
suitable season for sowing them. Third, that he
shall never sow them without some mild stimulating
manure to ensure their rapid growth after germination.
Fourth, that he shall commence hoeing as soon as prac-
ticable, and as frequently stir the soil by horse-hoe or
otherwise, as his judgment dictates : the oftener the
better. The usual mode of testing the growth of seeds
is by taking a certain number, and lay them between
layers of coarse flannel ; then water them freely with
rain-water at a mild temperature, drain off all super-
fluous water, and lay the flannels in a convenient place,
having a temperature of about from GO to 65 degs.
Fahrenheit, taking care to keep the flannels at an equal
moisture throughout, but not too wet ; and in about
forty-eight hours signs of life in vigorous seeds will ap-
pear. -The proportion of germinating seeds must be
noted, which thus proves the experiment. Another
course is to plant a given number of seeds in a flower-
pot, and place them in a hot-bed, or in a forcing-house
or frame. This is favourable to weak seeds, and does
not well prove the quality and strength. A better plan
is to sow a few rows in the garden or other convenient
spot, and mark the state of the land and the result.
Many such schemes are devised ; at all events, if far-
mers would but give themselves this little trouble, it
would save them from many vexatious disappoint-

ments, and generally secure a safe and profitable
crop.

The season for sowing clover and grass seeds is at
hand. I would by all means urge every grower to make
an early purchase, and try them as above. These seeJs
are very often heated in stock, and lose their vitality.
Clovers are almost universally mixed : the general mer-
chants, buying- many samples, put them together ; those
of a like quality are placed in one bulk, and vice versd,
from whence they are retailed to their various customers,
called seedsmen. These again sell to the farmers ; and
as they seldom lay in large heavy stocks, they are often
in difficulty to match, and towards the close of the sea-
son many inferior parcels are sold, and every endeavour
is made to clear out the old stocks ; hence everything
goes up. It is a great folly to sow inferior seed of any
kind, and more particularly any of those seeds which
have to make their way under a most promising plant of
barley or other corn. The vigorous plant here is sure
to live; but the weakly, sickly, almost lifeless emanation
of a defective seed is as sure to die. Be sure to deal
with a trustworthy and substantial seedsman. You may
be guided in a great measure by such a man ; still it
would be wise to try all for yourself; it would guide you
as to the quantity you would require per acre. I have
had capital crops of clover from eight or nine pounds of
good seed, and I have seen very inferior crops from
double that quantity. From twelve to fourteen pounds
of good seed per acre is sufficient on all good clover
land, and in a good state for its growth. Only be com-
monly prudent and cautious in these matters, and much
good will result. Think of a lost mangold crop, a lost
turnip crop, a lost clover plant, a lost seed crop ! You
cannot estimate the precise damage.

THE ADVANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN IRELAND.

A General Election interferes terribly with business.
City people shake their heads, and prepare to wait with
due resignation until it is over. In the country, how-
ever, they more zealously keep up the excitement of the
thing, and, despite railways and telegrams, are con-
tinually riding in hot haste in and out of head-quarters.
The local prints abound with meetings and addresses,
in which the nice art is evinced of saying as much and
meaning as little as possible. But we arc not to be
caught in this way. We can only shake our heads
and wait until it is over. Notwithstanding that day
after day we see, here, there, and everywhere, country
gentlemen stirring up rural audiences, we feel with the
used-up exquisite, " there is nothing in it." Green
and Blue, Derby ito and Russellite, must settle their dif-
ferences ere we can hope for anything very useful or
practical — in a word for much in our way. All the
world, for a week or two, is electioneering ; and the
farmer, like the rest of his neighbours, has not much
time to mind his own business.

At such a period, then, any exception to this rule
stands out in a very strong light. It must redound

more than ever to tho credit of those who can evin now
talk calmly and ably of what really concerns them —
beyond the designs of Mr. D'Israeli or the prospects of
Mr. Bright. Stranger still is it that to the sister-king-
dom we must turn for any such illustration as that we
would seek. The Dublin Society has just held its usual
spring cattle and implement Show. Our own report will
tell how the character of this meeting has been more than
usually high. Wo shall leave this to speak for itself,
and dwell here rather on tho evening gathering, at
which the premiums were distributed. It rauit be un-
derstood, that any gentlemen who take part in these
proceedings arc expected to have something to say, and
tho occasion lias often, ere now, been distinguished by
some very excellent addresses. But the English reader
will be pleased to picture to himself a body of Irishmen
assembled together on the eve of an election, with a
row of industrious reporters before them — we will not
even have his Excellency the Lord Lieutenant present
to keep them in order— and we can readily imagine the
exciting topics they would turn to. The safer plan,
after all, will be to Jet our imagination run no such

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

439

riot, but to read as attentively as it deserves what was
said on the award of the prizes at Ihe Royal Dublin
Society's Show.

There was, wo are told, a crowded attendance, and
as is usually the case in the sister kingdom, many
amongst the gentlemen called up quite equal to ad-
dressing a public body. But we find nothing of a fatal
fluency. It is remarkable, on the other hand,
how well every speaker kept himself to the subject-
matter of the evening's meeting, and how carefully each
one avoided anything like a mere party cry, however
popular he might have known it to be. The English-
man who returned thanks on behalf of the judges, did
not speak more practically or seriously to what agri-
culture had done than did those who preceded or fol-
lowed him. It is, indeed, an encouraging and me-
morable sign to see the Irish themselves dwelling with
honest pride on such a pursuit, and gladly testifying to
what it had done for their country. The Lord Chan-
cellor must have known the people far better than
many of their professed friends, when, just that time
since, all he asked was that they should be left to them-
selves for ten years. More or less, they have been. It
has unquestionably been a period remarkable for the
little public agitation cai-ried on, and with this result,
that "never was Ireland in a more prosperous and
healthy state than at this moment."

The general development of the agi'iculture of the
sifter-kingdom is almost altogether attributable to tlio
influence of the Dublin, the Irish Improvement, and
other similar associations. These have especially tended
to raising the position and character of the Irish laud-
lord. They have imbued him with that greatest of all
incentives — an actual pleasure in the pursuit. Ho
appears now continually in entries and lists of prizes as
a breeder and an exhibitor. In fact, for sometime past
he has been rather too strong here for the farmer him-
self. It was a move, however, in the right direction :
impossible as it must be for " My Lord" or " the Mar-
quis" to have a herd of Durhams or a flock of Leicesters
without the tenantry eventually benefiting by the use of
them. The country is now coming surely to I'eap the
fruits of all this. Year after year, as we have to report
on our annual visits, some new district is invaded,
Another great man learns to take a pride in the culti-
vation of his property, and the consequence is already
apparent. Never, we are assured on the authority of the
Irish Lord Chancellor, was the kingdom doing so well,
while we leave it to his Lordship to trace back how
much of this is associatedwith the advance of agriculture.
Thus comparatively early, too, in its history, an ob-
servant Englishman, referring to the best kinds of
stock, declares it " an extraordinary thing that while in
England the breed of shorthorns was almost restricted
to certain districts — at any rate was not spread over the
country, as it appeai-ed to be in Ireland — he thought
he was justified in saying that Ireland appeared to be a
nursery of shorthorns ; for whether it were in the
beautiful and romantic Kerry, or in the mountains of
Wicklow, or the plains of Meath, shorthorns appeared
to thrive and flouriijh everywhere, He presumpU it vva3

because this was really and truly the * green isle,' and
it seemed that where a shorthorn got good grass there
it would thrive well. He did not know whether it would
be correct to say that this was a country of milk and
honey, but he was quite certain that it was a land of
milk and beef." More than this, the Irish have not
only the shorthorn distributed all over the island, but
there are those who maintain that they huve also some
of the best of the breed.

And this brings us to another branch of the subject.
We will not be content with only what the Lord Chan-
cellor, Lord Cljncarty, Sir Edward M'Donncl, or the
Honourable Mr. Hancock could say in Dublin. The Irish
tenant-farmer, too, will learn to speak for himself about
his own business. There has been recently published a
letter addressed to Captain Croker, the late Secretary
of the Irish Agricultural Improvement Society, and
written by Mr. Luke Christy, an Irish tenant-
farmer. We do not hesitate to rank this as one
of the most able and useful communications on
the breeding and showing of stock that we have
ever met with. For years past, as our readers are
aware, have we been denouncing the injurious and
absurd condition to which breeding stock are brought*
But it has been hard work to get breeders to go with
us. As a rule, they have rather upheld the practice ;
taking care, of course, to keep very quiet on the losses
they themselves have sustained by the system. But it
is refreshing to hear a man speak out like Mr. Christy,
and to see him parade such beautiful victims as
Bridesmaids, May Queens, and Kilbogget Lasses,
before the blushing ofienders that have gained such
costly victories. We repeat that so far the pros-
perity of agriculture in Ireland has been mainly attri-
butable to the agricultural societies. But it will never
do for our friends across the Channel to follow our ex-
ample, and obstinately shut their eyes to the abuses of
these associations. It is weakness to say they cannot bo
put a stop to ; and even if some influential culprit does
retire in dudgeon, perhaps so much the better. The
Council of the Irish Society must encourage such men
as Mr. Christy to speak out, and must act on what
they say. It is but arguing a truism, after all, to show
the fallacy of breeding from over-pampered animals;
but not a tithe of these evil consequences is ever
knoivn, and he does good service who exposes them.
It is, in fact, simply a plan of obtaining prices and
prizes on false pretences ; and we are by no means sure
but the judges should bo included in the indictment.

It speaks well for the progress of the sister-kingdom
when she can enforce such a lesson as this upon us.
Let it not, however, bo lost upon herself, and we shall
have Ireland, by one of the most tangible of tests,
taking high rank in the pursuits of agriculture. There
is certainly every hope of her doing so. At the
last Council Meeting of the Improvement Society
Mr. Douglas' famous two-year-old heifers were dis-
qualified as not having bred. The white heifer, bought
of Mr. Booth, was never in calf; while the poor Queen
of Trumps died on her voyage out with a calf in her.
It appeius rather hard to withhold the prize in this in.

440

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

stance, but the principle of insisting on a live calf is
itself thoroughly sound. It goes directly to the cor-
rection of the abuse.

MR, DOUGLAS'S PRIZE HEIFERS.

The following letter was read at the last Council Meeting
of^the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland :
<• AtJielstaneford, March 28, 1859.

"My Dear Sik, — The heifer I showed at Londonderry,
which was awarded the first prize in the two-years-old class,
also the Furcell challenge cnp, was sold by me to a Mr. Bar.
ret, of Henderson, Kentucky, at a very long price, and war-
ranted in calf. She sailed from Londonderry in November
last for New Orleans, but along with a number of others died
OB the passage, from the severity of the voyage. Mr. Black

(brother-ia-iaw to Mr. Barrett) of Liskss, Omagh, Co. Tyrone,
was entrusted with carrying out the arrangements of the ship-
ment, &c., and can testify to the fact as I have stated. I can
give you my word and honour the Ciueen of Trumps was in
calf to the bull Sir James the Rose, and can afford certificate
from the herdsman that such was the case. I believe this in-
formation will be satisfactory to you, and will feel obliged by
your forwarding me the premium. Venus de Medici has not
qualified herself.

"Mr. Black will be at the Royal Dublin spring show, and
you can see him there. I shall not be present. — Yours, truly,

" J. M. Royse, Esq." " James Douglas.

Resolved — " That the secretary do write to Mr. James
Douglas, and express the regret of the council that, as the
heifer did not produce a live calf as required by the condition
in the premium sheet, the prize cannot be paid to him,"

THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY.

SPRING SHOW.

The Annual Spring Show of this Society has just
passed off, and, on the whole, very successfully. The
Irish breeders turned out well ; at the same time they
were not allowed to retain all the honours, their English
friends having taken a fair place, and given them some-
thing to do as well as to think upon. Last year the
challenge cup of the Society went to Athelstaneford ;
this year it goes to Lancashire, very near Towneley-hall
where the former cup found its final destination. Whilst'
therefore, the Emerald Isle has done well, it must put
on the steam and do something better yet, if there be
any desire to retain that trophy which is so peculiarly
their own.

In former times the Spring Show was held in open
yards, with 'ranges of sheds, where the cattle were nei-
ther comfortably lodged nor were they seen to advan-
tage. Last year a new hall was opened for the pur-
poses of the meeting, and although it is still unfinished,
it affords a vast accession to the comfort of the animals
as well as to the visitors. That it is not entirely
finished does not, we regret to say, augur well for the
public spirit of our Irish friends ; and we think that, for
their own sake, they ought not to lose time in subscrib-
ing such an amount as will allow the Society to put the
finishing touches to their really commodious and hand-
some building.

The Spring Show of the Dublin Society has, for seve-
ral years, been much resorted to by those who were de-
sirous of procuring young bulls, especially of the short-
horned breed ; and, as a consequence of this demand,
the yearling-bull section is always a very prominent
feature in the show. It is true that many of the ani-
mals brought forward were, like Pindar's razors, got up
more for sale than for use, and many brutes found their
way into the show catalogue which ought never to
have been kept as bulls. Some recent restrictive mea-
sures, amounting to a prohibition in the case of low-
priced animals, have done good in weeding this depart-
tncnt; and if numbers arc fewer, the section presents a

more select appearance. Those who consider small prices
the criterion of cheapness and excellence, may no doubt
regret the change ; but all who know wherein their true
interests lie, will rejoice in the comparative freedom
which now exists from the annoyance of being crowded
up by a mass of rubbish.

The great interest of the show in the cattle classes
was, of course, centred in the short-horns. In the
section of yearling bulls, Mr. Ambler's " Royal Turk"
got the first prize. He is a nice and rather stylish ani-
mal, rich colour, nice shoulders, but not very good in
his hind quarters. He was awarded also the medal as
the second-best of all the prize bulls — the wisdom of
both of which decisions was very generally disputed. A
capital yearling, purchased by Mr. Allan Pollok, at
Lord Dufferin's sale, was placed second ; a position to
which his good shape, particularly in his back and loins,
and his prime quality, well entitled him. The third
bull belonged to Col. Leslie — a little coarse, but having
plenty of good hair, and otherwise a sufficient substance
to make him very promising. The highly-commended
and commended bulls, belonging to Messrs. Pollok,
Keating, Wood, and Napier, were all of good quality,
the first being a little narrow round the breast, and the
latter perhaps not quite equal on the back. But we
may say that the judges could have had no difficulty
whatever in adding to the honorary list in this section.

The prizes in the two-year-old section were well con-
tested ; but there is not a doubt that the right one was in
the right place, when Mr. Barnes' white bull, Dr.
McHale, of regular and unmixed Warlaby descent, not-
withstanding his Celtic cognomen, was placed first, al-
though he did beat on this occasion Sir Colin, the gold-
medal bull of the Derry show. Dr. McHale is through-
out a prime bull, his back and loin unimpeachable, and
we do not hesitate to say that he was the best bull in
the show of any age, although he did not get the
medal as such. Sir Colin is unquestionably a good
bull, but he is a littlo coarse in the shoulder, and a little

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

441

leggy, and we may meution, for the benefit of all con-
cerned, that he too claims Warlabyas the "home of bis
ancestors." Amongst the highly commended in this
section was Mr, Ellison's Baron St, Leonards, which
ranked as the third yearling at the spring show in 1858,
receiving also a commendation at the Derry meeting of
the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society ; the
others were Mr. Maxwell's Havelock, by Musician, a
bull bred by Col. Towneley ; Mr. Pollok's Bandy, by
the former prize bull Bamboo ; Mr. Seaton's Jacob
Faithful, by Jacob, another victor at former shows ; and
Mr. Chaloner's Candidate, by Hopewell.

In the three-year-old section the first prize was taken
by Capt. Banbury's Cornet. This animal was second in
the two-year-old class last year, and is a son of the prize
bull Cadet, of Warlaby descent. He has a capital shoulder
and back, and although he has a little of his sire's hair,
has a good touch of flesh. Mr. Barcroft's Beau, of
Kilbogget, a bull of considerable substance, was second;
Mr. Christy's Emblem, Mr. Pollok's Imperial Prince,
and Col. Leslie's Fugleman received each honorary cer-
tificates.

The next section contained all shorthorn bulls calved
prior to 185G, amongst which there were several of
more than ordinary merit, and prize winners in their
day. The first prize was given to Priam, belonging to
Lord Talbot-de-Malahide, a bull which is very defec-
tive behind the shoulder, but was the prize bull in his
class at the Waterford Meeting of the Royal Agricultu-
ral Improvement Society in 1857, and also at the
Spring Show, last year. A tolerably good bull, be-
longing to Mr. Roe, got the second prize, being pre-
cisely the same rank as that which he attained at the Dub-
lin Society's Show, last year; but a place to which he
was scarcely entitled on this occasion, seeing that he
had Mr. Ball's Jacob against him, to which the judges
gave an honorary certificate. Jacob was the prize bull
in 1856, and also on other occasions ; is a son of Hope-
well, and of the Victoria race, by his dam. When we find
an animal of his quality put behind such a bull as that
which got the second prize, we are apt to feel inclined to
ask why quality is so specially desired, seeing that it,
as well as other important points, have apparently been
overlooked in this case. Mr. Welsh's Sir Colin Camp-
bell, bred at Athelstaneford, was also justly highly
commended, whilst Capt. Bunbury's, Mr. Rutherford's,
and Mr. Jones's bulls were commended. The two for-
mer are somewhat allied in blood, the sire of the one
and the grandsire of the other, by the dam's side, being
Druid (10,140).

In the yearling heifer class, Mr. Ambler stood first,
as he did in the corresponding class of bulls. His
Lady Blanche is a very sweet heifer, of good quality,
good back and loin, and a prime coat of hair. Next to
her come Mr. Thomas Lee Norman's Maradan the
Seventh ; also a nice animal, but deficient behind.
Pair Maid, also belonging to Mr. Norman, was com-
mended ; and the further list of honorary awards in this
section consisted of Mr. Fitzwilliam Welsh's two heifers,
Pride of Douglas, and Maid of Islanmore ; Lord
Monk's Myrtle 13th, and Red Nell Gwyune ;

Mr. Jones's Lady of the Bath; Major Stanley
M'Clintock's Zingara ; Mr. Christy's Limerrck Lass
the Third; and three capital heifers, belonging to
Capt. Ball, viz., Letitia, Agatha, and Josephine.
Such a list of high commendations tells at once the
character of the class, which, indeed, was even more
than usually good.

The two-year-old heifer section was the ruost hotly
contested in all the exhibition, and presented an
array of excellence which is very rarely to be met
with. The first prize was awarded to Lord Cla~
rina's Charity the Second, a magnificent animal,
taking her in front, but very decidedly inferior
behind. She has a fine arched rib, and her hair and
touch are excellent. She is by Lord Derby (12,694), and
her dam by Booth's Forest (10,240). The second
place in the section was taken by Luna, a heifer now
belonging to Mr. Welsh, of Limerick, but bred by Mr.
Sanday, of Holme-Pierrepoint. Her loin is capital, and
her quality good, but she is not to say an even heifer.
Besides these two heifers there were four highly-com-
mended and two commended in this section. The lead-
ing heifers amongst the former were Capt. Gunter's
Moss Rose, and Mr. Barnes' Lady Hopewell. We need
scarcely remind our readers that Moss Rose was the
second heifer in her class at the Northallerton show, and
it has occasioned a great deal of surprise that she only
got a third place in Dublin. Lady Hopewell (Barnes')
is a noble heifer, was second at Derry, and is more equal
than either of the two prize heifers, whilst Moss Rose
again, if anything, excels even her in this respect. The
inference is, therefore, that a third for either of
those two heifers was the wrong place. We freely and
frankly admit the eminent grand qualities which the
winning heifers, particularly the first placed, possess; bu*
wc maintain, at the same time, that neither of them is
equal throughout to either Moss Rose or Lady Hope-
well. The other two highly-commended heifers were
Capt. Gunter's Fair Maid of Wetherby, and Mr. Cam-
pion's Lady Barcroft; whilst the simply commended
were Mr. Lee Norman's Princess Royal, and a heifer
belonging to Sir Percy Nugent.

We have already mentioned that the " Irish Farmers'
Gazette Challenge Cup" comes agai^ to the English
side of the Channel. This, together with the Gold
Medal given for the best of all the prize breeding
heifers, giving milk, or in calf, and the special prize be-
longing to the three-year-old class, was awarded to
Mr. Richard Eastwood's heifer Rosette, bred by Mr.
Wetherall, and thus adding another laurel to the many
which already grace the Aldborough herd. Rosette is
almost a perfect beauty. Her fine head, neck, and
shoulders, which are so beautifully run into one another,
is a complete picture ; her barrel is also magnificent,
and were it not for a droop in the hind quarters, she
must be declared faultless. Following her in the class
came the appropriately- named Sweetheart, bred by
Mr. Grundy, and now the property of Mr. Welsh, of
Limerick. Sweetheart is a very equal heifer, well made
up in all her best points, and will yet do greater things,
or wc are much mistaken, if all goes well with her. The

41-2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

honorary commendations in the section were confined
to Mr. Welsh's Maid of Kilbogget and Mr. Christy's
Queen of Beauty the second. The Maid weis the win-
ner for her breeder Mr. Barcroft, in 1857, when a
yearling, of the Challenge Cup ; but last year she stood
third to Mr. Douglas's two grand heifers. She calved
lately, and when shown was " out of sorts," Mr.
Christy's Queen is a remarkably fine animal in many
respects, particularly in her shoulder, back, and loin.

The last section in the shorthorn division was allotted
to cows of any age, in calf, or having had a live calf
within twelve months preceding the date of the show ;
and in this section Mr. Ambler stood again the winner
of the first prize. His cow Woodbine, bred by Mr. R.
Dudding, Panton, Wragby, has proved herself firat-rate
at Chester, and at many other shows in England. She
again takes home the special prize in her class, and the
Gold Medal as the best of all the milch cows in the
yard. Mr. Welsh, of Limerick, was second with a very
good cow, bred by Mr. Maxwell, of Cvoova.

The judges of shorthorns were H. Smith, Drax Ab-
bey; George Atkinson, Seahara ; and James Parkinson,
Lay fields.

The chief interest of the Show, at least in the cattle
section, was of course confined in a great measure to
the Shorthorns ; and if it had not been for the Kerries, the
back alley of the building, which was occupied with the
" miscellaneous breeds" would have been comparatively
neglected. The Kerries, however, being such favourites
with the Irish ladies, drew around them a constant stream
of fair admirers, and certainly some of the animals ex-
hibited were unique specimens of the bovine race. This
breed is very little known in England ; but we feel sure,
that if known, it would be much run upon, especially
by the occupants of suburban villas, and others, who have
not much ground at their disposal, but who would at the
same time feel desirous of enjoying the benefit of their
own dairy, with the possession of a pet cow. The milk
of the Kerry is very rich, and produces more butter
than that of the Ayrshire and some of the other breeds
which are considered as being specially dairy cattle.
They are of different colours, most of them being black,
or black with large patches of white, brown, and brown
with a white or strawberry back. Some of the speci-
mens of C3WS in-calf exhibited in Dublin did not much
exceed 36 inches in height, and although others were rather
larger-sized, the breed is diminutive, and occupies the
same place amongst cattle as the Shetland pony does
amongst horses. The principal exhibitors at Dublin
were, Lord Charlemont, Hon. W. Talbot, Sir Edward
M'Donnel, Mr. Ralph Cusack, and Mr. Campion.

In the other breeds which were included in this
division, there were several fair Devons exhibited by
Lord Charlemont, and Scotch polled by Lord Talbot de
Malahide and Mr. Allan I'oUok. At one period the
Angus and Galloway breeds appeared likely to occupy a
fair position amongst Irish cattle: but the all-conquering
Short-horn has tended to prevent this, although occasion-
ally some good lots are to be met with, amongst which
the herds belonging to the two gtmlcmen we have
nmed, to Lord Lurgan, and one ar twQ other?, whose

names we have met with in the catalogue of bygone Irish
shows, stand pre-eminent. Those breeds, however, would
be found very profitable on some of the middling classes
of land in Ireland, and they produce, as our readers
well know, a splendid description of cattle, when crossed
with the Shorthorn. Lord Talbot's cow was, we were
informed, exhibited by his Lordship at Paris in 1856,
and was a winner at that Great Exhibition of All Nations.
The specimens of the other breeds in the division scarcely
deserve special notice.

Considering the character of the show of fat stock
which was held in Dublin in November last, we ex-
pected to have seen a better exhibition at this time ; but
we were disappointed, and the best animals in the divi-
sion were Lord Shannon's Devon ox, Mr. Christy's
SLorlhorn cow, and Mr. Pollock's Kerry heifer. With
these exceptions, the animals brought forwaid were not
above mediocrity.

The entries in the sheep sections were fully as numer-
ous as usual; but this department of the Spring Show
in Dublin is seldom overcrowded. The Leicester Class
was generally very good ; and in the shearling rams,
Mr. Owen got first and second prizes with two prime
sheep , the first having been bred by himself, and the second
by Mr. Torr. Col. C. P. Leslie, I\I. P., received a com-
mendation for his shearling, bred in Scotland. In aged
rams, Mr. Owen was again the winner of the first prize
with bis three-shear ram — very good in back and breast :
and Mr. Themdcrwas highly commended — being equiva-
lent to second prize — for his three-shear ram. Both of
these sheep were bred by their exhibitors. IVIr. Them-
der's two lots of hogget rams took first and second
prizes. These were both very good lots, and descended
from the flocks of Messrs. Sanday and Cresswell. A
pen of styliah ewes, belonging to Mr. Owen, got the
first prize in their section ; and Mr. Riall's pen was
highly commended. Mr. Livingston Thompson also
exhibited a lot of very nicely-bred Leicesters in this
section. In ewe hoggets Mr. Owen and Mr. Themder
were again first and second. Some of the other lots in
this section were also of a good sort.

In long-woolled sheep not qualified to compete as
Lt:icesters, Mr. Beale Browne had it nearly all his own
way, having got all the first prizes in the class ; Mr.
David Kerr, a well-known Irish breeder, of long-
establibhed repute, being second to liim in the shearling
and hogget ram sections, and Mr. Bole in that of ewe
hoggets. Still i we thought that Mr. Browne's sheep
were, in some cases, scarcely as good as we have seen
him exhibit at other times.

In the short-woolled class, nearly every animal shown
were Shropshires, a breed wh'ch is fast gaining favour in
Ireland, and many of the pens were from the flocks of
some of our best Midland breeders. Thejudgcs, howevsr,
were apparently prepossessed in favour of long-wools,
and, consequently, a more open fleece, with a longer
staple than belongs to the Shropshire, was preferred by
them, wherever there was a choice. The successful
exhibitors were Mr. Broughton and IMr. Hamilton.

In the Cheviot class there were so:ne good sherp
^hown, but the competition was confined to twv c.\hi-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

443

bltors — the Marquis Coni'ngliam and Lord Clermont.
The prizes were pretty well divided, Lord Clermont
being, on the whole, the most successful.

The Irish shows are always well supplied with a good,
useful description of swine, and the Dublin Society's
exhibition was no exception to the general rule. In the
coloured breeds the successful exhibitors of boars were
Lord Clermont, Drs. Taylor, Radcliff, and Collins, and
Mr. Rutherford. Of coloured sows and litters, Messrs.
Macken, Joyce, Mctge, Sugden, Tomkinson, and Wil-
son. The pure Berkshires, with few exceptions, were
those which took the lead in this class ; and whilst there
were some excellent animals shown, particularly by
Lord Clermont and Mr. Joyce, it struck us that, as a
class, the coloured were not equal to the white. The
breeding sows of the white breeds were the best we have
seen at any of the Irish shows ; and it appears to us
that the white breeds are now mo. e in favour in Ireland
than even the Berkshires. The boars shown on the part
of the Irish exhibitors by Lord Lurgan, Mr. Ellison, Mr.
Patteson, and Mr. Peart, were exceedingly good ; and the
credit of England was well sustained by Mr. Wilkinson, of
Roundbay, Leeds, who was also a successful competitor.
In the best section of this deimrtment, breeding sows,
Lord Lurgan and Mr. Peart were the prize winners ;
and in the litters Messrs. Pollok, Ellison, and Metge
took first prizes, and the Duke of Leinster, Mr. Pollok,
and Mr. Rutherford second.

We cannot say much in favour of the poultry exhibi-
tion. It ought to have been a great deal better, consi-
dering that poultry and their products form a not
inconsiderable item in the receipts of the class of small
occupiers which forms such a large proportion of the
Irish tenantry. A great export trade is carried on in
these articles from every part of Ireland from which a
steamer sails ; and the universal dissemination of the best
breeds of a useful kind — such as the Dorking and Spanish
fowl and the Aylesbury duck —is most desirable. As it is,
the best lots appear to be in the hands of twD or three
individuals, whose names we meet with in the catalogues
every year, without much variation, or addition to their
numbers. The best lots of Cochins were those exhibited
by Messrs. Lugton and Wight. Of Dorkings, by Col.
Leslie and Mr. Parrel's were very good ; Mr. R. P. Wil-
liams also very good, and Mr. Perrin. The two latter gen-
tlemen, with Mr. Warburton, exhibited some very fair
Spanish. In spangled Hamburgs Mr. R. P. Williams
was successful, one of his lots in particnlar being very
fine, whilst he was no less fortunate with his white-
crested black fowl. Col. Hill's turkeys, Mr. Hyland's
Aylesbury ducks, and Mrs. Green's Rouens were the
best in their respective sections.

The bhosv of horses, which are chiefly of an agricultural
class, is held on the last day of the exhibitioD, and from want
of sufficient room aud of prop?r arrangement, the inspection of
this department at the Spring Shows is always an unaatiafactory
piece of buaiuesa. Stallions of all kinds and ages are mixed to-
gether iu one part, aud mares, colts, and fillies ia another ;
and this must continue to be the case, until a sufficient amount
of apace ia provided for all the purposes of the show. Some
years ago, when we began first to attend the Spring Shows of
the Royal Duljliu Society, the horse depaituieut attracted very

little attention ; but the case is altered now, and the Spring
Meetings bring together a considerable number of stallions,
which although, perhaps, not of a first-class description, are
yet of a more useful character than we have seen them-
It occurs ^to U3, that the prizes offered are not sufficiently
large to induce the owners of firat-rate draught
stallions to send such for competition in Dublin ;
and we have no hesitation in saying that if the
Society would make the prizes something worth contending
for, there would be no lack of good horses. The prevailing
breed was the Clydesdale ; and although some were importa-
tions from Scotland, they were not up to the mark of stallions
of this breed, which one meets with at the shows of the
Highland Society, when such are held at Glasgow. There
were also some Suflolks, and a Norman horse. The best
stallion on the ground was Mr. Mdioy's Diamond, a bay
ClyJesdale, which has gained several prizes on former occa-
sions both at the shows of the Koyal Dublin, aud the Agri-
cultural Improvement Society. He was bred in Scotland, baa
good shapes and light action. On this occasion he only got
an honorary certificate, his previous successes having precluded
him from obtaining the special prize. In the section of stal-
lions foaled prior to January, 1855, Mr. Rogeraon'a chesuut
got the prize. He is a strong substantial animal, but a little
coarse. Mr. Mill was second with his five-year-old Clydes-
dale. In the nest section, that of stallions foaled since 1855,
there were nine entries, but none of sufficient merit to obtain
any of the prizes. Two Clydesdale mares, belonging to Mr
Boyle and Mr. Welsh, got two prizes in their section. They
were of a very ordinary sort. No merit in the colts, and Mr.
Rogerson and Mr. Durie got first aud second pricsa for their
fillies.

IMPLEMENTS.

Owing to the space which is now taken up by the new
buildings which are in course of erection on the lawn
behind the Society's house, the bounds allotted to the
implement section were more circum.scribed Jhan they
used to be. However, the arrangement of the sheds was
well contrived, and not an inch was lost which could
be rendered available. The Society does not award
prizes for implements ; but owing to the fact that many
of the Irish gentry and farmers being themselves out for
procuring a supply, or giving their orders at the Spring
Show, there is always sufficient inducement olTered to
manufacturers to come forward, and on this occasion
there was no lack of English as well as of Irish ex-
hibitors. We shall not enter into a minute report
of the lots which were shown, because they have,
for the most part, been already reported upon in our
columns, but shall confine ourselves to a brief summary
of the names of the principal exhibitors, with the dif-
ferent articles belonging to each.

Richmond and Chandler, of Salford: Chafl' ma-
chines, corn and oilcake-crushers, linseed mills, turnip-
cutters, steaming apparatus, grubbers, chain harrows,
haymaking machines, horse rakes, turnip drills, broad-
cast seed-machines, &c.

Thomas Perry and Son, Bilston and Glasgow : An
assortment of field gates, stable fittings, hurdles, wire
fencing and netting, iron garden-chairs, &c.

Fkedkrick Mason, Ipswich: Portable boilers witii regis-
tered steamers for cooking food for cattle, &c. ; oilcake and bean
gtiuding mills, and chaff eugiuea.

444

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Thos. Bigg, South wark : Sheep- dipping apparatus.
Tree and Co., Loudou : Drainiug-levels, agricultural
bironietera and thermometers, cattle gauges, &c.

A. and J. Fky, Bristol : Oilcake milla, corii-dressiDg ma-
chiaes, seed and manure drills, grass seed distributors, turnip
drills, chain harrows for one and two horses, horse hoes, horse
rakes, chaff machinea, oat and bean crushers, &c.

Tnos, Keenan and Sons, Dublin : Saws aud axes of dif-
ferent kinds, apparatus for blaitin^ roots and stumps of trees,
tools for wire-fencing, forester's tools, lawn-mowing machinea
on an improved principle, &c.

W. and J. KiTCHiE, Ardee : Drill corn-sowing machines
farm carts, winnowing machines, sowing and drill (ridging)
ploughs, grubbers of different sorts, ribbing machines, turnip
and mangel sowers, &c,

W. M. Cranston, London : Reaping and mowing ma-
chine for cutting grain and grass.

E. H. Bentall, Maldon : Double-ridge horse hoe?, har-
rows, oilcake mills, root-pulpers, patent broadshare and cul-
tivator.

James Eastwood, Blackburn, Lancashire : A variety o^
compound-action churns for hand or power.

John Edmondson and Co., Dublin : Ploughs, horse-
hoes, harrows, patent trussed whipple-trees, horse rakes,
cbali' cutters, one-horse gear, steel oat mills, oilcake breakers,
turnip cutters, all by Ransomes and Sims ; Bentairs ridging-
plough, NicTiolson's haymaker, Samuelsou's ditto, Harris's
drag rakes. Fry's horse rakes, Picksley and Sim's chaff
cutter. Fry's root pulper. Hunt's brush drills and cup drills.
Parke's steel digging forks, &c , &c., and a collection of
seeds and roots.

Hansomes and Sims, Ipswich : Portable steam enf;ineB,
thrashing machines, haymakers, drag rakes, bruising mills,
root cutters (Biddell's), &c.

Isaac James, Cheltenham: Liquid manure carts and
pumps, washing machines, &c.

Joseph Booth, Dublin : A general assortment of tools
for the use of foresters, hedgers, and mechanics.

Garrett and Sons, Saxmundham : Steam engines and
thrashing machines, corn drills, seed and manure drills,
manure distributors (Chambers'), horse hoes, corn dressing
machines of different sorts, grinding mills, oilcake breakers,
patent saw benches, haymaking machines, drag rakes, "Eagle"
mowing and reaping machine. Chambers' patent drop lever?
&c., &c.

J. Banks, Liverpool : Wrought iron fencing, hurdles,
gates, netting, garden seats, wire work, pig troughs, clod
cru.shers, Norwegian harrows, turnip drills, pulpers, corn
bruisers, cha machines, chain harrows, cast iron rick-stands,
portable furnaces and boilers, &c.

John Starkey & Co., Liverpool and Leeds : Several va-
rieties of washing, wringing, and mangling machines, garden
chairs, &c.

Thomas Pearson, Dublin: Burr millstones, corn screens,
separators, winnowing machines, and different kinds of wire-
work,

J. J. Mitchell, Dublin : Portable steam-engine, thrashing
machine, water carts, double-mould (ridging) plough, and farm
carts.

Alexander Shanks & Son, Arbroath: Mowing and
rolling machines.

Hughes & Sons, London : French millstones, iron blocks,
mill balls, &c.

Smith & Ashby, Stamford : Portable steam-engines, hay-
making machines, steel and iron tooth horae-rakes, haud-rakes.
portable flour mills, portable thrashing machiues, circular-saw
bench, chaff cutters, oilcake milla.

Thomas Bradford, Mancheatcr : Different kinds of
v/ashiug, wringing, and mangling machiues.

W, C. Cambridge, Bristol : Press wheel rollers, chain
harrows, and horse-rakea.

Paul & Vincent, Dublin : llorse-rakes, turnip sowers,
rollers, clod crushers, double mould (ridging) ploughs, swing
ploughs, grubbers, reaping machines, hay tosser, and various
samples of manures of which they are the manufacturers.

Samuel Eowsell, Chard, Somerset : Farm carts, gates,
and horse-rakes.

A. Nixon & Co., Liverpool : Portable steam-engines, and
thrashing machines.

John Hodges & Sons, Dublin: Cattle steaming
apparatus, malt ciloes, iron cisterns, troughs, gates, wire
fencing, &c.

Henry Bridges, London : A large variety of the new
patterns of his improved butter prints.

II. B. Guilds, London : Potato digging plough and cul-
tivator, and grain-dressing machines,

Picksley, Sims, and Co,, Leigh: Chaff-cutting machines,
gorae cutters, linseed, malt, and oil mills, bean mills, flour
mills, turnip cutters, pulpers, root graters, gorse mills,
washing machines, mangles, lawn-mowing machines, verge-
cutting machines, garden rollers, garden chairs, pig troughs,
poultry pots, handrakes on wheels, &c.

E. Archer, London : A variety of household and garden
machines.

Turner and Gibson, Dublin : Steam boilers and steam-
ing apparatus, iron piers, gates, models of roofs, ornamental
castings, garden sofas, &c.

W. Daniel, Dublin : Washing machines, portable gas
works, adapted for the manufacture of gas from either peat
or coal.
Brown aud Maj', Devizes : Portable steam engines, &c,
Clayton, Shuttlevvorth, and Co., Lincoln : Portable
steam engines, thrashing and dressing machines, portable
mills for steam power, circular-saw bench, &c.

A. Macdonald and Co., Belfast and Glasgow : Field
and entrance gates, straw cutters, turnip ditto, hurdles, wire
fencing, and garden wire work.

Hugh Carson, Warminster: Chaff cutting engines for
steam or horse power, chaff cutters for hand power, turnip
cutters, horse hoes, cheese presses, &c.

E. R. aud F. Turner, Ipswich : Portable steam engines,
thrashing machines, roller mills, chaff cutters, and oilcake
breakers.

Burgess and Key, London : Reaping machines, mowing
ditto, and grain separators.

James Haywood, Derby : Portable steam engines,
thrashing machines, saw-bench, &c.

John Howie, Glasgow: Fire-clay mangers, sewerage
pipes, drain tiles, &c.

HernuLewicz & Co., Westminster; Iron gates, hurdles,
garden chairs, wire fences, land rollers, grubbers, weighing
machiues, &c., &c.
Gallon, Bean, and Lumb, Leeds : Mortising machines.
N. Smith, Thrapston : Horse-rakes, steerage corn drills,
turnip and mangel drills, chaff machines; bean, oat, and
cake mills, &c.

John Williamson, Kendal: Portable thrashing ma-
chines, steam engines, and patent vortex turbines, &e.

Richard Hornsby & Son, Grantham : Portable etesm
engines, thrashing machines, dressing ditto, corn drills, &c.

MuNRO & Co., Bristol : Hayrakes, drills, chain har-
rows, &c.
Barrett, Exall, & Andriswes, Reading : Portable

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

U5

steam eiigiues, thrashiug machiues, hay machines, horse rakes,
grain mills, chaff cutters, &c.

W. Graham, Dublia : Steam eugiue, thrashing machines,
chaff cutters, turnip sowing machines, swing ploughs, grub-
bers, harrows, clod crushers, &c.

George Turner, London : A variety of small machines
for household use,

John Maguirb, Dublin : Patent stoves, wheat mills,
churns, &c.

Ferguson & Co., Dublin : Specimens of a variety of arti-
cles in gutta percha, including portable manure and other
pumps, millbands, &c.

O'Byrne & Co., Dublin : Washing machines, churns, &c.

R.& J. Reeves, Westbury, Wilts: Patent dry manure
distributors and corn drills.

A number of manure manufacturers and agents had slancla
in the yard, amongst which were the Dublin Manure Com-
pany ; J. Perry, Dublin, superphosphate of lime, &c. ; Roger-
son & Co., Dublin, guano, blood manure, &c,; Purdous,
Dublin, phospho-Peruvian guano, &c., &c.

EVENING MEETING.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRIZES.

The evening meeting for the announcement of the awards
was held in the Theatre of the Royal Dublin Society House,
at half-past eight o'clock. There was a crowded attendance,
and amongst those present were — The Lord Chancellor, the
Lord Mayor, Mr. Justice Hayes, Hon. George Ilandcock,
Dr. Adams, Dr. Johns, Mr. Alexander Parker, Mr. James
Haughton, Mr. C. Hamilton, Alderman Campbell, Sir E.
M'Donnel, Mr.R. Montgomery (secretary. Zoological Society),
and Joseph Hone, jun., &c.

On the motion of the Lord Chancellor, the chair was taken
by the Earl of Clancarty, one of the Vice-President? of the
DubUu Society.

Dr. Waller, in opening the proceedings, said that our
excellent and respected Viceroy had, with his usual courtesy
and desire to advance the interests of the country, signified
his intention to be present that night, as he had been on other
occasions, at the distribution of their prizes. He however
had, as secretary of the society, received a communication
from him two or three nights ago, in which he expressed his
deep regret at it not being in his power, in consequence of
his being under the necessity of leaving this country for
England, to take the chair as president of the society on that
occasion. He (Dr. Waller) did certainly regret very much
that they had not in the chair a nobleman who, he would say
— without drawing any comparison between him and other
Viceroys — was at all events distinguished in this, that he
had a most ardent desire to promote the interests of Ireland
on every opportunity that was afforded him of doing so.
He said that, because it was the concurrent testimony of all
parties, of all sects, and of all creeds in the country (applause).
But while he regretted that they had not the President of the
Royal Dublin Society in the chair, his regret was certainly
mitigated, as far as it could possibly be, by the substitute
they had the good fortune to see in his place (applause). In
his Btead they had the Senior Vice-President of the Royal
Dublin Society — they had an Irish nobleman—and what was
best of all, they had an Irish resident landlord — than whom a
more useful, honourable, and better chars\cter did not exist
(applause). They had one, too, who was pre-eminently
suited to preside over such a meeting as that —
a nobleman who thoroughly understood what cattle
werp, and who was himself a successful competitor ou

every occasion in Ireland, and one who stimulated and pro-
moted the best interests of agriculture in that country
(applause). With respect to the show of that day he (Dr.
Waller) had been informed by the best Judges that such a show
had never been seen in Ireland, or he might say anywhere else,
for it was especially a show of short-horns ; and at the Paris
Exhibition they beat [the whole world in that class of cattle.
The entries were about 400 black cattle, and a mere trifle
under what they had oa a former occasion, viz., 414 ; but
practically he believed an increase, because he understood that
of that 400 there was a greater number of black cattle for
breeding purposes than on former occasions, there being veiy
few of what were called butchers' cattle. There were 100
entries of sheep, and he understood the show of those animals
was not only good in quality but extensive in variety, including
Shropshires, short-wocUed Cheviots, &c. The pigs he under-
stood were very creditable, including the Essex, Hampshire,
and York varieties. The collection of agricultural machines
and implements was also extensive and valuable ; and he bad
been particularly struck |with those for reaping and mowing.
The value of machinery of the ^kind, in enabling those who
used them to anticipate the markets and to accomplish other
objects, was incontestable, and it was very short-sighted and
weak feeling on the part of the peasantry of that country to
seek to check the use of machinery. They ail recollected that
attempts were made bythe peasantry not long since to destroy
agricultural machinery. Now, he was not going to philosophise
with the poor man ; that was not a wise thing to do, nor was
he in the proper place for doing it ; but perhaps that was the
place to say a word or two to those who were the masters of
the poor. It would be well if the gentlemen of the country
would reason with those humble people who thought that ma-
chinery was the greatest evil that could befal them. The fal-
lacy bad been exploded in towns already. The artizau had
already learned that the machine was not his enemy. Educa-
tion had taught him that there were other physical means to
be employed besides human labour ; and the country gentle-
man should impress on the 'peasant that even if agricultural
machinery were multiplied a thousand-fold, and if the popula-
tion of the country were much greater than it was, still there
would be enough for him to do ; and that he should regard the
agricultural machine not as his foe, but as his co-agent and
friend. For he believed that in every country it would come
to this at last, that the functions of the physical would be dis-
charged by the brute, and the machine and the functions of the
intellectual only would be discharged by mankind (applause).
He believed he might say that the agricultural prospects of the
society as exhibited in the show of that day were such as gave
them very great reason to congratulate themselves. For, after
all, the agricultural interests of a country like Ireland were the
basis of its prosperity (Hear, hear), and the more they widened*
and strengthened, and deepened that basis, the stronger and
more permanent, the more useful, and the more beautiful
would be the structure which they would elevate upon it. The
present show was admittedly one of the finest that had ever
taken place in the country, and he trusted that on the next
occasion they met they would have as good reason as they had
now to say that the motto of Ireland was — as it certainly had
been for some years past — " Progress."

Sir Edward M'Donnel, in moving a vote of thanks to
the English gentlemen who had acted as judges, dwelt upon
the difficulties with which they had to contend in the discharge
of the task which they had so kindly undertaken ; and, vrhen
they bore in mind that these gentlemen had come over to this
country at great inconvenience, the meeting would cordially
joiu in tendering them a vote of thanks (applause), He re-

446

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

grettcd that he had been called upon to propose the resolution,
wishing that the duty had been entrusted to their excellent
vice-president, Mr. Foote, who was much more competent to
do so, and had been listened to with so much pleasure on
many occasions (Hear, hear) They were indebted to the Royal
Dublin Society for having been the first to introiuce gentlemen
from the other side of the water to act as judges, inasmuch
as it gave confidence to exhibitors that they would at all
events have impartiality. He did not mean to say that (here
were not gentlemen in this country who were perfectly com-
petent in every respect to fulfil and to decide as to the re-
lative merits of the various classes of stock exhibited; but
it might be said that their judgment was influeuccd by local
circumstances, whereas no such objection could apply to
judges from the sister-country (Hear, hear). Another ad-
vantage of that course was that it kept up the connecting tie
between the agricultural societies of England, Ireland, and
Scotland (Hear) ; and they might expect tint these judges
would fearlessly state their opinions, and tell the people of
Ireland whether they were improving or going back in agri-
cultural pursuits. These annual shows had another valuable
effect. If Irishmen were merely competing with one another,
the same attention would not be devoted to the breeding of
cattle that was now rendered necessary, in order to compete
with the markets of the empire; and it was a gratifying fact
that Dublin was considered the best market for obtaining prices
(Hear, hear). To give some idea of the effects to which he
had alluded on the country, he would read a return to show the
immense mcreaae that had taken placa in the number of
cattle produced. It was connected with the railway in which
he was most interested ; but he was sure the Midland Com-
pany could furnish a still larger return. In the year 1847
there were carried on the Great Southern and Western Rail-
was 48,000 head of cattle. In 1850, when the line was open
to Cork, 108,000; and in 1858, 332,000 (applause).
These figures, he thought, showed some of the satisfactory
results of the agricultural shows ; and they owe 1 a deep
debt of gratitude to the Royal Dublin Society for the suc-
ceesful effort it had male to promote them (Hear, hear)-
He trusted that agriculturists, ercouraged by the progress in
the feeding of catlle, would also compete in improviug the
condition of their farms. Wilhiu one year, that nasty chan-
nel wliich divided the two countries would, he might say, be
bridged across ; aud although there might be difTerences of
opinion as to what harbour should be selected for the Trans-
atlantic packet station, there could be scarcely a doubt that
Ireland would become the great high road to America, aud
that would add materially to the travelling population of this
country (Hear, her). He had, in conclusion, to move a
vote of thanks to those gentlemen who had ended their la-
bours as judges, by giving perfect satisfaction to all parties
(applause).

Mr. C. Hamilton seconded the motion, which was passed
by acclamation, on the suggestion of the Enrl of Clancarty.

Mr. Smith, in returning thanks, said that Sir Edward
M'DoDuel had told them that the duty of the judges was a
very disagreeable and arduous one. He assured them it was
so; but he had imposed on him a still more disagreeable one
(laughter), and on the part of the Englishmen who might be
Bclected by the society to act on future occasione, he pro-
tested against, being called upon to make a speech in a public
assembly like that, which was not so easy a task as the other
which they had been requested to undertake. He was aware
that the judges had a kind of stereotyped speech, but he should
best consult convenience by not repeating it now (laughter) ;
but though he did not msau to inflict u speech oa them, he

could not ait down without taking the opportunity of referring
to the great improvement which had been accomplished in the
breeding of stock in Ireland through the iuatrumeutality of ths
Royel Dublin Society. (Hear, hear.) He had had the plea-
sure of visiting the city on several occasions, and since he first
came — about fifteen years ago — the progress had been astound-
ing. (Hear, hear.) Tiiere was one feature in the exhibition
of that day which he coul 1 not help adverting to — namely, that
although the entries were, he believed, nearly as large as usuab
still there was almost an entire absence of those worthless and
ordinary-looking animals that he had seen on former occasions
(applause). Very few animals had been exhibited in the class
of shorthorns that would not, fifteen years ago, have been cou"
sidered creditable upon almost any man's farm, and he thought
that the Royal Dublin Society merited the thanks of the nation
at large for having been instrumental in improving — as he had
no doubt it had been the means of doing — the breed of cattle
in Ireland. (Hear, hear.) It was an extraordinary thing that
while in England the breed of ahorthorna was almost restricted
to certain districts — at any rate was not spread over the
country, as it appeared to be in Ireland — he thought he was
justified in Eaying that Ireland appeired to be a nursery of
shorthorns; for whether it were in the beautiful and romantic
Kerry, or in the mountains of Wicklow, or the plains ofMeath,
shorthorns appesred to thrive and flourish everywhere. He
presumed it was because this was really aud truly the "green
isle," and it seemed that where a shorthorn got good grass
there it would thrive well. He did not know whether it would
be correct to say that this was a country of milk and honey,
but he was quite certain that it was a land of milk aud beef
(laughter and applause.)

The Lord Chancellor, on rising, was received with ap-
plause. He said — There is one species of live stock, which
although not noticed in our list, I think we all take a very
deep interest in, aud I believe, upon [the character of that
stock much of the happiness and prosperity of llie country
depends — I meau the resident nobility and gentry (applause) ;
and I want, with your permission, to award a prize this
evening, and one that ought to be carried by acclamation, to
our noble chairman, woo is, I thiuk, not a bad specimen of
that description of live stock (applause). It is a great grati-
fication to me to hear the accounts of the progress of this
society aud of the progress of the agriculture of Ireland.
We see what has been done by science and by art ; and I re-
member, some years ago, speaking to the Lord Justice of
Appeal about the prospects of Ireland, when they were very
much less bright than they are nosv, and the observations ho
made were — I am sure I dou't trespass on any matter of
confidence in mentioning it ; and of all the men I ever met
he has the greatest power of emphatic and condensed expres-
sion of thought. It was before free trade was established,
aud I was speaking at the time of how Ireland was to battle
against it. I asked him what he thought about it — whether
it was his opinion that we would battle with it and get
over it. His first observation was — " We must accept it
whether we will or no" (a laugh) ; and then he said —
" My belief is that there are recuperative powers in the
soil of Ireland, and if we, like wise men, avail ourselves of
the advantages of science and the use of skill and capital,
we will more than get over the difficulty" (applause). When
I was beginning my career in the House of Commons, Ireland
was in a very depressed state ; and everyone was pro-
posing his nostrum for the benefit of Ireland, aud there was
every variety of theory as to how Ireland was to be relieved.
The old plan in Ireland was to cry, " What is government going
to do for U3?^v/Uat are you goiug to do for us iu I'silia-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

m

Boent ?" My notion was, " What are we going to do for our-
selves ? (applauae.) But, however, one night in the House
of Commons a good many theories were started, and I thought
that one had not been tried yet, and I said, " Will you just
let us alone for ten years ?" (applause.) That was in the year
18'19. Well, I stand here in the year 1859, and when I look
back on that period, I own I entertain great hopes of the future
prosperity of Ireland. I allude to the progress of its agriculture
and how it has been improved by the application of science ;
and after all, science dignifies the meanest process. Dr.
Waller has well alluded to the advantages that would be
produced by relieving humanity from physical drudgery and
labour; but that is not to relieve humanity fioni labour. I
sometimes object to the phrase I hear of the " working
clisses," or " working men," as applied merely to operatives
and mechanics, and others occupied in the lower departments
of human labour. For myself, I say that I am proud
of having been always a " workiog" man (applause). There
are various modes of working. The good work of the influence
of a resident landlord is one on which much of the
moral life auJ health of the community depends. Ofteu-
times, owing to the absence of their natural proprietors,
properties in this country come under my hand ; and in
such instances those moral iuflneuces which, in properties
naturally circurastaaced, contribute so much to social progress,
are all removed, and in place of that a kind of coarse ma-
chinery is substituted, which I am afraid produces very bad
effects in many places. There was one part'cular district of
the country to which the attention of the House of Commons
was directed as supplying the counties of Louth, Armagh, and
Mouaghan with a large proportion of the crime committed in
them ; and the matter underwent investigation by a committee.
What were the peculiarities of that district ? There was the
small cotter population — the miserable two-acie farm, and the
inhabitant living on the potato— there was the absence of all
the proprietors — tlie presence of the Court of Chancery and
its receiver (laughter), and the secret society— all these things
heaped together in that locality. Remove the causes, and
you get rid of the effects ; and give me the good resident-
landlord discharging his duties faithfully as a worthy
man, and availing himself of the position and influence
that God has entrusted him with, in order to promote
the happiness of those around him. I would say this of
the Irish people — and I say it heartily and sincerely of them —
that I do not think there are on this earth a people more
Ensceplible of justice and kiudness (applause) ; and I think
they especially apprecia'e the kindness of their gentry. They
respect the gentry. Master Brooke was once asked by Sir
James Graham how he got the people to do certain things in
connexion with a particular estate. " Oh," said he, " the Irish
will do anything for a gentlemin" (laughter aud applause). A.t
the time of the famine, when I corresponded with your lordship
about the state of the west,knowing that you were one of those
who took the deepest interest and did the most at that critical
time, when a'l was apparently sinking there, I remember with
what a heavy heart I used to go down to the House of
Commons. What is the state of the west now ? Look at
the prosperity thatMs likely to come there. Its harbours appear
to me to be destined by Providence to be a connecting link
between America and the manufacturing districts of England.
Look at that country, with its water-power ; don't you think
the capitalist will soon be there? With such men as the noble
lord doing their duty faithfully amongst their tenantry, and
with the application of sciecce, skill, and capital, I see no
limit to the prosperity of this country, and from all I know—
and I have some means of knowledge more than I used to have

— I believe there never was a period when Ireland waj in a
more prosperous and healthy state than it is at the moment I am
now addressing you (applause). I wish you, then, to give the
noble lord a hearty vote of thanks to be carried by acclamation,
I wish you to do so because he is a proprietor who, under
great difficulties aud trials in that part of the country, which
thank God, has now risen above all its difficulties, has so nobly
done his duty ; and I wish you to give it because I think the
influence of such men ought to be encouraged by the opinion
and the approval of men like yourselves, who are so deeply
interested in everything that concerns the welfare of this
country. I was rejoiced this morning at receiving a letter from
gentlemen who are concerned in establishing the Roman
Catholic reformatory at Glancree asking me to contribute.
Reformatories are now a great improvement. In place of pun-
ishing with vindictive severity aud penal action those unfor-
tunate persons who, through ignorance and temptation, are but
too often precipitated into crime, we look on it now as more
the duty of man to make one human heart— as Lord Carlisle
has said — act upon another, and to endeavour by a reformatory
process to reclaim the criminal (applause). Taking the two sec-
tions of the community, the Protestant and the Roman Catholic,
I would say that they are now at liberty to contend — not like
the thorn and the briar, which has the sharpest thorn?, but
like the vine and the olive, which will bear the richtst fruit
(applause). There is also a reformatory institution in Wick-
low, and I got this morning a letter from them asking me to
contribute. Well, now, I think it would be a very good thing,
I confess, if there were a mutual contribution in good-will on
the part of those who are competent to do it, of both religions
(applause). I would foUuw the example which the noble lord
sets in his community in these respects, aud knowing no
diflference, but going on the principle of the constitution and
civil equality. I would call upon you to do good unto all men,
but especially unto those of tlie household of faith (loud ap-
plause). Like a true Irishman, I forgot the principal thing
which I was to call attention to, namely, the memory of a
nobleman who used to attend our meetings, and whose loss I
think we oughtall to regret as a great national calamity— lallude
to the late Marquis of Waterford. I have a little memorandum
about him, which shows the value of a resident nobleman such
as he was. In giving an account of his establishment it states
that he had a regularly-organized school in which bis grooms
were all taught by a master, and their minds improved, and a
Sunday-school was kept for them ; and that the farm, including
grass, &c., extended over 4,600 acres. The day before he died
he audited his account of expenditure upon labourers' houses,
stables, dairy, and garden for the past year, which amounted to
11,000/.; aud within the last few years he had expended, be-
sides this, 12,000L on farm-buildings. He had more than
300 head of horned cattle, and 1,500 sheep; and his weekly
payments to labourers was upwards of 100/. During the last
year he employed more than 300 labourers daily. During the
years of distress, consequent on the famine, he daily employed
upwards of 600 labourers. Not relying upon his own judgment
as to the breed of cattle, his practice was to purchase prize
animals at the shows in England and Ireland, and these were
given for the use of the county and the tenantry. In order to
afford employment to the people, a factory was established by
him at Kilmacthomas for making Irish frieze, the whole profits
of which went to the augmenting of the factory. 5,0001. wan
expended yearly on the county Waterford estate, and 3,000?.
yearly on the county Derry estate. I think it right to
allude to the memory of such a nobleman, and to tay that
while we honour the living we should not be forgetful of the
memory of the dead.

m

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The Hon. George Hancock, in seconding the motion
of the Lord Chancellor, said there was one advantage of
shows such as that of to-day wliich had not been alluded
to. They brought the first noblemen and gentlemen of the
land into friendly contact and free interchange of opinion
with the working farmers { Hear, hear). He himself had
laboured in the country in connection with farming socie-
ties, and he could testify to the great benefit which resulted
from that intercourse. It broke down the barriers that
used to exist between the peer and the peasant ; and nothing
was better than that the nobleman and the farmer should
work together for the benefit of the community (applause).
He was happy to say that in this country and in England
the noblemen and the gentlemen did their duty. That
■was a fact admitted. The farmers were also doing theirs.
England had attained to a great pitch of perfection, and he
had no doubt that in a few years Ireland would be able to
compete with her in everything. There was no reason why
she should not do so, as we had a good climate and soil ;
and certainly we have a good people when they are properly
treated (Hear, hear). Few had had more experience of
them than he had, in managing one of the largest estates
in Ireland ; and he never met anything but straightforward
conduct on the part of the people when they were met in
the same spirit (applause). With such materials, he had
no doubt that the country would go on prospering ; and he
•was exceedingly glad that a nobleman like his lordship had
taken such an active part in the management of the affairs
of the countrj^

Lord Clancarty returned thanks for the Vmi and flat-
tering manner in which his name had been introduced to
the assembly and received by them. He expressed his
regret at the absence of the Lord Lieutenant, who was not
a mere formal president of the Royal Dublin Society, but
one who had always taken an active interest in its proceed-
ings, and had used his influence to strengthen their hands
and enable them more effectually to carry cut the objects
which tliey had in view. He concurred in the opinions
which had been expressed respecting the rapid progress
which had been made in every department of agriculture in

this country. He regretted to say that he was not himself
the successful exhibitor that Dr. Waller supposed him to be.
He had listened attentively to the prize-list, in the hope
of hearing his name mentioned, but was disappointed. Ho
looked upon this, however, as an evidence of the very great
improvement that had taken place in the character of the
stock exhibited at theae shows; for he had sent to the present
exhibition four very fme bulls (laughter), not one of which had
been successful ia the competition (laughter). He confessed
he thought this rather a singular circumstance (continued
laughter). Theae animals might not have possessed all the
qualities which the judges considered necessary ; but, never-
theless, the people in the locality from which they came were
strongly of opinion that each of them was entitled to a prize
(laughter). It was a remarkable coincidence that the best of
theae bulls, the flower of the flock, was named Lord Palmeraton
(roars of langhter) ; but thii very superior animal had not
obtained the success in this great national assembly of bulls
which might have been expected from his breeding and his
reputation (laughter) ; and he would be obliged to go to the
country again in the hope of better success in future in another
assembly (great laughter). Another coincidence which might
be regarded as a type of the harmony that prevailed amongst
those engaged in agricultural pursuits was this, that in walking
through the agricultural hall he observed the Muscovite and
the Grand Turk, Ignatius Loyola and Martin Luther, Lord
Paltnerston and Lord Derby, lying side by side in the most
delightful spirit of harmony, though engaged in keen and
active rivalry (loud laughter and applause). His lordship
concluded by congratulating the meeting on the fact that
though the calamities of war were impending over Europe, and
upon the eve of a dissolution of Parliament, when the consti-
tuencies of the country were agitated by the approaching con-
tests, the very men who were most actively engaged in party
strife on the one side and on the other were assembled on that
occasion, working cordially together for the promotion of agri-
cultural improvement, in which they felt that the prosperity of
Ireland was so materially involved (applause).
The meeting then separated.

REVIEW,

REVUE AGRICOLE DE L'ANGLETERRE.

Tome Premier.

Par M. F. Roniou de la Treiionnais.

Paris : Libraire de Fironin Didot, Freres, Fils, et Co., Im-
primeurs de I'lnstitut, Rue Jacob. 1859.

We recently inserted in our journal an article on "the
corn laws of France," and the demand made by the agricul-
turists of that country upon the government for a renewal of
protection, whether by the sliding scale or a fixed duty. In that
paper we showed by facts taken from official documents, and
quotations from one of the greatest agricultural writers of
France, that the sliding scale, whilst it existed, had no effect
in preventing extreme fluctuations in the price of grain ; and
that, on the other hand, its suspension has not occasioned any
excess of importation beyond the requirements of the country
when low prices prevail, as in the past year. The French
Government, therefore, is perfectly justified in following the
example of England, by throwing the corn trade open, with

the reserve of a fixed duty on imports only, for the sake of re-
venue. At the same time we referred to the different footing
on which the farmers of France and England stand in regard
to the land system, especially the law of inheritance in the
former ; and that in our opinion nothing can raise the agricul-
tural interest of France but a complete change in that law, so
as to put a stop to the interminable subdivision of the soil on
the death of the proprietors.

Since that article was published we have received a copy of
the work announced above, being an agricultural review of
England ostensibly, but in reality a comparative view of the
agriculture of that country and of France. We are glad to
find that the opinion we expressed is fully borne out by the
author, who intends to continue the work in numbers periodi-
cally, with the proposed design of indoctrinating his country-
men in the system of husbandry practised in England. No
man is better qualified for this task than M. de la Trchonnais,
who, with all his sympathies alive to the welfare of his native
land, having lived twenty years in England as an agriculturist,
has deeply studied the systems practised in both ronntries.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

449

The work before U3 is the result of hia experience and observa-
tion ; and we consider its contents so important and interest-
ing, that we willingly give a larger space to its review than
we can ordinarily afford to publications of the kind.
This first number contains seven parts, as follows : —

1. Introduction.

2. Elfects of Free Trade on English Agriculture,

3. History of Agricultural Societies in England. Part 1 —

The Sniithfield Club.

4. System of Culture without Manure practised at Lois

Weedon.
6. Prize Machines at the Meetings of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England.

6. Physiological Studies and Practice on the Crossing of

Breeds — a paper read before the Scientific Congress at
Auxcrre, in September, 1858. Part 1 — On the re-
spective influence of the Male and Female in llepro-
duction.

7. Biogrsphy— Jonas Webb,

In the introduction, the author speaks of the general move-
ment in France at this time in favour of agriculture, as the
apology for undertaking the work ; and certainly, if the French
agriculturists are disposed, or are able, to avail themselves of
the example of those of England, the lucid, graphic, and, we
will add, candid manner in which the English system is
described by our author, is quite sufficient both to direct and
to stimulate thera to follow in the same steps. A short, but
faithful history of English agriculture introduces the subject
and shows that it is not long since England and France were
upon a par in point of production ; and, consequently, that
whilst the former has made rapid strides towards a perfect
system, the latter has remained almost stationary, if in some
parts of the country she has not retrograded. "What conclu-
sion," he says, do we draw from all this ? That we must profit
by this brilliant example of a people at our frontiers ; we must
study their practice, and the principles on which it is baaed,
and then adopt it,with the modifications which local circum-
stances of climate, supply, and demand require. We must,
above all, consider our cultivation, not as a miserable means of
existence for ourselves and our metayers, but as industrial es-
tablishments, guided by the principles of commercial economy j
in which we manufacture bread, meat, and wool, which ought
to supply the markets of the world ; meat, above all, for we
must not forget the enormous sums paid by France for foreign
cattle brought to our market, which are so much money lost to
French agriculture, the resources of whose soil ought to feed and

fatten four times the number of animals it now does The

initiation ought to come from the proprietors themselves, they
being the class most directly interested in progress. In France
we leave everything to be done by the Government, whose action,
all powerful as it is, is necessarily too general to produce ap-
preciable results. Progressive action must be immediate, hi-
dividual rather ; exercised directly upon the soil, by measures
of detail that the influence of Government cannot ernbrace.
Each interested party must till his own fields ; the prizes, meet-
ings, honours, &c., are only encoursgemeata to merit and not
causes of progress. Let us accomplish the progress first, and
then meet for the rewards we shall have merited by the results
of our cultivation. To make no progress but with the view of
obtaining prizes and honours at the meetings, is, in my estima-
tion, only a barren deception, a false flash, ending only in ruin
and ignorance," &c. (p. 26).

The eifect of free trade upon English agriculture is
upheld, aud a similar benefit claimed from it for France ;
but it must be under a difl'erent system from the present.
" I cannot shut my eyes to the obstacles that men
and our institutions of routine have aruassed on the hill of
progress— the elements of progress and prosperity that already
exist in EnRlish agriculture, and which demand only a ray of
the sun of freedom to germinate and bring forth fruit, do
not exist with us. We have neither the coal nor the iron at a
cheap price, and the manufacture of agricultural machines
consequently scarcely exist with us. The soil is overbur-

dened ; it supports the mass of the taxes. In many depart-
ments the taxes on landed property amount to a fifth of the
revenue ; whilst the incomes of stock holders, manufacturers,
merchants, and literary men pay absolutely nothing. Landed
property is besides devoured by mortgages ; its extreme divi-
sion serves as a temptation for the little savings of the pea-
sants, who sink in it, with an inexplicable eagerness, the
capital which they ought rather to devote to the requirements
of their cultivation ; and it is still further reduced by the
taxes on transfer. The town dues, by deducting before
the sale the tas upon articles of general consump-
tion, press upon agriculture aud the poor popula-
tions of the towns, to the advantage of the urban
proprietors and merchants. Thus, instead of being fa-
voured, the natural and most advantageous markets for
agriculture, that is to say, the centres of the working popula-
tions, are open to its products only across barriers, at which
they are burthencd with a tax which tends to restrict consump-
tion. It must be adraited that it is not the consumption of
the rich that causes agriculture to prosper, but that of the
masses; and the more that consumption is facilitated, by ren-
dering the exchange of alimentary commodities perfectly free,
the njore will the progress of agriculture be promoted. Here
I stop. The reader has only to look over again what I have
said of English agriculture, and to compare the advantages I
have enumerated, with the state of our own, in order to measure
in his mind the enormous difference that separates us from
England. After that, can we be astonished at the slow and
imperceptible progress of our agriculture?" (p. 55.)

He then goes on to enumerate the efforts of the French
Government, or rather of the Emperor Louis Napoleon, to
accelerate the piosperity of agriculture. " Shows, splendid
rewards, honours, money, agricultural schools, and societies,
studs of improved races, learned and zealous inspectors, a
credit of 100,000,000 for drainage, a Bank of Credit fonder,
missions to England, learned reports, the Institute, the
Academy, the example of the Chief of the Sfate himself ; in
a word, the influence of the Government, money, science and
genius of France, &c., &c. Alas ! with all these powerful
powerful means, what results can we show?"

The conclusion arrived at by our author in summing up, ia
that there are "radical vices" in the agricultural interest of
France which have not yet been touched. At the head of these
he places the law of inheritance as requiring a " profound mo-
dification ;" and goes on to enumerate, again, the drawbacks
and hindrances before stated, as absolutely requiring imme-
diate attention. We confess that we look upon the first as the
main-spring of all other " vices ;" and until that law is abro-
gated we do not believe it possible for agriculture to flourish.
It is the want of intelligent cultivators, with capital to work
with, that renders the progress of agriculture in France an im-
possibiUty. To tell the poor metayer that he must grow
roots, keep cattle and sheep, purchase guano, drain his laud,
&c., is about as rational as telling an English peasant to go to
the Court of Chancery for redress of an injury. Poverty in
both cases is a bar to action.

The question then is, will it be possible to modify this lead-
ing " vice" of the land system in France, so as to render it
innoxious ? We do not believe it is ; but that nothing less
than its abrogation will remedy the evils arising from it. But
De Lavergne says that this is the life-blood of the French
nation, and to touch it is like touching the apple of the eye.
Yet, on the present principle, neither free trade nor the most
rigid protection will place the French agiiculturists in a posi-
tion of prosperity. And so says our author : " In the circum-
stances of financial legislation, routine, prejudice, and indefinite
subdivision, to which the land in France is subject, free trade
will be no more powerful to awaken agriculture from the secu-
lar torpor in which it reposes, than the official efforts have done
for two years past,"

The various other subjects of this " Revue" will be found
very interesting to those who can read it in the original. We
hope that M. De la Trehonnais will give a translation of it, for
the benefit of those who cannot. The paper on the crossing
of breeds of cattle is a highly philosophic essay, and contains
facts connected with the reproduction of animals that ought to
be known by all breeders. We shall look with interest for the
ext number of the work, but do not know whether it is to be

monthly or a quarterly, as we find no intimation of the
eriod of its appearance.

450

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CORN AND GRAIN, &c.

Eeturn to an Order of the Hcnourable the House of Commons, daied 2l8t February, 1859 ;— for,
Accounts " of the different "Varieties of Corn and Grain, Flour and Meal, reducing the latter to Imperial Uuarterp, Imported

into the United Kingdom in 1858 ; stating the Countries whence the same were brought, and the Quantities brought

from each, in 1858 :"
" Of the Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flour, the latter being stated in Imperial Quarters of Wheat, Imported into the

United Kingdom during each of the Six Years ended with 1858 ; stating the Countries whence the same were brought,

and the Quantities brought from each :"
" And showing in Inaperial Quarters the Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flour, Barley and Barley Meal, Oats and Oat Meal,

Rye and Rye Meal, Peas and Peas Meal, Beans and Bean Meal, and of Indian Corn and ileal, entered for Consumption

in the United Kingdom during each of the Six Years ending with 1858."

AN ACCOUNT of the different Varieties of Corn and Grain, Flour and Meal, reducing the latter to Imperial Quarters,
Imported into the United Kingdom in 1858 ; stating the Countries whence the same were brought, and the Quantities
brought from each, in 1858.

Countries

■WHENCE IMPORTED.

Quantities of Corn, Grain, Meal, and Flour, Imported into the
United Kingdom in the Year 1858.

Russia, Northern Ports

„ Soutliern Ports

Sweden

Denmark and the Duchies

Prussia , • • ■

Hause Towns

Other Parts of Germany

Holland

France

Spain..

Italian States

Wallachia and Moldavia

Turkish Dominions, including Syria.

Esypt

Britiah North America

United States, iududiiig California.
Other Countries collectively

Wheat and
Wheat Flour.

Barley and
Barley Meal.

Oats and
Oatmeal.

T3 —

4

s s

(U si

t3

a
a

o "m

•S

a

> a i

Qra.

Qrs.

Qrs.

Qrs.

Q-s.

Qrs.

Qrs.

Qrs.

100496

2250

78858C

8649

4008

. .

1

. .

451936

325032

208919

18243

3565

310695

13

10126

50708

427886

3222

275

..

..

301463

340787

180164

13507

26849

5290

51

629005

15340S

100608

4259S

01622

14322

, ,

203041

33859

22874

209

6446

31194

1769

54

139026

3466

49245

, ,

65

17370

,.

82710

16970

32487

1

1075

1426)

42

1283465

240931

3037

C93C

31

59228

98496

3278

536j

154

34

2165

15228

, ,

43279

10791

6009

1133

40

14454

193935

133574

203324

4733

10067

431597

71928

217337

119

2708

iioi

4297

162598

200

464652

47541

779

198316

68982

,,

161609

^ ^

10874

6

43907

, ,

1234

1

1098871

625

1

4868

. ,

396107

9

99924

14846

21739

119

366

50358

71536

36

53434G9

1661407

1857905

104177

157977

412033

1752178

3684

Qrs.

875

Qrs.
963990

1318103
49i217
868986

1001563
299145
209172
147549

1695405
22945
269641
783295
463283
780270
217631

1500481
259424

875 11293705

AN ACCOUNT of the Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flour, the latter being stated in Imperial Quarters of Wheat,
imported into the United Kingdom during each of the Six Years ended with 1858; stating the Countries whence the
same were brought, and the Quantities brought from each.

countries

Q'lautitiej of Wheat and Wheat Flour imported into the United
Kingdom in the Years

1853.

Qrs.
252,243
818,930
3.643
294.926

1,145,843
223,911
183,417
57,732
341,444
103,614
164,255
227,143
251,343
357,906
168,021

1,532,641
50,843

1854.

1855.

1856.

1857.

1858.

Qrs.

21.042
486,305

15.796
252.304
675,034
339.745
155,538

33,511
205.874
202,103
100,853
119.504
163,366
302,908

51,010

1,152,170

189,996

Qrs.
1
5

35,855
318,001
539,885
254,439
199,567

61,397

51,358

443,876

142,609

9,831

84,694
437,241

17.693
414,371
170,883

Qrs.

474,362

297,020

10,708

178,078

222,754

174,472

71,910

28,930

29,962

181,383

164,137

124,671

152,151

534,729

198,709

2,105,584

262,557

Qrs.

298,821

409,527

5,731

288,714

869,974

271,572

145,871

45,278

130,639

8,004

9,450

24,377

16,359

204,236

165,960

1,069,288

95,834

Qrs.
160,496

451,936

10,120

Denmark, and the Duchies

301,463
629,003

203,041

139,026

Holland

82,710

1,283,465

5,364

43,279

133,574

Turkish Domiuions, including Syria..

74,928
464,652

161,609

United States, including California. .
Other Countries collectively

1,098,871
99,924

Total Import

6,235,860

4,473,085

3,211,706

5,207,147

4,060,285

5,343,469

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

451

AN ACCOUNT showing, in Imperial Quarters, the Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flouk, Barley and
Barley Meal, Oats and Oatmeal, Rye and Rye Meal, Peas and Peas Meal, Beans and Bean
Meal, and of Indian Corn and Meal, entered for Consumption in the United Kingdom during each of
the Six Years ending with 1858.

Wheat and Wlieat Flour

Barley and Barley Meal

Oats and Oatmeal

Rye and Rye Meal

Peas and Pea Meal

Beans and Beau Meal

Indian Corn and Meal

Other kinds (consistins? ot Bu:k
Wheat, Buck Wheat Meal, and
Bere or Bigg)

Ajrgregflte Consumption . . . .

Quantities of Foreign and Colonial Corn, Grain, Meal, and .Flour, retained for Con-
sumption in the United Kingdom in the Years

1853.

1854.

1855.

1856.

1857.

1858.

Qrs.

Qrs.

Qrs.

Qrs.

Qra.

Qrs.

6,112,016

4.370,852

3.145,232

5,089,453

3,969,743

5,333,936

824,053

548,948

339,351

722,944

1,619,435

1,661,081

1,012.160

1,007,837

1,005,543

1,146,864

1,702,399

1,818,247

70,SG9

2,388

247

29,148

77,056

101,343

100,967

108,526

113.357

84,560

159,740

157,121

349,440

385,031

341,808

352,480

304,972

411,548

1.546,791

1,345.313

1,216,795

1,758,151

1,077,472

1,748.854

8,051

913

3,626

1,011

2,793

4,560

10,024,347

7,760,808

6,165,959

9,184,611

8.985,610

11,266,690

Note — The quantities of imported corn aud meal retained lor consumption in the United Kingdom, as exhibited above,
are ascertained by deiucting the quantities over-entered. aaJ the quantities exported after piymeat of duty, !rom the gross
quantities charged with duty on iraportaliou.

Ollice of the luspector-General of Imports and Exports, Custom House, London,

28th February, 1859. John A. Messenger.

SALE OF MR. WETHERELL'S HERD.

That love of Shorthorns, which Durham so bravely
fostered when the century was younsr, received ample
illustration in the sale of this celebrated herd on Tueday,
April 19. It was quite to be expected that the skill and
science o f its owner would be fully acknowledged by a high
average, and prophecy certainly had its fulfilment. Mr.
John Wetherell, of Richmond, officiated, and did the most
ample justice to the stock; though, after all, there was
not throughout the day any really " slashing rally." The
bidding was, in fact, rather steady than spirited. The
great Cobham sale had enabled many of the Shorthorn
breeders to stop the gaps which the autumn had made
in their ranks ; but still, not a few cast a longing eye
towards some of the Aldborough plums, and the fact
of the average being within two or three shillings of
^£73 for 48 lots proved that they quitted thcmselvrs like
men when they did set foot on Durham soil. Combining
the calf of Young Magic Flower and her dam in one lot,
there were 35 female lots, which averaged ^'77 15s.,
while the 13 bulls reached £60 4s. It was pretty evi-
dent, soon after the leading Shorthorn men assembled at
head-quarters at Darlington (where they were wel-
comed by Mr. Wetherell with a most sumptuous enter-
tainment, at the King's Heaa!) that it was not to be
Statesman's day. Reports had been spread that training
for shows last year had militated very severely against
his efficiency, and this, added to the fact of there being
only one thing (Bell Flower) by him, on the list, made
many doubt whether he would even touch seventy. So
much, in fact, had been said out of doors, that Mr.
Wetherell felt it his imperative duty to rise in his car-
riage on the left of the auctioneer's waggon, and assure
the company that the reports were devoid of all truth ;
and that the fact of so few cows having been served by
him, arose from his having left home for the Chester
Show, and not returning again till after the Aberdeen
one.

Although a few snow-flskes fell at last, the day was
most lovely, and at an early hour nearly every convey-
ance in Darlington was chartered for the scene of action,
which lies about nine miles from that town, and is
reached by a very delightful ride through Melsonby.

The Shorthorn men " stole away" very early for a peep
at the lots ; and when we arrived there about eleven
o'clock, we found the boxes and beautiful meadow below
the High Grange one busy herd-mart. A large blue
bullock van, inscribed " The Cumberland Ox,"
was for the nonce turned into a counting-house, and
there the cheque and catalogue business of the sale was
transacted. Farmers and holiday folk had kept gra-
dually pouring in, and the meadow with its staked ring
and waggons, and the gaudy stiiped Durham horticul-
tural tent, over which the union-jack waved, Lnt to
the whole the air of a great village festival. One cele-
brated turfite was so struck with the tout ensemble,
that in the fulness of his heart he confided to us that
it looked like the Derby Day, and that he felt quite odd
at not having "to make up a book" on the coming
events.

On the whole we should guess the assembly at about
a thousand. Among them were Lord Bolton, Sir Max-
well V/allace, and the Hon. W. Duncombe; and we
also observed Colonels Hecley and Gandy, and Messrs.
Jaques, Neasham, Gilpin, Cradock, R. Booth, Swan,
Douglas, Torr, Doig, C. Spencer, Drewry, Sanday,
Aylmer, Neilson, J. Booth, T. Booth, Atkinson,
Knowles, Gambell, Culshaw, H. Smith, Thompson, Carr,
Mitchell , Pole, Barclay , Wilson, Thompson, James, Jack-
son, and several others. The most interesting feature,
after all, of the attendance, was that of the octogenarians
Messrs. Wiley and Charge, both of whom were pur-
chasers at the Ketton sale, nine-and-forty years before.
They thus furnished two remarkable living links with
the past, as one was the fourth-part purchaser of the
thousand- guinea Comet; and theolher, if we remember
rightly, took Midas home. Age has told its twle on
the former ; but the latter stood by the side of the ring
for four hours, with all the energy and spirit of a boy.

About an hour before the sale, people began to find
out what the long oval staked ring on the bill-side
meant, as the whole eight-and-fotty lots were seen, each
with an attendant, winding their way in Indian file out
of the farm-stead. Mr. WeC, erell,on his pony, acted
as field-marshal ; and in a few minutes they were all

452

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

arranged in families, and drawn up in a serried line.
The word of command was then given, the parade com-
menced, and a more masterly movement was never
executed. In fact, it is one which we should like to see
carried out at all sales. The pull is in favour of the
seller, as the cattle show themselves so well ; but at the
same time, good judges have an opportunity of seeing
them in action, and satisfying themselves better upon
little points, than if they wandered hour after hour
through their stalls, and "nipped 'em" ever so dili-
gently. They were moving slowly round their quarter-
of-a-mile course, when dinner was announced, and in a
few minutes three hundred had enrolled themselves as
welcome guests, and were doing full justice to a most
admirable rtpast, to which sherry and punch lent the
fullest zest. Mr. Torr, of Aylesby, was in the chair ;
and when he had introduced the health of Mr. Wetherell,
that gentleman in a few brief and feeling sentences
acknowledged the toast, and led the way to the ring.

John Ward forthwith brought lot 1, Young Jenny
Lind, into the ring, as blooming as the most loyal care
that ever herdsman devoted to a master's interests
could make her. Independently of condition, it was
evident that the cattle knew well how to make the most
of themselves, and stood up as square and true as the
most fastidious critic could desire.

Twenty guineas was the first bid which greeted Mr. John
Wetherell's ear; but business only went on slowly, and
Mr. Barclay gave forty as a closer. Cosy, a very fine nine-
year-old cow, and the dam of Alderman, made the bid-
ders look rather sharper about them ; and Mr. Dreury,
on behalf of the Duke of Devonshire, got her for 53 gs.
Passion Flower beat her by 2 gs. ; and Edith, who was
frankly stated to be a very doubtful breeder, fetched only
butcher's price, minus a margin. That very fine old
cow. Lady Scarborough, then went for 200 gs., Mr.
Pole and Mr. H. Smith being the bidders; and Mr.
Gamble carried off Duchess of Northumberland (No.
6), a very striking cow, with all the Bates' quality
about her, and a very fine head and prominent breast.
She lingers, we are told, in Yorkshire for a few weeks,
on a visit to Capt. Gunter's Sixth Duke of Oxford.

A contest then ensued between Mr. Doig, on behalf
of Col. Pennant, and Mr. Dreury, for the Duke of De-
vonshire, over the body of the renowned Moss Rose,
(who won at Kelso on March 31st), which ended in
Marmaduke receiving a fresh visitor in his Welsh home.
Mr. Neasham, the late owner of Usurer, (who was sold
in Darlington market to a butcher about seven weeks
since.) next went in at 85 gs. for Young Magic Flower
and her two-days-old white calf. Wallflower departed
cheap to Mr. Gell for 34 gs., though the Lord Raine
blood rather spoiled her; and Venus, a very good-
looking cow, who was at fifty in a jifFey, with three
bidders, was also sold cheap at last to Mr. Pole for 80 gs.
The Master of the RedaJe then gave 50 gs. for Oak
Apple, whose yearling son. Baron Martin, was sold last
August for 100 gs. ; and some dashing biddings
for Lucy, of full Booth blood, with the exception of
Roland, in which Captain Spencer and Mr. Parrington
both bore a part, ended in favour of Lady Pigot. Mr.
Ivens got Countess cheap for 36 gs. ; and then followed
her three half-sisters, all got by Field Marshal, and
bred by Earl Zetland. With the exception, however,
of Crocus, they were slightly thick handlers ; but she
was a magnificent heifer. Col. Gandy, who faced the
auctioneer, and bid with great spirit throughout the
sale, had his own work to get her, as Mr. Dreury was
at it part of the time; and there were two claimants
for the 65-guinea bid. Acorn was of a bad colour,
but very good ; and Mr. James got her de-
cidedly cheap. Mr. Aylmer also bought a thick
well-made daughter of Whittington in Roseleaf ; and

then Mr. Doig fought it out for Ayrshire Rose, but he
never could shake off his antagonists until 165 gs. had
been bid. She is within a few days of calving to Wise-
tonian. Lady Stanley followed — very clever, and with
a sweet head and neck ; and Miss Lumley, who did any-
thing but discredit to the Lord Scarborough blood.
Stanley Rose, who has won at Kelso already this year,
then marched into the ring. Mr. Doig was again among
the bidders for this justly-celebrated family, and Mr.
Douglas went as high as 230 gs. ; but Lady Pigot,
who was on the ground with Mrs. Carr and Miss
Booth, bid so boldly, through Mr. John Booth, that she
was passed over to Suffolk at [300 gs. Many were the
wishes that her ladyship may see her enrolled as a Royal
winner. Bell Flower, the only daughter of Statesman,
and as snow-white as himself, realized little more than a
tenth of the sum ; and then Sir Antony de Rothschild
and Captain Spencer had a set-to for Governess, the
only daughter of Archy Moore, and a very nice little
heifer. Mr. Drewry very wisely determined that Cosy
and Comfort — both of them very neat, and full of
quality— should not be separated; and then Captain
Spencer (who had not persevered for Governess when
he saw how determined Mr. Taylor was) went in for the
handsome Bloom, a beautiful combination of the Lord
Mayor and Lucy blood ; and she departed at 110 gs.,
to join Lizzy, Sappho, and Leila, the last of whom
has just calved a bull-calf to Marmaduke. Lady rather
brought down the average ; but it is no small testimony
to the value of the Lord Mayor blood that three calves
by him averaged nea.'-ly 89 gs. each.

With the King Arthur roan heifer calf the first act of
the sale ended ; and Lord Scarborough, who is
now well on in years, and has got rather heavy, opened
the bull biddings, which were rather lifeless at first.
Statesman, who did not look improved since last year,
Wiis as active as a kitten ; and as if to show that, in spite
of the endless handling he had undergone for weeks,
there was no trace of temper, John Ward unbuckled his
pole at once, and held him simply by his chain. Mr.
John Wetherell got no offers even at fifty ; but at last
tliere came the impatient Yorkshire opening, " Go on!"
from a bidder, as a halt was made : and she rose slowly to
82 gs. Mr. W. Cox, who has a small but select herd near
Pickering, was the buyer, and we trust we shall see that
gay elegant form with many a prize-ribbon on it yet. Sir
John Crewe's agent then dipped into the Usurer blood at
55 gs. through Wisetonian, who seems likely to do as
much good to Derbyshire as Alderman a son of Cosy's
to Cumberland. The latter is perhaps a trifle too long
for some eyes, but still he was wondrously cheap, and
we believe that Mr. Wilson, with good judgment, did
not intend to stop short of a hundred. Pilot was
rather thick and heavy, and Lumley, a son of Lord
Scarborough's, from Duchess of Northumberland No.
6, shot the average up to 125 gs. He was a very nice
bull, but not of a very good colour, and we thought him
dear by comparison witli Statesman's brother, Stanley,
who is, without exception, one of the most beautiful
young bulls that ever stood the sand-glass test. Strange
to say, the biddings were very laborious, so much so,
that it was quite a moot point whether the sand had not
run once between 80 gs. and 90 gs. However he was
put up again, and Mr. Packe, who seemed to have
plenty of running left, finished a clever winner for only
92 gs. Catton looked an ordinary bull ; Traveller was
aniiov. c". d to be purchased for Sir Joseph Paxton ; that
capital bull calf. Royal Oak, went to Farnley to supply
the place of his senior Bon Garfon, who died, we are
told, some months since, after only a four hours' attack,
of inflammation ; and then the Earl of Aberdeen by
Lord Mayor, who is really, as far as elegance goes, an
almost ne pJn/t ultra of a calf, brought down the curtain.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Some lots, belonging to Lady Pigot, Mr. Raines, and
Mr. Shearman, were put up afterwards ; and one of
them, Female Jesuit, the property of her Ladyship,
fetched 51 gs., while Venus de Medici, from Mr. Spear-
man's herd, was knocked down at 61 gs. To these lots
a few horses and yearlings succeeded, and when we left
the ground about half-past five, they were still at work,
and some merry peals from the tent and roars of
applause proved that the Turf was not forgotten, and
that a well-known member of the RinK and owner of
race-horses was on his legs returning thanks. And so
the Aldborougb herd was dispersed into all lands, and
we cannot quit the subject without expressing a hope
that its owner will not desert that cause, in the evening
of his days, for which he has done so much in his prime ;
and that at many a show (Royal or local) to come, we
may have the pleasure of recording his triumphs.
Subjoined is a return of the prices.

COWS AND HEIFERS.

(the figures refer to " COATES'S HERD BOOK.")

Lot 1. — Young Jenny Lind IL, roan, caked in 1848;
got by Behhazzar (14154), dam (Jenny Lind) by Crusade
(7938). — Purchased by Mr. Barclay for 40 guinoas.

2. — Cosy, roau, calved June 4, 1850 (Herd Book, vol. xi.,
p. 389) ; got by Cotherstone (6903), dam (Peeress) by Lord
Stanley (4269).— 53 gs., Duke of Devonshire.

3. — Passion Flower, roan, calved in 1852; got by Whit-
tington (12299), dam (Magic Fbwsr) by Magician (7185).—
55 ga., Col. Gandy.

4. — Edith, white, calved in 1853 ; got by Snowdrop
(13761), dam (Brender) (H. B , vol. xi., p. 347) by Inheritor
(7104).— 25 gs., Mr. Parrington.

5. — Lady Scarbro', white, calved April 18, 1851 (H. B ,
vol. xi., p. 553) ; got by Earl of Scarbro' (9064), dam (Stately)
by Statesman (13789) —200 gs,, Mr. H. Smith.

6. — Duchess op Northumberland, roan, calved May
26, 1851 ; got by the Earl of Scarbro' (9064), dam (Red
Ducheas) by Cleveland Lad II. (3408).— 100 gs., Mr. Gamble.

7. —Moss Rose, roau, calved April 22, 1853 ; got by
Cotherstone (6903), dam (Nancy) by Guardian (3947).— 200
gs.. Col. Pennant.

8. — Young Magic Flower, roan, calved November 22,
1853 ; got by Chieftain (10048), dam (Magic Flower) by Ma-
gician (7185).— 75 gs., Mr. Neasham.

9.— Oak Leaf, roan, calved July, 1852; got by Albert
(8816), dam (Jeuuy Lind) by Norfolk (9442).— 23 gs., Mr.
Carr.

10. — Wallflower, white, calved September 15, 1854;
got by Lord R«iue (13248), dam (Windsor Flower) by Earl of
Scarbro' (9064).— 34 gs., Mr. Gell.

11. — Venus, dark roan, calved May 31, 1854 ; got by
Whittington (12299), dam (Sunshine) by Twilight (9758i—
80 gs., Mr. Pole.

12.— Oak Apple, roan, calved July, 1854 ; got by Ma-
gician II. (10486), dam (Jenny Lind) by Norfolk (9442).—
50 gs., Hon. W. Duncombe.

13. — Lucy, roan, calved August 8, 1855 ; got by Lier.-
tenant (14795), dam (Alice) by Duke (9036).— 150 gs., Lady
Pigot.

14._CouNTESs, roan, calved February 20, 1856; got by
Field Marshal (12875), dam (Pride) by Allan-a-Dale (9887).—
36 gs., Mr. Ivens.

15.— Crocus, roau, calved April 27, 1856 ; got by Field
Marshal (12875), dam (Syren) by Eaveasworth (10689).— i:.3
gs., Col. Gandy.

16._Cobweb, roan, calved August 17, 1856 ; got by Field
Marshal (12875), dam (Andromeda) by Freebooter (11490).—
31 gs., Mr. Worsey.

17._Cowslip, roan, calved September 1, 1856; got by
Field Marshal (12875), dam (Aliment) by Allan-a-Dale (9887).
—36 gs., Mr. Marley.

18.— Acorn, red and white, calved May, 1856 ; got by
Magician II. (10486), dam (Jenny Lind) by Norfolk (9442).—
52 gs., Mr. James.

19.— Rose-Leaj-, roan, calved March 11, 1856 ; got by
Whittington (12299). dam (Lady Welbourn) by Lord Lowther

71641. — 43 gs., Mr, Aylmer.
(

20. — Ayrshire Rose, white, calved February 11, 1856;
got by Whittington (12299), dam (Moss Rose, No. 7) by
Cotherstone (6903).— 165 gs.. Col. Pennant.

21. — Lady Stanley, roan, calved January 27, 1857 ; got
by Earl of Derby (12810), dam (Young Jenny Lind II.) by
Belshazzar (14154).— 56 gs., Mr. Scott.

22. — Miss LuMLEY, roau, calved May 16, 1857 ; got by
Lord Scarbro' (14852), dam (Deborah) by Son of Cotherstone
(6903).— 60 gs., Mr. Sheldon.

23. — Orange Blossom, white, calved June 14, 1857;
got by Apollo (9899), dam (Young Magic Flower, No. 8) by
Chieftain (10048).— 42 gs., Mr. Neesham.

21. — Stanley Rose, roan, calved September 27, 1857;
got by Earl of Derby (12810), dam (Moss Rose, No. 7) by
Cotherstone (6903).— 300 gs., Lady Pigot.

25.— Fairy Queen, roan, calved October 16, 1857: got
byPhcBaix Star (15061), dam (Elfin Glueen) by The Gipsy
King (11532).— 30 gs., Mr. Worsey.

26. — Maid of the Mountain, white, calved November
27,1857; got by Gavazzi (11508), dam (Village Maid) by
Lyon Play fair (11758).— 24 gs., Mr. Klakey.

27.— Bell Flower, white, calved April 8, 1858 ; got by
Statesman (15342), dam (Wallflower, No. 10) by Lord Raine
(13248).— 38 gs., Mr. Campbell.

28.— Governess, roan, calved May 16, 1858; got by
Archy Moore (14101), dam (Venus, No. 11) by Whittington
(12299).— 110 ga., Mr. Taylor.

29.— Comfort, white, calved September 24, 1858 ; got by
Lord Scarbro' (14852), dam (Cosy, No. 2) by Cotherstone
(6903).— 44 gs., Duke of Devonshire.

30.— Bloom, roan, calved September 12, 1858 ; got by
Lord Mayor (14822), dam (Lucy, No. 13) by Lieutenant
(14796).— 105 gs., Capt. Spencer.

31.— Lady, roan, calved September 11, 1858; got by Lord
Mayor (14828), dam (Countess, No. 14) by Field Marshal
(12875).— 43 gs., Mr. Lascelles.

32.— Perfume, white, calved November 3, 1858 ; got by
Lord Scarbro' (14852), dam (Rose Leaf, No. 19) by Whitting-
ton (12299) —20 g?., Mr. Ivens.

33.— Primrose, red and white, calved February, 1859 ;
got by Wisetoniau, Lot 4, dam (Cowslip, Lot 17) by Field
Marshal (12857).— 22 gs., Mr. Morrill.

34.— Alice, calved March 11, 1859; got by Wisetonian
(Lot 4), dam (Acorn, Lot 18) by Magician II. (10486).— 18
gs., Mr. Hopper.

35,_RoAN Heifer, CBlved March 12, 1859 ; got by King
Arthur (13110), dam (Duchess of Northumberland, Lot 6) by
Earl of Scarbro' (9064).— 150 gs., Mr. Pole.

BULLS.

Lot 1.— Lord Scarbro' (14852), roan, calved October 15,
1854- got by Duke of Northumberland (12761), dam (Lady
Scarbro', No. 5) by Earl of Scarbro' (9064).— 40 gs., Mr.
Campbell.

2— Statesman (15342), white, ' calved November 20,

1855 ; got by Earl of Derby (12810), dam (Lady Scarbro', No.
5) by Eiirl of Scarbro' (9064).— 82 gs., Mr. W. B. Cox.

3 -General Havelock (14603), white, calved May 9,

1856 ; got by Whittington (12299), dam (Lady Brown) by
Twilight (9758).— 27 gs., Mr. Denchfield.

4. — Wisetonian, roan, calved in 1857 ; got by Usurer
(9763), dam (Sybil) by Lord Warden (7167).— 55 gs.. Sir J.
Crewe.

5.— Alderman, roan, calved April 23, 1857 ; got by Earl
of Derby (12810), dam (Cosy, No. 2) by Cothtrstoue (6903).
— 70 gs., Mr. Wilson.

8 — Pilot, red and white, calved September 25, 1857 ; got
by Magician II. (10486), dam (Oak Leaf, No. 9) by Albert
(8816).— 22 gs., Mr. Denchfield.

9. — Prince William, roan, calved February 20, 1858 ;
got by Prince of Orange (15101), dam (Young Jenny Lind II.,
No. 1) by Belshazzar II. (14154).— 23 gs., Mona. Von Volsen.

10._LuMLEY, red and white, calved March 6, 1858 ; got
by Lord Scarbro', Lot 1 (14852), dam (Duchess of Northum-
berland, No. 6) by Earl of Scarbro' (9064).— 125 gs., Mr.
Surteea.

11.— Stanley (own brother to Statesman, Lot 2, 15342),
roan, calved March 6, 1858; got by Earl of Derby (12810),
dam (Lady Scarbro', No. 5) by Eorl of Scarbro' (9064).— 92
gs., Mr. Packe.

H H 2

454

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

12. — Catton, white, calved March 26, 1858 ; got by Lord
Scarbro', Lot 1 (14852), dam (Youu? Magic Flower, No. 8)
by Chieftaiu (10048).— 21 g3., Mr. Peacock.

13. — Traveller, roan, calved May, 1858; got by Lord
Scarbro' (14852, Loi 1), dam (Passion Flower, No. 3) by
Wbittington (12299).— 27 gs., Sir J. Paxtou.

14.— Royal Oak, roau, calved August 19, 1858; got by
Lord Mayor (14828), dam (Oak Apple, No. 12) by Magician
2nd (10486).— 70 gs.. Mr. Fawkes.

15. — Lord Aberdeen, roan, calved September 17, 1858;
got by Lord Mayor (14328), dam (Moss Rose, No. 7) by
Cotherstone (6903).— 91 gs., Mr. Pole.

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE,

The planting of beetroot must be done in the
first ten days of the month ; and of potatoes, if
remaining from last month. Sow grass seeds; and
hoe all drilled crops. Sow Swedish turnips — pur-
ple and yellow-topped, and continue with Aberdeen
yellow bullocks as a later sowing. Plant cabbages,
kohl rabi, savoys, and winter broccoli. Sow rape,
to be consumed on the ground preparatory for
wheat ; and sow early white turnips, for use in au-
tumn.

Pare and burn lands constantly during this
month ; and prepare turnip and clay fallows.

All dung-heaps must be turned over for ten days
before being used, that a fermentation may take
place : all lumps and large pieces must be care-
fully broken and shaken out. Watered meadows
may now be shut-up for hay. Gates and fences
must be thoroughly repaired for summer use.

Cattle of all ages will now go to grass — the milch
cows in a well-watered and sheltered field, and the
store cattle in the pasture fields, arranged accord-
ing to age. A proper arrangement conduces much
to well-being and thriving. The calves of the
year must be similarly arranged — the oldest in a
grass paddock provided with water and a shed for
shelter, and have one suckling daily, and be sup-
plied with clovers and vetches in racks. Spare

neither pains nor expense on young animals. The
young calves in the pens should have green food
given them, in order to introduce such meat pre-
vious to being turned out.

The lambing ewes must be supplied with oats
and oilcake in troughs, until the early vetches and
rye are ready. The food may be cut, and given
them in racks ; and part must be carried home for
soiling cattle, horses, pigs, and calves in the yards.
Litter amply. As the land is cleared, plough it for
a turnip fallow.

Hop grounds may be dug this month, and the
bines tied to the poles: young hedges weeded; oak
trees cut, and the bark strijiped and dried.

Wash sheep by hand in a running stream a week
or two before shearing commences, to prevent the
maggot-fly depositing their eggs on the animals.
Sprinkle them from head to tail, from a dredging
bo.x, with a mi.xture of hellebore-root powder and
black brimstone — ^ to ilb.

No month in the year brings more business to
the farmer than the present; and if ground be lost
now, it will rarely be recovered during the season.
The preparation of the turnip and clay fallows is in
the critical season: the first crops must be planted,
and the rest prepared for, with the utmost activity
and exertion.

CALENDAR OF GARDENING.

Kitchen Garden.

Kidney Beans : Scarlet and painted-lady runners
are first called for : a warm soil is required ; the
seed perishes in cold, wet ground, and the plant
does not advance well in a dry, arid soil: best sown
in pots ; and dwarf French beans require a similar
treatment : the season and weather are the best
directors. It is good policy to have a stock of beans
in pots in early April; and to trust to open-ground
sowings in summer.

Peas : Knight's marrow, and Adamson's match-
less Dorset variety, are most suitable for hence-
forward plantings. Sow the peas an inch asunder,
in quincunx order, on trenched grounds, with rot-
ten manure, and well-watered by the rose-pan: this
precaution is to prevent mildew. Late crops of
peas, sown six weeks hence, may be got at Michael-

Potatoes : The late crops should be set, if not
yet plants. Let the rows, if possible, range north
and south, to admit an equable diffusion of sun-
light.

Ejruit Department.

Disbud all fruit-trees of all side shoots as have
no fruit at the base, excepting one near the origin,
which is left for a successor to the bearing shoot of
the present year. Fill up blanks l)y well-adapted
shoots, which improve old trees.

Flower Garden.
Plant flowers in the parterre system in the end
of the month, to escape frosts : plots and groups in
masses, with room for growth, and no suffocation
by crowding. Pelargoniums and verbenas, and
the allied elegant plants, are thus displayed ; and
in the arrangement, taste must guide.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

455

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
APRIL.

Although easterly winds have prevailed during a portion
of the month, the weather, on the whole, has been season-
ably fine. The fine rains which fell from the 22nd to the
25th have been highly beneficial to vegetation, and more
especially to the pastures, which, at this time, present a
favourable appearance for a full average grass crop. As re-
gards the now rapidly growing wheats, we may observe that
they are looking remarkably healthy, with scarcely an ex-
ception ; consequently we have every reason to anticipate, so
far, a full avei-age forthcoming yield of wheat.

The prospect of aa immediate outbreak of hostilities
between Austria, Fi-aiice, and Sardinia, has had consider-
able influence upon the wheat trade. Since we last wrote,
both English and foreign wheat has improved in value from
4s. to 6s. per quarter, and there is every probability of fur-
ther enhanced rates, even though the stocks on hand are
large for the time of year. A continental war will, no
doubt, lead to a considerable falling off in the imports
of foreign produce into this country, and to large speculative
operations, under the impression that Mgli prices may result
from hostilities between the powers just alluded to. Again,
we must bear in mind that America has very little gi'ain to
spare for export purposes, and that the value of produce
throughout the Union is still high. Whilst admitting that
there is ample room for au improvement in the value
of wheat, the questioa is, do we require a heavy importation
this year to meet consumption? Our impression is that we
do not, because it is admitted on all hands that our farmers
still hold large quantities of wheat, and because immediate
shipments of grain to Fome extent would result from warlike
operations, though they might not be continued. Our far-
mers require not unnecessary excitement in the trade, but
steady and remunera'.ive prices. A sudden advance of 10s.
per quarter would, possibly, lead to a re-action in the trade ;
but a moderate improvement, such as we have lately expe-
rienced, may have the effect of producing a further rise, and
that, too, of a legitimate character. In reference to spring
corn, we may observe that, as we draw the bulk of our sup-
plies from countries which are not likely to be involved in
the pending struggle, the importations are likely to continue
on a fair average scale. Prices, however, will, we think,
be maintained, and it is possible that barley may continue
to rise in value. Some few sales of English wheat have
been made in Mark Lane for expoit to Portugal, but this
demand is not likely to exercise any great influence upon the
quotations, though, of course, it will tend to give firmness to
them.

Owing to the small commercial operations for export to
the continent, and the comparative heaviness in the woollen
trade, all kinds of wool have ruled very inactive during the
greater portion of the month, and, in some instances, prices
have had a drooping tendency. The next public sales of
colonial wool in London, which have been postponed till the
5th of May, are looked forward to with more than usual
interest. At present, there is nothing indicative of an
Bdvance in prices, more especially as great efforts continue to

be made on the continent to lessen the influence which these
sales have long since exercised upon the wool trade of the
world. The quantity of foreign and colonial wool now in
London is about 60,000 bales, the whole of which will
shortly be brought to the hammer. The paucity of the de-
mand has led to increased stocks in the hands of our flock-
masters, so that there is no reason to apprehend auy defi-
ciency of supply, even though the advices at hand from Aus-
tralia and South America indicate only moderate shipments.
Any falling off in the supply from those quarters will, we
imagine, be fully made good by the Cape farmers, who are
now shipping increased quantities to England. During
March, •24,223 bales of colonial, and 834 bales of foreign
wool arrived in the port of London. The supplies of the
latter into Liverpool were 12,026, into Hull 457, and into
Leith 344 bales.

Judging from the enormous quantities of potatoes which
continue to arrive in London from Scotland aud various parts
of England, it is evident that last year's crop was very abun-
dant, and of full average quality. The excess in the supplies
during the winter months, the loiv prices at which they have
been selling, and the enormous quantities of rice offering sit
unusually low figures, no doubt interfered materially with the
value of wheat, which, in our opinion, even allowing for sea-
sonably large stocks, had a depressing influence upon the value
of wheat. But, on the other hand, we have been told that the
consumption of bread has fallen off, not ouly iu the metropolis,
but in the provincial districts. We, however, have no faith in
such a statement, because it 'n admitted that trade, generally,
is in a sound, though not to say brisk, state, and that our arti-
zans and others continue to be well aad fully enoployed. It
may be that iucreased wages have led to au extended con-
sumption of butchers' meat ; but we think that, eventually, it
will be found that more bread is now being consumed in the
Uaited Kingdom than is generally imagined. The late
extensive system of feeding cattle with inferior wheats — a sys-
tem, by the way, which has paid remarkably well, from its
having been found much cheaper than oil-cake — will, we appre-
hend, be partly, perhaps wholly, discontinued, now that prices
are advancing. Upon inferior samples, for feeding purposes,
great inroads have been made from time to time, and such
qualities will, as a consequence, speedily rise to a higher level
in value than either linseed or rape-cake.

Some extensive fluctuations have taken place iu the value of
live stock in the whole of our leadmg markets, but more par-
ticularly iu London. Up to the 25th of the month, both
beasts end sheep were selling at very high rates, owing to
deficient supplies of home-fed stock, aud to the stringency iu
the Government mspection of the beasts aud sheep arriving
from the continent. This stringency has been strongly
opposed by those immediately interested, and upon this point
much might be said. Here, however, we shall merely observe
that it is the duty of Government to prevent the introduction
of diseased animals into this country, and, to secure that end,
they ought to appoint compelent judges of stock. Those
judges should be free from bias as respects any particular
interest, and should have full power to deal with the importa-
tions as they arrive. It is well known that disease exists to a
great extent throughout Holland aud Denmark, and to allow

456

THE FARxMER'S MAGAZINE.

its introduction here would be productive of the most disas-
trous consequences to the interests of our breeders and feeders.
Both in Ireland and Scotland the wheat trade has assumed
more firmness, and prices have steadily advanced. Barley and
oats of fine quality have changed hands steadily, at extreme
rates, but other articles have met a dull inquiry. The ship-
ments of produce from Ireland have continued ou a very mode-
rate scale ; but those from Scotland have been liberal. This
latter fact tends to confirm the impression, pretty general in
some quarters, that rather large quantities of grain are still in
stack in the Lothians. Unless we are greatly misinformed,
however, the supplies on hand in Ireland are very moderate for
the time of year, even though steady importations have been
reported during several mouths past from the westward.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE
PAST MONTH.

In the early part of the month, only limited supplies of
beasts and moderate numbers of sheep were on offer in the
Great Metropolitan Cattle Market. The demand for all
breeds, therefore, ruled somewhat active, and prices were
steadily on the advance. On the 25th, however, owing to
increased arrivals, and to an improvement in the general
weight and condition of the stock, especially from Norfolk,
the trade became heavy, and the quotations gave way 2d. to
4d. per 8ibs. The lamb trade has been in a depressed state,
at comparatively low figures ; indeed, we seldom recollect a
worse demand for lamb than oa Good Friday, a day generallj'
looked forward to as prodi;cing the highest value for lambs
during the whole of the season. Hitherto, the lambs have
come to hand in good condition, and the fall in most parts
of England appears to have been a full average one.

The continued high value of skins, hides, and tallow in
the provinces, has led to full average supplies of country-
killed meat being received up to Newgate and LeaJenhall ;
nevertheless, sales have progi-essed steadily, and fair quota-
tions have been realized.

Some wonderfully fine bullock-crosses have appeared in
London, viz., Scots crossed with Shorthorns. Manj' of the
heifers have weighed fully 115 stones, and most of them
were forwarded from Aberdeen and Morayshire. Here we
may remark that very few reallj^ pure Scots now make their
appearance in London either from Scotland or Norfolk ; but
though the new system of crossing has turned out remark-
ably well, and though the first crosses have produced some
ver3' fine animals, it may be well doubted whether what i*
termed the " in and in" system is either a safe or profitable
one to the graziers.

The health of the stock in our leading counties has con-
tinued remarkably good. The losses from disease have not
increased, and the supplies of winter food have not 3'et been
exhausted.

From abroad, the imports of beasts have been very mode-
rate ; of sheep, tolerably extensive ; but moat of the latter
have been composed of merinoes of very light weight, pro-
duced in Germany. The arrival of calves has fallen off,
when compared with some former years, and, taken collec-
tively, the general quality of the supplies has declined.
The following numbers have been reported into London : —

Beasts 742 head.

Sheep 7,748 „

^ ■ 9 ..

Lambs
Calves
Pigs ..

385
4

Total.

Same time in 1858 5,998 lie*

„ 1857 4,814 .,

1856 1,924 „

1855 4,253 „

1854 4,760 „

1853 14,787 „

1852 5,444 „

The total supplies of home-fed and foreign stock exhi-
bited in the Metropolitan Market have been as under : —

Beasts 16,850 head.

Cows 390 „

Sheep and lambs 110,114 „

Calves 420 „

Pigs 1,990 „

Comparison op Sopplies.

April. Beasts. Cows. Sheep & Lambs. Calves. Pigs.

1858.... 17,950 400 104,380 1,332 2,097

1857.... 18,601 460 92,810 1,240 2,025

In the month just concluded, 11,400 Scots, Shorthorns'
and Crosses came to hand from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and
Cambridgeshire ; 1 ,270 various breeds from other parts of
England ; 1,280 Scots and Crosses from Scotland; and 430
oxen and heifers from Ireland.

Beef has sold at from 3s. 4d. to 58. 2d. ; mutton, in the
wool, 3s. lOd. to 6s.; lamb, 5s. 4d. to 7s.; veal, 3s. lOd.to
5s. 8d. ; and pork, Ss. to 4s 2d. per 81bs. to sink the offal.

Comparison of Prices.

Apr., 1856. Apr., 1857. Apr., 1858.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Beef ..from 3 2to410..3 4 to 5 O..210to4 2

Mutton ., 3 6 — 5 8. .4 6—6 2. .3 0 — 5 0

Lamb.... 6 0 — 7 4..5 10— 7 4. .6 0 — 7 0

Veal 4 0 — 5 8. .3 8 — 510. .4 0 — 5 4

Pork. .

3 6 — 4 8. .3 8 — 5 0..3 0 — 4 4

Judging from the advices which have come to hand from
Holland, only moderate supplies of stock can be expected to
arrive from that country diiring the next three or four
months ; but we ma}' look forward to steady imports of
sheep from Germany during that period, as the numbers on
hand appear to have considerably increased of late. The
sheep from Germany, however, require crossing with English
breeds, to make them profitable to the shippers. At present,
the profit upon each head, after the payment of expenses,
must be very small ; and this will be apparent when we
state that the German sheep are worth onl}' from about 20s.
to 27s. per head in our markets. With a fair outlay for
breeding stock, Germany is able to produce much better
sheep than those which we have received since the passing
of the new Tariff, and which, in point of fact, have undergone
little or no change, either in point of weight, general condi-
tion, or quality.

Newgate and Leadenhall have been tolerably well, but
not to say extensively, supplied with each kind of meat ;
and, on the whole, the demand generally may be considered
healthy. Beef has sold at from 3s. 4d. to 4s. 8d. ; mutton,
3s. 6d. to 4s. lOd. ; lamb, 4s. 4d. to 6s. 4d. ; veal, is. 2d. to
58. 4d. ; pork, 38. 2d. to 4s. 2d. per 81bs. by the carcase.

WEALD OF KENT.

The first quarter of the present year was all that could be
desired for the progress of farming operations, The wheat
plant is looking well for the most 'part. The breadth of
spring corn sown is bej'ond an average, owing principally to
the low price of wheat. Grass and seeds grow but slowly,
being impeded by the frosty nights. Stock of all kinds is in
fair condition ; fat stock is dear. Sheep realize high
figures. The fall of Iambs, " which is nearly over," has
been attended with success, but with fewer couples than last
year. The corn market, till within the last week or two,
has been very inactive, and prices have not been remunera-
tive for wheat. A large county meeting was held on Penen-
den Heath on Thursday last, which was numerously
attended, with a view of obtaining the remission of the in-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

457

stalment of hop duty payable ia May next ; also to get a
repeal of a portion of that tax by reducing the same to one
penny per pound. " This no doubt will be acceded to,
should the present government be supported, and would
be hailed as a very great boon by all concerned in their

cultivation. The fanners and hop growers of West Kent
have now a chance at the coming election ; and by returning
Lord Homesdale and Sir Edmund Filmer, " who have
pledged themselves supporters of such a measure," they
will be fairly represented in the new parliament. — April 20.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

BALCOMBE FAIR, — There were some very good speci-
mens of Sussex stock, especially two steers, two years old, by
Mr. John Beeching, that realized £30. He had also a fat cow,
sold to Mr. Babe for £20, that was much admired, and sur-
passed by none in the fair. Mr. W, Tester had seven Sussex
steers, two years, very complete, that fetched £100 in one
lot. The show of sheep was by no means large, but tegs sold
well and freely at from 283. to SOs. per head. Nothing very
first-rate were, however, offered. Pigs were not in any great
numbers, but sold at somewhat extravagant prices, home-bred
quarter-olds fetching from 203. to 223. per head. A fine pen
of good Berkshire pigs, quarter-old, realized 18s each, which
as they are not considered so prime as home-breds was cer-
tainly a long price. There was a very decent show of horses,
but business was not so brisk as in other kinds of stock, and
the exchanges were few.

BANBUKY FAIR.— There was a moderate supply of both
beasts and sheep, but not much either beef or mutton of first-
class quality. Beef fetched from about 4s. to 43. lOd. per
8 lbs., and mutton from Ss. to 53. 6d. upon the average.
There were several fine bulls, which sold at fair prices.

BISHOPSTOKE FAIR.— Tliere was an average quantity
pitched ; and, the attendance of buyers being large, the prin-
cipal portion changed hands, at about the following rates :
half cowards, 54a. to 583.; doubles, 58s. to 62s. ; Somersets,
649. to 70s. ; Cheddar, 72s. to 76s.

BODMIN FAIR. — The following were successful iuobtaiu-
iug the premiums : Mr. W. Rouse, of Lancarffe, Bodmin, ob-
tained the prize for the best fat ox. The second-beat was won
by Mr. J. Ruunalls, of Trengoffe, Warleggan, and the third
was awarded to Mr. T. Baron, of Lidcut, Bodmin. The prizes
for the best cows were given as follows : The best prize to Mr.
Billing, of Penrose, St. Tudy; the second-best Mr. W. Rouse,
Lancarffe, and the third best to Mr. J. Ruunalls, of Trengoffe.
The fair was not a particularly large one, and the umpires ap-
peared to have no great difficulty in awarding the prizes, ex-
cept between tha second and third-best ox, and the second
and third prize cow. Fat cattle sold during the day at about
three guineas per cwt. ; store cattle met a ready sale at ad-
vanced prices.

CAISTOR FAIR. — There was a very excellent show of
sheep, and plenty of buyers. Mr. Carr, of Nettleton, obtained
66s. per head for a lot of prime hoggs.

CHESTER FAIR— The supply of cattle was large, par-
ticularly of milking stock, the prices of which were rather
higher at the opening of the fair, but declined again as time
went on. Sheep and pigs were an average supply, mutton
making 8d. per lb. to 9d.,' and pork 5d. In the horse
fair the show of animals was very iuferior. Good harness
horses and hacks were in demand ; but first-claaa buyers, like
that description of horses, were very few and far between.

CLENT FAIR was well attended; there was a good show
of all kinds of stock, most of which was sold.

CROWLE FORTNIGHTLY MARKET. — There were
few strangers present, and little business appeared to be trans-
acted in the sale and purchase of cattle. Pigs continue to
maintain high prices.

DEFYNNOC FAIR.— The quantity of stock was very
large, and there was generally a ready sale, the attendance of
dealers being very large, with a remarkably brisk demand for
barrens and steers. Cows and calves were not much inquired
for ; and the horse fair was rather dull. The prices realized
were fully equal to recent rates.

DEVIZES FAIR. — There was above an average supply of
sheep, of which but few were sold, owing to the high prices
asked, and the cold unpromising weather. 483. were asked
for couples, bat 45s, was the highest price we heard that was

given ; tegs sold at from SOs. to 453. each. Cattle were rather
below an average supply ; they sold well at full prices, and
quite equal to iate fairs. Cows and calves at from 10^. to 17^.
Oxen and steers at 181. to 201. each. There were some good
cart-horses, and they sold well, the best as high as 45^. each.

ELGIN CATTLE MARKET.— There was a very full
market of cattle, the largest that has been seen for some years,
and there were a great number of buyers from the south. Bu-
siness was rather dull the first part of the day, owing to the
high prices asked. Towards the afternoon, however, sellers
gave way a little, and a great many transactions took place .
Mr. Cruickshank, Cloves, sold a lot of three-year-old stots, 281.
per head ; Mr. Clunas, New Elgin, a lot of do., 191. ; Mr.
Macbean, Nairnside, a lot of do., 181. lOs. ; Mr. Forteath,
Newton, a lot of do., 181. 128. 6d. ; Mr. Adams, Sweethillock,
a lot of do., 14<. 7s. 6d. ; Mr. Millar, Fosterseat, a lot mixed,
14Z. lOs. ; Mr. John Grant, Pitgavenny, a lot of two-year-old,
14^. 148. ; Mr. Cruickshank, Plewlands, a lot of two-year-old
crosses, reared by Mr. Grant, Pitgavenny, 18^. ; Mr. Gordon,
New Market, one lot of two year-olds, IH. ; a lot of queys
three-year-olds, IZl. 15s. There was a poor horse market, and
no demand.

GLOUCESTER MONTHLY MARKET was the smallest
we have witnessed this year. The number of fat sheep waa
exceedingly limited, and an advance in price was readily ob-
tained. There were very few beasts, and those of an inferior
quality, but the trade was brisk at the following prices : Beef
7d., mutton 8d. to9d. per lb.

GRANTHAM FAIR.— There was a good supply of stock,
particularly of sheep, which sold exceedingly well. Hoggs
averaged about £2. One lot of a hundred fetched 57s. 6d.
We heard of another lot, bought after Michaelmas at 203. 6d.,
selling at 45s. Fat sheep fetched 8d. per lb. in the wool.
Store beasts sold well.

HAY FAIR. — The supply of stock small and buyers few,
which may be accounted for by the fact of Talgarth and other
fairs in the neighbourhood falling on the same day. Fat sheep
remained on hand, purchasers (principally butchers) declining
to offer. Barrens realized fair prices, from £10 to £14 ; good
cart horses fetched from £30 to £40 each.

KIDDERMINSTER FAIR.— There was a good supply of
fat stock, and business brisk. Cows sold at from 7d. to f^d.
per lb. ; sheep (shorn) 7d. to 7id., in the wool, 7id. to S^d.
Cowa and calves maintained their former price, and pigs about
Ss. a score.

LISKEARD FAIR was well supplied with cattle, which
sold remarkably well, and almost a complete clearance was
effected. Fat bullocks from 56a. to 60s., cows and calves 50s.
to 55s., and store c"xttle 458. per cwt. ; sheep 7d. per lb.

LUDLOW FAIR. — A moderate supply of live stock was
exhibited, most of which were sold at extreme prices.

LOCKERBY FAIR. — The number of sheep was about
2,000 head, of which about 1,000 were half-bred hoggs, 850
Cheviot hoggs, and 160 crosses. Nearly two-thirds of the
Cheviots were ewe hoggs. There was a considerable attend-
ance of buyers, and grass being abundant there was a good
demand for sheep ; but very high prices being asked the
market during the forenoon was alow, though by two o'clock
most of the lots had been disposed of; still a few lots for which
the owners would not accept the prices cfFered were returned
to their pastures. A lot of half breds from Annanbank were
purchased for Shillahill at 42s. with a luckpenny ; a lot of 200
brought about S6s. ; the best lots ranged from that figure to
49s., but most of the lots ranged from 303. to 36s. ; for a lot
of Cheviot wedder hoggs belonging to Mr. Little, Applegarth,
408. was asked, but they were not sold at that figure ; they
were a very superior lot ; a lot of 60, made 32s., and another

453

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lot of tiO, 31b. ; a lot of 50 aold for 298, Sd., prices ranging
for wedder hogga down to 203. ; a lot of ewe hoggs made 25a.
9d., and various lots sold from 22a. to 243., prices ranging to
183. The quality of the Cheviota generally was much superior
to those of last year. A lot of 100 cross hoggs, from Burnt-
shields, Tinwald, aold for 31b. 6d., and a lot of 50 made 31s.
The market on the whole may be considered slow and dear.
There was a considerable show of cattle. Galloways and Ayr-
shires. There was an excellent demand for grazing beasts at
high prices; and anything good among the Ayrshire cows and
queys was readily sold at high figures.

LYM.INGTON FORTNIGHTLY MARKET was well at-
tended. There was a good show of horses, cattle, sheep, and
pigs. The deoiand was brisk, at full prices.

MALTON FAIR. — A moat numerously attended fair ; but
the show of cattle was limited, and nearly confined to grazing
beasts, which has given firmness to prices. Owing to the
eagerness with which horses were bought on Monday and
Tuesday, thej' were scarcer to-day. The attendance of buyers
was numerous, but few horses changed hands. Entire horses
were plentiful.

MANSFIELD FAIR was but thinly attended, and the
principal of the stock shown was of an inferior kind. Thirty
tine beasts (bred and fed by His Grace the Duke of Portland)
fetched £30 per head. But very few horses were in the fair.
Trade in sheep was not very brisk, m*uj leaving uusold. A
few young beasts sold well.

NOllWICH TOMBLAND FAIR. — At this great
and important fair there was a falling off in the show of
Scots, but of shorthorns the numbers were both large and
good. The attendance of buyers was tolerably numerous,
which caused sales to be brisk for Scots at 4s. to 4s. 6d. ;
fresh in condition, 5s. ; shorthorns, 3s. 6'd. to 4s. ; prime,
4s. 6d. per stone of 14 lbs. when fat. At the close few re-
mained unsold. Fat beasts a small show ; sales firm at
from 7s. 6d. to 8s. 8d, per stone, and all sold. The pens
well filled. Hoggets an immense show, many thousands
being of superior condition and qualitj'. The principal
buyers wfve from Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and the
neighbouring districts. The very high prices asked in the
early part of the day checked business ; but after twelve
o'clock sales were good at the following prices, the best
making 60s. to 663. ; big and full in condition, 50s. to 54s. ;
strong and useful, 42s. to 45s.; middling, 36s. to 40$. ; poor
and ordinary, 25s. to 303. per head. At the close of the
market a small portion remained unsold. We may remark,
although the price is generally very high, still we fear the
result of this day's sales were not in favour of the dealers :
whilst, on the other hand, the breeders are well paid. Good
keeping sheep from 40s. to 42s. per head. Fat sheep 8s. to
8s. 6d. per stone, and all sold. In the horse (air there was
a large number exhibited, comprising draught and hackneys,
varying from £20 to £25, £30 to £35 per head. Very prime
animals scarce, and difficult to purchase at from £80 to
£100 each.

SHIPSTON-ON-STOUR FAIR brought a large attendance
of buyers from distant counties, which tended to give a brisk-
nesss to the trade, and although there were not so many fat
horses as usual, those of firat-clasa quality ranged at high
prices, varying from £40 to £70 ; a good trade also was done
with second-rate horses, which realized good prices. Of beef
and mutton there was a moderate supply, with a great de-
mand and high prices ; beef realized 7d. ; mutton, shorn 6|d.
to 7d.

STAMFORD FAIR.— In consequence of the Midlent stock
fair being held so recently there was not much animation in
the cattle trade ; for the same reason there was not a large
show of any kind of stock. For beasts very high prices were
asked, and as sellers appeared to be unwilling to cive way,
very few transactions took place : for two-year-old store steers
from £12 to £14 were demanded ; the prices for drapes were
high, very poor animals indeed making £11 each \ fresh ones
were sold a( £15 ; a few fat beasta were offered, and made
about 83. 6d. per stone. The show of sheep was not large,
and the trade was dull ; several pens were unsold in the after-
noon : prices not so good as at MiJIeut fair.

TALGARTH FAIR was a small one; sales of nearly all
kinds of stock were readily made at a slight Jadvance upon
previous rates. Barrens, feediug steers, and good horses
seemed to be most in request, and of these the chief part ex-
hibited were sold.

TENBURY FAIR was a good one, there being a capital
supply of cattle and sheep, which met a fair demand. Pigs
weie not so plentiful as on former occaaioua of the kind, but
very dear.

TEWKESBURY FAIR was well attended by farmer* and
dealers, and was the largest fair held for some time paat.
Beef sold from 62-d. to 7d., mutton 7d. to 9d. per lb.

TOWYN FAIR. — The supply was small. Bullocks
and steers realized about the same prices as at our last
March fair. Pigs were much higher, stores realizing good
prices. Horses were scarce, the supply not being equal to the
demand.

WIMBORNE FAIR.— There was a large attendance of
farmers. The stock was not very numerous, but most of it
changed hands.

WORKSOP FAIR.— Owing to the unfavourableness of
the day there was but a thin attendance. There were very
few sheep and beasts, and the show of horses was meagre in
the extreme,

WORCESTER FAIR was well supplied with stock of all
descri'ition, notwithstanding several other large fairs were he'd
the same d«y. There was a good attendance of buyers. The
best qualities of fat beef fetched about 7^d. per lb. Stock
beasts sold well. Fat beasts sold briskly, at 7^d, per lb.
shorn, and 9d. in the wool; ewes fetched 7d. per lb. : a few
pens of fat lambs were sold, one of which made 363. each, and
the lowest fetched SOs. each. There were but few fat pigs,
but a larger number of stores than usual, which sold al°slightly
advanced prices. The horse fair was thinly supplied.

BELFAST,(Thiir3day last.) —Butter: Shipping price,10.5y.
to 1123. per cwt.; firkins and crocks ll|d. to 12d. per lb.
Bacon, 54a. to 563.; Hams, prime 723. to 8O3, second quality
60s. to 63s. per cwt. Prime mess Pork, 78s. to SOs. perbrl. ;
Beef 120s, to ISOs.pe'tierce refined; Irish Lard,i-i bladders
663. to703.; kegs or firkins, 60s. to 643. per cwt. Pork,
47s. to5l3.peri201bs.

CARMARTHEN BUTTER MARKET, (Saturday last.)
— The market opened with a very small supply, and the qua-
lity generally by no raeaus satisfactory. For choice qualities
farmers re.lized, under an active demand, from ISJd. to 14d.,
ordinary sorts 122^1. to 13d., old butter about la. per lb. The
weather is cold and uugenial, but dry, aud favourab'e for the
completion 0! the seeding season. Under the influence of
the actual commeucement of hostilities upon the Continent,
our corn mirket is advancing, aud farmers withholding sup-
plies.

GLASGOW CHEESE MARKET.— Trade quiet, and few
coming forward. Only three carts were shown in the bazaar,
and five tons passed the weigh-house scales. Prices steady.
Prime early made, 63s. ; late made, 493. to 543. per cwt.

RUGBY CHEESE FAIR.— The supply was about an
average; the demand, however, was very sluggish. Farmers
had to reduce their prices before sales could be effected. Many
of the buyers south aud west of Rugby left the fair without
makiug purchases, the prices in the West of England offer-
ing them more inducement. Prices may be quoted as follows :
— Skims 323. to 359., two-meal 38s. to 443., new milk, small
5l8. to603., good useful cheese 62s. to 653., finest large
dairies 653. to 703., two extraordinary fine dairies, 3'^ to the
cwt., realized 723. to 733. Several lots were taken home again
unsold.

APPOINTMENT OF PROFESSOR SPOONER AS
AN EXAMINER OF HORSES AT THE MEETINGS
OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY —It is
with great pleasure we announce that the Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England have unanimously appointed
Professor Spooner the Examiner of Horses at their Annual
Meetings, The labour of inspecting all the animals, and re-
porting thereon to the stewards, had fallen somewhat heavily
on Professsor Simonds ; for although he was not without assist-
ance, yet the responsibility rested entirely on him ; but now
that this division is made, each professor will be enabled to
give his individual euerjries and talents to the performance of
the duties of his respective office ; and should au emergence
arise, or any doubtful case piesent itself, by co-operation the
difficulty will be surmounted. Thus will be secured the ob-
ject the Society has always had in view, while at the same
time the public will have full confidence in the correctness of
the decisions which may be come to. — The Veterinarian,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

m

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE PAST MONTH.

March closed with a heavy snow-storm and
most unusual severity, and the close of the first
week in April brought in the temperature of mid-
summer, a difference of from 20 to 76 degrees
being experienced in one week. Since then there
has been a return to frosty nights and cold
winds, and finally an abundant fall of rain, and
mild atmosphere. These extraordinary changes
have greatly damaged the wall-fruit and pears, but
generally vegetation has borne the fluctuations
well, and the corn has appeared uninjured ; in
fact, the growing wheat is almost too forward and
rank, as the consequence of the previously mild
weather. The apprehensions of drought have now
greatly diminished, but the fall of rain is yet
considerably in arrears, as is still testified by the
lowness of the reservoirs and wells. The long con-
tinued dulness in the wheat trade has at last given
place to an active trade, the higher prices paid
in Portugal, Spain, Algeria, Egypt, and America
having gradually brought on a foreign demand,
which, though moderate in its character, somewhat
increased the value ; but the late warlike rumours
in Europe, pointing with an almost certainty to this
dire calamity, have greatly accelerated the upward
movement, and this grain in the course of the
month has advanced 4s. to 5s. per qr., with less
disposition on the part of holders to quit their
stocks. The effect of the superabundance of 1857
indeed now appears to be gradually subsiding, the
low prices thence ensuing having caused a very
lavish use for cattle feed beyond the consumption
of a growing population, while the quotations in
Northern Europe, and even Odessa, left no margin
for profitable shipments to Great Britain. It is
true there have been steady imports for a long
period ; but very few of them have so much as
realized cost price, while many have been to a sadly
losing account. Negotiations seem yet possible
in the political horizon ; but even with peace in
prospect, we do not apprehend a serious decline,
while with an European war at all protracted
there might be a considerable enhancement. The
condition also of the EngUsh wheat being gene-
rally improved, will make it more fit both for the
mill and speculative purposes ; while foreign stocks
are by no means heavy, and some holders have
already entirely withdrawn their samples from
market, in expectation of better prices. Hitherto
the crops in Germany, Russia, Holland, Belgium,

France, Algeria, and the Principalities of Wallachia
and Moldavia have been well reported ; but it has
been otherwise in Southern Europe, as Spain,
Portugal, and Sicily have been threatened with
drought. Free imports are, therefore, again per-
mitted in the two latter countries, and the same
permission is shortly expected in Spain, the price
of flour at Marseilles being already improved by
the expectation. In America, too, the absence of
snow is said to have been very injurious to the
wheat plant, and a deficiency in the general yield
may be the consequence. Stocks all over the
world fappear but small, and it is very probable
that British farmers hold more than is stored in
foreign parts. The eff'ect of the late rise in this
country is yet to be seen abroad ; but the prices
in several places, before it was known, were as
follows: — The cheapest markets were those of
France, fine wheat being yet only quoted at about
40s. at Paris; but at the shipping port of Nantes
the market had risen by the Portuguese demand,
and rates were uncertain, several shillings being
asked over former rates, 36s. and 37s. At Ant-
werp the quotation for native white was 43s. 6d.
Louvain was moving up, with 45s. asked for fine
red ; and all the Belgian markets began to be in-
fluenced by warlike rumours. At Amsterdam fine
Polish wheat obtained 55s. Mecklenburg red at
Hamburg was held at 47s., and 62lbs. Rostock
quoted 44s. 6d, At Berlin and Konigsberg top
prices remained 49s. At Dantzic nothing fine
could be had under 52s. per qr. Odessa was tend-
ing upwards, and a large business in wheat trans-
acted, the best Polish making 42s. per qr. At
Alexandria stocks were scarce, and the low
Saide wheat was bought by Government at 29s. 6d.,
the identical price it had been bringing off" the coast
here. Trieste was short in stock, and fine Banat
and Romagna wheat was worth 46s. 6d. In Alge-
ria native hard wheat had brought 57s. 6d. from
its scarcity, and the smallness of stocks was felt all
along the coast. At Lisbon, soft wheat was worth
55s., and hard Seville wheat at Barcelona had
brought 66s. to 70s. Many districts in North
America were very destitute, and New York prices
had occasioned some shipments hence as well as
from France, red southern and Tennesse being
worth 50s. per qr. of 480lbs, and white Kentucky
65s. ; l)ut the last accounts were dull at these
rates.

460

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The first Monday in London opened on mode-
rate supplies, both of English and foreign wheat,
the latter being about half French. The near
counties only sent up about the usual supplies,
but the return of warm forcing weather in-
fluenced the market unfavourably, sales being
only slowly made at the previous quotations,
and the business in foreign was but retail.
The country m.arkets held subsequently were
generally firmer than that of London, but Birming-
ham, Gainsborough, and Stockton-on-Tees were
more decidedly dull, with some downward ten-
dency. Liverpool found a demand for Portugal at
9s. Id. per cental, but the last market there was
rather in buyers' favour.

The second Monday was better supplied with
English wheat, and less from abroad. Kent and
Essex sent up a fair show of samples, the condi-
tion of which was improved. Warlike rumours
prevailing, prices were influenced fully Is. upwards
on the samples sold; but generally a larger advance
was insisted on, which checked business. More
transactions passed in foreign, at fully Is. per qr.
improvement. Some markets in the country on
receipt of these advices were not improved, but
more generally there was Is. advance, Boston,
Newark, and Sheffield being Is. to 2s. up ;
while Norwich, Spalding, and several other
places were quite 2s. per qr. dearer. At
Liverpool, on Tuesday, some fine red was
sold for Portugal at equal to 48s. per qr. of 480lbs.,
in bond, other sales being eflfected at unaltered
prices, while Friday's business was only firm.

The third Monday had less English and more
foreign wheat, the quantity from France again pre-
ponderating. From Essex in the course of the
morning there were but few samples, and from
Kent only a moderate show. Ordei's from Por-
tugal being in hand for red qualities, those of good
quality brought Is. to 2s. per qr. more money, and
the value of white was somewhat improved at the end
of the market, by the clearance of the red samples.
Notwithstanding the occurrence of Good Friday
this week, the country markets all gave a ready re-
sponse to the reports from town. Birmingham
and Spalding were is. dearer; Hull, Lynn, Bristol,
and Newcastle reported a brisk trade, at Is. to 2s.
more money ; Ipswich, Leeds, and Norwich quo-
ting fully 2s. per qr, advance. At Liverpool, on
Tuesday, holders held their samples generally
too high, bat eventually accepted 3d. per cental
advance. The Scotch and Irish markets followed
in the wake of the English.

On the fourth and last Monday there was a fair
supply of home-growth, with more of foreign than
of late, Kent in the course of the morning sent
up better supplies ; from Essex they were moderate.

The increased probability of war in Europe made
holders high in their demands, an advance of 5s.
per qr. being at first insisted on, but eventually
factors were content to take an improvement of 2s.
to 3s. per qr., and sales were not fast at the rise.
Some holders of foreign altogether withdrew their
samples, and none would sell unless at Is. to 2s.
per qr. more money ; but this description having
lately been held relatively high, sales were checked.

The slow course of the general averages does
not show the month's advance, the rise therein
being only from 40s. to 41s. 2d. per qr. Neither do
the London averages make a further advance than
from 43s. 6d. to 44s. 7d., but it would now seem
that the lowest point is past for perhaps a long
period. The imports into London for the four weeks
have been 31,490 qrs. English, 37,596 qrs. foreign;
against 17,414 English, 23,834 qrs. foreign, in
April last year, showing a large increase, partly
owing to the openness of the Baltic this season,
but more from the increased supplies from France.
During the month of March the imports into the
United Kingdom in wheat were, 259,872 qrs. ; in
flour, 328,524 cwts. The four weeks' exports were,
1,390 qrs. wheat, 978 cwt. of flour.

The flour trade all through the month has been
very steady, till the rise at the close. Norfolks on
the second and third Mondays had risen about Is.
per sack, and on the fourth there was a further ad-
vance of 2s. per sack, making the rise 3s. ; and on
the last Monday the town trade raised their top
price from 40s. to 43s. per sack. French was also
influenced to about a similar extent. No fine
American is here, the prices being much above our
own.

The imports into London for the month were, in
country sorts 58,090 sacks, in foreign 9,322 sacks
92 barrels; against 65,080 sacks English, 7,269
sacks 504 barrels foreign, in April 1858.

The barley trade has scarcely varied through the
month; that for malting purposes has, with the
season's advance, diminished in demand, and con-
sequently in value, till its quotations have become
uncertain, though to the last there has existed a
lingering retail demand for this purpose. The im-
portations of foreign have been very free, the early
opening of the Baltic bringing supplies, in addition
to those usually received from the Black Sea, and
the low prices of this latter giving an extended
consumption in admixture with oats, to cheapen
that food for horses. The first Monday having
the heaviest supply, this grain was then cheapened
6d, to Is, per qr., which it subsequently recovered,
on the last Monday, when the warlike rumours
added somewhat to its value and increased the de-
mand. The imports into London for the four
weeks were in English qualities 7,334 qrs., in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

461

foreign 62,856 qrs. — against 7,681 qrs. English,
56,085 qrs. foreign in April, 1858, the increase
being in favour of this month. The total imports
into the kingdom in March last were 157,989 qrs.

The malt trade, like that in barley, has been very
quiet through the month ; a reduction took place
of Is, per qr. on the first Monday, with no subse-
quent change.

During the month the oat trade has been well
supplied from the early opening of the Baltic, and
prices have been very regular throughout. On the
first Monday, there being a good arrival from
foreign ports, the prices gave way about 6d. per
qr. The' next considerable arrival was the last,
when there arrived in the Easter week 65,376 qrs.
from abroad ; the tendency on the first appearance
of this fleet was certainly downwards, and prices
were only saved from a decline by the sudden ap-
prehensions of war in Europe from the precipitate
conduct ot Austria. The prices of this grain, we
think, will much depend on the earliness of har-
vest, for stocks are very likely to be nearly used
up towards the close of the season. The imports
into London for the four weeks were in English
sorts 1,917 qrs. only, in Scotch 5,494 qrs., Irish
10,361 qrs., in foreign 133,165 qrs., giving a
weekly average of 37,732 qrs., which, with the ad-
dition of low barley, made supplies plentiful. Last
year, in April, the supply v/as 2,050 qrs. English,
4,447 qrs, Scotch, 8,499 qrs. Irish, 44,082 qrs,
foreign, giving a weekly average of only 14,769
qrs. The imports into the United Kingdom for
last March were 50,033 qrs. only. There have
been exported from London in four weeks
5,580 qrs.

Beans have held out well as respects the English
crop ; yet during the last fortnight, with but mo-
derate supphes, they have advanced 2s, per qr.,
foreign having nearly increased in value to the
same extent. There being scarcely any now at
Alexandria, where the Government has paid as
much as 33s, per qr. for them, it seems unlikely
the rates will dechne, as the chief dependence for
a supply must henceforth be France, where the
quality is good, but prices are high relatively. The
imports into London during the four weeks have
been in English qualities 2,145 qrs,, in foreign
2,275 qrs. — against 3,158 qrs, English, 8,012 qrs.
foreign in 1858; so there is a considerable falling
off this season. The total imports last March were
13,310 qrs.

Had it not been for one shipment of white peas
from Odessa, the foreign arrivals of peas would
this month have been quite trifling. Prices have
scarcely varied, duns and maples for some time
having been relatively dearer than other grain,
and white boilers, from the general mildness of the
season, having experienced scarcely any demand,
the cheapness of bread and potatoes, as well as
abundance of vegetables, leading to their neglect
as an article of human food. Lately, however, the
rise in beans has attracted attention to them for
horse feed, as they are now no longer new, but
eligible for this use, and the stock being small they
are hkely to disappear quickly, unless held for
speculation. The imports into London for four
weeks were 305 qrs, English of all qualities, and

706 qrs, from abroad — against 553 qrs. English,
374 qrs. foreign in April, 1858. The total imports
in March this year were 5,770 qrs.

Of linseed the arrivals have been good, but
prices have very little given way, say only about
2s, per qr. on high rates, Tlie value of fat stock
has stimulated the manufacture of cake, which has
been in very liberal demand for a long period, but
the state of the oil trade has not been encouraging
to crushers. Should the export trade rather fall
off, we may come more nearly to a normal state of
things ; but, on the other hand, the probabiUties of
war seem against much reduction for the present.

The cloverseed trade carried prices unusually
well through the season, and there has still been
something doing in English red, at fair rates. The
fear, at one time, that the crop would not hold out,
has not been realized, the small receipts from
abroad having provided dealers with sufficient for
their customers, but stocks will be on a very small
scale, and beneath the notice of speculators. "White
seed being v^ery scarce has remained extremely
dear, with very little left. Tares have become
neglected, after ruling high through the whole
season, Canaryseed has farther receded in value,
and may again descend to speculative rates.
Hempseed, mustardseed, rapeseed, carravvay, and
coriander have little changed in value.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Shillings per Quarter'

Wheat, Essex and Kent, white... •••.•••.. 41 to 52

,, red >,...,.,,. 39 48

Norfolk, Line., and Yorks., red... 39 47

Baelet, malting — to 32 .... Clievalier .... 34 3D

Grinding 24 26 .... Distilling 27 29

Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ...,51 to 59 fine 60 65

Kingston. Ware, and town made .. 51 59 ,, 63 65

Brown ...50 61 — —

Rte new— — 29 30

Oats, English, feed 13 24,. .... Potato 25 28

Scotch, feed 20 24 Potato 24 28

Irish, feed, white 20 23 fine 24 28

Ditto, black 19 22 ,, — 23

Beans, Mazagan .., 37 38 Ticks ...... 37 89

Harrow 39 41. Pigeon 42 45

PEAs,new, white, boilers 36 40 Maple 42 44, .Grey 37 39

FLonR,per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households 35s., fine 39 43

Country 30 32 ...... Households,. 33 37

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship 30 31

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Shiillngs per Quarter.

WHEAT,Dantzic, mixed 46 — high do, — 61 extra — 56

Konigsberg 40 48 ,, — — — —

Rostock 46 - fine 50 old 52 — —

American, white .,42 49 red.,.. 41 48 — —

Pomera.,Meckbg.,&Uckerrark,red 42 47 — —

Silesian,red .41 46 white ...... 44 50

Danish and Holstein. , ,. 42 48

Russian, hard,, 39 43 .. French. ,44 46 white 42 47

St. Petersburg and Riga,,,, 39 44

Rhine and Belgium ,.,.... — 48

Barley, grinding 22 27 28 Distilling .... 28 29

Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 22 25 Feed 20 23

Danish and Swedish, feed ...19 24 Stralsund.... 21 23

Russian 19 23

Beans, Friesland and Holstein 36 38

Konigsberg .....35 37 Egyptian .... 32 34

Peas, feeding 37 38 fine boilers .. 39 41

Indian Corn, white.,,.,. ......29 30 yellow 29 30

Flour, per sack French 32 34 Spanish — —

American, per barrel, sour,, 20 25 sweet ,...,.. — —

COMPARATIVE AVERAGES— 1858-59.

From last Friday's (Jaz. s. d.

Wheat..„..105,0fi0 qrs. 41 2

Barley 30,727 .. 33 6

Oats.. 10,028 .. 23 7

Rye 52 ., 31 6

Beans 3,254 .. 41 5

Peas.,.,,,,. 284 ►, 39 4

From Gazette of IS58. a. d.
Wheat 76,791 qrs. 43 2

Barley 29,353

Oats „.. 8,637

Rye , S42

Beans 4,359

Peas , 350

36 7
24 7
30 4
38 10
41 5

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Foe the last Six Wheat.
Weeks : j s. d.

March 12, 1859 ....', 40 3
March 19, 1859 ....; 40 1
March 28, 1859 ....! 40' 0
April 2, 1859 ....i 40 8
April 9, 1859 .... 41 0
April 16, 1859 ....] 41 2
Aggregate average 40 6
Same time last year 44 5

Bai

ley.

s.

d.

PA

4

34

4

31

2

Jio

10

34

3

33

6

34

1

36

8

Oats.

s.

d.

23

3

23

9

n

4

23

4

23

4

23

7

23

5

Rye. iBeans Peas.

23 8

d
3i 11

30 4

32 9

33 2

29 10

31 G
31 9

30 10

d. i s. d
41 8 [40 8
41 3|10 4
40 6138 10
40 4|38 2

40 4!39 6

41 6 39 4
40 11 ^9 6
38 3,41 4

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Trefoil, new IGs. to 20s.

Tares, Winter, new, per busliel ...— s.to — s.

MnsTAiiDSEED, per bush., new 128.10 17s, brown 10s. to 12s.

CoKiANDEE, per owt 14s. to IKs.

Canary , per qr 648. to 66s.

LiNBEED,per qr., sowing — 8. to 6l9. .crushing 548. to 58s.

LiNBEED CAKEB,perton , .£9 10s. to £10 10s.

RAPEBEED,per qr. 688. to 723.

Rape Cake, per ton £5 108.to£6 0s.

FOREIGN SEEDS, &.C.

Cloverseed, red 50s. to 61s white 90s. to !05s.

Trefoil 18s. to 2l3.

Hempseed, small, 33s. perqr Dutch —s.to 38s.

CoRiANDEH,per cwt... 16s.tol8s.

Carbaway ,, 36s. to— s.

Linseed, perqr., Baltic 528. toSGs..., Bombay 58s. toSOs.

LtNBEED Cake, per ton , £d lOs. to £11 Os.

Rapeseed, Dutch ....V 62s. to 66s.

Rape Cake, per ton £6 Os.to £6 Os.

HOP MARKET.

BOROUGH, Monday, April 25. — Our market maintains
a healthy character, the business being only restricted by the
{ew samples on offer.

Mid and East Kents .... 843. to 100s. choice 1478.

WeaUl of Keats 68s. 74s. „ 84s.

Sussex 63s. 70$. ,. 753.

Mease & Wild.

WORCESTER, (Saturday last.)— A good demand for our
hops since the commencement of the present year, and the
crop of 1858 is now wholly disposed of, nor do we recollect
any itistiuce during the last 40 years, however small the crop,
when our rairktt was so bare of stock. A few 1855'8 and
1857'b are now all we have to oflfer, and the latter have ad-
vanced within the last fortnight full 6s. to Ss. per cwt. We
are afraid our plantation has been greatly reduced by grubbing
since October last, and from the present unfavourable appear-
ance of tlie youLg shoots, some planters are already antici-
pating a short crop.

POTATO MARKETS.

SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, Monday, April 25.
Since our last report the supplies coastwise and from fo-
reign ports, as well as by rail, have been heavy, and notwith-
standiag the ungenial weailier we have had, the trade remains
in a very sluggish state for all except the finest samples ; for
common sorts there is scarcely any demand, and for such the
prices are almost nominal. The following are this day's quo-
tations:—

York Regents per ton 90s. to llOs.

Flukes lOOs. toll53.

Lincolnshire Regents 8O3. to 953.

Dunbar do 80s. to 90s.

Ditto Reds 6O3. to 703.

Penh, Forfar, & FifeshireRegents 458. to 658.

Ditto Reds SOs. to 40s.

Ditto Rocks 403. to 503.

Foreign Whites SOa. to 503.

BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS, Monday, April 25.
— The impor'3 of Potatoes last week were 182 tous fiom
Groningen, 72 do. from Calais, 2!i!8 do. from Dunkirk, and
68 baga from Antwerp. Coastwise and by railway, full
average supplies are coming to hand. The best samples are
ia fair request, at full prices ; but other kinds rule heavy at
the late decline.

York Regents 8O3. to 1058. per ton.

Essex and Kent 80s. to 953. ,,

Lincolns 80s. to 903. ,,

Scotch 303. to 90s. „

Forfi^n ,,..,,.,,.,. 30s, to SOs.

PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c.

BUTTER, pcrcwt.: ■. a.

Priaalaad ir2toH6

Kiel lie 12J

Dor«e!,iiew 116 120

Carlow S8 106

Wiler/ord 98 106

Cork 100 106

Cheddar 60

DoubleOlonc 66

HAMS:

York 78

WestmoreUnd 78

Irish 70

SUgo !'8 10-) BACON: Wilnhire, dried 62

Fresh, per do»en..l2s.0d.tol5s.0d.l Irish, green 58

CHEESE, per cwt.:
Cheshire

ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.
LONDON, Monday, April 25.— Our market is pretty
steady, at say 2s. to 43. per cwt. less money, whilst fresh But-
ter ia in plentiful supply, at a decline of Is. per dozen.

Dorset, prime per c«t. 1203. to 1243.

Ditto middling ,, 104s. te 1128.

Fresh per doz. lbs. 123 to 15s.

WOOL MARKETS.

ENGLISH WOOL MARKET.
Per pack of 2401bs.

Fleeces— Southdown Hogs £IS 10to£19 0

Do. Half bredHogs 13 0 18 10

Do. Kent 16 0 17 0

Do. Southdown Ewesand Wethers 16 10 17 10

Do. Leicesterdo 16 10 17 10

Sorts-Clothing, picklock 18 10 ;9 0

Do. Prime and picklock ... 1/10 18 0

Do. Choice..... 16 0 >7 0

Do. Super 14 0 15 0

Do. Combing— Wether matching ... 19 0 20 0

Do. Picklock 16 10 17 10

Do. Common HO 15 0

Do. Hoginatching .... 22 10 23 10

Do. Picklock matching 17 0 18 0

Do. Superdo. H 10 15 10

FOREIGN AND COLONIAL WOOL MARKET.

Per lb. s.

German, pst and 2nd Elect 3

Saxon, 5 Prima 2

and j Secunda . 2

Prussian. ( Tcrtia I 8

Colonial : —Sydney — Lambs 1 11

Scoured do I 4

Unwashed -. 0 llg

Locks and Pieces 0 8

SlipeandSkin 1 7

Port Philip — Lambs 1 4

.Scoured do 0 10

Unwashed 0

Locks and Pieces 1

S. Australian— Lambs 1

Scoured do 1

Unwashed 0

Locks and Pieces 0

v. D. Land — Lambs 1

Scoured do 1

Unwashed ,„ I

Locks and Pieces 1

Cape OF Good Hope— Fleeces 1

Lambs 1

Scoured 1

Unwashed 0

d.

4 to
4

0

04

4 6
8 0
3 4

1 10

2 4i
2 111
1 4

1 Ui

1 in

2 4i
2 ft|
I -H
1 10

H

2 8|

1 H

1 4

2 \i
1 10

1 4

1 lOi

2 2J
2 1
2 4h
1 U

MANURES.

PRICES CURRENT OF GUNAO,&c.

PERUVIA>;GUANO,(perton,for30ton8) £12 0 OtojEO 0 0

Do. Do funder 30 tons').... 13 B 0 0 0 0

KOORIA MOORIA GUANO, (66 per cent. Phos-

phate and 1 percent. Ammonia) 6 6 0 B 15 0

ARTIFICIALMANURES,&o.

Hitr.te Sod. I g^^^,^ ,3 ^ Sulph. of Copper-

(per tou)... J

30 0 0

15 0 0

26 0 0

6 0 0

12 0 0

per-)£ 8.
or Roman V 1- (, „ . „ , „.,
triol, for Wheat (^» 0 « to J7
steep., Ist qual. )
Ditto, 2nd quality 24 0 0

Salt 10 0

Bones, Dust, per qi.l (> 6

Do.J.inch 0 18 6

Oil Vitriol,)
concentrated, J 0 0 1

per lb }

Do. Brown 0 f; PJ 0 0 q

OIL-CAKES.

Linseed-cakes. per ton— t Marseilles £gi00to.£10 00

ThinAmericn,brlB£10 7 6 jEIO 150 English 1010 0 0 00

Ditto buss 10 0 0 10 lu 0 Rape-cnkns,vTtnr 6 0" 6 10 0

Thick do. round (none) 0 00 I Cottonseed cakes 6 10 0 BOO

John Keen, 35, Leadenhall-streel,

(Late Ot!ams,Pickford,and Keen.)

NitratePotash 1

or Saltpetre i '"
Sulpht.Ammonia 14 0 0

Muriate ditto... 23 0 0

^"o'Vllime''^''} '*''"'

Soda Ash, or i ,, ■ „

Alkali / II 0 0

(Jvpsum 1 10 0

Coprolits 2 10 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

Priptpfl )iv Iio(fori)on and Tuxford, 846, Strand, T-rin''oi

IMPORTANT TO FLOCKMASTERS.

THOMAS BIGG,

AGRICULTURAL AND VETERINARY CHEMIST,
BY APPOINTMENT, TO H. R.II. THE PRINCE CONSORT, K. G., &C.

LEICESTER HOUSE, GREAT DOVER-STREET, BOROUGH, LONDON,

Begs to call Ihe attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable
SHBEP-and LAMB DIPPING COMPOSITION, wliich requires
no Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for
effectually destroy ins the Tick Lice, and all other insects
injurious to the Flock, preventing the alarming attacks of
Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby
(greatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and
highly contributing to the general health of the animal.

Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manufac-
tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity
may be had, if required : —

4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0

6 1b.

30

8 lb.

40

10 lb.

50

20 1b.

100

80 lb.

150

40 lb.

200

50 1b.

250

60 1b.

300

80 lb.

400

100 1b.

500

(cask and measure
included)

0 10

0 15

1 0
1 3
I 7

1 17

2 5

Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling the Composition, it will
be equally effective.

He would also especially call attention to his SPECIFIC, or
LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, which will be found a certain
remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in
Sheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all
seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes
in lamb. Price Ss. per gallon — sufficient on an average for
thirty Sheep (according to the virulence of the disease); also in
wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each.

IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.

"ScouUon, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855.
'Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would
have been replied to before this had I been at home, I huve
much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in-

valuable 'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 Sheep
were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of the 'Non-
Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the
Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention
being paid to the flock by my shepherd after dressing according
to instructions left ; but notwithstanding the Scab continues
getting worse. In December I informed the 'Agent for the
above Specific,' that the flock was not cured, and that it requires
their immediate attention. The Agent informed me they should
be at once seen to, but did not do so until_/i«ie weeks afterwards,
and in the mean time the Scab spread over the whole flock, that
I never saw such a disgraceful sight in my life; and when the
Dresser was sent over to inspect the Flock, he decided on not
dressing them again, as one-third of the Sheep had lost half
their wool. I then agreed with an experienced dresser in Norfolk
to dress the flock, and when he saw the sheep he declined doing
them, as they were so very bad, and the time of lambing so
near. Being determined to have the Scab cured if possible, I
wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the
following day ; and although the weather was most severe in
February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an in-
valuable remedy, for in tliree weeks the Sheep were quite cured;
and I am happy to say the young Iambs are doing remarkably
well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and
best remeiy now in use.

" I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant,

" For JOHN TINGEY, Esq..

" To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNY.

In addition to the foregoing, he has very materially improved,
as well as considerably reduced the price of his Dipping Ap-
paratus; and he would venture to suggest that no Flockmasters
ought now to be without one. Price in London,

New and Improved Dipping Apparatus, on Wheels £14 0 0
Ditto ditto with Iron-bar Drainer 5 0 0

Ditto ditto 4 0 0

Ditto, plain, with Wooden Drainer 3 0 0

N.B. — Catalogues, containing List of Patrons, Testimonials,
&c., to be had of all agents, or sent direct per post free.

CURTIS ON MANHOOD.— SHILLING EDITION.

A MEDICAL ESSAY ON NERVOUS AND GENERATIVE DISEASES.

Just Published, the New Edition, 120th Thousand, with numerous Plates, in a sealed envelope, price Is., oi'

sent, post-paid, by Uie Author, for 14 stamps.

MANHOOD : the CAUSE and CURE of PREMATURE DECLINE, with plain
directions for perfect restoration to health and vigour; being a Medical Review of the various forms
and modern treatment of Nervous Debility, Impotcncy, Loss of Mental and Physical Capacity, whether re-
sulting from youthful abuse, the follies of maturity, the effects of climate, or infection ; with Observations on
a new and successful mode of detecting Spermatorrhoea, and other Urethral Discharges, by Microscopic
Examination ; to which are added, curious and interestingcases, with the Author's recipe of a Preventive Lotion.
By J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle-strcet, Piccadilly, London, whose practice, extending over a period of
20 years, affords a complete guarantee to patients that the utmost skill and experience will be made available
in the treatment of their cases.

At home for consultation daily, from 10 till 3, and 6 till 8. Sundays from 10 till 1.

REVIEWS OF THE WORK.

" Curtis on Manhood. — This is a truly valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old."
— Sunday Thnes, 23rd March, 1866.

" Curtis on Manhood.— The author has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which
is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently premature old
age." — Daily Telegraph, March 27. 185G.

" Curtis on Manhood. — The book under review is one calculated to warn and instruct the erring with-
out imparting one idea that can vitiate the mind not already tutored by the vices of which it treats." — Naval
and Military Gazette, Feb. 1, 1851.

•' We feel no hesitation in saying, that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be fuund
useful— whether such person hold the relation of a parent, preceptor, or a clergyman." — Sun, Evening Paper.

Published by the Author: sold also in sealed envelopes by Gilbert, 49, Paternoster-row ; Hannay, 63,
Oxford-street; Mann, 39, Cornhill, London; "Herald" Office, Taunton; Lockyer, Lincoln; Hey wood,
Oldham-street, Manchester; Howell, 6, Church-street, Liverpool ; Ashley, Post-office, Newbury ; Ferris and
Score, Union-street, Bristol; Pierson, Shrewsbury; Jull, Braintree; Thew, Lynn; Peat, Chichester; Lur-
cock, Maidstone ; Cook, Ipswich; Huscroft, Bury St. Edmunds; Dove, Swindon ; Jearey, Bridewell Alley,
Norwich; Smith, Rose Crescent, Cambridge; Slatter, Oxford; and by all Booksellers and Chemists in the
United Kingdom,

FOR THE HAIR, THE SKIN, AND THE TEETH,

arc universally held in high estimation ; and the fact of the distinguished patronage they enjoy, their geneial
use in all countries, and the numerous testimonials constantly received of their efficacy, sufficiently prove the

value of their " Macassar Oil," " Kalydor." and " Odonto."

THE FIRST PRODUCTION IN THE WORLD

For tlie GROWTH and IMPROVEMENT of the HUMAN HAIR is
^9

proved beyond question by its successful results for MORE than HALF A CENTURY past, and when other
specifics have failed.

It prevents Hair falling from falh"ng off or turning grey, strengthens weak HAIR, cleanses it from Scurf
and Dandriff, and makes it BEAUTIFULLY SOFT, PLIABLE, and GLOSSY. In the growth of

the: ®eaki>, ^vhiskem^, ai«» mu^tachios

it is unfailing in its stimulative operation. For CHILDREN it is especially recommended as forming the
basis of A BEAUTIFUL HEAD OF HAIR.

Its invaluable properties have obtained the Patronage of Royalty, the Nobility, and the Aristocracy
throughout Europe; while its introduction into the Nursery of Royalty, and the high esteem in which it is
universally held, with numerous Testimonials constantly received of its efficacy, afford the best and surest
proofs of its merits. — Price 3s. 6d. and 7s. j Family Bottles (equal to four small) 10s. Cd. j and double that
size, 21s.

CATETTIOW.— On the Wrapperof each Bottle are the words, " ROWLANDS' MACASSAR OIL,"&c.,
in white letters, and their Signature, " A. ROWLAND & SONS," in Red Ink.

A B

SiLUTirUI. COMFZ.SXZON,

AND SOFT AND FAIR HANDS AND ARMS

Are realized by the use of

ROW^IiANDS' KAI.'S'DOB,

This Royally-patronized and universally-esteemed Specific exerts the most soothing, cooling, and purifying
action on the Skin, eradicates Freckles, Tan, Pimples, Spots, Discoloration, and other Cutaneous Visita-
tions, and renders

Tics: SMIM CliEAM, FAI», A]¥I> 12 1.00 Iff !]¥€}.

CAUTrOlV.— The words " ROWLANDS' KALYDOR," &c., are on the Wrapper, and their Signa-
ture, " A. ROWLAND & SONS," in Red Ink, at foot.— Price 4s. 6d. and 8s. G;l. per battle.

WHITE AND SOUND TESTI2

Arc indispensable to PERSONAL ATTRACTION, and to heulth and longevity by the proper mastication

of food.

Compounded of ORIENTAL INGREDIENTS, is of inestimable value in

IMPROVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE TEETH,
STRENGTHISNXNG- THE CrUlYES,

And in rendering

It eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of incipient decay, and polishes and preserves the
enamel, to which it imparts a

As the most efficient and fra^rrant aromatic purifier of the Breath, Teeth, and Gums ever known, ROW-
LANDS' ODONTO has, for a long series of years, occupied a distinguished place at the Toilets of the Sove-
reigns and the Nobility throughout Europe ; while the general demand for it at once announces the favour in
which it is universally held. — Price 2s. 9d. per box.

CAUT !«]!¥.— The words " ROWLANDS' ODONTO" are on the Label, and "A. ROWLAND & SONS,
20, Hatton Garden," engraved on the Government Stamp affixed on each b')X.

Sold by the Proprietors and by Chemists and Perfumers*

*.«

** BEWARE OF SPURIOUS IMITATIONS J

No. 6, VoL.XV.| JUNE, 1859, [Third- Series.

THE

FARMEH'S MAGAZINE

AND

MONTHLY JOURNAL

OF

THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST.

TO THE

FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

LONDON :
PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORP, 246, STRAND.

PRICE TWO SHILLINGS,

fiOOEESON AND TDXFOBD,] [PBINTEES, 246, STEAND.

DR. HASSALL
THORLEY'S FOOD FOR CATTLE.

FROM THE "MARK LANE EXPRESS," 10th JAN., 1859.

74, WiMPOLE Street, Cavendish Square, 2lst Becemher, 1858.

Having, on more than one occasion, been requested to make an analysis of Thorley's Well-known
Food for Cattle, and to express my opinion respecting it, I placed myself a short time since in communica-
tion with Mr. Thorley, desiring to be furnished with certain particulars relating to his Food. Mr. Thorley,
who was previously a stranger to me, at once conducted me over his Manufactory, showed me all the ingredi-
ents employed, and also the pi'ocess of manufacture of the article.

I took away with me samples of the food as well as of every ingredient entering into its composition. I have
since carefully examined and tested these, and I have also compared the samples procured at the Manufactory
■with others obtained by myself from other sources,

I am, therefore, now in a position to express an authoritative opinion respecting the coxposition and
properties of Thorlet's Food for Cattle. I would remark of it —

First. That the ingredients used are all of excellent quality, and are purchased without regard to expense.

Second. That the receipt or formula, according to which the Food is prepared, is an admirable one, no
ingredient being selected on account of its cheapness, but those only being chosen which are best adapted to
fulfil the objects intended.

Having regard, thus, to the composition of Thorley's Food for Cattle, 1 find that it possesses the
following properties in an eminent degree — it is highly nutritious and fattening — it is a tonic and gentle
stimulant, aiding, wlien mixed with other descriptions of food, materially the digestive powers of an animal — a
point of great consequence, since it is an undoubted fact that much of the nourishment contained in the ordi-
nary food given to cattle is lost in consequence of the impaired or defective action of the digestive organs.

Compariug Thorley's Food for Cattle with other Cattle Foods, with the compositionof which I am ac-
quainted, I unhesitatingly assert that it is infinitely superior to any others, at present kuown to me. In all those
of the composition of which I have a knowledge, I have found ingredients to be present which htive been added
solely on account of their cheapness, that is for the purpose of adulteration, and to the exclusion of other more
valuable, but more expensive, articles. In some of the Foods I have detected ingredients which are positively
hurtful.

Comparing, also, the samples taken by me from the Manufactory with others procured from different
source^, I found a perfect accordance in the composition of both series of samples.

Before bringing this Report to a conclusion, I would notice an objection sometimes urged against the use of
Cattle Foods generally, namely, that the price at which they are sold exceeds considerably that of the materials
from which they are prepared; this can be readily shown to be a very unreasonable objection. Thorley's
Food for Cattle is a compounded and manufactured article, upon the composition and preparation of which
much care, labour, and expense have been and are bestowed. Moreover, the refuse materials resulting from the
cleansing, grinding, &c., and which are an entire loss, amount to twenty per cent. To estimate, therefore, the
value of such an article merely at the cost of the raw materials is both absurd and unjust.

Neither must the value of this, or any other Cattle Food, be determined by the exact amount of nourishment
contained in them; although in the case of Thorley's Food this is very considerable, but the indirect effects
resulting from its employment must be taken into consideration ; that is, the effects of the article in improving
the appetite, digestive powers, and general vigour of the Cattle fed upon it. By the improved condition of the
digestive organs animals may be fed upon coarser and cheaper articles of food, and from which, without the aid
of Thorley's Food, they would be unable to extract all the nourishment which such articles actually contain.
I consider, then, that the use of Thorley's Food is attended, not with an additional, but with a considerable
saving of expense.

I am glad, therefore, to be enabled to recommend — which I do strongly and conscientiously — Thorley's
Food for Cattle as a highly important and valuable compound for the feeding of all descriptions of Cattle.
'Signed, ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M.D.,

Analyst of the Lancet Sanitary Commission ; Author of the Reports of that Commission ;
of " Food and its Adulteration ; " " Adulteratioiis Ditvctcd; " ^'C, ^c.

From Alfred Brown, Esq., Wandsworth, Surrey, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons,
England ; Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company, London ; Fellow of the Medical
Society of London; late Demonstrator of Anatomy at the St. George's School of Medicine.

Wandsworth, Surrey, Dec. 11, 1858.
Sir, — I shall feel obliged by your sending me another cask of Thorley's Cattle Food. I have been making
experiments with it upon one of my milch cows, and think it only fair that I should let you know the results.
My cow, before I used the Food, was fed upon hay, wortzel, and water ad libitian, and upon this diet she
yielded one gallon of milk per day, making two pounds of butter per week. She was five months gone with
her second calf; when she had the Food I discontinued giving her the wortzel, and gave her a measure-full
(about half-a-pint) of the Food with a peck of damp chaff night and morning; besides, she had as much good
hay as she would eat. Upon this diet, in less than a week she doubled the quantity of milk and butter; and in
order that I might be sure that this excellent result depended upon the Thorley's Food, I discontinued it, and
returned to her former diet, and she speedily went back to the gallon of milk per day. After waiting about a
fortnight, I again returned to the Thorley's Food, and in a few days she increased to two gallons of milk per
day. This experiment I repeated several times, and with the same results. I have tried the Food upon other
animals — horses, sheep, &c. — and with the most satisfactory results. I have also analysed the Food, and find
that it contains nothing that would in any way injure the system or constitution of cattle. You are at liberty
to make any use you please of this communication, and I am. Sir. yours, &c.,

To Mr. J. Thorley. ALFRED BROWN.

THE FARMER'S MAdAZlNE.

JUNE, 1859.

CONTENTS.

Plate!.— THE STABLE YARD.

Plate II.— THE QUEEN OF TRUMPS : a Shorthorn Heifer, the Property of Mr.
James Douglas, of Athelstaneford, N.B.

Description of the Plates ....

The Herds of Great Britain : The Aylesby Herd

Meat and Milk. By Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esa., F.R.S. .

Suggestions for the Future Conduct of Ploughing Matches

The Profession of Agriculture. — Ipswich Farmers' Club

Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland

The Cabbage and its Uses

Ireland and Irish Farming

American Preparations for the Turf

Winter Accommodation for Stock

Trees for the Metropolis

The Sewage Question : the Relation of Town and Country

The present Condition of American Agriculture

Pots and Pearls . . . . •

The Defective State of Farmhouses and Farm Buildings in the County of

The Importance of Proper and Permanent Culture of Mangold Wurzel

Swedes and Mangolds ,...••

The Steam-Plough, and its Progress . . . •

London, or Central Farmers' Club : Steam in Agriculture

Use of Malt Liguor in Harvest Work . . . •

Legislative Obstructions to Agricultural Progress . •

The Pupil System ...•••

The Present of Steam-Cultivation , . • •

Steam-Cultivation ... '.

An Agricultural Benevolent College

PAGE
. 463
. 465
. 46S
. 472
. 474
. 478
. 479
. 480
. 483
. 484
. 489
. 491
. 492
. 497
Durham. 499
. 500
. 501
. 502
. 503
. 516
. 517
. 518
. 520
. 622
523

An Agricultural Benevolent College . . • • • *

On the Diseases of Cultivated Vegetables.— Translated from the French op the

"Journal of Practical Agriculture " . . •

Summer Grazing — The Grazing of Cattle

Agricultural Condition of Austria . . • •

Productions and Peculiarities of the North American Continent ^

Employment op Sorgho as Forage.— Translated from the French op the

d'AgRICULTURE PRATiaUE" . . • * T T?

Improvement in the Breed of Sussex Stock : Testimonial to Mr. Edward

Premiums for Barley ....

Hadleigh Farmers' Club

Treatment of Ewes. — Winfrith Farmers' Club .

The English Farmer in Belgium . .

Royal Agricultural Society of England : Proceedings in Council

Calendar of Agriculture

Calendar of Gardening .*

Agricultural Reports

Review of the Cattle Trade during the past Month

Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c.

Review of the Corn Trade during the pa.st Month

Corn Averages and Market CuRRBNcrBs

524
. 525
. 526
. 528

JOTJRNAL

Cane

. 531
. 532
. 533
. 533
. 534
. 541
. 542
. 546
. 546
. 547
. 548
. 549
. 551
553-4

RANSOMES AND SIMS,

IPSWICH,

THE FO].I.OTFX:WO I M P I. E M JE !¥ T S OltTAIlVED THE

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London : H. Bailliere, 219, Regent-street.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

JUNE, 1859

PLATE I.
THE STABLE YARD.

Some two or three years since, in continuation of
our series of eminent agriculturists, we gave a por-
trait of Mr. James Allen Ransome, of the famous
firm of Ransomes and Sims, implement makers.
In concluding our sketch of his good sayings and
doings, we wrote thus :— " If we say more we shall
but make our hero mortal, and chronicle him, like
most of us, as not proof against some little weak-
ness or other. That of Allen Ransome, if such it
be, is a national one — the love of a horse. The
neatest hack at the Suffolk shows is almost sure to
be * Mr. Ransome's.' Himself a good horseman,
and a good judge, no wonder he confessed, in the
openness of his heart, as we once heard him, that
' much as he loved a steam engine, he loved a horse
still more !' "

We have now followed him home to his own
stable yard, to see what he can show us in the way
of the animal he likes so well. Either of those in

the print may be regarded as an especial favourite,
selected with much care for their several uses. The
dark chesnut white-legged weight-carrier is an
Irish mare, called Norah Creina, purchased of
that well-known dealer, Mr. Sam Quartermaine,
once of Oxford, and now of Piccadilly. The young
lady's pony. The Fawn, comes from an equally
good school, having for some time carried the
daughters of Mr. Anderson, also of Piccadilly.
There is something of a character at once implied
in such last places as these two clever hacks can
refer to, and both would appear alike worthy
of the recommendation. " For action, temper,
manners, and education," quaintly writes their
present possessor, " they approach more nearly to
perfection than is often found in horseflesh.
They are in every respect worthy of Corbet's
pencil, and certainly his painting is worthy of his
subject."

PLATE II.
THE QUEEN OF TRUMPS; A Shorthorn Heifer.

THE PROPERTY OP MR. JAMES DOUGLAS, OF ATHELSTANEFORD, N.B.

The Queen of Trumps, a roan heifer, bred by
Mr. Douglas, and calved on April 27th, 1856, was
got by Captain Balco (12546), out of Queen of
Trumps, by Belleville (6778), her dam. Queen of
Trumps, by Captain Shaftoe (6833), — Old
Cherry, by Pirate (2430), — by Houghton (318),
— by Marshal Blucher (416), &c., &c.

In 1857, when a yearling, the Queen of Trumps
was highly commended at the Salisbury Meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England;
Colonel Towneley's Rose of Towneley taking the
first prize, and Mr. Richard Booth's Queen Mab
the second. Colonel Towneley had two more hei-
fers also highly commended, and the whole of the
class, one of the strongest ever shown, was com-
mended. At the Northumberland Society's Show,
at Cornhill, Queen of Trumps took the first prize

OLD SERIES.]

as the best yearling heifer, beating, amongst others,
Mr. John Booth's Venus de Medicis, which Mr.
Douglas purchased there and then for three hun-
dred guineas. At the Glasgow Meeting of the High-
land Society, Queen of Trumps took the first prize
for yearling heifers ; and at Waterford, the Queen
and Venus again came together, when the Cornhill
judgment was confirmed, the roan being placed first,
and the white receiving a high commendation.

In the spring, however, of the year following, at
the show of the Royal Dublin Society, they changed
places, Venus de Medicis taking the first prize, and
Queen of Trumps the second. At the Chester
Meeting of the Royal English Society, the Queen
" righted" again with the first prize, Venus being
highly commended, and Lady Buckingham, a
heifer, the property of the Honourable and Reverend
I I [VOL. L.— No. 6.

46d<

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Noel Hill, dividing them. At the Yorkshire Meet-
ing, at Northallerton, they declared Queen of
Trumps the best, Mr. Booth's Queen Mab a good
second to her, and commended Venus and Rose of
Towneley. It will be seen that the Scotch heifer
here got her revenge on the two placed above her
at Salisbury in the year previous. At the Hexham
Show of the Northumberland Society it was still
the Queen first, and Venus second. Crossing once
more to Ireland, for the National Meeting at Lon-
donderry, the beautiful couple met us in the same
positions, as first and second of their class, the
Queen of Trumps also taking the Gold Medal as
the best heifer, and the Purcell Challenge Cup as
the best animal of the show. At Aberdeen our
history is yet but an echo, the Queen was first, and
the white second. But after it v/as over, one of the
judges assured us, he had held out strongly for
Venus, not knowing at the time she had ever been
preferred by public award to her companion. To
the very last, however — and we saw them achieve
all their great triumphs — the two had their partizans.

The Queen of Trumps thus stands recorded as
the winner of the three national prizes, at an age
when a shorthorn shows better than at any other.
Curiously enough Mr. Douglas went the very same
successful round only the year previous with the
Rose of Athelstane, also by Captain Balco ; the
only two occasions, we believe, on which this has
been achieved with the same animal. In October
last, after returning from Aberdeen, Queen of
Trumps was sold to Mr. Barret, of Henderson,
Kentucky, for four hundred and fifty guineas, Mr.
Douglas warranting her in calf to Sir James the
Rose, and due to calve on the 1st of March. She
sailed accordingly from Londonderry, in Novem-
ber, for New Orleans, with fifteen other head of
cattle, all of which but two died on the passage;
the Queen of Trumps lived within a day's sail of
port, when she too succumbed. As some of the
premiums were awarded under the regulation that
she had a calf born alive, Mr. Douglas will lose
these ; although there was no question the heifer
was heavy in calf when she died.

Without attempting to write up our subject, a few
extracts from our own reports of last year may show
the extraordinary and well-merited success which
has attended Mr. Douglas, not only with the Queen
of Trumps, but many more of his heifers. Thus,
at Chester, we said, " In the cow classes Mr.
Douglas must on the whole be ranked as only
second to Mr. Booth, from whom he will have his
best blood." Then, at Londonderry, and we will
keep ourselves to the three national shows—" We
have to report another famous entry of shorthorns,
the numbers of which came very much to a par
with those at Waterford last year. But to prove

the superiority of the sample, it may be added, that
the then best of all the animals was only the best of
her class here — Mr. Douglas' The Rose of Athel-
stane, who took the first prize for cows. She was
still beaten for ' the best of all' by one of her own
herd, and a half-sister — the now famous Queen of
Trumps. The latter was again side by side with
Venus de Medicis, and the vexed question as to the
pick of the pair was decided in confirmation of the
Chester award. In fact, the Queen of Trumps
appears to have improved ever since then, and it is
difficult now to imagine how the white heifer could
have ever had the advantage of her. The quality
of either is excellent ; but her majesty is the more
roomy and broader, of a better colour, with a better
head, and certainly with the preference in point of
general appearance. But they are both extraordi-
nary animals, and should be painted — as they so
often have stood— together. Mr. Douglas thus
wins the new Purcell Challenge Cup for the second
year in succession, and it looks more than probable
that he may follow Colonel Towneley's example,
and secure it during the next. He also wins the
Gold Medal with the Queen of Trumps as the best
cow ; while his especial success does not even end
here. The Londonderry meeting inaugurated
another challenge cup for the best three horned
animals shown in the same section, and the master
of Athelstaneford claimed this also with three beau-
tiful heifers, all of his own breeding. So generally
good were they, that in a remarkably superior class
of over thirty, they were only just separated. One
took the first prize, and the other two were highly
commended." And thirdly and lastly, at Aberdeen :
— " In the show of cows and heifers, Mr. Douglas
went far to make it all it was, and of course with
some old and established favourites. Ringlet was
once again the best cow, and Queen of Trumps and
Venus de Medicis, for the third and fourth time this
year, the two best heifers. The preference was still
for the roan, although it is only right to say, one of
the judges was all for her companion, who, as Venus
should have, has a beautiful bosom, and fine turn
of the arm and shoulder. The Queen, however,
has now taken the three national honours of her
year, having been placed first at Chester, London-
derry, and Aberdeen. She is of Mr. Douglas'
own breeding ; but Venus was bought, after having
been beaten last year, of Mr. Booth, for 300 guineas;
and when defeated again at Chester, her former
owner offered 450 gs. to get her back — no bad com-
pUment from such a quarter to Mr. Douglas's
judgment and management. In the yearling heifers
the Athelstaneford herd was yet more pre-eminent —
first, second, and third ; the best of these was also
the best at Londonderry, and the other two first
and second at the Glasgow Show of this summer."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

405

THE HERDS OF GREAT BRITAIN,

CHAPTER Vir.

THE AYLESBY HERD.

Since the days when Richard Ostler mounted his bit
of blood, and rode with his saddle-bags to Barmpton
and Ketton, to try and effect a good bull hiring with the
Collingses, Aylesby has always been a chosen home of
the Shorthorng. Robert CoUings might well declare at
his sale, that " no one has so much of my blood as
Ostler of Lincolnshire;" seeing that Aylesby (44) by
Favourite, dam by Favourite; Barmpton (54); and
" Brother to the White Heifer that travelled," were
nearly always in residence. His foible was, that he was
ready to sacrifice everything for form and neatness ;
and in his desire to "get them to fall small," he made
them very delicate as well. He had quitted Aylesby for
Audby near Louth, when his stock were sold off in the
April of '31 ; and in consequence of their deterioration,
and the gloom of the era, his average was a very poor one.
"Commodore by Rival, ^71," was knocked down to
Mr. Codd, of Holton, who was then styled the Colliugs
of Lincolnshire ; and Mr. Torr, who was farming with
his father b y, went in for Flora by Cato, and her
dam Cherry, and three or four others. At this time,
Philip Skipworth was Mr. Drake's tenant at Aylesby
Manor. No one had better original ideas on breeding ;
but although an old tup, Garrick and Granby to wit,
was his especial crown of rejoicing, he had quaint
stories to tell of every bull in the North, and of every
Yarborough foxhound.

Neither Charles Uppleby among the elder, or Tom
Brooks and Field Nicholson among the younger
" Brocklesby boys," could beat him over the cream of
the country, from Grainsby Healing to Roxton Wood ;
and he derived his Shorthorn title from the purchase of
" Young Favourite (252) by Comet, 140 gs.," upon the
Ketton ; and " Lilly" and " Violet," by North Star, and
" Princess 155 gs.," upon the Barmpton day. It was,
however, as a breeder of Leicesters, that he has left a name;
and Mr. Torr reaped the advantage of his experience,
when, in 1847, hepurchased four hundred of his ewes, full
of Granby blood, for j£l,800 ; and in the following year
entrenched himself as tenant within the moat of the old
Manor House. He thus acquired a rare germ for the
future Aylesby flock, as "old Philip" had never been
thrifty at a tup letting, and he knew equally well when
to hold. Philip Skipworth, senior, who was the lucky
purchaser of Dishley-bred ewes, first established the
flock. Such was its fame that the Leicestershire Society
in vain offered him 300 gs. for the use of " The Aylesby
A;" and when four Lincolnshire men had conjointly
hired one Leicestershire tup for 1,000 gs., he did not
scruple to give 600 gs. for another on his own account.

Succeeding to such an Aylesby " field azure" in sheep
heraldry, we can hardly wonder that Mr. Torr's heart
is even still even more with Bakewell than Booth, The

choicest rams from the Bakewell, Stubbing, Breedon,
Stones, Buckley, and Burgess flocks had all done good
service to Philip Skipworth, and Mr. Torr has maintained
their pure seventy years' lineage, by only going for his
blood to Normanton, Barrow, and Holme Pierrepont.
His Leicester ram flock, whose letting has become quite
a Lincolnshire festival, early in September, numbers
about a hundred ; last year 555 of his Leicester ewes
were put to them ; and about two thousand sheep in all
are annually brought to his clipping boards. Their
little white ivories, which leave but a doubtful reversion
for the Shorthorns, have boundless scope, as the three
farms at Aylesby, Riby, Rothwell, and the marshes
near the Humber, amount to upwards of 2,100 acres,
of which 500 are in permanent pasture.

There had long been a good old-fashioned breed of
Shorthorns at Riby, with Badsworth (47), and Palm-
flower (480) as their progenitors ; but Mr. Torr has
got entirely rid of them, along with the delicate Ostlers,
and the doubtful blood of Lord Adolphus Fairfax. This
magnificent impostor was as handsome as a picture ; but
after paying 100 gs. for him to Mr. Whitaker, con-
jointly with Mr. Smith, of West Rasen, he was well
sold for 300 gs. " Waterwitch by Fourth Duke of
Northumberland, 56 gs.,"atthe Rev. Mr. Cator's sale,
was a purchase of a different caste ; and at present two
dozen of her female descendants preserve the memory
of Kirkleavington at Aylesby. Her dam Waterloo
Third was one of the two Norfolk cows, which passed
over to Skelbrook at 80 gs. each. Mr. Cator would
have had no such luck, but the praises which were be-
stowed upon them by every visitor reminded Mr. Bates
so vividly of the one season's exchange between Norfolk
and his Second Hubback (which destroyed all kind feel-
ing, no one knew why, on his part towards Mr.
Whitaker), that he could no longer bear the sight of
them in the old cow pasture on the Yarm road. Water-
witch was calved in 1843, and only fed for the butcher
last year, after breding seven heifers to Baron Warlaby,
Vanguard, and Crown Prince ; and the produce of these,
crossed again with Booth's bulls, are among the leading
features of the present herd. Besides hiring exclusively
from Warlaby for sixteen years, Mr. Torr has availed
himself of every favourable chance to pick up females
of the same descent. Sylphide with her two daughters
Sylph and Young Bracelet, and her grandaughter
Bracelet Third by Vanguard, together with Gertrude
and her daughter Lady Hopetoun, and the two Killerby
Maids, are accessions from the Killerby herd ; Fair Maid
(with her two daughters. Fair Fame 1st and 2nd — both
by Vanguard), and Britannia trace direct back to Fame
and Broughton of Warlaby ; and Blanche and Rennet,
who have fourteen in their clan, hold the same relation
to Young Anna, the lot 2 of the Studley sale.

In point of magnitude the herd exceeds anything

I I 2

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in the Shorthorn world. At the present moment it
contains about 120 females, of which only eleven are
not by Booth's bulls, and fifty of them figure on the
calving list, principally to British Prince. Mr. Torr
has always been, not only one of the staunchest, but the
very earliest adherents of Warlaby. Beginning to hire
from Mr. Richard Booth in the spring of '44, no less
than eighteen bulls of his, including assistants, have
passed through his hands at all prices, from GO gs. to
200 gs. He paid the latter price for Hopewell for two
years, and claimed him among several competitors,
when he returned from Ireland, where his stock have done
such yeoman service to their owners at shows and else-
where. In spite of the price, he was one of the cheapest
bulls that ever came to Aylesby ; but a fall from a cow
disabled him at the beginning of his second season,
although we are glad to hear that his native air is likely
to restore him to his sphere of usefulness. He got
about 40 calves for Mr. Torr ; of which, as is often the
case with elderly bulls, nearly two-thirds were heifers,
and the whole of them in the present herd. Leonard was
the first bull to come, and he was taken, in consequence
of the 150-guinea hiring bargain with Mr. Bates for
the Fourth Duke of Northumberland, having gone off
on a moot point, as to his only bulling twenty-five out
of the thirty cows which then formed the Riby Herd.

Without being a show bull, Leonard was almost fuller
than any bull of his day, of good individual points, and
he communicated a constitution and soUdarite to the
herd, which it has never lost. It was this feature which
made Gem at Killerby, and Hope at Warlaby, so price-
less ; and it was of the former that the Lord Spencer
said to Mr. Torr, in his quiet decisive way, " She is the
best specimen of a Shorthorn I ever saw." Bucking-
ham, then in comparative obscurity, came as a help to
Leonard in his second season, but he left no females
behind him. Baron Warlaby was then the premier for
two seasons, and six fine cows are the only remnants of
his fifty-seven. The Vanguards form a complete army,
and exactly a fourth of the 180 calves, which were en-
tered to his seven season's credit, in the " Aylesby Herd
Book," are at present among the females of the herd.
His stay was divided into two periods of three and four
years; and during the intervening year, 1852 (which
he signalized by getting Bride Elect), Crown Prince
took his place there. He left two-and-thirty calves
behind him, and as the great majority of them were
males, and Summer Sun and Gold Drop are in the Im-
perial stalls, only half-a-dozen cows, headed by Guiding
Star, preserve his royal line. Helmsman, Majesty,
Clarence, Prince George, Benedict, Roseberry, Thorn-
berry, Topthorn, Leonidas, and Bridesman, have also
been billetted here, but the first eight are unrepresented
now. Mr. Torr has very seldom exhibited the Booth
bulls, but on one occasion Baron Warlaby beat Baron
Ravensworlh and a large field of yearling bulls at
Market Rasen ; and Vanguard was one of the nine
which went to Gainsboro', without having tasted a
pound of oil-cake, and all returned with first or second
rosettes.

Stepping down the drive, and having " made things

comfortable and pleasant" with the Castle Howard
bloodhound, of a pedigree as ancient as Belted Will's, we
entered the Church Barn Yard. It lies within a stone's
throw of the house, and is overlooked by that tower which
served for the beacon of the first steeple race in Lincoln-
shire, and gloried, time out of mind, in those elderberry
bushes, which grew forth from dragons' heads, and
for whose vested interests Philip Skipworth battled
so stoutly against archdeacons and rural deans. The
barn, whose laurel-clad roof-tree has so often rung
again at the Ram Dinner, when the late Mr. John
Booth rose to give one of his racy John Bull acknow-
ledgments for " the Shorthorn breeders of England,"
flanks one side of the boxes, which are all condemned.
Their present occupants are three Hopewell bulls, and
first and foremost among them is Booth Royal, from
Killerby Gertrude. He is a fine roan, not particularly
handsome in the horn, but well carrying out the Booth
character in his wealth and thickness of flesh ; and so
much is he to Mr. Torr's mind in pedigree and form,
that he intends to break through his conventional practice,
of not using bulls he has bred himself. Watchman, a red
and white, out of a Vanguard dam, goes back toBates'S)
Waterloo III. ; and Golden Hope (the last of Gleamy's
sons, and full of the Vanguard character, with the coat
of Londesboro'), to Mr. Robson's Constellation and
Young Favourite tribe, on which, as well as Londes-
boro', by Booth's Tomboy, his owner has always pinned
his faith. Two young Hopeful heifers stand hard by,
the one from Glittering Star, by Vanguard, for choice.
The blood of these two bulls has united singularly well,
Vanguard contributing the size and substance, and
Hopewell the elegance.

Hence we strolled onwards into the old kennel yard,
from which, even before the days of the Pretender, the
combined pack of Pelham and Twyrwhitt went forth
to try the furzes for fox or hare, and had miles upon
miles of unenclosed breezy wolds for their hunting
ground. The dovecote outside seems nearly of the same
date, but still it affords a snug canopy to Star of Hope
(a white half-brother to Silver Star), who was bound,
along with Fine Hope, from Flower, to the Clarence
River in Australia, with a hundred guineas on each of
their heads. They both went there as proxies for Silver
Star, who was sold for 150 gs., and fell ill when his
berth was taken. He won as a yearling at Grantham,
last autumn, and was highly commended at Chester ;
and that gentle curly white head and rich quality and
substance deserve a much nobler fate. His own sister.
Sweet Valentine, lately went for 120 gs., at three years
old, to the Emperor of the French, with four comn
panions, at very nearly the same figure.

Crossing the road, we reach the last remnant of thatch
and mud, which marks the Ostler era. An artist would
turn a very scornful eye at the brace of model cottages
on the right, and dash this hovel joyfully into his can-
vas. Old Rennet, by Fanatic, out of Red Rose, is in
keeping with her residence, and looks like the very
genius of Shorthorn antiquity, with her wasted frame,
and her game leg. She runs entirely back, as we have
observed, to the Anna tribe at Studley, and was knocked

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467

down to Mr. Torr, at theBusheyGrove Sale, in 1853 for
40 gs. He was assured that he would never get her home ;
but he did notwithstanding, and she has had three calves
to Vanguard, one of which, Ringleader, was sold for
150 gs,, and she has now a very grand one, Royal Hope,
by Hopewell, at her side, for which the above sum would
be offered in vain. Her shoulders are still very clean
and fine, but the back sinews of her off hind fetlock
have defied a whole druggist's shop of iodine, cantharides,
and liquid blister. Still she breeds very regularly by
being kept cool ; and Mr. Torr has always had such a
fancy for her, that he bid 145 gs. for her daughter,
Rival, by Puritan, at the same sale ; but Mr. Harvey
Combe was not to be foiled.

Leaving her on the left, we came next to a number
of new fold-yards, with tile-covered sheds, most admi-
rably adapted for young stock, and as these are shortly
to be faced by a large number of loose boxes, this
" Old Garth" will become the head quarters of the
Shorthorn colony. In a temporary box near them we
espied four Hopewell heifers, two of them twins out of
Gilt; and another a grand-daughter of Water Witch,
which well bears out Mr. Torr's experience, that the
second cross of Booth on Rates realizes expectations,
while the first is often disheartening. The " Hopewell
heifer head" began to multiply [itself, as we looked into
the first fold yard, and met the gaze of eight out of ten by
him. The other two were by Vanguard, from the
Hopewell cows. Young Bracelet and Lady Hopetoun.
Young Bracelet was bought at the Killerby sale for
40 gs., and combines the blood of old Bracelet in an
eminent degree, on both dam's and sire's side. Among
the next eight, is a splendid red heifer, War Medal,
from Warrior's Bride, who is a successful instance of a
third cross on Bates, and might tempt many a man to
" train" forthwith. Five cows stood together in the
adjoining yard, and among them Lady Hopetoun, from
Gertrude, (who was bought by Mr, Torr for 160 gs., at
Mr. Bolden's Springfield sale); thick, low, and neat,
but rather big in the hips. There, too, was Gleamy, a
fine stylish Vanguard cow, for whom, in 1854, the Ohio
Company bid 150 gs., the very day she cast her calf.
She beat a large field of cows at Louth three years after'
and Gleam, by Baron Warlaby, then a grand trio,
Glisten, Glittering Star, and Gloamin, by Vanguard,
and Grey Dawn, by Grey Friar, are the best testimony
to her private and public worth.

The highest purchase of the herd was now to come in
Britannia by Bolden's First Grand Duke, from Booth's
Bridget, by Baron Warlaby. She was knocked down to
Mr. Torr for 270 gs. at Mr. Ambler's sale ; and he
offered Mr. Bolden 300 gs. for her half-sister Bride Cake,
in vain. Such was her state of fat when she came, that it
was necessary to put her into a regular course of reduc-
tion by walks and treacle, and under this regim e she
defeated Mr. Wetherell's celebrated Venus at Grantham.
After coming to Aylesby she bred a roan bull calf to
Hopewell, but it only lived half a day ; and she is due to
British Prince in June. She is a very fine model of a
shorthorn : lengthy and near the ground, and with a
very sweet head, and looks to have constitution enough

to go on a mountain top. But for her somewhat high
hips, many would consider her as pretty nearly sym-
metry itself. The great stylish Garland looked as
blooming as she did at Fawsley ; although the yellow,
red, and white are somewhat against her, in spite of the
Hubback precedent ; but Mr. Torr has no reason to
sigh after the 91 gs. which he bid from the ladder on
that drenching day. One of Glisten's eyes has closed
on this sublunary scene ; and as she has ceased to breed ,
the critic's eye will rest on her no more except as a
Christmas-beef candidate, at more than five-and-twenty
stone a quarter. The elegant Flower by Baron War-
laby is also on the wane, after having produced twins
last year to Hopewell, and a bull calf to him this year ;
which has, we trust, without reason, been termed Final
Hope. A lot of heifers suckling their calves occupied
the last yard ; and among them the clever Gayhope may
well inherit the Booth loin and hair, as he has no less
than four direct crosses of living Warlaby bulls— Hope-
well, Bridesman, Crown Prince, and Vanguard— in
his pedigree ; while the handsome roan heifer calf. Village
Hope, beside him, out of Village Maid by Crown
Prince, goes back to Whitaker's celebrated Wharfdale
Lady.

This inspection over, we harked back to the kennel-
yard, and had a look at Guiding Star by Crown Prince,
who reminds us more of Nectarine Blossom than any
cow in the herd. Here, too, was Bright Gem, with a
very beautiful calf. Benign Hope, which is perhaps the
most sweetly moulded young thing in the herd. Youth
and age came into strange juxtaposition when the ancient
remains of old Gertrude, who was bought for 100 gs. at
Mr. Bolden's sale, emerged from the next box ; but the
fine handling and " arched rib springing from a straight
back bone" (as that rare judge, the late Mr. William
Hargrave, of Caistor, was wont to say) are still there,
and she is in calf to British Prince. Her son. Blood
Royal, a large, massive bull, with whom she was in calf
to the Duke of Bolton at the sale, was tied up near her.
He may well bear his name, as his sire was by Grand
Duke from Florence, by Second Duke of York, g. d.
Booth's Fame — a treble combination seldom achieved.
Silver Star was far too ill to think of stirring ; but
British Prince, the locum ienens of Hopewell, came on
to the parade ground. He is by Crown Prince from
Bianca, and although not a bull on a large scale, he has
remarkable compactness of form and fine loin, and his
bosom is only exceeded by that of his half-sister Bride
Elect.

Having thus disposed of the home department, the
white " woldsman's pony" took us, at a smart canter,
in the wake of a kinswoman to Orestes (on which our
host made very strong running), through the hundreds
of " white ivories" to the first outlying farmstead at
Irby Dales. This celebrated glen contains one of the
best echoes and surest fox-finds in the Brocklesby Hunt;
and it is on record that the merits of the grey Peter
Simple were first discovered in a run from it, in a very
misty day. Mr, Torr's holding is at the very head of
the glen, near which is a long sedgy lake, on which
scores of black Buenos Ayres ducks, with their burnished

d6S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

green heads, were besporting, with countless water hens.
There was also quite a cloud of grey Dorkings feeding
in the yard, with a long Aylesby pedigree, and fading
into an ancient Captain Barclay vista, forty years beyond
that. The fold yards here had a full Vanguard comple-
ment of something like forty animals. Among the first
ten, Genuine Gem might well inherit his somewhat Roman
head and rich roan colour, as she is by him out of his
daughter Glisten. Fair Fame 1st, by Vanguard, dam
by Usurer (a great granddaughter of Fame, own sister
to Booth's Faith), was also there ; along with the elegant
Warrior's Bride by Bridesman, another valuable testi-
mony to the truth of the second cross of Booth upon
Bates. The dozen in the next yard were all Vanguards
except Fawsley Garland I (an own sister to Chrysalis
and Glass Slipper), who shows all that elegance of fore-
quarter on which Sir Charles Knightley laid such stress.
Here, too, were Fair Fame II., Bright Comet, and
Flower Nymph, the latter one of the especial plums.
Grey Friar, who came to Aylesby, as a loan from Mr.
Wiley, was well represented among the dozen in the
third yard by Grey Dawn (who won the second year-
ling prize ribbons last summer at Grantham), and
also by Matin Bell, who has a strong ring of the
Leonard metal in her. Fawsley's Garland 11. is a very
fine heifer, but unfortunately follows her dam in colour.
Already the old cow has bred four heifers at Aylesby ;
and her daughter Chrysalis, for whom Mr. Sanday gave
150 gs., has added two bulls and a heifer to the Holme
Pierrepont herd, so that the impromptu partner-
ship which that gentleman formed with Mr. Torr at
Fawsley has proved most satisfactory to both. As a
farewell to the young stock, we took some observations
on Glittering Star, who may hereafter shine to some
purpose in a national show-yard, if Mr. Torr for once
waives his dislike to that force-meat principle, which is
now the only key to such honours.

A short ride across Irby Dales, and a series of highly
cultivated fields, brought us to the Riby Wold Farm,
which has been held by the family, under Mr. Tomline
and his ancestors, for nearly a century and a half. Its
yards are principally appropriated to the steers and gelt
cows, the majority of which are bound in due season

to the marshes on the Humber side ; and it was from
here, some fifty years since, that Mr. Torr's grand-
father, who was one of the very first to use oil-cake in
Lincolnshire, sold two score stall-fed bullocks for £^0
a-piece. The Riby home farm, which is also tenanted by
several very promising Vanguards and Hopewells, lies a
little lower down on the opposite side of the road to the
church, and within a bow-shot of the squire's.
Aylesby Rose, by Leonidas, with her hip down, and a
wonderfully coated calf, Aylesby Ball (by Golden Ball,
a son of Vanguard's), at her side, is here to remind us
of Aylesby Lady, who was sold for 200 gs. to the Ohio
Company ; and it would have been strange to have
spared no glance for a roan heifer calf. Wave Hope, by
Hopewell, out of Water Queen, who is nearly as good
as she can be, and instance No. 3 of the efficacy of the
double cross of Booth on Bates. Grey Friar's stall
knew him no more. He had risen to the full-blown
dignity of one hundred stone, and as digestion was not
a vital object to the captains or crews of two Norway
sloops, who put in at Great Grimsby on their way to
Greenland, they took him at six shillings per 141bs.,and
divided him limb for limb. Government contractors for
" prime mess beef" would have burned with jealousy if
they had seen those massive duplicates in process of
shipping ; and in fact, we hardly dare to further inflame
their minds by the recital of the end of Benedict, an own
brother to Bloom and Plum Blossom, whom we were just
in time to see in the flesh. He was originally sold to
Mr. Bolden, in whose hands he hardly got anything but
bull calves, and then he went, we believe, the round of
some small Cumberland herds, and was eventually
chopped away to Mr. Torr by Mr. Unthank for Free
Mason. To counterbalance a poorish chine, he had
rare hind quarters and fine quality, but there will never
be a calf by him at his last abode. Before he came
here, he had passed fourteen years of a Benedictine, but
not an unfruitful, existence, and the epitaph of this
nearly eldest son of Buckingham fell rather quaintly on
his owner's ear last month, from the lips of the Aylesby
herdsman, as he dwelt in memory on the staple of a
succession of dinners — ^'Uncommon tough, sir; but
varra sweet."

MEAT AND MILK.

BY CUTHBEKT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.E.S.

There are few farmers to whom the comparative
profit of the churn and the stall are not objects of
the greatest interest. In this, as in other branches
of agriculture, practical and scientific researches
have recently yielded considerable general benefit.
It is true that we often find, after these beneficial
discoveries are publicly announced, that some
farmers, in remote places, and perhaps without any
communication with each other, have been long
employing, with profit, the same modes that cost
more recent authors long labour to discover. But

then this should not detract from the merit of those
who have not only made improvements, but have
had the good sense to report, for the benefit of the
community, the fruit of their valuable labours.

It is both amusing and instructive to observe the
slow progress our ancestors made in inquiries such
as those which are the subject of this paper. Their
ideas of a good cow, for instance, were of the most
primitive kind. Even Worlidge, who wrote his
"Mystery of Agriculture" in 1669, could find
nothing more useful to remark of the cow than,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

469

that "The best sort is the large Dutch cow, that
brings two calves at one birth, and gives, ordi-
narily, two gallons of milk at one meal."

Then as to feeding the cow. As, two centuries
since, her owners had only grass, hay, and corn,
they were used to kill their cattle for beef at Mar-
tinmas ; and those cows they preserved during the
winter must have been generally very sparingly
dieted, and their milk consequently poor. This
must have been especially the case in the more ele-
vated and northern portions of our island.

Those who are aware of the abundance of ex-
cellent meat, milk, and butter, with which the
Scotch markets are now replenished, may well be
amused with the very contrary state of affairs which
existed in Caledonia about two hundred and fifty
years since — at a time, be it remembered, when
green crops were unknown, and root crops and
cake not yet " invented."

It was about October, 16 16, according to Cham-
bers (Domestic Ann. of Scotland, vol. i. p. 472),
that preparations began to be made in Edinburgh
for the reception and entertainment of King James
the First, who was expected in the following year
to visit his kingdom of Scotland. Considerable
repairs were ordered, and improvements made in
the royal palaces of Holyrood and Falkland. A
proclamation was made that " Beasts be fed in every
place, that there might be abundance of flesh when
the King came to the country." It is evident, too,
that in those days the good city of Edinburgh was
not remarkable for its cleanliness, since the Privy
Council deemed it necessary to issue orders to its
inhabitants to prepare clean lodgings for the King's
friends and attendants, and to have the streets
purified.

The Chancellor's circular to the Burghs, order-
ing them to arrange with their butchers for the
furnishing of "fed beef" against his Majesty's
" here-coming," continues Chambers, met an amus-
ing reply in the case of one little town — Western
Anstruther. " Our town," says this response, " is
ane very mean town — yea, of all the burghs of this
realm the meanest. Nather is there ane flesher
{butcher) in our town, nor any other person that is
accustomed with feeding of beef, we beinr/ all sea-
faring men and fishers." Nevertheless, the two
bailies were evidently determined not only to do
their best, but to set about it forthwith, since they
informed his lordship that they " had dealt with
some honest men of our neighbours to feed beef;
and had enjoint them to have in readiness the num-
ber of four fed holt against the time of his
Majesty's here-coming, which may be lookit for in
our town."

Easter Anstruther, which it seems has always
been a better sort of town, was equally unac-

quainted with " that trade of the feeding of beef ;"
but the bailie, nevertheless, had "taken such order
that there sail be in readiness, to that diet, twelve
oxen of the best we can get for money." The
honest and canny burghers of Dysart deemed it
necessary to be very cautious in what they under-
took in this, to them, novel trade of beef-making ;
they only promised, therefore, to have ready, " Ten
or twelve sufficient and weel-fed beasts upon com-
petent and reasonable prices, and sail feed and
keep them sae lang as we may possiblt/ get suffi-
cient food for them, according to the season, not
doubting of your lordshipp's satisfaction in case of
our losses."

Such difficulties in winter-feeding cattle have
been experienced, in some places, almost to our
time. Alton, who described the agriculture of Ayr-
shire, early in the present century, tells us that the
winter food of the dairy stock, even at that period,
was only the straw of oats, or, towards the muirish
parts of the county, the hay of bog meadows, fre-
quently but ill-preserved. For a few weeks after
they calved they were allowed some poor corn, and
chaff boiled, with infusions of hay ; and, by way
of luxury, a morsel of rye-grass, or lea-hay, once
every day ; and of late years, by some farmers, a
small quantity of turnips in the early part of the
winter, and a few potatoes in the spring, have been
added.

The editor of the Quarterly Journal of Agricul-
ture {vol. 1859,^. 661), in quoting this report of
Alton, refers also to the calculation of Sir John
Sinclair, who supposed that the same quantity of
herbage that would add 224lbs. to the weight of an
ox would produce 900 gallons of milk ; and thence
draws the conclusion, that if we reckon 6 oz. of
butter to be the average weight obtained from a
gallon of milk, we shall thus get 3371bs. of butter
from the same quantity of herbage as Sinclair sup-
poses will produce 224lbs. of beef. Or if we con-
vert the two into their respective money values,
then, according to the present rates, we shall ob-
tain, at 7d. per lb., £6 10s. 8d. for the beef, and at
Is. per lb., £16 17s. as the value of the butter.
The evidence of Sinclair pretty well supports the
general conclusion of the farmer, that the sale of
milk and butter is, under fair circumstances, the
most profitable mode of converting vegetable food
into money.

But still the comparative profit must not be re-
garded as practically thattowhichlhave just alluded.
The much greater labour needed in the conversion of
cream into butter must be taken in account ; and
this is no mean item in a dairy. It is the value of
this labour, in fact, that gives the small working
dairyman the advantage; for he receives, in the value
of the butter, high wages for all the care and time he

470

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

bestows in his dairy. It is the difficulty of ensuring
good dairy management, indeed, which prevents
many farmers from engaging in this profitable
branch of farming. Still, as our large and annually
increasing consumers of fresh butter will probably
continue to ensure full prices to the farmer, it be-
comes very important that the production of butter
should be increased in amount, and yet its quality
carefully maintained.

Before, then, I endeavour to promote this very
desirable object, by referring to the recent labours
of one or two great dairy owners, let us refresh our
memory by re-examining the average chemical com-
position of ordinary milk. This may be taken as
that given by Haidlen, and quoted by Mr. Horsfall.
From this analysis, taking a full day's milk of a
cow to be equal to 4 gallons, or upwards, of 40lbs.,
this would contain of solid matters : —

lbs.

Casein or cheese, about 2.00

Butter 1,25

Sugar of milk 1.75

Phosphate of lime 09

Common salt and other saline matters . 1 1

5.20
Let us next briefly examine some of the recent
researches which have been made as to the more
profitable yield of butter, from the general result
of which, we may safely conclude that a generous
diet for the milch cow is the most beneficial to the
dairy owner. On this question, Mr. Horsfall, of
Burley, has produced most valuable evidence {Jour.
Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 2G0) ; and this will well
repay the careful consideration of the dairy owner
of other districts, and where a widely different sys-
tem of feeding is adopted. The food he bestows
upon his cows, varying with the season, he thus
describes : —

" My food for milch cows, after having under-
gone various modifications, has for two seasons
consisted of rape-cake 5lbs., and bran 2lbs., for
each cow, mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-
straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats, in equal pro-
portions, to supply them three times a day with as
much as they will eat. The whole of the materials
are moistened and blended together, and after
being well steamed, are given to the animals in a
warm state. The attendant is allowed lib. to Ulb.
per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal,
which he is charged to give to each cow in propor-
tion to the yield of milk — those in full milk getting
2lbs. each per day, others but little : it is dry, and
mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out
separately. When this is eaten up, green food is
given, consisting of cabbages, from October to
December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold
till grass time. With a view to nicety of flavour, I

Hmit the supply of green food to 30 to 35lbs. per
day for each. After each feed 4lbs. of meadow
hay, or 12lbs. per day, is given to each cow : they
are allowed water twice per day to the extent they
will drink."

The dairy cows of Mr. Horsfall are, it seems,
purchased at the neighbouring markets. The
breeds of this district, he tells us, have a consider-
able admixture of the shorthorn, which is not noted
for the richness of its milk.

Before proceeding to describe the amount of
cream and butter obtained from a given quantity of
milk at difierent seasons of the year, and with
varying kinds of food, he remarks : —

" In the summer season, whilst my cows were
grazing in the open pastures during the day and
housed during the night, being supplied with a
limited quantity of the steamed food each morning
and evening, a marked change occurred in the
quality of the milk and cream ; the quantity of the
latter somewhat increased, but instead of 25 oz. of
butter per quart of cream, my summer cream
yielded only 16 oz. per quart.

" I would not be understood to attribute this
variation in quality to the change of food only. It
is commonly observed by dairy-keepers that milk
during the warm months of summer is less rich in
butter, owing probably to the greater restlessness
of the cows, from being teased by flies, &c. I am
by no means sure that, if turning out during the
warm months be at all advisable, it would not be
preferable that this should take place during the
night instead of during the day time. Towards the
close of September, when the temperature had be-
come much cooler, and the cows were supplied with
a much larger quantity of the steamed food, results
appeared very similar to those which I had ob-
served and described from December to May, 1855.
During the month of November the quality was
tested with the following result.

"From 252 qts. old milk were taken 21 qts. of
cream, of which 20 were churned, and produced
468 oz. of butter, which shows : —

27.50 oz. of butter for 16 qts. of new milk.
23.40 oz. „ each qt. of cream.

"During May, 1856, my cows, being on open
pasture during the day, were supplied with two full
feeds of the steamed mixture, together with a sup-
ply of green rape-plant each morning and evening.

"The result was that from 324 qts. of old milk
23 qts. of cream were skimmed, of which 22 were
churned and produced 515 oz. of butter, which
shows : —

24 oz. of butter from l6 qts. of new milk.

22.41 oz. „ each qt. of cream."

The very important question, in such enquiries,
as to the condition of the cow under such a copious

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

471

produce of rich milk, is answered by Mr. Horsfall,
when he remarks : —

"For some years back I have regularly weighed
my feeding stock, a practice from which I am
enabled to ascertain their doings with greater accu-
racy than I could previously. In January, 1854, 1
commenced weighing my milch cows : it has been
shown by what I have premised that no accurate
estimate can be formed of the effect of food on the
production of milk, without ascertaining its effect
on the condition of the cows. I have continued
the practice once a month almost without omission
up to this date. The weighings take place early in
the morning, and before the cows are supplied with
food. The weights are registered ; and the length
of time (15 months) during which I have observed
this practice enables me to speak with confidence
of the results.

"The cows in full milk yielding 12 to 16 quarts
each per day vary but little — some losing, others
gaining slightly; the balance in the month's weigh-
ing of this class being rather to gain. It is common
for a cow to continue a yield from six to eight
months before she gives below 12 quarts per day,
at which time she has usually, if not invariably,
gained weight.

"The cows giving less than 12 quarts, and down
to 5 quarts per day, are found, when free from ail-
ment, to gain without exception. This gain, with
an average yield of nearly 8 quarts per day, is at
the rate of /lbs. to 8lbs. per week each."

There is subject for valuable and extended en-
quiry in the remark of the editor of the Quarterly
Journal, that " the state in which the food is given
has a great effect in the production of both milk
and butter. We have more than once observed,"
he adds, " that the yield of butter and milk is never
so great when we give cows boiled turnips, with
beans boiled quite soft amongst them, as when they
get the boiled turnips and the same weight of beans
made into meal, and mixed raw with them. (This
is the plan adopted at Burley.) And again, that
there is more milk, and no taste of the turnip in it,
when the turnips are pulped and mLxed with cut
straw and chaff, and fermented, than if the same
weight of turnips are given whole and raw." In
this case boiling probably influences the condition
of the albuminous portion of the bean. Dr. Lyon
Playfair found, in his experiments upon the in-
fluence of different kinds of food upon the com-
position of milk {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. iv.,
p. 253), that beans increased the quantity of cheese

in the milk, whilst steamed potatoes caused an
abundant increase of butter.

It is evident, indeed, that the quality and admix-
ture of the food bestowed upon a cow is a most
material, and often hardly well-understood element
in dairy farming. The breed of the cow is com-
monly far more regarded than her dieting. The
Alderney, the Ayrshire, the Holderness, the Kerry,
and the Suffolk, are those which supply us with
the greatest number of good milking cows— the
Ayrshire being perhaps, as Mr. H. S. Thompson
remarks, the true type of a milch cow for the pro-
duction of quantity, and the Alderney for the
qualify of the milk. But then, as Professor Simonds
adds in his valuable paper on the mammary gland
of the cow {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. xix., p. 96), "It
does not follow, as a matter of necessity, that a
cow which yields a large quantity of milk shall be
the best butter-making animal; for it frequently
occurs that such milk has an increased proportion
of water and casein, and is therefore relatively
deficient in oleaginous matters : hence the practical
remark, that ' quantity for cheese-making, and
quality for butter,' is what we need."

There is much in the paper of this eminent
veterinarian which will well repay the study of the
dairy-owner ; and the same remark applies to the
account given by Mr. Read in his prize essay of the
celebrated butter-producing dairies of Aylesbury.
It seems that there are in that district about 120,000
acres devoted to dairying, and about 30,000 cows
dairied ; so that supposing each cow to yield 200
lbs. of butter in 40 weeks, the annual amount of
butter produced by the county would be about
2,680 tons. {Ibid, vol. 16, ^j. 269.)

On an early occasion I hope to add to these
examinations other and still more valuable reports.
I ever indeed regard with peculiar interest all
efforts to increase the production of the dairy : it
is a profitable branch of English agriculture, per-
haps the least of any subject to be disturbed by
foreign competition. It is true that foreign butter
and beef are largely imported— say, on an average,
yearly about 20,000 to 25,000 tons of butter, and
about 7,000 or 8,000 tons of beef ; but, then, the
far greater bulk of these are salted. But a small
proportion of really good fresh butter or beef comes
into competition with the butter or beef of our
islands. Our skilful dairy-owners, therefore, hav-
ing a fair market for their produce, can far more
securely rely upon being remunerated for their
industry and excellent management, than from the
produce of their most fertile corn-fields.

472

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE CONDUCT OF PLOUGHING MATCHES.

We have been quite right hithei'to in awarding prizes
for good ploughing to the men. To encourage skill in
the men was a very wise proceeding. For without
good ploughing we cannot expect good crops, since
our produce depends upon the fertile character of our
seed beds, and these again depend upon the mechanical
care we take to prepare them, turning an equal furrow
of a regular angle, so that the arrow tooth may work
perfectly; and when stetches are necessary, giving
such an exact curvature to them as to shoot off the
surface-water into the furrows.

To secure perfect work with the old swing-plough
an exceedingly skilful hand and quick eye ai'e needed.
These qualities acquired for the ploughman possessing
them quite an enviable reputation in the village, and
even the district where he resided. Many a master
was proud to share in the reflected glory of his servant ;
and with the ploughman's success the village would
rise and fall in the estimation of the villages sur-
rounding. •

The introduction of the wheel-plough, however, has
very much changed the character of these ti-ials, and
the ground upon which prizes should be awarded.
As the introduction of mechanical contrivance econo-
mises human labour and supplants human skill in
those many manufactures for which Birmingham,
Leeds, and Manchester are celebrated, so we find that
as the mechanical perfection of the plough is increased,
the necessity for skill in the ploughman is lessened.

This fact has been forcibly illustrated in most of those
ploughing matches which occurred last autumn, where
the prizes were almost invariably carried off by the
ploughs, not by the men. When, as in former years,
the iron wheel-ploughs were the exception, in those
trials to which we refer the order was completely re-
versed— so much so, that we are speaking within
bounds when we say that two-thirds of the ploughs
employed were iron wheol-ploughg.

At not a few of these meetings it was suggested that
there should in future be two classes — one for wheel-
ploughs, and one for swing-ploughs ; one, in fact, to
test the mei'it of the men, another to test the merit of
the ploughs. It was gravely argued that it was not
fair to introduce at these meetings, which were esta-
blished to reward skill in the men, ploughs which re-
quired no skill in the men, but merely the guidance of
a child ; and several incidents were mentioned in proof
of this position. One case related was that of a boy,
perched upon the middle team, driving three ploughs,
jumping down to set them in at the ends only, while
the men were quietly making a long breakfast under
the hedge. At one of the matches we very well re-
member the complaints made against the manner in
which the fii'st prizeman won. While the plough was
going, he would occasionally advance to adjust some-
thing wrong in the harness of the horses, or he would

fall yards behind to measure the depth of the furrow,
just overtaking his charge in time to turn out at the
headland. This, certainly, was not fair competition !
The poor fellows who were sweating and toiling to pre-
serve an equal and unbroken furrow under the singular
disadvantage of an illconstructed mould-board and an
unsteady beam, were fain to exclaim indignantly when
they saw beside them better woi-k accomplished with
little or no effort.

The inference from all this is unavoidable. Ma-
chinery here, as well as elsewhere, economises and
displaces human labour. And as we should not now
offer prizes for mowing wheat when the machine is
used, so we must cease to offer awards for skill in
ploughing where skill is no longer requisite. Those
persons who aim to solve the difficulty by instituting
separate trials for the swing and wheel-ploughs, do not
seem to have opened their eyes to the fact that the case
Sioitigv. Wheel-plough is already settled quite another
way by the very complaints out of which their difficulty
springs. The argument that induces us to use thrash-
ing, dressing, reaping machines, and horse-hoes, will
also compel us, for very consistency's sake, to use the
iron wheel-plough. The wooden swing-plough of a
former day required more jihysical power to hold it
than a stout lad could boast J but the wheel-plough of
the pi'esent day is easily managed by a boy. And if we
can employ boys, where is the logic in employing men ?
" But," say the advocates of the wooden plough, *•' we
want a light plough, and the iron ploughs are so heavy."
"Well," the advocates of the iron plough may reply,
"they are heavy — heavier than yours in substance;
but owing to their superior mechanical formation, nine-
teen out of twenty of yours will show by the dyna-
mometer a greater strain, and a more various and try-
ing strain upon thehorses, than ours will. It isa curious
fact that the draught of some of the iron wheel-ploughs,
especially Howard's, is but one-third greater when the
plough is in work than when it is empty, which, as we
said before, is referable to the perfect curve of its mould-
board, the greatest weight being lifted with the least
possible expenditure of power. And this very sub-
stance, which is thus neutralized, admits of a plough,
which is easy di-aught to two horses, being subjected
to the stress of four or §ix, without any perceptible
panting.

We may, by the way, refer to one of the greatest
difficulties to the introduction of wheel-ploughs,
which seems to lie in the prejudices of the men. We
hear it said on every hand, " It's of no use my taking
these ploughs homo, because I'm sure my men won't
use them." Nor is this a singular, but a very general
exclamation. The superiority of the implement is re-
cognized ; but farmers cannot profit by it, because the
men are adverse to its use. This confession is made,
too, by good practical men— men of whom might be

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

473

expected better things. If we all followed this plan of
making concessions to the prejudices of our men, we
might be, so far as agricultural machinery is concerned,
just about where the Russian farmers ai'e. And these
prejudices often arise from very peculiar sources. B.,
a local plough-maker, witnesses the introduction of a
new plough with jealousy ; and as he passes the field
where it is working, he throws the ploughman a shil-
ling, and promises another when the plough shall have
been pronounced no-go. This verdict is soon practically
passed. Many masters believe it true ; some divine its
true derivation; but the generality submit to it pa-
tiently, and wait for a better state of things.

Upon introducing the iron wheel-plough upon our
own farm the same difficulties met us ; but we were de-
termined to inaugurate the improvement, and be
master as much in fact as in name. Finding the men
persist in not using the new ploughs, we employed boys,
and have worked them with boys ever since, affording a
lesson to the neighbourhood that will not soon be for-
gotten. If the men come to see that this is the alter-
native, and that they thus get worsted in the struggle
for authority, they will discover that their interest does
not lie in opposing the steps of mechanical jirogress.

This question set at rest, there is now another which
ai'ises for solution :

Which is the best corn-producing plough ?
To reply to this question accurately, we must change
the character of our ploughing-matches. They now
test and reward the skill of the men ; henceforward they
must determine the superiority of the implements used-
Some little time since there appeai-ed in the Marh-
lane Express the report of such a trial, undertaken by
the members of the Lauderdale Society, in the year
1856. We find, on referring to the report, that several
of the best of the famous Scotch swing-ploughs were
tested against two of Howard's i^ateut wheel-ploughs.
Something like one acre was allotted to each plough in
the same field, the land being precisely identical.
The work was done in February ; the land was then
harrowed and sown with oats, and was treated alike
throughout to the harvesting and thrashing of the pro-
duce; periodical observations were made and recorded,
as to the relative appearance of the different strips ;
and, finally, the produce of these plots was separately*
harvested, thrashed, measured, and weighed — straw,
grain, and pulse.

There is a great amount of incredulity upon this point.
The instances are not common in which farmers believe
there to be any difference, as to produce, from the use
of any particular plough. And, if they do not deny
the fact of any difference in the result, they maintain
that the difference is so inappreciable as to be not
worthy of regard. Such facts as appear in the ap-
pended table must tend to shake the foundations of this
preconceived belief, and to show that not only may one
plough surpass another in economizring human labour
and brute force ; but also that one plough may
actually, by its mechanical superiority, prove itself a
better producer of corn than another. Neat work is
not essential to us, but plenty of corn is.

To ensure truthful results, these trials should, from
beginning to end, be carried on with the strictest
regard to accuracy and impartiality. The land must
be of the same character, and its treatment throughout
the several plots identical. During the ensuing autumn
or next spring will it not be well to institute these tests ?
There may be difficulties in the way ; but the diffi-
culties that so often infest a right course should never
prove sufficient excuse for our not pursuing it. The
example furnished by the Lauderdale Society opened
the eyes of the Scotch to an important fact, and they
have been found very ready to profit by the teaching
given to them. We are open, I hope, to the same
conviction.

In closing these suggestions, we may remark that we
by no means aim any blow at our Benefit Societies.
We shall be in a better position even to maintain their
funds : the only change introduced will consist in a
little difference in their distribution. It is not our
opinion that machinery is the labourer's enemy, but
the labourer's friend, lessening the severity of toil.
England could never have accomplished her woi-k of
civilization in the world had not machinery increased
her treasure, and set free a large portion of her popu-
lation. On this head at least, then, we need not grow
very sentimental ; and though we entertain some fears,
to which we shall at some future time give expression,
with respect to the danger, from excessive manufac-
turing, of creating an evil inimical to any nation or
namely, of great cities — we do not think the employ-
ment of the best corn-producing plough likely to hasten
this state of things.

Tabular Statement of Produce on Allotments
combined.

'O ^

a 3 fl

^T"^ «■
^Z^

ihels
ach,
res.

N08.

Name cf Plough

■2 °

■i%l

"■So

3 u „

and Furrow cut.

|§^

1^ -M ea

03 -^ fc.

&A

^ _g C^ "-^ ■"

« 9- i

t» -"

an

l^f^oa

o °

yds.

lb.

lb.

lb.

bu. lbs.

1&6.

Small's ploughs, deep

8176

10695

5512

16207

131 17

Yester ploughs, deep .

8256

9702

4908

14610

116 36

Currie ploughs, high-

created furrow ....

5369

10358

5143

15301

120 3

Howard's ploughs.rec-

tangular furrow . .

5260

12358

5533

17911

132 9

Small's ploughs, rec-

tangular furrow . .

5300

1102815204

16232

a.23 38

WEATHER WISDOM. — "The late Marshal Bu-
geaud," says the Emancipation of Brussels, " when only a
captain, during the Spanish campaign under Napoleon I., once
read in a manuscript which by chance fell into his hands, that
from observations made in England and Florence during a
period of fifty years, the following law respecting the wea-
ther had been proved to hold true : — ' Eleven times out of
twelve the weather remains the same during the whole moon
as it is on the fifth day, if it continues unchanged over the
sixth day ', and nine times out of twelve like the fourth day,
if the sixth resembles the fourth.' From 1815 to 1830, M.

474

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Bugeaud devoted his attention to agriculture; and, guided
by the law just mentioned, avoided the losses in hay, time,
and vintage, which many of his neighbours experienced.
When governor of Algiers, he never entered on a campaign
until after the sixth day of the moon. His neighbours at
Excideuil and his lieutenants in Algeria would often ex-

claim, ' How lucky he is in the weather !' What they re-
garded as mere chance was the result of observation. In
counting the fourth and sixth days, he was particular in
beginning from the exact time of new moon, and added
three-quarters of an hour for each day for the greater length
of the lunar, as compared with the solar day."

THE PROFESSION OF AGRICULTUE.

IPSWICH FARMERS' CLUB,

The first meeting of the members of this Club took place in
the large room of the Golden Lion Inn, on Tuesday, May 17,
There was a very large attendance, with Mr. M. Biddell in the
chair.

Mr. R. Bond, of Kentwell, read a paper " On the Profes-
sion of Agriculture, practically and politically considered," from
whichwe give the leading points. Mr. Bond.having congratulated
the meeting on the formation of the Club, thus proceeded : —
In treating this subject, I will not forget the pounds, shillings,
and pence considerations, and I propose to answer the following
questions, viz. : — What is the actual per-centage position of
agriculture? Can the position of agriculture be improved socially
in the relationship of landlord and tenant ? Can it be improved
politically? Can it be improved practically byimproved practice?
First, What is the actual per centage position of agriculture?
I believe it is an allowed fact, of which we are all well aware,
that agriculture, though a pleasant and agreeable business, is
one from which the average per-centage profit is comparatively
small. Whither I shall turn to meet with agriculturists of
equal proportions as corn or cattle lords — whither I shall turn
to find fabulous hoards of wealth derived by the cultivator from
the cultivation of the soil, is a task in which I must ask your
assistance. I know of but few such cases. Agricultural accu-
mulation is usually a slow game of patience, and although
there are many men who are well to do enough, and possessed
of ample capital as tenant farmers, yet I much question whether
one agricultural lord can be found who has risen to fortune
and an exalted position in society by the large per-centage
returns of his agricultural investments. Again, gentlemen, if
we leave the extremes of success, and descend to the medium
indications of prosperity, what do we find ? Who retires from
the toils and the struggles of business crowned with success,
to spend an old age of competency in the quiet and peaceful
enjoyment of that wealth which years of labour have accumu-
lated ? I know the country life of a farmer militates against
such a course ; but with all due allowance, the retirement of

Bucccessful tradesmen is comparatively beyond all proportion

it is as 100 to 1. The thought of a farmer retiring almost ex-
cites an involuntary smile, and I am convinced that in 99 cases
out of 100, this charitable world of ours wotild pronounce it
to be from necessity, and not from choice. Upon agricultural
prosperity, or the want of it, I may even say more ; I may
venture the assertion that there are thousands of painstaking
careful, business men throughout the kingdom, who, in the
average of years as farmers, make no progress ; their per-centage
affords them a subsistence, but not an accumulating surplus ;
year after year their position is one of stagnation rather than
of progression. Now, gentlemen, why is this ? I have taken
some pains to inquire; and, first, as to trade, I have corresponded
largely with friends and gentlemen to ascertain the average per.
centage returns from the various trades and manufactures, both
in town and country, and whilst I can find, from the most reli-
able sources, that money thus invested pays a per-centage vary-

ing, according to the nature of the business, from 15 to
25 per cent., agriculturally the return is not 10 per cent.,
inclusive of personal supervision. Now, gentlemen, why is
there this marked difference, and why is it that capital
invested agriculturally does not make a better return ? The
truth is, competition explains the whole secret. The competi-
tion is extreme. The truly agricultural class would compete
for farms as a business investment and as a business occupation ;
but the wealthy tradesman, on behalf of himself or his sou,
competes in part to secure the recreation and advantage of
green fields and fresh air ; and although to such capitalists
per-centage return is generally a secondary consideration, com-
pared with the freedom and comfort of a country life, yet
trade usually competes in ignorance, and under the false notion
that agricultural profits range high. Gentlemen, too, farm for
amusement, and when business as a pleasure competes with
business as an investment, it increases the competition at
heavy odds, and greatly tends to reduce the per-centage re-
turns. Did you, gentlemen, at any previous period know of
Buch competition for farms as at the present moment? Thus,
gentlemen, independently of farming being a pleasurable busi-
ness, which greatly induces competition, we have increasing
wealth, increasing population, and a limited supply of land,
all assisting to add to the competitive demand. I fearlessly
assert, from investigation aud comparison, that agriculture is
the most competitive business pursued. But to the honour of
the landlords of England it may generally be said that compe-
tition is not allowed to work to its utmost extent. I believe
in cases where the go)d mixed soil pleasurable farms of the
kingdom have been thrown into the market, and let by tender
to the highest bidder, not l-3rd per cent, is the annual return,
which, after allowing for the tenant's supervision, makes the
investment a heavy losing speculation. Upon the present
basis, and the present position of matters, I urge the fathers
of England to pause before they determine to import their sons
by wholesale into a business low in its per-centage returns,
and whereby already the actual and the expectant farmers are
ready to cut up the present pecuniary profit by an overwhelm-
ing competition for land.

" Can the position of agriculture be improved socially, in the
relationship of landlord and tenant ?" I am of opinion that
the relationship of landlord and tenant may be materially im-
proved. Such an improvement would be mutually advan-
tageous ; and it is my conviction that the improved cultivation
of the kingdom at large materially hinges upon the just set-
tlement of this question. I observe that tenant farmers em-
ploy the largest invested capital of auy class in England, and
I cannot understand the justice or the propriety of withholding
from them just protection to their investments. I know it
may be said, " Why, what can be done ? it is a delicate and
difficult subject, and you cannot interfere." Now I have no
wish to interfere, in the ordinary acceptation of that word, but
I have no sympathy with such placitude. I have no sympathy

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

475

with such inaction. Show that a preaaing necessity exists, and
I believe we are the men to grapple the more resolutely with
the difficulty, rather than allow real and imaginary obstacles
to deter us from exertion. Would a surgeon decline to adjust
a limb because it was a compouud fracture? and shall we de-
cline to adjust a difficulty because it is a compound question ?
There is a necessity — there is a need of remedy ; and I have
that high opinion of the honour and nobility of the landlords
of England, that I believe, if properly asked, they would be
the first to accord their consent to a proposition of justice and
fairness. This has been my experience of their everyday
bearing ; but the necessity must be proved. Then to illus-
trate the point : the unprotected improving tenant's position
is precisely that of a capitalist who obtains leave to build,
and actually builds a house at considerable cost, upon another
man's property, without first obtaining a building lease. The
capitalist unexpectedly receives notice to quit his newly
erected residence, from which he has derived no benefit ; but
as he has no agreement to retain possession, to sell, or to re-
ceive an equivalent, he leaves his one, two, or three thousand
pounds in the household property to the quiet enjoyment of
the owner of the soil. Now tenant farmers don't require to
build houses, but they do require to invest hundreds and hun-
dreds of thousands of pounds in improving their occupations
by draining, marling, deep ploughing, manuring, and by these
and other improved modes of culture, to increase the fertility
of their occupations some twenty, thirty, forty, or fifty per
cent. It is greatly to the interest of the tenant farmer to im-
prove his holding ; but to improve and,then to receive notice to
quit, without obtaining an equivalent for the capital invested,
is simply to leave to the quiet possession of the owner of the
soil a large proportion of his (the tenant's) rightful property.
Now, it is to protect the tenant farmers of England from such
casualties that I desire to see a friendly adjustment. Business
transactions may not hinge upon words of honour. Nought
but legal security is true security. The present ancient cus-
tom of the country is no real protection. I know it may be
said that acts of injustice, whether arrisiug from death, change
of ownership, or from private or political caprice, ate rare.
Now, to my knowledge such instances are not unfrequent.
Were they as recurrent and as abundant as blackberries in
autumn there would be an end to all tenancy holdings ; but it
is a fact, that tens of thousands of pounds are thus annually
and wrongfully sacrificed ! and the whole subject calls for
serious consideration and a fair and equitable arrangement.
Investments and improvements in agriculture are nearly syno-
nymous terms, and without protection to capital the result
must necessarily be — limited outlay, retarded progress, and a
curtailed national yield in produce. How detrimental is such
restricted outlay to the best interests of the landlord as well
as the tenant ! What has made the Holkham estate the agri-
cultural pride of England, and the admiration of every visitant
foreigner? Certainly not doubt and distrust in the relation-
ship of landlord and tenant — certainly not restricted outlay
and stinted protection to capital, but a wise and liberal-minded
policy on the part of the landlord, and spirited outlay from a
spirited (because a secure) tenantry. Through the Earl of
Leicester's excellent and much respected agent (Mr. Keary) I
have his lordship's permission to state that, within the past
half century, the entire Holkam property has increased in ren-
tal value to the enormous amount of upwards of 50 per cent.
I will simply leave this important fact to the consideration of
the landlords of England. I trust they may see that liberality
of sentiment and liberality of action are not without their
personal and pecuniary rewards.
In the agreements between landlord and tenant, the

general failing is extreme protection to the landlord, in
undue stringency ; and no real protection against bad farm-
ing and mis-management. In hiring a farm, I would deci-
dedly and willingly pay more money as rent for the advan-
tages of farming as I pleased, without being placed iinder
legal tutors and governors in my cultivation, and at
the same time I would freely consent to the agreement that
the farm should be improved and not impaired at the expi-
ration of my tenancy. The more I could make from my
occupation, the more could I afford to pay to my landlord as
rent.

I now arrive at that much vexed and delicate question-
Game. Upon the present indefinite system as to the
amount of game to be kept, and the amount of damage to be
incurred by the tenant farmer, it must ever remain a most
trying, vexatious, and perplexing question. I know it may
be said a landlord has a right to do as he pleases with his
own ; this I freely accord; but it must be remembered that
though the soil belongs to the owner, the crop is the pro-
perty of the occupant, and under such circumstances the
only just course to be pursued is fairly to fix the amount of
damage to be borne by the tenant farmer at £5, £10, £50,
or £100 per annum, as the case may bo, and all increase of
such damage to be paid by the landlord. Such an arrange-
ment makes the agreement clear and distinct ; it puts aside
all mistrust; it places the burden upon the right shoulders ;
the tenant knows his obligation, the landlord his liberty to
keep any amount of ground or wing game he pleases, with-
out a murmur from the tenant as occupier; more rent,
under a reasonable arrangement, can fairly be demanded
and paid ; and in different cases I have seen this arrange-
ment work with perfect justice and satisfaction. It has
been my good fortune, in some instances, recently to insert
such a game clause in different leases, and I believe in each
case it will work to the mutual advantage of landlord and
tenant. I long to see this question clearly and definitely
settled generally, and I invite owners and occupiers to meet
the difficulty in the spirit of honourable and open-handed
justice, and not to arm might against right, but to place
their relationship upon the true principles of just responsi-
bility and definite agreements. It was my pleasure recently
to have the opportunity of inspecting the Duke of Grafton's
Euston estate, in Suffolk, which is under the able agency of
my friend, Mr. G. Kersey Cooper, Amidst general first-
class management and first-class farming, nothing struck me
more forcibly than the fact that, though a large light-land
property containing upwards of 15,000 acres, no injury
is done by hares or rabbits; they are kept well under ; yet
the sporting is excellent, pheasants and partridges abounding,
and, at the same time, the rent roll is undoubtedly from
twenty to fifty per cent, higher than if the crops in
the fields, and the underwood in the plantations, were par-
tially destroyed by ground game. Thus, sport and a large
rental return are alike secured; the landlord avoids
continual annoyance, and the tenantry are happy and
contented.

Can the position of Agriculture be improved politically ?
There are legislative and fiscal regulations which materially
affect the per-centage returns of agriculture. I allude,
more especially, to the malt-tax, which, I believe, curtails
the growth of barley, lessens its price, lessens its cor»sump-
tion, and is a positive detriment to the profits of farming.
I have always supposed that supply and demand controlled
the price of every commodity, and how a heavy duty which
materially checks consumption, which vastly increases
adulteration in the substitution of drugs and other delete-

476

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rious ingredients for malt ; I say how these obstructions to
our enterprise, and how the burden of a heavy tax upon our
produce (though paid if you please by the consumer), I say
how all these advantages are blessings rather than curses, I
cannot for the life of me conceive.

I believe, too, that this question of the malt-tax is of un-
usual importance at the present time ; for in times of peace,
it is quite clear, we can mixch more effectually compete
with continental nations in the articles barley and meat,
than we can in the production of wheat. Wheat is of
universal culture, while barley is restricted to localities.
We can produce barley to perfection in the eastern coun-
ties of England ; and we naturally desire an increased de-
mand and increased price, that we may partially substitute
barley for the culture of wheat ; and as it is, practically
speaking, a less difficult, a less expensive, and a less
exhaustive crop to produce than ^vheat, the abolition of the
malt-tax would be of signal service to the barlc3r-producing
districts. Again, why, if ordinary malt as a condiment in
these straw-consuming days would be useful in growing
meat, or if for fattening purposes it would act as a stimulant
in the manufacture of beef or mutton, why should it not be
freely used ? We are unjustly debarred from availing our-
selves of its advantages.

Again, why should the beer of the man we employ— the
poor man's' especial beverage — be oppressively taxed?
Government may pronounce beer a luxury ; but to me it is
perfectly clear that to the poor man, with his difficult
weekly practical problem to solve— with his wife, children,
and himself to be maintained upon his 8s. to 10s. a week —
beer is a necessary comfort rather than a superfluous
luxury. Tax wealth, tax competency, tax the luxuries of
the great and the luxuries of the middle classes ; but, in
fairness and honesty, spare the essential comforts and the
necessaries of the poor : for if we cannot alleviate their lot,
let us scorn to increase artificially their burdens. The
malt-tax is unfair, as restricting agricultural profits ; it is
unjust, as taxing the beer of the man we employ — the poor
man's especial beverage; and it is immoral in its tendency,
acting as a premium upon nefarious adulteration. As an
important barley-producing county, we require to take a
very prominent position upon the malt-tax question : it is
for us to lead in the battle, and fight it to success ; and I
am glad to be able to say that Major Parker, the newly-
elected member for West Suffolk, recently informed me of
his resolve to stand up for the abolition of the malt-tax
with indomitable perseverance. I trust Lord Henniker,
Sir Fitzroy Kelly, and other county members with consti-
tuencies interested in the cause, will join in one united
phalanx to support it. It must fall. Why, as an indica-
tion, only during the late reform debate, Mr. Drummond
and Mr. Bright were each accusing the other as being by
party the preventive to the passing such a measure, where-
by it was perfectly clear they were both willing to acquiesce
in its abolition. In Kent, I am glad to observe, large meet-
ings, to the number, upon some occasions, of 3,000 persons,
have occurred, to agitate the repeal of the hop-duty. I
heartily wish them success ; and I trust gentlemen in the
barley-growing districts, and the community at large, will
not lack the necessary public spirit to suppress the malt-
tax, which is specially unfair as a special tax upon agricul-
tural enterprise, and specially unjust as a tax upon the poor
man's especial beverage. I pass over other subjects which
would properly rank under the heading of " agricultural
politics." I think our political force needs concen-
tration; and the most desirable point upon which first

to combine and try our power is the abolition of thfl
malt-tax.

I now arrive at the consideration of the last queation pro-
posed, viz,, can the position of Agriculture be improved
practically by improved practice ? I observe the pasture farm-
ing in this county is grievously defective ; I see that in these
stock-paying days we are losing one chief source of profit ; our
pastures are producing but a third of their capabilities both in
quantity and quality ; they are producing comparatively
nothing in milk, meat, or wool. We all know that they ought
to be a capital source of revenue. We all know how much we
prize pasture lands. When we want to hire a farm, do we not
anxiously ask " How much pasture ?" and we all know how
sadly we in general mismanage them. I am speaking in a
sweeping manner, but I see but few exceptions to the general
mistake; and I know, gentlemen, you will agree with me in
the assertion, that good management of pasture lands is the
exception, and not the rule. I seldom see the dung cart in the
pasture field, with its liberal supply of manure, repaying the
annual extraction of hay, beef, and mutton, from the soil; but
I see a yearly erroneous system of exaction and robbery.
Upon the cold clays we have arrived at the minimum point of
production, and I can plainly perceive we have come to an
important period when something must be done. And what
must that something be? It requires to be no partial
measure ; upon much of the cold clays and upon some of the
moss-poisoned mixed soil, attempted renovation must be a slow
and tedious remedy — they want to be broken up in ioto, and
the old natural starved-out grasses supplanted by modern
grasses of a very different quality. Why, only last month I
was examining a pasture thus treated, and the occupier in-
formed me that in the second year after its breaking up, in
that one year it had produced more grass than in any two
years previously. I believe that breaking up and relaying,
followed by fair and reasonable manuring, would, in the course
of years, yield 30 per cent, per annum upon the outlay. There
is uo necessity for me to tell you that breaking up and re-laying
pasture land is no joke; but I am convinced, in many cases, it
is the best course to pursue, yet no tenant is justified in risk-
ing such an expense without security. The other day I found
a friend improving his pastures 300 per cent., at a heavy cost,
as you may imagine. I said " You have a lease, of course, or
a clause for the payment of unexhausted improvements upon
quitting ?" He replied " I have neither one nor the other, and
I may have notice to quit my farm, and be compelled to leave
the entire capital sunk, without receiving a farthing as an
equivalent ; or an increased rental may at once be demanded,
in which case quit or pay will be my poor choice of alternatives."
I hold also the opinion upon the subject of breaking up land,
that the time has now fully arrived when the larger proportion
of our uncultivated heaths in Suffolk will, if allowed to continue
as such, be a disgrace to Suffolk enterprise ; and though I have
the notion that making such lauds stock-producing rather than
corn-producing would be the best course, yet I believe, with
judgment under either plan, they would amply repay the
tenant for his outlay, while after the expiration of a thirty
years' lease the laud would be found to have increased in value
200 per cent. I should not desire a better investment than
to purchase some of such heath lands as freehold, at twenty-
eight years' purchase of their present rental. I believe we are
asleep upon this point, for with the increased demand for land,
the prevailing anxiety for stock farms, the increased value
(relatively) of sheep stock and of barley, the discovery of
artificial manures, the ease by which such heath lands can now
be brought into cultivation by the steam plough, these facts have
totally altered their position ; audit is most undesirable that such

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

477

barren spots should continue as deaerta in the midst of fer-
tility. I have a great idea that with the blessings of peace
the comparative luxuries of life — as meat, butter, barley, and
wool (for broad cloth) will be much higher in value relatively
than wheat (the positive necessary), and that we must adapt
our course accordingly. With dear meat we require abundant
grass, and much may be done to secure this by improved pas-
ture-farming. Without breaking up or relaying, our pastures
might be as luxuriant as our root crops ; but whilst we strain
every nerve and dive our hands deep into outlay to produce
the mangold, turnip, or swede crops, we do not invest one six-
pence in manure to secure abundant grass crops. Peihaps we
feed and mow alternate years ; but the principle is bare-faced
robbery, for the mown crop is bodily removed and the fed crop
partially, as the animal manufactures meat therefrom and per-
haps milk in addition; consequently the whole system is errone-
ous, and has brought us through a long course of years to our
present undesirable position — poverty in our pastures and pau-
city in oar stock, Upon the subject of arable meat produce I
have in another place and upon a former occasion, expressed,
and I now repeat my conviction, that in this and the adjoining
counties we have erred in principle and in practice, in the
average of years, by too expensive a system of bullock grazing ;
that we have bought our lean beasts at too dear a rate for
profit ; that under altered circumstances we have too much
adhered to old past fattening principles, and we have too much
adhered to exploded and expensive methods of manure making,
to the partial neglect of cattle and sheep rearing. I have also
previously expressed my belief that more might be profitably
done in lamb rearing on heavy land, and I now express my
opinion that more may be done in sheep-breeding and fattening
on light and mixed soils. I know well that at the current
prices for lambs, mutton, and wool, it is well worth trying, and
I am certain those will be behind in the pecuniary race who do
not make the attempt. To show you I speak not simply from
my own experience, I will relate the practice of a gentleman in
West Suffolk, giving you full particulars and the result of his
long experience. I visited him last month, in company with
Mr. Kersey Cooper, Mr. Mumford Sexton, Mr. W. King, and
Mr. Bate ; and whilst these gentlemen, with myself, were
equally pleased with the firat-class condition of the lambs, and
the healthy and satisfactory appearance of the ewes, they were
at the same time equally astonished at the large number of
sheep kept to bo small a proportion of land. He farms 260
acres of very good friable loam clay-land, of which only about
twenty-five are pasture, and, by gradually increasing his stock
yearly, as lamb-rearing has promised to pay, he now annually
keeps from twenty to twenty-one scores of ewes, and each year
the fall of lambs has been large : this year exceeding thirty to
the score. Of course the wonder is how so many are main-
tained, and the supposition follows that much artificial food
must be used. The annexed account of expenses and returns
is copied from Mr. F.'s balance-sheet : —

1857.
: Expenditure. £

Artificial food .... 66

Outkeep in summer55

Annual loss of 10
ewes, & the amount
expended for 60
shearling ewes after
deducting the value
of crones 70

Amount realized for
farm produce con-
sumed by flock.. 535 18 0

3. d.
0 0
0 0

0 0

1857.

Receipts. £ s. d,

400 lambs, at 24s. .480 0 0

100 lambs, at 228.. 110 0 0

18 lambs, at 14s,. 12 12 0

3fat 5 2 0

Wool 119 4 0

£72618 0 £726 18 0

Th9 value of th§ manure js placed against the labour.

Now how is this vast practical result annually accom-
plished ? How are the sheep fed ? The secret is, the yard
and straw system. The ewes are mainly fed during the
winter months upon fresh-thrashed barley or oat-straw
placed in binns, and some cut into chaff, with which is ad-
mixed trefoil husk when procurable, and, previous to lamb-
ing, some millers' offal is given. They have also] about four
Scotch cart-loads of turnips each day.

For the spring feed, rye and Italian rye-grass are grown
upon the fallow shift, previous to sowing for the turnip
crop. Cabbages are also grown, and the clover layers are
usually fed.

Of course it would appear probable that the whole farm
must be given up to sheep husbandry. Now such is not
the case; and upon the 8th of April, 1859, 1 recorded the
present position of the farm as to its cropping. It is as
follows :—
Acres.

49 wheat ;

55 barley ;

24 peas and beans ;

12 white clover fed in spring, and to be saved for seed ;
16 red clover fed in spring, and to be saved for seed ;
15| Italian rye-grass, ditto ditto;

104 sainfoin, to be reserved for hay ;

1 cabbage seed ;

2 oats, after cabbages ;

f 16a. for mangold wuttzel ;

I 8a. Italian rye-grass, after feeding for
., f,, J swedes, turnips, or kohl rabi ;

41 lauow -j 6a. winter oats, ditto, ditto J

I 8a. rye, ditto, ditto;

(^ 3a. tares, ditto for cabbages ;

25 pasture ;
8 waste.

259 acres.

Thus 130 acres are with corn, 44| for seeds, 10| for mow-
ing; consequently, nothing more than the fallow shift is
specially set apart for the flock, and although the clovers
and Italian rye-grass intended for seeding are first fed, it is
not at all clear to me, at the present market price of seeds,
that such a course is not much more paying than growing
wheat at 203. per coomb. I am convinced it is more profit-
able, and ample food is thus provided for spring consumption
for the lambs.

Thus, straw and a few roots, with slight artificial additions,
suffice for the first three months after tupping ; then cabbages
are added aa lambing proceeds, and then the Italian rye grass
and clovers. After the Iambs are sold, the ewes are put out
to keep for two or three months, and after the Italian rye grass
has seeded, rape is sown, upon which the ewes are fed during
tupping.

Now, Gentlemen, I said I believed it possible, and paying,
that more sheep should not only be kept upon heavy clay lands,
where hitherto they have been comparative strangers ; but
then I also believe it desirable more should be kept upon the
mixed soil and poor light lands.

It was my intention to have made some observations upon
the desirability of growing more seeds generally; upon the
desirability of using the liquid manure drill to ensure a turnip
plant, and the superior efficacy of the manure thus applied ;
upon the great improvement in drilling instead of sowing clover
seeds ; upon the important position which barley will probably
take in the market, and its extended culture ; upon steam
ploughing and extended autumn cultivation ; and upon the de-
sirability of adopting some systematic plan of stack dressing,
to prevent serious losses from vermin ; but time fails me, and
I will briefly recapitulate. I have shown that, owing to ex-
treme competition, more especially for the hire of farms, the

478

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

per-centage returns of farming are small. I have shown that
trade, though less pleasurable, is more profitable. I have
shown that, in agriculture, profit within the last three or four
years has varied greatly upon poor clay lands, and good stock
and barley farms. I have recommended that until just security
is given, whereby a largely increased amount of capital can be
iavested in improvad culture upon a given area, that agricul-
turists and tradesmen generally should mutually pause before
they determine to import their sons largely into a business, not
only low in its per centage returns, but in which competition is
already extreme, and investment is artificially restricted. I have
shown that the social relationship of landlord and tenant may
be improved, to the mutual advantage of each'party, by giving
security of tenure, or security to outlay, by liberal covenants,
by protection from game where liable to serious damage ; by
fairly meeting the building and other requirements of the farm,
and considering it solely as a meat and corn producing manu-

factory. I have shown that the political position of agricul-
ture may be improved by conceding the repeal of the malt tax ;
and I have insisted that though the existence of such a tax is
unfair in principle and unjust and injurious in its action, its
removal must depend upon our exertion. I have alluded to
the hop duty, but I have passed over other subjects of agricul-
tural politics, considering we need to concentrate our labours
upon securiug the entire abolition of the malt tax. I have
shown that our practical position may be improved by improved
pasture farming, by keeping a larger number of sheep, byconsum-
ing more straw, by partially giving up the exploded system of
expensive manure making, by unpaying fattening, by piursuing
and practising the most paying course regardless of system, by
growing more clover seeds, and seeds generally, whilst other
subjects I have been compelled to pass over for the want of time.
A short discussion followed, and the proceedings terminated
with a vote of thanks to Mr. Bond.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF IRELAND-

The half-yearly meeting of the members of the above society
was held on Thursday, May 19, at the Farmers' Club, Upper
Sackville-street. His Grace the Duke of Leinster in the
chair.

The Secretary read the half-yearly report as follows : —

" Your council beg to submit their half-yearly report, end-
ing 19th May, 1859, together with the usual abstract sheet,
duly audited, showing the receipts and disbursements of the
society for the year 1858. The balance appearing against the
society is, no doubt, large; but it will be observed that it is
not attributable to any falling off in the annual income, but is
mainly owing to the unusual heavy amount paid under the
head of premiums, being in excess over the payments made
under the same head in 1857 of £458. The expenditure under
the head of incidentals shows some extraordinary payments,
viz., a donation of £100 to the Royal Dublin Society towards
the erection of their Agricultural Hall, and a payment to Pro-
fessor Simonds of £89, being the proportion payable by the
society in conjunction with the Royal Agricultural Society of
England and Highland Society of the expenses incurred bv
that gentleman inj investigating and reporting on the cattle
plague in the early part of last year. From the satisfactory
manner in which the subscriptions for the current year ate be-
ing paid, your council have been enabled to clear oflf this ba-
lance, and after a careful examination into the probable re-
ceipts and disbursements up to the Slat December next, they
anticipate that there will still be ample funds to meet all de-
mands. The prize sheet for the society's annual cattle show,
to be held this year in Dundalk, has been carefully revised.
The most important alteration to which your council beg to
draw attention has been the withdrawal of prizes for imple-
ments. ' The Farmcr''s Gazelle Challenge Cup' is still offered
for competition, but it is optional for the implement exhibitors
to enter for this prize. This step your council considers a
prudent oue, and will not afifect the entries in the implement
department at Dundalk. The period for holding the show has
been changed from the middle of August, the time when your
meetings were usually held, to the last week in July. This

alteration will enable the practical farmer, unshackled by
harvest operations, to attend, and also much assist your
council in obtaining judges. Your council have much pleasure
in reporting that the arrangements for the society's show are
progressing most favourably ; and, from the energy displayed
by the local committee, a most successful meeting may be
anticipated. The prize sheet for local farming societies has
been revived, aud some useful and practical amendments
made. The society's gold medals offered by your council
for labourers' cottages' were competed for by two in Ulster,
four in Leinster, and one in Connaught. There was no com-
petitor for Munster. Experienced judges were appointed to
inspect and adjudicate, and their several awards, together
with very ample and interesting reports, embodying the plans,
specifications, &c., of the prize cottages, have been published
in the annual report. Your council have renewed the prize
for the current year, and have also offered the society's gold
medal for competition, in each province of Ireland, for the im-
provement of previously existing cottages ; and they earnestly
trust that the efforts of the society to raise the condition of the
agricultural labourer will be heartily responded to, and that
each county will send a competitor. In accordance with the
resolution passed at the special general meeting, in February
last, the rules 7or the governance of the society are submitted
for adoption, the several amendments passed at the last two
general meetings of the society have been unanimously agreed
to, the following addition to the nineteenth rule being the only
new motion inserted : ' Provided also, that when any such new
rule is intended to be proposed at a general meeting, a month's
notice of such new rule be given to the secretary, who shall
publish the same by advertisement in the newspapers. Pro-
vided, further, that no new rule be adopted at a general meet-
ing, unless twenty members of the society shall vote for it.'
In conclusion, your ciuncil feel justified in congratulating the
society at large upon its continued progress, and upon the in-
creased favour with which its operations are viewed by the
public. — By order, " J. M. Royse, Secretary."

The report was agreed to unanimously.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

479

THE CABBAGE AND ITS USES.

Our special department being the diffusion of useful
hints and practical information relative to the pro-
ducts of the soil, we have gathered together, for the
benefit of our readers, a few notes on the cabbage tribe.
They are applied to a greater number of purposes than
many would suppose, and afford an addition to food in
a great number of forms, ages, and parts of the plant.
The roots, the leaves, the stems, and the buds of the
cruciferous esculent sare eaten raw or dressed in various
ways, and the seeds of many species are valuable on
account of the oil which they afford.

Maviy a good stout cudgel and serviceable walking-
stick is furnished by the stem of the great Jersey cow
or tree cabbage. In the northern departments of France
the longest of the stalks are used for supporting kidney
beans and peas. Sec, and also as cross-spars for the
purpose of supporting the thatch or roof of the smaller
class of farm-buildings, cottages, &c., and when kept
dry are said to last upwards of half-a-century.

The poet Burns alludes to the castocks, or cabbage
stems, which, after the fibrous part was picked off, were
boiled and eaten. Before the introduction of the
turnip into general use in Scotland, this medullary sub-
stance of the stalks was very commonly eaten by the
peasantry, while the outside portion was given as a
dainty to the favourite milch cows.

Few of our culinary plants have been more improved
and extended by culture than the cabbage and its varie-
ties. The effect of careful cultivation, improvement, and
election of the most deserving varieties on many of our
cultivated economical plants shows how much may yet
be done by experimentalizing on new tuberous roots and
other esculents. Nor can a more suitable example be
adduced than to compare the insignificant weed-like
original cabbage plant on the cliffs of our sea-coast
with the gigantic tree or cow-cabbage, the large close-
head of the drum-head cabbage, or with the different
forms or habits of growth apparent in the Brussels'
sprouts, red cabbage, thousand-headed cabbage, cauli-
flower, kohl-rabl, and numerous other varieties.

"Much," observe Messrs. Lawson and Son, "has
been said and written recommendatory of the cabbage
tribe being more extensively subjected to field-culture
in this country, for feeding cattle, sheep, swine, and
even poultry; but judging from many trials which
have been made, as well as from the natural habits of
the whole tribe, their culture seems only likely to be
attended with any chance of advantage on the most
superior class of soils, particularly on such as are
of rather strong texture, and where an abundant supply
of manure can be h^id ; and even in many such cases
it is questionable how far they ought to be preferred to
turnips, over which, however, tliey possess the advantage
of improving rather than deteriorating the quality of
the milk of cows fed upon them, and also of gro wing-
freely on lands which are too stiff in texture for the

growth of any sort of turnips." The extent of land
under culture with cabbages as a field crop in the
United Kingdom is very inconsiderable. In Scotland
there were in 1857 1,704 acres, in Ireland 30,011 acres,
and in England and Wales about 97,334 acres with
cabbages and a few other small green crops.

Arthur Young wrote that an average crop of cabbage
on a dry soil was about 36 tons, and on a sandy soil
half that quantity. But, although 30 tons per acre
are often grown by good cultivation, yet few crops
reach to that extent, and in Ireland the average yield
is scarcely 15 tons the acre. As a pot-herb, cabbages,
broccoli, &c., ai'C in considerable demand, whether it be
the Brussels sprouts, esteemed for their tenderness and
good flavour ; the savoys, with firm heads, and the
best winter cabbage for family use ; the solid heavy
drum-heads; the sugar-loaves; the red Dutch, for
pickling and for salads ; the early cauliflowers, &c.
Ten years ago, Mr. Braithwaitc Poole, in his Statistics
of British Commerce, estimated the weight of these
vegetables brought annually into the London markets
at 80,000 tons of cabbages, 32,000 tons of broccoli, and
4,150 tons of turnip-tops. Single growers will some-
times send up to one salesman in Covent Garden
market seven or eight waggon loads of cabbages daily,
each comprising a hundred-and-fifty dozen. There
are many others besides Dr. Johnson who think the
cauliflower the best of all the flowers sent to Covent
Garden.

When Ray made a tour along the eastern coasts of
the kingdom in IGGO, after describing the wretched
system of Scottish agriculture, he goes on to say :
" They have neither good bread, cheese, nor drink.
They cannot make them, nor will they leai n. Their
butter is very indifferent, and one would wonder how
they could contrive to make it so bad. They use much
pottage, made of colewort, which they call 'kail,' and
sometimes broth of decorticated barley." We cannot
help sympathizing with the unfortunate traveller when
introduced to such a bill of faro as the natives of the
North seem to have indulged in. We can understand
his discomfort at the taste and quality of cabbage-soup,
oaten cake, and barley-brae, and are not astonished to
find that their agriculture generally was then at the
low ebb the system of living starvation seems to imply.
The kail-brose was then made with oatmeal : it was
barefit kail or water kail. But the kail-brose or kail-
kennin of the present day is an improvement upon by-
gone broths.

The " Kale Brose o' auld Scotland" is celebrated to
the Sime tune as the " Roast Beef of Old England,"
and though, with many of the ancient peculiarities of
the people, it has fallen much into disuse, it is still con-
sidered a national dish.

Cabbage soup is, however, a very common dish in many
countries. " Minestra verde" —gx&Qns boiled in plain

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480

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

water with a small lump of lard — is eaten by the poorer
classes of Neapolitans, who cannot afford macaroni.

It is a joke in some of the foreign provinces of Rus-
sia, that the three mightiest gods of the Muscovite are
Sshin, Tshai, and Shtshee — that is, rank, tea, and cab-
bage-soup. In fact, this same shtshee, or cabbage-soup,
is the staif of life, from the German frontier to Kamst-
chatka. Russian soldiers — hear it, ye Britons, who feed
on beef! — are nourished mainly on this cheap, and, we
should deem it, innutritions food, which is thus com-
pounded ; Sis or seven heads of cabbage are chopped
up, and mixed with half-a-pound of barley-meal, a
quarter of a pound of butter, a handful of salt, and two
pounds of mutton cut into small pieces, with the addi-
tion of a jug of quass. With the very poor, of course,
the meat and butter form no part of the mess ; with the
rich, other materials lend it a high flavour.

Fasting shtshee is made of fish instead of meat, and
oil instead of butter. " Botvinya" is the ordinary sum-
mer food ; it is a kind of cold shtshee. Cold quass, raw
herbs, cranberries, chopped cucumber, and fish, cut into
small lumps, are its ingredients.

The cabbage is very rich in gluten. The leaves by
boiling are converted into a palatable food, without
sensibly diminishing its nutritious quality. Professor
Johnston found that the dried matter of boiled cabbage
still contained 33 per cent, of gluten. When eaten fre-
quently, however, and in large quantity, they* have, in
common with nearly all kinds of food which are rich in
gluten, a costive or binding tendency upon the human
constitution ; hence the propriety of eating them with
fat or oily food.

There is a dish common in Ireland under the name of
kol-cannon — a mixture of potatoes and boiled cab-
bage beaten together, with a little pork fat, salt, and
pepper.

There are more ways to cook a fine cabbage than to
boil it with bacon, and yet few seem to comprehend that
there can be any loss in cooking it, even in this simple
way. Two-thirds of the cooks place cabbage in cold
water and set it to boiling ; this extracts all the best
juices, and makes the pot liquor a soup. The cabbage
head, after being washed and quartered, should be drop-
ped into boiling water, with no more meat than will just
season it. Cabbage may be cooked to equal broccoli or
cauliflower. Take for instance, a firm, sweet head, cut
it into shreds, lay it in salt and water for six hours.
Then place it in boiling water until it becomes tender —
turn the water off, and add sweet milk ; when thoroughly
done, take it up in a colander, and drain. Now season
with butter and pepper, or, if you like, with a glass of

wine, and a little nutmeg grated over, and you will have
a dish fit to eat.

What would the German do without his sauer- kraut
or fermented cabbage .' The growth of this vegetable
on the continent, specially for making this preparation, is
very considerable. In Alsaco, cabbages are extensively
cultivated, and grow to an enormous size, and a great
quantity of choucroute or sauer-kraut, is made there
for export to Strasburg and Germany. Every German
family stores up, according to its size, one or more large
casks of it. October and November are the busy months
for the work, and huge white pyramids of cabbage are
seen crowdinfi; the markets ; while in every court and
yard into which an accidental peep is obtained, all is
bustle and activity in the concocting of this national food,
and the baskets piled with shredded cabbage have been
likened to "mountains of green-tinged froth or syllabub."

In Wiesbaden, one hundred fine heads of white cab-
bage for making sauer-kraut may generally be had in
the season for about 3s. The cabbages are cat into
shreds with an instrument not unlike a large inverted
carpenter's plane. They are placed in a four-inch layer
in a cask ; this is strewed with salt, whole pepper,
and a small quantity of salad oil. A man with clean
wooden shoes then gets into the cart and treads the whole
together, till it is well mixed and compact. Another
layer is then added, which is again trod down, and so on
until the cask is entirely filled. The whole is then sub-
jected to heavy pressure, and allowed to ferment ; when
the fermentation has subsided, the barrels in which it is
prepared are closed up, and it is preserved for use.

White cabbage, called pih-tsae, and not unlike the
Roman lettuces, constitutes the principal food of every
class in China, and is said to be really delicious. It is
generally understood that there is another important
commercial use for the cabbage, of which the young
smokers of cheap cigars could tell us something.

There is a cigar merchant in the Minories, who de-
clares that he had a cabbage so large that he got two
boxes of "genuine Havannahs" out of it, besides two
or three dozen penny Pickwicks. He says the cabbage
was about the best pull he ever had, for it brought him
in £?> 15s. 6d., and, if he could have sold the cigars at
the West End, he thinks he might have fairly doubled
that sum.

After the narration of these facts, who shall despise
the cabbage ? Even the ninth-part of a man will stand
up on his bench in its defence. All hail to the cabbage !
may its shadow never grow less, and long may it con-
tinue to furnish agreeable and nutritious food for man
and beast !

IRELAND AND IRISH FARMING.

1 now come to a very important part of my subject :
to attempt showing in what consists the best system of
cottage husbandry — that is, I desire to point out the
best courses of cropping and order of management
suited to small farms ; the best system of grazing or

feeding of stock ; the best varieties of grain and roots
to cultivate ; the best kind of stock to keep for profit or
sale, with such collateral advantages as in the course of
the discussion of these subjects may arise out of them.
In 185G there were, as I have already said, 179,931

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

481

farms not exceeding fifteen acres, and 82,035 farms not
exceeding five acres ; and this, notwithstanding the long
and continuous attempts to enlarge the holdings, the
total number of farms of all sizes being about 600,000.
It is to suggest and enforce improvements in the man-
agement of these small holdings that I intend to confine
myself in this paper.

In my last paper I alluded to the state of the dwellings
and farm -buildings. I cannot do anything worth the
doing, unless something is done to improve these indis-
pensables to good farm-management. I must have
proper conveniences for the dairying, for the poultry,
the cow, the pig, and, in many holdings, for the sheep
and the horse. No good can be done to any extent
without order, care, and management ; and what order
or care can be had or taken where all is in promiscuous
confusion, like a happy family in an exhibitor's cage ?
The pig will fatten almost anywhere ; but not so the
sheep, or the cow, or the horse. Custom will do much
— "habit is second nature;" still these animals are
naturally delicate, rather fastidious in their appetites
and choice of food. The tainted atmosphere of the pig,
or indeed of each other, in the most confined and worst
of places, as is too often seen in small Irish holdings, is
fatal to well-doing. My first point, then, is the im-
provement of farm- conveniences for the shelter and
separation of the animals of the farm. I by no means
advocate an expensive outlay : that adds to the rental.
I care not that the shelters are rude and homely, pro-
vided they are substantial, or that the barn is converted
into a cow-house, if need be, or other like conversions
are occasionally resorted to ; but I do say it is impos-
sible in a fickle climate like Ireland to manage stock
properly without shelters.

The best courses of cropping, and order of manage'
ment suited to small farms.— In most of the districts I
have seen, the cultivation of wheat and potatoes would
be a leading feature in the coarse of cropping I should
recommend. A great portion of the eastern part of the
kingdom appears to me well-adapted to the growth of
wheat : it has a soil of considerable consistency and
depth. On these small holdings I would strongly re-
commend the adoption of the alternate growth of wheat
on a given portion—say, one-fourth of the arable land ;
by this I mean the Tullian system, or, as it is now more
popularly known as the Lois-Weedon system of culture.
I believe it would " work wonders" if properly carried
out ; and, failing this, it would be perfectly useless.
The system is but very imperfectly known, and when
known most improperly practis.d, even by our best
men. The theory is this : Strong retentive soils, wheat
soils, possess naturally a large amount of ammonia — its
inherent constituent. This is a most valuable food for
the production of wheat, and is almost inexhaustible ;
because, as it becomes disentegrated by cultivating pro-
cesses for the use of the wheat plant, the atmosphere
and rains speedily, in a great measure, replenish the
soil from which it is thus exhausted, to be again and
again drawn from it for the same uses. The practice is
very simple when known, and easy of attainment. It is
this : The land appropriated for this purpose should

either be dug or forked over to the depth of from tea to
fourteen inches ; if ploughed, the depth should be six
inches, followed by ii subsoiler to the depth of fifteen
inches: for small holdings the torking and digging are by
far the best. This process may be carried out at any
time and after any previous crop : every weed should be
picked off as the forking proceeds. I would observe
that the fresh crop would bo the best if the forking could
be completed during the summer months, so that the
land lie open to the sun and atmospheric influences ;
subsequently, when once the system is commenced, the
forkings will always be requisite at intervals during the
summer. My own plot (about eight acres) was ploughed
and subsoiled immediately after harvest, and after it had
borne several corn crops. It was subsequently worked,
and then drilled ; and, although I commenced on an
exhausted soil, it continues to improve, though every
portion of the crop is removed annually, and no manure
applied.

Having, then, selected the plot of land for this system
of culture, and having further obtained a deep tilth, the
next thing is the sowing. Now a long series of experi-
ments has proved that the proper width of the drills is as
follows, in order that the alternate system in its fulness
should be properly carried out : all others have failed.
There is required a space of thirty inches for annual
cultivation, while a like space is bearing the crop, i, e,,
three rows of wheat must be drilled or dibbled in at ten
inches apart, leaving a space from the actual drill of
3 ft. 4 in. ; but as ten inches of this space is appro-
priated by the two outside rows of wheat, the real space
for cultivation is only thirty inches, which is the space
to be cultivated through the summer ready to take the
crop for the next year. We have now commenced the
system. The rows of wheat will require the usual boe-
ings and weeding, &c., of a regular crop, and to be
managed and reaped like any other wheat crop. The
intervals will require to be deeply forked or dug over
two or three times in fine, dry, and suitable weather, so
as to secure the greatest exposure to the sun and air,
carefully cleansing it as the work proceeds ; and imme-
diately after the crop is off, these intervals should be
drilled or dibbled — the earlier in reason the better, as it
is important that the crop-bearing intervals should be
dug up as soon as possible, which could not be done
before the rows are sown. This, then, is the simple
course — all is cultivation. No manure is requisite : that
is used for the potato or other root crops. This is the
mode of cultivation I strongly advise for the wheat crop
on all the small holdings of Ireland having a fair wheat
soil. It may seem a novel and doubtful course, but if
carried out industriously it will answer. There is no-
thing intricate in the system, or much to learn : it is
simple cultivation in alternate slips with fork or spade —
of course I mean a regular digging fork of three or more
long tines. It may in the course of years require re-
plenishing with silicious and calcareous manures, i. e.,
cnal-ashes, peat-ashes, sand or lime, chalk, gypsum,
road-scrapings, or marl — these become exhausted in the
straw of the wheat. This system would provide an
abundant supply of profitable labour for the small far-

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482

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mer. If adopted by large farmers, the plough, horse-
hoe, subsoiler, and scarifier must be brought into requi-
sition. My next suggestion as to the best mode of
cropping, &c., is this: I would divide the remaining
three-fourths of the arable land into four equal parts, so
that the rotation would be — 1st, Fallows and root-crop
(mangolds, swedes, &c.) 2nd, Barley or oats, beans or
peas. 3rd, Seeds (clover, Italian ryegrass or tares, &c.)
4th, Potatoes. It may seem superfluous to allude to
the fallowing process ; but we all know that if a good
and deep loose tilth is not provided, a poor crop of man-
golds, or a still worse crop of swedes, is obtained ; and
not much better fare with the commoner root crops. I
shall therefore only say that deep and continuous culti-
vation must be pursued on the fallowing plot, taking
care to avoid working it in a wet or unsuitable state. A
slight application of dung and a moderate supply of
superphosphate or guano will then suffice to ensure ex-
cellent crops of roots. These roots are to be led off for
the consumption of the stock, or they may be fed on the
land. The former plan is best, because on the consump-
tion of this crop with the straw mainly depends the value
of the manure to be made; and the land can be under-
going preparation for the ensuing corn crop, which may
vary according to circumstances, or as seems best in a
rotation of years ; but as seeds succeed best afier a white
corn crop, it is to be preferred ; but if a pulse crop is
desirable, then I suggest the succeeding crop should be
tares (winter tares) or rye. My fourth crop is potatoes
after seeds, or tares or rye. I do not strongly recom-
mend the latter crop — it is too nearly allied to a corn
crop, and thus detrimental to the most advantageous
working of the course. The potato crop I consider the
mainstay of small Irish farms, and the root crop I place
next in estimation, because if these can be secured the
others are nearly certain. It may be questionable whe-
ther it is most advantageous to take two root crops in
succession. Why not take an intervening wheat crop ?
1 answer because I want to provide as much food for the
farm stock as possible, and I have provided the farm
with an ample wheat crop independently, and as an ad-
junct to these very crops, i. e., in supplying its straw
for food and manure without requiring a return. The
potato crop, then, must be assiduously provided for.
As soon as the seed or tare land can be spared, it should
be deeply ploughed or dug — if in trenches all the better
— and so laid up for the winter. In the early spring,
the weather and soil being suitable, it should be broken
down, and be thoroughly pulverized till it is brought
into the finest possible tilth ; then have it trenched or
ridged into 28-inch ridges. Apply the fold-yard manure,
and also a sprinkling of Peruvian guano, or other good
artificial manure, at the rate of 3 cwt. to the acre.
Plant good sets from a good stock of potatoes, and cover
all in together. It will only require hoeing, weeding,
and a slight hilling-up, to make it a productive crop of
great value.

I now come to the particulars of management of this
small holding or farm, and for the better arrangement
of my business, I shall assume the little farm to consist
of twelve statute acres of arable land, of a useful

loamy character. I have already subdivided my little
holding into five plots, i. e., the fourth of the whole to
be annually under wheat. The remaining three-fourths
I again divide into four equal parts, and to be respect-
ively under roots, corn, seeds, and potatoes ; so that
my twelve acres will thus consist of three acres of
wheat ; two and a-quarter acres of mangolds, swedes,
or other roots, or green-food crops ; two and a-quarter
acres of spring corn ; two and a-quarter acres of grass
seeds ; and two and a-quarter acres of potatoes. This, I
think, is laying out the farm to the best advantage to
test its powers of production.

I will now for a moment consider what varieties of
grain, seeds, and roots I would cultivate. Of wheat I
would invariably sow a variety possessing prolific quali-
ties both in straw and grain. Of barley I would sow
the most productive, irrespective of its malting qualities.
Of oats, the better-strawed sorts. Of beans, a large-
grained variety. Of peas, a sort producing a good crop
of both haulm and peas. Of seeds I would adopt the
large broad-leaved red clover, or the Italian rye grass,
for sowing upon the white-strawed crop, and rye or
winter tares for sowing after beans or peas. Of roots I
would select long red bugle mangolds or long yellows,
for deep loamy lands, and red or yellow globe mangolds
for shallower loams. Of turnips I would select a strong-
growing variety of purple-top swedes or Scotch yellows
for early sowing, and the common white-fleshed varieties
for late sowing, according to circumstances.

According to this arrangement I shall thus have 2^
acres of seeds, 2J acres of roots, 2j acres of barley or
oat-straw, and 3 acres of wheat-straw, to consume or
make into manure. What then is the best kind of
stock for use, grazing, sale, and profit. I shall estimate
my root crop at 50 tons the 2 ^ acres of food ; my seed
crop, taking the three mowings at 25 tons the 2} acres ;
and my straw at 10 tons the S} acres ; besides, I have
many potatoes which may be unsaleable. What am I
then to procure as grazing stock for use and profit, and
how many ? First, I must have one horse for general
service ; second, three useful cows for milking and
breeding ; third, two or three yearlings, and three or
four two-year-old heifers or steers ; fourth, ten or a
dozen pigs, and two or three breeding sows, besides
poultry. Sheep I could not fully recommend, as they
do not always thrive well under the course of manage-
ment I am now about to develop ; but I by no means
deprecate the adoption of sheep in preference to the
young cattle, provided they can be conveniently lodged.

We now come to consider the best system of grazing
and stock management for these small farms. The
course that I would suggest is to adopt the soiling
system throughout, i. e., to carry all the food to the
animals in their yards or hovels for consumption : for
this purpose the horse would prove valuable as well as
in cultivation. The horse and cows should be tied up
in their stalls, and fed in their cribs ; the yearlings and
young cattle in conveniently sheltered yards ; and the
pigs in sties, with airy yards. These should all be fed
with great regularity and care — in the summer with
the mown seeds or clover, and in the winter with roots

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483

and straw. The pigs might, in addition, be provided
with a few cabbages or other green food in the summer ;
and immediately after harvest, such as require fatting
to be fatted as fast as possible with the produce of the
barley crop, ground and mixed with roots ; but it will be
found that many pigs may annually be disposed of as
stores, as also the two-year-old cattle not required for
dairy purposes. The mare may also breed a foal occa-
sionally. I shall not minutely calculate how many head
of cattle, pigs, &c., my 2j acres of seeds will feed in
the summer, or my 2\ acres of mangolds or swedes, &c.,
will keep in the winter ; but my long experience leads
me to the belief that I can readily find food for the
amount of stock enumerated, i. e., three cows, three or
four yearlings, three or four "two-year-olds," one horse
or mare, twelve store-pigs, and three breeding sows.
As for hay, I would not make a bit : all the dry food will
be corn and straw.

I will now attempt to show what amount of produce
I shall be able to sell from the farm, and the amount
likely to be realized. This will be sufficiently near and
conclusive, without showing a regular balance-sheet of
outgoings and incomings.

Estimate of the produce of the farm as applicable for
sale ;

£. 8. d.
To 3 acres of wheat at 4 qra. per acre, or 12 qrs.

at 45s. per qr. (a low average price) 27 0 0

To 2^ acres of potatoes at 5 tons per acre, for sale

(after supplyiug the family), or 11 J tons at 60?.

perton 33 15 0

To 3 cows' produce of butter, and milk for pigs,

&c., at £12 per cow 36 0 0

To 3 young heifers or steers, "two-year-olds," at

£9each 27 0 0

To 12 fat pigs, averaging 15 stones each, or 180

stone of pork, at 63. per stone 54 0 0

To 12 store-pigs at 303. each 18 0 0

To poultry, eggs, and sundries sold 4 5 0

Total produce sold value £200 0 0

Estimate of annual outgoings to deduct :

£. s. d.

To rent, tithes, rates, and taxes, at

4?. per acre for 12 acres 48 0 0

To 1 qr. of wheat for seed 2 5 0

To 1 qr. of barley for seed ...... 115 0

To 1 ton of potatoes for seed .... 3 0 0

To hired labour, iudepeudent of the

family services 25 0 0

To wear and tear of implements,
&e., and tradesmen's farm bills,

&c 24 0 0

To sundries, and cash expended in

manures and seeds, &c 16 0 0 120 0 0

Balance £80 0 0

I have thus a balance of ^80 to maintain the farmer's
family, and as profits on his enterprise and industry. I
am well aware that these estimates are open to severe
criticism, but my aim is simply to show some approxi-
mate value of the produce, upon a close attention to
carry out the details of the course of management I
have suggested for these small holdings. Of course, as
they may be smaller or larger the farmer will easily
accommodate his means and appliances to suit the extent
of his farm.

Although I suggest the foregoing as the foundation of

an improved system of cottage husbandry adapted to
small farms, I would by no means slavishly adhere to
it. A change in the rotation is often beneficial. I see
no reason why flax should not occasionally, or even fre-
quently, be substituted for spring corn, except this : it
would involve the purchase of food for the pigs, and
there would be the loss of straw for manure. This,
however, can be supplied by some of the many artificial
manures now in use. It might also be taken occasion-
ally instead of the potato crop, if thought desirable. In
fact, there are many deviations from my course which
might be profitably substituted ; but it will require good
judgment to decide upon them. The same general re-
marks might apply to the stock kept ; deviations will
often be found beneficial, sometimes imperative, owing
to various causes which will inevitably arise under the
most careful management. One great principle here
laid down, it will be observed, is the preparation of a
considerable proportion of the produce of the little farm
for sale, as in cattle, pigs, and dairying. This I much
prefer to the sale of the barley and roots ; and the pota-
toes, in fact, might in low or sharp seasons be kept or
be sold as it were to the stock, for home consumption,
and resold as meat or as young cattle and pigs.

I will just say a word about the implements required,
and their selection, without which my little holding
or farm suggestions would be incomplete. In this de-
partment the closest economy must be observed. I
should require one cart, with shelvings ; one one-horse
iron plough, Ransome's or Howard's pattern ; one set
of harrows, Howard's pattern, as the chief requisites.
The remaining should be chiefly hand implements. The
thrashing, dressing, &c., by hire.

One remark in conclusion. I trust it will not be
thought that my suggestions on the subject would re-
quire a better or more intelligent order of men to carry
them out in their entirety, than the mass or majority of
Irish farmers. I do not think so : they only want careful
consideration, to ascertain their simplicity and value. I
commend them most diffidently to my readers, and in
so doing, beg them earnestly to study the whole subject ;
and if my suggestions do not accord with theirs, well ;
but by no means abandon it, but use additional energy
and zeal to carry out to perfection the improvements
of Irish agriculture, but particularly that of the small
holdings.

AMERICAN PREPARATIONS FOR THE TURF.—
It may be, says the Liverpool Daily Post, in the recollection
of our readers that last season our judicious townsman, Mr.
Bell, of the Adelphi stables, shipped several first-class blood
brood mares for Mr. Keene, of Georgetown, Kentucky, as the
nucleus of a racing stud breeding establishment in that State,
and among the lot so sent out one mare of pure breed had
been secured from Arabia. Following up the same design of
establishing a breed of race-horses, Mr. Troye, and some other
gentlemen with whom he is associated, have just added to their
stud the Knight of St. George (winner of the St. Leger in
1 854), purchased for them by Mr. Bell from the Rawcliffe Stud
Company at £1200, to be sent to Kentucky, He is eight

4

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

years old, and by Irish Birdcatcher, out of Maltese. His pro-
geny, only yearlinga, are altogether in the poaaession of Lord
Exeter, and they are considered remarkably promising. He
was despatched yesterday in the screw-steamer Novo Scotian,
belonging to the Montreal Ocean Steamship Company, who
did all in their power to carry out the instructions of Mr. Bell.

It is ;but right to state that the Knight of St. George is only
the forerunner of several other firat-claas horses which will
soon follow him. The breeding stock export season is juat
commencing; and it may be interesting to our sporting
readers to know that within the last few weeks a pack of fox-
hounds was shipped by Mr. Bell for the Montreal Hunt.

WINTER ACCOMMODATION FOR STOCK.

At the last meeting of the Kingscote Agricultural
Association Mr. J. T. Harrison read the following
paper : —

Gentlemen, — The subject which I have the honour
of introducing for your consideration this evening —
the winter accommodation for stock — is one of the most
important that can engage the attention of those in-
terested in agriculture, whether as owners or occupiers
of the soil. I shall endeavour to point out to you
wherein this importance lies, namely, as influencing the
health and improvement of the stock, the economy of
food, and the manufacture and preservation of the
manure. We will, then, review the various systems of
wintering stock which are adopted, and remark upon
their advantages and disadvantages. And I will con-
clude by offering a series of propositions for your adop-
tion, some of which you will probably unanimously
agree to; whilst upon others there is sure to be a great
variety of opinion, the free and open expression of which
by the members will, I have good hope, be of service to
the cause of agriculture. la some of the districts in
Gloucestershire the accommodation for stock is nearly
the same as it was eighty years ago; and the descrip-
tion of it given by a very intelligent writer, in 1787,
stands true to the present day. He says (" Marshall's
Rural Economy of Gloucestershire,") : " The farmeries
are very simple, and in general very mean ; a small,
old, timber-built dwelling-house, with a calf-stage, a
hovel to hold a cow occasionally, and a stable for two
or three horses, are considered the only requisites ; if
a cow-shed be added, the farmery is complete." The
same writer says (page 18, vol. i ) : " I found nothing
strikingly new in the buildings and farm-yards of the
Cotswold Hills." There have, however, been many
improvements made since then, but they are by no
means general; and so lately as 1850, Mr. Ciird thus

describes a Gloucestershire dairy farm in January :

" An inconvenient road conducted us to the entrance-
gate of a dilapidated farm-yard, one side of which was
occupied by a large barn and waggon-shed, and the
other by the farm-house, dairy, and piggeries. The
farm- yard was divided by a wall, and two lots of milch
cows were accommodated in the separate divisions. On
one side of the first division was a temporary shed
covered with bushes and straw ; beneath this shed there
was a comparatively dry layer for the stock ; the yard
itself was wet, dirty, and uncomfortable. The other
yard was the exact counterpart of this, except that it
wanted even the shelter-shed. la these two yards are

confined the dairy stock of the farm during the winter
months. They are supplied with hay in antique square
hay-racks ingeniously capped over, to protect the hay,
with a thatched roof very much resembling the
pictures of Robinson Crusoe's hat. In each yard two
of these are placed, round which the shivering animals
station themselves as soon as the feeder gives them their
diurnal ration, and then they partially ruminate the
scanty contents. A dripping rain fell as we looked at
them, from which their heads were sheltered by the
thatched roof at the hay-rack, only to have it poured in
a heavier stream on their necks and shoulders. In the
other yard the cows had finished their provender, and
showed their dissatisfaction with its meagre character
by butting each other round the rack," Probably every
one of us could indorse this as a true description of some
dairy farms. This state of things is not, however, con-
fined to the dairy district of Gloucester, but is in a more
or less flagrant degree to be found generally throughout
the kingdom ; and, as pointed out by Mr. Grey, of
Dilston, in a paper on farm-buildings, published by the
Royal Agricultural Society in 1843, the consequence is
a much greater demand for farms that are well supplied
with every convenience for man and beast. The build-
ings have been well called " the meat and manure fac-
tory of the farm "; and the constant improvements in
the other departments of agriculture are forcing atten-
tion to this, which admits more than any other of the
introduction of systematic and factorylike arrangements.
And no more can a farm be called in a proper state for
a tenant to turn it to the best account without suitable
buildings, than a windmill without vanes or stones would
be for its profitable occupation by a miller. It becomes,
then, a most important question what description of
buildings arc most suited for the purpose, and cheapest
in their construction ; for I fear that in m^ny cases the
outlay expended on the home-farm has deterred land-
lords from extending the benefit of suitable and well-
arranged buildings to their tenants generally. Let us,
then, consider the subject more in detail : And first, as
to the health and improvement of the stock, the economy
of food, and the manufacture of manure. 1. When
the cattle are wintered in the 'open fields : During a
winter, such as that now passing away, stock may do
very well in the open fields ; and I can instance one
case in which, although the farmer has some accommo-
dation in the shape of yards andjsheds, he has kept all
his stock in the fields. I cannot, however, believe that
this is good management, either as regards the stock or

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485

the fields ia which they are kept, whilst it is not econo-
mical ia respect of food, and I question much if the
manure is so useful as it might be : the cattle selecting
sheltered spats to lie upon when they give the ground
an over dose, causing sour rank grass to grow, which
they reject the following season. As I am obliged to
keep some stock in the fields during the winter, I have
lately erected two sheds, in winch I find the cattle lie
every night, and by keeping them littered there is a
considerable quantity of useful manure accumulating at
distant parts of the farm ; and I am inclined to think
that for young stock, and when the land is thoroughly
drained, it may be advantageous to pursue
this system at a distance from the homestead, as it
saves the cartage of the hay-house and makes some
manure where it is generally much wanted. I may
mention that the sheds I have put up are very simple;
the arm of each of them is about 500 square feet,
aflording accommodation for sixteen young beast coming
(wo years old, at a cost of ^13 each shed, including
all the materials (excepting the straw and labour). This
part of the subject opens the question of the effect of the
droppings of the cattle in the open fields. It appears
from the analysis of Dr. Voelcker that fresh manure
contains very little soluble fertilizing matter; and that it
is only as decomposition takes place that it becomes so-
luble, and fitted for the food of plants. Now droppings
lying on the ground, exposed to drying wind?, are not
favourably placed for inducing decomposition, and I
believe that even when beaten about, the effect will
not be nearly so advantageous to the farmer as if the
manure was collected into heaps, mixed with earth,
which retains the soluble nitrogenous and other sub-
stances induced by fermentation ; and after being spread,
the first rain carries them to the roots of the grass. It
may have occurred to you that we do not require to beat
our grass grounds to any great extent after the cattle
have been running in them all the summer ; how is this ?
Observe the customers we then have for this part of our
farm produce; sometimes the droppings are instantly
covered by innumerable flies ; at others rooks and other
birds pecking away at them, show that they have be-
come the food of various worms and insects, by whom,
on turning it over, we find it to be thoroughly honey,
combed, and reduced to a mere skeleton. Here is evi-
dently a great waste of fertilising matter. I have seen
persons employed collecting the manure, and carting it
off" in the vale of Berkeley ; and I find the practice thus
recommended by Mr. Thomson in the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society's Journal for last year (No. 41, p. 255).
One of the cheapest and most effective plans, is to em-
ploy an old man with a donkey-cart to go round the
pastures collecting the droppings of the cattle, and
making them into compost with road scrapings, di'n'.
cleanings, &c. If a manure collector be once appointed,
numerous odds and ends of fertilizing substances will be
found available, which would individually be worth little,
and which are now wasted, &c. But the collection of
manure should be incessant. The droppings of horses
and cattle, especially if collected fresh, form a very im-
portant source of compost, and the improvement is two-

fold. 1st in the saving of that which is otherwise to a
great extent, wasted ; 2ndly by the cleaning of the pas-
ture, and the much more uniform grazing of the cattle
when the droppings are not allowed to remain and pro-
duce coarse tufts for some months after. He recom-
mends the turning of the compost heap once at
least. I will next proceed to the consideration of the
effects on the stock, feed, and manure, when the cattle
are wintered in open yards, without sheds. In such, if
there is a warm comfortable spot well littered, the animals
will soon select their bed ; but there is really no one
point to recommend such a mode of wintering stock ;
it cannot be healthy for them to be subjected to all the
changes of our varying climate. Animals so exposed must
require more food ; and as to the manure made by them,
it is hardly possible to devise a more effectual system
for its extravagant waste. It may be as well to discuss
here generally the question of yard- made manure, as it
will apply equally, perhaps with greater force, to that
made in yards with sheds attached. Straw and drop-
pings from the cattle, did they remain in their primitive
condition, would be of little use in fertilizing the land,
because a very small proportion of them is soluble ; by
degrees, however, a slow fermentation ensues, the parti-
cles re-arrange themselves, and very valuable fertilizing
products are formed, which are soluble ; so that, were
the process carried far enough, the whole of the valuable
part of the manure might be washed out, and what Mr.
C. Lawrence calls the dry body whose spirit is departed
alone be left to be carried to the field by neighbour
Drychaff's creaking hearse. Now, consider, the manure
left exposed in a yard is favourably placed for undergoing
rapid decomposition (unless it is literally covered with
water), it is well exposed, occasionally wetted by genial
showers, not too hard compressed by the treading cattle,
as it is spread over an extensive surface ; everything is
promising for a good brewing, and in due course down
comes the pelting storm ; and the rich porter-coloured
stream flowing from the yard, and down the adjoining
stream, but too truly tells of the efficiency of the decom-
positionand the value of departed worth. I feel confident
that there is no satisfactory argument for manufacturing
manure in exposed yards, where it is subjected to be thus
robbed of its most valuable constituents. It may be
asked, what are we to do with our straw in cases where
we have so much, and, our live stock being principally
sheep, it is only by exposing in yards that we can con-
vert it into manure at all ? I should be glad to hear
your opinions upon this point ; but I question much
whether we have by any means arrived at the maximum
use of straw as fodder for sheep as well as cattle. The
late Sir George Sinclair, in his work on " Husbandry"
(vol. 1, page 378), in 1844, mentions a saying of Dr.
Keith's — " Take care of the straw, the corn will take
c.ire of itself" ; and he mentions a remark of Marshall's,
"That if a Yorkshire and a Norfolk farmer got equal
quantities of straw, the Yorkshireman would make his
cattle eat every particle, and would scarcely have any to
litter their stalls with, whilst the Norfolk man would
convert the whole into muck ; the Yorkshireman would
keep more cattle, and would carry out his dung at less

486

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

expense, whilst the Norfolk man would make more
muck. Others would prefer a middle course, that of
eating one-half, and converting the rest into dung." In
a letter written a few weeks ago by Mr. Bond to the
editor of the Agricultural Gazette, explSiiams the means
by which his sheep are maintained at so cheap a rate, it
is shown that for three mouths in the winter they are fed
on straw and mangel alone, and during the three spring
months— March, April, and May— on straw, mangel,
cow-cabbage, and grass, with the addition of oilcake and
bran-meal, no hay being given to them throughout the
year. I should notice that his farm is a clay soil, and
not suitable for folding sheep on the land ; still there
does not seem any decided objection to feeding them
similarly in the fold as he does in the yard. I shall
close my observation on open yards by heartily expres-
sing my argument with the following observation in
" Morton's Cyclopaedia," that " All manure should be
made under cover, either in stalls, boxes, or sheds." Let
us now proceed to the consideration of covered accom-
modation for stock. Here a new feature presents itself,
a new element of serious moment, viz., the expense;
and it may be well to consider it a little separately.
Simply as a matter of expense there is no system so
economical as stalls ; a shed 16 ft. wide is sufficient for
a pathway (3 ft. wide), a manger, and standing room for
the animals, whilst 4 ft. in the breadth of the shed is
ample ; so that 64 square feet only are occupied by
stall-fed cattle. And Mr. Caird mentions some stalls
erected on Lady Londonderry's estate, where 20 head of
cattle are housed in a wooden she d at a cost of £30, or
30s. per head, the shed being 70 ft. long and 15 ft. wide,
only 7 ft. in width being allowed for each pair of
animals, each animal thus occupying only 52 square
feet. Now, in the box system it is usual to allow 10
ft. by 9 ft. for the box, and the gangway cannot be
taken at less than 2 ft. by 10 ft. more — making 110
square feet for each animal. These boxes will certainly
take in two younger animals, but each full-sized fatting
animal requires a separate box. As a question of
first cost in the erection of the buildings the boxes
may be taken at nearly double of the stalls. As to the
expense of the sheds with yards attached, much depends
upon the variety. I think it is never desirable to keep
more than six animals together in one yard : for this
number a shed 36 ft. long and 10 ft. wide, affords com-
fortable accommodation ; this is 60 square feet for each
animal, and is as cheap as anything. But if it is consi-
dered desirable to keep each animal in a separate yard,
it requires a shed 10 ft. wide divided into length of 8 ft.
6 in. ; each animal then occupying 85 square feet. Such
sheds would, however, hold two small animals ; whereas
no animals could w ell be placed closer together in the
stalls than as mentioned above. Considering the sim-
plicity and cheapness of a 10 ft. compared to a 15 ft.
roof, I think I may place the order of cheapness as fol-
low:—

Sheds and yards to hold 6 animals
Stalls

Sheds and yards to hold 1
Boxes.
But although this question of first cost is one of very

material importance, I cannot think that it is one that
should decide the question of selection ; for I believe
that the other points involved, viz., the health of the
stock, the economy of food, and the manufacture of
manure, should far outweigh it in the consideration of
the owner, as well as the occupier of the soil, for upon
them in a great measure depends the improvement of the
estate. Let us first, then, consider the benefits, &c., of
stalls as to the health, &e., of the animal. However
well it may besuited for fattening stock, I cannot believe
that it is by any means desirable for store stock, to pre-
serve which from the inclemency of the weather I believe
to be most important, but at the same time it is equally
necessary to keep them healthy and hardy, which I
conceive can only be done by giving free access to the
open air. This observation applies equally to box-
feeding store stock. Mr. Huxtable, whom you all know
by reputation, and who keeps about 100 head of cattle
on his hill farm, was a great advocate for entirely
housing his stock; and Mr. Caird says, in 1851,
" The whole stock of the farm, except the breeding
ewes, are kept constantly housed night and day,
summer and winter, and no particle of their food or
manure is suffered to be wasted." It appears that
Mr. Huxtable persevered in the system for six or seven
years, but at last gave it up, as Mr. Ruegg states in his
eesay on the farming of Dorsetshire. In the " Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society" for 1855 Mr. Hux-
table mentioned the result of an experiment which
seems important. He carried on for six or seven years
the practice of keeping his dairy beasts in houses, only
turning them out once a-day for exercise. This at first
was found profitable in many respects ; but ultimately
the constitution of the cows and of their progeny be-
came so enfeebled, and the development of tubercles in
the lungs of the calves so marked, that two years ago
the practice was altogether abandoned, and now his
breeding stock and cows are kept principally in yards
with sheds attached, their food being taken to them.
This practice has been found to answer so well, that in
future it will be wholly followed. Mr. Guy, of Dilston,
a well known agriculturist, calls stall-feeding the un-
natural practice of tying-up cattle to stakes, denying
them the natural use of their limbs, the choice of their
position in lying down, and the means of varying the
atmosphere in which they are confined — a matter in
which cattle are peculiarly discriminating and sensitive.
As to food, I believe there is little to choose between
box and stall-feeding : they both admit of its most
economical use ; and upon this point the only difference
between them and feeding in yards with sheds attached
is on the point of the warmth afforded by them, and the
consequently smaller quantity of food required by
animals fed in them. This is of importance, but I
believe it to be of less than that of health. More upon
this point presently. As to the manure made in stalls,
I don't think there is much to recommend them. The
ordinary practice is to clean out the stall twice-a-day,
forming opposite the stalls a heap of manure which is
generally exposed to the action of the rain, and being
thrown loosely into a heap is in the very best state to

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487

encourage rapid decomposition; and I know from ex-
perience that tliere is an enormous loss during wet
weather ; and even if the precaution of a tank to receive
the drainings is adopted, still I believe it entails unne-
cessary expenditure of labour. The system is sometimes
modified by allowing the manure to remain under the
animals for several weeks ; and I find the manure so
made with care to be very good, and not to be injurious
to the health of the fatting cattle. The box-system next
calls for attention. The same remarks apply to it as to
stalls as to the health of the animals and the economy of
food. It has the advantage over stalls of giving the
animals greater freedom of action, and is no doubt good
as to economizing the food. As a manufactory for
manure, I believe there is no system to be compared to
it. And here it will be well to make some remarks upon
the subject of the manure made by farmers. We talk
in our discussion upon the growth of roots, corn, &c.,
of applying so many tons or loads to the acre — little
taking into account the difference of its value per load.
I will call your attention to some experiments made by
Lord Kinnaird, and reported in the '* Royal Agricultural
Society's Journal" for 1853. The comparison was in-
stituted between manure made by bullocks fatting in a
covered yard and that made by another lot stall-fed
which was thrown on into an open yard occupied by
well-fed young animals. He considered that the manure,
from the circumstances under which it was made, should
have been about equal. The experiment was tried on a
field of twenty acres of very equal quality of rich loam,
&c., divided into two equal portions, twenty loads of
manure per acre were applied, and the field planted with
the same kind of potatoes. Two acres on each half
were measured, and the crop weighed. The result was :

UNCOVERED DUNG.

Tons. Cwt. Lbs.
First acre produced . . 7 6 8 of potatoes.
Secoud „ .. 7 18 99 „

COVERED DUNG.

First acre produced. . 11 17 56 „

Second „ ..11 12 26

The field was afterwards sown with wheat, and the

result was

WHEAT ON UNCOVERED DUNG.

Producing in Grain Weight Produce of
Bush. Lbs. per Bushel. Straw.

Oneacre 41 19 .... 61^ ..Lbs.3,344

Two acres .... 42 38 .... 61^ .... 3,520

WHEAT ON COVERED DUNG.

One acre 55 5 .... 61 4,840

Two acres .... 53 47 .... 61 .... 4,620

These figures speak for themselves, and leave a broad
margin for errors of observation, &c., &c. Taking the
potatoes at .£3 a ton, and the wheat at 5s. per bushel,
the straw at £1 a ton, the loss on the ten acres in the
two years, from the injury done to the manure by ex-
posure, amounted to the sum of £157, or nearly £16
an acre. The question may fairly be asked, can this be
true } Let us refer to Dr. Voelcker's valuable papers
in the late Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society :
we shall see among the conclusions he comes to, after a
careful investiaration into the condition and value of

farm-yard manure under different circumstances, that
the soluble constituents of dung are much more valuable
fertilizers than the insoluble ; that farm -yard dung,
even in quite a fresh state, contains phosphate of lime,
which is much more soluble than was suspected ; that
the drainings from dung-heaps are very valuable ; that
well-rotted dung contains a much larger proportion of
soluble matter, and is richer in nitrogen than fresh—
and so weight for weight is more valuable than fresh —
it is, however, much more liable to loss from exposure
to rain, whilst, practically speaking, all t'ue essentially
valuable manure constituents are preserved by keeping
farm-yard manure under cover. He says, however,
that when there is a superabundance of straw, it maybe
advisable to expose it. The worst method of making
manure, is to produce it by animals kept in open yards,
since a large proportion of valuable fertilizing matter
is wasted in a short time, and after a lapse of twelve
months at least two-thirds of the substance of the
manure is wasted, and only one-third inferior in quality
CO an equal weight of fresh dung is left behind. Pro-
fessor Johnston also found that well-rotted dung had lost
more than half of its weight, and he remarks that " a
part of this loss may no doubt be ascribed to the
evaporation of a portion of the water of the recent dung,
but the larger part is due to an actual escape of the
substance of the manure itself." This all goes to show
the very great importance of properly manufacturing
manure, and, when it is manufactured, of properly pre-
serving it. On this point the best system seems to be
that recommended by Mr. C. Lawrence, viz. : forming
the heap of manure very much like our mangel heaps,
and covering, or rather plastering it over with a coating of
road-drift or mould. The earth covering prevents the es-
cape of ammonia, and from the form of the heap the water
isthrownoff. Returningthentobox.feeding,itssuperiorily
as a system for the manufacture of manure must be ad-
mitted as economising food ; also it is excellent ; but I
think it is very questionable as to its superiority for
wintering store stock. Now, my own impression is that
sheds with yards attached are best suited for maintaining
the stock in health, that there is not necessarily any great
difference in the economy of the food ; and that, if pro-
perly managed, the manure made in them may ap-
proximate very nearly to that made in boxes, whilst
they have decided advantages in this respect over stalls
as generally managed. The following are the opinions
of persons in different parts of the country : A friend of
Mr. Burnett's, in Kincardineshire, says, " A few years ago,
nothing was thought so suitable for accommodation of
stock as covered yards ; now people are more anxious to
have small sheds and yards for all store and fatting cattle."
Another, in Forfarshire, says, " I much prefer keeping
all my store and fatting cattle in small yards and sheds,
say from three to six in a yard, finding them do better
than when tied up or in loose boxes." A friend of mine,
now farming in Wales, who comes from Kincardine-
shire, also says, " Store cattle should also be in yards,
to go into when they like ; avoid draughts, and do not
keep too many together." An excellent farmer in
the county of Durham, a breeder of prize shorthorn

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stock, says he prefers box feeding to any other method ;
and better still with a small yard for exercise. He says
such are the best for feeding prize animals, but he re-
commends only two beasts being together when not tied
up. Stevens, in his " Book of the Farm," says : " Mr.
Boswell's testimony in favour of hammels (that is, small
sheds and yards) is most conclusive, and it is this :
' From the result of my own experiments, as well as the
unanimous opinion of every agriculturist with whom I
have conversed on the subject, I feel convinced that
there is no point more clearly established than that
cattle improve quicker, or, in other words, thrive better
in open hammels than in close byres.' " Mr. Steven-
son, in his essay on the farming of East Lothian, in the
"Royal Agricultural Society's Journal," says: "The
cattle, while being fattened, are usually kept in open
courts ; when these are comfortable, and the cattle of a
quiet disposition, they are found to make nearly as great
progress as those fed in stalls or boxes. During fine
weather the rate of progress is found to be equal." And,
in another place, he says : " Mr. Brodie, by experiment,
satisfied hioQself that feeding in open courts is preferable
to boxes." The opinions above are those ofNorth-
countryme'n and Scotchmen. I have already mentioned
Mr. Huxtable, of Hampshire, having recourse to sheds
and yards, after proving the injurious effects of constant
confinement upon the constitution of his stock. Mr. Ell-
man, of Sussex, recommends sheds and yards for young
stock, as nothing contributes more to their health and
strength than giving them their liberty and suffering
them to I'ange while young. I think these opinions are
suf5ficient to prove that as regards the health, &c., of
the stock, and the economy of food, sheds and yards
are preferable to boxes. Then, as regards the ma-
nure made in them. In " Morton's Cyclopoadia,"
I find them thus objected to : " Jn the sys-
tem of shed and yard feeding, there is the ob-
jection that the more valuable parts of the manure
are exhausted into the atmosphere, or washed away by
every shower." Now, to this I contend that it is not
at all necessarily the case that either of these results
should follow. All that is required is to litter the sheds,
which may even be slightly sunk, as in the box system ;
and keep your yards clean, which when but slightly lit-
tered I know is not very difficult. I do not see any ob-
jection to putting the scrapings from the yards under
the sheds, and covering it with straw, so as to maintain
a nice comfortable layer for the cattle. And I know
that the manure thus made under the shed will be very
similar to box-made manure. Stevens, in his '• Book of
the Farm," who advocates sheds and yards in preference
to boxes, says : " The manure would be equally as well
compressed and good in sheds as in boxes. I observe
sometimes the directly contrary management to that I
am advocating, viz., the practice of cleaning out the
sheds frequently, and exposing the manure to the action
of the rain, &c. I am sure this is wrong. But I shall
be met with an objection to this, by those farmers who
have more straw than they know what to do with;
whose great trouble, in fact, is to get their straw rotted.
I have previously combated this argument, and pointed

out the necessity for the more extensive use of straw as
food for our stock ; but I shall again be met with the
objection that the straw grown in our southern climate
is by no means so good as that in the North of Eng-
land and Scotland ; but if Mr. Bond is able to feed and
do his sheep well on straw, surely we may expect it will
prove good food for cattle also. Let me now draw your
attention to some remarks of Marshall's, who, in
writing on the fai-raing of Gloucestershire in 1789, thus
highly speaks of the sheds, and yards peculiar to it :
" What characterizes the bullock sheds of this district,
and distinguishes them from those of every other I have
observed, is the circumstance of each bullock having a
house and yard to himself, in which he goes loose, occu-
pying them by turns, as appetite or amusement directs
him ; having a manger and a drinking trough to go to
at pleasure. He, of course, eats when he is hungry and
drinks when he is thirsty. He is also at liberty to rub
or to lick himself, as well as to keep his body in a
degree of temperature as to heat or cold. Theory could
not readily suggest more rational principles." Marshall
goes on to describe the dimensions, &c., of the sheds,
and then adds : " The partitions of the pens are gates,
reaching from the pillars to the boundary wall, and like-
wise from pillar to pillar ; when they are fixed in that
position each bullock has his stall and his little yard.
When in this, each is shut up in his stall ; the yards
forming a lane, or driftway, for taking in or turning
out any individual." A modification of this old Glou-
cestershire system may be seen at Colonel Kingscote's
home farm. The alteration is, I think, very important :
the manger and drinking trough at Kingscote are in the
yard, protected by a small roof, leaving the shed
simply as the bed for the animal and a manure fac>
tory. In conclusion I beg to suggest the following
propositions for your discussion : 1st, That for the
benefit of the land, the health of the stock, the
economy of food, and preservation of the manure,
it is desirable that all the stock of a farm
should be housed during winter. 2. That on small
farms such accommodation as is required should be
provided at the homestead or on large farms at a few
well-selected spots, so as to economize labour and ensure
efficient supervision. 3. That although yards are de-
sirable for admitting the animals to the enjoyment of
the fresh air and sunshine, and even occasionally of a
good shower of rain, as well as for exercise, yet that, as
a rule, they should not be made the receptacles for, or
the place of, manufacture of the manure, in consequence
of its exposure in them to the deteriorating effects of
rain, &c, 4. That, when it is necessary to remove
manure to the fields, it should be either applied imme-
diately to the land, or be so stacked as to expose the
least surface to the action of the rain ; and should be
further protected by a covering of road-drift or earth,
sloping like the roof of a house, so as to throw off the
rain, the earthy covering interrupting the ammoniacal
and other gases arising from the decomposition of the
manure. 5. That the old Gloucestershire system of
small yards and sheds, with the covered feeding-trough
in the yard, holding one full-grown animal, or the

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489

Scotch system of a yard and shed adjoining, accommo-
dating two to six full-grown animals, is preferable, as
respects the health of the stock, to either stalls or
boxes ; that they are on an equality with them as
respects economy of food in fine weather, and, is
free from draughts, in moist weather ; that they are
preferable to stalls, and very little if at all in-
ferior to boxes, if properly managed^ as a means of
making and preserving manure. 6. That although stalls
may be erected at the cheapest rate per head, the differ-
ence is not greatly in their favour. 7. That boxes are
more expensive in the first construction than sheds with
open yard, 8. That sheds on the Gloucestershire plan,
to accommodate one animal in each compartment,
should be ten feet wide by nine feet, with a yard of
double the size. 9. That sheds on the Scotch system,
to hold six animals, should be ten feet wide and thirty-
six feet long, with a yard thirty-six feet by thirty-six
feet. 10. That in this neighbourhood the sheds should
be placed facing the south or south-east, avoiding a
south-westerly aspect, in consequence of the prevailing
winds and heavy rains coming from that quarter, and
that great care should be taken to prevent draughts.

11. That no farm is properly furnished for the occupa-
tion of a tenant without suflScient winter accommoda-
tion for the stock the farm will carry being provided.

12. And that, as the cutting of the straw &c. into
chaff is of very important assistance in econo-
mizing the food of the farm, it is higiily de-
sirable that advantage should be taken of the streams
of water which abound in the neighbouring valleys
as a simple, even, ready, and most steady motive-
power. I shall conclude with the following opinion
of Sir John Sinclair in his " British Husbandry," in 1014.
After examining the system of feeding in open yards, feed-
ing-honse, and haramels, he says : " On the whole, the

third plan, that of hammsls, though the most expeneive, is
certainly to be preferred. The advantages of it are
described by Mr. Kobertson in the following terms : ' I
have found these hammels or cattle sheds much better than
any large or open court and yard. Cattle kept in great
numbers waste more straw ; they fight, and hurt one another
with their horns. All this is prevented when they are kept
in separate divisions ; and, above all, in these hammels we
can give them what meat we choose, aud in what proportion
we think proper, and can separate those of different ages
which ought not to be associated together.' He goes on
to observe that they are equally suited for horses, and are
much more healthy for them, in which I quite agree."

The discussion turned principally upon the comparative
advantages to be obtained from the cleaiing oi;t of the yards
every day, or letting the dung remain for a time. This
arose in a great measure from the meeting being composed of
hill and vale farmers ; the former contending for letting
the dung remain in the yards, that they might convert
their wheat-straw into manure, the latter contending for
clearing out the yards every day to save straw. After
much interesting exchange of opinions, the following resolu-
tion was agreed to :

Resolved — That for the betiflit of the laud, the health of the
animals, the eeonoraisiug of food, and preservation of manure,
it is desirable that the stock of a farm should be housed during
winter. That the old Gloucestershire system, as mentioned
by Marshall ia 1789, of small yards and sheds, eich holding
one full-grown animal or two small ones, with the feeding-
trough (covered) placed iu the yard instead of the shed, or the
Scotch hammel system of a yard and shed adjoining, accom-
modating from two to six full-grown oxen, is preferable as
respects the health of the stock to either stalls or boxes ; that
they are on an equality with them as regards the economy of
food in fice weather, and, if free from draughts, iu mcist weather;
that they are preferable to stalls, and very little if at all in-
ferior to boxes, if properly managed, as a means of making
and pre:erviug manure. That no farm ia properly furnished
for the occupation of a tenant without sufficient winter accom-
modation for the stock the farm will carry being provided."

TREES FOR THE METROPOLIS.

"VYe keep account of the buildings that are run up in
the metropolis. Our statistics on most points con-
nected with its population, trade, shipping, and ve-
hicles are pretty accurate ; but who can tell us how
many trees have been planted in London and its en-
virons last year — or for any number of years past?
And yet the planting of trees is a matter of no slight
importance in and about a great city, both for orna-
mental and economic purposes. How little is done to
relieve the dark grim ugliness of London in this re-
spect ! Long monotonous lines of streets and squares,
great hotels and termini, public buildings of various
kinds, docks, and railway stations, spring up in rapid
succession ; but no one cares to plant a tree to afford
its shade-relief and pleasant foliage for the eye forced
to wander over continuous masses of white stucco.

The annual report to the Metropolitan Board of
Works just issued by Mr. Marrable, their superintend-
ing architect, tells us that the number of new buildings

erected within the metropolis during the last three
years cannot be less than 20,000, exclusive of additions.
Now, if but the same number of useful and ornamental
trees had been planted in that period, what a benefit
would have been conferred on present and future gene-
rations !

A year or two ago our contemporary, the Building
News, suggested and supported, in a series of articles,
the advantage of a more general introduction of shade-
trees for the metropolis. These suggestions met with
very general approbation in all quarters, but as yet
have been very little acted upon by private individuals
or public bodies. It cannot be because trees are un-
sightly. The Boulevards of Paris, and the like-planted
avenue -streets of the continent, are undeniably pic-
turesque and attractive ; nor are the avenue high roads
without charms. Indeed, the avenue is a recognized
artistic resource by which many of our country man-
sions and parks profit. "Who has not wandered with

490

THE FARMER'S; MAGAZINE.

pleasure under avenues of elms and oaks, the cluster-
ing chestnut flowers, and the sweet-scented limes ?
We are not recommending, however, what are the best
trees for cities, we are merely enforcing the opinion
of the desirability of increasing our sylvan representa-
tives in the urban and suburban districts.

" Dlnna forget to plant young trees wherever you
can set them," was the last advice of a shrewd Scotch
landholder to his heir, " for they'll grow while ye're
sleeping." Any rich up-start can build a fine house in
a very limited time, but he cannot build the old oaks.
Every year that we neglect to adorn our pent-up
squares, broad thoroughfares, and suburban drives
with trees, we are wasting the time that the vigorous
shoots might be rooting more and more firmly in the
ground. It is not desu-able to have trees too thick, so
as lo keep the sun entirely from dwellings; but houses,
streets, and walks may be partially shaded with very
great advantage.

It is related of the great Oberlin, that he made every
child in his schools plant and rear at least two trees ;
and thus in a short time the Ban de la Rocho, a district
naturally bare and rocky, was insensibly covered with
luxuriant plantation. In Bale, there is also an excel-
lent custom. Six trees are planted on the occasion of
every marriage, and two at the birth of every child.
An abundant supply of trees is thus systematically ob-
tained. Here, on the contrary, individuals are more
prone to fell, root up, and destroy trees than to plant
them. Something on a small scale is doing in tree-
planting in the new parks ; but shrubs rather than
trees seem to have the preference. We are glad to
hear that the Crystal Palace Company are about to
form an arboretum in their grounds at Sydenham, for
this will be an additional attraction, and public benefit.

It has been suggested that each district board in the
metropolis should have a landscape gardener attached
to it, who might be paid a small yearly fee for sug-
gesting and directing the planting of trees. The va-
cated churchyard sites in the city, old Smithfield, and
other localities might be adorned by a few trees and
shrubs, which could be kept in order for a few pounds
a year. There are several deserted squares and groves,
now devoted to dead cats and dogs and rubbish, which
might also be reclaimed by the surveyors of the Board
of Works, and a few trees planted.

When we cross the channel, and observe how sys-
tematic is the planting of trees in the principal towns and
cities of the Continent, and how much they add to the
beauty and leafy shade, we might take a useful lesson
for some parts, at least, of London and its suburbs.
What can be more stately and attractive than Berlin
and Potsdam for their Linden, Strasse and Untcr-
linden, and Paris for its Boulevards and Champs
Elysees ?

Paris, which is much better supplied with trees than
our own metropolis, sufiered however in the destruc-
tion of those of the Boulevards some ten years ago, to
serve as barricades, or to make room for trees of
liberty — trees which, however, never prospered. A
classified system of planting has recently been adopted

by the civic administration, and each of the Boulevards
are to be characterised by the shade and ornametit of a
special class of tree : whether this uniformity will not
have a monotonous efiect remains to be seen. Thus
the Boulevard de la Madelaine and des Capucine are
to be planted with planes ; the Boulevard des Italiens
with Japan sumacs, the Boulevard Montmartre with
elms, the BouleVardes Poissonniere and Bonne Nouvellc
with chestnuts, the Rue Royale with South American
sycamore or maple, and the space in front of the
Gymnasie with catalpas. This autumn the plantations
will, it is said, be continued up to the Bastille.

There is ample scope for the introduction of trees,
with great benefit and picturesque eflfect, in many
localities of the metropolis : such, for instance, as the
new roads formed near the Kensington Museum ;
the approaches to the new Chelsea bridge; the
Grosvenor Road, on the Thames embankment, from
the Pimlico Pier to Chelsea Hospital; Portland
Place ; the proposed road from Limehouse and Bow
to Victoria Park ; Victoria Street and Vincent Square,
Westminster; Camberwell Green, and such like open
spaces.

There is no necessity for sticking trees round the
Royal Exchange, St. Paul's, Trafalgar Square, or
other similar circumscribed spaces; but there is no rea-
son why they should not adorn the river banks, or some
of the railway lines and termini, the banks of canals,
the centres of squares, and open roads and streets.

Not only do trees attract and condense the moisture
suspended in the air and borne by the winds over the
earth's surface, which, ftdling from their leaves, keeps
the ground below moist and cool ; but they can, by
means of their roots, pump it up from a very consi-
derable depth, and, raising it in the atmosphere, dif-
fuse it over the face of the country. Trees by the
transpiration of their leaves, surround themselves with
an atmosphere constantly cool and moist. They also
shelter the soil from the direct action of the sun, and
thus prevent evaporation of the water furnished by
rains.

But, apart from the ajrating functions of such a
large body of trees, the possession of some 20,000
timber trees would in the next generation be no insig-
nificant asset of the then Board of Works. There is
scarcely a municipality in Europe which has not
valuable property of this kind in its streets, place
d'armes, ramparts, and esplanades.

The Metropolitan Board has now the ownership of
many thousand acres of thoroughfares, and this area
will be increased by new parks, the embankments,
and by lapsed squares and commons, constituting a
large domain, and the available portion of it bearing,
or capable of bearing, many thousand trees.

Judicious planting would go far to redeem the in-
significance of many long lines of mean buildings,
which now detract from the appearance of noble tho-
roughfares ; and we trust that amid the other public
improvements carrying out, or projected, the more
general planting of trees will not be overlooked.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

491

THE SEWAGE QUESTION: THE RELATION OF TOWN AND COUNTRY.

In a previous number we gave under the above title
a glance at ihe " sanitary" and " commercial" features
of the question, the former having relation to the town,
the latter to the country. And it is only in viewing the
matter in this two-fold aspect, that any sound conclusion
can be arrived at, in connection with the important ques-
tions, "How shall we get rid of the nuisances of the
towns?" and "how best convert them into valuable
benefit in the country ?" And the more fully these two
questions are investigated, the more fully proved, we
take it, will be the position which we have always ad-
vocated— that the primary duty of the towns is to get
rid of the nuisances, alike dangerous and degrading,
arising from the presence of materials which in the
country have some value as fertilizing agents ; and that
their secondary or subsidiary duty is to obtain for them
the amount of this value, not looking upon it as a source
of repayment for all expenses incurred in getting rid of
the nuisance, but gladly accepting it as just so much
fortunately contributed to the carrying out of a sanitary
measure, which their duty imperatively demands that
they shall carry out at any cost, and irrespective of any
other consideration. This view of the matter being con-
ceded then, as conveying the principle by which much
of the difficulties of the question may be solved, it will
be interesting to trace, as briefly as is consistent with
the importance of the subject, those plans which, whilst
they fulfil the requirements of the sanitary, fulfil also
in a degree more or less modified those of the agricul-
tural or commercial department of the subject.

In considering the various plans by which the refuse
of towns can best be applied as fertilizers in the country,
it has been usual to divide these into two great classes,
first, the "liquid," and second, the "solid" methods.
What are the distinctive features of each of these sys-
tems, and hoiv they are proposed to be carried practically
out, we have already briefly explained in the articles
alluded to at the commencement of the present
paper. We pass on, therefore, to the explanation of a
method of operation, which, as it embraces some of the
peculiarities of both of the above systems, may be
termed the " composite," and which is advocated by
Mr. Austin, in his recent report to the Board of Health,
" On the means of Deodorizing and Utilizing the Sew-
age of Towns." This " composite" plan may be briefly
described as a method of getting rid in the first place
of the solid and more ofiensive portions of the sewage,
using the material so obtained as a solid manure ; and
in the second place, using the liquid portions so purified
in the irrigation of land, in large and systematically ap-
plied quantities. Leaving for after- consideration the
agricultural, let us attend to the operative features of
the plan.

And first, as to the method of getting rid of the more
offensive portions of the sewage, and preparing them as

a solid manure. Of the plans fitted to secure this
Mr. Austin draws attention to the works at Cheltenham,
as "the most extensive, and at the same time most
successful." Of these we now off"er abrief description.
At the principal out-fall, a large building is erected, the
lower part of which is divided longitudinally into two
large reservoirs or tanks, used alternately. Each
tank is divided by transverse partitions into three tanks,
of which the upper and second are " filtering," the
lowest is " lining" or purifying. In the first and second
tanks large angular filters are placed, five feet deep and
two feet wide, and the sides of which consist of layers
of coarse gravel confined within two inch perforated
boards. The sewage as it passes from the tank to the
interior of these filters, leaves in the filtering material
much of its solid impurities. The heavier matters of
the sewage deposit themselves at the bottom of the tank,
whilst a thick scum or floating mass gradually accumu-
lates on the surface, till it reaches to a thickness of
eighteen inches.

From the interior of the angular filters the liquid is
led to the third, or liming taak. In this, a wire or
division causes it to flow through a channel at each end,
and, in its passage through, to meet a stream of cream of
lime, which is let fall from the floor above, and by
means of which a further precipitation of the solid matter
in suspension is secured. The liquid sewage, thus com-
paratively purified, passes through a filtering mass of
gravel, finer than the previous filters, and finally through
a still finer mass in the outlet.

As one set of tanks is found to contain a certain
amount of solid matter, the sewage is turned ofi'to the
other. The filters are then cleaned, the filtering media
being removed and washed. Above the series of tanks
thus described, a boarded floor is placed ; in this a series
of " traps" are placed, through which the slush in the
tanks below can be hoisted up to the floor of the second
storey. The " slush" is then wheeled out and " tipped"
over amongst a heap of scavengers' refuse, ashes, street
sweepings &c., and the whole well mixed. This heap of
refuse is made into a sort of " embanked reservoir," the
semi-liquid slush being turned into it. After absorp-
tion and thorough mixing, the solid material is fi t for
use. The ashes, &c., absorb about two-thirds of their
bulk of sewage — a cubic yard of manure being formed
of two- thirds of a cubic yard of sewage slush and one-
third of a cubic yard of ashes, &c. "The cost of the
operation at the outfall is found to be 2s. 2d. per cubic
yard of manure," 8d. being the cost of the ashes per
cubic yard. The demand for it at the price of 2^. 6d.
per yard exceeded two or three times the supply ; so
that, as Mr. Austin states, they intended to raise the
price : 3s. 6d. per yard, it appears, would pay tlu cost
of production, and the interest for the outlay for the
buildings. The resulting liquid is said to be free from

492

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

all unpleasant odour, the same being found of the solid
manure. Mr. Austin, however, thinks tliat modifica-
tions can easily be introduced, " so as to completely
obviate the slightest inconvenience even in the hottest
weather." What these improvements are we now pro-
pose to notice.

The sewage is, in the first instance, supplied to a large
and rather deep tank, in which is deposited the chief
proportion of the solid matters held in suspension. Be-
tween this and Ihe next tank, which is much shallower
than the first, a simple division (formed of basket-work
and perforated boards in the centre) is placed ; the liquid,
by this arrangement, can only pass through from the
first to the second tank at a certain depth beneath the
surface, the whole of the division not being perforated,
but only a portion near its centre. At the end of the
second or shallower tank, filtering materials of different
kinds are to be arranged, the sewage passing through
these lateMly. These filtering media should be, first,
coarse screened gravel, burcb, or broken stones ; second,
gravel of medium coarseness ; and third, some finer
material. " And there would be much advantage in
having this filter shallow and broad, rather than deep
and narrow ; the surface-water would only pass away,
and thus allow of further deposition from the main body
before filtration. It would be subject to greater friction
and disengagement of the solid matter and foul gases ;
and the filtering medium itself would be less readily
clogged, and would be more accessible for cleansing
without removal, as it could be turned over in its place,
and subjected to a complete washing from a water-tank
above as often as desired. A very small area of filter
so placed would be found sufficient for all practical
purposes."

After passing from the filtering media, the liquid sew-
age is subjected, in a separate chamber, to a stream of
cream of lime from a height above. After the addition
of the lime, it passes to a chamber much larger than that
used at the Clieltenham Works, so as to allow of ample
time for further precipitationbefore itis allowed to pass to
Iheoutfall. The admixture being made as the sewage flows
into the reservoir on each side, a fender intercepts it, so
as to prevent it disturbing the main body of the liquid.
The discharge to the outfall is made over a weir, allow-
ing only a thin film of water from which the lime has
been precipitated to pass to the outfall.

There are two sets of tanks, &c., as thus described,
one to be filled while the slush is being removed from
the other. This removal is proposed to be effected by
Mr. Austin in a much more simple way than is done at
the Cheltenham Works. A double gangway, or railway
of timber, is constructed above each line of tanks from
end to end. On this a truck runs, carrying a windlass,
by which the slush can be hoisted up in bucktts ; chis
being emptied into a receptacle also carried by the truck,
and from which it is led by a shoot to be mixed with
the heap of ashes laid alongside of the tanks. By this
arrangement all flooring and roofing are avoided, a
small covered shed only being required for the liming
process to be carried on under, and for the protection of
the tools.

Having now shown how the sanitary requirements of
the question may be met in a measure almost completely,
if not fully so, satisfactory, we have to explain how best
m::iy be met its agricultural necessities. This we pro-
pose to do in another paper. R. S. B.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.

Whatever maybe the shortcomings of Americans, no
one will be likely to charge them with a want of general
intelligence. A reference to the statistics of newspaper
circulation, book publishing, and common schools,
would relieve them from such an unworthy imputation.
And yet it may fairly be asked ivhy, with this general
diflfusion of intelligence, is it that there is so little of an
approach to a scientific course of husbandry ? Why
are there so few schools and colleges of agriculture in
existence ? Why do American farmers crop their land
with so little judgment, that the average yield of wheat
and other cereals in the older States has very rapidly
decreased, whilst, during the same time, England has
doubled her production ? To these interesting queries
we can give a ready reply. Until a nation has, by the
necessities of its growth, acquired a realization of the
fact that its farms cannot be maintained in fertility with-
out a return of plant-food equal to the depletion caused
by the removal of crops, we cannot expect to see much
attention paid to scientific agriculture. This conviction
will come sooner or later, as there is a more or less ex-

tensive territory in a condition to be appropriated by
those who find their hnd becoming sterile, and lack the
capital to renovate it.

It is useless to urge upon an American farmer the
expenditure of sums for drainage, and special manur-
ing, much larger than it would cost him. to purchase a
new farm and make all his improvements upon it ; and
hence is it that with a boundless area of land stretching
westward, the farmer, driven from his homestead by his
own mismanagement, and that of his predecessors,
settles upon an unbroken fertile farm, and gives no heed
to the man of science. So long as we have a sparse
population, and a large area of arable land that can be
had in fee for the nominal price of five shillings per
acre, we may expect a comparatively tardy development
of agricultural science. Meanwhile we have agricultural
papers with lists of fifty thousand subscribers, and agri-
cultural books are purchased in great numbers, and
State legislatures establish Boards of Agriculture, and
societies are formed in every township, and farm imple-
ments of wonderful capabilities are invented by hun-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

493

dreds each year, and all things presage a coming good
time, when we shall turn some of our national energy
into the development of the science of farming.

Has it occurred to you that the invention of improved
agricultural implements might, under some circum-
stances, be a positive national evil, instead of a blessing ?
We are really suffering from that cause at present,
although our farmers do not seem to realize it, and our
journals sing the praises of each new and more efficient
tool. If Liebig is right, every bushel of corn exported
from the farm impoverishes the soil. Now, if we use
tools that increase our crops, and which enable us to
remove them more readily, and we do not manure pro-
perly, or use a suitable rotation, we shall soon get the
over-taxed farm to the verge of sterility. As the Ame-
rican farmer does not generally manage so as to main-
tain the fertility of his land, and does use the improved
implements, he is actually taking to himself assistants
to hasten on the day of his want.

When the peculiarities of our condition are fully
understood, you will wonder, not at the little we have
done, but that we have done so much, Ws have four
agricultural colleges established, two of which are in
actual operation, and, besides several others projected,
there are professorships of agriculture in different
universities.

The first effort to found a college of a distinctly agri-
cultural character was made in 1838, by the late Judge
Buel, of New York State, who proposed that the Legis-
lature should make a fitting pecuniary endowment, and,
although this was refused, he continued his philanthropic
efforts until his death.

The project was again agitated by Dr. Beekman, a
former president of the New York Btate Agricultural
Society, by the Hon. Jno. Delafield, and others, until
finally in 1S56, through the exertions of Col. B. P.
Johnson, Secretary of the N. Y. State Society (and
known to many of your readers as Commissioner st the
World's Fair, in 1851), and his associates, the State
Legislature granted the sum of 40,000 dollars as a loan,
without interest, provided the like sum should be raised
by individual subscription. This requirement was
speedily met ; a tract of 680 acres, lying on the shores
of Seneca Lake, has been purchased, and an imposing
edifice in stone is now in process of erection.

The young State of Michigan, with great enterprise
and foresiglit, has come forward, appropriated a liberal
sum, and actually erected and put into successful opera-
tion a College of Agriculture, while the older States
were debating the pros and cons in the matter of their
own need for such institutions. The first act was framed
in the State Legislature in 1850. In 1855 a bill was
passed for the purchase of land, and in 1857, by an
amended act, the sum of 55,000 dollars was granted to
defray preliminary expenses, and 40,000 dollars for
current expenses for the ensuing two years. A tract of
676 acres was purchased in the vicinity of Lansing, the
State Capital, the college buildings were erected, and in
May, 1857, in the presence of the Governor and other
State dignitaries, they were formally dedicated. The

corps of professors had previously been organized, and
the first class opened with sixty-one scholars.

In 1855, the President and officers of the Pennsylvania
State Agricultural Society decided to appropriate the
accumulated moneys in their treasury to the establish-
ment of an agricultural college and experimental farm.
An act of incorporation was procured from the State
Legislature ; and donations received from various citi-
zens in money, and from General James Irvin in land,
placed the project in a prosperous condition. A recent
legislative appropriation of 50,000 has been procured,
one half of which sum is contingent upon the subscrip-
tion of an equal portion by private individuals. The
trustees have erected some of the necessary buildings,
the school edifice being designed to accommodate three
hundred pupils, and active operations on the farm have
been carried on for two years past.

The State of Maryland passed, a little more than two
years since, an act appropriating the sum of 6,000
dollars as a perpetual annual contribution towards the
maintenance of an agricultural college, but conditionally
upon the subscription of the sum of 50,000 dollars by
individuals. A farm of some 450 acres has been pur-
chased near Bladensburg, in Prince George's county,
and preparations for the erection of the necessary build-
ings are in active progress.

The soil of the farm is of such a diversified character
as will afford ample opportunities for experiments with
various crops. For this, as well as for all the other
colleges, importations will be made of animals repre-
senting the different improved breeds of cattle, sheep,
and swine, and a museum of implements and products
of all nations will in due course of time be founded.

At Cleveland, Ohio, an agricultural college has been
in existence for a few years past, but it has met with
little support, and is in a languishing condition.

In 1855, the State of South Carolina made an appro-
priation of five thousand dollars, to be expended annu-
ally ia experiments with seeds, plants, and cuttings,
principally received from the agricultural branch of the
United States Patent Office.

An excellent institution has been founded at College
Hill, near Cincinnati, Ohio, in which a regular course
of general instruction is combined with a thorough
practical and theoretical education in agriculture. The
name " Farmers' College" has been adopted: it gains
its support from a fund of 100,000 dollars, created by
the sale of scholarships.

The State of Ohio is about duplicating the experiment
of an agricultural colony for the reformation of vagrant
boys, which has met with such success at Mettray, France,
and confident hopes are entertained of a good result.

For ten years past an annual course of thirty lectures
on agricultural science has been given in Yale College.
The plan was originated by the late Professor J. P.
Norton, for some time associated with your Professor,
J. F. W. Johnston, and has subsequently been main-
tained by Professors J. A. Porter and Samuel W. John-
son. Professor Norton, at one time, attempted to give
a special course of laboratory practice, but met with so
little support as to be led to discontinue it.

494

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

In Massachusetts there i3 a State Reform School for
vagrant boys, at which experiments in the cultivation of
crops, the breeding of animals, and other departments
of farm economy are made under the direction of the
State Board of Agriculture.

The General Government has been greatly importuned
to erect a Department of Agriculture, to be under the
control of a Secretary, who should hold equal rank
with the Cabinet officers. It is urged, that the agricul-
ture of the United States is so pre-eminently the great
national interest, that its advancement can only be pro-
moted by a department especially devoted to it. Accord-
ing to the census of 1850, the number of the free male
population engaged in agriculture was twenty-four
hundred thousand, or forty-four (44.69) per cent. ;
while the total number engaged in commerce, trade,
manufactures, mechanics, arts, and mining, was only
sixteen hundred thousand, or about thirty per cent.
(29.72). The capital invested in agriculture was five
billions of dollars, and that represented by all other
branches of industry less than one billion. Why, then,
say the advocates for an Agricultural Department,
should this mighty interest have no representative in
the Government, except a subordinate bureau of the
Patent' Office, under the management of a simple clerk
and assistants ? Our legislators, while recognizing the
cogency of these appeals, still will take no steps to-
wards the desired change, because they believe themselves
restrained by the terms of the constitution.

A great public sentiment has, however, been forming
for some years past, and we can scarcely fail to see the
change made, when its paramount necessity shall be
felt. At present annual appropriations arc made by
Congress for the collection of agricultural statistics, for
promoting agriculture and rural economy, and for the
procurement and distribution of seeds and cuttings, and
a certain amount of good is realized thereform by the
country at large. A report is annually issued by the
agricultural bureau, of which a quarter of a million of
copies are printed by Government for gratuitous distri-
bution by Members of Congress to their constituents.
The first appropriation by Government for the diff"usion
of agricultural matters was made in 1839, at the sug-
gestion of the Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, then Com-
missioner of Patents, and amounted to the paltry sum
of ,£200. The report for that year contained but fifty-
four pages, and besides agricultural information contained
other mechanical subjects.

The appropriations were steadily increased, and the
volume enlarged, until now sixty thousand dollars are
annually given, and the report has swelled to five hun-
dred and fifty-two pages. If the clerk at the head of
the bureau were more efficient, much better res-ults
would be attained ; but we are better off with the little
we have than we would be if nothing were done for the
agricultural interest.

The bill of the Hon. Justin Morrill, providing for a
grant of public lands to each State, for tlie maintenance
of an Agricultural College, the features of which were
given in my last communication, passed both Houses of
Congress, but was vetoed by the President. The bill

passed the House, by 104 yeas to 100 nays, and the
Senate concurred by 25 yeas to 23 nays, three-fourths
of the members in either body from the Free States
voting in its favour.

The President assigns as his reasons for his veto :

I. That the bill has been passed at a time of em-
barrassment, when we can with difficulty raise revenue
sufficient to meet the wants of Government, and that its
large grants of public land would effectually deprive the
Treasury of a large source of revenue.

II. That it is not provided in the Constitution that
the public lands may be given away without recompence,
for such purposes.

III. That it would have the effect of making the
several States stipendiaries upon the general Govern-
ment, and thus makes a precedent that would be pro-
ductive of disastrous consequences, in authorizing future
appropriations for unworthy objects.

IV. That it would operate to the prejudice of new
States, for their fertile lands would have been concen-
trated at low prices into the hands of speculators, and
emigrants would be compelled to pay these men enormous
profits, or chose some other locality.

V. That existing colleges would be injured, for the
gratuitous instruction afforded at these State institutions
would draw all young men to them, and the older
colleges would be ruined.

In my capacity as an impartial chronicler, it is not
fitting that I should enter into arguments to show the
sophistry embraced in someof these objections. They com-
mend themselves to each reflective political economist.

The Illinois State Agricultural Society, at an Execu-
tive meeting in February, passed the following resolution :

" Resolved, that the Executive Committee offer the
sum of three thousand dollars (^600) as a first pre-
mium, and two thousand dollars (if400) as a second
premium for steam-engines suitable for ploughing, and
other farm work. The simplicity and economy of their
construction, and the practicability of their application
to farm uses, shall be such that the machines can com-
pete with animal power."

Thus your mechanics will see that we continue to feel
a deep interest in the great question of steam-cultiva-
tion. Besides the plough of Mr. Fawke's, which was
fully described in a former letter, S. K. Basset, of
Galesburgh, Illinois, has invented a new steam-plough,
in which the wheels of the truck of a traction steam-
engine are so arranged that the truck may be readily
guided and turned, and the engine rendered available
for drawing a gang of ploughs to turn over the earth in
the usual way. The invention also consists in a peculiar
manner of attaching and applying the gang of ploughs
to the trucks ; also in the employment of track clearers,
arranged in a novel way, and in so attaching the boiler
to the truck that it is allowed to remain in a horizontal
position when the track rises and falls in correspondence
with the inequalities in the surface of the ground.

Our inventors, you see, as well as your own, are
groping in the dark, making efforts to use the present
unsuitable form of tlie plough-breast, by attaching to it
some traction power, either a stationary engine, or a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

495

peripatetic one, like Boydell's and those of our own in-
vention. It is a great pity that they could not realize
the force of Mr. Hoskyn's arguments, as given in his
"Talpa, or Chronicles of a Clay Farm,"

I could not avoid noticing at Chester last summer the
bulk and weight of your agricultural implements as
compared with those which are exhibited at an American
show. For instance, a potato-digger, which was said to
be one of your best, weighed some eight hundred pounds,
whilst our own will not much exceed eighty, and I
scarcely think much better work can be desired than is
ordinarily accomplished by the light tools we use. One
of the most effective is that called " Pitkin's digger."
From a central rib curved fingers spread at either side,
the spaces between them allowing the dirt to pass
through, while the potatoes are thrown out, and roll
together on the surface of the soil, midway between the
the rows. The centre rib and its lateral fingers are
made on a curve, like a two-way or double-breasted
plough, so that a furrow is turned, and the lower layers
of soil, those in which the tubers are imbedded, are
brought to the top, and the surface completely buried.

Your horse-hoe, the one employed for hoeing wheat
and other cereals, is not even known to the farmers of
America. We do not, in the first place, sow our grain
in rows so straight as to admit of the employment of a
horse-hoe ; and furthermore, our farmers would think
themselves unwarranted in an expenditure of labour, at
one dollar per day, for a week or two, in clearing a crop
of wheat. They are not yet good enough farmers to
see that their interest lies in doing just as you do, and
they never will see it until they feel the same pressure of
circumstances. The horse-hoe used here for cultivat-
ing between rows of Indian corn, potatoes, and other
crops having spaces of three feet between rows, is a
very simple and yet efficacious tool. Its component
parts are : alight wooden beam, a pair of handles, a
pair of very small ploughs, attached to side-wings from
the beam, a scimitar-shaped coulter on the former part
of the beam, just behind the wheel and clevis, and at
the rear end of the beam, and under the handles, a
V-shaped edge of steel, with three fingers on either side
of the standard, projecting backwards. The action of
the tool is thus : The coulter in front steadies the
motion of the tool, the little ploughs at either side throw
a furrow towards the centre, or if you choose to reverse
them, throwing a furrow at either side towards the row,
the V-shaped paring edge cuts surface weeds, and at the
same time spreads the ridge made by the side ploughs,
whilst the fingers projecting from the back of the cutting
edge comb out the loose weed in the disturbed soil, and
leave them on the surface of the ground to wither in the
sun. The tool costs but 32s., and will do as much hoeing
in a day as twenty men.

The inventor of this horse-hoe is Samuel A. Knox, a
Massachusetts mechanic. He has also, after a life-long
attention to the manufacture of ploughs, discovered and
patented a principle for the construction of breasts, the
application of which has been attended with a large
measure of success. Like all other plough-makers
here and in other countries, La observed that a certain

definite curve of breast would wear more evenly, and
accomplish the desired work with the least possible
expenditure of force, and that this curve or twist should
vary with the soil and the manner of laying the furrow-
slice. A series of observation laid the foundation for a
theory, and the theory he reduced to practice. It is
essentially as fellows : — Upon a good plough, while the
breast is susceptible of any variation of curve in the
direction of its height, still lines passing from any part
of its rear to certain fixed points will be found to be
straight. It is claimed by the inventor, and admitted
by users, that in the forward travel of the implement,
its propelling force results upon each particle of the
soil as a momentum, and not as a continued force ; for
when stricken, each particle is thrown off at a tangent
from the curved breast, which bears a strict relation to
its elevation ; but in no case is the particle rubbed con-
tinuously by successive portions of the breast, and there-
fore the furrow-slices are not compacted on their
abraded surface. The principle is supposed to do away
with the compaction of the furrow-slices in wet clays,
and by equalizing the wear of the plough-breast, and
exercising its greatest intensity at the flattened portions
near the point, to maintain the figure in place of a con-
tinued retrograding variation, the abrasion going on
equally over every part of the surface, and not being
concentrated in parts to such an extent as to wear holes.

In justice to the inventor and patentee, I cannot enter
more circumstantially into detail of the principle, but
thus much I give to show that our peculiar mode of
plough-building is not a mere crude experiment, but
actually founded upon geometrical principles.

This mode of construction of course admits of all the
variations necessary to produce longer or shorter breasts,
of gentle or more abrupt curvature, with straight, or
more or less convex or concave lines, laterally, as dif-
ferent soils or practical uses may require ; and hence is
as applicable to English ploughs as to American.

To such of your readers as are desirous of studying
the statistics of American agriculture, I would particu-
larly recommend a learned paper on this subject, read
before the American Geographical and Statistical Society,
by John Jay, Esq., of this city, which has been issued
in book-form by Messrs. Appleton and Co., of 16,
Little Britain, London, and may be had for a trifling
sum. Taking the ofiicial returns of our Census as the
basis for his arguments, the author, with signal ability,
sketches the causes which have produced the rapid
growth of the American Republic, and points out its
future destiny as a food-producer for the continents
which lie on either side of it. He gives suggestions for
the preparation of the tables of the Census of 1860,
which, it' adopted by our Government, would tend to
make our statistics almost as complete and instructive
as those obtained by England, France, Belgium, and
Austria. He justly remarks that "in the absence of
ofiicial returns, the most accurate statements and ap-
proximation are to be found in the Mark Lane Express,
and the London Farmer's Magazine ; and are thence
transferred to the columns of American newspapers, i'or
the inforaiation of American farmers. Thus dees in-

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496

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

dividual enterprize seek and partially obtain those results
which Governments alone can accurately furnish."

From accounts which are reaching us from different
sections of country, we may infer that the crops promise
well for a full harvest. Spring has come upon us un-
usually early, and winter grain, which had been severely
injured by the unusual absence of snow, is feeling the
effects of warm rains and sunshine. In central New
York it is thought that it will get such a start as to be
beyond the reach of the fly ; but if we should have a
sudden change, and, as has sometimes been the case, a
" cold term" set in for a week or so of this month,
great damage will be done to vegetation, which is every-
where in a forward state. In Maryland the reports are
flattering, with the exception of grain on low lands,
which has been considerably thrown out. The accounts
from Virginia are conflicting ; but, in the main, favoura-
ble. Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Kansas all give cheer-
ing indications of a bountiful yield. In Illinois tlie
prospects are that an average crop will be obtained, the
warm weather having worked a great change for the
better — especially in the central and southern portions
of the State. In January and February the accounts were
peculiarly discouraging, a great part of winter wheat
being supposed to be winter-killed, and some of the
agricultural press seriously advised the farmers to culti-
vate Indian-corn to the exclusion of wheat, the latter
being too uncertain. Now the Chicago Tribune, and
other leading newspapers, say that the farmers are every-
where encouraged with their prospects. Michigan,
Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Texas, and the fertile States of Iowa, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota give the same flattering hopes for the coming-
harvest.

The New York Herald, quoting the estimates for the
crop of 1859 (as given in my former communication),
corrects them by the light of our present prospects, as
follows ; —

Estimateof Col. Johnson, Estimate of New York
as given in my letter. \ Herald.

New York . 20,000,000 bushels.]
Pennsylvania 20,000,000

Virginia 18,500,000

Kentucky.. 8,500,000

Ohio 22,000,000

Indiana .... 13,000,000

Illinois 14.500,000

Other States 42,000,000

20,000,000 bushels.

20,000,000 ,,

20,000,000 ,,

12,000,000 „

27,000,000 ,,

20,000,000 ,,

18,000,000 ,,

65,000,000 ,,

158,500,000 bushels. | 202,000,000 bushels.

Cotton promises well so far as accounts reach us from
Alabama, South Carolina, and Texas. The Mobile
Mercury asserts that the present crop of cotton will
exceed the production of any previous year by several
hundred thousand bales.

The New York Herald says the prospects for the
sugar-crop of 1859 are decidedly gloomy, the stubble
having generally failed. It gives the sugar-crop of
Louisiana for the past ten years as follows ;-=

Crop of 1849 247,923 hogsheads.

„ 1850 211,201

,, 1851 236,547 „

„ 1852 321,934 ,,

„ 1853 449,3-24

,, 1854 346,600 „

,, 1855 231,412 „

,, 1856 73,976

,, 1857 297.097

,, 1858 365,000 ,,

From the above it will be seen why the Chinese
sugar-cane, or sorgho, which was in 1856 and
1857 most prominently brought to the attention of
American farmers, was so eagerly adopted, that, in a
single year, at least a hundred thousand acres were put
into cultivation. If it shall be found that this year's
cane has been so injured by winter frosts as to reduce
the sugar crop to the minimum of 1856, we may expect,
with the aid of our three years' experience with the sor-
gho, to see western sugar-making undertaken to a very
large extent.

As regards the cereal crops throughout our Westera
States, there has not recently been a year when a full
harvest was of more momentous importance. The
short crops of the two years past have caused a pros-
tration of trade and enterprise of such extreme nature
as to have reduced the price of land which in 1856 was
worth fifty dollars an acre, to about twenty. Some five
hundred millions of dollars have been expended for rail-
roads, built solely to transport the products of western
farms to Atlantic markets, and which, in consequence
of the small quantity of products offered for transporta-
tion, and diminished arrivals of immigrants, as well as to
internal mismanagement, are not paying either interest
on their stock, or, in some cases, their running expenses.
A full crop for the present year would set matters com-
paratively to rights again; and if once the farmers get
out of debt, and can lay by a little money, the re-action,
passing through all the links of the chain, from the
small western storekeeper, and the jobbers and import-
ers in our seaboard cities, would soon be felt at the end
which is held in your cities of manufacture. If a
general European war be impending, with what
momentous importance is the question of food pro-
duction in this country invested ! To England, with
her powers of production taxed to the utmost, her popu-
lation increasing at the rate of a thousand a day, and
her importations of breadstuffs to the amount of forty or
fifty millions sterling annually ; to France, with her
four millions of inhabitants, who eat no bread because
her large crop of ninety-seven millions of hectolitres of
wheat leaves no overplus for them after feeding their
thirty-two million compatriots ; to Spain, whose cen-
tral table-lands have by shiftier cultivation become over-
grown with weeds and reduced in fertility ; to Prussia,
Austria, IJelgium, Holland, and other States, where the
incre.ise of population is attended by a decrease of the
breadth of land devoted to cereal produce — to all these
the question a?i to whether we shall or shall not have a
bountiful harvest is of great importance. And so,
reflectively, to us, your wars and rumours of wars, your
prosperity and adversity, your political changes and
your commercial aspects, are all fraught with an infinite
interest, and as carefully studied by intelligent Ameri-
cans as the more immediate events which are transpiring
within our own boundaries. H. S. O.

New York, April, 1859.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

497

POTS AND PEARLS.

The industry and ingenuity of man is ever on the
stretch to secure for himself whatever is useful or orna-
mental, and even the destructive operations he carries
on in the process of clearing and cultivation are ren-
dered subservient to his advantage, whether in paring
and burning the soil, destroying the fern or brush or
timber-trees which encumber the land, and prevent the
growth of more useful crops.

While the seas in the vicinity of Ceylon have just
been frequented by thousands of adventurers, paying to
the Island Government large sums for the privilege of
seeking for the precious gems in the pearl-oysters
which are brought up by the hardy divers, the new
settlers in Canada and the wooded districts of the United
States have at the same time been preparing *' pearls"
of another kind — more useful at least, if not as orna-
mental, as the oriental gem, and more certain in the
pecuniary return from the land than the precarious
lotlery of the sea.

The £20,000 or £30,000 revenue derived by the
Ceylon Government from the pearl-fisheries is not to
be compared in its beneficial results with the quarter
of a million sterling paid by the merchants of Great
Britain for the ashes, alkali, and bai'illa of commerce.

The ashes of land-plants yield principally the salts of
potash, such as barilla, while those of marine-plants
afford a large quantity of soda-salts.

Potash is of great importance in the arts, being
largely employed in making alum, soap, flint-glass,
prussiate of potash, for bleaching, the rectification of
spirits, and other purposes.

In North America, Russia, Van Diemen's Land, and
other places, where timber is on incumbrance upon the
soil, it is felled, piled up in pyramids, and burned,
solely with the view to the manufacture of potashes.
The ashes, when the heaps are consumed, must be
sifted ; and the larger parts, or charcoal, returned to
the fire, and burned to ashes. These, as soon as the
sifting is completed, are stowed away under cover,
until it is desirable to commence the lixiviation.

The ashes received from the United States and our
North American colonies contain a greater proportion
of real potash than those from Russia and the Hanse
Towns; and hence the difference in price is as much as
5s. per cwt. between them.

The simplest and rudest preparation of potash is
called ash-balls in England, and wood-ash in Ireland,
and is obtained by burning the common fern or brake,
thistles, dock, or weeds of any kind. The reddish-
grey ash, being carefully collected, is sprinkled with
a little water, and then moulded by hand into balls
from three to four inches in diameter, which, when they
have acquired a certain' hardness and solidity by dry-
ing in the sun, are ready for sale. It is an object of
importance to determine the values of the carbonates
of potash and soda met with in commerce, by ascertain-

ing the amount of available alkali they contain. The
available alkali is that which exists in the free or caus-
tic state, and that which exists as carbonate.

The alkalimetrical processes usually employed are
sufficient for appreciating the strength of the alkalies of
commerce ; but do not furnish any indication of the
nature of these alkalies, as they do not distinguish pure
potashes from those which have been mixed with soda.
The Society of Pharmacy of Pai'is a few years ago of-
fered a premium of £125 for the best treatise describ-
ing an easy and commercial process for recognizing the
presence and proportion of soda in the potash of com-
merce.

The best pink Canadian potashes contain pretty
uniformly 60 per cent, of absolute potassa, and the best
pearlashes 50 per cent ; the alkali in the farmer being
nearly in a caustic state, and in the latter carbonated.
All kinds of vegetables do not yield the same propor-
tion of potash. The more succulent the plant the more
it Hffbrds, for it is only in the juices that the vegetable
salts reside, which are converted by incineration into
alkaline matter. Herbaceous weeds yield more potash
than shrubs, and shrubs than trees; and for a like rea-
son twigs and leaves are more productive than timber.
But plants in all cases are richest in alkaline salts when
they have arrived at maturity. The soil in whicli they
grow also influences the quantity of saline matter.

On many kinds of soils in North America the burn-
ing of timber has a beneficial effect, which may be as-
cribed to the agency of heat and the potash supplied
from the ashes. All plants contain alkali, either potash
or soda ; hence salts of these alkalies are constituents
of many of the best manures ; and the ashes of plants,
rich in alkaline, have always a beneficial effect when
applied to land. The earthy phosphates and alkaline
salts are the most important of the salieiit constituents
of manure.

The trade in potash and pearlash has a particular,
as well as a general, beneficial efi^ect upon the interests
of the settler in the woods ; and the very obstruction
to cultivation is frequently converted to purposes of
immediate and direct gain. This branch of Canadian
industry might be more extensively engaged in, with
profit, as there is a steady demand for the product, at
remunerative prices. It is largely manufactured in
Lower Canada, some of the wealthiest habitcms (or
French settlers) being extensively engaged in it. It re-
quires but a small capital, and the time occupied in
the process is very short. There are millions of bushels
of wood-ashes wasted in Upper Canada, which might
and ought to be turned to good account. At present
large quantities of ashes are collected in Canada by the
Americans, and carried to Ogdensburgh and elsewhere^
to be there manufactured into a valuable article of
commerce. The export of pot and pearl ashes from
Canada used to be very considerable. Twenty years

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498

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ago 179,000 cwfs. wore shipped ; and this quantity was
exported even down to 1843 and 1844. Now, however,
the shipments rarely reach 150,000 cwts.

Many euiig-rauts arriving in Canada with scarcely
sufficient means to purchase an oi'dinary farm, might
engage in the manufacture of ashes to great advantage.
The ordinary risks of agriculture in such a climate are
avoided. Tlie yield is certain, while the price is re-
munerative. To show the importance of this branch
of Colonial business, we give a few statistics connected
therewith. The barrels of ashes average about five
cwts. ; and the exports from Canada, in the last ten or
twelve years, have averaged about 30,000 barrels,
■worth about ^"'■250,000. The shipments from New
York of both pot and pearl ashes have been as follows :

1837 29,680 barrels.

1840 23,966 „

1845 56,291 „

1850 35,263 „

1855 14,287 „

There are inspectors appointed at Montreal, Boston,
and New York, to certify the quality of the ashes, pot
and pearl, which are each classified into three grades.
About 3,000 barrels are annually inspected at Boston.
The heavy hard wood timber chiefly burned on the
laud in clearing in Canada, is elm, maple, basswood,
large birch, and brown ash. The same use can be
made of all others that can be got ; but those named
produce the best and the largest quantity of ashes.
In order to keep it uninjured from wet or damp, when
the timber is burned the ashes may be collected in a
bin or safe, made of small logs, floored with logs or
boards, and covered over-head from the rain. The
ashes should not be put in or near a house, lest if put
in hot they might burn the building. They have been
known also to take fire if vegetable oil be poured on
cold ashes. In such a safe or bin they may be pre-
served until sold or otherwise disposed of; and if a
fair price can be obtained for them in this state, it is
better for the new settler to sell them than to boil them
himself, if he is not accustomed to the process. The
older settlers manufacture their ashes for sale to the
country merchants, into what is called the " salts of
lye," when there are no purchasers convenient to buy
them before taken through any such process. To effect
this, they provide themselves with two or more deep
tubs, called " leeches," which hold six or eight bushels
of ashes, with a spigot in the bottom. These are placed
on a stand a foot or two from the ground, with troughs
underneath them, to receive the lye when it runs off.
A few bricks, stone, or a handful of brushwood are
put inside over the spigot, on which is placed a little
straw, to prevent the ashes running through or ren-
dering muddy the lye. Over this the dry ashes are
placed, nearly filling the leech, and gently pressed
down, on which is poured boiling water for the " first
run," that is until with it the ashes be perfectly
soaked through : cold water may then be used until
the strength is taken from the ashes, which is known
when the lye running off is weak like water. Two or
more kettles or pots are hung over a fire to boil down

the liquid that has run from the ashes, one boiler being
kept filled from the lye running off the ashes, until all
gets boiled down to the consistence of tar, which when
cold is as hard or harder than pitch. This substance
is called salts of Ije, and is the pot or pearl ashes in a
crude state. It is readily purchased by all Canadian
country merchants, who have works in which it is
heated in a furnace until it becomes nearly white,
whence its name of pearl ash. The ashes saved from
an acre of good hard- wood land will produce three or
four, and in some cases five cwt. of salts. A handy
man will boil 1 cwt. a day, and about 16 bushels of
ashes will produce so much.

This resource is a great advantage to the new settler,
as it afibrds him some cash for clearing off his land,
by producing an article for sale which is always in de-
mand, from what would otherwise be thrown away as
being of no use to newly-cleared land.

Sir Wm. Deuison, Governor of Tasmania, in some
experiments which he caused to be carried on in that
island, found that the proportion of ash obtained from
the wood and bark of the trees of that island varied
according tothedescriptionof timber from 10 to 251bs.
per ton. The general yield of potash is about lib.
to 101b. of ash. Upon a rough computation the
quantity of timber, including leaves and branches, in a
heavily-wooded district of that colony, is from 600 to
1,200 tons. If, then, the quantity of ash be taken on
an average at lOlbs. per ton of wood, the weight of ash
will be irom 6,000 to 12.0001bs., and the quantity of
potash from 60O to l,2001bs. per acre. The value of
the potash in the home market is now from £38 to
£40 per ton.

FROST CONDUCTORS.— Mr. J. Bruce Neil, in a letter
to a contemporary, states that the bloasoms of fruit trees,
which are often so fatally cut off by early spriug frosts, may be
protected from them and all their peruicious effects, by the
following method : If a thick rope be intermixed among the
branches of a fruit tree in blossom, the end of which is directed
downward so as to terminate in a pail of water, should a slight
frost take place during the uight, it will not in the smallest
degree affect the tree; while the surface of the water in the
pail which receives the rope will be covered with a cake of
ics of more or less thickness, though water placed in another
pail by the side of it, at the same time, by way of experiment,
may not, from the slightness of the frost, have any ice at all
on it. The principle in particular, as Mr. Neil justly remarks,
is deserving of much consideratiou, as there is a possibility of
its being very beneficially applied in a great variety of obvious
ways. la preserving apples, duricg long and severe winters,
the same authority states, that it is only necessary to throw a
linen cloth over them, before the approach of frost (woolleu
cloths would not answer), when they will be found entirely
preserved, how severe soever the winter may prove. There
seems abundant reason to believe that even potatoes might
be protected from froat (after being smoked) by some such
similar expedient. This, also, like the above principle, to
which it appears so very analogous, merits high cousideration ;
and for tiie same important reason, its capability of conducing
to the univeraal benefit of mankind, and the numerous animals
under our protection.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

499

THE DEFECTIVE STATE OF FARMHOUSES AND FARM BUILDINGS
IX THE COUNTY OF DURHAM.

During the recent annual fair at Durham, the Council of the
County Agricultural Society, and other influential agriculturiats
of the neighbourhood, dined with Mr. Spearman, at Newton
Hal!. This being the fourth anniversary of these gatherings,
they have begun to assume the character of perennial as well
as annual, and as the numbers assembled greatly exceeded that
of ordinary parties, we have been auxioua to be permitted to
advert to thetn, the more especially as the discussions that
occur, and which it ia one of their chief objects to promotej
often have aa important bearing. T.eave has been accordingly
given us on the present occasion to take this notice of them,
and, at the same time, to give publicity to what fell from Mr.
Spearman on the important topic of the general defective state
of farm-houses and buildings in this county.

Mr. Spearman introduced the subject by saying he was
afraid gentlemen at the other end of the room had not heard a
good story which bad just been told by his friend on the left (Mr.
Wetherell, of Aldborough) of his having been almost afraid to
allude to a great calamity that had befallen an acquaintance of
his, in the shape of his having had his homestead burnt down^
until the sufferer put him at ease by saying, with a smiling
face, " Why, between ourselves, it is no such a. bad job to have
a set of old buildings burned down, which happen to be pretty
well insured." Now (said Mr. S.), I take leave to say I be-
lieve in my conscience it would be a very good job if half the
farm buildings in this county were to be burned down, and
that almost whether insured or not. He was satisfied he
should be borne out by those he addressed, when he said that
nothing could be more deplorably defective in every sense of
the term than the great majority of the farm-houses and build-
ings in this county. They heard landowneis constaatly ex-
pressing their wish to induce meu of capital to become their
tenants, acd nothing couU be more ratio.'ial. But did they
really expect that meu of capita!, of education, and intelligence
were to be induced to become the occupants of such habita-
tions and buildings as, generally speaking, were those which
alone these landowners haii to offer? No doubt there were
agricultural enthusiasts, like a fox-hunting friend of his who,
having undertaken the hunting of a subscription pack, said,
«' Never mind a house; I can live in a loft, but let me have a
first-rate kennel and stables!" and who would say, therefore,
" Never mind house, as long as the buildings are first rate."
But my friend was a jolly bachelor, as I suspect would be the
case with the agriculturists I have alluded to. It is otherwise with
married men; and he took leave to say of the families of that
class cf farmers of whom he was speaking, that they required
and deserved as good houses as could be obtained for them.
As regarded well-constructed and sufficient farm buildings,
they were as absolutely essential towards conducting farm
business with credit and success as are manufactories and mills
towards carrying on the business of our great manufacturers ;
and what would any of them say if they were invited to be-
come the tenants of buildings totally unequal to their require-
ments ? Why, that the inviter was one of Bedlam's out-
pensioners. True it was, that in times past, at least, it might
be said by some landlords, that their estates being entailed on
their eldest sons, if they laid out money on farm buildings it
was enriching them at the expense of their younger children,
for whom it was their duty to save a provision. Clergymen

might say they were but tenants for life, and their children
will have nothing to do with their beneficea at their death .
Others, again, might say they had no wives nor children, and
did not choose to cripple themselves for the sake of those who
are to come after, who might be well satisfied with the pro-
perty being left them at all. But, gentlemen, times are
changed, and all these objections may now be met. In the
case of clerical persons they have been enabled, by Act of Par-
liament, to charge upon their benefices the coat of agricultural
improvement, to be borne as well by their successors as
themselves. As regards the other description of landlords
whom I have mentioned, they have been enabled, by the esta-
blishment of late years of a very important institution, to
obtain pecuniary aid, and this not merely for the purpose of
draining, which is afforded by the Government, but for that of
agricultural buildings. An annual charge is created upon the
property in respect of which the advance is thus made, includ-
ing interest and a payment towards extinguishment of the
debt, which is thus liquidated in a given time. He alluded to
the West of England Land Improvement Society, established
by Act of Parliament, under which the advances made by it
took priority over other charges, which enable! it to dispense
with inquiries into title. He was sorry to have to confess that
on his own property the farm-houses and buildings are quite
as bad as on that of his neighbours, though he had long con-
templated reformation, and was going now to set about it in
good earnest. He had, in the first instance, purposed effecting
this at his own cost ; but it afterwards occurred to him that as
regards one set of buildings he might be doing a service by
trying what in this county he believed was an experiment-
namely, that of applying to the West of England Land Im-
provement Society for aid. This he intended, therefore, to do.
With reference to the projected buildings themselves, he
begged also to be allowed to say a few words. He had known
instances not infrequent, of landowners proceeding to erect
farm-houses and buildings under the advice of architects and
builders — the result being very pretty things, architecturally
speaking, but which, when submitted to the criticism of prac-
tical agriculturists, had been found anything but what, had they
been consulted in the first instance, they would have sug-
gested, though perhaps infinitely more costly. He proposed,
therefore, to reverse this order of proceeding, aod before he
called in architect or builder, to take the advice of some of his
experienced agricultural friends — some of them whom he saw
present had already promised their assistance. When he
should have shown them the site he had selected, which he had
chosen as being centrical, but also as being close to the best
roads, a matter in his opinion not always sufficiently attended
to, and furnished them with the precise quantities and propor-
tions of arable and grass laud, as determining the number of
draughts and consequent amount of stabling, the extent of
cattle-sheds, feeding houses, and barn room, he should request
them to say what, under the circumstances, if about to occupy
such a farm, they would desire to have as regards extent and
arrangement of farm buildings. The farm consisted of about
500 acres, and the site of the buildings was close to the high-
way fiom Durham to Hartlepool, which runs through the farm,
When they sat again, as he hoped they should do next year,
he expected he should be able to report satisfactory progress

500

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and he ventured to say that he should have established, if not
quite " a model farm," yet one at least that would serve as an
example and specimen of what could be done, proceeding on
the principles he had mentioned, and with the aid of the West

of England Land Improvement Company. He sincerely be-
lieved that institution capable of rendering great service to the
landed interest, which had not hitherto been invoked as he
hoped it hereafter would be by the landowners of this district

THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER AND PERMANENT

OF MANGOLD WURZEL.

CULTURE

Mr. Scott, of Broom Close, recently gave a lecture at
Boroughbridge, on the " Cultivation of Mangold Wuizel,"
as a ro3t now occupying so much the attention of farmers
generally. The following ij from Mr. Scott's paper: —

" Gentlemon,— I can assiure you I feel no little diffidence in
briDging before you the subject I ata about to do, as it is,
perhaps, one cf the most important connected with our avoca-
tion, forming, as it does, one of the grand principia of agricul-
tural economy; for not only ia the root crop of essential value
in itself, but it eIso lays the foundatioH, and forms the basis
of operations for the succeeding cereals. The failure or suc-
cess of its cultivation must not only be of vital importance to
the farmer, but must materially affect the interests of the
communily at large. I will endeavour to the best of my
ability to give you the results of my observation, and lay before
you the conclusions at which I have arrived, from my experi-
ence in the cultivation of root crops ; truating you will not
forgrt that the difference in soils, climate, situation, &c ,must
be taken into consideration, and that you will apply only to
your use such of ray principles as seem to meet your own in-
dividual cases. As mangold wurzel appears to be causing
quite a revolution in the cultivation of root crops in the North
of England, I w;ll commence with that invaluable root. The
words mangold wurzel siguiaes the ' root of scarcity ;' but I
flatter myself, we shail soon apply a very opposite term, namely
— the ' root of plenty.' We read that this plant was first
introduced into England more than three hundred years ago
from Germany, where it had been some time used for cattle-
feeding and sugar-making purposes. We are told that the
ancieut Greeks held it in high estiraatioe. In its native cli-
mate, which is warmer than that of England, the mangold fares
much better, and grows to a larger size than we have yet been
able to produce it. Yet the seasons of late have so far favoured
the extension of its culture in our own country as to displace,
to a great extent, Swedish and other turnips, and are more
certain, whether on soils excessively strong or silicious : yet I
fear some of our sand-land neighbours are over-doing the thing
by growing the breadth they are wont to do, unless thej; take
means to consume at least one-half of the roots on the land
upon which they are grown. And even this method would
be discounting the roots, as they are never at perfection until
April, at which time the farmer ought to have the land sown
with grain. I have occasionally drilled alternately every 8 or
16 ridges (the latter I prefer), and consumed the turnips ou
by sheep ; and, by placing the cake or corn troughs on the
naked ground, no difference was perceptible in the succeeding
crops. In preparing laud for a mangold crop, which should
invariably succeed a cereal crop, the scarifier should be applied
as early as convenient, after the removal of the sheaves. For
this purpose I would particularly recommend Coleman's culti-
vator. I would urge the necessity of arresting the onward
progress of couch, &c., at the earliest opportunity, for these
penetrate the soil in a most surprising manner wheU divested
r{ the grain crop, 1 remember having proved this during a

fickle harvest. I had secured the wheat crop in straight rows,
and had skimmed between them to the depth of two inches,
which was sufficiently deep to go below the vertical roots then
ready to penetrate the earth. About three weeks elapsed ere
the remainder of the field could bo skimmed ; when, instead
of t-vo inches, the shares had to work 3^ in., in order to un-
dermiua the twitch roots. Tiie surface cleaned, we proceed
to the nest operatiosi, viz. :— that cf ploughing. But, previous
to this, which ought to be done in November or December, the
fold-yard manure should be applied over the surface ; for this
I think is now a settled question, that autumn or winter ma-
nuring is decidedlj preferable to applying the manure during
the dry months of spring* at the time of sowing. My own
experience has satisfactorily proved to me that this is a step
in the right direction in modern farming. By adopting the
latter-named period for manuring, thousands of acres of stiff
soils might be made available for a root crop, which a course
of spring tilling prohibits. After dashing the manure, aud
ploughing to the depth of eight or nine inches, with a plough-
share not less than 9 in. in breadth, as soon as possible, espe-
cially on strong soils, turn back the furrows, aud draw the
ridges — a plan indispensable on retentive clays — if even done
when the soil was apparently too wet for the operation ; for
with all that mechanical science has done for us in producing
efficient machinery and implements, by which extraordinary
achievements are accomplished, we have, as yet, no means of
pulverizing the soil so cheaply and so effectively as is done by
atmospheric influences. Should the winter prove favourable,
the ridge harrow might be applied, end any roots or weeds
gathered off, and the ridges reversed ; but, should the weather
not admit of ridging during winter, the surface, pulverized by
the frost, should not be lost sight of, but the root crop drilled
on the ' flat.' If on a .<!oil of medium texture, and not ridged
during winter (which ought to be accomplished if possible) the
furrow slice should be ploughed early in March, afterwards
crossed by a grubber or plough ; but in no iustauce should a
cross ploughing take place previous to a second lougitudiual
one. Having arrived then at the season of sowing, which
should commence (weather permitting) about the middle of
April, the land having previously received from six to eight
cwt. of salt per acre — an indispensable application for man-
golds— the ridges, if not already drawn, should be formed 28
to 28 inches apart, aud the guano (if any) sown in the drills.
But I would caution my brother farmers against using guano
aloug with fold-yard manure, for, after various experiments, I
am convinced that we do not get pay for the guano when so
used ; that is, the extra produce of bulbs does not compensate
for the extra cost. The farm-yard manure, therefore, should
be used alone near the homestead, and artificial alone at a dis-
tance from the same, which would effect a considerable saving
in carriage, the cost of which many farmers underrate ; for, if
we have to grow wheat at 40s. per quarter, we must, in addi-
tion to growing the greatest possible amount of produce of
every description, Btudiously avoid superflwous horse tittd

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

501

manual labour. The varieties of mangolds of which I have
any knowledge are the orange globe, the long yellow, the red
globe, and long red. These I have tested ; two of which I
have frequently had in juxtaposition — having first grown man-
golds in 1848. Of the foregoing I decidedly prefer the long
yellow for giving whole to milch cows or ewes; but, as there
is an iuconveniei^ce in slicing them, some orange globes might
be grown for cutting for cattle or sheep : but the one thing
for which I recommend the former is that they draw so much
cleaner than the other descriptions, especially on adhesive soils
I think, too, a greater weight of produce may be grown ; for
in selecting the largest bulb of each sort at the time of harvest-
ing, the weights were as follow : — Long yellow, 29^ ; globe
ditto, 28; red globe, 25J; and long red, 18^. Of theanalysis
I am iguorant, and cannot, therefore, offer any information on
that head (and as quantity is but one element of value, we
must not be too sanguine as to which is the most profitable
description ; for it may be in this case as in swedes, since we
hive ascertained that our East Lothian green-topped swede of
6 lb». weight contains as much beef-making material aa aSkir-
vi:;g's of 9 lbs. So the conclusion arrived at ia, that the latter
is only calculated to fill the eye and not the pocket). A pair
of ridge harrows, where the land is at all cloddy, ought to pre-
cede the drill. I will not here enter into tha merits or demerits
of the turnip drill; but, after four years' trial, I ara convinced
of the advautagea of the water-Jril!. A shower of rain after
the seed is sown is looked upon as a great boon; and if we can
sccorapUsh this by mechanical means we ate not so dependent
oa t!ie heavens. Moreover, I maintain that it is utterly
iinpoaaible (except with Chaiubera's distributor) to have a
regular stream of manure from a dust-drill. If, therefore, you
are intending to apply 3 cwt. of super-phosphate, for instance,
you, iu a drilling, have perhaps 1| cwt. on one portion of your
field, and 41 cwt. on another. As to the quantity of seed, from

5 to 6 lbs. may be sown in a dry state, if sown in April ; but
if late, in order to make up for lost time, the seed should be
steeped in lukewarm water from 24 to 48 hours, and when used
should be dried in fine coal-aahes, &c. As the seeds are slow
to vegetate, from having to break open the hard capsule, in
almost every instance on light soils the ridges will be covered
with annuals before the legitimate plants appear. A pair of
ridge harrows, divested of the centre teeth, should, therefore,
be passed along the ridges on a dry day. This will have the
desired efi'ect of destroying the major portion of the weeds,
without injuring in the slightest degree the infant plants of
mangolds, even if they have appeared above the surface ; after
which the horse-hoe must be liberally used, the soil being re-
moved as close as practicable to the plants, which greatly
facilitates the operation of Jtund singling. The plants should
be left from 18 in. to 20 io. apart, remembering to have some
plants in reserve, to dibble in the vacant places, which should
be done on the first wet day, by making a hole with a piece
of wood, taking care that the bole is sufficiently deep to receive
the rootlet without turnicg the tip thereof, which would retard
the growth, and in some instances destroy the plant. One of
the great secrets iu producing large bulbs is to allow them
sufticient space in which to grow, and when we find that one
bulb of 9 inches diameter is equal to 27 bulbs of 3 inches in
diameter (the whole of them being spherical), I think we ought
to feel fully justified in allowing them sufficient space to throw
out their leaves, in order that the roots maybe fully developed.
It is a custom with some men, when the crop is pretty well
taatured, to divest mangold of the under-leaves. Now this is
a mistake, for the leaves possess no feeding qualities to justify
the commission of so much injury being done to the crop. Aa
the storing of roots forms a distinct subject, I will not now
enter udou it.

SWEDES AND MANGOLDS.

Sir, — Mangcld-wurtzel and the a;rede turnip are two of
the most valuable root-crops grown in England ; roo<:-crops
are the main-stay of all good and profitable farming; and
manure is the foundation of good and heavy root-crops. On
this account, wise' men say that vaat attention ought to be
paid to ascertaining the strength of the manures upon which
our crops are built. Common sense says that, if artificial ma-
nure is but oue-fcutth its proper strength, we cannot expect
from it more than a quarter of a crop in weight. Farmers
who half-plough, haif-mantue, and half-clean their land, can-
not expect to liave whole or large crops, but only in propor-
tion to the strength of the manure applied, which must depend
on its composition.

The Farmer's Magazine has done wondfera for many
farmers : nay, it has shown that all good farming is founded
on common sens? and reason; and proves that 40 tons of
swedes per acre, topped, tailed, and cleaned, have been gro-'n,
each turnip being allowed a space of 28 inches by 10 incucs.
and thus taking up 280 square inches of room. If planted
regularly, this would give 22,402 turnips, which, at 41b. each
turnip, would amount to 40 tons 8lb. per acre. And 64 tons
of mangold-wurtzel per acre, when topped, tailed, and cleaned,

have been grown by a celebrated market-gardener at Fulham,
to decide a wager of £5, which the gardener won. They were
planted each in a space measuring 2 feet by 1 foot, each root
taking up 288 square inches. There would thus be 21,780
plants or roots upon an acre ; and each root must have ave-
raged a little over 61b. 9 oz., to make 64 tons per acre. The
gardener's land is manured yearly with the strongest horse-
dung he can obtain, made principally from corn. All this
plainly shows what the strongest manure will do in producing
great root-crops.

Perhaps the following calculation may be useful to some of
your readers : Swedes or mangolds planted in spaces mea-
suring 28 inches by 10 inches, at 31b. each plant, would
amount to 30 tons 6lb. per acre ; at 41b. each, would be 40
tons 81b. per acre ; at 5lb. each, would be 50 tons 101b. per
acre ; at 61b. each, would be 60 tons 121b. ; and at 71b. each
r"- 1, a crop of mangold-wurtzels would amount to 70 tons
ll'.b.per acre.

Facts and figures combined greatly enlighten the mind :
Science is weighty ; when added to practice, is mighty.

Millfield, Peterboroiigh, May 3. Samuel ArnsIbV.

502

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE STEAM-PLOUGH, AND ITS PROGRESS.

It is comparatively easj' to put the general advantages
of steam power. Any such problem has already reached
a solution. We thrash, clean, and grind our corn —
bring home, feed, and sell our stock — all by the aid of
that now indispensable agent. Indeed, a homestead
without an engine would by this be considered as half
furnished as the house without a mistress, or the parish
church wanting a parson. Of course there are still
several minor matters scarcely as yet brought within
the scope of its operation. But these are all bound to
follow; and we shall soon grub up our roots, pump
our water, warm our cattle in winter, and cool them in
summer, as methodically as we cut chaff or winnow
wheat. In an agricultural point of view, steam has
only one grand difficulty remaining to contend with.
No wonder, then, that the recent discussion at
the Farmers' Club centred almost entirely here.
Everything else was pretty well taken for granted.
Much -had already been accomplished ; and if we
could only achieve this, as much more must follow.
Once realize ploughing by steam, and drilling, drain-
ing, hoeing, and other similar descriptions of farm-
work would come " naturally." But at this point we
stop. The very Alps of our march onwards have yet to be
crossed. And old Bowler eats his corn and frisks his
tail, as much as ever the pride and pet of boys and
horse- keepers.

However near we may actually be to a consumma-
tion of our hopes, it is very palpable that the prac-
tice of steam cultivation is yet in the hands of
enthusiasts and patriots. True enough that Mr.
Smith can count up a certain number of friends
and neighbours, who are really adopting the system.
But it is remarkable, on the other hand, how the
great body of farmers hold off; and the leading men
more particularly. Authorities who have ever been
ready to give to anything of promise a trial and a chance,
are by no means so ready now. Even the exciting and
highly-seasoned correspondence of some time past has
failed to arouse them. The usual commentary appears
to be : " Let them fight it out." And the agriculturist
waits, likeacautious jockey in a race, allowing the hot-
headed and impetuous to weary each other out, and
then coming up to win. Sound and prudent as this
Fabian policy may be, it is, for many reasons, to be re-
gretted. It is much to be wished that even at this
stage the class chiefly concerned could be induced to
take a little more active interest in the question to be
solved. Inquire of our great manufacturing firms,
from whom they have received the mo-t valuable
hints and instructions for perfecting their inventions ?
Almost invariably you will hear, in answer, from the
farmers themselves — from (hose who have gradually
tested the value and capabilities of the implement in
everyday work, and learnt, with its uses, at the same
time its drawbacks and defects. It is by the same

means that we shall make steam-cultivation a practical
fact. Much certainly has been done in this way
already by such men as Mr. Smith and Mr. Williams.
Much assistance again has been proffered them by the
more strictly professional mechanist; but the culminat-
ing point — the strong and hearty pull to land them at
the top — must come from the hand of their own order.
And this brings us to the weak place in Mr.
Mechi's paper, as read before the members of the
Farmers' Club. That it was got up by a man
with his heart in his subject no one who reads it
can for a moment deny. That it was prepared with
much ability and industry everyone will bo equally in-
clined to admit. The figures were as telling as figures
well can be, and the general argument and deduction
honest and sound enough. What, however, was the
substance of this deduction ? It would, of course, be
impossible for a progressionist like the worthy Alderman
to talk to a body of farmers without scolding them;
and his charge against them now is that they do not
evince sufficient readiness to avail themfelves to the
full of steam i^ower. Notwithstanding all this had
accomplished for them, they did not go on with it as
they were warranted, or as other classes of the com-
munity had done. Surely the lecturer's own acute-
ness would furnish the reply to such a complaint. He
has studied the English yeoman's character long enough
to know his i^roverbial caution, and the festina lente
pace of his proceeding. And so, when, for the nonce,
the Alderman stands once more with a scroll in his right
hand, as the embodiment of progress and improvement

— the very high-priest of Ceres — vaticinating as the
Oracle, '' Level your lands, pull up your hedges, sell
your horses, and buy a steam-plough" — a classic chorus
of countrymen surrounds him, shouting, "Will it pay?"
" How can you do it ?" and " Let's see it first."

If Mr. Mechi himself was not here equal to the oc-
casion, the speakers who followed him did little to
help him out. Almost the only members who ad-
dressed the meeting had each some several plan of his
own, at least identified with his name ; and we had in
turn, accordingly, Mr. Williams, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hall,
and Mr. Halkett. The one chief witness was wanting

— the farmer in no way associated with the inventor or
patentee, who had practised steam ploughing, who had
sold his horses, had grown a quarter an acre more, and
reaped all such similar advantagea. However ener-
getically Mr. Fowler, Mr. Smith, or Mr, Williams may
talk and work — and it must be conceded that they
are equally ready at either — they must feci as strongly
as we do that it is not from their own mouths we must
be convinced of the efficiency of their systems. If any
one will but once show a lead, we may follow. Now
we all hear, more or less directly, of there
being tenant farmers who have really taken to
cultivating their lands by the use of steam.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

503

power; who have already lessened the strength
of their teams, and who believe they have increased
their production by the process. But we don't hear
or see any of these at the Farmers' Club. Unfortunately,
neither Mr. Smith nor his representatives, the Messrs.
Howard, were present; although, if they have anything
of this kind to tell us, they should have been. It is
the common fate of inventors and enthusiasts to be
considered too sanguine ; while, if Mr. Mechi had only
demonstrated what one farmer had done, in place oi
going to his more congenial task of denouncing all those
who had not done, he might have been far more effec-
tive. That steam-cultivation loill come, everybody is
quite ready to admit; the point to prove now is, that it
has come.

Our lecturer himself, be it remembered, goes beyond
his own mark. With all his enthusiasm and ambition
to " show a light," there is as yet no steam-plough at
work at Tiptree. Even if there were, we should be
rather inclined to doubt the great force of the example.

Too much credit can scarcely be given to his Royal
Highness the Prince Consort, who is about to put both
Fowler's and Smith's apparatus in work. This is, at any
rate, a hint for other landowners, who have been quite as
reluctant in the business as any of their tenants. In fact,
both are alike holding back for some more positive de-
monstration. We think this, even thus early, might
be supplied. Piquant as the mutual abuse of the rival
houses may be, we fear the proof will rarely be accepted
in such a form. On the other hand, if a man can calmly
assure his fellows that he has tried the experiment with
economy, convenience, and advantage, there are hun-
dreds and thousands only waiting for the signal. Mr.
Mechi wrote his subject, " The Advantages of Steam
in Agriculture : how far they have been availed of."
To a certain extent we all knew how far. The very
marrow of the matter went beyond this ; and the one
striking want of the paper, as well as of the subsequent
discussion, is some such "a modern instance." It
might have been commanded.

LONDON, OR CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB.
STEAM IN AGRICULTURE.

The ordinary monthly meeting of the members took
place on Monday, May 2. Mr. Thomas, of Bletsoe, pre-
sided, supported by Messrs. T. Owen, Spencer, Skelton,
H, Trethewy, J. J. Mechi, J. A. Williams, W. Fisher
Hobbs, J. Russell, P. A. Halkett, J. Fowler, jun.,
Collinson Hall, J. G. King, J. W. Paul, L. A. Couss-
maker, E. Purser, W. Cheffins, J. Purser, W. Heard,
J. Tyler, H. Shotter, J. Cressingham, James Wood
(Sussex), J, Wood (Croydon), J. Parkinson, D. Drake-
ford, C. J. Brickwellj T. B. Browne, W. Eve, E. B.
Acton, Smallbones, D. Christie, Bazin, D. Reid, J. L.
Baker, J. W. Squier, W. Carr, J. Smith (Stevenage),
W. H. Venn, &c., &c.

The subject to be introduced by Alderman Mechi
was, " The Advantages of Steam in Agriculture, how far
they have been availed of."

After a few introductory remarks from the Chair-
man,

Mr. Mechi said: I purpose, first, to review the
general benefits conferred by steam, to estimate the ex-
tent of its use iu our manufactures, locomotion and
mercantile marine, and to see in what relation, in this
respect, agriculture stands to the other industrial occu-
pations of the kingdom. I shall also glance at the pro-
gress of steam culture, recognise with gratitude the
merits of its early pioneers, and indulge in an opinion
of what our use of it in culture ought to be, and ulti-
mately will be. I shall also consider the question of
fixed or portable engines, the value of steam for irriga-
tion and drainage, on what sized farms an engine will
pay, and add some practical hints about steam-engines
and boilers. Nine years ago I addressed a rural
audience on this subject with the following introduction,
which so exactly represents my present feeling that I re-

peat it : " Steam ; mighty steam ! The term suggests a
thousand pleasing and profitable reflections: that marvel-
lous and almost invisible power which brooks no oppo-
sition— which never tires. Scouring the plains, pierc-
ing the hills, threading the valleys, and ploughing the
wide ocean ; mastering, with indignant ease, time and
space, wind, water, and seasons ; the varieties of its
power may well amaze us. Here it is wielding the pon-
derous hammer that gives shape and consistence to
gigantic metallic masses ; there it weaves the gossamer
web, or twists the slender fibre ; it plunges the hardy
miner deep into the bowels of mother earth, and raises
from her lap her mineral and metallic treasures ; these
glow and flow with liquid meltings at its powerful blast;
here it is printing bank-notes, there it is coining golden
sovereigns ; to-day it is preparing food and clothing
for the body ; to-morrow it feasts the mind, spreading
far and wide, in countless numbers, the broad sheets of
intelligence. Instruments of death and of preservation
alike acknowledge its power. What a comprehensive
word is this said steam ! It means peace, progression,
civilization, education, abundance, and cheapness; it is
the death-blow to monopoly and privation. Ignorance
and prejudice shrink away at its approach : the iron
barrier of separation is broken by it ; the interposition
of time, of distance, or of poverty no longer wounds the
tender affections ; it increases aliife our political power
as a nation and our morality, for the increase of physical
comfort must, in a Christian community like blessed
England, predispose to moral good. But if this all-
pervading power clothes the body with elegance and
cheapness, and stores the mind with knowledge and
intelligence, can agriculture alone escape its influence .'
Impossible. It must and will feed, as well as clothe,

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the people cheaply. The landlord or the farmer who
saves his time and his money by the concentrated power
and speed of a hundred horses on the rail, or five hun-
dred on the ocean, must draw comparisons and conclu-
sions adverse and disparaging to our present slow and
crawling system of agricultural mechanics. The general
application of steam in agriculture involves a thorough
change and reformation of our farming system. It is a
question of more capital and less land, both for landlord
and tenant. It is a question of a compensation for un-
exhausted improvements, or an ample protection of
tenure by lease ; and it is a question of public registra-
tion and easy transfer of landed property. It will com-
pel a more accurate observance of the laws of mechanics,
and will sharpen the intellects of the agricultural labour-
ing community. In a word, the employment of steam-
power in agriculture will compel or induce a larger
employment of labour and production of food. Drain-
age, deeper cultivation, open fields, good roads, better
buildings, more live stock, and less weeds, must and
will be the concotiiitants of agricultural steam-power;
for steam-power means amendment and progression.
It would be a curious statistic could we accurately know
the number of horses that would be required to produce
a power equivalent to that now in action by our fixed,
locomotive, and marine engines. I apprehend that, if
the whole surface of England were sown with oats and
cropped with grass for hay, there would not be enough
to feed the requisite number of horses ; and if there
were food enough we must have whole towns of stables,
streets of harness-makers, and squares of farriers and
veterinary surgeons. Well, then, but for steam, the
happy inhabitants of merry England could not and
would not have those luxuries, comforts, or necessaries
which they now enjoy. Honour to that departed
philosopher, whose sagacity and perception, under
Divine Providence, applied the bubbling resistance of
our tea-kettles to the most noble and useful purposes of
humanity."

My Opinion of British Agriculture. — While
the agricultural community is congratulating itself on
its rapid progress, and while our talented friend Mon-
sieur de la Trehonnais is holding us up to his country-
men in France as models of agricultural progress, your
humble servant is lamenting our agricultural backward-
ness and imperfection. This discrepancy of sentiment
may be readily accounted for. They compare the pre-
sent with the past. With them the extensive back-
ground of non-improvement throws up in pleasant
relief the bright spots of progress. With them the ex-
ceptions excuse the rule. With me they do but con-
demn it, and point to its amendment. We may admit
that much of our light and self-drained lands is very
much improved, and in many districts very highly
farmed ; but that extensive portion of our island, called
cold, stiff, tenacious clay, fifteen-sixteenths of which are
still undrained, is to my certain knowledge in a most
unsatisfactory and unprofitable condition, as regards the
interests of landlord, tenant, and the country at large.
Now it is, in my opinion, precisely these soils which,
when imjjrQved, we the mo8t dependable for a result,

containing as they do, an undeveloped treasure of am-
moniacal and phosphatic fertility. Those gifts have not
yet been availed of, and it is steam cultivation alone,
after drainage, that can place those subterranean
treasures at our disposal. My observation of the pre-
sent cultivation of our stiff clays would give an average
depth of about four to five inches — all below this may
be considered an unknown and unimproved territory.
It is true that after drainage, the filtration or percola-
tion of water and manure will gradually and certainly
aerate and improve the subsoil, but the process is too
slow for these quick-moving times. You want rapidly
to dry these dead and saturated masses by atmospheric
exposure. The dense and closely packed mass of in-
finitesimal granules must be separated by pulverization,
so that the millions of almost imperceptible fibres may
introduce themselves without difficulty to the hitherto
unapproachable but fertilizing ingredients of the subsoil.
Liebig, and our other great chemical lights, have proved
to us that every breath of air that passes over newly ex-
posed clay abstracts from it its moisture, and in ex-
change blesses it with ammoniacal and fertilizing gases.
As you follow the steam-cultivator on a dry day, in-
stantaneous exhalations strike your nostrils, and con-
vince you that the earth is a great apothecary's shop
full of chemical compounds. The rough and lightly
laid fallow absorbs the fructifying sunbeams, and
imparts to the air in contact with it an expansive heat,
which causes it to rise in wavy playfulness in its struggle
through the superincumbent but colder atmosphere.
The rusty-looking iron of our so-called poor clay sub-
soils, makes greedy claim upon the passing ammonia.
A volume might be written by our chemists upon the
advantages of evaporation, percolation, dews, frosts,
fogs, and sunshine. Jethro Tull was the prince of cul-
tivators, but the want of artificial drainage defeated all
his calculations. The Rev. Mr. Smith, of Lois-Weedon,
is the great Jethro Tull of the present day. Fifteen
years ago I was convinced that on our stiff yellow clays
cultivation was more important than manure ; acting
on that conviction, after I had drained my land, I broke
it up with three horses, six other horses following in the
same track, with Smith of Deanston's great subsoil
plough. Our labourers called it a little earthquake,
and my crops have never forgotten it ; but for all that
I saw how costly was horse-power when deep cultivation
was attempted, and how necessary it was tliat we should
apply steam to get a yard deep of cultivation, instead of
ten or twelve inches.

Agricultural Doubts about Steam. — I con-
fess I was very much astonished that our progressive
friend, Mr. R. Smith, in his recent lecture to this Club
on " Agricultural Progress," should describe steam-
culture as " yet a venture." I consider steam -cultiva-
tion an accomplished fact ; profitably accomplished, and
therefore practically attained. It is impossible to deny
with truthfulness that both Mr. Fowler's and Mr.
Smith's plans are practically proven and sealed wiih the
stamp of superiority over horse-power, both in cost and
effect, by the award and medal of the Royal Agricultural
Societj' of England. From my own observation of

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505

both these plans, I am sure it will pay to use them.
Had I not my fixed steam-engine I should at once adopt
the practice, although my land has all been already very
deeply disturbed, but I suppose I must hire a portable-
engine. As

A Proof of the Advantages of Steam-Culti-
vation, let me mention the following fact : A.t my
great gathering in July, 1856, Mr. Fowler's steam-
plough, with the subsoiler attached, cultivated two
stctches of clover lea, being part of a field on which
wheat was to be sown in October. Although that field
had been formerly subsoiled, and forked by manual
labour, Fowler's subsoil brought up and exposed to
view some undisturbed nasty ochrey and rusty subsoil.
Some of our agricultural friends would shrug their
shoulders and say nothing would grow on it, but mark
the result. In October or November the wheat was
duly drilled over the whole field ; as soon as it came up,
and in every stage of its growth, those two stetches
showed their superiority. After harvest the field was
all manured and dug with the fork, and produced a fine
crop of mangel in 1858. It is now (April, 1859), in
wheat again, and in this early stage of growth, the two
stetches — steam-ploughed in 1856 — still show a supe-
riority ! My men called my attention to this only on
Saturday last. But who can seriously doubt the benefits
of deep cultivation on strong clays after drainage ?
After the recent showers, I could see the deeply-moved
soil, over drains, showing light-coloured and dry, whilst
the intermediate spaces were dark and damp. It was
deep cultivation that did this, producing facile aeration,
powerful capillarity, and rapid evaporation. It proves
that a yard or four feet deep of cultivation is not a bit
too deep ; and when I remember that at my friend
Dixon's, near Witham, a parsnip was pulled up whose
roots were thirteen feet six inches long, and then broke
off, I seriously believe that we have no present idea as
to what depth of cultivation and drainage we shall
ultimately arrive at with steam-power. Why did that
parsnip go so deep ? Because the earth had all been
moved fo the depth of fourteen feet. It had been a
brick-earth pit, filled up with soil from the adjoining
land, when it was necessary to open a new pit ; air and
water had circulated freely to the depth of 14 feet. It
is not what an operation costs, but what profit it pays,
that must guide us. The shilling flail is superseded by
one that costs ^300. as a matter of economy and profit.
Who is to say that we shall not have scarifiers or grub-
bers whose tines will gradually go four, five, or six feet
deep, drawn by a 100-horsepower engine? Am I
visionary in anticipating such a result ? Is it more
astounding than Fowler's draining-plough — drawing,
as it were by magic, its lines of pipes, like ropes of
sausages, deep into the bowels of the most obstinate
clays ? And here I should consider myself ungrateful
indeed did I not record my admiration of, and gratitude
to, that spirited and far-seeing man, who has devoted
his fortune and his mind to the successful realization of
what agriculture once considered a romantic and chime-
rical idea. If my anticipations are to be realized, let
our shallow drainers deepen their ideas and spare their
|)9Qketa.

Our PRESENT PLANS OF StEAM CULTIVATION.

My public position as an agriculturist brings to me
many an anxious and intelligent inventor, whose sleep-
less mind is worn and absorbed by the great one idea,
and who languishes for the wherewithal to develop and
give a practical bearing to his thoughts. I often feel ,
as I listen to the anxious and confidential communica-
tion, how much must be done and sufifered ere the prac-
tical public will avail of and pay for the inventor's
genius. We ought to feel grateful to those who I know
have devoted their money and time to the improvements
in machinery. It is not my intention to make invidious
comparisons between the various means for steam cul-
ture. Let each one consult the judges' decision, as
given in the last number of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety's Journal. Let him spend a little time and
money in watching the practical operations which are
now so extensively going on — to which access is so
liberally granted, and which are so accurately described
by the various agricultural publications of the day.
Years ago I ventured to predict that we should soon
have forty different modes of steam cultivation. Such
an idea is rapidly approaching realization. We have
now — 1. Fowler's Draining and Trenching Ploughs. 2.
Smith's Scarifiers. 3. Williams's ditto. 4. Boydell's
Traction Engine. 5. Bray's ditto. 6. Romaine's
Cultivator. 7. Fiskin's Plough. 8. Rickett's Archi-
medean Cultivator. 9. Halkett's Railway system of
Steam Culture ; and I know of others which are yet to
meet the public eye. I rejoice in the pungent and
gladiatorial rivalry on this subject, which fills the
columns of our agricultural newspapers. The steam-
press is developing steam cultivation — drawing the at-
tention of even the lag-behinds of agriculture, and
making them progress in spite of their prejudices. I
have no fear but that each claimant for public steam
favour will meet his reward according to his merits.
Agriculture is a fine open field of comparison, if people
will but look at it, I recently saw Mr, Smith's Steam
Cultivator (made by Messrs. Howard) at work on a
farm of stiff sol! in Hertfordshire. Its work appeared to
me simple and perfect. It was smashing up or grub-
bing the land four-and-a-half to five inches deep at the
cost of one-shilling an acre for coals, two shilling-and-
slxpence an acre for manual labour, and something for
the wear and tear of the steam-engine and steel-wire-
rope, &c. The rope was much smaller than one's little
finger, say nine-sixteenths of an inch diameter. I have
often heard heavy-land farmers say that they should like
to have horses without feet ; this is actually the case
with steam, which cultivates without pressure or con-
solidation.

Halkett's Guideway Steam Cultivator. — I
cannot pass by, in silence, Mr. Halkett's noble efforts
to effect the operations of the farm on a grand scale by
an entirely novel process. Having witnessed the opera-
tion, I was struck with the simplicity and unerring ac-
curacy of the work done, as well as by the application
of the whole power of the engine without rope, and with
a mere fractional friction. Every one who heard Mr.
Halkett's paper read before the Society of Arts, must
have retired with a conviotion that .the subject ym

jOO

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

worthy of the most profound consideration, and of a fair
national trial on a large scale. Who is to do this and
find the means is another question. I have never yet
heard any one dispute Mr. Halkett's calculations. When
I see that 240 tons' weight can be drawn on a railway, at
a speed of twenty miles an hour, a whole mile for two-
pennyworth of coal, I see that the whole question
hinges on the calculation of what sum would be sufficient
interest for wear and tear, and first cost of his proposed
railway. I exhibit a photograph of the machine in
operation, performing various farm labours. If our
unduly costly railways pay the shareholders an interest
equal to Consols, and yet take us as cheaply as the old
coach, saving three-fourths of our time, is it sd Utopian
to imagine that similar causes should produce equal
effects in agriculture? Is not time, ia horse and manual
labour, as much money as time on the rail .■' By-the-bye
I have just heard that Boydell's traction engine is draw-
ing coals into Manchester, from a colliery, at one-penny
per ton per mile, on the high road. It always sur-
prised me that railway bufi'ers and springs were not
attached to the machine when it had to draw ploughs or
scarifiers. But for these buffers and springs, our rail-
way-engines would be breaking their chains, and doing
much mischief by sudden concussion. I hear that as
much as £10,000 has been expended on Romaine's
cultivator since I lent my aid to its introduction. The
inventor is still sanguine of success, judging from iis
operations in Yorkshire, but a large expenditure is yet
required for its full development ; it is intended, I be-
lieve, to fit it with Boydell's wheels, or something on the
same principle. I deeply regret Mr. Boydell's severe
indisposition, arising fiom his anxious and unwearied
exertions about his traction engine. I have received the
following from Mr. Hall, who has used Fowler's plough
for some time. It will be seen that he works at very
high pressure: — " Navestock, Essex, April 26, 1850 :
Dear Sir, — I find in practice that my portable engine,
working three hundred and twenty pounds pressure,
consumes eight hundred and fifty pounds of coal, worth
eight shillings and sixpence, per each day's work often
hours, while drawing Fowler's four-furrow^ plough, by
the wire-rope system ; and six acres is a fair day's work
at present, and which requires three men and two boys,
and one horse for water. This same engine was worked
with Boydell's wheels as a direct traction, drawing
Fowler's (same) Plough. To work ten hours, and
plough six acres, she required eleven to twelve hundred
pounds of coal. She therefore consumed about a quar-
ter of her fuel to propel herself, besides the damage
done to the land by her wheels, which was fatal to that
principle for cultivation ; but to be enabled to proceed
into any field, without horses, is a most v.iluable acqui-
sition. My fixed engine, working at one-hundred-and-
twenty pounds pressure, consumes five hundred-weight of
coal in twelve hours, driving one pair of barley-stones,
grinding eight bushels per hour, and two pairs of wheat
stones grinding four bushels per hour each. — I remain,
sir, yours very truly, Collinson Hall. We worked
this engine at two hundred pounds' pressure, and then
four hundredweight of coal performed the same quan-
tity of work as the five hundredweight at one hundred

and twenty pounds now does. Since the mill was
burnt down, in 1845, I have thought it prudent to
reduce the pressure."

The Pioneers of Steam Culture. — Years since
I had the privilege of inspecting Lord Willoughby
d'Eresby's steam-ploughing in Lincolnshire, worked
by the " California," a portable steam-engine exhibited
in the Crystal Palace of 1851, one of the most perfect
and powerful portable engines I ever saw. Again, we
are much indebted to the Marquis of Tweeddale for the
Yester steam-ploughing, which ought to have convinced
the agricultural world long ago not to be afraid of ex-
posing a heavy subsoil to atmospheric influences. Then,
Mr. Usher, of Edinburgh, has strong claims on our
thanks and sympathy, when we consider the large sums
he expended on producing his steam cultivator. Expe-
rimenting is no joke. I believe that to perfectionate
these implements has cost the inventors a fortune of
many thousands.

Comparative Value of House and Steam-
power. — We are much indebted to Mr. John C. Mor-
ton for his able paper on the cost of horse-power, in the
Royal Agricultural Society's last Journal; but, if I bad
any doubt before, that paper has convinced me that
horse-power is at least from 50 to 100 per cent, dearer
than steam, where the latter can be brought to bear. If
manufacturers were asked even to make the comparison,
they would ridicule the idea, and tell you that but for
steam you could be neither clothed, housed, nor fed.
What a manufacturer wants and uses, is " power,"
cheap, untiring power ; and is this not exactly what the
agricultural cultivator requires ? Now, you can never
get combined or continued power with horses in any
number. When first the mole plough was tried on a
stiff clay in Essex, before the introduction of the capstan,
upwards of 30 horses were attached to it, and a very
Babel of confusion ensued. In their struggling attempts
at uniform draught, the outsiders compressed those in
the centre until a cloud of steam arose from the excited
and oppressed animals. Compare this with the tranquil
grandeur of a twenty, fifty, or five-hundred horse-
power engine. In comparing horses with steam, we
could only allow a horse to work full collar, tcithout in-
termission or rest, for four-and-half hours : that
would be an ample day's work, and it would cost 2s.,
because a large well-fed draught-horse cannot be kept
for less than ^30 per annum. Let us see what my own
steam horse costs working ten clear hours per day, full
collar, and my engine is not of the latest improvement,
having been in use ten years. The exact measure of one
strong horse-power in steam is the evaporation of six
gallons, or sixty pounds of water, per hour. My own
engine evaporates fifty-four gallons per hour, and there-
fore, gives nine horse-power, working ten hours per day,
which is equal to eighteen real horses working five hours
per day.

I burn half-a-ton of dust coal, at 9s £Q 4 G

Cartage 0 1 G

£0 6 0

Horse-power would cost £1 7 0

One labourer at 2s. per day manages my engine, feeds

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

507

it, and cleans it. How much more would it cost to
attend on eighteen horses ? I could enlarge upon this
comparison in exlenso, but in these days it is only in
agriculture that such a question would be entertained,
and I must say I feel humiliated that my friend Morton
in his recent exiellent paper has taken so favourable a
view of the endurance and availability of horse-power
as compared with steam. In the great Cornish pumping-
engines, which are considered as the most economic in
combustion, coal being dearer there, three pounds of
coal per hour will produce one horse-power; so that as-
suming that four hours' incessmit work would exhaust a
horse for twenty-four hours, twelve pounds of coal,
costing five farthings (or twenty shillings per ton), would
do as much work as a horse which costs 2s. This is no
exaggeration. Even the common portable agricultural
engines — which are far less economical in fuel than the
fixed condensing engines— will, when in perfect order,
produce a day's work equal to one horse-power for
twenty-four pounds of coal, or twopence half-penny.
The trials of these engines by the Royal Agricultural
Society, as reported by the judges, show a consumption
of about five pounds of coal per horse-power per hour.
A very respectable miller assured me that he once, for a
wager, ground two hundred quarters of corn with four-
teen shillings and sixpence worth of coal, which would
be under two-pence per quarter, or about one farthing
per bushel, and I know that with the common Cornish
boiler, and noncondensing high-pressure engines, the
ordinary fuel for grinding is only one penny per bushel.
How the increased population of this country could be
fed, had we to depend on wind, water, or horses,
is beyond my comprehension. We see, in fact, that
almost everywhere a steam-engine is attached to the
wind or water-mill, and, in addition, we have great
steam-mills at many of the railway stations. Consider-
ing that a vast number of steam-engines are worked
night and day, it may be fairly estimated that one horse-
power worked twenty-four hours is equal to the labour
of six real horses for the same period. Take an Atlantic
steamer, that steams unceasingly night and day, and
suppose her power to be one thousand steam horse,
you would require six thousand real horses to do the
work ! ! To imagine what space so many animals
would require, their food, water, attendants, bedding,
harness, and shoeing, seems an impossible absurdity,
and yet, practically, when a farmer uses a horse where
ho might use steam, he is in an equally ludicrous and
unprofitable embarrassment. This brings me to the con-
clusion—

On how Small a Farm will a Steam-engine

PAY, and what has A StEAM-ENGINE TO DO ON A

Farm ? — When I speak of the general application of
steam-power in agriculture, I assume an improved and
profitable condition of agriculture, very different from
that which unfortunately generally exists ; but let me
take a well-regulated and a well-drained farm of two
hundred acres or less, making five score of meat per
acre (I make more than ten score, the labourer makes
thirty-two score), there will be plenty to do to grind
corn, crush oats, break rape-cake, cut and steam chaff,

thrash and dress corn, pump water, and, if opportunity
offers, work irrigation pumps ; and if you add to this the
cultivation of the soil, an eight-horse-power engine will
not have rxiany holidays. It is a great convenience to
your neighbours to send in their corn to you, to be ground.
I find that in this way the money I receive in grinding for
others pays for all ray coals, so that my engine only
costs the wear-and-tear and attendance, and still does
all my work, irrigation included. Since harvest I have
ground more than three hundred quarters of corn for my
pigs. When your engine rests it eats nothing, I find
that by treading down the chaff, cake, &c., when
steamed, and thus preventing the access ofair, itwill
keep sweet and hot for a week or more, according to the
bulk of the mass, and the animals like it better. On
a farm of two hundred acres there ought lo be at least
two hundred tons of straw, to cut into chaff, and to be
steamed by the waste steam from the engine. The
time will come when we shall warm our bullock-sheds
with steam in cold weather, as the manufacturers warm
their mills, and in summer it would pay well to drive
a circulation of air by a fanner through the cattle-
houses, and not a fly will be seen there, nor any disease.
There is no doubt that during summer much beef could
be and should be made by bullocks comfortably warm,
untormented by flies or excess of sunshine ; but then
all this implies a manufacturing adaptation of means to
an end, which will involve a system of intelligent re-
construction in our farmeries. All this will come when
our doubled or tripled population will demand twice
or three times the amount of meat now produced on our
little island.

Steam on Small Farms. — There is no reason why
small farmers should be deprived of the benefits of steam
cultivation ; already some spirited individuals in our
district, who are owners of nearly a score of steam-
engines, execute the thrashing and Fowler's plough-
draining over an extensive district, at a fixed price per
acre, and I know that they are about to carry out steam
cultivation on the same terms.

Gain in Time and Opportunity by Steam-
culture. — Although, irrespective of the above consi-
deration, steam is much cheaper than horse-power, the
question of cost becomes insignificant in comparison
with opportunity. Nothing can illustrate this better
than the words of Mr. Smith, of Woolston, in one of his
recent letters on the use of his steam-cultivator. He
says : " I have shown that two hundred and twenty-five
acres of heavy clay require the work of an eight-horse
]>ower engine forty-five days. I find from practice it
would require thirty-five horses to perform this work in
the same time, i. e., five horses for three hundred and
fifteen days, the whole of a year ; this, of course, does
not include what can be done by the apparatus in the
spring and summer." In other words, as a farmer of
two hundred and twenty-five acres would only have
eight or nine horses, three-fourths of his stubble-lend
would be unbroken during the forty-five fine days of
August, September, and October. It is only the
chemist of agriculture who can suflSciently appreciate
the enormity of this loss of aeration, evaporation, filtra-

508

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion, and consequent fructification.' If the consolidation
of stiff clays in damp weather by pressure renders tbem
infertile by the exclusion of air, which I practically
know to be the fact, the opposite of this, by steam cul-
tivation in dry weather, must be a great gain. Mr.
Smith's comparison of horse and steam power confirms
my own calculation, that four hours of imremitting
draught, without a rest, is an ample day's work for a
horse. In the midland counties, where the barbarous
practice of four hoises in a line and two drivers still
exists, the ceremony of turning at the headlands, the
alternate coaxing and threatening to get the horses into
working condition, consumes no end of time. Even
in our own well-ploughed pair-horse county, I have, on
a fine May tranquil morning, been highly amused by
the colloquy, if I may so term it, between a pair of
knowing fat horses and a good-natured but indif^nant
ploughman, as the ejaculations of "Boxer and Wioiet,"
" worree," and " Hike, come hither," came ringing on
the morning air, the horses taking especial care to re-
serve their effort to pull for the ploughman's last burst
of indignant excitement, sometimes accompanied by a
small clod : stern, untiring steam will destroy much of
the poetry of agriculture, and give it a Manchester
character.

The Great Economy of Steam-power is proved
by the Judges' report of comparative trials at the
Chester Show : Hay cut into chaff in 3 minutes, 1 28ibs. ;
roots cut for sheep, 314 lbs. ; ditto for bullocks, 620
lbs. ; ditto for ditto, 1,278 lbs. ; roots pulped, 4901bs. ;
thick oilcake, broken, 165 lbs ; corn winnowed,
761 lbs. ; corn dressed, 400 lbs. ; wheat thrashed and
dressed in 13 minutes, 200 sheaves; barley thrashed
and dressed in 5 minutes, 100 sheaves. I know that
such results as these could not be obtained by ordi-
nary farm-labourers, because in these trials the machines
and men are well "up to tho mark," every energy
strained to the utmost, and the engines in first-rate
order ; but even making an allowance for these circum-
stances, steam is, indeed, a wonderful economy. Every
farmer ought to study the Judges' reports in the Royal
Agricultural Society's Journals. The trials of steam
cultivation are as follows : Fowler ploughed six inches
by nine (equal to three-horse work), one acre per hour
at a cost of 9s. 2d. per acre ; and trench-ploughed an
acre twelve inches deep and fourteen inches wide, at
183. 4d. per acre. The gain over horse-power in the
latter case was enormous, as I know practically. Messrs.
Howard of Bedford's Smith's steam-cultivator for the
two operations of cultivating and cross-cultivating, or
smashing up to the depth of from six to seven inches,
gave a charge of 14s. per acre, which was considerably
cheaper than horse-power. I have reason to believe
that both these implements have since been working
^vrn more effectively and economically on ordinary heavy-
land farms. On our railways 240 tons can be carried
one mile for two-pennyworth of coal, and three minutes'
time of the stoker, guard, and engine-driver. Compare
this with horses on the common road at 7d. per ton per
ijpile ! which would amount to £7,

Dhainaqe and Irrigation effected by St«am.

— The great fen district of the Bedford Level, once a
swamp of 200,000 acres, owes its value and fertility to a
steam-power of 1,200 horse, which, distributed at inter-
vals towaids the coast, works enormous pumps or
wheels, which, creating an artificial fall, by raising the
water, cause an outfall for the drainage. Some of these
engines throw up 120 tons per minute. Again, the
great Whittlesea Mere, a sort of inland sea, is now a
garden of cultivation, having been pumped dry by
Appold's steam pumps, such as we saw at the Exhibi-
lion of 1851. These lands, like the great Bedford
Level, are preserved from inundation by steam-power
always acting or ready to act. — "Elton, Ouudle, 19th
April, 1859 : Sir, — I beg to acknowledge the receipt
of your letter of the 15th. The Appold Pump, at
Whittlesea Mere, drains upwards of five thousand acres
of low land, exclusive of the water-shed from the high
lands, which will include four or five hundred acres. The
engine, pump, and buildings, including extensive piling
for foundations, cost ^f 2,500. (The drains and ditches
are not included in this sum.) The cost of the first
three years' working and repairs — 1851 to 1854 — ave-
raged one shilling per acre. In 1852 the newly-formed
banks broke, and one thousand acres of land were inun-
dated. This had to be pumped out, and the average of
the cost was raised by this circumstance: 1855, 6d. per
acre; 1856, 8d. ditto; 1857, lOd. ditto; 1858, 8d. ditto.
This includes coals, repairs of engine, engine-man'^
wages, oil, &c., &c. The quantity of water raised six
feet is 16,000 gallons per minute. The lowest lift is
four feet six inches, the highest ten feet. The engine
works now about three days a-week, and runs four or
five hours per diem — not consecutively, but at intervalsj
the supply of water not being sufficiently rapid for the
discharge by the centrifugal pump. There is no publi-
cation containing these facts ; you are welcome to them.
— I am, sir, your obedient servant, John Laurance."
This is an instructive communication. If we add to
the Is. per acre 5s. or 6s. for annual interest of the
drainage, we have the average value of one bushel of
wheat, as the charge of converting a lake into a fertile
field ! ! Messrs. Eaton and Amos are now making
Appold's pumps for the West Indies, capable of throw-
ing or raising 30,000 gallons of water per minute ! I
mention this to show that you must bring your minds
to the consideration of artificial drainage combined
with irrigation for even your stiff clays. The drainage
of the country, by wells for steam-engines, by large
water supply for your towns, by railway tunnels and
cuttings, by the removal of trees and fences, and, above
all, by the evaporation of a great and deep arable cul-
ture, are causing you a diminished rain-fall, which may,
in time, render irrigation by steam a necessity for your
grass lands and root crops. I know of much sea-
walled land now in a state of nature, that might be pro-
fitably improved by steam drainage and irrigation. It
must not be forgotten that much of the manure placed
in our land finds its way in solution to our rivers and
brooks, and that what we look upon as pure water con-
tains the most valuable elements of our manures. Hence
the value of mere water for irrigation ; end I am aBtonished

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

500

that Professor Voelcker, in his Paper on Sewage Irriga-
tion, in the last number of the "Royal Agricultural
Society's Journal," attaches no value to 50,000 gallons
of water per acre, or a rain-fall of more than two inches.
As a farmer said to me the other day, " If you can't get
water, you can't get grass "; and he was quite right.

Saving of Food by Steam Culture.— A diminu-
tion of one- third or more of our hoi-se-power would set
free for the food of man a vast extent of our soil. If
the horses of agriculture consume the produce of oiie-
fifth of its available area, it follows that something like
2,500,000 acres would be gained for food for the
population. Spackman estimates the farm-horses at
1,500,000 — in my opinion far too large an estimate,
seeing, on arable farms, that we have only one horso to
twenty- five acres. Every hundred acres of arable land
require four horses, and each horse consumes the pro-
duce of five acres, or the food of seven men. I consi-
der that steam for cultivation, grinding, and thrashing,
chafF-cutting, pumping, &c., would economise two-fifths
of the horse-power of the farm.

Warmth of Soil gained by Deep Steam
Cultivation. — We all know that heat and moisture
are the two elements of decomposition and of rapid
growth, as shown in tropical countries. Deep and
loose cultivation tends to this'result — possibly the action
of light may also be important. One cause of the rapid
growth of market-garden vegetation is depth of cultiva-
tion, combined with the subterranean heat of decompo-
sing town manure ; and wherever there is heat, moisture
is attracted. The necessity for a more perfect cultiva-
tion is obvious ; even on a fallow you may pick up small
hard knobs or clods, which, on breaking into fragments,
exhibit a little treasure of unexplored and unavailed-of
territory, confirming the great Jethro Tull's principle
of infinitesimality in cultivation. I have great faiih in
Crosskill's clod-crusher, in very dry weathei', for un-
locking obstinate clods. Might not that heavy tool bo
drawn by steam? It would only require guide-
wheels, &c.

Town Sewage applied by Steam. — I have so
often enlarged upon the vital importance to this
country of sewage-irrigation from our towns, that I will
only say to my brother-farmers — Consider the value of
a daily folding on the land of twenty- eight millions of
well-fed human beings (or sheep), and add to this all
the animal deposits in our towns, and various other
waste products, and you may then fairly estimate how
much you lose by permitting these treasures to flow
away to the sea. Let it be '* willed" by agriculture,
and the engineering difficulties will vanish. Thirteen-
fourtecnths of the excrement of human beings and
animals are the urine ; so that it is in a condition to
flow away, even without the addition of water. Watford,
Rugby, and other towns will bear witness to the facility
with which this operation may be effected ; but it must
be done by steam power, and that is why I mention it in
this paper. The question will very soon force itself to a
solution ; for in spite of filtration, the fluid from our
Board of Health works poisons our rivers in summer,
That solution muat inevitably be a filtration through an

agricultural soil, from which the nastiness of our towns
and cities will re-appear in the more acceptable form of
food for their inhabitants. The great privy question
must be talked about and dealt with, in spite of our
delicate sensibility. The question of the application of
the sewage of our towns to agricultural fertilization is
one that is gradually forcing itself upon public attention,
anil is dependent on the use of steam.. The very fact of
a large water supply to our towns will compel its appli-
cation to the soil, or your rivers will become sewers.
There are no cesspools now from which it may be
taken in carts to the land. The Board of Health at
Croydon are in a complete fix in Chancery on this ques-
tion. The anglers on the pellucid river Wandle willnot
receive it, and the landowners are bringing their action
because they will not have their land fertilized by it,
however agreeable and profitable it may be to the
tenants ; where, then, is it to go .' When I stood over
the tanks at Croydon, into which flowed the nastiness of
23,000 people, and reflected on that estuary which is to
po ;r into the Thames at one point the abominations of
2,800,000 living beings, besides that of tens of thousands
of animals, I almost trembled for the result. Take this
Croydon aff"air as an example of the facility and cheap-
ness with which irrigation may be effected by steam
power. A single engine, consuming fifteen shillings-
worth of coals every twenty-four hours, raises one mil-
lion gallons of water, and then forces it through a 12-
inch pipe to a tank a mile distant, and 150 feet above
the engine. Now it is quite clear that about the same
power and the same size pipe would re distribute sub-
terraneously to certain hydrants on the fields the
said quantity of water when enriched with all the good
things of Croydon.

Agriculture compared with Manufactures.
— Spaclvman, in his " Occupations of the People," esti-
mates the agricultural interest in land and tenants'
capital for the United Kingdom as ^2,000,000,000, or
twenty-five times as large as the manufacturing interest,
w'oich he estimates at i?78, 000, 000, Although I think
this is exaggerated, there can be no doubt that agricul-
ture is by far the largest interest in the kingdom. But is it
the most intelligent and unprejudiced .' I think not. If I
were to test this comparatively, 1 should estimate it by
the amount of steam power which it employs relatively
to the other great producing interests of the country.
Let us see how the matter stands. So far as I am able
to obtain approximate estimates—

Horse-power.
Manufactures employ 150,000 steara-engines

of an average power of 20 horses 3,000,000

Railway locomotives, 7,550, lOOhorse

power 755,000

Murine engines, 2,000, of 100-horse power 200,000

Our armed steam navy, 450 ships 100,000

Agriculture, only 6,000, 8-horse power. . . . 48,000

Now, if Mr. Spackman is right, agriculture should
employ millions of horse-power, instead of only 48,000.

In these days, I take the use of steam to be the
measure of progression, intelligence, and profit. What
is there in agriculture so complicated or difiicult that
steam could not master ? I saw in Manchester, the

510

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

other day, two 18-horse power engines, which cost a
thousand pounds, employed entirely in packing bales,
and working the hoists or lifts which carried the men
and cotton goods from floor to floor. The hydraulic
squeeze given by steam-power caused a bale to be packed
in three minutes, which, by manual labour, used to re-
quire fifteen minutes. Time, surely, is money as much
in agriculture as in any other industrial occupation.
Taking the average of farms at the ordinary depth of
cultivation, the number of steam-engines required would
be enormous for cultivation alone ; but if our clays are
(as they ought to be) moved to a depth of two or three
feet, then, indeed, great will be the requirement of
steam power. As our ordinary depth of cultivation is
under five inches, and as our little island is sea-girt,
tripling or quadrupling our depth of cultivation would
be equal to an immense extension of territory, without
additional rent, tithes, or taxes. At present, in our
stiff" undrained clays, all below five inches is a terra in-
cognita, unseen and unavailed of, as is shown by the
" going off"' of the crops in April and May.

Steam Estimates. — In estimating the probable
amount of steam-power used generally in our various
industrial manufacturing and commercial operations, I
have to tender my thanks to my official and other friends
for the kindness with which they have placed statistical
facts at my disposal, and for the information which they
have otherwise aS"orded to me. I have been assured that
in a circle of twenty miles in and around Manchester
there are 50,000 steam-engines ; if so, agriculture owes
a deep debt of gratitude to Manchester, which I hope
she will repay by similar means. I lind that every fifty
miles of passenger-railway employs forty locomotives.
The number of miles travelled on our railways in 1857
was over seventy-four millions ; the average consump-
tion of coke, 34Ibs. per mile. A very great economy
has lately been eff'ected by the use of coal : the furnace-
door is left open, and the air rushing in, strikes against
a deflecting-plate, which throws it on the surface of the
fire, and causes perfect combustion without smoke.
This is a hint which might be availed of in our agricul-
tural portable engines. The air has much the effect of
being blown on the coals by a bellows. Flame gives
much more heat than red-hot coke.

Conclusion. — Apologising for the length of these
remarks, I hope you will think with me that I have
proved that steam is not only an advantage but a neces-
sity for agriculture, and that it has not been sufficiently
availed of. A great responsibility attaches in this
matter to those in high places who have large estates.
We know, especially where there is only annual tenure,
that a landlord is much looked up to by his tenantry,
and that there is somewhat of a patriarchal character in
their relations. So long as that exists, a heavy respon-
sibility rests with the lord of the soil ; his example and
encouragement are required, and almost demanded, in
this matter of steam. It may be necessary for men to
exercise a gentle despotism in the removal of prejudices,
which arc often very strong in agriculture. How all
this may be done is easily explained by a reference to
the late great Mr. Coke, of Norfolk, who converted a

poor tenantry and a miserable estate into the opposites
of farming wealth and greatly increased rentals. We
have modern examples of this, such as Lord Lonsdale,
the Duke of Bedford, and many others, who combine
investment, improvement, and encouragement with
honour, profit, and progression to themselves, to their
tenantry, and to their country. There is plenty
of room for such examples to be followed in
our at present half-farmed country. The mere value of
steam to agriculture in the sawing and preparing of the
timber of an estate is considerable ; and I remember to
have been delighted, thirteen years ago, with the work-
shops and machinery of the Duke of Bedford, at Wo-
burn, whose farmeries, cottages, and hedge-rows are a
standing censure on the general agricultural non-
improvement of this kingdom. In conclusion, agricul-
ture has been, in the matter of steam, backward, mis-
calculating, and ungrateful. The statistical compari-
sons which I have made are humiliating for British agri-
culture ; and when I say agriculture, I mean landlord
as well as tenant, for property has its duties as well as
its rights. When I see that landlord, tenant, and
labourer are indebted to steam manufacture for cheap-
ness and abundance in almost every necessary they pos-
sess, both mental and physical, I do consider that com-
mon gratitude should induce them to adopt similar
means to feed abundantly and cheaply the enlightened
manufacturing population to whom they are indebted
for those benefits. My agricultural friends may think
me somewhat severe in these my observations ; but they
are our best friends who tell us of our faults ; and 1 only
enforce what I practise, and practise profitably, too. I
shall, therefore, hope to receive their forgiveness for
this my contribution to their agricultural literature.
Pleased, indeed, should I be to see agriculture so perfect,
that "Othello's occupation would be gone."

PRACTICAL OBSERVALIONS ABOUT STEAM ENGINES.

I have annexed a few of my practical observations and
convictions about steam-engines, for the information of
those who will take the trouble to read them. They are
as follows :

Fixed or Portable Engines. — There can be no
doubt that fixed engines are more economical and dur-
able than portible engines. 1 have had one in use ten
years, and it is nearly as good as the first day I had it.
There is much less wear and tear in a fixed engine than
in a portable one. Bringing home the corn in the sheaf,
at harvest-time, in Hannam's carts, is quite as econo-
mical as stacking and threshing in the field, and after-
wards bringing hume the loose straw, chaff, &c. But,
if we cultivate by steam, we must have portable en-
gines ; and then, when used for stiff" work at the home-
stead, they should be fixed in a strong frame or support
to prevent oscillation. Every thing connected with
steam-power should be firm, steady, and free from
trembling movement. So important is this considered
in our manufacturing districts, that their buildings are
most substantial. For Mr, Salt's 500-horse power en-
gine at Bradford, 1,200 tons of stone, bolted and fixed
as one mass, were required as a foundation to hold the

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511

monster firmly. Our old agricultural buildings would
be racked to pieces by steam-power. It would do far-
mers good to see the unerring movement of our manu-
facturing machinery, all smooth and steady. A well-
finished engine is almost as finished as the works of a
watch, and as far as possible should be kept free from
dust, grit, or rust. This is the case in our manufactur-
ing districts, where the engine has a room to itself, as
clean as a drawing-room. Farmers who use steam
ought to know something about it, and I would recom-
mend their adopting Messrs. Ransome's instructions,
ably given in the last number of the " Royal Agricul-
tural Society's Journal," which every farmer of 150
acres would find a profit in subscribing to. Mr.
Williams's plan of avoiding smoke is worthy of in-
spection, and may be seen at Messrs. Redpath and Co.'s
foundry, near the Stepney station. A five-pound note
will save much waste and nuisance, and give increased
power. Mr. Fairbairn's test of safe boiler-pressures is
as follows: he says — "The following table, deduced
from my own experiments, exhibits the safe working-
pressure and the bursting-pressure of boilers of different
diameters, calculated for an external shell of a thickness
of fths of an inch :

Diameter of Boiler.

Working Pressure.

Bursting Pressure.

Feet.

Id.

Lbs.

Lbs.

3

0

118

708-4-

3

6

101

607

4

0

m

531

4

6

78|

472

5

0

70|

425

5

6

642

386i

6

0

59

354

6

6

54i

3261

7

0

50|

303i

7

6

47

283i

8

0

44

265|

8

6

41i

250

Taking from the above table the strength of a boiler 7
feet in diameter, we find its bursting pressure to be
303ilbs. per square inch." There are certain practical
matters in relation to fixed engines which are worth
knowing. I therefore consulted the following books
with much advantage : " A.rmstrong on Boilers, "
" Williams on Combustion ;" I have also " Dr. Alban
on High-pressure Steam," and " Craddock's Lectures
on the Steam-engine." This information and my own
observation have induced me to come to the following
practical conclusions upon certain points connected with
fixed steam-engines not multitubular :

Furnace. — That there should be one square foot of
fire-grate for every horse-power. That the fire-bars
should be at least two feet below the boiler-bottom.
That the space above the bridge should be equal in area
to thirty square inches for every foot of fire-grate.
That the flues in every part, and the opening into the
chimney, should have an area of thirty square inches
for every foot of fire-grate. That the furnace-plate
and fire-door should be pierced with thirty half-inch
holes for every foot of fire-grate, a defiecting-plate
being placed in the furnace. That the boiler should
have at lea^t niae feet of heating surfftce to ever ioo\, of

fire-grate. That there should be very little stoking, and
no smoking. That it would repay well to read Wye
Williams on Combustion, Dr. Alban on High-pressure,
and Armstrong on Boilers, all published by Weale,
High Holborn ; also Craddock's Chemistry of the
Steam-engine, by Simpkin and Marshall. That loco-
motive or multitubular boilers generate steam quickly,
but are difficult to clean, and soon wear out. That
Cornish boilers are less safe for high-pressure than flue-
boilers, unless very carefully supplied with water ; but
if kept filled with water, and the steam taken from
another boiler or vessel attached to and above them, as
in Mr. Collinson Hall's plan, then I consider the
Cornish boiler perfectly safe and most economical. That
flue-boilers, having a length of three times their dia-
meter, are simple, durable, and safe. That we should
have Sylvester's trap-doors at each end of the centre and
every other flue, so as to cleanse them when required.
That rushing air, like rushing water, will travel quickest
through a smooth clean flue free from sharp angles or
rough obstructions. Mr. Fairbairn has recently dis-
covered that, in long thirty feet flue-boilers, the flue is
of only one-third the strength of the outside shell, al-
though of the same substance. His remedy is simple
and effective. This deficiency of flue strength does not
exist in boilers under ten feet in length. He says — " If
we take a boiler of the ordinary construction, thirty feet
long, and seven feet in diameter, with one or more flues,
three feet or three feet six inches in diameter, we find
that the cylindrical external shell is from three to four
times stronger in its powers of resistance to the force
tending to burst it, than the flues are to resist the same
force tending to collapse them. This being the case in
boilers of ordinary construction, it is not surprising that
so many fatal accidents should have occurred from the
collapse of the internal flues, followed immediately by
the explosion and rupture of the outer shell. To remedy
such evils, and to place the security of vessels so im-
portant to the community upon a more certain basis, it
is essential that every part should be of uniform strength
to resist the forces brought to bear upon it. The equali-
zation of the powers of resistance is the more important,
as the increased strength of the outer shell is absolutely
of no value, so long as the internal flues remain, as at
present, liable to be destroyed by collapse, at a pressure
of only one-third of that required to burst the envelope
which surrounds them." That feed-pumps should have
a vertical action, with a wide piston and short slow
stroke, experience having taught me the inconvenience
of a long thin piston and rapid horizontal motion.
Perreaux's vulcanized India-rubber valves are infallible.
That it is desirable to have a supply of water well-
heated by the waste steam passing around it before
pumping it into the boiler. That all bearings for
rapidly-revolving shafts should be very wide, so as to
diminish friction by pressure, and admit of lubrication.
That great care should be taken not to bind the shafting
by over-screwing the brasses. That all riggers should
be turned perfectly smooth, so as to make the driving
(Straps bind on them, by excluding air. That all bear-
ings «ho«lcl be well supported and frea from thg least

M M

512

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

vibration, and that shaftings should never be long enough
or thin enough to whip when at work. It is this which
causes driving straps to come off. That the foundation
of your engine should be solid and sufficient. I think I
read that Mr. Salt's great engine, at Saltaire, Bradford,
required 1,200 tons of stone for its foundation. That
our manufacturers in Manchester, Leeds, &c., evince
their appreciation of the necessity for extreme accuracy
in their machinery, by the ponderosity of their build-
ings. That our tumble-down farmeries are often unfit
for the vigorous attachments of mighty steam. That
great mistakes are made by bricklayers, engineers,
and others, in the erection of engines, flues, and setting
boilers. (See Armstrong on Boilers and Williams on
Combustion.) That it is very desirable one should know
something practically about the matter in which we are
so much interested — practically, so as to detect or pre-
vent erroneous operations. That your boiler should
always be of two or more horse-power than your engine,
and that both should be well master of their work. That
the absence of glass water-gauges and the mere use of
steam-cocks, too common in many of our manufac-
tories, is a dangerous and costly neglect, often resulting
in accident, or in the burning of the boiler plates, and
interruption of the works. That all high- pressure
engines should have a Bourdon steam-gauge, and also a
mercurial steam-gauge. 1 am a believer in Craddock's
theory of explosions, and also in Dr. Allban's proposi-
tion, that there is mnch less ebullition with high-pressure
than with low-pressure steam, the steam bubbles being
infinitely smaller by greater compression. That we owe
a debt of gratitude to Mr. Wye Williams, who has taught
us to prevent smoke and economize fuel, and who has
also enlightened us on the circulation of water in steam-
boilers. That the steam-chamber, or steam portion of
the boiler, should be enveloped in a heat greater than
its own temperature, but not sufficient to make the
boiler-plates of too high a temperature. That excessive
heat in the ash-pit, red-hot fire-doors and furnace-
plates, and over-heated fire-bars, indicate either the
absence of a sufficient supply of air to the upper portion
of the fuel, or inadequate draught or flue room. That
multitubular boilers have their joints loosened by too
intense heat passing inside the tubes. That such boilers,
when attached to, and above, a Cornish boiler (as in Mr.
Hall's case), do not suffer injury, but utilize the heat
which passes through them. The advantages of high
pressure, great expansion, and rapid movement of the
slide, are fully availed of in the locomotive ; there the
pressure is often 140 lbs. per inch, the steam cut off at
l-24th of the stroke, and the stroke or slide movements
very quick. The effect of all this is admirably explained
by Dr. Allban. The rapid and almost continued exit
of the steam ciuses a vacuum in the exhaust-pipe, and
thus relieves the piston of a large portion of the pres-
sure of the atmosphere, whilst the gain from expansion
at 140 lbs. pressure per inch is very large, as shown in
Craddock's tables. It must be borne in mind that com-
pression of steam costs us nothing more than the
expense of a somewhat stouter boiler. It costs no more
fuel to produce steam at high pressure than in an ordi-

nary open copper {vide Armstrong). When travelling
on the Great Northern by express, the engine-driver
told me he worked his engine at 140 lbs. pressure per
inch. The most economical management I know of
with high-pressure steam, not condensed, is that prac-
tised by Mr. Collinson Hall, of Prince's Gate, Romford.
He works three pairs of mill-stones at a cost of five
shillings per day for coals. This may be considered
equal to eighteen-horse power, or thirty-six horses per
diem. His pressure is 120 lbs. per inch, worked ex-
pansively. The peculiarity is having a multitubular
boiler fixed above, and attached to, a Cornish boiler,
the heat passing through and then around both boilers,
including also the steam space. I very much admire
the economy and safety of the arrangement, the Cornish
boiler being always full of water. In fact, Mr. Hall's
success is partly owing to his superheating the steam in
his upper boiler. No doubt you are aware that this
principle is being acted upon extensively by the Penin-
sular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, who
hope to save some 30 per cent, on the £700,000 which
they pay annually for coals ; the subject is well worthy
the attention of agriculturists. Some years ago the
American government caused a commissioner to report
on the suggestions of Mr. Frost, an Englishman, on
super-heated sleam, and confirmed his views of its
economy. We all know that a very slight degree of cold
diminishes the expansion and pressure of steam, and it
is easy to comprehend that the opposite of this increases
its power ; p'actically I have acted on this principle for
some time, by allowing my last flue to encircle the steam
space of my boiler : a beat of 650 degrees has no inju-
rious effect in this respect. No doubt it was this consi-
deration that caused Mr. Hornsby to place his cylinder
in his boiler; and I think Messrs. Tuxford place
theirs in the smoke-box. A fearful loss of power
is often occasioned by exposing a long supply steam-
pipe to atmospheric influence. Cornish boilers are
dangerous for high-pressure, if the upper surface
of the internal flue is uncovered or only slightly
covered by water. The danger is at starting, when the
water rises over the red-hot portion of the flue ; it is
like plunging a red-hot mass of iron into water. Many
a new good Cornish boiler has been ruined by the stoker
raking out a red-hot fire, and thus suddenly exposing
the boiler to a full blast of cold air from the open door.
The sudden and unequal contraction starts the rivets,
and makes the boiler leak. I have been told that the
admission of cold air through the furnace-doors, on
Williams's plan, is apt to affect Cornish boilers. Pro-
bably a deflecting plate would prevent this. All sudden
and violent changes of temperature are injurious to
boilers.

Mr. J. A. Williams (Baydon, Hungerford) wished
to offer a few remarks on this subject, it being one in
which he had taken peculiar interest. It was seven
years ago since he first commenced applying his mind to
the question of steam-cultivation, and he was now con-
vinced that nothing scarcely had a more direct bearing on
the improvement of agriculture. Four years ago he in-
troduced before the members of that club the question of

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513

the general application of steam-power to agricultural
purposes, and though he was considered at the time to he
taking a rather aerial flight, his predictions had since been
fulfilled. He thought he could not better illustrate the
subject before them than quoting a small portion from
the paper he had the pleasure of reading before them
four years ago that very night, on the same subject, and
with the permission of the Chairman he would do so : —
" Lastly, I shall place before you a statistical account
of the immense benefit the nation at large would derive
from the practical accomplishment of this herculean
task. Several years ago Mr. Couling, in his survey,
estimated the number of cultivated acres in Great Britain
at 46,522,970, and the number of uncultivated acres at
15,000,000. Now, we all know that an immense number
of acres has been broken up since — probably a million ;
but I will content myself with adding to Mr. Couling's
estimateof cultivated acres less than half a million, viz.,
477,030, which will make 47,000,000, assuming that
that number is under cultivation at the present time.
I must here add, that Mr. Couling is a high authority
in this matter, having been quoted by Sir Archibald
Alison in his ' History of Europe' — by Mr. Porter,
and others. The next conclusion that I wish to arrive
at is the number of horses necessary to cultivate 100
acres. For my own part, I have ever been of opinion
that it would require four. I have asked scores of prac-
tical men, and they all agree with me as to the number
required. But we have now something more than mere
opinions — we have the statistical returns made by 1,100
tenant-farmers of Scotland, and by alarge majority of
the farmers of the counties of Norfolk and Hampshire ;
and although these returns cannot be considered per-
fect, yet for this purpose they are sufficient, seeing that
as far as the returns extend, the number of horses men-
tioned represent the exact number kept to cultivate the
number of acres returned. The Highland Society of
Scotland have made a return from 1,100 tenant-farmers
of the number of acres they occupy, and the number of
horses they keep. The return gives, to 3,431,485 acres
of cultivated land, 156,595 horses employed. This is
2,182 over 4^ for every 100 acres ; and as the Scotch
acre is larger than our own, the result is not far from
what I have stated. The county of Hants has returned
603,219 cultivated acres, and 24,076 horses kept thereon,
being 52 less than 4 to every 100 acres — also corro-
borating my opinion. The county of Norfolk returns
621,833 cultivated acres, and 30,334 horses to work
them, being 5,462 over and above the number before
alluded to. There can be no doubt, then, that if I fix
the horse-power necessary to cultivate the land of Great
Britain at 4 to every 100 acres, 1 cannot be far wrong ;
and, taking the number of cultivated acres before stated
at 47,000,000, and multiplying them by 4 to every 100,
I arrive at the enormous quantity of 1,880,000 horses
kept for the purpose of tilling the soil ! If I multiply
the number by 30, the probable average value of each
horse, it will give the astounding sum of ^€56,400,000 !
Now, as to the annual cost to maintain this number of
horses. They cannot, in my opinion, taking the prices
of the past year, be kept for a less sura than £30 each,

to which must be added £5 per horse for casualties
(depreciation), wear and tear, shoeing, and harness.
There are various opinions as to the cost of maintaining
ahorse for a twelvemonth, but in ninety-nine cases out
of a hundred it is all assumed. By not reckoning
strictly everything horses consume, people are led to
suppose that they can be kept for a less sum than I have
named ; but where a regular account is kept the case is
different. Reckoning, therefore, the maintenance of
each horse at ^30, the annual amount is the same as
the cost price before mentioned, viz., £56,400,000 !
It now remains to consider what portion of this horse-
power could be dispensed with, provided steam could be
applied as a substitute ? If the bulk of the soil could
be tilled by steam, I am inclined to think half the horses
might be spared bj stacking the corn in harvest where
it grew, as I mentioned at the commencement of my
remarks ; but, as I wish to keep within bounds, I will
only take a third, which would amount to the number
of 626,666 and a fraction, and then the annual cost of
maintaining them would be £18,800,000, which would
be saved, not only to the farmer, but to the kingdom at
large, inasmuch as the food previously consumed might
and would be turned to a better account. I have been
often asked, ' If you do away with your horses, what
will you do for manure ?' The question might as well
be put, * What will you do ivith the food the horses
would consume ?' As this is the last and most interesting
part of this question, let me state, though I shall proba-
bly astonish some of my hearers in doing so, the amount
of animal food which could be produced with the farm
produce thus saved. It will be seen, from the above cal-
culation, that by dispensing with one-third of the horse-
power necessary to cultivate the soil, a saving in corn
and fodder would be effected to the amount of
£18,800,000. Now, if I take the price of beef and mutton
at 7d. per lb., or 4s. 8d. per stone of 8 lbs., the food
so rescued from consumption by the horses would pro-
duce, assuming that they would not be fed at a loss,
80,571,500 stones of meat; or 805,715 oxen, of 100
stones each ; or 8,057,150 fat sheep of 10 stones each."
He rejoiced that the subject had now been taken up by
many practical farmers, and that so great were the im-
provements which had been effected in machinery, that it
was in the power of any farmer of ordinary intelligence to
use the agency of steam with advantage. It was no longer
a question whether or not steam could be applied to the
cultivation of the soil ; it was so applied, and any man who
walked over land where the steam-cultivator had been
used, however prejudiced he might have been previously,
could not but admit that he never saw work performed
so well by means of horse-power. If by the use of
steam they could avoid the enormous cost of horses — an
expense which he thought was rather underrated than
exaggerated by Mr. Mechi — the farmer must be pro-
portionately benefited; and while he was benefited, the
nation vrviM bo so, in the production of an increased
quantity of iood. As regarded the economy of horse-
power, it seemed to have been overlooked that there were
52 Sundays in the year, and that on those days the
horses consumed without yielding any return, He

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514

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

knew he might be told that rest rendered them better
fitted for work ; but to that he would reply, that the
steam-engine would eat nothing en Sundays while it
would be quite as ready as the horses were for work on
the following day (laughter). If 70 days were set
down for Sundays and wet days, there were virtually
ten weeks lost, and reckoning the cost of a horse's food
at only 10s. ptr week, there was about £^ per aianum
entirely lost. Multiplying the £b by 8, that being the
number of horses required for a farm of 200 acres, there
alone was a balance of £\(i per annum in favour of steam
as opposed to horse-power. Steam might be applied for
a great variety of purposes in agriculture. When he
read his paper before the club, he was laughed at, for ex-
pressing his conviction that a steam-engine might be em-
ployed in grubbing up a hedgerow. He would again
make a short quotation from his paper : — " From what
I have seen of the power of the machine which I have
constructed, I feel convinced that it might be applied to
many purposes. For instance, if I had sufficient time,
I meant to have used it to grub a hedge-row ; and I feel
confident that with the engine attached, it would pull up
the roots in the same manner that a dentist draws teeth."
Now, he had since applied steam successfully for such
purposes as that. With a five-horse engine he had pulled
up more than a mile of hedges, and no grub axe would
do the work so well. By the ordinary mode of grubbing,
it often happened that nearly half the roots were left in
the ground ; but there was no such defect where a steam
engine was used, and he should be happy for any gentle-
man present to come and witness how beautifully the
work was done on his own farm. He had also pulled
down hundreds of trees by means of the same agency.
As regarded bis steam- cultivator, he must say that its
performances exceeded any that had been possible pre-
viously to its invention. The other day a gentleman visited
his farm when he was cultivating thesoil with two engines,
a six-feet grubber going one way, and a six-feet broad-
share going the opposite way ; and after the soil was
broken up, he pulled a two-foot rule out of his pocket,
and pushed it with ease ten inches into the ground. That
showed what might be done by means of the steam-
cultivator. In conclusion, he would observe, let every
farmer who wished to engage in that kind of operation
take care that the tackle, or whatever might be used as
a medium, was that in which the power could be best ap-
plied and economized ; in other words, let him see that
the power of the engine was really applied, to the fullest
extent practicable, to the implement, and not lost in
running a number of pullies, and from an indirect
draught. To use a large engine to draw a small machine
was a great mistake in an economical point of view.
There was one subject which he wished to mention ere
he sat down, as regarded economy. He had no doubt
himself but their agricultural engines would in a few
years be made locomotive. He had brought a model of
an engine to show that Boydell's argument, that the
ground was the fulcrum of a locomotive engine, was cor-
rect; and it was of the greatest moment that the subject
should be settled amongst engineers, as a great advan-
tage would be lost if the power to propel an engine
should be applied in the wrong place.

Mr. Fowler (28, Coinhill) had listened with great
interest to Mr. Mechi's paper, and considered it
well worthy of the attention of farmers. He agreed
with that gentleman that the average depth of cultiva-
tion on the heavy lands of this country was from 4 to 5
inches, hardly ever exceeding 5. Four horses were
equal to a draught of about 6 cwt., supposing them to
be in first-rate condition ; but perhaps 5 cwt. was about
the average, and with the best assistance on the part of
the labourers, 5 inches was the outside depth of cultiva-
tion on heavy lands. By steam-power, on the other
hand, they got a draught of 30 cwt., which was about
the utmost draught that could practically be applied to
the land. Moreover, they got by means of steam an
entirely new system of cultivation. There was many a
farmer who would not farm heavy land on any account ;
but he believed that with steam power such land was
worth double what it was without that auxiliary, owing
to the simple fact that six times as much power might
be applied as could be previously. In heavy-land cul-
tivation a ten- horse engine would accomplish three miles
an hour, and do the work of 40 horses ; and unlike the
horses, it would do its work without at the same time
injuring the land. As regarded the economy of horses,
he would remark that with steam cultivation he had
seen only six horses employed where twelve used to
be employed, and ten horses where fourteen horses and
fourteen oxen had been used. If an additional number
of horses was required in the autumn, it would be easy to
purchase them, and if they had afterwards to be disposed
of, the season would be at hand when horses were in great
demand. He did not suppose that the time would ever
arrive when the use of horse power on farms would en-
tirely cease, but he believed that there would soon be a
great diminution in the numbers employed throughout
the year. As regarded the practical adaptation of
mechanical appliances to steam, his own impression was
that, after a series of experiments, which were exceed-
ingly costly, the manufacturers had arrived, as it were,
at a standing point, and that they could now offer to the
farmer a machine which might be worked well with a
moderate amount of skill, and also of wear an 1 tear ;
and the meeting would agree with him that on the
mechanical appliances must depend the question how
far steam might be made to supersede horse-power.

Mr. Halkett (80, Chancery-lane) said — As Mr. Fowler
has been so good as to allude to my system of steam cultiva-
tion, and Mr. Mechi haa done me the houour to refer to it in
commendatory terms, allow me to make a few remarks upon
the subject. My system consists of laying down raila over
the farm, the cultivating implements, and carts for the carriage
required on the farm, travelling upon these rails. Both the
following advantages are thus gained to an extreme — the
softest and deepest bed for the plants, and the hardest road
for the passage of carts and implements. Under the present
system of agriculture, the ground being more aud more cul-
tivated by the modern requirements of deep and fine tillage, of
which we have heard so much to-night, is becoming more than
ever an unfit medium for the economic cartage of the farm ;
whilst, on the other hand, the trampling and pressure in cart-
age, and all the]_other operations of the'year, annuls, as well
as man can do it, the effect aimed at, of keeping the ground
in a state tuitablelo~the plants. Again, the system aiiurci

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515

a perfect operation of the implements, the raila forming the
guidea, and thus all the operations of the field are enabled to
be brought under the power of the steam. Let us now see the
value of these advantages in other operations, besides those of
ploughing, grubbing, subsoiling, rolling, harrowing, &c., which
I do by steam. On some lands, after a long continuance of
dry weather, followed by perhaps two days of rain, and again
fine weather, the surface is dry, but underneath the soil is soft
and deep : the whole is as tender as possible, and might
almost be hoed with a feather. The gardeners will at once
stir and hoe the ground, bringing up the black mould in strong
contrast with the fresh green plants ; for the weeds will now
spring into rapid growth. And if the farmer can yet go upon
his land without injuring the plants, he requires many days to
hoe them, whilst in a short time the surface becomes again
hard and caked, and covered with weeds ; or perhaps more rain
will still further delay the operation. But on my system I can
hoe from 150 to 200 acres in twenty-four hours with the
greatest precision, without putting a foot on the land. So
again with seeding — I am enabled to seize a favourable
moment in the weather for crumbling the earth fine, or
for putting in the seed. In twenty-four consecutive hours
150 or 200 acres of land may be drilled. The manner of
carrying out the various operations I will not allude to to-night.
I refer gentlemen desirous of examining the subject to the
profossional papers of December, 1857, read at the Freemasons'
Tavern, and of 1858 before the Society of Arts. But allow
me to draw your attention to parts of the subject not before
discussed. Let me, for instance, consider a rotation of crops,
taking first the grasses. Inasmuch as by my system the car-
riages run upon the rails, the economic advantages are so
great thit I am enabled to cart water, and distribute it on the
land at Is. per acre, giving about 3,000 gallons on that space.
Secondly, I am enabled to mow by the machine at less than
Is. per acre ; and I can cart the large crops which some of the
artificial grasses will yield, if watered and repeatedly cut. at
an equally reduced charge. If this be considered, it will be
seen what a large head of cattle may be supported with summer
food, besides raising a great quantity of manure. The root
crop also, for the reasons before stated, of better cultivation,
and from the great abundance of manure, will yield much
larger crops — and an increased quantity of meat will thus be
raised — whilst the land being richer, the cereals also will bear
heavier crops. When, independent of all these advantages, it
is found that I can cultivate land at £1 per acre less than
it can be done at present, after paying all expenses for interest
and renewal, will it appear strange that if the profits afi'ord
thus a very large interest upon the capital laid out, I should
look for the system to be adopted as a matter of course ?
The amount of the money required is of no moment at all ;
in fact, the greater amount the better, if the interest be
large, and upon what security can a man expend capital
better than on land ? All that is wanted is, to ascertain that
the system is true. I grant there is a difficulty at the present ;
for the farmer who takes the greatest interest in my system
(and there are several present here v/ho I beheve will corrobo-
rate my statements of the work done) is not willing to lay out
capital on his landlord's property ; whilst the latter does not
sufficiently appreciate the system to risk its adoption. But
when proved, money may be borrowed for the purpose, the
same as for drainage ; or a landlord, receiving say £2,000
a-year, by selling a portion of his land, will he enabled to lay
down the remainder on this system. And if he then receives,
after paying for renewals, a net income of £4,000 a-year, there
is but little doubt that his example will be followed wheresoever
it can be.

Mr. Acton (The Temple) expressed a hope that all these
improvements would not have the effect of displacing manual
labour in the cultivation of the soil, and an apprehension that
the landlords would take advantage of them for the purpose of
raising rents (cheers and laughter). He trusted that such
schemes were not more injudicious than solid, or more curious
than wise (laughter).

Mr. CoLLiNSON Hall (Navestock) believed that Mr. Acton
might dismiss his fears with respect to the labourer. He (Mr.
Hall) had applied steam more extensively, perhaps, than any of
his neighbours, and yet he employed more labourers than his
neighbours, with the further advantage that he had a higher
cultivation and produced a greater amount of food (Hear,
hear). His own desire was to see the working-man less la-
boriously employed with his body and more actively occupied
with his mind (Hear, hear). He believed the time would
come when the farmers might reduce their horse-power one-
half; but it would not be advisable to do that until their land
was in a higher state of cultivation than it was at present.
Let them keep both engines and horses until it was in a better
state of cultivation. With regard to the use of high pressure,
many years ago he saw that there was a difficulty in profitably
introducing steam into agriculture, inasmuch as farmers es-
timated the cost of their horses at half-a-crown a-day,
whereas in commerce a horse cost five shillings a-day ; and,
whilst an agricultural labourer was considered to be worth
one-and-eightpence aday, a workman in Manchester would be
worth five shillings a-day. Consequently, if he burned the
same proportion of fuel that was consumed in Manchester, he
had cent, per cent, against him to make it profitable. He
came to the conclusion, therefore, that in order to make steam
profitable, he must get as economical machinery as he could,
and that he ought to consume the smallest possible quantity
of fuel. At that time he paid lis., and went six miles for
the fuel. That made the cost of the fuel nearly double. The
problem he had to solve was. If a certain amount of power
came out at 501bs. pressure, what power would come out at
2001b3. pressure ? In conversation with many practical en-
gineers he found that most of them differed from him ; some
few only gave him encouragement; none would make his
engine (laughter), inasmuch as they (eared it might damage
their reputation if they manufactured what was so completely
theoretical, and any accident happened. He was, therefore,
obliged to construct it in his own farmyard. In 1851, he
commenced an engine of 2001b3. pressure, then another of
3201bs. pressure, without any accident, for the simple reason
that the power was relative to the strength. He took care, if
he went much beyond the point to which engineers had pre-
viously gone, to go still further relatively with the strength,
and he maintained that with his 3201b8. pressure he had
greater security than was obtained from the ordinary strength
they had been accustomed to. Of the fact that the applica-
tion of steam to the cultivation of the sod would increase the
produce there could be no question. With regard to the
prospects of the future, Mr. Smith had told them, as the result
of his own experience, that there was a difference of one
quarter of corn per acre between steam and horse culture. He
believed that would prove to be correct, and in that caee it
would be impossible to doubt the great and solid advantages
of steam. In conclusion, he bogged to thank Mr. Mechi for
the very sound and enlightened views which he had pro-
pounded that evening upon the subject. (Cheers).

Mr. Beale Browne (Andoversford) said they must all
feel indebted to Mr. Mechi for his able and useful paper, and
he congratulated his friend Mr. Williams upon having lived
to see his pet-child attain to such a stage of maturity. He

516

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

could also deservedly commeud Mr. Towler for the utter
absence of all peraouality, which characterized the tone of
that gentleman's remarks. There was, he (Mr. Browne) be-
lieved, no man, who had anything to do with agriculture, who
would not soon highly value steam cultivation. He would
like to see it applied to almost every operation on the farm —
ploughing and cultivating the land, taking out the manure,
sowing the seed, cutting down the corn, bringing home the
harvest-waggons, and so forth ; and he could not help thinking,
from what he had seen at Salisbury the year before last, that
a part of the lion's share would, after all, fall to the trac-
tion engine (Hear, hear). One part of Mr. Mechi's paper
which had much struck him was the allusion to the depth
at which a parsnip had grown on Mr. Dixon's farm. Now
that he fully believed, and it proved that they could not culti-
vate the soil too deeply for roots. No one could calculate
how deep they might go. On the other hand, his experience
with regard to the cultivation of corn was, that if his land was
clean, the less the depth of cultivation the better. All he
wanted was just a seed-bed, whether for wheat, barley, or
oats, Mr. Mechi had compared the amount of steam em-

ployed in agriculture with that employed in manufactures. He
himself was somewhat of an amphibious animal — he had had a
great deal to do with manufactures as well as agriculture, and
he did not think Mr. Mechi's comparison was altogether a fair
one (Hear, hear). At the present moment we were only in
the infancy of the application of steam to agriculture, and to
make the comparison fair we ought to look forward a few
years ; and he believed that whoever amongst themselves
lived twenty or thirty years would be perfectly amazed at the
amount of capital which would then be employed in steam-
cultivation. He thought that when farmers saw their way a
little more clearly they would not be very far behind manufac-
turers in the use of steam (Hear, hear).

Mr. Mechi, in reply to Mr. Browne, asked why agricul-
turists had been so long blind to the advantages of steam
when manufacturers had had their eyes wide open? He
would forgive them, however, if they would only make haste
to follow the example of the manufacturers (laughter).

Thanks were then voted to Mr. Mechi for his paper, and to
Mr. Thomas for presiding, and the meeting separated.

THE USE OF MALT LIQUOR IN HARVEST WORK.

Sir, — A few days since I found myself enjoying the hos-
pitality of a gentleman in Bedfordshire, a county magistrate
and landed proprietor, who was desirous of influencing the
farmers in the neighbourhood to abandon the practice of pay-
ing part of the harvest wages of their labourers in malt liquor
instead of money. We numbered about fifteen Bedfordshire
farmers, the chairman of quarter sessions, a retired captain in
the army, and a neighbouring clergyman, besides some visitors
from a distance— one a well-known London minister— and four
farmers from various parts of the country, who having tried the
proposed innovation themselves, were invited to meet their
brother-farmers in this manner for discussion upon it. After
a pleasant social meal, the question for the evening was intro-
duced by our host's saying it was not to be a temperance meet-
ing, but a friendly conversation on the advantages, in a busi-
ness point of view merely, of abandoning the use of malt
liquors in harvest, or at all events of giving them as part pay-
ment for labour done. Then a Gloucestershire farmer, a tried
and trusty advocate of this reform, gave his opinion, that not
only were these drinks useless but pernicious, to a hard-worked
harvestman. He had worked when a young man as much as
any one : he knew both sides of the case, and he had no liesi-
tation in declaring that the labours of the harvest-field and the
stack-yard could not be conducted to the best advantage unless
ail intoxicating beverages were abandoned ; and this statement
he supported by numerous facts, arguments, and anecdotes of
his own experience. His advice was that the men should be
naid in money only, and left to provide themselves with such
beverages as they chose : his own men used cocoa principally.
An animated discussion followed : questions were asked, ob-
jections started and replied to, difiiculties removed, and the
evidence of the other farmers from a distance candidly con-
sidered ; but, in the language of the police reports, it tended
only to corroborate that of the first witness. Some further
particulars were, however, elicited, showing that modifications
may be advantageously introduced, according to the special
circumstances of a case ; as where the men are working a great
distance from their owu homes, it is an advantage to have tea
or something similar provided for them by the farmer oa the

spot, or at the least to have a facility afforded for obtaining hot
water.

As to the finances of the subject, it appeared that by the
adoption of this plan, a saving of from 8d. to Is. 2d. a day
might be effected, which, it was agreed, the men ought to re-
ceive the full benefit of.

The most important testimony, however, was that given by
two of the Bedfordshire farmers, who stated they had seen the
experiment tried to a limited extent during the past year by
one or two men in their employment, who, they admitted,
did their work as efliciently without beer as with it, saving
more money for the use of their families, proving more valuable
servants to their masters, and more respectable and worthy
members of the community.

More than three hours having been spent in this way, we
again surrounded a well-spread table, and soon after separated,
an impression having evidently been made in favour of this
new doctrine on many minds, and in some cases the determi-
nation to give it a fair trial was fully expressed.

It is to be hoped that, tor the first year at least, some special
effort will be made by those who adopt the plan to remove any
prejudice that may exist in the men's minds with regard to it.
The great point is to let them clearly see that it is intended
for their advantage, even more than for that of their masters.

Trusting that you will think this to be a matter of interest
to your readers, and that it may encourage others to "go and
do likewise," I remain, Sir, yours respectfully, Y. H, N.

"THE USE OF MALT LIQUOR IN
HARVEST WORK."

Sir,— A friend has sent me a letter under the above title,
signed " Y. H. N.," which appeared in a late number of
your journal. Will you permit me to direct the attention
of the writer and his friends, who take so warm an interest
in this deeply important subject, to a little work published
by Houlston and Stoneman, London, in 1 848, the production
of a distinguished man, who occupies the position of phy-
sician to the Queen— Dr. John Forbes? It is entitled

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

517

" Temperance and Teetotalism. An Inquiry into the
Effects of Alcoholic Drinks on the Human System, in
Health and Disease."

In this little work, which is sold for the small sura of
three half-pence, is to be found a large amount of most
valuable information on the very points discussed by
" Y. H. N." and his friends, at that interesting meeting to
which his letter refers, all tending to prove in the most
convincing way, not alone the value of, teetotalism as a sus-
tainer of health and strength under the most varied and
severe employments, but the positive injury done to the
working man by the use of alcoholic stimulants.

Dr. Forbes's illustrations are taken from agricultural and
other labour both at home and abroad, in temperate and in
tropical climes, and I do not think any canded inquirer
could avoid being deeply impressed with their force. In-
deed, tlie teachings of science, as well as of experience, are
all in favour of an entire abandonment of the use of intoxi-
cating liquors by men in health ; but those teachings are
more than neutralized by the desire for these stimulants
which the use of them creates.

While writing, I am interrupted by a lady, whose simple
story is but a repetition of the sorrows which many have to
endure from the cruel cause to which I am referring. She
resides in London, and has come over to Dublin to try and
save her brother, who has lived in this city for several years»
where he has had employment as a clerk and commercial
traveller, but who has become addicted to habits of intem-
perance. Her only hope of saving him lies in getting him
away from the temptatioa, which has often (although he is
but 33 years old) proved toQ strong for his resolution to
amend. She would wish to place him— and he is willing to
go himself — on board a temperance ship.

Are we teetotalers me re visionary enthusiasls when we
appeal to our countrymen on behalf of such sorrowing ones
as these ? Is such misery to exist in our midst, and to an
extent which it is appalling to contemplate, and must we
plead in vain when we appeal to the sober and the intelli-
gent to aid us eifectually in banishing for ever from our
land so great a curse as the liquor traffic ?

Excuse this digression from my main object, which has
been caused by the affecting circumstance I have narrated.
A young lady has come all the way from your great city on
this errand of affection ; but the craving for an accursed
stimulant,/ed hy the heartless liquor traffic, will, I fear, defeat
her purpose.

Such meetings for discussion of the subject as your cor-
respondent refers to, will, however, do much good. By-
and-bye the light of truth will break in upon the thick
darkness which yet surrounds us, and the voice of a united
people will prohibit the common traffic in poisons which
blast the fairest human prospects, and which, in return
for all the misery they inflict, have not even one single bless-
ing to place in the opposite scale.

Both employers and their men yet need enlightenment
on this subject ; and it is with a view of pointing out to
inquirers trustworthy evidence to guide them to sound con-
clusions, that I recommend to their notice the little pamph-
let I have referred to : it contains a mine of information on
the subject.

Working men need be under no apprehension that injury
to their health will result from their disuse of strong drinks.
Two thousand physicians of the United Kingdom have
signed the following declaration : — " Total and universal
abstinence from alcoholic beverages of all sorts would greatly

contribute to the health, the prosperity, the morality, and
the happiness of the human race."

Stronger Avords than these could not be penned to prove
the inestimable value of teetotalism. What have we on
the opposite side.* Nothing— nothing but appetite and
folly. A distiller, with whom I was once arguing the
question, said to me, " We'll place the folly of mankind
against the wisdom of mankind, and we'll beat you teeto-
talers ten times over."

This is the simple truth of the matter : folly is our
destroyer, and it confounds the wealthy as well as the poor,
the learned as well as the ignorant become powerless when
they allow appetite to get the mastery over reason.

For a quarter of a century moral suasion has been put
forth energetically in these kingdoms to stem this torrent
of evil, and it has done much good; but, as the flood rolls
on still, the energy of the people is aroused to stem it effec-
tually by the added force of legislative enactment. The
traffic is doomed, and however great the wealth and influence
of its supporters, it will fall, and fall soon, I hope, amid the
rejoicings of the entire nation. The British Lion is aroused,
and he v/ill overthrow this his greatest eaemy, and it will
be the most glorious victory he ever gained.
I am, sir, respectfully yours,

James Haughton.

35, Eccles-street, Buhlin, April 29.

LEGISLATIVE OBSTRUCTION TO AGRI-
CULTURAL PROGRESS.

Sir, — Although the British farmers have astonished all
the world by their forwardness in agriculture, which has
been greatly delayed, long checked, and obstructed for the
wantof tenant-right, aZiasjusticebetween landlord and tenant,
which the Mark Lane Express has for years been trying to
obtain, at the same time has been proving the game laws
are a great hindrance and injury to all good farming,
many farmers would be glad to know what our Parliament
has done for the British farmers to benefit or enlighten
them. Long speeches, and nothing in them, say they, is
murdering time. The farmers require short speeches, with
a great deal in them, alias a great deal in a little ; instead
of a little in a great deal of froth. But it is, as it was in all

ages:

" Zeal for public good with men are rare ;
But for self-interest that's the chiefest care."
Does our Parliament keep pace with the times ? The old
adage says, " Go to war with as many as you can, and
with a few to counsel."

I have read of Ancient Greece being well governed by
seven wise men. Suppose a grandee, alias China gentle-
man, were to ask our English legislators how many acres of
the staff of life does England produce yearly, they would
find themselves at as great a loss as an Ethiopian, Tartar, or
Arabian. Let the farmers mind whom they depute to get
their grievances redressed, that they do not turn round upon
them and be their greatest grievance.

The immense waste of the sewage of London, whichjif
properly applied is worth £3,000,000 yearly, shows that
our Parliament has not kept pace with the times, and
has checked progress in agriculture. Tenant-right has
worked well in North Lincolnshire, and is a fine example
to all the world. It is vain and ridiculous to say that justice
between landlord and tenant would not work well in any
county or kingdom. Samuel Arnsby.

Millfield, Peterhoro", April 26ih, 1859.

518

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE PUPIL SYSTEM.

Without abandoning the position taken in our last
letter respecting the impropriety of farmers presuming
to undertake duties they are either disinclined or incom-
petent to fulfil, it may be as well, perhaps, to express
our conviction that parents and guardians are quite as
much to blame in this matter as the gentlemen who re-
ceive young men.

This disposition in parents, however, to place their
sons with any one rejoicing in the title, "practical
farmer," results too frequently from ignorance as to the
present nature of llie farming business, and the character
of those acquirements needed by such as follow it for a
livelihood. That old notion, that farming is the only
alternative for a blockhead, is yet prevalent, and creates
a practical difficulty to the management of this question,
which can only be reduced and dispersed when a juster
view is taken of the science of cultivation, intimately
related as it is to the other sciences. Mr. Bond, in his
valuable paper read before the Central Farmers' Club, says
on this question — " Agriculture, as a purely imitative art,
fifty years ago, required no depth of art even in its best
qualified professors. There was nothing in a simple
course of routine to tax the mental powers, But within
the present century how marked the change ! We have
now the widest field — the most extended scope for in-
tellectual exertion ; we have now the whole of Nature's
laws opened up for our investigation and research.
There is scarce a science but bears directly or indirectly
upon the art by which we live ; and for a rational fulfil-
ment, and a thorough comprehension of agricultura'^
practice, I know of no profession at the present day re-
quiring a deeper knowledge or a higher degree of intel-
lectual attainment."

No view can be more just than this ; but until the
view becomes general, or at least until it becomes the
decided opinion of those who afiect to give instruction
and of those who desire to obtain instruction for their
sons or wards, no wide improvement may be expected
in the education and discipline of the young farmer.

We have seen that for a young man to be withdrawn
from school, and exposed to those inducements to indo-
lence which characterise life upon a farm, is most in-
jurious. He may turn out a good man of business ; but
the chances are that he will not. It cannot be right to
leave a youth at that age to his own resources without
stimulant, supervision, or direction.

Now, is it likely that agricultural colleges will serve
our purpose, by continuing to exercise that discipline in
a modified form, from which the boy escapes when he
leaves school ? We consider that they would tend to
further the end in view, and particularly if they were
better adapted to the class they are e-tablished to edu-
cate.

Cuuld we have ten or twelve district colleges in Eng-
land, each with a staff of professors competent to deal in
a practical and efficient manner with animal physiology

and the veterinary art, chemistry, geology, botany, sur-
veying, and book-keeping, a great step would be taken
towards creating a system which would be productive of
large and permanenl results.

The present system — we refer to that pursued at Ciren-
cester— affords a defective model. The course there is too
desultory. The majority of the young men who leave that
establishment greatly remind one of the celebrated clock
at Strasbourg, which was made to perform a wonderful
variety of feats beyond simply indicating the time of
day, all of which were nearly right, but none certainly
correct.

Students should gain an entry to such institutions
through the examination-chamber, a process which will
prove that their scholastic attainments are sufficient to
enable them to enter upon the superior studies without
detriment to others, and with advantage to themselves.
It seems to us scarcely the province of such colleges to
teach reading, and arithmetic, and Latin, &c. ; and yet
so neglected frequently has been the education of those
laJs who go to them, that such a practice is indispen-
sable. None should be admitted under sixteen years of
age. Tlie course should consist of a certain number of
sessions, terminated by a final examination, at which
a species of honorary degrees might be conferred. Atten-
tion should be strictly confined, as we said before, to
the few essential sciences, the laboratory and the hos-
pital being visited daily. And with respect to the hos-
pital, as a knowledge of the veterinary art is of un-
doubted importance to farmers, we think it would be as
desirable to establish as it would be easy to conduct
one; for every neighbourhood could furnish subjects,
and none are so attached to the antiquated cow-leech
as to deter them from availing themselves of the skill of
some distinguished practitioner, especially if the charge
made only included the keep of the animal during treat-
ment.

The advantage of a farm attached to institutions such
as these is very doubtful. Considered as commercial
undertakings, the loss would usually be upon the side
of the farm. Supposing them to be well located in
light land, and heavy land, and grazing districts, the
farming thereof, together with peripatetic lectures there-
upon, might inform the students quite as efficiently as
the oversight of a model collegiate farm.

In these suggestions, we have purposely placed theory
— or, to be more correct, science — before practice ; not
that we undervalue practice, but because we value it
perhaps more than those who would place it first. We
must know what has been done, before we can do what
is to be done in the best manner ; and what is this but
science? Science gives us data. Pure science is built
upon self-evident truths ; but the term " science" is ap-
plied also to other subjects founded ongenerally acknow-
ledged truths, as metaphysics; or on experiment and
observation, as chemistry and natural philosophy. And

THE FARMER* S MAGAZINE.

519

if this is true, certainly it does seem more logical to
learn a truth before we attempt to apply it. Would
people exercise a little more patience in endeavouring
to know what they wish to do before they seek to do it,
the world would be troubled with fewer false conclu-
sions, and the confusion that accompanies them.

Besides, it seems natural to suppose that the compre-
hension is so enlarged and quickened by such discipline,
that, in dealing practically with the elements surround-
ing it, it is enabled, by the light of previous knowledge,
to combine, and classify, and apply them with wonderful
celerity. The details of farming management are very
important. We do not underrate them, because we
know that the farmer's profits are extracted from the
hundred little sources, implying an amazingly quick
supervision on his part, rather than from any one great
source. Still we do maintain that the well-informed
and active mind is better fitted to comprehend and deal
with these petty details, even in many ways we need not
stop here to explain, than is a man not so previously
trained, all things being otherwise equal.

The reverse of this would never do. Two years upon
a farm before such collegiate course would just unfit
young men for study ; but such study would not unfit
them for practice, any more than it does the surgeon or
the soldier. What is the meaning of this loud cry for
increased education, if it does not mean that educa-
tion is so to inform his mind and quicken his perception
as to make him a better labourer, a better artisan, in
fact, a better man of business ? Yet our young men are
trained in a way that contradict the reachings of sound
sense. Without any knowledge of the varied and compli-
cated relations of the materials with which they have to
deal, they are pushed precipitately into close connection
with them, and expected to raise a building towards the
making of whose bricks they have been refused the
straw.

It seems very absurd to superintend the process of
nutrition in ignorance of the principles of nutrition, or
in absence of an acquaintance with the theory of cultiva-
tion to undertake its practice. And yet this is done
every day ; and men seem disposed to purchase their
experience in the dearest market to be found.

Those who give a thought to middle-class agricultural
education, will at once perceive that it is easier to advo-
cate the establishment of Agricultural Colleges than to
establish them. Those who have played with such
visions upon their bed, and arisen to transform them to
fact, have knocked their shins against the difficulties of
the undertaking, and retreated with a zeal as eager to
recede as it was to advance.

The belief as yet in scientific training for those who
are to farm the land of England, has but a very shallow
root-grasp in any part of the country, while in some
districts it has never been introduced. When we think
of what will have to be accomplished before it becomes
general, or at least so general as to produce a college
system, a most profound faith in the good sterling sense
of our generation is necessary.

Well, the produce of our fields is not stored at once ;
sheaf by sheaf the stack is formed. And so it is with

all great undertakings, little by little, till the whole
stands erect in its perfectitude. Men will not be pushed
beyond the measure of their light. It is of no use
attempting to make an Englishman, and particularly a
stout British yeoman, consent to what he does not
understand ; though he is Jewed now and then by cattle
foods and artificial manures. We mean, however, that,
as a rule, the class in question will not advance beyond
the turning that is illuminated by their own knowledge.
But though they are cautious they are spirited, and once
shown the right way, they do not hesitate to follow in
it. It is not long since two young men embarked their
capital and talent in what was considered a very
hazardous scheme, for the manufacture of steam portable
thrashing machines. They were cautioned in vain by
the prudent. To them, however, had appeared signs
unmistakeable of an approaching revolution in farm
machinery. They perceived the first movements of a
growing demand which, by a prompt and large supply,
they hoped to increase and to satisfy. They gave a
credit to the class they sought to serve for an enterprise
which the world generally thought them not to possess,
and are now reaping the reward of their discerning
faith. So great was the incredulity of other makers
as to the amount of business they were doing, that
several years after their commencement they were
obliged to authenticate their annual statements by the
appended names and addresses of their customers.
And who would have thought that besides one firm pro-
ducing one engine per day, numberless other manufac-
turers would be set working to keep pace with the
demand ?

And so it will be with middle-class scientific educa-
tion. The farmers of this country only require to have
the notion set before them, that scientific education is
absolutely required to fit the rising generation to fulfil
their duties with profit to themselves and their country,
and to become thoroughly possessed by it, and then we
shall behold a bold and intelligent acknowledgment
given to the claims of agricultural colleges upon their
support. Public opinion is awakening to this necessity.
Chemistry and geology and physiology are daily show-
ing their very intimate alliance with the cultivation of
land, the growth of cereal and other crops, and the
breeding and feeding of all sorts of live stock. Impres-
sion after impression is made upon even the slow-
est minds, and the dullest have long come to know that
there are such elements to be dealt with as nitrogen, and
carbon and oxygen, and that these are bon^ fide ele-
ments of profit and loss, and that the man who knows
most about them is most likely to handle them to advan-
tage. The step from this initial state of progress to that
state of opinion which owns the value of systematic
scientific training, and seeks to obtain it, may be a long
one, but one, if we judge by the advancement that has
taken place within the last fifteen years, which will not
be long postponed.

The Emperor Julian remarked that a man who
derives experience from his own habits, rather than
the principles of some great theory, is like an empiric,
who by practice may cure one or two diseases with

520

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

which he is familiar, but, having no system in theory of
art, must necessarily be ignorant of all the innumerable
complaints which have not fallen under his personal
observation. And our respected practical friends are
fast confirming this gem of Roman wisdom, for they see
that a man who receives facts, and does not reason upon
them, must be peculiarly the victim of quacks. Perhaps
it is because we are so exceedingly practical in England
that we are so proverbially victimized by humbugs of all
shapes. Amongst engineers, that wonderful theorist
George Stephenson fought a memorable battle with the
practical ones, the antediluvians, and non-progression-
ists. It will not be remembered by all of us, but it pro-
bably may by some, that the wig makers petitioned
George III. to cut off his own hair, and wear a peruke,
in order to set the fashion towards wigs. These, surely,
were eminently practical men, and so, too, were those
who resisted the theory of Mr. Arkwright's machinery,
under pretence of throwing the poor out of employ ;
they must have been too practical, by far, to look fur-
ther than their noses, giving the most practical rendering
imaginable to that scripture, " sufficient to the day is
the evil thereof."

But the country has been surveyed in spite of the
stones and pitchforks of the practical ones, and travel-
lers are whirled from London to Edinburgh in 12 hours;
and Arkwright's invention, by finding employment
for some two millions instead of some few thousands of
people, has aroused such a loud demand for an in-
creased supply of food, that we are obliged to resort to
our laboratories for the purpose of developing the hid-
den resources, or stimulating the flagging energies of
the soil. Thus science has enabled us to satisfy the de-
mand, and as we are required to increase our production,
we must inevitably consult her about the means of
doing so.

And consequently starting from what point we may.

we are always brought to the same conclusion, that
science must be combined with practice ; and that
science must come first, and practice last.

But the difficulty is to accomplish this systematised
scientific training. We know it.

While the agricultural mind is forming, and the foun-
dation for our colleges are being laid, what is to bedone?

There is one course that may be recommended, against
which can be urged no insuperable objection — nay,
we perceive many positive advantages likely to arise
from its adoption.

There is a College of Chemistry at Hanover Square,
London, where any youth who wishes it may be car-
ried through a course of analysis ; and with special re-
ference to agriculture. There is in the same city a
College of Practical Geology ; and there is also a Vete-
rinary College, with an extensive hospital. A combined
attendance at these three institutions, two or three
years, would base a young man thoroughly in such
branches as must, in his business career, be of inestima-
ble use to him ; and he would have the benefit of ob-
taining as extensive and thorough a knowledge as he
might wish at any of the three, of the sciences there
taught.

The idea may be novel, but that does not invalidate
its merit. When the Agricultural College as now
conducted do not work satisfactorily, or while such
colleges as those to which we have alluded are being
built--as we have no doubt in time they will be — we
do not hesitate for a moment to recommend this plan,
being convinced that when it is thoroughly executed, and
followed up by one or two years' practical acquaintance
with the details of farm management, upon the best
farms in the kingdoms, there will be produced a race
of men better fitted to supply the increasing demand
for food than will be produced under the regime at
present in force. F. R. S.

THE PRESENT OF STEAM-CULTIVATION.

Sir, — The great question of steam-cultivation ia being
rapidly drawn into closer limits. The first problem— Can the
land be well and effectually worked by steam-power ? — has
been solved by several different inventors, and that now before
us is essentially a farmer's one — Is steam-cultivation prefer-
able to horse-cultivation ? Shall we sell off some of our horses
and implements, and purchase a steam-engine, with its ploughs,
Bcatifiers, &c. ? Inventors and scientific minds labour to in-
duce us to do this, but the farmers, as a body, shrink from the
change they scarcely kuow why. We constantly hear such ex-
pressions as these — " A revolution in farming is approaching "
— " Steam must come "; and many tell us it is " at hand ";
but scarcely any assert that it " has come." There is much
wisdom in this caution ; for it ia no easy matter to look com-
prehensively at the results of a change of system in all its
bearings, to see distinctly those difficulties which are sure to
arise in the adaptation to so different a power; we must be
prepared for the prejudices of the men exhibited in wilful and
unintentional awkwardness, and for the prejudices of the land
too, in the shape of ugly comers and "gores," crooked hedge-

rows and tiresome hills and dales ; and we must meet these
prejudices by careful consideration beforehand, and steady
subsequent watchfulness.

Many farmers are afraid of adopting any one system, lest
a more economical one should be discovered soon afterwards ;
this, with present prices, is something like a drowning man
refusing the aid of an air-belt because he sees a boat in the
distance. If v/e are satisfied that steam cultivation in its pre-
sent stage is economical, let us adopt it, and then we shall be
in a better position in a few years to receive an improvement.

My own farm is, I suppose, about an average one ; there
are some tolerably steep hills ; the soil is part gravel and part
stiff clay ; the fields vary in size from six acres to sixty, all
which considerations have led me to pay especial attention to
the eystems of most general application suited to a tenant-
farmer with a lease and an average amount of capital, and this
must be pleaded as my excuse for passing with very brief
notice one or two plans of great value and ingenuity. For
this reason I must at once dismiss Halkett'a system in spite
of its many beauties and advantages ; the day, probably, will

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

531

come when it will to a great extent supersede all others, but
it will not do for a pioneer iu the hands of the tenant-farmer-
Romaine's, too, must, I fear, be content with the fertile plains,
and leave the hills to others. Fowler's and Smith's appear, to
my mind, the favourites, and to them I shall now confine
myself.

The chief points which should guide us in forming our
opinion are: 1st, the outlay; 2nd, the working expense re-
duced to the cost per acre ; and 3rd, the general application-
First as to the outlay.

smith's.

steam-engine 8-horse power £250

Smith's apparatus, including windlass, anchors, bee-
tles, pulleys, &c ,, 110

Patent turning bow 21

1,400 yards steel rope 60

No. 3 cultivator 16

Implements Nos. 1, 2, and 4 43

Outlay

£500

FOWLER S.

Steam-engine, (8-horse power) adapted to Fowler's

system £305

Windlass, with self-moving anchor, headland ropes,

porters, &c 160

Cultivator 25

Ploughs or other implements , 50

70fl yards steel rope , 30

Outlay

£570

N.B. In each of these cases we might probably reduce the
amount of outlay £200 by the sale of some of our horses.

We may now turn to the working expenses.
smith's.

3. d.

Engine driver Per day. 5 0

Six men at 2s „ 12 0

Horse and cart at water „ 3 0

15 cwt. of coals „ 15 0

5 per cent, interest on £500 „ 1 8

20 per cent, interest on £500 for wear and tear „ 6 8

Total per day £2

fowler's.

Engine driver Per day.

Four men at 23 „

One boy „

Horse and cart at water ,

15 cwt. of coals

5 per cent, interest on £570

20 per cent, interest on £570 for wear and tear

3 4

3. d.

5 0

8 0

1 0

3 0

15 0

1 11

7 8

Total per day £2 1 7

In these calculations I have put down several sums which
can only be approximations to the correct ones, but they will
not materially affect the results, which are all we have to do
with ; and it will be seen that I have at all events given ample
scope on the farmer's safe side, by allowing 15 cwt. of coals
for an eight-horse power engine, and 20 per cent, for wear and
tear; if, therefore, the result is favourable with such assump-
tions, it must be in practice.

We have now arrived at the cost of a day's work under each
system ; the next question is, What will each perform in a
day ? and here it seems to me that much unnecessary com-
plication has been introduced, calculated to create suspicion
iu the non-scientific mind. In both systems we have the
face exerted on the plough, scarifier, &c., in a direct line with
the path of the implement, and iu each we have supposed the
power of the engine to be equal; all, therefore, we require to

know is, how much of that force is absorbed by friction in the
two cases; and surely a few simple experiments made by sub-
stituting a dynamometer for the implement would at once
settle this, and tell us without a shadow of doubt how much
available power is left. Of course the absorption by friction
must be greater in Smith's than in Fowler's : but it may be
greatly lessened by a liberal use of oil, and by increasing the
size of the pulleys at the corners of the fields; but by all
means let the battle of the ropes, the dispute between
the direct and roundabout system be amicably settled by
a dynamometric umpire. Till this is done we must guess at
it as nearly as we can ; and 1 will venture to put down the ab-
sorption by friction in Fowler's apparatus at 1 -horse power, and
in Smith's at 2-hor3e power ; though I should hardly imagine
there would be so great a difference between them. We shall
thus have a tractive force of 7-hor8e power exerted on the im-
plement in the one case, and one of 6-hor3e power in the
other. But the force represented by \-horse power in a steam-
engine is equal to the strength of 1^ horses ; therefore, the
force exerted on the implement by Fowler's arrangement is
equal to the strength of 10| horses, and by Smith's to that of
9 horses; and this, too, exerted uniformly throughout the
day, which must increase the work done enormously ; for who
has not been struck with the startling difference between the
calculated work of a pair of horses ploughing on light land,
and the actual work done? Who has not reflected that,
walking at the regular rate of 2^ miles per hour— including
stoppages and taking a 9-inch furrow — they would plough
rather more than 2^ acres in the day of 10 hours ; while the
work really done seldom exceeds one acre ?

Bearing this in mind, I think we may safely aflSrm that
Fowler's arrangement will accomplish in a day, on light land,
whatever can be performed by 16 horses ; and Smith's what-
ever can be performed by about 14 horses. Assuming this to
bs true, we are in a position to calculate the cost per acre of
our work.

No. of acres ploughed per day, on light land 7

Cost per day £2 3s. 4d.

£2 3s. 4d.
Cost per acre — ^— - — = 68. 2id,

7

fowler's.

No. of acres ploughed per day, on light land 8

Coatperday £2 Is. 7d.

£2 Is. 7d.
Cost per acre . = Ss. 2|d.

Here then we have a very great advantage in point of
economy in steam over horse-labour, when applied on light
land, to the horse's pet-implement, the plough. But this is
a small part of the advantage to be derived from its adoption •
because on heavy land the absence of " treading," the oppor-
tunity of breaking up the land at favourable times, and the
power of going to a great depth, present inducements which
every heavy-land farmer will thoroughly appreciate. The field
on the Prince Consort's Flemish Farm, at Windsor, scarified
by Smith's apparatus last autumn, and ploughed lately by
Fowler's, is a fair illustration of this remark.

It appears then that the time has come when either of these
systems is preferable to the employment of horse-power ; and
we may proceed to make a few remarks on their respective
merits. The difference in the first outlay is not so considera-
ble as to be much thought of; but the expense of the work
done, amounting, according to the previous calculation, to Is.
per acre in favour of Fowler's system, is an important con-

522

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

siiieration. The quality of the work doue is a secondary
matter, because it must depend on the implement used, with-
out reference to the system adopted. For simplicity— which
is a matter of great importance in machinery exposed to rough
weather and rough hands — the palm must certainly be assigned
to Mr. Smith, whether we look at the engine itself or the
anchorage ; and be also possesses great superiority, from the
fact of his engine being generally stationary : for the progres*
of Fowler's engine and anchorage tackle must be a fearful ob-
jection in very stony, hilly, and wet clay lands. As a general
rule, the nearer we approach to the stationary system in heavy
machinery on farms the better, as regards wear and tear and
absorption of power. Let us leave the locomotives for dead
levels and Halkett rails. In small fields and among crooked
fences, I should prefer Smith's, as being more easily fixed and
shifted. Where a field is very uneven, there would be objec-
tions to each from which the other would be exempt ; but
probably Smith's would admit of coaxing, to adapt itself to
the fields more easily than Fowler's.

When we contemplate the great advantages offered to us
by the ingenious inventions and skilful adaptations of Mr.
Fowler and Mr. Smith, we cannot help regretting that they
are unable to meet in a friendly spirit and combine the great
advantages possessed by each, and thus reap a well-earned
reward for their mental labaurs and great outlay by the ex-
tensive sale of their apparatus. The very jealousies of inventors
are beneficial, perhaps, to the public in the long run, by ex-
citing enterprising minds to devise means to avoid the in-
fringement of patent?, and thus to discover unexplored regions
— but they are ruinous to themselves.

I have put forward these remarks in the hope that they
may tend to produce practical results, instead of paper wars.
My own impression is that Fowler's system is more economi-
cal and better adapted than Smith's to farms consisting of
large, square, well-arrauged fields, but that that the latter is
to be preferred for farms of average size, shape, and arrange-
ment. I am, sir, your obedient servant,

W. B.

STEAM CULTIVATION.

Sir,— In my last I went a little out of my way for
the purpose of noting the method in which Smith's
steam cultivating apparatus was handled by one of our
mechanical farmers.

I found steam up, and doing good work with a large
cultivator drawn through a piece of land which had been
ploughed the last time for mangolds. The cultivator
was an old-fashioned one, fitted with the " turning bow."
It took a great breadth, and scarified 13 acres in fine
style during that day.

I passed over some splendid work done by the No. 3
implement a few days before, about which the owner
expressed the utmost satisfaction. He seems wonder-
fully pleased with the " tackle," and very sanguine as
to its success. It has enabled him to take another tract
of land without adding to his stock of horses.

One great improvement I noticed was, that there were
no stoppages on the headlands of the work. This sav-
ing of time was effected by an arrangement of two snatch
blocks and anchors at each turning point. The new
porters were used, which raise the rope entirely from
the ground, and reduce the wear of the strands in a
surprising manner. These rope porters should certainly
supersede those that were at first employed.

I was amused to find that a pair of large drag-
harrows had been drawn by the rope, and that an old
clod-crusher had been rung in the nose and lugged un-
willingly over the great clods.

The steel-rope wears remarkably well. A long reach
of chain intervenes between the eyes of the rope and
the turning bow, to avoid the wear which was found
inseparable from its contact with the implement.

I had a good deal of conversation with the owner of
this apparatus as to the future of steam cultivation, and
I found him prepared to introduce several improvements
in the details. And it is only as this machinery comes
into the hands of such men that it will become fitted for
general use. Every-day work will soon show its weak

points. Field days are never very satisfactory : there is
always so much to allow for, owing to this circumstance
and the other, that conclusions founded upon special
trials must be carefully received. He condemned very
strongly the acrimony which the inventors of the different
systems throw into the discussion of their merits. And
it is sad that men who are avowedly seeking to elicit
the truth, cannot give each other credit for purity of
conduct, but must ever impute the basest motives
possible to their actions. We have no reason to think
that Mr. Smith, or Mr. Fowler, or Mr. Hall, or Mr.
Anybody-else are so bad as they make each other out to
be. They sometimes forget that there is such a thing
as proving too much. As is usual, however, some good
may generally be extracted from every evil ; and so it is,
that out of these personal recriminations most profitable
disclosures are made to the public. It is the worst
policy possible for two of a trade to quarrel ; for
then it is that the tricks of the trade are sure to be
divulged.

Whether we are to plough or to cultivate, let us no *'
fifht about it. Reason must calmly decide. Depend
upon it, the farmers of England will not make it a party
question. That apparatus which performs the best and
most economical work is sure to secure the greatest
sale, be the other Fowler's or Smith's, or whose it
may. And we cannot judge on this point until we
know better the wear-and-tear of Mr. Fowler's ma-
chinery and rope. We have already formed a i)retty
correct notion of what the wear-and- tear of Mr. Smith's
tackle is, because the public has given it a longer and
more general trial. We must wait a bit for results from
the other side, and then strike the balance.

How many a man has made up his mind as to these
two systems, but is still waiting for some great im-
provements ! These improvements will not be made,
let me say, unless the farmers help to bring them about.
They are mainly improvements in detail, which must

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

52S

be suggested by those who use the machinery, being
the fruit of experience. It always requires the com-
bined skill and knowledge of two parties to produce a
good implement — the practical mechanist, and the
practical farmer. The question to be answered is,
Does what we have at present presented to us offer de-
cided advantages over existing modes of cultivation ■?
If so, adopt it. There is a loud affirmative reply given
to this question by all who have used it with discretion.
While those who are in favour of this system are wait-
ing for some improvement in detail, they are losing a
benefit that might be worth to them, in one year, the
entire value of the rope, windlass, tackle, engine, and

all. What I saw upon my friend's farm quite con-
vinced me of this.

There are many observers, many watching the course
of the plough and the cultivator. Let us receive more
frequently some extracts from their note-books. They
should keep the public mind well posted-up in this
matter. The question of steam cultivation is of vital
importance to us ; and we require information upon it
from all sources, and most of all from impartial
sources. Let the partial ones be quiet, and the im-
partial ones make their voices heard.

Yours, A Farmer.

AN AGRICULTURAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE.
TO THE l.ANDOWNERS, FARMERS, AND OTHERS CONNECTED WITH BRITISH AGRICULTURE.

Gentlemen, — In a country like England, teeming with
philanthropy, and exhibiting auch evidences of her greatness
in the profusion of her charity ; where science, the arts, com-
merce in all its extended ramifications, the church, the naval
and military professions cau each point with pride to its
palatial asylum, erected and supported by the bounty of those
whose hearts and purses are ever open to assuage and relieve
the wants and necessities of their suffering fellow-creatures)
where, by their charity, the infant is nurtured, the orphan
clothed and educated, the invalid relieved and cared for, and
the aged, whose only sin was poverty, and whose only crime
was misfortune, is enabled to end his days in comfort. While
in this holy cause millions are annually dispensed, wide-spread
through every class and creed, Agriculture, employing the
largest invested capital, representing as she does the most im-
portant interest of the country, stands out— made as it were
more conspicuou? by its very absence — unrepresented, unable
in such a glorious list to point to any refuge for the unfortu-
nate British farmer, to any asylum where his orphan cau find
a home, or his widow a resting-place. To remove this blot
from the agricultural escutcheon is my object in addressing
you. Why should agriculture, when a whole nation is brimful
with charity, be iu the rear of good works ? Why should not
we, as agriculturists, have our college for the reception of those
of our poorer and less fortunate brethren, and our school
where the poor orphan can be fed, clothed, and educated ?
Such not only can, but must be done, if we are to maintain our
position as au enlightened and advancing section of the com-
munity.

If we reflect for one moment, wherein can we discover a
reason why the plodding and industrious farmer should be
specially screened from the frowns of (ortuue, or those vicissi-
tudes which are the paiuful lot of every other class? why
should he expect to be exempt from that stern misfortune and
bitter poverty which we see so frequently too painfully illus-
trated iu every other department of daily life ? None can say

that his risks are leas frequent, or his chances of success more
certain. Why, then, should he in his suffering and his tribu-
lation be shut out and excluded from the enjoyment of that
support and sympathy which are diffused so profusely through-
out the length and breadth of the land, for the benefit and
solace of every suffering class but his own ? Let us remove
this reproach. Let us assume that place in bo noble and
charitable a list, which the influence and the dignity of agri-
culture demand, and I am assured the bare mfention of such a
project for the amelioration and relief of those who, while
suffering, complain not, will speedily realize such a happy and
much-needed consummation. Towards the fulfilment of such
an object I have received promises of hearty and zealous sup-
port from some of the leading agriculturists and implement
manufacturers in the kingdom (a few of whose names I annex),
who moat cordially sympathise with the suggestion, and I now
solicit from you a promise of support and assistsnce.

As soon as sufticient replies are received, a public meeting
will be held, a committee appointed, and then I have good rea-
son for hoping to secure the recognition and the patronage of
the consort of our much-loved (iueen. Praying au early and
affirmative reply,

I am, gentlemen, yours faithfully,

J. J. Mechi.
Tiplree Hull, near Kelvedon, Essex, April 29.

The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh.
Messrs. Ransomes, Ipswich.
Jonas Webb, Esa., Babraham.
Messrs. Garretts, Saxmundham.
R. Nicholson, Esq., Much Hadham.
Messrs. Howard, Bedford.

[A first list of the aupportera will be published in a few days.]

624

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

ON THE DISEASES OF CULTIVATED VEGETABLES.

[translated from the FRENCH OF THE " JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTORE."]

Sir AND Honoured Colleague, — You have told me
that it enters into the plan of your useful journal to
announce useful publications ; I therefore, for the benefit of
your numerous subscribers, am about to speak of a treatise
on the diseases ot cultivated vegetables, the author of
which is M. Jules Kuhn, economic director of the comtal
domain of Egloffstein, in Silesia. This book, which calls
for all our forbearance, because it is wanting in agricultu-
ral science, bears for title Die KranMeiten der Kulturge-
wceclise. Hire Ursachen und Hire Virputung ; that is to say,
'' The diseases of cultivated vegetables : their causes, and
the means of preventing them." It is accompanied with
seven lithographic engravings, which represent all the
details of the rise and development of the vegetable parasites
so injurious to our large culture.

I have stated that the work of M. J. Kuhn fills up a
blank in agricultural science ; by this I do not mean that
everything it contains is absolutely new. Certainlj', as the
author himself acknowledges in his preface, we possessed
before it an agricultural literature rich in numerous facts ;
but those facts were scattered here and there, waiting a
skilful hand to unite and arrange them. No one was more
qualified to fulfil this task than the author of this vegetable
pathology. Prepared for a length of time by a profound
study of inferior vegetables which live as parasites on culti-
vated plants, and for a long period having had the direction
of the working of a large landed property, he has had the
opportunity of making, at leisure, a long and continuous
application of his botanical knowledge, and thus combines
what is very rare— theory with practice. It is therefore the
fruit of his long experience and vast erudition that we shall
find in this book, the study of which we cannot too strongly
recommend to the agriculturist. M. Kuhn does not
pretend to exempt himself from that common law which
decrees all human works to be fatally imperfect ; he
acknowledges, in the first instance, how much remains still
to be done to entitle him to a universal suffrage. In the
meantime, such as it is, I think that this treatise will ren-
der a great service to agriculture, above aU Avhen a good
translation shall have placed it at the doors of our cultivators.

This is not the place to exhibit all the novelties we meet
with in it. I ask only to be allowed to make known a small
number which may be of practical utility.

It was generall}^ believed, before the experiments made
by M. Kuhn, but without any foundation, and upon simple
conjecture, that the seminulcs or spores of the ustilagoes and
uredoes of the cereals penetrate by the radicles of the plant
in order to arrive, creeping by degrees, to the leaves and
seeds of those vegetables. According to our learned agri-
culturist, it is not in this manner that things proceed. He
shows us, in fact, by the help of the microscope, that valua-
ble instrument which the state of science renders indis-
pensable to every agriculturist, how the filaments, produced
by the germination of the spores of these fatal parasites, in-
troduce themselves into the tissue of the straw of the plant.

while young, in order to produce the caries in the grain. He
has gone so far as to state, besides, that it is, above all, the
neck or the lowest knot of the plant of which the parasite
makes choice, in order to introduce its mycelium, doubtless
because that is the point nearest the earth in which its
seminules germinate. From thence the filaments, of which
he has followed the development, pass across the parietes,
still tender and delicate, of the cells, and not, as might be
supposed, by following the passage of the intercellulary
meatus, in order to raise itself, by little and little, with the
stem, and ascend to the grain, in which it ought to fructify.
In affirming the correctness of the fact, the author does not
attempt to say how it takes place ; that penetration, in fact,
is difficult to explain; but vegetable physiology presents
analogies to it. For myself, I find in this fact a sufficiently
plausible interpretation of the disease of the stems, which
consists', as we know, in the accumulation of a mycelium in
the first internode or merithal of the straw of wheat.

M. Jules Kuhn has cleared up another important point in
science. I am about to speak of the limits within which the
germinative faculty of the different ustilaginea is restrained,
and of the conditions which favour or retard that operation.
Thus, he has discovered that, in order to bud, besides the
necessary conditions of heat and moisture, these spores have
need of not being entirely withdrawn from the influence of the
atmospheric air. From his multiplied experiments on this
subject, it results that spores deeply interred in the soil do
not sprout ; but that as they preserve for more than a year
their germinative faculty, it ought necessarily to follow that
a field that shall be infested with it, remains disposed after-
wards to reproduce it, even though we should sour it with
grain perfectly free from the disease ; since, brought again to
the surface by labour, these spores are still found in conditions
favourable to their developement. TLe observations of the
author teach us that those of the TiUetia caries (Tut.) re-
quire from fifty-seven to sixty hours to bud ; that those of the
Carbon of oats and barley, sown ripe, require only six or
eight hours; and lastly, those of the Ustilago, or carbon of rye
and oats, may even germinate after the second year.

As to the prophylactic means for opposing these parasites,
that which has best succeeded with him, and to which he
gives the preference, is the solution in 550 hectolitres of hot
water, of 467 grammes of sulphate of copper, very pure. It
is necessary that the immersion of the seed wheat should be
prolonged at least from twelve to fourteen hours, but it may
be continued without inconvenience even for twenty hours.

I shall here close what I have to say of this work. The
short quotations that I have extracted from it will suffice to
convince you of its importance to practical agriculture, which
receives so much lustre from your learned publication, so use-
ful and profitable to agricultural economy.

Camille Montagne.

Of the Institute of France, and of the Central
Society of Agriculture.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

52S

SUMMER GRAZING — THE GRAZING OF CATTLE.

A too frequent recurrence to the same subject needs
every apology from stated writers ; but the importance
of the above subject to graziers, and the rapid increase
of the numbers who read the Mark Lane Express, is a
sufficient reason for again introducing the subject. I am
not, however, about to write anything expressly new, or
perhaps of much value to the experienced grazier ; but
amongst the many readers of the above paper, there are
young readers who would like to " gain a wrinkle "
from an old grazier, or to be reminded of some common
things which may have escaped their present observa-
tion. It is for these I write a few remarks upou sum-
mer grazing in these papers. 1st, cattle ; 2nd, sheep ;
3rd, horses, &c., &c.

The grazing of cattle, the fatting of cattle, the lands
adapted for the profitable fatting of cattle must be of
first class order. No inferior grass-land will do it,
unless aided by a very liberal allowance of linseed-cake
or other fattening food ; nevertheless, we have good
grass lands of varied quality and power. The most
powerful will fatten an ox of 100 stones weight without
such aids; and others of such sweet and nutritive
herbage on inferior soils as will fatten a Scot or a Devon
admirably. What I mean is, that the grazier must
adapt his cattle to his land, or make up for either de-
ficiency in artificial aids as food. No grazier should,
however, attempt to fatten cattle on land not suited for
such purpose ; and this is soon generally known by the
experience of every occupier, and on every occupation ;
and new tenants often injure themselves by not taking
timely advice on this point. The best bullock-lands :
These are usually grazed by superior cattle, and I take
it for granted that the general testimony and practice
on such lands is correct, and in the average of years
the most profitable. One thing I know, the
occupiers of these beautiful lands are almost
invariably to a man proud of them, and proud to see
grazing upon them such splendid animals. This is one
of the pleasures and gratifications of business. What
grazier does not enjoy, intensely enjoy his evening stroll
amongst a herd of first-class animals, all progressing fa-
vourably; and may he not justly exult a little now and
then in the prospect of showing them at his favourite
fair, and to his old round of friends and customers ? I
confess to such occasional pride, and I approve it. It
gives stimulus to exertion, to care, to selection, to ma-
nagement in all its phases. This is all right ; but there
is another view to be taken as to the most profitable graz-
ing of such lands. It is not that every grazier possesses'a
long purse, and is able to buy such ornaments to his
field. What must the poor grazier do .' I have seen
some of the most powerful bullock lands grazed by very
inferior cattle — aged cows, bull-legs, worked oxen,
coarse steers ; in fact, such a class of animals as only
such land " could move," and which was well known to

the occupiers : these animals often come in at little cost,
and pay handsomely. I once saw a large and beautiful
field of first-class land grazed by aged cows and a few
coarse animals which would not average above some six
or seven pounds each ; the profit was, I understood, very
great. The care requisite in such a case is to obtain
such animals as will bear a profit under such strong
succulent herbage. If the animal is weak in body or
constitution, it is certain to go wrong. It is, therefore,
manifest that first-class land need not of necessity be
grazed by first-class animals ; but it is necessary that
every animal grazed on such lands must possess a good
constitution and aptitude to fatten and improve.

To graze profitably, the grazier must first take care to
provide a good pasture. This he will do by " laying in"
his fields early, so that he may commence stocking early.
His next care will be to put in his stock in suitable
weather, and in number proportioned to his keeping.
He must not in any case overstock ; if he does, in all
probability he will lose his season. His stock must
have a sufficiency of grass, but not more, or it will grow
coarse and unpalatable, and the stock are thus
confined to those sweet spots on which they de-
light to brouse, often very bare and insufficient
for their profitable advancement. Should such be the
case, it is but to mow down gradually and daily every
rough spot, and leave enough for every day's consump-
tion. Cattle are very fond of partially-withered grass.
There is great difficulty on this point in grazing lands
subject to burning in hot weather : such lands " require
a covering" ; but I cannot think they require such a
covering as is sometimes, nay often, seen. I have seen
some of those beautiful Herefordshire lands having pas-
tures which, while carrying their usual quantity of stock,
would, I think, yield at the same time a ton or more of
hay per acre, positively "up to the knees in grass." In
Leicestershire I have seen the like ; yes, and in many
other counties too. Now, if this could with safety be
prevented, I doubt not but the grazing would be more
profitable. To fatten cattle most speedily and advan-
tageously, the grass requires to be ever new, and always
in plenty. A bullock-pasture — i. e., not too young ;
that would cause looseness or scouring ; but a good bite of
strong-grown grass, but not old — ^just in accordance
with the old adage, "twelve days old for a bullock."
To ensure this, it is often attempted to graze two fields
alternately : that is, to lay one in for three or four weeks,
while the other is being grazed, and then to bring back
the stock as soon as ready. But this plan is objection-
able, as requiring a double number of stock for the time
being, which tread down a large quantity of most excel-
lent herbage. The better course is to " get off'" the
forward animals to market, lay in one field, and well
dress it over ; i, e., knock the droppings and cut up the
tussocks or rough places, that all the grass may be

526

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

young and fresh, and then turn the backward animals
into this beautiful autumn pasture : they will on this
seldom fail to get fat. The old-fashioned course is to
reserve the best aftermath or eddish for this purpose,
and, failing this, to bring them into the hovel or
byre for the winter. This is wofuUy expensive,
and seldom pays. If a bullock will not get fat by the
above process of grazing, I would advise the graziers to
quit him. It is customary with most graziers to re-
serve a few prime animals for Christmas. I know of
no better course than to make the same provision for
their benefit as for the backward ones, except an allow-
ance of corn meal or cake amply suflScient to promote
their rapid progress — no reasonable expense must be
spared to get up a Christmas ox. Butchers will have
perfection in their Christmas beef if possible, and don't
mind paying for it ; short of this it becomes good or-
dinary beef, and is bought accordingly: very good
certainly ; but it don't reach the top standard. To
achieve this most desirable point, each animal as soon as
the pastures are done should have a separate byre or
hovel where he can roam at pleasure. He must be sup-

plied with the best of food, i. e., turnips, carrots, cab-
bage, hay — all of the best quality, the root cleaned and
sliced or pulped, and given with the greatest regularity,
and then the animal must be left undisturbed. If he
can be kept stalled or in a dark stable or hovel all the
better, and an occasional or daily grooming is very ser-
viceable. Fatting animals seldom require the services
of the veterinary practitioner : the chief point to be ob-
served in keeping them in a thriving condition is to
change their keeping if requisite ; and this will be prin-
cipally needed in untoward seasons, or upon an extra-
ordinary flush of grass or similar deviations from com-
mon ordinary grazing, as in seasons of drought. The
water becomes in many localities pernicious, when it
will require much care to avert injurious consequences.
Nearly all these matters depend upon the judgment of
the grazier. " It is the eye of the master that grazeth
the ox." The chief changes in keeping are from a
nutritious to old pasturage, from bad herbage and bad
water to an eddish or green clover or seeds ; or if dry
food is indispensable an allowance of straw or hay is
highly advantageous.

THE AGRICULTURAL CONDITION OF AUSTRIA.

Although Austria has never been a very large cus-
tomer of ours, nor are we much indebted to her for
raw material or produce, the present position of affairs
on the continent seem to render it desirable to glance at
its agriculture and financial condition. With a popu-
lation exceeding 40,000,000 souls, Austria stands in a
very low rank among continental nations, both as a
producing and a manufacturing- country. The value
of our imports from Austria range in value from tlirec
quarters to one million per annum ; and, as regards
agricultural products, consist chiefly of from 1,000 to
2,000 tons of bones, from 60,000 to 100,000 quarters
of grain, about 25,000 cwts. of currants, 2,000 cwts.
of gum arable, 200 tuns of olive oil, 25,000 to 30,000
cwts. of undressed hemp, 17,000 cwts. of grass and
clover seeds, 2,000 tons of shumac, 160,000 to
200,000 lamb skins, 7,000 cwts. of tallow, 250 tons of
Valonia, or acorn cups for tanners' use, and about
1 ,000,0001bs. of wool. The exports of British manu-
factured goods sent in return are to the value of about
£1,000,000 sterling.

The transit trade of goods through Austria to Tur-
key and other countries has been to the value of
jgl4,500,000 per annum. A very large proportion of
the trade of Austria passes the frontiers of the neigh-
bouring German states, from whence the imports have
been largely increasing in importance of late years,
although the exports to them have been more sta-
tionary.

The interests of the nation as a whole, we are told by
a recent official report of our minister at Vienna, appear
never to have been taken into consideration : the va-
rious districts and communes continue isolated from
each other ; and while the circulation of the popula-

tion is discouraged, no endeavours are made even to
facilitate the interchange of the produce of the dif-
ferent parts of an immensely extended empire; as may
be seen even in the immediate neighbourhood of the
capital, where, during a winter of many months' du-
ration, the roads are still allowed to remain in a state
which, by the time consumed in the transport of goods,
and by the wear and tear of horses and men, tends
very materially to raise the price of all articles of con-
sumption, and by diminishing the profits to lessen the
amount sent to seek a foreign market.

In this respect Austria cannot even bear a compari-
son with Russia, where the main roads — at least leading
to the capital — have been solidly constructed, and care-
fully kept in repair ; and where, when winter comes,
the morasses freeze, and the snow provides ready-made
highways for the sledge of the peasant, who at that time
of year being debarred from outdoor field-work, can-
not be better employed than in bringing his produce to
market. In Austria, on the contrary, although the
winter is sufficiently severe to put a stop to field labour
for several months, instead of rendering intercommu-
nication easier, as is the case in Russia, it in most parts
of the country only suffices to convert into quagmires
the ill-made summer roads ; and either condemns to
idleness a large proportion of the population, or forces
them to wear out tlieir cattle in dragging half-loaded
carts through mile after mile of mud for a very preca-
rious profit.

Owing to the difficulty of raising money, except at an
usurious rate of interest, and the privileges enjoyed by
the nobility, especially freedom from arrest for debt,
vast districts, capable by a raoderato expenditure of
capital of becoming In the highest degree productive,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

527

have remained waste and barren — valueless to the pro-
prietor, and contributing nothing to the wealth of the
nation. Stock -jobbing and gamblin?, trading with in-
sufficient capital, and the vile system of lottery loans,
and licensed foreign state lotteries, have demoralized
the great bulk of the population.

Of about 140,500,000 acres, the computed extent of
the Austrian empire, there were, in 1851 —

III Forest 44,500,000 acres

Pasture 22,000,000 „

Meadow and Gardens 20,000,000 „

Arable land 52,000,000 ,,

Vineyards 1,740,000 „

Olive, Laurel, and Chestnut

Grounds 155,000 „

The agricultural produce raised in that year was —

Wheat 67,679,000 bushels.

Rye 99,000,000 „

Barley 74,600,000 „

Oats 131,567,000 „

Maize 56,000,000 „

Rice 1,500,000 „

Other kinds of grain 17,000,000 „

Pulse 11,000,000 „

Potatoes 142,500,000 „

Wine 622,500,000 gallons.

Tobacco 845,507 cwts.

Flax and hemp 3,098,000 ,,

Linseed 579,253 „

Hops 72,599 „

Olive and seed oil 647,278 „

Wool 444,568 „

The live stock comprised 3,230,000 horses, 116,210
mules and asses, 3,795,348 bulls and oxen, 6,615,136
cows, 16,801 ,545 sheep, 2,275,900 goats, and 7,401,300
swine. The consumption of beet-root in the sugar
manufactories in 1853 was 5,360,055 centuers (of 123 V
pounds each).

Grain has of late years become a considerable article
of importation into Austria, In the ten years previous
to 1850 the exports of grain from the empire were not
very inferior to the quantity imported from abroad ;
but latterly this has no longer been the case. The
withdrawal of so many agricultural hands from the
labours of the field for the necessities of the war, and
the prospect of incursory ravages and forced levies,
with neglect of cultivation, will aggravate this difficulty.
In 1851 the imports of grain and flour exceeded the
exports by nearly 2,000,000 cwts., and in 1854 the
quantity imported exceeded that exported by not less
than 5,630,000 cwts., the total amount named being
6,950,000 cwts. ; of this 1,800,000 cwts. were of wheat,
of which very nearly 1 ,000,000 cwts. came from Russia,
600,000 cwts. from Turkey, and nearly 300,000 cwts.
from Germany. Of the other grains rather more than
1,000,000 cwts. came from Turkey, 760,000 cwts. from
Russia, and 500,000 cwts. from Germany. In 1856
the importation was not so great, and only exceeded
the exports by 2,700,000 cwts., which consisted almost
entirely of barley and oats. The abundant harvest
in most parts of the empire left a surplus of wheat for
exportation of 630,000 cwts. above the imports of it.
Of rye, Indian corn, peas, and beans the export also
exceeded the import by 1,200,000 cwts. j

There are no official returns yet published enabling I

us to institute comparisons as respects the last two
years.

Wool is a very important item, both of import and
of export, in Austria, the coarser sorts being imported
in larger quantities, chiefly from Russia ; while the
finer kinds, for the most part grown in Hungary, form
one of the chief staples of that country, and are an-
nually exported — to a far greater value than that of
the imported — to supply the manufactories of the
States of the Zollverein, of France, and of Belgium.

From 1831 to 1840 the annual importation of wool
did not quite amount to 50,000 cwts., and from 1841
to 1850 it did not rise to 63,000 cwts. ; but in 1851 it
was 101,800 cwts., in 1852 it was 135,500 cwts., and
in 1853 120,800 cwts. In 1854 the blockade of the
Russian ports having stopped the usual outlets for the
wool of that country, a large quantity was furnished to
Austria, and the import there rose to 291,800 cwts. ;
in 1855 it was 210,730 cwts., and in 1856 it fell to
184,220 cwts.

Flax and hemp from 1841 to 1850 was annually im-
ported to the extent of about 176,000 cwt. In 1854,
owing to the failure of the crop of the preceding year,
the quantity was only 91,100 cwt.; in 1856 the im-
portations rose to 207,100 cwt., a large proportion
being Roman hemp, and exceeded the quantity ex-
ported by 160,000 cwt.

Live stock forms an article of import rather than of
export, the former having exceeded the latter in 1856
by 573,000 head, which consisted, however, almost
wholly of swine, of which animals the number im-
ported, chiefly from the neighbouring Turkish pro-
vinces, exceeded 600,000. Horses are imported into
Austria in greater numbers than are exported from it.
In the years previous to 1850, the excess of those im-
ported was about 4,000. They appear to be brought
in tolerably equal proportions, from Turkey, from
southern Germany, and from Russia. In 1854 those
imported exceeded the exported by 8,300; but in 1856
the excess was only 2,700.

These statistic details will enable our readers to form
a pretty correct estimate of the agricultural resources
of the Austrian empire. It cannot escape notice that
among the principal imports are many which, instead
of importing from abroad, Austria might have been
expected to produce in sufficient quantities to have a
surplus available for exportation to other countries.
With so overwhelming a proportion of the population
of a thickly-peopled country devoted to the cultivation
of the soil, it must afford subject of surprise that
Austria should not only be an importer of manufac-
tured goods, but that she should have to supply from
abroad her deficiency of grain, of wine, of cattle, and
of horses. With her sea coasts blockaded and shut out
from transit trade on many of her land frontiers, Austria
will feel the pressure, should the war last. On the Swiss,
Russian, and Turkish frontiers, she carried on a large
part of her trade, and now she will be restricted to
southern Germany, Saxony, and Prussia. The sea-
ports of Trieste, Venice, and France are closed, while
the steamers of the Austrian Lloyd's and Danubian
companies are withdrawn for fear of capture.

N N

538

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRODUCTIONS AND PECULIARITIES OF THE NORTH AMERICAN

CONTINENT,

But to the intelligent business men of Europe it may seem
that a course so suicidal to Chicago would not be persisted iu
by the Chicago Board of Trade, and, that as a consequence, no
diversion of the produce trade of that city may be looked for,
but rather a steady annual increase. To this it may be answered,
that no relaxation has yet taken place iu the St. Louis system,
and that the Chicago Board of Trade is the mere exponent of
the judgment of the Chicago people. What, therefore, other
people may regard as the effect of a particular course, Weatern
people may consider as the cause ; but the right way of think-
ing may rest with those who have no interest either way. The
people of St. Louis, for example, may have considered that the
■position of that city was such as would command the Mis-
sissippi and Missouri trade ; and with respect to produce, that
it was expedient that superior grades only should be bought
and sold. Unquestionably it was considered that such was
the surest means of securing headway in St. Louis, and it may
be thought ao still ; but people outside of St. Louis, or rather
outside of the United States, entertain different views, and
make no doubt that if that policy had not been pursued, the
produce trade of St. Louis at the present day would have been
tenfold greater than it is. The growth of the produce trade of
St. Louis would be held by the people of that city to be in a
large measure owing to their restrictive system, while other
people would consider that in spite of that restriction the trade
was being developed gradually ; and it is remarkable that so
intelligent and numerous a community as that of St. Louis
should be distinguished by so little breadth and depth of
thought. Familiarity with the unphilosophical views of the
protection-to-native-industry party— in fact, knowing nothing
but these views can alone account for so obsolete and unbusi-
ness-like a state.

The same wrongheadedness obtains in Chicago. People
there, as elsewhere in the United States, do not drive on the
game aide of the road as people do in England, and, as a general
rule, act as contrariwise in other things. In particular, they
have come to consider that it is not the produce trade that has
made Chicago, but that Chicago has made the produce trade.
As a consequence, it is supposed that the produce trade must,
as a matter of necessity, conform to whatever rule may be im-
posed by the sovereign will and sovereign wisdom of the people;
and, as exemplifying the egregious length the people are dis-
posed to go, a recent instance may be taken from the action
of parties engaged in the lumber trade. Lumber, it may be
observed, in a prairie country is a great staple article of de-
mand, and being most extensively used by farmers, goes to
balance the account for grain. On the principle, then, that
Chicago had made both its grain and lumber trade, it was
argued recently that the lumber trade should be made to pay
the lumberers better than it did, and with that view strict
grades of lumber and close inspections became the custom and
the law. Farmers therefore do not now get the facilities
and the bargains that they used to do, but iu reality are
made to pay an over price. Anywhere but in America that
course would have been deprecated by the newspaper press,
and the common sense of business people ; but western busi-

ness people are impressed with the belief that the United
States, and Chicago in particular, are " bound to grow," every-
thing to the contrary notwithstanding, and the newspaper press
simply echo the vulgar cry.

Here iu England, however, we look at these matters in a
rational and unprejudiced sort of way. We can understand
that if on the one hand, obstructions are placed in the way of
marketing grain at Chicago, that grain will seek a market else-
where ; and if, on the other hand, obstructions are placed in
the way of the prairie farmer buying Chicago lumber, there
will be a double motive for the farmer to make a change.
Lumber he can buy on the Upper Mississippi without restric-
tion of any kind ; and with an English demand at New
Orleans for Western wheat, the mushroom Chicago trade
will inevitably disappear.

Upon the continuance of Western trade in the Chicago
Channel it has been shown already, and will be adverted to at
length in another place, that the hopes of Canada and New
York depend. Should that trade seek the Mississippi outlet,
the St. Lawrence canals and the Erie canal will become all but
useless, and the stocks of Eastern and Canadian raiboads
suffer serious depreciation in their market value. The present
course of Western trade rests on the sufferance, or rather on
the inattention, of the people of St. Louis; and should that in-
attention be not speedily disturbed, the next deficient English
harvest will attract the foreign capitalist to the Mississippi and
Illinois river market-towns; and while Canada and the Eastern
States are in a frozen state, every surplus barrel of flour
and sack of wheat will be floated down open water to New
Jrleans, and nothing left in spring for the Canadian and New
York canals to do. That operation once accomplished, the
foreign capitalist would find his efforts seconded by the
Southern States, and the channels of the Mississippi and Ohio
speedily become adapted to the navigation of the largest
ocean steamers.

There is no extravagance in these remarks. Chicago, as will
be shown presently, receives its supplies of produce from the
Mississippi, not by water chiefly, but by railroad ; and it is
not too much to say that the cost of transporting grain from
the Mississippi river to Chicago is equal to the cost of trans-
portation from the Upper Mississippi to New Orleans ; and
less than the cost of transporting grain from Chicago to New
York would cover the transportation from New Orleans to
Mark Lane or Liverpool. In a word, grain transported by
the Mississippi from the growing western districts would be
received by the English consuming classes at a less trans-
portation charge than that now incurred in the transporta-
tion of grain from the western growing districts to New York.
Could a stronger case be put to the business men of the United
States and Europe? and could stronger ground be taken
against the mistaken policy of the Canadian and New York
canals and railroads ?

The following were the grain receipts at Chicago for the
year ending Slat December, 1857, by the Illinois Canal and
the different railroads :—

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

S29

Receipts op Flour at Chicago, 1857.

^yjalte , 5,300 barrels.

Canal 12,900 „

Galena Railroad 114,800 „

Michigan Southern do 5,500 „

Michigan Central do 3,000 „

Rock Island do 106,000 „

Illinois Central do 9,800 „

Burlington do 84,700

Milwaukee do 1^300 ,"

St. Paul do 42^900 "

St. Louis do 7 loO

City manufacture 96,000 ','.

489,300 barrels.
Receipts of Wheat at Chicago, 1857.

^y Jal^e 8,400 bushels.

Caual 885,500 „

Galena Railroad 3,766,200 „

Michigan Southern do 11,100 „

Michigan Central do, 13,500 „

Rock Island do 1,181 ,400

Illinois Central do 679,400 ",

Burlington do 2,972,000 "„

Milwaukie do 7 300

St. Paul do ,,,', 279^800 ,"

St. Louis do 549,400 „

Teams 200,000 „

10,554,100 bushels.
Receipts of Corn at Chicago, 1857.

^y'a^^« 3,200 bushels.

^snal 4,122,600 „

Galena Railroad 354,100

Michigan Southern do 144^800 "„

Michigan Central do 1,'500

Rock Island do , 407*400

Illinois Central do , 192,100

St. Paul do ■,". e'sOO Z

St. Lonis do 83,300

Burlington do 1,892,'900 ,','

Teams 200,000 „

7,408,700 bushels.
The three great sources of the flour and wheat supply were
the Galena railroad, which extends from Dubuque (on the
Mississippi river) across the State of Illinois to Chicago ; the
Rock Island railroad, which extends from Rock Island (on the
Mississippi river), and follows the course of the Illinois Canal
to Chicago ; and the Burlington and Quincy railroad, which
extends also from the Mississippi river, and forms a junction
with the Galena and other railroads at a short distance outside
of Chicago. The canal formed the principal source of the
corn supply, and a large portion was brought from the Illinois
river by canal. With the exception, therefore, of corn, the
principal Chicago grain receipts were furnished from the Mis-
sissippi River, thus confirming what has been advanced as to
the precarious character of the present western transit trade.
The aggregate grain receipts at Chicago, and the aggregate
shipments, for the year ending 31st December, 1857, were as
follows :—

Receipts.

Flour 393,000 barrels.

Wheat 10,554,100 bushels.

Corn 7,408,700

Oata

Barley

Rye

Flour

Wheat

Corn

Oats

Barley

Shipments.

1,307,200 „
122,000 „
86,600 „

255,200 barrels.
9,485,000 bushel!
6,825,000 „

415,600 rt
. 169,900 „

Before passing to the consideration of other staple products
it will be necessary to recur to observations previously made
on the subject of cereal transport. Flour and grain, unlike
pork products and hides and tallow, are bulky in proportion
to their value, and could not bear a thousand miles' transporta-
tion by railroad without unnecessarily diminishing the profits
of the farmer, or unnecessarily overstepping the market price
at the point of destination on the seaboard. The previous
illustration will bear repetition. Dnring the summer 1858
wheat was carried by water from Chicago to New York at
1^^. a bushel, and flour at 2s.a barrel ; and the regular rail-
road tariff would have been 2s. a bushel for the wheat, and
6s. 5Jd. for the flour. To have used railroads for the move-
ment it is therefore obvious that the farmer would have had to
submit to a considerable abatement from the Chicago market
price, or the produce when it reached its destination would be
held at a large advance on current rates. But while wheat
and flour cannot be transported by railroad from the west to
the seaboard, articles of more value in proportion to their bulk
are profitably carried ; still, so long as the communication of
the lakes and canals is open, and a few days' extra time is of
no account, commodities of the greatest value are carried east
and west by water, the transportation charge being less the one
way than the other. But during winter there is no choice,
and eastern and European trade requiring beef and pork, and
lard and hides, these commodities are sent daily as the cattle
and the hogs are slaughtered, the cost of railroad transit being
taken into account ; and this business is prosecuted in an
extensive and vigorous way. But although the hog and cattle
product trade is carried on by railroads, and in fact owes its
great western development to the railroad system, there is no
reason to suppose that in future railroads will become available
for the transportation of wheat and flour from Chicago or St,
Lonis to New York. The American grain trade is not con-
fined to the western section of the continent, as the hog and
cattle trade really is ; and during winter, when the Erie canal
and the lakes are frozen, the Eastern States consume their own
growth of wheat and flour, and all margin for extra transporta-
tion charge is thus destroyed. To understand this fully it is
only necessary to consider that in a great measure the price of
grain is equalized throughout the world, and especially is it so
throughout the United States. If the crop is full or short, the
eastern markets sympathize at once with the markets of the
west ; and although the supply of western grain is stopped in
winter, the existence of the supply, and the certainty of its
appearance in the spring, is not lost sight of for a single
moment, but exercises as much influence in Broad-street, New
York, when stored in Chicago elevators, as when stored at the
Atlantic Dock, Brooklyn. Such being the case, prices through-
out t'je winter maintain a kind of level between the west and
east ; and the range of fluctuation does not admit of railroad
transport. The peculiarities of this trade form the subject
matter of a special article.

Considering then the great economy of water transit, in
connexion with previous remarks as to the ultimate tendency
of western trade towards the Mississippi river and New Orleans
it is manifest that the present mode of prosecuting the western
winter provision trade by railroad presents no difficulty in the
way of transferring that trade to the channel of the Mississippi'
In the first place, there would be a large saving in the cost of
transpnrf.ation to the seaboard, the water communication being
the clitaper ; and, iu the second place, every word advanced as
to the place of growth of Chicago wheat and corn, applies
equally to hogs and cattle. These are bred at perhaps an
average distance of two hundred miles from Chicago, and over
that distance the hogs and cattle are carried by the railroads,

N N 2

530

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Less transportation charge would take theae hoga and cattle
to open water, on the Mississippi, and to New Orleans, thus
saving the whole present railroad charge from Chicago to New
York. Is such a state of things to be overlooked by the capi-
talists of the United States and Europe ? and if American and
Canadian railroad stocks have been recommeoded to the public,
by virtue of the importance of the winter freight supplied by
the western hog and cattle trade, the railroad hold of that
trade is likely to prove only of short duration.

The following were the receipts of hog and cattle products
at New Orleans from the interior for the ten months ending
Slat July, 18S8:—

Beef, barrels

Lard, tierces and barrels

Lard oil, barrels . .

Pork, tierces and barrels

Bulk poik, lbs. ..

Tallow, barrels . .
Tbe exports from New Orleans for the same period were—

Destination.

26.300

110,900

11,900

273.100

7,357,200

700

New York

Boston

Philadelphia

Baltimore

Other U. S. porta.
Great Britain ....

Europe

Other ports

Pork.

Bacon.

Beef.

Lard.

barrels.

casks.

barrels.

kegs.

39,000

4,000

2,600

130,100

42,600

2,300

5,400

97,900

200

—

2,400

3,900

—

7.600

33,900

19,100

500

21,100

400

—

8,700

77.400

100

50

700

24,400

6,C00

200

800

20,700

126,100

25.650

18,700

381,600

There is thus at present considerable produce movement down
the Mississippi, and when on the one hand it is considered that
a large portion of the movement is from the Illinois river and
the Upper Mississippi, and on the other hand that the bulk of
the produce bo conveyed finds its way to New York and other
eastern markets, there can be no doubt ofthe suitableness of the
Mississippi route for every business purpose. And for the reason
that these products are shipped to England, and come into
competition with the same products of the eastern markets,
additional evidence is afforded of the desirability and advan-
tages of trade with New Orleans.

The following were the exports of hog and cattle products
from Cincinnati for the year ending Slst August, 1857 :—

Beef, barrels
Beef, tierces
Lard, barrels
Do. kegs
Lard oil, barrels . ,
Pork and bacon, hogsheads

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Tallow, barrels
Hides, lbs.
Do. number

tierces
barrels . .
boxes . .
bulk, lbs.

18,700
5,000
36,900
51,500
45,400
34,000
32,700

100,800
29,800

900,700

6,900

37.300

57.400

From Chicago the following were the exports of live stock,
and hog and cattle products, for the year ending Slst Decem-
ber. 1857 :—

What proportion went down the river to New Orleans is not
stated in the report of the Chamber of Commerce.

The following were the exports of live stock, and hogs and

cattle products, from St. Louis to New Orleans, for the eleven

months ending November, 1856 : —

Pork, barrels

Do. tierces
Do. pieces
Lard, barrels
Do. tierces
Do. kegs
Bacon, casks
Do. tierces
Do. boxes
Cattle, head
Hof^t, head
Hides, number

97,500

2.400

8,100

18,200

31,100

17,200

24,500

5,500

3,200

10,400

11.900

128,300

44,400

25,400

4,229,200

348,600

141,700

1,516,300

3,600

600

529,900

30,080

3,463,500

2,100

Beef, barrels
Cattle, number . .
Dressed hogs, lbs.
Dressed beef, lbs. . .

Hides, number . .

Do. lbs

Lard, barrels . .
Do. tons

Pelts, lbs.

Pork, barrels
Provisions, lbs. . .
Tallow, barrels . .
The following was the estimated aggregate hog crop of
seasons 1855-6 and 1856-7 :—

1855-6. 1856-7.

Ohio , 633,697 483,048

Kentucky 428.334 349,212

Indiana 482,531 316,629

Illinois 481,258 363,202

Missouri 199,904 143,244

Iowa 172,378 100,322

Tennessee 62,400 42,811

Wisconsin 39,000 15,000

2,4"89i502 1,818,468

lu addition to the enumerated articles of hog and cattle pro-
ducts, it may be observed that hog skins, suitable for saddlers'
work, have scarcely any marketable value in the north-west,
and the Isrgest and best skins can readily be contracted for in
Chicago at a shilling each. Hog bristles can be supplied in
almost any quantity at a price equal to the cost of gathering
them.

Shank and leg bones for button manufacture, hooves and
horns for comb manufacture, and rough bones for agricul-
tural use may be quoted, free on board, at Chicago as fol-
lows : —

Thigh and leg bones £2 per 1,000.

Hooves £2 to £2 10s. per 2000 lbs.

Horns 2d. to 2id. each.

Rough bones £1 per 2,000 lbs.

The annual supply of shank and leg bones, suitable for
manufacturing purposes, at St. Louis, Chicago, and Milwaukie,
would exceed one million ; the supply of hooves, two hundred
tons ; the supply of horns, one million ; and the supply of
rough agricultural bones, two thousand tons. Supplies of
hooves and horns have been sent direct from Chicago to the
Devannah Comb Company, at Aberdeen, Scotland ; but at-
tempts to make shipments of rough bones have failed, in con-
sequence of the high freights demanded by lake vessels. Re-
cently attempts have been made to burn the rough bones for
sugar-refining purposes, but the experiment has not succeeded
fully.

Hides, pelts, wool, and tallow are yeariy becoming increasing
articles of export from the west to the south and east. Of the
former, the annual production of the north-west is little short
of two millions, and that number is likely to be doubled before
many years. As yet, hides are brought to market in mixed
lots, and ox, cow, and calf are weighed together at the same
price. Ox hides in the green salted state run from eighty to
a hundred and fifty pounds each ; cow hides from forty to
sixty pounds ; and calf and kip from four to twelve, and from
twelve to twenty pounds. Generally the quality of the hides
is prime and equal, although often badly cured, and brought
to market in an untrimmed state. Hides slaughtered in the
summer are usually dried in tb« mn, and sell at twice th«
green saltad price.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

531

Of the productioa of wool no approximation to the actual
quautity caa be made. Considerable domestic manufacture is
carried ou by the German population, and numerous shipments
are made from obscure places, and never taken into account.
From Chicago the export of wool, for the year ending 31st De-
cember, 1857, was 8,468,359 lbs. The agents of New York
and Boston dealers travel through the whole western country
collecting parcels, and so keen generally is the competition that
the commodity not unfrequeutly commands more than its real
import value.

Tallow is not yet produced to any great extent, but as the
beef-packing business is developed, its importance as an ar-
ticle of western export will increase. Usually there exists a
fair margin for English shipments, and packers' tallow is now
of the choicest kind. Canadians at present absorb nearly all
the western surplus.

It may be here remarked that the Canadian production of
live stock and hog and cattle products is extremely limited.
This is owing to natural causes, rather than to any want of
enterprise or thrift on the part of the Canadian people. The
wooded character of the province, as adverted to before, checks
grazing progress, and beyond running droves of hogs in the
bush, and keeping a fe* cows and oxen, the Canadian farmer
has generally enough to do chopping trees and digging stumps.
The Canadian production of hog and cattle products is there-
fore not sufficient to supply local wants, and not likely to be
so for years to come; and Canadian lumberers draw pork
supplies from Chicago and other parts, while in the winter
season the markets of London, Hamilton, Toronto, and Mon-
treal receive regular supplies of live hogs and cattle, dressed
beef and pork, and prairie game.

Canadian pork, besides being extremely limited in supply, is
very much inferior to western pork, in consequence of the dif.
ference of the feed : the Canadian hog subsisting chiefly on
beech nuts and herbs picked up casually in the woods; while
the western hog is fed regularly, and almost exclusively, on

Indian corn. While therefore the flesh of the one is firm and
fat and not greasy, the other is soft and flabby, and its fat
usually disappears while being cooked. So prime in fact is
western pork that carefully cured bams, such as those met
with in Burlington, Iowa, and Cincinnati, are not in the least
inferior to York or Belfast ; while their market price is generally
little more than half. It is the same with bacon, and prime-
cured western will challenge competition with the choicest Wilt-
shire. These statements may appear scarcely credible to
those familiar only with the rough salt bacon cured for the Irish
market, and who know nothing more of American hams than
the smoked or green shoulders so plentiful iu Liverpool.
But when it is considered that, every other thing being equal,
the breed of Americau hogs being the same as the breed iu
England, and the feed not inferior, it is easy to understand
that if rough bacon and ill-shaped hams are received from the
United States, better qualities may be received also.

A considerable proportion of the western packing business
is in the hands of Englishmen, and parties resident in the
north of Ireland. These repair to the United States towards
the close of the summer months, and after perfecting financial
arraugements in New York or elsewhere, proceed to the scene
of operations. When spring returns the business is given
over, and the parties leave the United States and return bonce.
It may be remarked that greater facilities, in a money way,
are extended to this business than to auy other in the United
States; and this circumstance is owing to the easy supervision
and check, and to the short time that intervenes between the
slaughter of the animal and the marketing of the product.
In the packing business there is really no refuse of any kind :
every sort of offal being readily convertible into money, and
operations may be suspended at any time. The usual financial
practice is to draw upon New York with attached freight bills
of lading, at sixty or ninety days ; and in general before the
drafts mature the hypothecation is released by sale at the con-
signing port.

EMPLOYMENT OF SORGHO AS FORAGE.

[translated from the FRENCH OF THE " JOURNAL d'AGRICULTURE PRATIQUE."]

When in your columns, Mr. Editor, you opened an en-
quiry respecting the qualities of the sugar sorgho of China
as a forage plant, you ought to have received the observa-
tions of one of the oldest contributors of the "Journal of
Practical Agriculture," when to that title was united that
of being one of the first introducers of the sorgho.

On principle, and in quality of member of the Imperial
Zoological Society of Accliraatation, I have shared in the
distribution of seeds sent to the Society by M. de Montigny.
These seeds have ripened with me from the first year of
their introduction. I cite a fact, not to profit by it, for our
latitude (47" 36m.) will not permit us to expect a fructifi-
cation, constant, regular, and normal, but to let you see
that my experiments have from the first continued uninter-
rupted. A cultivator in Sologne, seeking improvements, I
have directed my attention to the sorgho, and its power of
vegetation, to call it to my aid as a forage plant ; at the
same time divesting myself of all preconceived ideas,
whether enthusiastic or disparaging. I shall not, therefore,
touch the question but to throw light upon honest researches.
I will not seek in the new plant a universal panacea for
cattle, or a dangerous poison ; but to excite a renewed ex-
amination. I will confess that the abundance of forage has

won me as it has done others; but with certain facts before
me, duly stated, I stopped and reflected. Perhaps in the
absence of regular accounts we might have deceived our-
selves ; but with the figures before us, we can come to no
other conclusion ; at the same time requesting the prac-
ticians to renew their experiments carefulI}^

The sorgho is not a violent poison for cattle ; but if the
effects observed, not only in ray cultivation, but also in that
of many of ray neighbours, be frequently renewed, we ought
necessarily to attribute to this plant a deleterious influence.
On a farm which I occupy myself, 25 horned cattle have
been fed exclusively on sorgho during a month ; and from
the precise day on which it was introduced in feeding the
cattle, the journal of the farm shows a diminution of the
profit of the dairy by one-half, and the same decrease was
exhibited every month of feeding with sorgho.

On the other hand, there was, in respect to one of the
cows, a case of wind, that caused its death. Any other kind
of food might have produced a similar accident ; but what
many of my neighbours have asserted is, the sterility of the
cows fed on sorgho. If these two facts, sterility on the one
hand and a diminution of half in the production of milk on
the other, repeated regularly in consequence of feeding the

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532

cows on sorgho, be corroborated we must conclude from them
that this plant is injurious ; since it hinders or diminishes
all kinds of productiou by interfering with the aecretioaa,
which must necessarily provoke a perturbation in the animal
organism; all morbid causes having their origin in suppres-
sions of this nature,

I know that no improvement of the soil is possible with-
out an abundance of green food -, and their production regu-

larly successive by a course of cropping, is not always an
easy matter. I should therefore regret being obliged to
abandon the sorgho. The desire of preserving for a plant so
luxuriant, a place in the productiou of green food, and also,
on the other hand, the fear of introducing into the midst of
our cultivated plants a dangerous auxiliary, ought to operate
as a doubly powerful motive for prudently and honestly
renewing the experiments. Marquis de Vibkave.

IMPROVEMENT IN THE BREED OF SUSSEX STOCK.
TESTIMONIAL TO MR. EDWARD CANE.

On Tuesday, May 3rd, there was, at the White Hart Hotel,
Lewes, one of those gatherings which are truly characteristic
of Englishmen— the occasion being an acknowledgment of the
services of a spirited and persevering agriculturist and breeder
of stock, and the individual Mr. Edward Cane, of Berwick
Court. We have rarely, if ever, had the pleasure of witnessing
so large and influential an assemblage of country gentlemen,
agriculturists, farmers, and others ; aud, considering the ob-
ject in view, and the great cordiality with which the compli-
ment was paid, the whole of the circumstances attending the
presentation must have been peculiarly gratifying to the re-
cipient. We shall briefly state that the testimonial, which was
singularly appropriate, compriseJ : An elegant and richly
chased silver epergne or flower-stand, about 2| feet high, with
scrolls and foliage rising from a triangular base, with three
shields for engraving. On one side is this inscription : " Pre-
sented to Mr. Edward Cane, of Berwick Court, with a silver
punch bowl, and portrait of his prize steer, by his numerous
friends, for his successful efforts in improving the breed of
Sussex Cattle, April 20, 1859." On the second medallion the
initials E. H. C, in entwmed ornamental cyphers ; aud on the
third a fox, characteristic of Mr. Cane's love for the chase.
Also a massive and handsome silver punch-bowl, richly gilt
inside; a beautifully- framed portrait of Mr. Cane's prize steer,
by Davis, of Loudon ; and a neatly executed list of the names
of the subscribers. The epergne, which is a splendid work of
art, was furnished by A. B. Savory and Sons, goldsmiths aud
watchmakers, 11 and 12, Cornhill, London. We understand
that the testimonial was subscribed for by about 400 admirers
and well-wishers.

Soon after four Geokge Darby, Esq., took the chair, sup-
ported ou his right and left by the guest of the day (Mr.
Edward Cane), Viscount Peveasey aud J. G. Dodson, Esq.
(the candidates for the eastern division of the county), Henry
Brand, Sir C. W. Blunt, Bart., and K. J. Amphlett, Esq.,
Q.C, (candidates for the borough of Lewes).

After the usu»l loyal toasts the healths of Mr. and Mrs.
Cane were given.

Mr. Cane, on rising to acknowledge the honour which had
been done him, was again loudly cheered. He said — Gentle-
men, I feel particularly gratified for the compliment you have
just paid me in drinking my health, coupled with that of Mrs.
Cane and my family ; aud I also feel particularly obliged to
my old friend Mr. Darby for the kind way in which he has
proposed the toast. I beg to say, gentlemen, that this ought

to be, as it really is— the happiest day in my life. I had no
idea, six weeks ago, of any intention to present this testimonial
to me ; it has, I know, been got up by the best of friends, and
I assure you that it is highly gratifying to me, more particu-
larly as it is got up in acknowledgment of my exertions to im-
prove the breed of Sussex stock. So far as regards that im-
provement, permit me to say that for twenty years I have taken
great pains, and for this reason, that in my opinion few animals
were so well adapted to the great object we have in view as
the Sussex stock. I believe it is now about fifteen years ago,
that in going into May field and Rotherfield, I found teams
with six, eight, or ten oxen, where I now find horses ; there is
some cause for this ; at all events, this particular stock was
got rid of, and perhaps some of the parties could not regain it. j
Gentlemen, for this testimonial I thank you very kindly, more 4-
particularly as regards my efforts to improve the Sussex stock. |
As my friend Mr. Darby has said, I took a promment part in
endeavouring to get a class at Smithfield, and we were success-
ful; I mentioned the subject at Ilailsham, Arundel, and I be-
lieve at Rye, and I asked my friends to assist me in getting a
claas ; they did so, and I feel obliged to them for it, for I
could not by my own unaided exertions have accomplished
what we have succeeded in accomplishing. Now, gentlemen,
we have got a class ; and our show at Smithfield is no disgrace
to any county in England, or indeed to any part of the world,
I have been successful in carrying off the laurels from time to
time, and I do not see, gentlemen, why we should not suc-
ceed still further. I can bear my friend out in what he has
said in reference to Sussex stock in the market, for I believe
there is no better stock comes into the market than a good
Sussex bullock. I think, gentlemen, we in this neighbour-
hood know what good living is •, at all events, we are close to
Brighton, and 1 rather think they know there what it is, and
fully appreciate our Southdown mutton. Gentlemen, for this
testimonial I cannot express to you my feelings, and when I
look upon it, allow me to say that I don't value it for the sum
which it cost, though it is not to be valued lightly on that
account, but on account of the motive from which it proceeds,
and more particularly that portion of your testimonial which
bears the names of the subscribers. In the future, gentle-
men, I trust we shall live in the same relation, and that the
associations which have been begun will continue with equal
advantage aud honour to all. Gentlemen, I thank you all
once more, and beg to drink all your very good healths. Mr.
Cane resumed his seat amid loud cheers.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

633

PREMIUMS FOR BARLEY,

The third annual adjudicatiou of prize cups offered by Messrs.
Bhzard Brothers and Godsall, for competition in barley-
growing, took place on Wednesday, May 11, (Fair day), at the
Black Bear Inn, Tewkesbury, in the presence of a numerous
assemblage of agriculturists and corn merchants.

Amongst the toasts at the dinner, the Chairman (Mr.
Woodward) gave the Health of the Donors of the Cups. He
said they had shown an example of what might be done by
eacouraging competition. As eminent maltsters, they were
desirous of procuring the best barley that could be obtained
for their manufacture, and in consequence of their liberal
offer of these prize cups, the very finest samples had been
brought to them for sale. Having thus obtained the best
barley, they had naturally been able to produce the best malt,
and as a consequence to obtain the best prices for it. He had
the satisfaction of stating that a lot of malt (500 quarters),
sold by Messrs. Blizard iu Loudon lately, had realized- the
highest price of the season, and also that in Liverpool they had
met with similar success. The Severn valley was the warmest
valley in England, and therefore admirably fitted for the
growth of barley ; and Messrs. Blizard, in having given an
impetus to its culture, and thus caused an improvement, were
entitled to their warmest thanks.

Mr. Geo. Blizakd, the senior partner, replied. The prize
caps they had offered had produced, as was intended, a double
advantage —first to the farmer, who was induced to produce a
better article and obtain a better price ; and next, to themselves
as maltaiers, who were enabled to get the best kind of grain
for their manufacture. The cultivation of barley had, in
former years, undoubtedly been neglected: a stimulant
had been applied, and as a proof of its effect he would point
to the samples of that day, which he firmly believed could not
be equalled in any town iu England. Undoubtedly some of
that success was due to the premiums offered in those cups,
for Euglishmeu were fond of emulatioo, and if one farmer was
able to show a particularly good sample, others would be sure
to try to equal it. Mr. Blizard theu referred to some remarks
he had made last year relating to the machines used for dressing
the barlej . He regretted that the evil still continued ; the
grain was broken at the ends, and gave out a blue mould
which rendered it totally unfit for malting. He had proposed,
with others, to offer a prize of £50 for such improvements in
the machines as should obviate this evil; nothing, however?
had as yet been done in it, but he trusted that agricultural
machinists would give attention to the subject, and that before
long the difficulty would be overcome.

Mr. Butt, in replying for the unsnccesaful candidates,
remarked that the difficulty of improving the machines so as
to avoid breaking the grains of barley was very great ; it had
been accomplished, but at the expense of the straw, which was
30 injured that it could not be made iuto boltings. However,
he had no doubt that in time it would be managed, and that
Mr. Blizard's and the maltsters' cause of complaint would be
remedied.

Mr. Rice, iu response for the judges, said they felt surprise
that the clay land had won the prize ; but it was a fact that the
aand barleys were burnt up last year, which of course accounted

for it. There had been 60 samples from Gloucestershire,
Worcestershire, and Herefordshire sent in; and 10 from Berks
and Wilts. In the course of their examination the samples of
Mr. J. Creese and Mr. G. Woodward stood well for a long
time, but at the conclusion they were bound to admit that those
of the Rev. W. Parker for the former counties, and of Mr.
W. H. Gillett, of Swindon, for the latter, were the best.

The Chairman iu acknowledging a compliment paid to
himself, said barley growing was a most uncertain operation for
the farmer, for the plant itself was the moit delicate of all
the grains. He had in the course of his practice tried deep
and shallow planting for it, and was satisfied that deep planting
was wrong. Barley could not long sustain damp, and would
at a depth of three inches turn yellow, and form new roots.
Even iu drilling, when the drill was held up on one side, and
depressed on the other, the seed might be deposited three
inches deep iu one furrow, and only one inch in the other, and
the effect would be visible all through the field, the shallow-
planted seed being much more healthful and productive than
the other. He had not been a successful competitor for the
Cup, for his last year's barley had been too much in quantity
to be of the highest quality, and uo oue could obtain both ad-
vantages at the same time.

Messra. Blizard iuteud to offer a cup for competition for
barley of this year's growth, which will be open to All Eng-
land.— Abridged from the Tewkeshiiry Record.

HADLEIGH FARMERS' CLUB.— The annual meeting
of this society came off on May 13. The exhibition of stock
took place in a large meadow near Toppesfield Bridge, and pre-
sented as usual some splendid specimens of Suffolk horses.
Sir C. S. Rowley, Bart., carried off the first prize for the best
stallion for general agricultural purposes; Mr. M. R. Pock-
lington, for the best brood mare ; Mr. R. C. Perry, for the
best gelding ; Mr. J. Vince, for the best ghast mare ; Mr. B,
Allen, for the best colt under 27 months old ; Mr. J. Par
tridge, for the best gelding for the general purposes of agricul-
ture under 29 mouths ; Mr. B. Allen, for the best filly ditto ;
Messrs. R. and J. Rand, for the best colt or gelding under 15
months, and for the best filly ditto ; Mr. W. Striitt, for the
best bull of any breed ; Mr. T. White, for the best Suffolk
cow; Mr. W. Strutt, for the best cow of any other breed;
Mr. J. G. Stow, for the best fat steer or heifer ; Mr. Walker
Strutt, for the best shearling tup of any short-wool breed ;
Mr. Edward Cook, for the best ditto long-wool breed ; Messrs.
R. and J. Rand, for the best fine wether hoggett of any short-
wool breed ; Mr, J. G. Stow, for the best ewe hoggett ditto ;
Messrs. R. and J. Rand, for the best five wether and the best
five hoggetts of long-wool breed, and for the best fleece of
hoggett short wool ; Mr. Edward Cook, for the best fleece of
hoggett long wool ; Sir C. Royley, for the best boar; and Mr.
J. Everett, for the best breeding sow. In the evening nearly
ninety gentlemen dined together in the Town Hall, Sir C.
Rowley presiding.

534

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE TREATMENT OF EWES.

WINFBITH farmers' CLUB.

The usual monthly meeting of the members of
this club was held at the Black Bear Inn, Wool, on
Wednesday evening, the 16tli February last, Mr. T.
H. Saunders having undertaken the introduction of
the following subject : — " On the treatment of ewes
during the time they are in lamb, and the cause of
many having dead lambs." The chair was filled by
Mr. Lillington.

Mr. Saunders said : Mr. Chairman and Gentle-
men,— As the members of this club, when choosing
the subjects for our monthly discussions of this year,
thought proper to place my name to the one on the
card for this evening, I shall offer no apology for
standing before you to state, to the best of my
ability, a few of the leading points connected with
the subject which have come within my own obser-
vation. But I feel myself very inadequate to do full
justice to such an important subject, as it is one, in
some respects, involved in great mystery— I mean
with regard to many ewes having dead lambs : for
although it is nearly 50 years ago that my father
brought me up to be a shepherd within the bounds
of this parish, and from my youth up until now I
have been rather extensively engaged amongst
sheep, yet am I still at a loss to account, in some
respects, for their so doing. But T always feel that
it is the duty of every member of this club, when
called upon, to come forward and state to his brother
members, to the best of his knowledge, the results
of his experiences; and therefore, gentlemen, on
these grounds I shall endeavour to lay before you,
as briefly as I possibly can, some of the chief points
relative to the subject for this evening's discussion.
It is one which has particularly engaged my atten-
tion for many years ; and, probably, you will bettcj.
understand me if I state in what way I came in pos-
session of some of those facts which I shall relate to
you this evening. I think it is a very important
subject to be discussed at a Farmers' Club, and one
with which the flockmaster and shepherd cannot be
too well acquainted. Of the value of purely physio-
logical knowledge, as assisting the practical breeder,
there can be no doubt, for in proportion as he is
possessed of that knowledge so will the mortality in
his flock decrease. I am of opinion that sheep
breeders owe their success or non-success, in most
cases, to their own peculiar management, that man-
agement being in accordance, or at variance with the

laws that govern nature, and the operations of the
organs of reproduction during the middle and latter
stages of the ewes' pregnancy. And I think every
farmer who wishes to be a successful breeder ought
to endeavour to make himself thoroughly acquainted
with those laws, and let the management of his flock
be in accordance therewith; then will he escape
many of those heavy losses we often hear of during
the lambing season, which some people say cannot
be accounted for, and put down to "bad luck," from
which assertion I very much differ. I do not believe
it is mere chance or bad luck. You may depend on
it, gentlemen, there must have been a predisposing
and existing cause, for 10 or 15 per cent, of a flock
of ewes to bring forth dead or unhealthy lambs,
what some people term waler-bellied, and that soon
die. It is often existing in the ewe long before it
is thought of by many, and at other times only a few
days before it makes its appearance, according to
the nature of the circumstances. This I will pre-
sently endeavour to explain to you, in the order in
which I have found the different causes come to my
knowledge ; and I trust you will excuse me if I dif-
fer from many of you as to the production of some
of those causes. I have before now met with many
casualties, which people term bad luck, but I have
for many years past come to the conclusion that it
was not so, but that it was my mismanagement,
although I was not aware of it at the time ; and I
have been for many years past able to account for
every great loss which I sustained, though after it
was too late for me to remedy it for that season.
But I have found this cause of slip-lamb to which I
allude, to have been produced in a very different way
from what I have ever before heard it accounted for
by any flockmaster; therefore I shall not hesitate to
give you the result of my investigations. The one
which I now particularly allude to is caused by too
high keeping, which raises the blood too high ; this
I mean to explain in the latter part of my subject
this evening. The causes of slip-lamb to me are
now easy to account for in my own flock, but hard
to remedy, unless I were always with the ewes my-
self. A owe flock ought to be thoroughly well-
watched in their treatment after they are nearly
half gone with lamb. Another cause of slip-lamb
is the ewes being chilled, or the lamb being chilled
in the ewe from exposure to wet. And a third cause

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

is that the ewes are sometimes filled with too much
gas from eating turnips, and the lambs are blown in
their mothers. Therefore, I propose to treat under
three different heads the subject with regard to ewes
having dead lambs, as the causes are produced so
very differently, and these are the only cases which
have ever come to my knowledge during my expe-
rience. With these few observations, I will now
proceed with my subject, in the order it stands on
the card, which is "On the treatment of ewes during
the time they are in lamb, and the cause of many
having dead lambs." Now, in the first place, with
regard to the treatment of ewes, we sheep breeding
farmers in a general way half starve what we call
our fiock ewes during the summer months, to keep
our sale sheep and lambs well ; and the latter have
the greatest part of all the good keep on our farms
until the autumn, when the out-going stock is sold.
The consequence is, our stock ewes are in very poor
condition at the time the ram is put to them. By
this system I am of opinion that many of us err. I
don't think we get paid for half this extra keeping,
if we sell them without being made fit for the
butcher — I mean on farms where it is not convenient
so to do without what I call starving our flock ewes
to accomplish this object, as there is not difference
enough made in price between a poor sheep and mid-
dling conditioned one to pay for half the extra keep
wliich we rob our stock ewes of. Now, if we were
to get into the system of selling our out-going stock
early in the summer, then we should be enabled to
keep our stock ewes well during the latter part of
the summer, which would put them in a proper con-
dition to breed a much better crop of lambs in the
ensuing season, and be in a more forward condition
for sale in the early part of the next summer, as I
have before recommended. But here, gentlemen, I
must leave this part of the system for your consider-
ation, and proceed to point out to you the result
which often happens, from having our flock ewes
poor at the time the ram is put to them. With the
general run of our down lands and stubbles, they
seldom get in good condition before the lambs are
large in them, unless they have a few turnips and a
good supply of hay from the early part of October.
Tliis latter treatment, I am of opinion, brings the
most healthy lambs, if you can get your ewes in suf-
ficiently good condition to breed them and go through
the winter well, and to leave the ewe in good order
in the spring of the year. But this can seldom be
done, unless you begin to keep them well before they
are three-parts gone with lamb, after which you can-
not make them hold their condition, as the lambs get
large in them and take so much from the nature of
the ewe, and as they have a great weight to carry

53S

about, particularly when they have twins iu them,
and more so if they are driven far during the day,
which practice ought to be avoided in all eases after
they get heavy. Nor do I approve of their being
kept too close, as ewes want sufiicient room for
exercise, and for other reasons which I shall presently
state. There is very little grass or hay which grows
in this district that has proof sufiicient to keep a
ewe iu fair stock condition after she is three-parts
gone with lamb ; therefore I think, where it can be
made available, all ewes after that time should be
kept well with turnips or swedes and plenty of hay.
But if you have not suflScient turnips to keep your
whole flock at that time, I am of an opinion every
flockmaster ought to run out from his flock, from
time to time, such ewes as begin to get poor from
breeding their lambs, and some will be so on account
of having twins in them ; all such as are of this
class ought particularly to be kept well with swedes
and hay. I do not believe, as some do, that turnips
are injurious to forward ewes if properly managed
and should you think they seem to get too low in
condition when they begin to approach their time of
lambing, I would say, give a few of this description
a little corn until they have lambed, as all ewes will
never do alike in any flock ; then after they have
lambed they will be able to breed their lambs, and go
away with the best of the flock. But I think most
of us do not pay a proper attention to this matter to
be profitable to ourselves. Another thing is, farm-
ers ought to contrive, as much as they possibly can,
to provide a place for the sheep-keep to be in as
sheltered a situation as possible for the breeding
ewes during the winter months. As many of us
have different aspects on the same farm in our hill
country, a field should rise towards the south for a
wet season, and towards the north for a frosty one,
as sheep will always get to the highest land to lay
down, if possible, which has great influence on our
forward ewes, and often causes many of them to slip
their lambs for want of their being removed to a
sheltered place in bad weather, as I am satisfied that
ewes are very susceptible to chills when they are in
a forward state of pregnancy, where what we term
dry sheep will thrive and do well. Therefore we
ought, where we have hedges on bleak farms, to keep
two sets of cribs for haying our forward ewes, that
they may be removed to the shelter in a bad night of
weather, and have their hay in such a place as they
can stand to eat it, and then lay down comfortably,
instead of being penned up in a close fold and bleak
place, in a wet night, up to their knees iu mud,
cither for the sake of saving the shepherd a little
trouble on his part, or because his master will not go
to a little expense to keep au extra set of hurdles or

536

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cribs for this purpose, which is the cause of a full
crop of lambs being often spoilt in a single night, as
I shall presently prove to you. It is what I call
losing the goose to save its feathers. I say that a
good shepherd ought to watch for a rough night, and
remove his forward ewes to some place of shelter, as
a mariner would reef his sails at the coming of a
storm to save his ship. Some people wiU say, " My
sheep have not been folded in wet weather, but have
been hayed loose in a stubble field, and could go to
a sheltered fence if they chose ; but they are now
slipping their lambs, and I cannot account for it."
Very true ; but I say they will not go against the
weather to the sheltered hedge, but will be driven
away from their hay cribs, which, probably, are out
in the middle of the field, and go before the wind
and rain until they get to the top of the field, where
they will be found in the morning in the most bleak
corner as thick as they can stand, up to their knees
in mud, after a very wet night. This is where the
mischief is often done in a single night of such
weather as we have had in the course of last week.
Rather than they should be driven before the wind,
as I have said, I would prefer their being in a fold
of good size, as the hurdles would be some shelter
to them, if made long one way and narrow the other,
according to the wind. I have been now alluding to
large fields of cold, strong laud, not to small fields
of dry, sandy laud, which lie as level as a sheet of
water. If sheep are hayed in the sheltered side of
a level field they will remain there for the night, if
not driven off by dogs, or something to frighten them
away. But not so on our sideling hUls, as they will
seldom lie at the low side, but draw away to the
most elevated parts ; therefore if ewes are allowed
to run loose, it should be in a field that rises towards
the wind, and then they will be sure to lie in a shel-
tered part for the night, if driven in the evening.
The same observation a2:)plies to a line of hurdles
across a field when eating off turnips. If it rises
towards the wind the sheep will be sure to follow
the hurdles for shelter, and lie about one or two
abreast, as far as the hurdles will shelter them ; and
provided that part of the field has been fed off for
some time, and got consolidated from treading in
dry weather, the water will run off in wet weather,
and the ewes lie down comfortably for the night.
By this mode of management, the ewes, when feed-
ing off turnips, where they have plenty of room to
lie back ou the dried part, will go on and do well,
and carry their lambs to their proper time in a wet
season. It is this plenty-of-room system that I wish
to call your particular attention to with regard to
forward ewes. Another person may have a lot of

ewes in the next field fed on just the same kind of
food — say turnips and hay, or any other kind,— but
the elevation is of a different aspect, and the land
fresh fed ofi", so that the ewes stand in the bleak
side of the hurdles on their legs all night, in very
wet and rough weather, until they are almost shivered
to death, and the consequence is, they are chilled,
and will cast their lambs before their proper time.
Therefore, it is not the kind of food, but the weather,
and the aspect in which the ewes are placed in bad
nights, that often cause us snch great losses. I have
often heard a man say, "I have fed my ewes just the
same this year as I did the last, but now they are
slipping their lambs, and last year I had none."
But they never say anything about the weather, &c.
Let every well-thinking flockmaster, who has met
with the misfortune of losing many lambs by pre-
mature birth, ask himself a few questions on this
subject, and compare his notes with what I have here
stated, and I think eight out of ten will agree with
me ou this point, for the same cause sometimes
comes out in a different shape, although I am aware
there is no rule wit}iout an exception. But before
I depart from this part of my subject, I will relate
to you how I know that the mischief is often caused
in a single wet night, particularly when closely con-
fined on the fresh fed turnip land. Many years ago
I had between GOO and 700 ewes in a field eating off
turnips for wheat, about the end of November. I
ploughed up the land, which was eaten off close up
to the hurdles, as I wanted to sow the wheat, and
shut up the ewes rather close, on account of the wea-
ther appearing likely to be bad. I thought there
were too many sheep to be in one fold, if it should
be so, and as the turnips were nearly all fed off, I
ordered my shepherd to turn out half the ewes into
a grass field, which he did. The next night the
weather came ou very cold and sleety, and, not hav-
ing much room, the next morning the ewes were in
a very dirty condition, although it was very dry and
light laud on chalky subsoil, in rather a bleak situa-
tion. The result was that in a few days after, the
ewes which were left in the turnip field began to slip
their lambs. In a short time after, I removed them
from the turnip field; but still they continued to cast
their lambs, until about 100 had dead lambs, and
many ewes died also ; and to the best of my know-
ledge, scarcely asingleewe ever slipped her lamb which
was only parted the day before the sleety night, and
which was then on the grass land ; and before that
time there was not the least difference in their keep-
ing. Therefore it convinced me the ewes were
chilled in that one night ; and never since that time
have I allowed my forward ewes to be penned up in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

537

a small piece of turnip land in so late a season of
the year. I have now finished the part of my sub-
ject as to how ewes are so often caused to slip their
lambs by wet and bad weather. I shall now pro-
ceed to point out how often they are caused to do
so by very good keeping and fine dry weather,
which, probably, will cause some of you to differ
from me in opinion; but facts are stubborn things,
and nothing will ever cause me to alter mine, after
seeing so many proofs of this kind. I have said,
in the former part of this subject, that we flock-
masters often half starve what we term our flock
ewes during the latter part of the summer; and in
the autumn, after our sale sheep are sold, we some-
times have plenty of turnips to be fed off for wheat,
when we begin to keep our flock ewes well with as
many turnips as they can eat; and when we find
we are getting late with our wheat sowing we are
sometimes too liberal with our turnips, thinking we
shall get our ewes in good condition to go through
the winter well, as most of us like to see our sheep
in high condition if we have an opportunity of get-
ting them so ; and on turnip farms many people
put their ewes on to feed their winter turnips or
swedes as soon as their wheat land is all fed oflF.
By this time, where they have been given as many
turnips as they could eat during a greater part of
the autumn, they begin to get in too high condition
to carry their lambs healthy to their proper time of
birth. This more frequently occurs when ewes
are kept on swedes, and allowed as many as they
can eat, before they are three-parts gone : after that
time it does not apply, as the lamb is too large in
them. Therefore I say avoid giving plenty of
swede until after that period. I have more fre-
quently found my two-tooth ewes slip lamb from
this mode of keeping, and I account for it in this
way — they are often better in condition at starting
than the other two ages of ewes, which have suckled
lambs through the early part of the previous sum-
mer. And another reason is, some people push on
their yoimg age of ewes with better keep, on ac-
count of their youth, to get them in as good con-
dition as possible, without a moment's consider-
ation as to the laws of nature, or how the tender
lamb in the ewe can stand so much what I term
forcing. If ever you have your ewes in what you
think extra good condition, that is the time when
comes the great mischief. This most frequently
occurs in a very fine dry autumn, when the sheep
will " prove " double as fast as in a cold wet time,
even if you were to double their keep, where we
keep them on a folding system. I never remember
to have had any losses from the cause which I have

been now pointing out in a wet cold autumn, as I
could never raise the ewes' blood too high in that
kind of weather. Gentlemen, I will now proceed
to state to you in what way I mean the blood is
raised too high in the ewe for the lamb to be carried
healthy to its time of birth. By what I have been
able to find out, the lamb is not so very attractive
of its mother's blood until it gets towards half-
gone, as I have never experienced any losses in this
way previous to about that time, if I had forced a
ewe ever so fast, as I have generally found a lot of
ewes, almost fit for the butcher when put to ram,
invariably carry their lambs well to their proper
time. I account for it in this way — you cannot
raise them much above the standard with the best
of keep on a folding system without cake or corn ;
and unless you raise the blood too high just at the
nick of time that the lamb is so attractive of its
mother's blood, I am of opinion you have nothing
to fear from the cause I am now representing, as I
found my remarks upon notes of experience. I
have known a lot of rather poor stock ewes, on
more than one occasion, taken from a poorish farm
and put with a lot of ewes, in what I call high stock
order, on good land. They were all rammed
together ; and all kept on well during the autumn
season, mostly to turnips, and at last swedes. They
were never separated; and the poorer lot at the end
of the autumn had got equal to the lot bred on
better land. The consequence was that the lot of
ewes which gained so very fast during the latter
part of the autumn about half-sUpped their lambs ;
and the lot which were in high order at first, and had
been bred on the better land, scarcely slipped any.
This was occasioned, no doubt, from their having
made blood too fast at the time the lamb was so
attractive of its mother's blood, and before the lamb
was sufficiently large in the ewe to contain the
quantity which flowed to it, while the other lot of
better ewes had made a full &ow of blood gradually,
long before. Now I will explain to you in what
way I have found this overflow of blood take place,
and the symptoms by which it may be known.
Many years ago I had some two-tooth ewes which
got into high condition in November. They had
been kept well to turnips for some time, and about
the end of that month they were put on to as many
swedes as they could eat, taking care never to over-
fill them. In about three weeks they began to look
like a lot of fat sheep, and to cast their lambs, I
immediately removed them from the swedes and
put them to turnips again. I also examined one of
the lambs immediately, as it came from the ewe.
The cleaning came away with the lamb, and I saw

538

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

it was too large for a lamb not begun to wool -it
was quite as large as it ought to be with a full-
grown lamb up to its proper time ; and the fleshy
knots which were on it were swollen beyond their
natural size ; and also the navel of the lamb was
much too large. From the general appearance it
immediately occurred to my mind that the ewe's
blood had been raised too high, as I also saw that a
considerable quantity came from the one which had
justslipped herlamb — more thanought to havebeen.
I then went and got my shepherd, a man of con-
siderable experience, who agreed in my opinion. I
thereupon opened the lamb, as I saw it looked too
large in the belly, and I found it to be full of loose
blood : I think quite half a pint at least of just such as
you would take from the veins of any animal, which
fully corroborated my former opinion. Although
I had taken them away from the swedes, I still had
one or two cases almost every day for some time,
and I still continued to open them, and found them
about the same as the first I had opened — full of
blood for a week or two, but after that the blood in
the belly began to turn to a greenish kind of water.
I still continued to examine the lambs in their dif-
ferent stages as slipped, until the ewes' time was out.
By that time I had about 40 slipped out of 260. I
then began to hope the dead lambs were all gone,
but I was much disappointed, for many of the ewes
which went to their full time brought dead or un-
healthy, water-bellied lambs. Many of the ewes
had twins ; and sometimes one appeared to have
been dead for days, and the other alive, but very
weakly, and would soon die. Although some of
the ewes carried their lambs to the full, I am per-
fectly satisfied the whole of the mischief was done
at the same time— it was whilst at the swedes.
Besides the loss of lambs a great many of the ewes
had about double the proper quantity of water in
them, of a nasty greenish unhealthy kind, the same
description as the blood had turned to in the lambs
which I had before opened. It caused these ewes
which were so affected to get so poor that they had
no milk to keep their lambs, and some died. I am
fully satisfied this was produced from blood which
had escaped from the valves in the womb, which
contains the knobs which you see on the ewe's
cleaning. This originated in the early part of the
disease, when the blood was too high, as I had par-
ticularly noticed at the commencement the great
quantity which flowed from the first ewes which
cast their lambs. Having had one or two similar
misfortunes within a few years previous, when I
came to look back as to how I had kept ray young
age of ewes in those years, I found that every cir-

cumstance was exactly similar in keep, and that
the ewes were in very high condition, which tended
to corroborate in my mind every opinion which I
had formed on the subject. I have found my two-
tooth ewes more liable to the causes of which I
have just been speaking than the other two ages ;
therefore I have abandoned the system of keeping
my two-tooth ewes very high at that particular
season ever since; and from that time until now I
have not had anything to complain of, of that kind.
I have had occasionally now and then a ewe or two
slip their lambs from some cause which I could not
discover, but that is what I term casualties— some
from frights of dogs and trifling other causes
which a farmer has no control over. I think the
great secret is to know how to keep your sheep
well enough to get them good, and not in too high
condition to cause such great losses as I have been
just describing. AVhen I keep my ewes on a full
feed of turnips, or anything else which is highly
nutritious, and I find they seem to prove too fast
about that particular time of which I have spoken,
I now make a point to check them. I do not mean
to say that I shall never again be caught in the
same snare as heretofore, as I believe I have been
very near it once or twice lately, and I find it a
great difficulty to determine when to check them.
Nothing but the master's eye will determine, as the
shepherd who is with them so much can seldom
see the difference in proper time, as I have often
found them wrong in their opinion as to the prov-
ing of sheep. I once had a good shepherd who
thought his sheep were doing well, when they had
lost 9lbs. a sheep in a fortnight. There is one
more cause for ewes having dead lambs, which I
have not yet mentioned, and to which I must claim
your attention for a few minutes. When the lambs
get large in the ewes eating turnips, they some-
times are filled with too much gas, which often fills
the lamb with wind, and causes its death near to
lambing, more particularly so when the ewes
have twins in them. In some seasons I do not
find the turnips so gassy as in others ; but when
you find the ewes seem to blow much with turnips
or swedes, they should be pulled up a week or fort-
night before eaten ; and it is a good plan for the
forward ewes to be turned back when you think
they have eaten sufficient, and be shut out of the
fresh pitch for an hour or two before they are let in
again. These three causes on which I have spoken
are the whole that have come to my knowledge
during my experience, and by which I have been
several times affected. I have spoken on this sub-
ject at greater length than I intended when I began,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

539

and I have done so with the view of stating to you
my reasons for the assertions which I have made.
I am aware that I have not done full justice to this
subject, as it would fill a volume properly to repre-
sent the words on the card for this evening's dis-
cussion; but I trust I have said sufficient to convey
to you some of my ideas on the subject. I have
done my best to point to you in what latitude the
rocks lie whereon I have been severally cast away;
and I recommend such of you gentlemen as are
here this evening, who wish to avoid my misfortune,
to go home and lay down in your own charts where
they are to be found, that you may not share the
same fate. Now I have given to you, gentlemen, fairly
and freely the results of my experience, and I hope
many of you will favour me with yours ; and I am
ready to answer any questions which you wish to
put to me on this matter,

Mr. Fowler asked what hay the young sheep
had that slipped their lambs ?

Mr. Saunders : Clover hay — broad clover, and
rye-grass.

The Chairman spoke of an instance in which
about four years ago he sustained great loss by a
single night's bad weather while the ewes were in a
field of swedes when nearly half gone. He only
got three out of the first hundred, and could
scarcely conceive the cause, but he believed that
Mr. Saunders was about " half right."

Mr. Fowler said that a few days ago he hap-
pened to take up a work by the Rev. Mr. Berkeley
on the diseases of plants and their effects on ani-
mated nature. The author mentioned a disease
peculiar to cereal crops, which took the shape of
fungi, scarcely to be observed by the human eye,
and which possessed the properties of the drug
called ergot. It was generally known that this
drug had the effect of expelling the foetus before it
came to maturity; and as Mr. Berkeley enumerated
rye-grass as among the plants subject to this disease,
it was a question whether the loss of lambs, in some
instances, might not be traced to the ewes eating
provender so diseased. He believed this was the
cause of his losing a number of lambs some few
years ago.

Mr. Clarke accounted for the loss of a few
lambs by allowing the ewes to eat frosted mangold
leaves.

Mr. BuDOEN said they had been keeping some
on mangold leaves, not giving too much at a time,
and they had done very well.

Mr. Clarke stated that the ewes he spoke of did
not have any turnips, but were fed on mangold and
meadow hay, and they did very well until they got

some frosted mangold leaves. He attributed it to
the leaves becoming decayed, and having an inju-
rious effect on the ewes.

Mr. White was of opinion that when the ewes
were in tolerably good condition, about a fortnight
or three weeks before lambing commenced, they
should have half an allowance of turnips or swedes,
and plenty of hay— that they should be allowed to
go back a little rather than forward. His shepherd
had taken five prizes from the Wareham Agricul-
tural Society, in thirteen years, for lamb rearing ;
but one year he had very bad luck, which he could
not account for at all, as he kept the ewes just the
same as he usually had done. On that occasion he
had about 200 slip lambs, but generally his loss
did not exceed ten or twelve. He thought they
might have more lambs if the ewes were well kept
before the commencement of the breeding season.
He thought there was a good deal in what Mr.
Saunders said with respect to the keeping of the
two-tooth ewes.

Mr. Saunders asked if Mr. White did not once
sell a lot of ewes which were unfortunate in lamb-
ing.

Mr. White replied that he did, and a great many
of them slipped their lambs, although those they
were put with did not, and the whole were put to
the ram at the same time.

Mr. Saunders attributed it to Mr. White's ewes
proving much faster than the others, in con-
sequence of being put on a fresh piece of land.

Mr. Jackson said he had not had much expe-
rience in this unfortunate lamb-slipping. He did
not know whether it was owing to the locality from
which he came, but the few cases that did occur
were traced to the ewes being worried by a dog, or
such like casualty. He did not know whether Mr.
Saunders considered it infectious, bnt it was gene-
rally considered so in his country, and they always
removed such sheep away from the flock. He
thought many ewes were "'killed by kindness" at
the time they were lambing — that was, by keeping
them too warm in pens and yards too liberally lit-
tered. At Rempstone they had lost a number of
ewes by having them in the yard ; but when they
had them out in a place hurdled round, so that
they could be shifted, they scarcely lost any.

Mr. White said he had always been in the habit
of having his in a yard, and well littered, and he
did not lose many. He did not think that had
much to do with it.

Mr. CLiRKE was an advocate for the yard.
Theirs was not over sheltered or too warm, and
they kept bedding it up, so as to render it dry and

540

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

healthy. The cribs were placed round the sides^
so that the sheep could not jump over them, which
often was the cause of mischief. The remarks
made by Mr. Fowler deserved attention ; and he
thought there was nothing like good up-land hay
for ewes when breeding. On the whole, he con-
sidered there were so many changes in the climate
and the constitutions of the animals, that it was
difficult to account for the bad luck often ex-
perienced.

Mr. FowLEE thought they would not be wander-
ing from the subject if they took into consideration
the treatment of ewes with the wethers out and in
premature lambing. In the former case he had been
reconmended to use an ounce and a half of bella-
donna mixed with a pint and a half of boiling
water, and allowed to stand till it got cold. He
first washed with warm water, and then applied a
small portion of the solution. In the latter case
he used equal portions of opium and nitrate spirits
of ether, and if there were any uneasiness he gave
a dose of four tea-spoonfuls.

Mr. Longman stated that he had been unfor-
tunate with his two-tooth ewes, but he could not
tell the reason, as they had been feeding with the
others.

Mr. FowLEK thought there might be a pre-
disposition in many young ewes to cast their lambs,
and that they were more subject to inflammation,
&c., than the old ewes, which would account for
the greater number of casualties among the two-
tooth ewes.

Mr. Reader considered that lambing in a yard
depended a great deal on the situation. If they
had a yard, it ought to be in rather a higher place
than if they were going to let the ewes lie open,
so that there might be plenty of air. In a low
yard they would get a damp atmosphere, and have
inflammation among the sheep. He could scarcely
reconcile what Mr. Saunders said respecting the
two-tooth ewes and the old ones. It was known
that the ewes sent to Weyhill fair from the lower
part of Dorset and Somersetshire were in the high-
est condition, generally fat enough for the butcher;
and the purchasers must calculate upon good luck,
or they would never give the prices they do. It
often happens that the dam and lamb were sent to
Smithfield together, and the ewes must he kept in
good condition, otherwise they would not be fit.

Mr. Saundeus said he had heard of parties buy-
ing at Weyhill, and having bad luck, which he
considered to be owing to the ewes being in too
high condition.

Mr. Alnek stated that a friend of his had lieen

unfortunate with his two-tooth ewes, though they
were not in such good condition as the other por-
tion of the flock.

Mr. Saunders, in replying to diflPerent questions,
said he had given his ewes all sorts of hay, but did
not know that his ewes had suffered from any that
was diseased in the manner Mr. Fowler had spoken
of. As to ewes suffering from the wether being
out, he generally applied hog's lard, or, in a bad
case, hog's lard and tar, tying string across without
putting in a stitch. He thought it was a question
whether it were the frosted mangold or a bad night
which caused the injury Mr. Clarke had alluded to.
Mr. White likes his ewes to go back a little before
lambing, but he (Mr. Saunders) thought it was
impossible to keep them up enough at that period.
He agreed with Mr. Jackson that lamb-slipping
was infectious, although he could not speak with
certainty, but he always guarded against it. He
thought a yard in general was bad. If they kept
the yard thoroughly well littered and dry, they
might keep the ewes healthy; but if they got it
wet and mucky it was very bad, and he had lost
lambs after a wet night in such cases. He used an
open fold with hurdles which he could shift every
day ; and after the ewes had lambed, he put them
in a place where there were sheds to protect them.
He did not object to putting the cribs round the
fold or yard where they had plenty of room, in
which case it was a very good plan. What Mr.
Longman stated corroborated his observations with
respect to the two-tooth ewes, and he attributed the
loss to their being in too high condition. As to
Mr. Alner's remark, of course there were excep-
tions to every rule. He generally used Driffield's
Black Oil in cases of inflammation, but thought it
was a question whether it was that or nature itself
which effected the cure.

The following resolution was then come to : —
" That the ewes should be kept during the winter
months in as dry and sheltered a situation as the
farm will admit of; that they should not be
allowed to remain on the turnip land (especially if
strong, wet soil) during the night, after heavy
rains; that care should be taken not to drive thera
any great distance to heat them ; and that turnips
are considered by many to be beneficial if given
moderately."

The Chairman then complimented Mr. Saunders
on the able manner in which he had introduced the
subject, and proposed a vote of thanks to him.

Mr. White seconded the jiroposition, which
was unanimously agreed to, and the proceedings
terminated, — Dorset County Chronicle.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

541

THE ENGLISH FARMER IN BELGIUM.

Sir,— In continuation of an account of those Flemish
crops, the most worthy of trial on the " little field,"
I suppose to be set apart for it, I will commence this
letter with the " Yelloio Lupin." Wherever I have
yet been, in France or Belgium, I find a greater admix-
ture of sand in the soils than in England. In many
parts of Belgium it is a perfect sand ; so much so as
even to be easily moved by the wind ; and a most in-
genious way they have of " fixing" it (but of this and
other Belgian contrivances in some future letter). In
Germany there are whole districts of the very poorest
sands. For some few years past on these soils the agri-
culturists, or rather proprietors on these miserable
lands, have been much impressed with the immense
advantages to be derived from the '* Yelloio Lupin" as
a green crop to be ploughed in. It is so effective that
where it has been followed up, as in Pomerania, Saxony,
and Brandenbourg, those estates, which before were
worthless, now produce splendid crops of rye and
lupins, without any manure being employed but that
which arises from these crops.

It is not a high-growing plant, but very leafy, and
branches much, consequently it may be drilled thinly at
eighteen inches, and hoed or not, as you please. It is
a sort of bean with a spotted skin, sown in the spring
at the rate of two bushels per acre, and ploughed in
when in full flower. The ground may be then sown again
with it, and that crop also buried. I should say after
the first frost ; but in Germany they sow it aft^r har-
vest, and turn it down in the spring for rye or oats,
and have thus obtained a white crop and this " manure"
crop for three or four years together on the same land !

If it would stand our winters, it is just what we want
to occupy our stubbles from harvest to February ; and
is well worth trying. We have many sandy districts in
Norfolk, Surrey, and other parts, where I cannot see
why it should not have the same effects as abroad in
north of Germany. There are many gentlemen there
grow as many as 120 to 200 acres of this plant annually,
as the farms run large. They grow it for corn, and also
occasionally cut it for hay. The grain ripens in August ;
but it is difficult to harvest, because the plant itself is so
succulent, and the pods do not all ripen at the same
time. It is mown in swaths, and after laying a few
days, is set up in single sheaves, as we do sometimes our
beans, with a bean-stalk twisted round near the top of
the sheaf, the lower part standing out like an umbrella.
Another difficulty is, the pods are so liable to open, and
shed the grain. But there are ways to meet all this.
One man made small stacks of it, with alternate layers
of oat-straw ; it heated a little, gave the oat-straw a
flavour, and dried itself without injuring the grain.

It might be made into long stacks of only two
sheaves in width, and the height of long poles set in
the ground on each side, at intervals of a dozen yards,
to keep them up. I have seen this done with the

cammeline oil plant ; but I cannot see why the French
plan of round shocks of a dozen sheaves with three-
hood sheaves should not answer, and so let them re-
main out some weeks, till thereby dry, and then carted
home in waggons, with old tilts at the bottom to catch
the shed lupins. This excellent mode of shocking corn
I have described in a former letter to your paper.

Another man had it half-thrashed in the field, lads
going round and giving each sheaf half-a-dozen knocks
with a stick, and shocking them. This is a good plan,
as the pods dry so long before the juicy stalks.

The feeding property of the grain is about the same
as common beans.

It likes deep cultivation. The land is never " sick"
of it, and where grown annually as manure, for some
six or seven years, it has turned the soil a dark colour,
from the quantity of decayed matter deposited.

If mown for hay, in full flower, it is considered quite
as nutritive as clover ; but I should doubt that. It
should always be mixed in the (long) stack with layers
of straw. April would be the time for sowing it, and
thicker than if intended to produce grain. It has
grown two tons of hay per acre. It is good for all
animals ; but cows must not be allowed too much of it,
or it will give a taste to the milk. On soils that suit
it (and any will do so except chalk) it will grow a yard
high, deeply ploughed and subsoiled.

If sown to be folded off by sheep, tares must be
mixed with it, and they will then readily eat it ; but not
so well if sown alone.

In using the grain for food, fatting bullocks should
have not more than half a peck per day, young lambs
three quarters of a pint, cows two pounds, and horses
one-sixth of their usual quantity of other corn mixed
with it. The lupins should be first wetted twenty-four
hours in water.

The above is sufficient to give an idea of its cultiva-
tion and use. But I should think its greatest value to
us would be as a green crop, to be sown after harvest
on all soils, and ploughed in as manure ; or on our
poorest lands, as a means of making them worth culti-
vation, and which are now almost worthless. For this
purpose the first two years it should be sown twice
a-year; after which, the four crops having been turned
in the soil, we might expect it to be in a sufficiently
productive state to be cultivated in that course the
owner may think the best. Perhaps that would be to lay
it down for sheep-feeding, as it is stated a small farmer
in the village of Dusenan, having for some few years
ploughed in his lupins in full flower in the spring, and
then sowed rye, he found the field began to be covered
with a wild white clover — it was a white sand, and had
been turned quite dark from the quantity of humus
left in the soil.

" Spergule" is a small plant sown on the stubbles for
fodder late in autumn ; and very frequently ploughed in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

512

as manure. It is sown thickly, as it does not grow
above a foot high. It is worthy of trial for this purpose
by the side of the yellow lupin.

" CEillette" is a poppy, producing the next finest
quality of oil we have to olive. There are two sorts,
one with a black seed, and the other grey. The latter
crop the best, but the heads open when ripe, and is lost
from those which recline. It is sown in rows in March
or April 10 pints to the acre, at 18 inch intervals, and
hoed out to 8 or 10 inches in the rows. In harvest they
are kept upright, tied in sheaves, and shocked like corn,
and when dry are thrashed in the field, on a movable
small wood floor, like our old cloverseed floors. The
produce on an average is about 16 bushels of seed to the
acre, which give one-third of oil. The quantity of straw,
which is useful as litter, would be about 14 or 15 cwt.
It was a crop which paid the Flemish farmer well last
year. Its advantages are — its admitting of so many
boeings, coming off the land early, and being a change

to the soil.

<« Cammeline" is another dwarfish growing oil plant,
which is very useful to them, because it admits of bebig
sown as late as May ; and is a resource to be put in

where other crops have perhaps missed plant. It is
very hardy, and sown broadcast 6 pints to the acre. It
is harvested as soon as the heads turn yellow. Product
about 18 bushels per acre of seed, which yields about
one-fourth in oil. The cake is only fit for manure, but
the straw is used for litter. This also was a profitable
crop last year.

As the crops here described are suitable for poor and
sandy soils, I will in my next give some details of the
growth and manufacture of another plant, the Jeru-
salem artichoke, which has been, and is, grown in
France on comparatively a large scale for distillation
and cattle-feeding. It[is the root which, had the potato
disease continued, would certainly have been much cul-
tivated in England, as that edible is the most adaptable
to take its place. It will grow on the poorest soils, and
with the least cultivation, giving a tolerably heavy pro-
duce of any other root. I do not know of any one
having grown it to the same extent in England. I hope
it may interest your readers.

Yours truly,

W. Hartley.

Poste Restante, Brussels, April 13, 1859.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

A Monthly Council was held on Wednesday,
May 4th. Present : His Grace the Duke of Marl-
borough, President, in the Chair; Earl of Love-
lace, Lord Southampton, Lord Walsingham, Lord
Bridport, Lord Feversham, Lord Leigh, Lord Tre-
degar; the Hon. W. G. Cavendish, M. P.; the Hon.
A. Leslie Melville; Sir John V. Shelley, Bart., M.P.;
Mr. Raymond Barker ; Mr. Barnett ; Mr. Brandreth ;
Mr. Briscoe, M.P. ; Mr. Caldwell ; Colonel Challoner ;
Mr. Exall ; Mr. Brandreth Gibbs ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs ;
Mr. Wren Hoskyns ; Mr. James Howard ; Mr. Hudson
(of Castleacre); Mr. Jonas; Mr. Lawes; Mr. Law-
rence; Mr. Milward; Mr. Pain; Mr. Pope; Prof.
Simonds; Mr. Torr; Mr. George Turner; Prof.
Voelcker; Mr. Jonas Webb; and Mr. Wilson (of
Stowlangtoft).

The following new members were elected :
Barroby, Miss Elizabeth, Dishforth, Thirsk.
BleertoD, R. W. Mountfort, Field Hall, Cheadle.
Booth, John B., Killerby, Catterick.
Byers, Stephen, Chambers Farm, Epping.
Carter, Samuel, Battle.

Chawner, Capt. Edwd., Manor House, Sutton Valence, Alton.
Clinch, Charles, Witney.
Corfield, William, Buttersby Hayes, Audlem.
Cox, Captain Charles James, Fordwick House, Canterbury.
Creswell, Gerard Oswald, Ashwicken, Kings Lynn.
Dawes, Samuel, Smeethwick House, Birmingham.
Donald, W., Regent-street, London.
Eley, W. Henry, juD., Cobham, Kent.
Eraser, Hugh, CuUaden, N. B.
Gower, Andrew, Market Drayton.
Barker, Rev. Wm., The Vicarage, PuUeshill, Ampthill.
Haward, Joseph, Reddish, Stockport.
Henderson, John, Felderland, Sandwich.
Kenton, Samuel, Bridge-street, Jiambetb.

Hopper, Wm. Cuthbert, Beaumont, Doncaster.

Horner, Thomas, jun.Moretonin-the-Marsh.

Hudson, Thomas, Adderley, Market Drayton.

King, Edward James, Beekenhill, Warwickshire.

Jaggard, Joseph, I^eek Wootton, Warwick.

Lacey, William Charles, Bestwell House, Wareham.

Lowe, Edward, Comberford Mill, Tamworth.

Midworth, John, Newark-on-Treut.

Morgan, John, Green Lanes, Birmingham.

Moorell, Jas. Conyers, Leyland, Lancashire.

Neville. John, Haselor Hill, Lichfield.

Newell, Wm. Atkinson, Netherside, Skipton.

Nicks, John, Leek Wootton, Warwick.

Nott, James, Little Frome, Bromyard.

Pilgrim, Samuel C, Manor House, Burbage, Hinckley.

Powell, Richard, Benson, Wallingford.

Satchvell, Thomas, Knowle, Birmingham.

Sills, William, Casthorpe, Grantham.

Sinclair, John, Glenwrqubach, Inverness.

Smith, Joseph, Henley-in-Arden.

Snow, Rev. George Doyley, Newton Valence Rectory, Alton.

Spain, George, Hacklinge, Sandwich.

Stanford, Wm.,jun., Steyning Court Farm, Steyning.

Stanier, John G. Uppington, Wellington, Salop.

Stubbs, John, Westou Hall, Stafford.

Wenman, Wm. Henry Weston, Shiffnall.

Finances.— Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented the report on the
accounts of the Society, by which it appeared that the
current cash balance in the hands of the bankers was
£1,583 Is. 8d.

Country Meeting of I860.— The report of the
Inspection Committee having been read and deputations
received from Canterbury, Croydon, Guildford, and
Reigate, the Council decided that the Country Meeting
in 1860 should be held at Canterbury, on condition that
the Mayor of that city entered into the usual agreement
with the Secretary of the Society by the next Monthly

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

543

Council on the 1st of June. These deputations con-
sisted of the following members : —

Croydon -DeputoiioM.— Thomas Bryon, Esq., President of the
East Surrey Agricultural Society; Thomas Kem, Esq.;
Richard Northey, Esq. ; John Wm. Sutherland, Esq. ; The
Rev. E.F.Brynon; Wm. Goldsmith, Esq. ; Thomas Farley,
Esq. ; Wm. Castledine, Esq. ; Mr. Johu Wood.— H. Richards,
Hou. Sec.

Canterbury Deputation.— Lord Sondes ; Sir Walter James,
Bart.; Sir Norton Knatchbull, Bart. ; William Deedes, Esq.,
M.P. ; Sir Brook W. Bridges, Bart., M.P. ; Hon. B. John-
stone, M.P. ; E. H. Knatchbull HugessoD, M.P. ; the Mayor
of Canterbury ; the ex-Mayor of Canterbury; Major Munn;
S. M. Hdton, Esq. ; Robert Lake, Esq. : Thomas Cooper,
Esq. ; Thomas Philpott.

Relgate Deputation.— J. C. Sherrard, of Kinneraley ;
J. G. Marriage, Nutfleld ; F. Mellersh, Reigate ; C.
Goldsmith, ditto; J. Lees, ditto; C. W. Eborall, Ma-
nager of South Eastern Railway.

Guildford Deputation.—Esul of Lovelace (Lord Lieutenant
of Surrey), Mr. Drummond, M.P., Mr. H. Currie, Mr. Couss-
maker, Mr. Elkins, Mr. Finney, Mr. Smallpiece, Mr. Scott.

Agricultural Chemistry. — Mr. Wren Hos-
kyns, Chairman of the Chemical Committee, presented
the report recommending that the wording of the rule
regulating the members' privilege of analysis be altered
so as to meet the intention of the Council, viz, so as to
exclude all but analyses " required for the bond fide
personal use of farmers." The following subjects of
investigation by the Society's Consulting Chemist were
recommended :

1. The changes that take place in liquid manure in passing

through different sods.

2. Experiments on top-dressings for Wheat and Barle/.

3. The continuat'on of his experiments on the nature and

physiology of cultivated Turnips.

4. The different modes of applying manure in autumn and

in spring.

House Committee. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chair-
man of the House Committee, presented the report as
to the repairs required in the drainage of the house.

Warwick Meeting. — Lord Leigh, Vice-Chairman
of the General Warwick Committee, reported the fol-
lowing recommendation of the Committee —

1. That Mr. Bishop, of the Regent Hotel, Leamington,

should supply the first-class refreshments for the public
in the show-yard ; and that Mr. Cole, of the Horse
and Hounds Inu, Warwick, should supply the secoud-
class refreshments, subject to arrangements with the
honorary Director of the Show.

2. That the date of entry for cheese, wool, and farm gates

(being local prizes), be extended to the 1st of June, in
compliance with the request of the local committee at
Warwick.

The Committee further reported the arrangements that
had been made for the supply of green fodder for the live
stock, and the commencement of the show yard by the
Society's contractor.

Steward of Implements. — On the motion of Mr.
Torr, seconded by Mr. John Hudson (of Castleacre),
Mr. Edward Pope was elected one of the Stewards of
Implements, in the place of Lieut.. Colonel Towneley,
who had conveyed to the Council his regret that he
would not be able to act in consequence of absence from
England.

Steward of Live Stock. — On the motion of
Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, seconded by Mr. George Turner,
Mr. Fisher Hobbs was elected to that office.

Country Meeting of 1861.— On the motion of
Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, a communication from the Secre-
tary of the Crystal Palace, inquiring relative to the
Society's proposed Metropolitan Meeting in the year
1861, was referred to the "Metropolitan Sites Com-
mittee."

House List.— Agreeably with the Bye-laws, the
Council arranged by ballot an election list, to be recom-
mended by them for adoption at the ensuing General
Meeting.

The Council then adjourned to its Weekly Meeting
on the 11th May.

A Weekly Council was held on May 11, the
Right Hon. Lord Berners, Trustee, in the Chair.

A communication was read from Mr. Edward Far-
mer, " On the Preservation of Mangel Wurzel Roots."
He transmitted a root grown and stored with the crop
of 1857, and subsequently with that grown in 1858-
On the root being cut, it appeared quite sound ex-
cepting (vhere it had been bruised on the outside.

A communication was read from the Consul-General
of Sweden and Norway, stating that he was requested
by Professor Hoist, of the University of Christiana,
manager of the Royal Farm in Norway, to forward to
the Society copies of the first series of reports on the
proceedings of the Royal Farm.

The thanks of the Council were ordered for the above
communications.

Adjourned to May 18.

A Weekly Council was held on Wednesday, the 18th
of May, Colonel Challoner in the chair : present, the
Hon. Leslie Melville, and Messrs. T. Raymond Barker,
B, T. Brandreth Gibbs. W. Fisher Hobbs, Samuel
Jonas, A. Majendie, P. Simpson, T. Scott, and T. B.
Western.

The names of candidates proposed for election were
read.

The Secretary of the Belgian Legation transmitted
copies of the programme of the International Exhibition
of Reaping Machines, to be held at Brussels, under
the auspices of the Central Agricultural Society of
Belgium.

The Hon. Leslie Melville laid before the Council
copies of the prospectus of a gas apparatus adapted to
lighting farm -buildings and stables, and private houses.
Having had one in operation himself for a year, he was
enabled, from personal observation, to detail its success.
He stated that an intelligent labourer could manage it,
and that the cost of gas varied from 2s. 9jd. to 3s. 6d.
per 1 ,000 feet, but of course subject to variation accord-
ing to the price of the coal used.

Mr. Fisher Hobbs expressed his willingness to detail
to the Council the result of his practical experience re-
lative to the turnip fly, and his success in lessening the
ravages made by it. The Council expressed their hope
that Mr. Fisher Hobbs would favour the Society with
this statement at the Weekly Council to be held on
Wednesday, the 25th May.

Adjourned to Weekly Council on 25th May,

0 0

5U

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The half-yearly general meeting of the Society was
held Monday, May 23, in Hanover-square. The chair
was taken at noon by his Grace the Duke of Marlborough,
President for the year. Among those present were Earl
Powis, Colonel Challoner, Messrs. Raymond Barker,
Milward, Fisher Hobbs, B. Gibbs, Burch Western, T.
Crisp, H. Corbet, S. Sidney, Beale Browne, T. Pain,
T. Scott, Barnett (Stratton), Glutton (Notts), James
Howard, Johnson, V. Simpson, S. M. Hilton, and
G. Rochfort Clarke.

In the absence of Mr. Hudson, in consequence of in-
disposition, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs officiated as secretary
pro tern.

The order of the proceedings, and the powers in-
vested in the meeting, having been read,

Mr. R. Milward moved the election of the Presi-
dent for the year ensuing the Warwick Meeting. He
said he gave notice to the Council of his intention to
propose Lord Feversham, having inferred from a con-
versation which he had with him that his Lordship
would accept this office. But at the last meeting of
the Council his Lordship said he feared that he would
not beable to devote the requisite amount of time to
the duties, and that ho hoped, thei'efore, the Council
would select some other gentleman ; adding that
he thought Lord Walsingham, who was sitting
near him, would make a very good president. Lord
Walsingham, on being appealed to, said that if he
were elected, he would do his best to promote the in-
terests of the Society; and he (Mr. Milward) had very
great pleasure in now proposing that his Lordship should
be the President for the next year.

Col. Challoner felt very great pleasure in seconding
the nomination, knowing that Lord Walsingham farmed
in Norfolk, and took great interest in the proceedings
of the Society.

The motion was carried unanimously.

On the motion of Col. Challoner, seconded by Mr. T.
B. Western, the Trustees were re-elected.

Mr. W. F. HoBBS, in moving the re-election of the
Vice-Presidents, paid a tribute for the services which
many of them had rendered to the Society.

The motion, after being seconded by Mr. R. Milward,
was carried unanimously.

Mr. B. Gibbs then read the report of the Council,
which was as follows : —

REPORT.
The Society consists at the present time of —
78 Life Governors,
130 Annual Governors,
927 Life Members,
4,008 Annual Members,
18 Honorary Members,
Making a total of 5,161 names on the list.

The Council has elected Lord Leigh, of Stoneleigh
Abbey, a member of the Council, to supply the vacancy
caused by the resignation of Sir Archibald K. Mac-
donald, Bart.

The funded capital of the Society stands at ^10,000
Stock, in the New Three per Cents.

The Council has appointed Professor Spooner, of the
Royal Veterinary College, jomt Veterinary Inspector
with Professor Simonds, at the Annual Country Meet-

ings of the Society. This step has been found neces-
sary in order that every facility may be afforded for a
thorough examination of the animals sent to the shows,
more especially as to their freedom from any hereditary
diseases, which might be transmitted to their progeny ;
and also as to whether the state of dentition fully bears
out the ages stated in the certificates.

The Council has decided that Professor Voelcker, the
Society's consulting chemist, shall investigate the follow-
ing subjects : — ■

Ist — The changes that take place in liquid manures, in

passing through different soils.
2nd — Experiments on top-dressing of wheat and barley.
3rd — The different modes of applying manure in autumn

and spring.
4th — Tiie nature and physiology of cultivated turnips,
being a continuation of his experiments connected with
this subject.

The Council has determined to amend the wording of
the rule regulating the Members' privilege of analyses,
so as to prevent dealers or manufacturers of manm-es
availing themselves of the reduced scale of charges,
which has been secured for the benefit of such Members
as may require these analyses hond fide for their own
personal use as agriculturists.

The Warwick Meeting (to be held in the week com-
mencing Monday, July 11th) promises to be of a highly
interesting character. The arrangements for the Meeting
are steadily progressing. The entries for implements
are so extremely large as to require six sheds to be
added to last year's plan, in the implement department
alone ; and the applications for space in the yard
devoted to "machinery at work " are also far greater
than on any former occasion.

The entries for live stock will, as usual, be received up
to the 1st of June. The numerous applications for
certificate-forms that are being received daily indicate
that this portion of the Show will at least be equal to
any former exhibition.

The Local Committee at Warwick having declined to
undertake the arrangements and expenses connected
with the dinner during the Society's Meeting, the
Council has determined to adhere to the resolution of
last year— not to take these responsibilities on itself on
the present occasion.

The special attention of the General Warwick Com-
mittee has been directed to the subject of the supply of
refreshments for visitors, in the show-yard, during the
exhibition ; and such arrangements have already been
made, and are still in progress, as, it is hoped, will
secure to the public due accommodation in this respect,
at a fixed tariff of charges.

Since the Society first prominently drew attention to
the important subject of the application of steam-power
to the cultivation of the soil, by offering a special prize
of large amount, several inventions and improvements
have been brought before the public ; and the advance-
ment made was such as to lead the Council to award the
prize of £"500 at the Chester Meeting, last year. As,
no doubt, further improvements have since been made,
it may be confidently expected that the trials to be car-
ried on at Warwick, under the direction of the Society's
Judges, will prove an interesting feature in the meeting,
by affording agriculturists an opportunity of personally
inspecting the different inventions that will then be
brought together in competition.

The Council has decided that the Country Meeting of
next year, for the South-eastern district (comprising the
counties of Kent and Surrey), shall be held at the City
of Canterbury. The accommodation offered and gua-
ranteed by the authorities promises to be unusually con-
venient and complete.

The Council has the satisfaction of recording that the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

545

interest taken by agriculturists generally in these an-
nual exhibitions appears steadily to increase, and that
year by year greater anxiety is manifested by the autho-
rities and inhabitants of the principal towns within the
district proposed to be visited to secure the Society's
meeting being held in their respective localities, and to
offer every facility in their power to aid the Council in
carrying it to a successful issue.

In conclusion, the Council congratulate the members
on the steady progress of the Society in accomplishing
the various important objects for which it was esta-
blished.

(By order of Special Council, May 20th, 1859.)

On the motion of Mr. S. Sydney, seconded by^Mr. B.
Browne, the report was adopted.

Mr. R. Barker, chairman of the Finance Committee,
presented the following balance-sheet : —

ROYAL AGKICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

Half- Yearly Account, extending from the 1st of July to the

Slat of December, 1858.

Receipts.

£. s. d.
Balance in the hands of the Bankers, July 1,1858 2225 15 9
Petty Cash Balance in the hands of the Secretary

July 1,1858 3 14 4

Dividends on Stock 146 17 6

Governor's Life-Composition 50 0 0

Governors' Life-Subscriptions 30 0 0

Members' Life-Composition 167 0 0

Members' Annual Subscriptions 664 2 0

Journal Receipts 187 8 6

Sale of Horse-shoeing Tracts 17 18 10

Country-Meeting Receipts : —

Salisbury 14 1 0

Chester 4566 15 7

£8073 13 6
Payments.

£ s. d.

Permanent Charges 179 17 6

Taxes and Rates 15 17 6

Establishment 631 8 3

Postage and Carriage 18 14 2

Advertisements 7 7 6

Journal Payments 648 2 6

EssayPrizes 120 0 0

Veterinary Grant 100 0 0

Chemical Grant 150 0 0

Country Meeting Payments : —

Chester 4792 8 1

Subscription (paid in error by Banker) returned . 5 0 0
Purchase of £735 lis. Id. Stock in the New

Three per Cents. 717 3 4

Sundry items of Petty Cash 4 7 9

Balancein the handsof the Bankers,Dec.31, 1858 649 11 6
Petty Cash balance in the hands of Secretary,

Dec.31,1858 15 6

£8,073 13 6
(Signed) Thomas Raymond Barker, T Finance

C. B. Challoner.'''"""''"' J <^'»«'«'«^^-

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 20th day of

May, 1858.

la- j\ T„„„„ Ti„„^^ f Auditors on

Signed) Joseph Druce, i the nart of the

George T. Raymond Barker, y"^|^^f^g ""^

Mr. H. Corbet, in moving a vote of thanks to the
auditors, observed that at the last meeting it was men-
tioned that those gentlemen had made several valuable
suggestions to the finance committee with regard to the
mode of keeping the accounts, and he was sure the at-
tention which they had paid to the subject well entitled
them to this acknowledgment.

Mr. S. Sidney, in seconding the motion, suggested
that in future the balance sheet should be prepared some
days before the meeting, and placed on the table for
members to inspect. Tt would be too expensive to send
a copy to every member, but he thought they should all
have an opportunity of examining the accounts before-
hand.

Mr. R. Barker was understood to say that under
the charter of the society, it was necessary that the audit
should take place immediatly before the general meeting.

The election of the Council then took place, and,
with one vote only in exception, the house-list was
adopted.

Three new members of Council were elected, vis5.,
Mr. J. W. BuUer, M.P., the Hon. Augustus Vernon, and
Professor John Wilson.

The Chairman then inquired whether any gentleman
present had any remarks to make, or any suggestions to
offer, for the consideration of the Council, and there
being no response,

Colonel Challoner said he rose to propose what he
was sure would be very acceptable to every person
present, and especially to the members of the Council
who had seen the ability, the kindness, and the
attention which their noble Chairman had displayed in
the office of President (Cheers). The noble Duke was
one of the largest landowners in England ; and as long
as they could get gentlemen of that stamp to preside
over the Society, there could be no doubt that its pro-
ceedings would be satisfactory to the agricultural world.
He had great pleasure, then, in proposing that the
cordial thanks of the meeting be given to his Grace for
the services which he had rendered to the Society
(cheers).

Mr. H. Corbet, in seconding the motion, observed
that the members generally had previously heard the
highest character accorded to the Duke of Marlborough
as President of the Royal Agricultural Society, and he
only regretted that in consequence of the Council having
determined to get rid of the annual dinner, they would
not have an opportunity of seeing him preside over a full
gathering of the members.

The motion was put by Colonel Challoner, and carried
by acclamation.

His Grace said he had to return his sincere thanks
for the honour they had done him in acknowledging the
services which he had rendered to the Society. He did
not think there was anything for him to remark upon in
the transactions of the year during which he had been
president, the Society having gone on in much the same
way that it did in previous years. He must, however,
observe that the Society appeared year by year to be
increasing in importance, increasing in popularity, and
increasing in the benefit which it was conferring on the
agriculture of the country j and as regarded the tribute
whii,;i b : 1 j«*it been paid to himself, he could only say
that, if he had been at all instrumental, in the position
to which the members of the Society had done him the
honour to raise him, in promoting the agricultural
interests of this country, it would always be a matter of

0 0 2

546

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

great gratification to him in the retrospect of his past
life (cheers). He thought the year which was opening
upon them was full of promise. The place which the
Council had selected for the next annual show was one
which was calculated to excite a very large amount of
interest, and to afford accommodation to a very large
number of persons ; and as regarded the selection of
Canterbury for next year, if the blessings of peace
were preserved to this country, as he trusted in God's
mercy they would be, there would no doubt be a
considerable number of foreigners attracted by conve-

nience of situation to the show, to witness the progress
which was being made by English agriculture. He
believed that Canterbury was almost unanimously se-
lected by the Council, and he was confident that the re-
sult would be satisfactory. He congratulated the meet-
ing that the gentleman who was to succeed him in the
office of President possessed an advantage which he (the
Duke of Marlborough) did not, in his practical acquaint-
ance with agriculture, and he was sure no more fitting
selection could possibly have been made.
The meeting then separated.

CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE.

Sow turnips during the whole month, as the land
is got ready. Swedish turnips are finished by the
10th. The drop-drill sows all auxiliary manures
on the ridglets formed by the common plough : a
light roll covers the work, and protects the surface
from drought. Plough pared and burned lands
with a light furrow ; harrow the surface into a fine
tilth ; and sow the seeds towards the end of the
month. On clay lands, sow on the finely-harrowed
surface of one ploughing ; if the soil be loamy,
reduce the land and drill it, which will well mix the
ashes with the soil. Sow rape and coleseed for
winter food. Plough lands, after tares have been
consumed on the ground ; harrow the surface into
a fine tilth ; and sow the turnip-seeds in rows, by
means of a machine with long coulters, to make
ruts in the ground. Sow-in, broadcast, the head-
lands of the turnip-fields, and use short dung, as
it is easily covered.

Horse and hand-harrow beetroot, carrots, and
parsnips ; and allow not one single weed to be
seen.

If the potato drills were not rolled after being
planted, they may now be harrowed. Plough
deeply the intervals of the drills; keep the scufflers
and hand-hoes constantly going; break all clods ;
and pulverize the soil very deeply and freely. Fine
earths are essential to all root-crops.

Continue the feeding, in the yards, of cows and

horses with clovers and vetches; feed amply; pro-
vide abundant littering; and convey the liquid to
the tank.

Cut all tall weeds from among the grain crops.
Allow not any weeds to perfect seeds on pastures,
by fences, or on roadsides. Many seeds are winged,
and are carried by the wind to a distance, and pro-
pagate very rapidly.

Finish the shearing of sheep this month. Ex-
amine the animals closely at this time in the month.
Shape the quality of the wool, and in the general
appearance. An inspection of the animals at this
time, and making distinctive marks, will very much
assist the sorting of the ewes for the tupping sea-
son in October.

Put mares to the stallions every fortnight. Wean
lambs by placing them at once beyond the bleating
of the ewes, and give them the best grass on the
farm.

Hay-cutting will commence this month. Ted
the swathes quickly behind the mowers ; cock the
grass ; spread it abroad, and cock it again, and
carry to the rick. Employ plenty of hands — about
six to a mower. Turn over clovers in the swathe
without tedding, as much shaking loses the leaves,
which are the best part of the plant. Build it into
large cocks, which may stand for a time. Damage
by rain is much recovered by mixing salt in the
ricks — 30lbs. to a load.

CALENDAR OF GARDENING.

First week — Sow early peas, of sorts, with a few
rows of " tall marrow." Peas late sown seldom
escape mildew. Sow kidney beans and runners
for succession. Plant cabbages, as Atkin's Match-
less, to come in speedily. Sow Dutch turnips for
autumn ; carrots and onions, to draw young, or
stand the winter.

Fourth week — Sow again turnips, salads, and
lettuces.

Transplant Cape broccoli about the middle of the
month; cauliflower for August, making the ground
rich with compost; also transplant borecole, Scotch
kale. Savoy, and Brussels sprouts.

Asparagus beds still yield, but should not be cut

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

54,7

beyond the 10th. Beds and rows are mangled by
too close cutting, A shoot must always remain
untouched to each crown. Scatter rich earth, with
droppings, over the beds, but avoid salt, which,
falling on wet leaves, decomposes the tissue, and
the plant dies. Mix the salt with compost, and
thus wash it into the ground.

Plant young thyme, savory, sweet marjoram,
basil, slips of lavender, rosemary, rue, and other
hardy sweet-herbs, in cool, shady beds, for sub-
sequent transplantation.

Cut the aromatic herbs for drying, when the
flowers begin to appear.

Thin out onions by degrees for use, leaving the
bulbing stock from four to six inches asunder. In
very dry weather frequent light hoeings prevent
the cracking of the surface, attract moisture, and
bring on the plants — a practice that has been fully
proved in the benefit.

Apple and pear espalier trees will have produced
many young shoots, of which the ill-placed must
be removed from the bottom : a total removal is
better than shortening. Strawberry rows should
be stringed on each side, with the twine fastened
to short sticks, so as to support the entire rank of
trusses.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MAY.
Although the weather during the greater portion of this
mouth has not been to say very vegetative, the advicea from
aearly the whole of our large grain districts are to the efTect
that the wheats have progressed steadily, that the plants are
strong and healthy, aud, further, that there is every prospect
of a good average crop. Moat spring corn has perhaps shown
greater progress than wheat ; indeed, the general appearance
of bailey, oats, beans, and peas is most promising, even on
what may be termed the worse cultivated soils.

The commencement of hostilities iu Piedmont, and the sud-
den change in the corn laws in France — in other words the re-
imposition of the old sliding scale upon imports aud exports
of produce, thereby adding materially to the duties— have
been productive of considerable excitement in the grain trade.
Under the impression that the war would reduce the available
amount of food for shipment to this country, wheat, at one
time during the month, rapidly advanced in price ; but since
then the demand has fallen off, the quotations have given way,
and the markets have shown greater calmness. There is one
thing quite clear to our minds, that the return to " protection"
in France must continue to exercise more or less influence
upon price in this country ; and we may observe also that
there is every prospect of the aggregate importations of pro-
duce during the present year being on what may be termed a
very moderate scale when compared with some former seasons,
more particularly with 1858. When we bear in mind, how-
ever, that a very large quantity of wheat is still in stack here,
we are not prepared to say that the assumed deficiency in our
importations will lead to further excitement, or that we shall
have what is termed " war" prices ; nevertheless, the low
period for wheat has unquestionably passed away, and we may
look forward to greater steadiness, and a better range in value
than we have had to report for many months past. The
advices from New York still show a deficiency of food in the
interior of the country. That deficiency — we mean the
exporting power of the United States— will of course tend to
check shipments to England, as well as to all other quarters ;
hence there will be very little competition in our markets on
the part of the French and American millers. In the event^
however, of the supplies of wheat in France being on a liberal
scale, and of the exports of flour being equal to most former
periods, we may look forward to the consumptive demand
being easily m?t, but not to very h'gh rates. Much, however.

will depend upon the future policy of the Emperor of the
French, both commercially and politically, and the part which
eventually England may be called upon to take in continental
politics. A sudden closing of the French ports, as regards
exports of flour, would have a great effect upon price here ;
but at present we see no reason to anticipate such a change as
we have here alluded to, for the all-important reason that the
supplies of grain on hand in the whole of the Departments of
France are represented as still large for the time of year, not-
withstanding that shipments of both wheat and flour during
the present year have been on a liberal scale.

Barley, oats, beans, and peas, have sold at what may be
termed fair quotations, and their present range of value in our
markets will, we apprehend, lead to steady arrivals from our
usual sources of supply. The extent of the shipments of oats
from Russia is estimated at 960,000 quarters ; but our im-
pression is that the quantity will exceed that estimate. The
stocks in the United Kingdom are now much reduced, but we
doubt whether they are so small as they were at the same time
in 1858.

The war in Piedmont, together with the sudden advance in
the value of money at the Bank of England and elsewhere of
2 per cent., has had a depressing influence upon the wool trade.
At the public sales of colonial, now in progress, very few con-
tinental buyers have made their appearance, and the biddings,
though somewhat steady on the part of home dealers, have
resulted in a decline in the quotations of froml|d. to 3d.
per lb. The private market has continued in a depressed
state, and English wool has fallen quite 2d. per lb. on the
average. The war may, it is true, have led to the decline ;
still we see nothing in the state of trade in the manufiicturing
districts to justify the heavy fall in price. However, buyers
have to some extent been influenced by increased importations
in the aggregate. In the first four months of the present
year the total receipts into England amounted to 130,990 bales,
against 122,382 bales in the same time in 1858. Since then,
over 40,000 bales of colonial have arrived in London alone ;
so that the stock has continued to accumulate upon a lower
range in prices. The latest accounts from Sydney state that
the wool trade was heavy, at from OJd. to l^d. per lb. less
money. Inferior clips were selling at from Is'. 9d. to 2s. O^d. ;
fair to good, Is. 6d. to Is, 9d. ; low to middling. Is, 4d. to
Is. 7d.; grease, 3d. to 11 |d.; locks, pieces, and broken, 8d

'A8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to Is. 2d.; haadnrashed, la. 3d. to Is. 9d. ; and acoored
Is. lOd. to 2s. 6d. per lb.

The backward state of the bine, and the appeaiance of fly
in most plantations, have produced some excitement in the
demand for hops, and a steady improvement in the quotations.
The shonr of samples has been only moderate, and fine East Kent
pockets have sold at 160s. per cwt. Scarcely any foreign hops
have reached us ; but we apprehend that the present advanced
rates will induce steady shipments to this country.

Owing to a great falling off in the supplies, potatoes have
been in somewhat active request, and an important advance
has taken place iu prices, ISOs. to 2008. per ton having been
paid for very fine samples. Considering the extent of the
consumption during the past winter, and the enormous ar-
rivals, it is quite clear that last year's crop was a very large
one as to quantity. The quality of the growth has turned out
good. The live stock trade has continued steady, though
somewhat leas active than in the previous month. Prices,
almost generally, have ruled tolerably high.

In Scotland the grain trade, influenced by the state of the
demand at Mark-lane, has been tolerably active, and prices
have steadily improved. The stocks of produce in the hands
of the growers are fully equal to most former seasons, and
good shipments have been made to the south.

Throughout Ireland there has been less activity in the de-
maud for wheat and other kinds of corn than in England.
However, the quotations have improved, and the markets have
been iu what may be termed a healthy state.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE
PAST MONTH.

The increased stringency of the Customs' authorities in re-
ference to the admission of live stock into this country — in
other words, the severe inspection of the stock, to ascertain
whether it has brought disease with it — has resulted in a con-
siderable falling off in the arrival of beasts from the Continent ;
but the importations of sheep have been on an extensive scale.
The latter arrivals, however, have been principally composed
of stock from Germany, shipped by way of Hamburg. These
aheep are of poor quality, and seldom worth more than from
21s. to 278. each ; consequently very little addition has been
made to the actual supply of food from abroad. Our letters
from Holland state that both beasts and sheep are in anything
but a healthy state. Disease in the hoof is very common
amongst the beasts, and rot has made its appearance amongst
the sheep. We therefore anticipate only moderate importa-
tions from that portion of the Continent during the present
year, more especially as the Customs will not allow stock to
pass for consumption in any way affected with disease. A
great outcry has been raised in certain quarters against the
new system ; but surely it is the duty of those placed in re-
sponsible positions to prevent the introduction of disease into
the country. We have enough of it already here j indeed, at
least one-third of the beasts exhibited in the metropolitan
cattle market during the montli have been suffering more or
less from disease, either in the chest or hoofs. However it is
satisfactory to learn that very few fatal cases have presented
themselves for some time past. The supply of winter food is
now nearly exhausted, and an increased supply of grass in the
pastures is now much required by our graziers. As yet, how-
ever, it has been small; but since the late fine showers of
taiu have fallen, there is an improved prospect of a full ave-
rage hay crop. The demand for both beasts and sheep in our
leading cattle markets has been less active than in the previous
month, and, in some instances, prices have ruled a shade lower.

However, the trade, generally, may be considered in a healthy

state, and the consumption of meat appears to be quite equal

to most previous seasons.

The annexed return shows the total imports of foreign

stock into London during the month :

Beasts 856 head.

Sheep 8,919 „

Lambs 278 „

Calves 639 „

Pigs 26 „

Total 10,718 „

Same time in 1858 6,708 head,

1857 7,243 .,

„ 1856 3,556 „

„ 1855 7,103 „

1854 ' 4,703 „

„ 1853 13,007 „

„ 1852 8,506 „

The total supplies of home and foreign stock exhibited
in the Metropolitan Market have been as under : —

Beasts... 17,980 head.

Cows 482 „

Sheep and lambs 113,512 „

Calves 1,012 „

Pigs 2,260 „

Comparison of Supplies.
May. Beasts. Cows. Sheep & Lambs. Calves. Pigs.
1858... . 18,741 480 115.886 1,671 2,760

1857.... 18,722 450 104,990 1,415 2,530

1856.... 18,995 495 119,640 1,260 2,545

1855.... 19,847 410 113,600 2,470 2,590

1854.... 20,831 576 124,824 2,146 2,4^5

Last month, 11,300 Scots, shorthorns, and crosses arrived
from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire ; 1,720
of various breeds from other parts of England ; 2,000 Sicflts
and crosses from Scotland ; and 464 oxen and heifers from
Ireland.

Beef has sold at from 3s. 4d. to 4s. lOd. ; mutton, 3b.
6d. to 5s. ; lamb, 5s. 4d. to 6s. 4d. ; veal, 4s. to Ss. 6d.;
pork, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 2d. per 81bs., to sink the offal.

Comparison of Prices.

May, 1856. May, 1857. May, 1858.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Beef . . from 3 0to410..3 0to5 0..3 0to4 6

Mutton .. 3 6 — 5 4. .3 4 — 5 4. .3 2 — 4 6

Lamb .... 5 4 — 6 6. .5 6 — 7 0..5 8 — 7 0

Veal 3 10 — 5 6. .3 8 — 6 0..4 0 — 5 4

Pork 3 4 — 4 8. .3 8 — 5 0..3 2 — 4 4

Up to Newgate and Leadenhall Markets, the arrivals of
Scotch and country-killed meat have been on a full average
scale for the time of year. On the whole, a steady business
has been transacted, as follows : Beef, from 3s. 2d. to 4b.
4d. ; mutton, 3s. 4d. to 48. 6d. ; lamb, 43. 4d. to 48. 6d. ;
veal, 4s. to 4s. 8d. ; pork, 3s. 2d. to 48. 2d. per 81bs., by the
carcase.

WEST GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

Since writing the last communication numerous changes in
the weather have taken place, and to such an extent as to
claim especial notice ; the more so, because it has occurred at
a season of the year when their results are watched with in-
tense interest. Immediately preceding the time when it was
written (April 14th), a temperature unusually warm, succeeded
by a considerable quantity of rain, caused all the productions
of the vegetable world to assume a promising appearance, indi-
cative of early maturity. A great change, however, followed ;
on the 16th, and on the four following days, hail storms, with
sleet, northerly winds, and other winterly aspects, accompanied
by frosty nights, very materially checked the progress of vege-
tation, causing the wheat in many places to change colour,
and the vigorous appearance which had previously existed
waned away with ominous forewarnings, enough so to create
alarm in over-sensitive minds. The early spring sown crops of
barley, oats, and beans suffered in appearance from the same
causes as the wheat. But as relates to the latter, it was a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

549

aaluts^ check to precocious and over-luxuriant growth. At
this crisis, nevertheless, the unsettled state of affairs on the
Continent, and the possibility of our^ being plunged in war
created extraordinary excitement in the corn trade,; thus the
condition of the future crop became more than usually a sub-
ject of observation. Towards the close of the month we ex-
perienced rough winds with rain, accompanied by a somewhat
cool temperature, which, without being forcing, was sufficiently
favourable to vegetation, when improvements became manifest.
Dry and cold weather inaugurated the present month, whereby
the anticipated progress usual at that period was not realized,
premising, however, that no unfavourable symptoms appeared
among the growing crops. On the evening of the 17th there
were some light showers, and on the following afternoon there
was a copious fall of mild rain, which came very acceptably,
though we have to-day a cool drying wind from the north-east.
The changes which have taken place from time to time in the
appearance of the crops, subservient in all cases to the changes
of the weather, are thus explained. The remarks are the more
necessary, from the fact of these commuuications being com-
monly introduced in the columns of provincial journals which
are not published till the Saturday after they appear in this
paper, consequently they are not read till nine or ten days have
elapsed, during which period many important changes often
take place. Having thus disposed of the past, we will pro-
ceed with the present aspect of affairs. Premising that the
wheat plant on cold soils and in exposed situations had
assumed a yellow cast, the rains which fell during some of the
latter days in April, and especially on the 7th of May, have in
most cases restored it, so that the general aspects are quite
satisfactory and encouraging. With a succession of fine wea-
ther there is good reason to hope that the produce will equal,
if it does not exceed, the abundance of last year's harvest.
Barley, oats, and beans look flourishing. The pasture lands
have not made that rapid progress they at one time gave pro-
mise to do, from the causes already named, though there is no
cause for complaint. After the rain that fell ou Wednesday
the grass cannot fail to be very abundant. We have been
much gratified by the result of an experiment made to test
the value of crushed bones." on grass land, in juxta-position
with guano, over which the former present an immense supe-
riority. In this district the bone as a manure has only recently
been introduced ; but in the cheese-producing county of Ches-
ter, this valuable agent has for a length of time been used
with great advantage, and equally beneficial results are in store
for the dairy farmers in the no less celebrated vale of Berkeley.
With such excellent opportunities as the seasons have pre-
sented, he must be a sluggish farmer who has neglected
the opportunities to get his work in a forward state. A con-
siderable breadth of mangold has been planted, much of it, as
we think, too soon, as that which is put into the ground very
early, when a forcing summer succeeds, is apt to run up a seed

stem very prejudicial to the quality of the bulb. The sowing
of swedes is progressing. In some of the orchards the pro-
mise of fruit has been annihilated by the frosts ; in others there
may be a fair crop, but we cannot at present speak in favour-
able terms with any confidence. The combined fair and
monthly market, held at Berkeley on the 16th, was well at-
tended, and a satisfactory amount of business transacted.—
May 19.

ISLE OF ELY.

It is now raining hard after a week of brilliant sunshine, and
strong searching east and north-east winds. The nights have
been uniformly cold and slightly frosty, and vegetation has
progressed very tardily ; and until we have a change of wind,
and get some genial and life-giving breezes from the south-
west, we can scarcely expect luxuriant vegetation. The time
of year has now come, however, when we may reasonably ex-
pect the advent of spring weather. The wheat plant maintains
its vigour, and perhaps has been benefited rather than other-
wise by the severity of the weather. A few weeks ago it was
growing too rapidly, and was getting full of coarse flag, and
consequently was beginning to fall about in all directions, and
looked weak and unpromising ; but the cold dry winds of the
last fortnight have stiffened and strengthened it considerably,
and it is now as magnificent in its appearance as we could well
desire to see it. Some of the thinly planted crops on our
weakest and poorest fen soils are improving, and with season-
able weather may yet produce a fair crop. The oat crop has
suffered most from the cold dry winds and frosty nights, and
where infested with wire-worm has lost plant considerably.
Unless we get a speedy change, we must inevitably have a
very patchy and broken crop, which generally produces a very
poor yield. Beans are beginning to run, and are thickly
planted, but have in thousands of instances, in consequence of
the frost, lost the eye, and must make a fresh lead before they
can run. How far this may affect the crop, we venture not
thus early in the season to predict. Most of our Feu farmers
have sown their mangolds, and those first planted are just be-
ginning to show themselves, and look unusually strong and
healthy. This is an invaluable crop, and is becoming much
more extensively cultivated. Grass keeping has become more
scarce than it was a month ago, and where stocked at all
heavily has wasted fast. It now wants a thoroughly good rain
with warm nights. The clovers for mowing are very little
forwarder than they were six weeks ago. The price of both
lean and fat stock has been lower, and sales have been very
slowly effected. The corn trade has manifested great unsteadi-
ness, advancing 10s. per qr. one week, receding from 63. to 8s.
the next, and again advancing 3s. to 4s. the next. We can
scarcely expect steady prices again, so long as the war in
Europe is continued. — May 17.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

BUNGAY FAIR exhibited a very large show of store
beasts, comprising shorthorns, Scotch, Irish, and Dutch, but
the trade was very dull, and a large proportion was unsold.
Of fat beasts there was also a very superior show, both in quan-
tity and quality ; at the earlier part of the day the trade was
vary flat, being without doubt affected by the dulness of the
Loudon market ou the Friday, but as the day advanced, trade
became brisker, and a fair amount of business was transacted
at from 7s. to 73. 6d. per stone, very superior 8s., good store
pigs 25s. to 303. per head, fat pork 63. to 6s. 3d. per stone.
There were a few good horses, but prices being high, but little
business was doue.

ELGIN MARKET.— There was a very large attendance,
chiefly of grazing animals. Prices were rather stiff, but, not-
withstanding, a great number changed hands at rates rather
under those of last market. The following are a few of the
sales, viz. : Mr. Mitchell, Wester Alves, sold a lot of polled
three-year-olds at £20, Mr. Leslie, Hillockhead, Rothes, sold a
pure shorthorn cow, four-years-old, with a calf at her foot,
£24 ; Mr. Eddie, Bilboahall, sold a two-year-old stot, superior.

at £21 ; Mr. Grant, Whitereath, sold a lot of two-year-olds at
£15 5s.; Mr. Eddie sold a lot of three-year-old queys at £17
5s., and a lot of twoyear-old stots at £13; Mr. Muil, Clack-
marras, sold a lot of polled at £10 10s.; Mr. Milne, Pittensair,
sold a lot of two-year-olds, same class, at £2 ; Mr. Brander,
Pittendriech, sold a lot of crosses, two-year-olds, at £15 10s.;
Mr. Grant, dealer, Glenlivat, sold a lot of three-year-old
crosses at £16; Mr. Cruickshanks, Rosehaugh, sold a lot of
crosses, two-year-olds, at £18 lOs. ; the grieve of Altyre sold
a lot of two-year-old crosses at £19 lOs. ; Mr. Stephen, Inch-
broom, sold a lot of crosses, three-year-olds, at £21 15s.;
Mr. Leitch, Inchstellie, sold a lot of two-year-old crosses at
£18. — Elgin Courant.

FORRES MARKET.— A very limited show of beasts, and
these were mostly grazing, and for which the demand was very
good by farmers and local graziers. The young cattle espe-
cially were fetching high prices. One-year-olds, of but mid-
dling quality, £7, two-year-olds £10 to £16.

GRANTOWN TRYST. — A fair attendance, and the
greater part of both sheep and cattle were sold. The pricee

550

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

obtaiued, in genera), would be a shade uu^er the last market,
which might be owing to the excessive dryness of the weather.
Had there been a few refreshing showers previous to the
market dajs no doubt but prices would be fully equal to last
ttryst. The buyers chiefly consisted of parties buying in for
the grass.

HAVERFORDWEST EAIR was unusually well supplied
with stock of all descriptions, but there was scarcely any de-
mand, and prices slightly decreased. Stores were not at all
sought after. Cows and calves were somewhat in requisition,
and sheep did not share the downward tendency of price. Ou
the whole, however, it was a very dull fair. The demand for
pigs was slack, and prices stationary, or perhaps slightly de-
pressed.

HA.Y FAIR. — There was a tolerable supply of all sorts of
stock, &c., but the shortness of keep made the market dull,
except for fat stock, which still commands a good price.

HEREFORD FAIR.— The late drought had excited the
fears of buyers and sellers of live stock, and the consequence
was a dull demand for every description ; values had not
much receded, but although there was but a little depreciation,
stock sold very sluggishly. Fat beasts were in most request ;
lean stock moved ofif slowly ; had there been twenty-four
hours' raiu immediately preceding the fair, stores would have
realized fully 10 per cent, more than they did, and the sales
would have been as quick as they were slow. There were
many useful cows with calves on offer, which were mostly sold.
Eat wethers realized, shorn 7d. per lb., unshorn 8d. per lb.
There was a large number of store pigs and bows with litters,
for all of -which there was a lively demand. In the horse fair
there was the usual variety, though there is a remarkable
falling off in the supply of first-class saddle and harness
horses, which are consequently sought after eagerly, and
realize great prices. Of moderate hacks there was a large
number, and a great portion of them changed hands. Cart
horses still maintain their value, though yearlings and two-
year-olds have gone back in price.

HIGH BICKINGTON FAIR.— A good supply of cattle,
and it was remarked that the animals generally were in prime
condition. Cows and calves, £11 10s. to £17; barreners and
young steers were worth from 10s. to 20s. a head more than
they were three weeks since, and a good many changed hands.
A dull sale for sheep, but a tolerable demand for lambs for the
upper markets, and they sold freely at 7|^d. per lb.; good fat
hoggerels were worth 6|^d. per lb. ; couples, 378. to 46s.

LEDBURY FAIR.— The supply of fat cattle was very
good ; of sheep, the number penned was larger than at last
fair ; pigs, a moderate supply ; horses were scarce, aud but
fpw changed hands ; prices not quite so high. Buyers very
numerous. Fat cows from 6jd. to 7d., ditto sheep, in the
wool, 8Jd. to 9d., shorn G^d. to 7d. per lb. ; pigs, 23s. to
358. each for stores.

MAIDSTONE FAIR.— A good supply of horses, and a fair
supply of stock, sheep, and pigs. Lean beasts sold at £5 to
£12, Kent tegs fetched from 263. to 37s. 6d., and Down tegs
from SOs. to 353. This was a reduction from the prices of
last month of from £1 to £1 lOs. per head in lean beasts, and
3s, per head in sheep. Notwithstanding the lowness of prices,
business was unusually dull, the sales effected being remark-
ably few.

NEWARK FAIR.— The stock fair was supplied with a fair
show, but buyers were very scarce, and ouly a little business
was done. Good steers made £11 to £14; good drapes £11
to £12, inferiors could be had for less money ; fat beasts
made from 73. 6d. to 8s. per stone. Many sheep were offered,
but few sales were effected. Hoggs made 4s. or 5s. less money,
in consequence of the low price of wool at present ; ewes and
lambs can scarcely be said to liave had any price, for next to
none were sold. The horse fair was larger than usual ; many
were shown, and buyers being plentiful, good prices were ob-
tained.

NEWTON-STEWART FAIR. — The market was ex-
tremely dull. Prices, however, were high for those sold,
thiee-year-olds selling from £13 lOs. to £15, two-year-olds
selling from £8 lOs. to £12, stirks and six-quarters from 508.
to £6 lOs. Of pigs there were three carts, selling from lis.
to 14s. each.

RENFREW FAIR.— There was a large display of milch
cows, and a numerous attendance of buyers. Prices ranged
hJgh for good animals, and sales were effected freely for this

class ; but inferior qualities were not easily disposed of at the
rates asked, aud a large number remained unsold. First-class
cows ranged from £15 to £19, and inferior lots at propor-
tionate prices. Fodder cattle, of which there was a good
stock shown, did not sell well, and the greater portion of
them were in comparatively poor condition. The prices for
them ranged from £6 to £9, according to quality.

BIPON MAY FAIR.— A plentiful supply of beasts, but
the quality was only middling, aud to effect sales lower prices
had to be taken. A few fat beasts sold at 6s. 9d. to 7b. 6d,
per stone. The show of sheep was below the average, and
little business done in them. Mutton, in wool 7d. to 7^i.,
clipped 6d. to 65d. per lb. ; well bred hogs 403. to 48s., half-
bred do. 23s. to 28s. per head.

RUGBY FAIR.— There were few fat beasts brought.
Sheep were plentiful. Beef sold at 7d. per lb. Mutton
(shorn), 6|d. to 7d. Tegs were dull of sale. There was a
large quantity of store beasts, which, owing to the want of
keep, were offered at low prices.

STOW-ON-THE-WOLD FAIR.— The horse fair was
particularly good, there being no less than 1,200 horses on
sale : a good business was done at prices varying from £250
downwards. A great falling off in the cattle fair. There was
an average supply of sheep, and quick sales were effected.
Pigs were scarce. Beef made 6|d. per lb., and mutton the

STURMINSTER NEWTON FAIR.— The supply of
stock was somewhat below the average, both as regards quan-
tity and quality. There was a considerable amount of busi-
ness done, though purchasers for the most part were shy and
cautious. Fat beef lis. 6d. to 12s. per score.

WHITSUNBANK FAIR.— A good attendance of buyers,
and the whole were disposed of at high prices. Bred hoggs
ranged in prices from 378. to 47s., half-bred from 243. to 388.
There was a small show of short-horned grazing cattle, and
few sales effected. A few lots of two-year-olds sold at from
£11 to £13 lOs. A few lots of stirks were shown, and met
with a good demand at from £7 to £9. A good many Irish
cattle were in the market, but there was little or no demand
for them. A large show of cows, for which there was a good
demand. A good show of horses, in which a fair business
was done at all prices according to description.

IRISH FAIRS. — At Dundalk the beef department was
well supplied, and anything good was bought up, the top
figure being 6O3. per cwt. The description of milk cows
offered was very indifferent. There was a large show of
springers, but not many first-class animals, and prices ranged
from £11 to £16 per head. In the cattle trade everything
had a downward tendency, and the buying on the whole was
very languid. There was a large supply of Iambs, but buying
was very slow. The pig fair was very extensively supplied,
but bacon was very slowly bought up, and prices were down.
At Bective Bridge there was an average supply of store
cattle. Beef was scarce, and varied in price from 55s. to 60s.
per cwt., according to quality. Store cattle sold quicker and
better than at late fairs, but yet a number were unsold. The
supply of springers and milch cows was good, prices ranging
from £13 to £16 and £18. Hoggets brought fair prices.
Bacon lower in value. At Strokestown there was a good
supply of sheep and cattle, and a good attendance of buyers.
There was a fair demand at much the same prices as those ob-
tained at the late fair at Ballinasloe. Hoggets sold from 358.
to 48s. each ; two-year-old sheep from 42s. to 528. each ;
three-year-old heifers from £10 to £17; bullocks from £12
lOs. to £17 each. At Castlebridge business was dull in
all descriptions, except in bacon pigs aud prime sheep, which
maintained their late prices, the former averaging 43s. to 463.
per cwt.

GLASGOW CHEESE MARKET, (Wednesday last.)—
Seven tons passed the weigh- house scales, and there were two
carts in the bazaar. Trade quiet, but prices firm. Prime
early-made 65s., late-made 563. to 6O3., skim 243. to 26s:

CARMARTHEN, (Saturday Ia8t.)—Fairsupply of Butter;
market steady and without change, prices varying from 90s. to
lOOs, according to quality. We have great complaints on the
part of the farmers of the prevailing drought, no rain of conse-
quence having fallen since the last month. With the exception
of the Wheat plant all vegetation suffers seriously from the
absence of that genial rain which appears to be such an obstacle
to military operations in Sardinia, where it is in excess.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

551

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The general character of the past month was far
from genial, nearly three-fourths of it being passed
under a piercing east wind, with night frosts,
which have made sad havoc with the early fruit,
but no injury appears to have been sustained by
the corn crops, though the expectation of an early
harvest has ceased. The fine rains which fell at
the month's close have produced very beneficial
eflfects, and vegetation has vigorously resumed its
growth, the fear of drought being greatly dimin-
ished, though the ponds in many localities are
still deficient of water. While for a long period
the markets presented so monotonous an aspect
that it was becoming wearisome to observe or
report them, the past month has witnessed ex-
traordinary fluctuations every week, as the conse-
quence of the sudden outbreak of war between
Austria and France, with some apprehension that
Russia would interfere, and all Europe be finally
involved. The probability only of this event pro-
duced a steady rise in the value of wheat, in
April the gain being about 5s. ; but though the
first Monday of May noted the extraordinary ad-
vance of 10s. to 12s. per qr., since the assurance
that Russia will take no part in the strife, and that
our own Government intends to preserve a strict
neutrality, the summary of the four weeks' history
scarcely shows more improvement than 4s. to 5s.
per qr. in addition. The course of the averages ex-
hibits a total gain of I2s. 7d. per qr. from the
lowest point, viz., the first week in last January,
when they were only 39s. lOd. per qr. ; the next
lowest being 40s. at the beginning of April; and
the last average reaching 52s. 5d.; so that in less
than two months we find a general advance of
12s. 5d. After all, we are only brought to the
moderate range which we obtained in November,
1857, or eighteen months ago, when the averages
were 52s. 6d.; and as the average of November,
1855, was as high as 80s. lOd. per qr., there is
still ample room for a further advance, should our
own country be involved ia the European conflict.
And who can vouch for the quiet of Germany ?
or the contentment of Napoleon should victory
favour Ills armies ?

Complaints already come from Northern Italy
that the promising crops are in danger of not being
gathered, and the waste that may be produced by
the movements of immense hostile armies is in-
calculable. All the world too, excepting France

and this country, is less provided with stocks than
usual, and upon the next gathering everything
depends. There is, therefore, more probability of
a speculative spirit than when the rates were un-
usually depressed, without the least likelihood of a
return to the dead lock and low rates that lately
ruled. The weather here, with advices from
Europe and the seat of war, must influence mar-
kets, and we look for frequent fluctuations, the
ultimate chance being more in favour of a farther
advance than otherwise. Reports as to the grow-
ing crop in Europe are generally favourable, but
there have been complaints of drought in Spain
and Sicily, and the absence of snow in America
has seriously thinned the wheat in many localities.
In North Africa the corn looks fine, barley harvest
being on the eve of commencement, and wheat was
expected to be ready in June. Prices abroad have
been more steady than expected, the near ports and
Baltic having only fluctuated moderately, according
to the tenor of advices from this country. The re-
sumption of the sliding scale in France has arisen
from the sudden termination of the discussions on
the corn trade, occasioned by the outbreak of the
war ; and as the export duties are moderate, and
the import duties are high, when prices are low, as
at present, we should not be at all surjirised to see
this law again suspended should there be large ex-
ports to this country. The following statement
shows the last foreign quotations.

At Paris the best wheat was worth about 42s.
per qr. ; at Amiens, 43s. 6d. per qr. At Antwerp
French wheat was worth 46s., and native 50s. 6d.
per qr. Red quality at Groningen 47s., white 48s.
per qr. The price at Louvain was 47s. for 64lb.
wheat. The top quotation at Rotterdam was 49?.
6d. per qr. Glib, to G2lb. wheat at Hambro' was
53s. 6d. per qr.; white mixed Pohsh 54s. 6d. per
qr. The best high-mixed at Danzig was worth
about 58s. per qr. At Konigsberg and Berlin the
value was about 49s. per qr. At Genoa, notwith-
standing the presence of the armies, the price was
only quoted 44s. per qr. After a previous dulness
at Odessa, there had been extensive transactions,
prices ranging from about 31s. to 40s. per qr. At
AzoflT the quotation was 38s. per qr. The French
colonies in Africa were very short in stock, Algiers
and Oran quoting 57s. to 58s. per qr. for hard
wheat. Flour at Santander was worth about 42s.
per sack. At New York, after some dulness occa-

652

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sioned by the reopening of canal navigation, the
wants of several places in the interior have revived
prices, white Kentucky wheat being worth 1 dol.
98 c, per bushel (66s. per qr.), and winter red
1 dol. 55 c. per bushel (51s. 8d. per qr. of 480lbs.).
The first Monday in London opened on fair
supplies, though there was but a small show of
samples from Essex and Kent. This day had
more exc itement in it than experienced for yearsj
hostilities having commenced between Austria and
Sardinia, with the astounding report that Russia
had formed a special treaty with France. This had
already produced a great rise in the country, and
holders in town scarcely knew how to ask enough,
and the previous Friday in London being about 6s.
to 7s. per qr. higher, a further advance was insisted
on, some quoting the total rise from Monday as
much as 10s. to 12s. per qr. ; foreign was also
raised Ss. to 10s. per qr., at which much business
was done, there being a large attendance from all
parts of the country. As the advance on the
London market was more a response to that in the
provinces than an example, so we found very dif-
fering accounts in different places. The markets
held early in the week were all 10s. to 12s. per qr.
higher, several, as Hull, Spalding, Gainsborough,
Newmarket, and others, noting a still further im-
provement ; but as the week wore, an important
reaction commenced, as Russia had distinctly dis-
claimed a treaty with France, and prices lost all cer-
tainty. Liverpool, on Tuesday, after advancing
2s. to 2s. Gd. per cental on wheat, found no buyers
on Friday without lower prices, and this was pre-
cisely the state of things in London on that day.

The second Monday, with a large foreign supply
and a moderate English one, opened with a per-
fectly changed appearance, though tnere was very
little showing from the near counties. For a con-
siderable time there was quite a pause ; Enghsh
factors finally, in order to tempt millers, offered
their runs at 5s. per qr. abatement on the previous
Monday's rates ; but this was of no avail, as a fall
of 8s. was required to make sales : about this re-
duction was finally accepted by some Kentish
factors, but generally the bulk was held over. The
trade in foreign was almost equally paralyzed.

At such an unsettled time it was not to be ex-
pected country advices would be reliable, a panic
generally prevailing. Leeds noted a decline of 6s.
to 8s. per qr., so did Boston, St. Ives, Spalding,
Bristol, and Gloucester. Louth and Lynn made
the reduction 8s. to 10s., but the average was
about 6s., and at the close of the week there was
a partial recovery varying from Is. to 4s. per qr.,
Liverpool on Tuesday was Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. per
cental cheaper. Friday's trade being of a retail
character improved 6d. to 9d. per cental.

On the third Monday there was a considerable
foreign arrival, but not much of home growth.
Essex and Kent in the course of the morning sent
but a moderate quantity. The speech of the Prince
of Prussia being rather warlike, an attempt was
then made to recover the lost ground of the pre*
vious Monday ; but this failed, and millers would
not pay beyond 3s. to 4s. per qr. advance on the
nominal rates of that day, and foreign factors, with
the plenty on board ship, were content to accept 2s.
per qr. over the then quotations. The unsteady
character of the trade again appeared in the country
reports, many places experiencing a renewed ex-
citement. Sleaford, Market Rasen, and Bristol
were about 5s. per qr. dearer ; but Birmingham
was slow, as well as Wolverhampton, only quoting
a rise of about Is., the London rise being about
the average. Liverpool, after gaining Od. to 9d.
per cental on Tuesday, lost 3d. of it again on
Friday.

On the fourth Monday there was something like
a repeat of the second, with a large foreign arrival,
and but a moderate show of English. Business
was again at a perfect stand-still : some factors
offered their samples at 2s. less ; others were con-
tent to merge last Monday's advance, but at this
reduction, which was 3s. to 4s. per qr., a few sales
only were made, some millers requiring a fall of
8s. per qr., against which factors were firm. The
country markets were baffled by the town advices :
all were more or less affected, the range of the de-
cline being from Is. to 4s.perqr.; but Birmingham,
Bristol, and Spalding did not lower prices more
than 2s., and there appeared generally a good deal
of resistance to a further reduction at such a period
of fluctuation, some holders withdrawing their
samples altogether.

The imports into London during the first four
weeks of May were, 23,640 qrs. English, 87,194
qrs. foreign! against 20,154 qrs. English, 48,763
qrs. foreign, in the first four weeks of May 1S58,
showing a large increase in foreign as the conse-
quence of the turn in the markets. The total im-
ports into the United Kingdom for April were,
300,955 qrs. wheat, 288,702 cwts. flour.

The four weeks' exports from London were in
wheat nil, in flour only 250 cwts.

The flour trade during the four weeks, as might
be expected, has closely followed the wheat mar-
kets, though without equal fluctuations. The first
Monday noted the important rise of lOs. per sack
on Norfolks and other country sorts, and lis. on
the top price of town quahty, the former being
quoted 41s. and the latter 54s., but Norfolks
though little altered on the second and third Mon-
days, settled to 38s. per sack on the 4th market,
while in Town-made there was no change from the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

starting price, French sorts have arrived in much
greater plenty since the improved value, but all
through have been more influenced by the weekly
prices of wheat than any of home manufacture.
Prices closed rather uncertain from the panic in
the last wheat market, varying from about 35s. to
41s. and 42s. per sack, though picked quahties
might have brought more. Of American there
are scarcely any in the market of a quality fit to
command a sale, the prices at New York being
about the same as in London, viz. : Z7s. per barrel
for choice Missouri, equal to 52s. lOd. per English
sack free on board. The arrivals in London
during four weeks have been 75,369 sacks from
the country, 24,211 sacks 5,396 brls. foreign.

The barley trade, as respects malting qualities,
has been quite retail; but the political news has
affected the value of the middling and inferior
qualities greatly. The first Monday was the day
when prices chiefly rose— the advance then being 3s.
to 4s. per qr. ; and on the subsequent Wednesday,
large orders from France coming to hand for the
light Odessa qualities, there was a further rise in
these sorts of 2s. per qr. No subsequent change
took place till the fourth Monday, when the rates
fell back Is. per qr., leaving the gain, however, ds.
to 5s, per qr., as the consequence of the war.
This forcing up, however, of the lighter qualities
can hardly be expected to be permanent, as France
will find cheaper markets for these sorts at the
places of growth, and the advance here could
hardly have been anticipated when the orders to
England were sent. The exports in four weeks, as
yet, have not been considerable from London —
amounting only to 4,756 qrs. The receipts in
London for the same time have been only 1,339 qrs.
Enghsh with 26,321 qrs. foreign, against 2,349 qrs.
English and 66,145 qrs. foreign for the same period
in 1858. The total imports into the United King-
dom in April last were 150,119 qrs.

The malt trade during the four weeks has not
participated in the general advance, though prices
have rather improved ; but business was dull on
the fourth Monday.

The total gain in the value of oats during four
weeks has been about Is. 6d. per qr., with fair
moderate arrivals. The first Monday opened very
briskly — the idea of any hmitation to Russian im-
ports, when the general crop of last year has been
considered deficient, being quite enough to excite
the market. With, therefore, the best supply on
this day, there was a considerable business done at
3s. per qr. advance, which was abated on the second
Monday Is. to Is. 6d. per qr., and another 6d. on
the third Monday, the fourth Monday closing dull,
especially for old stale granary parcels, a good
many of which yet remain on hand. But we think

all will be wanted before the next crop, and that
prices are more likely again to advance than
dechne. The imports into London for four weeks
have been 1,687 qrs. English, 5,961 qrs. Scotch,
10,935 qrs. Irish, 123,148 qrs. foreign, against
1,403 qrs. English, 3,380 qrs. Scotch, 16,435 qrs.
Irish, 139,623 qrs. foreign for the same period last
year. The total imports into the kingdom for April
were 155,925 qrs.

Beans rose on the first Monday 3s. to 4s. per
qr.; but have been dull ever since, though the
prices have nominally kept the same. The imports
for the four weeks into London were 1,963 (prs.
English, 2,582 qrs. foreign, against 1,963 qrs.
English, 8,792 qrs. foreign the first four weeks ©f
May, 1858. The total imports for April were
23,249 qrs.

In white peas there has been a considerable
advance — the war having brought out a navy con-
tract when they were in a state of great neglect.
Prices at once rose from 40s. to 50s. per qr., but
have since been lower about 2s. Duns and maples
gained 2s. per qr. at the same time, and have not
lowered since. The London receipts for four weeks
were 571 qrs. of EngUsh growth and 950 qrs.
foreign, against 153 qrs. English and 3,575 qrs.
foreign for May, 1858. The total imports in April
were only 1,444 qrs.

Linseed also rose 3s. per qr. in the beginning of
the month ; but has been rather easier since, with
good arrivals : cakes all through selling fi-eely.

The cloverseed trade, with small stocks, has not
allowed of much speculation ; but occasionally
holders have accepted offers, and there has been a
small business passing ; and it has been the same
with trefoil. Canaryseed has been unusually steady.
Tares have sunk to a feeding price. Other seeds
have not participated in the general advance on
corn — mustardseed, hempseed, carraway, and
coriander remaining little altered.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE,

-rrr T^ jTi- ^ >_•. ShUliugs per Quarter.

WffEAT.Essex and Kent, white -.,,„ 47 toSg

I) I'ed .. ..t««».. ..»,,, ..,,., 45 54

Norfolk,Liiic.,and Yorks.,recl , 45 gj

Barley, malting ...... — to 34 .... Chevalier .... 34 30

Grinding.^ 29 30 .... Distilling 30 32

Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk ....54 to 62 fine 63 68

Kingston. Ware, and town made ..64 62 ,66 68

Brown 53 64 " —

Rye new— — 33 35

OAT3,English,feed...... 21 26 Potato.. .... 27 29

Scotch, feed 22 26 Potato 26 29

Irish, feed, white 28 25 fine 26 29

Ditto, black 21 24 ,, — 26

Beans, Mazagan .,.. .... 40 42 Ticks ...... 40 42

Harrow 41 44 Pigeon 45 48

Peas, new, white, boilers 44 4S Maple 44 46. .Grey 40 44

Flour, per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households459., fine 49 64

Country ..nominal,. 37 39 Households,. 40 44

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship „., 37 33

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Sluillngs per Quarter.

WnEAT,Dantzic, mixed 54 — high do. — 59 extra — 63

Konigsberg 50 56 ,, — — —

Barlet, grinding 29 30 ........ Distilling ..», 31 82

OATS, Dutch, brew, and Polands 26 29 Feed,.,,«,, 22 25

554

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

For the last Six Wheat,

Weeks : i s. d.

April 16, 1859 .... 41 2

April 23, 1859 «.. 41 4

April 30, 1859 ...J 42 6

May 7, 1859 ....1 44 10

May 14, 1859 ....! 52 5

May 21, 1859 ....| 54 4

Aggregate average 46 1

Same time last year 44 4

Barley.]

s.

d.

33

6

82

8

32

8

32

5

32

10

33

7

32

11

35

9

Oats.

Rye.

Be

s.

d.

s. d.

s.

23

7

31 G

41

22

7

32 2

41

23

4

30 3

41

24

2

32 8

42

25

4

33 4

45

26

3

35 3

47

24

2

32 6

43

25

4

31 9

40

Beans Peas
d. s. d.
5;39 4
4i3S 11
8 1 as c

8 39 11
1|42 0
2 1 15 5
3:40 8

4I12 0

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Trefoil, new... — s. to — s.

Takes, Winter, new, per bushel — s.to — s.

Mdstardseed, per bush., new 128. to 17s, brown 10s. to 12s.

Coriander, per cwt 14s. to 16s.

Canary, per qr... 64s. to 6Ss.

Linseed, per qr., sowing — s.to 64g.. crushing 548. to 58s.

Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 10s. to .£10 10s.

KAPE8EED,per qr...... 76s. to 78s.

Rape Cake, per ton £6 10a.to£G0B.

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.

Cloyerseed, red — «. to — s white — s. to — s.

Trefoil, — s. to — s.

Hempseed, small, 33s. perqr Dutch —s.to 38s.

CoRiANDER,per cwt..^ 16 s.to 18s.

gCARRAWAY , 36s. to— S.

Linseed, per qr., Baltic 52B.to56s... .Bombay S8s. to 60s.

Linseed Cake, per ton.. , £d lOs. to £11 Os.

Rapeseed, Dutch ....o 62s. to 668.

Rape Case, per ton £S Os.to £6 Os.

" HOP MARKET.

BOROUGH, Monday, May 23.— The unhealthy appear-
ance of the bine, and the report of fly in various districts of
the plantation, have created considerable exciteraeut iu our
market, and prices have advanced from 128. to ISs. per cwt.
for the last growth, and a large business has been effected at
the improved rates. Yearlings and Hops of earlier date have
been iu strong request, at higher prices.

Mid and East Kents .... 90s. to 112s. choice 160a.

Weald of Kents SGs. 988. „ lOOs.

Sussex 863. 928. „ IOO3.

POTATO MARKETS.

SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, Monday, May 23.
During the last eight days the arrivals by sea and rail have
been considerable, »s our market had been well cleared of 'old
stocks. In consequence of the continued severe weather the
trade has been active, at the following quotations :

York Regents per ton 80s. to 140b.

Ditto Flukes HOs. to ISOs.

Lincolnshire Regents 9O3. to lOOs.

Dunbar Reds 90s. to lOOs.

Perth, Forfar, &Fifeahire Regents TOs. to QOs.

Ditto Reds 60j. to 75s.

Ditto Rocks 75a. 10 30s.

Foreign Whites 60s. to 90i.

BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS, Monday, May 23.
Since Monday last, only limited supplies of potatoes have
come to hand coastwise and by land carriage, bnt their general
quality is good. The imports have amounted to 224 bags
from Rotterdam, ami 100 tons from Dunkirk. Generally
speaking, tlie trade rules firm, a% follows : —

York Regents lOOa. to 140^. per ton.

Do. Flukes 160s. to 200s. „

Lincoln 90s. to 100s. „

Scotch 70s. to 100s. „

New potatoes 18s. to 243. per cwt.

ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.
LONDON, Monday, May 23.— Our trade opens so badly
for Butter this day, that it is difficult to make quotations for
price, althougli sellers would readily snbmit to a reduction of
lOs. per cwt. from the price of this day week.

Dorset, prime per cwt. 981. to 100s.

Ditto middling 84s. to 948.

Fresh perdoz.lbs. 98. to 128.

ot

o£\7

10

0

16

10

0

16

0

0

16

10

0

10

0

0

19

0

0

18

0

0

17

0

0

15

0

0

19

0

0

16

0

0

14

0

0

22

0

0

17

0

0

15

0

WOOL MARKETS.

ENGLISH WOOL MARKET.
LONDON, Monday, May 23.— Our market still con-
tinues in a very depressed state, notwithstanding that the
supply of wool on offer is very moderate. For export to the
Continent scarcely any business is doing, and, to force sales,
further depressed rates must be submitted to by the holders.
Per pack of 2401bs.

Pleeces — Southdown Hogs £17

Do. HalfbredHogs 16

Do. Kent 15

Do. Southdown Ewesand Welhers 15

Do. Leicester do 15

Sorts— Clothing, picklock 18

Do. Prime and picklock 17

Do. Choice 16

Do. Super 14

Do. Combing — Wether matching ... 18

Do. Picklock 15

Do. Common 13

Do. Hog matching 21

Do. Picklock matching 16

Do. Super do 14

LEEDS (English ^nd Foreign) WOOL MARKET,
May 20. — There is no improvement in the demand for combing,
but for short wool there is a fair demand at steady prices.
Both the demand and price of the former are regulated by the
immediate necessities of the manufacturer. In colonial wool
the trade is quiet, and it is so for low wool, in consequence o-f
the wool sales at Liverpool, which have shown a somewhat
improving tendency.

LIVERPOOL WOOL MARKET, May 21.
Scotch. — There is a fair demand from the trade only for
immediate wants, for all kinds of Scotch wool, without any ma-
terial change in the price, which, however, will be in favour of
the buyers.

s.

Laid Highland Wool per241bs 11

WhiteHighlanddo 14

LaidCrossed do. .unwashed .... 14

Do. do. .washed 15

LaidCheviot do. .unwashed ....15

Do. do. .washed 18

White Cheviotdo.. waslied 32

MANURES.

PRICESCURRENT OF GUNAO,&c.

PERUVIANGUANO,(perton,t"or30tDns) £12 0 0 to X 0 0

Do. Do (under 30 tons') 12 12 0 13 6

KOOUIA MOORIA GU A NO, (66 per cent. Phos-

plmtu and 1 percent. Aninioiiia) 5 5 0 6 15

ARTIFICIA].MANURES,&c.

Sitr.U Sod.l^,jj5„j„^,^,„ Sulpb ofCopper-j£ „ ,1 £s

d. 8.

d

6tol3

C

0 16

6

6 16

0

0 16

6

6 17

6

6 22

G

G 40

0

(per to
NitratePot&eh 1

or Saltpetre J *"'
Sulpht. Ammonia 14
Muriate ditto... 23
Superphospht. 1 ,

of Lime..../ "
Soda Ash, 0

Alkar
Gypsum

00

00

100

30 0 0

15 0 0

26 0 0

« 0 C

::)

d.

6 0 0 to 37 0 0

trioI,forWLc»t r •'°
steep., Jst qiial. J
Ditto,2nd quality 24 00 28 0 0

Salt 10 0 15 0

Bones, Du3t,perqr.l !■ 6 116

Do. J. inch 0 16 6 I 00

Oil Vitriol,)
concentrated, J 0 0 ) 0 0 0

P"lb )

100 3 0 0 Do.Rrown 0 Onj 0 0 0

OIL-CAKES.

Linseed-cakes. per ton— 1 Marseilles jCSlOOtoflO 0 0

TLin AmcricnjhrlajElO 10 OjEU 0 0 En^flisli 1010 0 0 00

Ditto hage 10 6 0 10 15 0 lUpe-ciikes.prton 6 0 0 6)0 0

Thick do.round (none) 0 00 I Cottonseed cakes 6 10 0 8 0 0

John Keen, 35, Leadenhall-street,

(Late Odams.Pickford, and Keen.)

AgriculturalChemical Works, Stowmf.rket, Suffolk.

Prentice'sCereal Manure for Corn Crops perton.£8 10 0

Man^'old Manure ,, 8 0 0

Prentice'sTurnip Manure ,, fi 10 0

Prentice'sSuperphospliateof Lime ,, fi 0 0

Manufocturedby Hodgson & Simpson, Wakefield , and
Matthews & Co. , Driffield .

Nitro-PLosphate j ei ton X7 10 0

Ammonia-Phosphate ,, 8 0 0

Vitriol, Bone, and Manure Works, Howden Dyke, Howden .

Ammonia Phosphate pertonXSlO 0

Anderton's Turnip Manure ,, 8 0 0

Super-Phosphate of Lime ,, 7 0 0

END OF VOLUME L.

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London, W.C.

IMPORTANT TO FLOCKMASTERS.

THOMAS BIGG,

AGRICULTURAL AND VETERINARY CHEMIST,
BY APPOINTMENT, TO H. R.H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, K. G., &C.

LEICESTER HOUSE, GREAT DOVER-STREET, BOROUGH, LONDON,

Begs to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable
SHBEP-and LAMB DIPPING COMPOSITION, which requires
no Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for
effectually destroying the Tick Lice, and all other insects
injurious to the Flock, preventing the alarming attacks of
Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby
greatly improving the Wool, botli in quantity and quality, and
highly contributing to the general health of the animal.

Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manufac-
tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity
may be had, if required : —

4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0

6 1b.

SO

8 lb.

40

10 1b.

50

20 1b.

100

SO lb.

150

40 1b.

200

60 1b.

250

60 1b.

300

80 1b.

400

100 lb.

500

(cask and measure 0 10

included)

0 15

1 0
1 3
1 7

1 17

2 5

Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling the Composition, it will
be equally effective.

He would also especially call attention to his SPECIFIC, or
LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, which will be found a certain
remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in
Sheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all
seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes
in lamb. Price 5s. per gallon — sufficient on an average for
thirty Sheep (according to tlie virulence of the disease); also in
wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each.

IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.

"Scoulton, near Hinghara, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855.
'Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would
have been replied to before this had I been at home, I have
much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in-

valuable 'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 Sheep
were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of the 'Non-
Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the
Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention
being paid to the flock by my shepherd after dressing according
to instructions left; but notwitlistanding the Scab continues
getting worse. In December I informed the 'Agent for the
above Specific,' that the flock was not cured, and that it requires
their immediate attention. The Agent informed me they should
be at once seen to, but did not do so untWJive weeks afterwards,
and in the mean time the Scab spread over the whole flock, that
I never saw such a disgraceful sight in my life ; and when the
Dresser was sent over to inspect the Flock, he decided on not
dressing them again, as one- third of the Sheep had lost half
their wool. I then agreed with an experienced dresser in Norfolk
to dress the flock, and when he saw the sheep he declined doing
them, as they were so very bad, and the time of lambing so
near. Being determined to have the Scab cured if possible, I
wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the
following day ; and although the weather was most severe in
February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an in-
valuable remedy, for in three weeks the Sheep were quite cured;
and I am happy to say the young Iambs are doing remarkably
well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and
best remedy now in use.

" I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant,

" For JOHN TINGEY, Esq.,

" To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNY.

In addition to the foregoing, he has very materially improved,
as well as considerably reduced the price of his Dipping Ap-
paratus; and he would venture to suggest that no Flockmasters
ought now to be without one. Price in London,

New and Improved Dipping Apparatus, onWheeIs£14 0 0
Ditto ditto with Iron-bar Drainer 5 0 0

Ditto ditto 4 0 0

Ditto, plain, with Wooden Drainer 3 0 0

N.B. — Catalogues, containing List of Patrons, Testimonials,
&c., to be had of all agents, or sent direct per post free.

CURTIS ON MANHOOD.— SHILLING EDITION.

A MEDICAL ESSAY ON NERVOUS AND GENERATIVE DISEASES.
Just Published, the New Edition, 120th Tliousand, with numerous Plates, in a sealed envelope, price Is., or

sent, post-paid, by the Author, for 14 stamps.

MANHOOD : the CAUSE and CURE of PREMATURE DECLINE, with plain
directions for perfect restoration to health and vigour; being a Medical Review of the various forms
and modern treatment of Nervous Debility, Impotency, Loss of Mental and Physical Capacity, whether re-
sulting from youthful abuse, the follies of maturity, the effects of climate, or infection; with Observations on
a new and successful mode of detecting Spermatorrhoea, and other Urethral Discharges, by Microscopic
Examination ; to which are added, curious and interesting cases, with the Author's recipe of a Preventive Lotion.
By J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle-street, Piccadilly, London, whose practice, extending over a period of
20 years, affords a complete guarantee to patients that the utmost skill and experience will be made available
in the treatment of their cases.
At home for consultation daily, from 10 till 3, and 6 till 8. Sundays from 10 till 1.

REVIEWS OF THE WORK.

" Curtis on Manhood. — This is a truly valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old."
— Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1856.

" Curtis on Manhood. — The author has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which
is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently premature old
age." — Daily Telegraph, March 27. 1856.

" Curtis on Manhood. — The book under review is one calculated to warn and instruct the erring with-
out imparting one idea that can vitiate the mind not already tutored by the vices of which it treats." — Naval
and Military Gazette, Feb. 1, 1851.

•' We feel no hesitation in saying, that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be foifnd
useful — whether such person hold the relation of a parent, preceptor, or a clergyman." — Sun, Evening Paper.

Published by the Author : sold also in sealed envelopes by Gilbert, 49, Paternoster-row ; Hannay, 63,
Oxford-street; Mann, 39, Cornhill, London; ''Herald" Office, Taunton; Lockyer, Lincoln; Heywood,
Oldham-street, Manchester; Howell, 6, Church-street, Liverpool ; Ashley, Post-office, Newbury ; Ferris and
Score, Union-street, Bristol ; Pierson, Shrewsbury ; Jul], Braintree ; Thew, Lynn ; Peat, Chichester ; Lur-
cock, Maidstone ; Cook, Ipswich; Huscroft, Bury St. Edmunds; Dove, Swindon; Jcarcy, Bridewell Alley,
Norwich; Smith, Rose Crescent, Cambridge; Slattcr, Oxford; and by all Booksellers and Chemists in the
United Kingdom.

FOR THE HAIR, THE SKIN, AND THE TEETH,

are universally held in high estimation; and the fact of the distinguished patronage they enjoy, their general
use in all countries, and the numerous testimonials constantly received of their efficacy, sufficiently prove the
value of their " Macassar Oil," " Kalydor," and " Odonto."

THE FIRST PRODUCTION IN THE WORLD

For the GROWTH and IMPROVEMENT of the HUMAN HAIR is

ROl^LANDS' MACASSAR OIL

proved beyond question by its successful results for MORE than HALF A CENTURY past, and when other
specifics have failed.

It prevents Hair falling from falling off or turning grey, strengthens weak HAIR, cleanses it from Scurf
and DandrifF, and makes it BEAUTIFULLY SOFT, PLIABLE, and GLOSSY. In the growth of

it is unfailing in its stimulative operation. For CHILDREN it is especiallv recommended as forming the
basis of A BEA.UTIFUL HEAD OF HAIR.

Its invaluable properties have obtained the Patronage of Royalty, the Nobility, and the Akistocracy
throughout Europe ; while its introduction into the Nursery of Royalty, and the high esteem in which it is
universally held, with numerous Testimonials constantly received of its efficacy, afford the best and surest
proofs of its merits. — Price 3s. 6d. and 7s. ; Family Bottles (equal to four small) 10s. 6d. ; and double that

SJZG 2l3a

CA.UTi:0]!¥.— On the Wrapper of each Bottle are the words, " ROWLANDS' MACASSAR OIL,"&c-,
in white letters, and their Signature, " A. ROWLAND & SONS," in Red Ink.

A. BEiLUTIFUX. COlVIPXiEXIOKr,

AND SOFT AND FAIR HANDS AND ARMS

Are realized by the use of

OWLANDS' KAI.YD

This Royally-patronized and universally-esteemed Specific exerts the most soothing, cooling, and purifying
action on the Skin, eradicates Freckles, Tun, Pimples, Spots, Discoloration, and other Cutaneous Visita-
tions, and renders

TII£ SKI]^ CI^SAIK, I'AIR, AlVl) Sr.009IIl¥0.

CAUTIO]¥.— The words " ROWLANDS' KALYDOR," &c., are on the Wrapper, and their Signa-
ture, " A. ROWLAND & SONS," in Red Ink, at foot.— Price 4s. 6d. and 8s. 6d. per bottle.

IVBITE AND SOUND TEETH

Arc indispensable to PERSONAL ATTRACTION, and to health and longevity by the proper mastication

of food.

ROWLANDS' ODONTO,

Compounded of ORIENTAL INGREDIENTS, is of inestimable value in

IMPROVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE TEETH,
STRENC^THliNING THE GUMS,

And in rendering

It eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of iucipient decay, and polishes and preserves the
enamel, to which it imparts a

psAitii-iiiicx: TV'H:iTx::Nri:§s.

As tha most efficient and fragrant aromatic purifier of the Breath, Teeth, and Gums ever known, ROW-
LANDS' ODONTO has, for a long series of years, occupied a distinguished place at the Toilets of the Sove-
reigns and the Nobility throughout Europe ; while the general demand for it at once announces the favour in
which it is universally held. — Price 2s. 9d. per box.

CAUTIOHr.— Thewords " ROWLANDS' ODONTO" are on the Label, and''A. ROWLAND & SONS,
20, Hatton Garden," engraved on the Government Stamp affixed on each box.

Sold by the Proprietors and by Chemists and Perfumers.

*** BEWARE OF SPURIOUS IMITATIONS !